Health Policy Brief September 2019 School Discipline Practices Associated with Adolescent School Connectedness and Engagement Susan H. Babey, Joelle Wolstein, Tara L. Becker, and AJ Scheitler ‘‘ School connectedness is associated with academic achievement SUMMARY: A positive school climate is associated with both adolescent well-being and higher academic achievement. Feelings of school connectedness, civic engagement, and school discipline practices can all contribute to a positive school climate. This policy brief examines the association of school discipline with greater perceived safety at school, more volunteering, and fewer sick days. Latino teens and teens from low-income families reported lower levels of school connectedness, had lower rates of volunteering, and were more likely to attend a school with high suspension rates. Healthy youth development could be as well as practices with feelings of school connectedness and civic engagement. Adolescents attending promoted through supporting strategies that improve school climates by increasing school with healthy schools with high suspension rates reported connectedness, encouraging participation behaviors. ’’ lower levels of school connectedness and of volunteering. In addition, greater feelings of school connectedness were associated in civic activities (such as volunteering), and reducing suspension rates. A positive school climate fosters youth development and has been associated with higher academic achievement and healthy care about them and their education.2 School connectedness is associated with academic achievement as well as with healthy behaviors behavioral outcomes for students.1 School such as physical activity and reduced climate is a broad term that covers several likelihood of risky behaviors such as smoking aspects of the school environment, including and the use of alcohol or drugs.3, 4 “Civic safety, academic supports, social relationships, engagement” refers to individual or group engagement, school connectedness, the actions intended to address issues of concern physical environment, and the disciplinary to the public and includes a range of activities, environment. This policy brief will focus such as volunteering and participating in on three factors that impact school climate: community or school activities. Previous student feelings of school connectedness, research suggests that greater youth civic student civic engagement, and school engagement is associated with positive adult discipline practices. Each of these aspects outcomes that include better health and of the school environment can contribute development indicators, higher levels of to a positive school climate as well as to education, and higher income.5 For example, adolescent health and well-being. In addition, volunteering is associated with better academic these factors can impact each other. performance, reduced likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors, and greater likelihood of Support for this policy brief was provided by a grant from “School connectedness” refers to students’ attending college.6, 7 The California Endowment. belief that adults and peers in the school 2 UCLA CENTER FOR HEALTH POLICY RESEARCH The brief then examines the link between Exhibit 1 Percent of Adolescents Reporting school connectedness and feelings of safety High Level of Connectedness to School by Defiance-Only Suspension Rates, and engagement at school. The brief also Ages 12-17, California, 2015-17 describes race and income differences in school connectedness, as well as demographic 60% differences in the likelihood of attending a 50% school with higher suspension rates. Measures Percent Reporting High Level of School Connectedness 40% are described in more detail under “Data Source and Methods” at the end of this policy 30% 57%* brief. 20% 46% 44% School Connectedness Associated with 10% School Discipline Practices 0% Low Medium High School connectedness was associated with Defiance-Only Suspension Rate school discipline practices as measured by school-level suspension rates (Exhibit 1). Source: 2015-17 California Health Interview Survey and 2015-16 California Department of Education Suspension Data Two types of suspension rates were examined: Statistically different from “High Defiance-Only Suspension Rate,” total suspension rate (which includes all ‘‘ *p<0.10 suspensions, for any reason, at that school), and defiance-only suspension rate. Defiance-only Teens attending “School discipline” refers to the rules, policies, suspensions are suspensions for nonviolent disruptive behaviors such as violating the and practices used to manage student behavior. schools with low Discipline practices such as suspension or dress code, failing to follow directions, or suspension rates expulsion are considered exclusionary, since talking back. Though disruptive, these were more likely they remove students from their regular educational setting. These exclusionary behaviors generally do not pose a safety risk to teachers or other students, and this type to report high discipline practices can negatively impact of suspension is therefore administered in a levels of school school climate. Specifically, a punitive more discretionary manner. As a result, these ’’ connectedness. disciplinary environment­ including more — frequent use of exclusionary discipline practices such as out-of-school suspensions—is associated kinds of behaviors disproportionately result in defiance suspensions and expulsions for students of color and students with disabilities with lower ratings of school climate as well as for the same behavior. Teens attending lower levels of school connectedness. 8, 9 schools with low total suspension rates were In addition, racial gaps in out-of-school more likely to report high levels of school suspensions are linked to lower feelings of connectedness than teens attending schools connectedness among students.10 Furthermore, with high suspension rates (53% vs. 44%), lower suspension rates have been associated although this difference was not statistically with higher academic achievement.11 significant. The difference was even more pronounced when examining the association Using data from adolescents ages 12-17 between school connectedness and defiance- who responded to the 2015, 2016, or 2017 only suspension rates, with 57% of those at California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) schools with low defiance-only suspension rates along with school-level data on suspension reporting high levels of school connectedness, rates from the California Department of compared to 44% of those at schools with high Education, this policy brief examines the defiance-only suspension rates. association between school discipline practices and both feelings of school connectedness Volunteering in Past Year Associated with and civic engagement among adolescents. School Discipline Practices School-level suspension rates are used as Volunteering, a common type of civic indicators of school discipline practices. engagement, was also associated with school UCLA CENTER FOR HEALTH POLICY RESEARCH 3 discipline practices. Higher suspension rates were associated with less volunteering Percent of Adolescents Who Volunteered Exhibit 2 in Past Year by Total Suspension Rate, (Exhibit 2): More than half (51%) of teens Ages 12-17, California 2015-17 attending schools with low suspension rates 60% Percent Who Volunteered in Past Year had volunteered in the past year, compared to just 34% of teens at schools with high 50% suspension rates. Volunteering during the past 40% year did not differ significantly by defiance- 30% only suspension rates, although observed 51%** differences were in the same direction (48% 20% 48% 34% and 43% for schools with low and high 10% suspension rates, respectively). 0% Low Medium High Latino, Low-Income, and Rural Teens Total Suspension Rate More Likely to Attend Schools with Source: 2015-17 California Health Interview Survey and 2015-16 High Suspension Rates California Department of Education Suspension Data Statistically different from “High Total Suspension Rate,” School-level suspension rates differed by **p<0.05 income, race/ethnicity, and urban/rural area of residence (Exhibit 3). Latino teens were Percent of Adolescents Attending Schools with High Total Suspension Rates by Exhibit 3 Demographic Characteristics, Ages 12-17, California 2015-17 Latino 54%* White 41% Race/Ethnicity Asian 30% African American 40% Two or more races 54% 0-99% FPL 60% 100-199% FPL 50% Income 200-299% FPL 48% 300% FPL and Above 38%** Urban or Rural Urban 46%** Residence Area of Rural 63% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Source: 2015-17 California Health Interview Survey and 2015-16 Note: Income was measured as a percent of the federal poverty California Department of Education Suspension Data level (FPL). The FPL is an economic guideline that accounts for Statistically different from “White” for Race/Ethnicity, from “0- household size and is used to determine income eligibility for 99% FPL” for Income, and from “Rural” for Area of Residence, public programs, such as food stamps. In 2016, the FPL (100% *p<0.10, **p<0.05 FPL) was $11,880 for a single-person household, $16,020 for a two-person household, and $24,300 for a four-person household. 4 UCLA CENTER FOR HEALTH POLICY RESEARCH and 47% reported having volunteered in Exhibit 4 Percent of Adolescents Reporting High the past year. Levels of school connectedness Levels of School Connectedness and Volunteering in Past Year, Ages 12-17, and volunteering in the past year among California 2015-17 California adolescents varied with income and race/ethnicity (Exhibit 4). Less than half High Level Volunteered (46%) of Latino adolescents reported high of School in Past Year levels of school connectedness, compared Connectedness to 64% of white adolescents. Latino teens Race/Ethnicity were also less likely than white teens to have Latino 46%** 34%** volunteered in the past year (34% and 66%, White 64% 66% respectively). Adolescents from low-income Asian 50% 53% families were less likely to report high levels African 66% 47% of connectedness and having volunteered in American Two or More 56% 59% the past year. About half (48%) of teens from Races families with incomes below the poverty Income line reported high levels of connectedness, 0-99% FPL 48%** 34%** compared to 62% of those from families 100-199% FPL 49%* 37%** with incomes of 400% FPL and above. The 200-399 51% 52% percent of teens who volunteered in the past 400% and Above 62% 58% year was lower among those with family Total 53% 47% incomes below the poverty line than among those with family incomes of 400% FPL and Source: 2015-17 California Health Interview Survey Statistically different from “White” for Race/Ethnicity and from above (34% and 58%, respectively). Levels of “400% FPL and Above” for Income, *p<0.10, **p<0.05 connectedness and volunteering did not vary Note: Income was measured as percent of the federal poverty significantly by gender or urban/rural area. level (FPL). The FPL is an economic guideline that accounts for household size and is used to determine income eligibility for public programs, such as food stamps. In 2016, the FPL (100% Higher Levels of School Connectedness FPL) was $11,880 for a single-person household, $16,020 for a two-person household, and $24,300 for a four-person household. Linked with Feeling Safe at School, ‘‘ Volunteering, and Attendance A feeling of school connectedness is a Adolescents more likely than white teens to be in schools protective social factor that can help promote with high suspension rates (54% and 41%, adolescent health and well-being. This is from low-income respectively). Adolescents from low-income evidenced in the current analysis, which found families were families were more likely to go to schools that feelings of school connectedness were more likely to with higher suspension rates: 60% of teens associated with perceived safety at school, from families with incomes below the poverty volunteering, and fewer sick days (Exhibit 5). go to schools line attended schools with high suspension Teens who reported high levels of school with higher rates, compared to 38% of those from families connectedness were more likely than those ’’ suspension rates. with incomes of 300% of the federal poverty level (FPL) and above. Nearly two-thirds of adolescents living in rural areas (63%) attended with low levels to report feeling safe at school all the time (75% vs. 61%). Teens reporting higher levels of school connectedness were schools with high suspension rates, compared more likely than those reporting lower levels to 46% of those living in urban areas. to have volunteered in the past year (53% vs. 40%) and less likely to have missed school due Latino and Low-Income Teens Less to health in past year (20% vs. 29%). Likely to Report High Levels of School Connectedness and Volunteering in Discussion and Recommendations Past Year Adolescents attending schools with high Overall, 53% of California adolescents suspension rates reported lower levels of reported high levels of school connectedness, school connectedness and lower rates of UCLA CENTER FOR HEALTH POLICY RESEARCH 5 Adolescent Indicators of Safety and Engagement by School Connectedness, Ages 12-17, Exhibit 5 California 2015-17 Reported Feeling Safe at School 75% “All the Time“ 61%** 53% Volunteered in Past Year 40%** Missed School Due to 20% Health in Past Year 29%* 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% High Level of School Connectedness Lower Level of School Connectedness Source: 2015-17 California Health Interview Survey Statistically different from “High School Connectedness,” *p<0.10, **p<0.05 volunteering. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that a school’s discipline practices are associated with other aspects of school climate, including connectedness and engagement. The proportion of adolescents who reported high levels of school connectedness was nearly provide evidence of relationships between aspects of school climate (connectedness, engagement, and discipline practices), but that these associations likely work in both directions. For example, lower suspension rates can contribute to increased feelings of school connectedness, but increased feelings of school ‘‘ Greater feelings of school connectedness were associated with greater 30% higher among those attending schools connectedness can also contribute to lower perceived safety with low suspension rates than among those attending schools with high suspension rates suspension rates. at school, more (57% and 44%, respectively). The percent of School connectedness, volunteering, and volunteering, adolescents who volunteered was 50% higher attending a school with high suspension rates and fewer among those attending schools with low suspension rates than among those at schools with high suspension rates (51% and 34%, all varied with race/ethnicity and income. Latino teens and teens from low-income families were more likely than white teens ’’ sick days. respectively). and teens from high-income families to attend a school with high suspension rates, and less Previous research suggests that school likely to report volunteering and feeling high connectedness and participating in activities levels of school connectedness. Despite recent like volunteering can serve as protective social declines in suspension rates among all race factors that provide a number of benefits to groups in California, racial differences in youth, as well as helping them avoid behaviors the likelihood of being suspended persist.11 that put them at risk for adverse health Research suggests that larger racial differences outcomes, such as smoking or drug use. This in suspensions are associated with lower relationship was observed in our findings as feelings of connectedness among students.10 well – greater feelings of school connectedness In addition, adolescents living in rural areas were associated with greater perceived safety were more likely to attend schools with at school, more volunteering, and fewer sick high suspension rates. This pattern of results days. It’s important to note that these findings indicates that Latino teens and teens from 6 UCLA CENTER FOR HEALTH POLICY RESEARCH ‘‘ Strategies to increase school connectedness and increase participation in low-income families are at particular risk of experiencing the negative consequences of a lack of school connectedness and civic engagement and of attending schools more likely to engage in exclusionary discipline practices. Increasing the level of school connectedness among these groups and and that contribute to a positive school climate. Often referred to as “restorative justice practices,” these approaches create a positive school climate and address student behavior by prioritizing belonging over exclusion, social engagement over control, and accountability over punishment. For civic activities providing them with more opportunities example, the Oakland Unified School among youth and support for volunteering could also help reduce disparities in youth well-being. District implemented a restorative justice program that resulted in a reduced racial could help gap in suspension rates as well as improved promote healthy Strategies to increase school connectedness school climate.12 These kinds of practices development.’’ and increase participation in civic activities, such as volunteering, among youth could help to promote healthy development. These are often used as alternatives to out-of- school suspensions and therefore help to reduce suspension rates. The number of strategies could include: suspensions in California schools declined •Strengthening feelings of school considerably between 2011 and 2017.13 connectedness, especially among low- However, racial gaps in suspension rates income youth and youth of color. Increasing remain, due in large part to the much greater feelings of school connectedness may help likelihood of suspension among students of promote volunteering, improve feelings color than among white students for the same of safety at school, and contribute to fewer behavior.14 In addition, suspension rates are sick days. Policies encouraging schools to higher at rural schools.15 Our analysis also incorporate strategies for increasing the indicated that adolescents living in rural extent to which students feel connected areas were more likely to attend schools to school may promote the development with high suspension rates. These kinds of and implementation of such strategies and differences in suspension rates can contribute lead to increases in this protective social to a poor school climate and lower levels of factor. The Centers for Disease Control and school connectedness. Reducing suspension Prevention offer strategies for increasing rates and closing racial and income gaps feelings of school connectedness.4 Schools in these rates may contribute to increased can help increase feelings of connectedness feelings of connectedness to school. by (1) developing decision-making processes •Offering volunteer opportunities and/ that facilitate engagement by students, or connections to community service families, staff, and the community; opportunities. Schools and communities (2) providing opportunities for family can offer volunteer opportunities targeted involvement in school life; and (3) providing at students and can facilitate connections support and professional development for between students and community service teachers and staff. For example, school opportunities. For example, studies have administrators can solicit feedback from shown stronger feelings of connectedness teachers and staff to inform their efforts and other positive academic outcomes to improve school climate. They can among students who volunteer as mentors also engage staff, parents, students, and as well as among those engaged in student- community members in the development designed healthy school environment of school policies and the planning of school initiatives.16, 17 activities. •Encouraging schools to emphasize •Encouraging schools to move away from the importance of creating positive exclusionary discipline practices in favor of relationships among students, as well as practices that are consistent and fair UCLA CENTER FOR HEALTH POLICY RESEARCH 7 between teachers and students. Fostering Two types of suspension rates were examined: total positive relationships can lead to increased suspension rates (defined as the total number of unduplicated suspensions for any reason at that school connectedness to school. This, in turn, can divided by total enrollment at that school during the improve academic performance and reduce 2015-16 school year), and defiance-only suspension sick days. In addition, the literature suggests rates (defined as the number of suspensions for that finding a positive role model can assist willful defiance divided by total enrollment at that with learning and motivation and also school during the 2015-16 school year). Defiance- promotes positive engagement in and out only suspensions are suspensions for “disruption or willful defiance,” which is defined as disrupting of school.5 Fostering positive relationships school activities or otherwise willfully defying the between teachers and students provides authority of school staff. These activities include a additional opportunities for teachers to serve range of nonviolent misconduct behaviors such as as this type of positive role model. Schools dancing, not paying attention in class, talking back, should ensure that teachers have adequate failing to follow directions, and violating dress codes. time, resources, and training to develop These kinds of behaviors disproportionately result in defiance suspensions and expulsions for students positive relationships with their students. of color and students with disabilities for the same behavior. Data Source and Methods This policy brief presents data from the 2015-17 The total suspension rate includes suspensions for California Health Interview Survey (CHIS). We used “willful defiance” as well as those for more serious data collected in interviews with 2,042 adolescents, infractions, including possession of drugs or weapons drawn from every county in the state. Interviews and violent behavior. The suspension rate variables were conducted in English, Spanish, Chinese (both were divided into thirds to create three categories Mandarin and Cantonese), Vietnamese, Korean, and of suspension rates: low, medium, and high. For Tagalog, although 76% of adolescents responded total suspension rates, the low category included to the survey in English. School connectedness was suspension rates up to 2.4%, medium ranged from measured by responses to a series of five questions. 2.5% to 5.7%, and high ranged from 5.8% to 48%. Adolescents were asked, “How true is it that there is a For the defiance-only suspension rate variable, the teacher or other adult at school who really cares about low category included suspension rates up to 0.2%, you, notices if you’re not there, listens to you, tells medium ranged from 0.2% up to 1.9%, and high you when you are doing a good job, and expects you ranged from 2% to 18%. These variables reflect to do your best?” Responses to these questions ranged whether adolescent respondents attend a school that from 1, for not at all true, to 4, for very much true. has high, medium, or low suspension rates relative to These responses were averaged to create a composite This publication contains other schools in the state. For more information about variable with values ranging from 1 to 4, where data from the California CHIS, visit www.chis.ucla.edu. higher values indicate higher levels of connectedness Health Interview Survey to school. (CHIS), the nation’s largest Author Information state health survey. Susan Babey, PhD, is a senior research scientist For analyses presented in this brief, school Conducted by the UCLA at the UCLA Center for Health Policy Research. connectedness was divided into two categories, with Center for Health Policy Joelle Wolstein, PhD, MPP, is a research scientist values above 3.5 considered high and those below 3.5 Research, CHIS data give at the UCLA Center for Health Policy Research. considered low. Volunteering was measured by asking: a detailed picture of the Tara Becker, PhD, is a senior public administration “In the past 12 months, have you done any volunteer health and health care analyst at the UCLA Center for Health Policy work or community service that you haven’t been needs of California’s large Research. AJ Scheitler, EdD, is the director of paid for?” Adolescents self-reported whether they felt and diverse population. stakeholder relations at the UCLA Center for Health safe at school all the time, most of the time, some of Policy Research. the time, or none of the time; how many school days CHIS is a collaboration they missed because of health; and what race/ethnicity of the UCLA Center for they were. In addition, CHIS asked adolescents what Acknowledgments Health Policy Research, school they attend. This information was used to link The authors would like to thank Errol Lopez, Elaiza California Department of CHIS data with school-level data on suspension rates Torralba, Venetia Lai, and Celeste Maglan Peralta Public Health, California available from the California Department of Education for their assistance. The authors are grateful to Department of Health (CDE) from the 2015-16 school year. The CDE data the following reviewers for their helpful feedback: Care Services, and the was linked with CHIS data for 1,519 adolescents; Harold Goldstein, DrPH, Executive Director, Public Public Health Institute. thus, analyses including suspension rates were Health Advocates; Danfeng Soto-Vigil Koon, PhD, Learn more at: conducted on a slightly smaller sample. JD, Assistant Professor, Department of Leadership www.chis.ucla.edu UCLA CENTER FOR HEALTH POLICY RESEARCH 10960 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1550 Los Angeles, California 90024 Studies, School of Education, University of San 6 Rogers J, Terriquez V. 2013. Learning to Lead: The Impact of Youth Organizing on the Educational Francisco; Imelda Padilla-Frausto, PhD, MPH, and Civic Trajectories of Low-Income Youth. Los Research Scientist, UCLA Center for Health Angeles, Calif.: UCLA Institute for Democracy, Policy Research; Rashmi Shetgiri, MD, MSHS, Education, and Access. The UCLA Center 7 Corporation for National and Community Service, MSCS, Director, Office of Health Assessment and for Health Policy Research Office of Research and Policy Development. 2007. is part of the Epidemiology, Los Angeles County Department The Health Benefits of Volunteering: A Review of Recent UCLA Fielding School of Public Health. of Public Health; and Riti Shimkhada, MPH Research. Washington, D.C. PhD, Analyst, Department of Health Policy 8 McNeely CA, Nonnemaker JM, Blum RW. 2002. and Management, UCLA Fielding School of Promoting School Connectedness: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Public Health and UCLA Center for Health Policy Journal of School Health 72(4):138-46. Research. 9 Lubiner AG. 2015. The Association Between School Climate and School Discipline Policies and Practices in Rhode Island Public Schools. Dissertation. Suggested Citation 10 Anyon Y, Zhang D, Hazel C. 2016. Race, Babey SH, Wolstein J, Becker TL, Scheitler AJ. 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