4 NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Bethesda, Maryland y a / // y..y J, r FIRST BOOK ON ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. WITH EIGHTY-THREE ENGRAVINGS. BY CALVIN CUTTER, M. D. AUTHOR OP "ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, FOB vOLLEGES, ACADEMIES, AND FAMILIES J " " SECOND BOOK ON ANATOMY, PHYSI- OLOGY AND HYGIENE, FOR ACADEMIES, SCHOOLS, AND FAMILIES ; " " ANATOMICAL OUTLINE PLATES FOR SCHOOLS," &C. REVISED STEREOTYPE EDITION. NEW YORK: CLAEK, AUSTIN AND SMITH/ CINCINNATI:—W. B. SMITH & CO. ST. LOUIS, MO.:—KEITH & WOODS. 1859. Civ-F; Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852. by CALVIN CUTTER. M. D. lu the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts C. A. AT.VORD, Printer, No. 15 Vanclcwatcr Street, N. Y, PREFACE In presenting this work to the public, the author would indulge in a few prefatory suggestions. Education, to be complete, must be not only moral and intellectual, but physical. As the culture of the mind and of the affections is the subject of systematic attention in early life, should not the education of the physical powers be commenced as early? It will demand no more maturity and thought to understand the reasons for adequate clothing, bathing, the neces- sity of an erect position in standing and sitting, regu- larity in taking food, the supply of pure air to the lungs, &c. than to comprehend geographical details or moral truths. Is not a knowledge of the laws upon which health depends, as important to the develop- ment of a vigorous physical constitution, as moral instruction is to the formation of correct moral prin- ciples ? Can any reason be given why both should not be taught in the school-room? A child should be taught to call each organ by its correct name. No more effort is required to learn the meaning of a proper, than an improper term. For example : a child will pronounce the word as readily, and obtain as correct an idea, if you say lungs, as if you used the word lights. In preparing this work, it has not been deemed necessary to use low, vulgar terms, for the purpose of being understood ; but such words have been selected VI PREFACE. as good usage sanctions. Should the pupil meet with any word he does not understand, let him consult his dictionary, as he should do in perusing works upon history, when a similar difficulty occurs. To insure a correct pronunciation of the technical words interspersed with the text, they have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables des- ignated. An ample Glossary of technical terms has also been appended to the work, to which reference should be made. To the teacher we would suggest the propriety of calling on a pupil of the class, to describe the anatomy of an organ from an anatomical outline plate; after- wards call upon another to give the physiology of the part, while a third may state the hygiene; after which, the questions at the bottom of the page may be asked promiscuously, and thus the detailed knowl- edge which each pupil possesses of the subject will be tested. With advanced pupils, it is recommended that the subject be examined in the form of topics. The ques- tions in Italics are designed for this method of reci- tation. For a more full and complete explanation of Anato- my, Physiology, and Hygiene, the pupil is referred to the Author's treatise, of 450 pages, for Colleges, Acade- mies, and Families, or to his second book, of 300 pages, for Academies, Schools, and Families. To the instructors of youth, and the patrons of sducation, this work is respectfully submitted. Warren, Mass., 1852. CONTENTS. Chapter. Page. 1. General Remarks,................9 2. Anatomy of the Bones,..............11 3. Anatomy of the Bones, continued,.........16 4. Physiology of the Bones,............21 5. Hygiene of the Bones,..............24 6. Anatomy of the Muscles,............27 7. Physiology of the Muscles,...........30 8. Hygiene of the Muscles,.............36 9. Anatomy of the Teeth,.............43 i0. Anatomy of the Digestive Organs,....... 47 11. Physiology of the Digestive Organs,.......53 12. Hygiene of the Digestive Organs,........56 13. Anatomy of the Circulatory Organs,......62 14. Physiology of the Circulatory Organs,......67 15. Hygiene of the Circulatory Organs,.......70 16. Absorption,................... 76 17. Secretion,...................82 18. Nutrition,...................86 19. Anatomy of the Respiratory Organs,.......89 20. Physiology of the Respiratory Organs,......^3 21. Hygiene of the Respiratory Organs,........i>8 Vlll CONTENTS. Chaptet Page 22. Animal Heat,.................106 23. Anatomy of the Vocal Organs,..........110 24. Anatomy of the Skin,..............115 25. Physiology of the Skin,.............119 26. Hygiene of the Skin,..............122 27. Anatomy of the Nervous System,.........127 28. Physiology of the Nervous System,....... 131 29. Hygiene of the Nervous System,.........134 30. Sense of Touch,................138 Sense of Taste,...............139 Sense of Smell.................141 31. Anatomy of the Organs of Vision,........143 32. Physiology of the Organs of Vision,.......149 33. Anatomy of the Organs of Hearing,.......152 34. Physiology of the Organs of Hearing,......155 35. Means of preserving the Health,........158 36. Directions for Nurses,............164 APPENDIX,...................170 GLOSSARY,................. 176 INDEX,.................. 181 FIJtST BOOK ON ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER I. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Anatomy is a description of the organs, or parts of a body. Examples. 1st. Flowers have roots, stems, and blossoms. These are their organs. 2d. The teeth, stomach, and heart, are some of the organs of the human body.* 2. Physiology is a description of the function, or use of an organ. Examples. 1st. The roots of flowers suck up water, to make them grow. This is their function. 2d. The stomach, in man, is one of. the organs that prepare the food for his growth. This is its function. 3. Anatomy and Physiology are divided into two kinds, namely, Animal and Vegetable. * Where examples are given, let the pupil mention other analo gous ones. 1. What is anatomy ? Give examples. 2. What is physiology ? Give examples. 3. How many kinds of anatomy and physiology are there F JO GENERAL REMARKS. , 4. Animal Anatomy and Physiology are again divided into Human and Comparative. 5. Human Anatomy and Physiology describe the structure and functions of the organs of man. 6. Comparative Anatomy and Physiology describe the struc- ture and functions of the organs of other animals than man. Examples. As the horse, the monkey, and the whale. 7. Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology describe the, struc- ture and functions of different parts of trees, shrubs, plants, and flowers. 8. Hygiene is the art of preserving health, or that depart- ment of medicine which treats of the preservation of health. 9. All bodies in nature are divided into Organic and In- organic. Organic bodies include animals and plants. Inor- ganic bodies include earths, metals, and other minerals. 10. All organized bodies have a limited period of life, and this period varies with every species. The duration of some plants is limited to a single summer, as many garden flowers ; while some trees, as the olive, live many hundred years. Some animals live but a short time, while the elephant lives more than a century. 11. The life of man is shortened by disease ; but disease is under the control of fixed laws — laws which we are capable of understanding and obeying. How important, then, is the study of physiology and hygiene ! For how can we expect to obey laws which we do not understand ? 4. How are animal anatomy and physiology divided ? 5. What do human anatomy and physiology describe ? 6. What do comparative anat- omy and physiology describe ? 7- What do vegetable anatomy and physi- ology describe ? 8. What is hygiene ? 9. How are all bodies in nature divided ? What bodies are called organic ? What bodies are called in- organic ? 10. Have all animals and plants a limited period of life ? Does this period vary with different species of animals and plants ? Give some examples. 11. How is life usually shortened ? Why is the study of physi- ology and hygiene important to every person ? ANATOMY OF THE BONES. li CHAPTER II. THE BONES. 12. The bones are firm and hard, and of a dull white color. In all the higher orders of animals, among which is man, they are in the interior of the body, while in lobsters, crabs, &c., they are on the outside, forming a case, which protects the movable parts from injury. ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 13. There are two hundred and eight* bones in the human body, beside the teeth. 14. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts: 1st. The bones of the Head. 2d. The bones of the Trunk. 3d. The bones of the Upper Extremities. 4th. The bones of the Lower Extremities. 15. The bones of the head are divided into those of the Skull, Ear, and Face. 16. The skull is formed of eight bones. These are joined together by ragged edges, called sutures. (Fig. 2.) Observation. The sutures stop, in a measure, the jars caused by external blows. Children should never strike each * Some anatomists reckon more than this number, others less, for the reason that, at different periods of life, the number of pieces of which one bone is formed, varies. Example. The breast-bone, in infancy, has eight pieces; in youth, three; in old age, but one. 12. Describe the bones. 13. How many bones in the human body ? 14. How are they divided ? Name them. 15 —18. Give the anatomy of the bones of the head. 15. How are the bones of the head divided ? 16. How many bones in the skull ? How are the bones of the skull joined together ' 12 anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. other upon the head, because the bones of the skull in them are softer than in adults. 17. In each ear are four small bones. They aid in hearing. 18. In the face are fourteen bones. They support the softer parts outside of them. 19. The trunk has fifty-four bones—twenty-four Ribs; twenty-four bones in the Spi'nal Col'umn, (back-bone;) four in the Pelvis; the Ster'num, (breast-bone;) and one at the root of the tongue. 20. All the ribs are joined to the spinal column. There are twelve on each side. Fig. 2. Fig. 2. The bones of the upper part of the skull. 1,1,2, 3, 3, The sutures that join :iie bones. 21. The seven upper ribs are united in front to the sternum, Dy a yielding substance called car'ti-lage,* (gristle.) The * See paragraph 46. 17. What is the use of sutures ? How many bones in each ear ? What is their use ? 18. How many bones in the face ? 19 — 29. Give the anato- my of the bones of the trunk. 19. How many bones in the trunk ? Name them. 20. To what are all the ribs joined ? How many on each side ? What does fig. 2 represent? 21. How are the first seven ribs united in front ? ANATOMY OF THE BONES.' 13 remaining five are not attached, durectly, to the sternum. Three are joined to each other by cartpage ; two are not con- fined ; hence they are called " floating ribs." 22. The cavity formed by the sternum, ribs, and spinal column, is called the Chest. It contains the heart, lungs, and large blood-vessels. 23. The shape of the chest is conical, or like a sugai-loaf. Fig 3 The form of the chest. 1, 2, 3, The sternum, (breast-bone.) 4, 5, The gpinal column, (bach-bone.) 6, 7, 8, 9, The first rib. 10, The seventh rib. 11, The cartilage of the third rib. 12, The floating ribs. Observation. The lower part of the chest is broader and fuller than the upper part, when it is not made smaller by tight clothing. The next three ? What are the last two called ? Why ? Describe fig. 3. 22. How is the chest formed ? What does it contain ? 23. What is the shape of the chest ? How does the lower part of the chest compare in size with the upper ? 2 14 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 24. The spinal*., column is composed of twenty-four pieces of bone. Eacft piece is'called a vert'e-bra. 25. Between the pieces, or vertebrae, is a thick piece of car- tilage, which is elastic, or springs like India-rubber. This not only unites the vertebrae, but permits them to move in different ways. 26. There is an opening in each vertebra. By a union oi these openings, a canal is formed the whole length of the spinal column, in which the spinal cord (pith of the back-bone) is placed. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. The form of a vertebra of the neck. 1, The main portion of the bone 2, The spinal canal, in which the spinal cord is placed. 4, 5, 7, 8, Points, or projec- tions of the vertebra. Fig. 5. 1, T'he cartilage that connects the vertebra. 3, 4, 5, 6, Points, or pro- jections of the vertebra. 7, The spinal canal. Observation. A good idea of the structure of the vertebrae may be obtained, by examining the spinal column of a domestic animal, as the dog, cat, or pig. * From the Latin spi'na, a thorn ; so called from the points of the vertebrae that are felt beneath the skin. 24. How many pieces of bone in the spinal column ? What is each piece called ? 25. What is placed between the vertebra? ? Give its use. 2G. How is the spinal canal formed, and what does it contain ? Describe fig. 4. Describe fig. 5. How may an idea of the structure of the verte- brae be obtained ? ANATOMY OF THE BONES. ^ 15 27. The spinal column is a very curious and perfect piece of mechanical art. By its structure, great strength and suf- ficient movement or flexibility are combined. The vertebrae are so firmly joined together, that dislocation of them, without fracture, is very rare. 28. The pelvis is composed of four bones. They are so arranged as to form a bony basin. The spinal column rests on these bones, and they also serve to support the lower extremities. Fig. 6. Fig. 6. 1,1, The hip-bones. 2, The sacrum, upon which the spinal column rests. 3, The extremity of the spinal column, named the eoc'cyx. 4, 4, The cavities for the head of the thigh-bone. 29. In the sides of these bones is a deep, round cavity, called a-ce-tab'u-lum, in which the head of the thigh-bone is placed. 27. What is said of the structure of the spinal column ? 28. Of how many bones is the pelvis composed ? What is their use ? Describe fig. 6 29. What is found in the sides of these bones ? 16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER III. ANATOMY OF THE BONES, CONTINUED. 30. The upper extremities contain sixty-four bones — the Scap'u-la, (shoulder-blade;) the Clav'i-cle, (collar-bone;) and the bones of the Arm, Fore-arm, Wrist, and Hand. 31. The scapula is a broad, irregular bone, situated upon the upper and back part of the chest. 32. The clavicle is a thin bone at the base of the neck. It is joined at one extremity to the sternum, at the other to the scapula. Observation. The use of the clavicle is to keep the arms from sliding toward the breast. Children should frequently throw their arms backward, as this exercise would tend to increase the length of this bone, and also to enlarge the chest. 33. The arm is formed of a single bone, called the hu'- mer-us. 34. The fore-arm is formed of two bones—the ul'na, on the inner side, and the ra'di-us, on the outside, (the side on which the thumb is placed.) By a beautiful arrangement of these bones, the hand is made to rotate, or turn, permitting its complicated and varied movements. 35. The wrist is formed of eight irregular bones. They move but little upon each other. 36. The hand consists of nineteen bones— five in the palm, and fourteen bones in the fingers and thumb. 30—37. Give the anatomy of the bones of the upper extremities. 30. Name the bones of the upper extremities. 31. Describe the scapula. 32. Where is the clavicle situated ? What is the use of the clavicle ? 33. How is the arm formed ? 34. The fore-arm ? 3-5. How many bones in the wrist: ?i>. How many bones in the hand ? ANATOMY OF THE BONES. n 37. Each finger is formed of three bones of different lengths, the thumb has but two. Proofs of a designing Creator are nowhere more manifest than in the simple but wonderful structure and adaptation of the human hand. 38. The lower extremities contain sixty bones — the Fe'mur, (thigh-bone;) the Pa-tel'la, (knee-pan ;) the Tib'i-a, (shin-bone;) the Fib'u-la, (small bone of the leg;) and the bones of the Foot. 39 The femur is the longest bone of the body. It sup- ports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 7. tr, The ulna. R, The radius, s, t, C, P, U, «, T, T, The eight bones of the wrist 1 1, 1, 1, 1, The Ave bones of the palm of the hand. Fig. 8. 10,10,10, The bones of the palm of the hand. 11, 12,13, The bones of the fingers. 14,15, The bones of the thumb. 40. The tibia and the fibula are situated between the, knee and ankle. 37 What is said of the bones of the fingers and thumb ? 38-41. Gn» the anatomy of the bones of the, lowerextrermUes. 38. NamJhe bones of the lower extremities. 39. What » said of the femur Describe fig. 7- Fig. 8. 40. What bones between the knee and aukle ? 2* 18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 41. The foot is formed of twenty-six bones — seven in the instep ; five in the middle of the foot; and fourteen toe-bones. Observation. The bones of the foot are so united as to give it the form of an arch, — convex on its upper surface, and con- cave on the lower surface Fig. 9. A view of the upper surface of the bones of the foot. ], 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, B. The bones of the instep. 9, 9, 9, The bones of the middle of the foot. 10, 11, The bones of the great toe. 12, 13, 14, The bones of the small toes. Fig. 10. Fig. 10. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form. 1 ne arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. 1, The lower part of the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the instep. 6, A bone of the middle of the foot. 7, 8, The bones of the great toe. 42. The bones consist of animal matter, (jelly,) and earthy matter, (phosphate and carbonate of lime.) 41. How many bones in the foot, and name them ? What is the form of the foot? Describe fig. 9. Fig. 10. 42. Of what are the bones composed ? ANATOMY OF THE BONES. 19 43. To show the animal without the earthy matter of the bones, immerse a slender bone for a few days in a weak acid. (one part muriatic acid and six parts water,) and it can then be bent in any direction. 44. To show the earthy without the animal matter, burn a bone in a clear fire for about fifteen minutes, and it becomes white and brittle. 45. The joints form an interesting part of the body. They are composed of the extremities of two or more bones, Car'ti- lages, (gristles,) Syn-o'vi-al membrane, and Lig'a-ments. Fig. 11. Fig. 11. The relative position of the bone, cartilage, and synovial membrane 1, 1, The extremities of two bones, to form a joint. 2, 2, The cartilage that covers the end of the bone. 3, 3, 3, 3, The synovial membrane, which covers the cartilage of both bones, and is then doubled back from one to the other; it is represented by the dotted lines. Fig. 12. A vertical section of the knee-joint. 1, The femur. 3, The patella. 5. The tibia. 2, 4, Ligaments of the patella, 6. Cartilage of the tibia. 12, The cartilage of the femur. * * * *, The synovial membrane. 46. Cartilage is a smooth, solid, elastic substance, that covers the ends of the bones that form a joint. It prevents the ends of the bones from wearing off, and also diminishes the jar that the joint receives, in walking or leaping. 43. How can the animal matter be shown ? 44. The earthy ? 45—18. De- scribe the parts that form a joint. 45. What is said of the joints ? Of what are they composed ? What is represented by fig. 11 ? Fig. 12 ? 46. Define cartilage. What is its use ? 20 ANATOMY, physiology, and hygiene. 47. The synovial membrane is a thin, membranous layer which covers the cartilages, and is thence bent back, or reflectea upon the inner surfaces of the ligaments which surround and enter into the composition of the joints. This membrane forms *a closed sap. (Fig. 11.) 48. The ligaments are strong, inelastic substances; they serve to connect and bind together the bones of the body. Fig. 13 Fig. 14. Fig. 13. 8, 9, The ligaments that extend from the hip-bone (6) to the thigh- bone, (5.) Fig. 14. 2, 3, The ligaments that extend from the collar-bone (1) to the shoulder- blade, (4.) The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the shoulder-blade to the first bone of the arm. Observation. The joints of the domestic animals, are similar in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this part of the body, a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be used. 47. Define synovial membrane. 48. What are ligaments ? What is their use ? What is represented by fig. 13 ? Fig. 14? How can the struc- ture of the joints be illustrated ? PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 21 CHAPTER IV. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 49. The bones are the framework of the body. They sup- port all the soft parts, as the flesh and vessels, and likewise afford a firm surface for the attachment of the ligaments. 50. The use of the various bones is different. Some protect organs, as those of the skull and chest, while others are used when we move, as those of the extremities and spinal column. 51. The bones are covered with a firm mem'brane, or skin, called per-i-os'te-um. This membrane and the bones, when healthy, give us but little pain if wounded ; but, if diseased, as in " felons," the pain is very severe. 52. The joints are constantly supplied with a fluid called syn-o'vi-a. This operates like oil on the joints of a machine. By the smooth cartilages and synovia, the joints are enabled to bear all the motion required of them during a great number of years. 53. The joints vary in their functions. Some are movable, as the finger-joints; while others are immovable, as the sutures of the skull. 54. The union of the spinal column with the skull exhibits one of the most ingenious contrivances to be met with in the body. 1st. It permits the backward and forward movement, as in bowing and nodding the head. 2d. The motion which is made in turning the head from side to side. 49—51. Give the physiology of the bones. 49. What is the use of the bones ? 50. Give the function of some of the bones. 51. With what are the bones covered? 52—56. Give the physiology of the joints. 52. With what are the joints constantly supplied? What is the use of this fluid aDi.the cartilages? 63. Mention some of the functions of the joints. 5f W\at is said of the union of the spinal column with the skull ? 22 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 55. This admirable piece of mechanism affords great pro- tection to the spinal cord, at the top of the neck ; this being, perhaps, the most vital portion of the whole body. Injury to it, or pressure upon it, is instantly fatal. 56. Some joints move but in one direction, like a hinge of a door. These are called Hinge Joints ; as the ankle and the knee-joint. Some joints move in different directions, like a ball in a socket. These are called Ball and Socket Joints ; as the shoulder and the hip-joint. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 15. The knee-joint. 1, The lower extremity of the thigh-bone. 3, 5, The two rounded extremities that rest upon the upper extremity of the tibia, (sbin-bone.) 2. Two ligaments within the knee-joint. 6, 7, The cartilage that tips the up;>er extremity of the tibia, (4.) Fig. 16. 2, The deep socket of the hip-joint. 5, The round head of the thigli- uone, which is lodged in the socket. 3, The ligament within the socket. Observation. The more movable a joint, the less firm it is, and the more frequently dislocated, or " put out." It is for this reason that the'shoulder-joint is more frequently displaced than any other in the body. 55. What is protected by this admirable piece of mechanism ? 56. What are hinge joints ? What are ball and socket joints ? Why is the should er- ioint more frequently dislocated than any dther in the body ? PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BONES. 23 Fig. 17. F'ig. 17. 1,1, The spinal column. 2, The skull. 3, The lower jaw. 4, The sternum ■5 The ribs. 6,6, The cartilages of the ribs. 7, The clavicle. 8, Tne humerus. 9, Th« shoulder-joint. 10, The radius. 11, The ulna. 12, The elbow-joint. 13, The wrist. 14, The hand. 15, The haunch-bone. 16, The sacrum. 17, The hip-joint. 18, The thigh-bone. 19, The patella. 20, The knee-joint. 21, The fibula. 22, The tibia. 23, The ankle-joint. 24, The foot. 25, 26, The ligaments of the clavicle, sternum, and ribs. 27, 28, 29, The ligaments of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. 30, The large rrtery of the arm. 31, The ligaments of the hip-joint. 32, The large blood-vessels of tlio »igh. 33, The artery of the leg. 34,35,36, The ligaments of the patella, knee, and ankle. Mite. Let the pupil, in form of topics, review the anatomy and physiology of the mes from fig. 17, or from anatomical outline plates 1 and 2. 24 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENK. CHAPTER V. HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 57. The bones require exercise to make them healthy. Bj use they are increased in size and strength to a limited extent while inaction or disease weakens them. Exercise favors the deposition of the substances of which they are composed. 58. The exercise or labor should be adapted to the condition of the bones. The bones of a child contain more of the animal than the earthy matter, and are consequently weak; though the child is able to exercise, its bones are not adapted to severe toil. On the other hand, the bones of the aged man contain more earthy than animal matter. This causes them to be brit- tle and unfit for labor. But in middle age, the proportions of animal and earthy matter are, usually, such as to give the proper degree of flexibility and strength for labor, with little liability to injury. Observation. The difference in the structure of the bones at different ages may be seen, by comparing the rib of a calf or lamb, with the rib of an ox or sheep. 59. The clothing should be loosely worn. The ribs and bones of the spinal column are soft and yielding in childhood. A small amount of pressure on the walls of the trunk will lessen the size of the chest, and thus injure the lungs, stomach and heart. 60. In sitting, the feet of the child should be supported. If 57—63. Give the hygiene of the bones. 57. What effect has exercise upon the bones ? 58. Give the reasons why the amount of labor should be adapted to the condition of the bones. How can the difference in the structure of the bones at different ages be illustrated ? 59. Give a reason why the clothing should be loosely worn. 60. Why should the feet ol children, when sitting, be supported ? HYGIENE OF THE BONES. 2b the stool is so high as not to permit the feet to rest upon the floor, the weight of the limbs below the knee may cause the flexible bone of the thigh to become curved. When the feet are not supported, the child is inclined to lean forward, contract- ing an injurious and ungraceful position. Observation. The seats in school-rooms should not only be of such height as to enable the pupil to rest the feet on the floor, but they should have properly-constructed backs. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 18. The position assumed when the seat is of proper height, and the feet supported. Fig. 19. The position a child naturally assumes when the seat is so high that the feet are not supported. 61. Children should stand and sit erect. This position tends to keep the spinal column erect and healthy When a slight curvature of the spine exists, it can be improved by walking with a book, or a heavier weight, upon the top of the head ; to Should seats in a school-room have backs ? 61. Why should children stand and sit erect ? 3 26 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. balance which, the spine must be nearly erect. Those people that carry their burdens upon their heads seldom have crooked spines. 62. Pupils, while writing, drawing, and sometimes while studying, frequently incline the spinal column to one side, in order to accommodate themselves to the desks at which they lie seated. This position elevates one shoulder, while it de- Dresses the other. Fig. 20. Fig. 20. A representation of a deformed spinal column. A well-formed spinal column has three curves, two forward and one backward, (2, 2,2, fig. 25,) but no ateral curvature, (1,1, fig. 17.) 63. One shoulder may be thus elevated for a short time, and no injurious results follow, provided care is taken not to keep it in the raised position too long, or if the opposite shoulder is elevated for the same period of time. What is the effect of carrying burdens upon the head ? 62. What is the effect of pupils using desks that are too high or improperly constructed ? 63. How can one shoulder be elevated, and no injurious results follow ? A.NATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 21 CHAPTER VI. THE MUSCLES. 64. All the great motions of the body are caused by the movement of some of the bones which form the framework of the body ; but these, independently of themselves, have not the power of motion, and only change their position through the action of other organs attached to them, which, by contracting, or shrinking, draw the bones after them. In some of the slight movements, as the winking of the eye, no bones are displaced, or moved. These moving, contracting organs are the Mus'cles, (lean meat.) ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 65. A muscle is composed of many little strings, called fibres. Some of these fibres run in straight lines; others spread like a fan; while some are inclined like the feathery part of a quill. (Fig. 21.) 66. Toward the extremities of a muscle the fibres unite, and form a substance of a whitish color, harder and tougher than the muscle. This is called ten'don, (cord, sinew.) Observation. The pupil can examine a piece of boiled beef, or the leg of a fowl, and see the structure of the fibres and tendons of a muscle, with the attachment of the tendons to the bones. 67. Tendons have various shapes. Sometimes they are 64. How are all the great motions of the body produced ? What are these moving, contracting organs called ? 65—72. Give the structure of the muscles. 65. Of what is a muscle composed ? 66. What is a tendon ? How can the structure of a muscle be shown ? 67. What is the shape of tendons ? ^ ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. long, slender strings; sometimes they are short and thick; again, in some situations, they are thin and broad. They serve to fasten the muscles to the bones, or to each other. Observation. In some instances, the synovial membrane, which forms the sheath of the tendons, is ruptured, and the synovial fluid escapes. This forms a tumor, called a gan'gli-on, (weeping sinew.) It is called a wind-gaR when on the limbs of a horse. 68. In the description of a muscle, its attachments are ex- pressed by the terms origin and insertion. The term origin is generally applied to the more fixed or central attachment, or to the points toward which motion is directed; while insertion is assigned to the more movable point, or to that most distant from the ^centre. The middle, fleshy portion, is called the " belly," or swell Fig. 21. 1. 2. 3 4. Fig. 21. 1, Represents the fibres of a muscle running in straight lines. 2, The fan-shaped fibres. 3, 4, Fibres inclined like the plumes of a quill, t, t, Tendons at the extremities of the muscle, 1. 69. In some parts of the body, there is but one layer of muscle over the bones; in other parts, there are five or six How are the tumors formed, called weeping sinews ? 68. How are the attachments of muscles expressed ? W-h**4»*tfWrmiddle portion e*lted i 69. How many layers of muscles are there around the bones ? ANATOMY OF THE MUSCLES. 23 layers, one muscle being placed over another. They are sepa- rated by a thin, whitish membrane, called fas'ci-a. Observation. An instance is seen in the membrane which envelops a leg of beef, and which is observed on the edges of a slice when it is cut for broiling. 70. In general, the muscles form about the bones two ' layers, called the superficial, or external muscles; and the deep-seated, or those nearest the bone. 71. There are more than four hundred muscles in the human body. To these, and a yellow substance, called fat, that surrounds and fills the spaces in the muscles, the child and youth are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their limbs. Observation. When we are sick, and cannot take food, the body is fed with this fat. The removal of it into the blood causes the sunken cheek, hollow eye, and prominent appear- ance of the bones, after a severe sickness. 72. When we look at this "harp of thousand strings," and notice the varied, rapid, complicated, yet accurate movements it performs in a single day, our thoughts are lost in wonder, in contemplating this superb and intricate machine, framed and finished by the divine Architect. How are they separated from each other ? Give an instance where this membrane may be seen. 70. How many layers of muscles generally around the bones, and what are they called ? 71. How many muscles in the hu- man body ? Why are the limbs of a child more round and full than an aged person's ? How is the body nourished when we cannot take food ? 3* 30 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE CHAPTER VII. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 73. Every motion of the body is made by the contraction of the fibres of the muscles; from the awkward movement of the boy's first effort at penmanship, to the delicate and graceful sweeps of the pianist; from the firm, the stately tread of the soldier, to the light, fairy-like step of the danseuse Illustration. The muscles and tendons are to the bones what the ropes are to the sails and yards of a ship. By their action, the direction of the sails and yards is changed. So, by the action of the muscles, the position of the bones of the body is changed. 74. Each fibre of the several muscles receives from the brain, through the nervous filament appropriated to it, a certain influence called nervous fluid, or stimulus. It is this that in- duces contraction, while the suspension of this stimulus causes relaxation of the fibres. 75. Muscles remain contracted but a short time ; then they relax, or lengthen, which is their rest. When the muscles are in a state of contraction, they are full, hard, and more prom- inent than when relaxed. 76. The alternate contraction and relaxation of the musclea may be shown by the following experiment: — Experiment. Clasp the fore-arm about three inches below the elbow, then open and shut the fingers rapidly, and the 73—99. Give the physiology of the muscles. 73. How is every motion of the body produced ? 74. With what is each muscular fibre supplied ? What effect has this stimulus on the muscles ? 75. Do muscles remain contracted a long time ? What is their appearance when in a state of con- traction ? 76. How can the alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles be shown ? PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 31 swelling and relaxation of the muscles on the opposite sides of the arms, alternately with each other, will be felt correspond- ing with the movement of the fingers. While the fingers are bending, the inside muscles swell and the outside ones become flaccid; and, while the fingers are extending, the inside mus- cles relax and the outside ones swell. The alternate swelling and relaxation of opposing muscles may be felt in all the move- ments of the limbs. Fig. 22. A representation of the manner in which all of the joints of the body are moved Fig. 22. 1, The bone of the arm above the elbow. 2, One of the bones below the elbow. 3, The muscle that bends the elbow. This muscle is united, by a tendon, to the bone below the elbow, (4;) at the other extremity, to the bone above the elbow, (5.) 6, The muscle that extends the elbow. 7, Its attachment to the point of the elhow. 8, A weight in the hand, to be raised. The central part of the muscle (3) contracts, and its two ends are brought nearer together. The bones below the elbow are brought to the lines shown by 9, 10, 11. The weight is raised in the direction of the curved line. When the muscle (6) contracts, the muscle (3) relaxes, and the el bow is extended. 77. The eyebrows are elevated, or raised by the contraction of the muscles on the forehead, 1, fig. 23. 78. The eyes are closed by the contraction of the muscles that surround them, 2, fig. 23. Explain fig. 22. Note. Let the anatomy and physiology of the muscular system be re- viewed, in form of topics, from figs. 23, 24, or from the outline anatomicil plates 3 and 4. 32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 79 The upper lip is elevated by the contraction of the mus cles, 3, 4, 5, 6, fig. 23. 80. The mouth is closed by the contraction of a muscle tha* surrounds it, 7, fig. 23. 81. The lower lip is drawn down, or depressed, by the con- traction of muscles on the lower part of the face, 8, fig. 23. 82. The head is bent forward, as in nodding, by the contrac- tion of muscles on the front part of the neck, 9, fig. 23. 83. The chin is raised, and the head is brought erect by the contraction of muscles on the back part of the neck, 5,6, fig. 24. 84. The body is bent forward, and the ribs brought down, by the contraction of muscles on the front and lower part of the trunk, 22, 23, fig. 23. 85. The spinal column is kept erect by the muscles at the lower and back part of the trunk, 24, 25, 26, fig. 24. 86. The shoulders are brought forward by the muscles upon the upper and front part of the chest, 11, fig. 23. 87. The shoulders are brought back by the contraction of the muscles upon the upper and back part of the chest, 7, fig. 24. 88. The arm is elevated by a muscle upon the shoulder, 10, fig. 23; and 8, fig. 24. 89. The arm is brought to the side by muscles, 11, fig. 23; and 24, fig. 24. 90. The elbow is bent by the contraction of the muscles on the upper and front side of the arm, 14, fig. 23. 91. The elbow is extended by a muscle on the back part of the arm, 10, fig. 24. 92. The wrist and fingers are bent by the muscles on the front part "of the arm, below the elbow, 16, 18, fig. 23. 93. The muscles on the back part of the arm, below the elbow, extend the wrist and fingers, 21, 22, 23, fig. 24. 94. The muscles that bend the lower limbs, at the hip, are situated at the lower and front part of the trunk, and the upper and front part of the thigh, 25, 26, 27, 28, fig. 23. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. 38 95. The lower limbs are extended at the hips by the muscles on the lower and back part of the trunk, and the upper and back part of the thigh, 27, 28, fig. 24. 96. The muscles upon the front part of the thigh extend trie leg at the knee, 29, 30, fig. 23. 97. The knee is bent by the muscles upon the back part of the thigh, 29, 30, fig. 24. 98. The muscles upon the fore part of the leg, below the knee, bend the foot at the ankle, and extend the toes, 34, 35, 36, fig. 23. 99. The muscles upon the back part of the leg, below the knee, extend the foot at the ankle, and bend the toes, 31, 32 33, fig. 24. Observation. It would be a profitable exercise for pupils to press their fingers upon prominent muscles, and, at the same time, vigorously contract them, not only to learn their situations, but their use; as the one that bends the arm, 14, fig. 23. [Fig. 23. A front view of the muscles of the body. 1, The frontal swells of the occipito-frontalis. 2, The orbicularis palpebrarum. 3, The levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 4, The zygomaticus major. 5, The zygomaticus minor. 6, The masseter. 7, The orbicularis oris. 8, The depressor labii inferioris. 9, The platysnia myoides. 10, The deltoid. 11, The pectoralis major. 12, The latissimus dorsi 13, The serratus major anticus. 14, The biceps flexor cubiti. 15, The triceps ex- tensor cubiti. 16, The supinator radii longus. 17, The pronator radii teres. 18, The extensor carpi radialis longior. 19, The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 20, The annular ligament 21, The palmar fascia. 22, The obliquus externus abdominis. 23, The linea alba. 24, The tensor vagina femoris. 26, The psoas magnus. 27, The abductor longus. 28, The sartorius. 29, The rectus femoris. 30, The vastus externus. 31, The vastus internus. 32, The tendo patella. 33, The gas- trocnemius. 34, The tibialis anticus. 35, The tibia. 36, The tendons of the ex tensor communis. Fjg. 24. A back view of the muscles of the body. 1, The temporalis. 2, The occipito-frontalis. 3, The complexus. 4, The splenius. 5, The masseter. 6, The sterno-cleido mastoideus. 7, The trapezius. 8, The deltoid. 9, The infra spinatus. 10, The triceps extensor. 11, The teres minor. 12, The teres major. 13, The tendinous portion of the triceps. 14, The anterior edge of the triceps. 15, Tho supinator radii longus. 16, The pronator radii teres. 17, The extensor communis digitorum. 18, The extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis. 19, The extensor communis digitorum tendons. 20, The olecranon and insertion of the triceps. 21, The exten- sor carpi ulnaris. 22, The auricularis. 23, The extensor communis. 24, The latis- simus dorsi. 25, Its tendinous origin. 26, The obliquus externus. 27, The gluteus medius. 28, The gluteus magnus. 29, The biceps flexor cruris. 30, The semi-ten- dinosus. 31, 32, The gastrocnemius. 33, The tendo-Achillis.] ?>4 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. Fig. 23. MkAh PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLES. Fig. 24. 35 D�B 36 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER VIII. HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 100. The muscles should be used and then rested. This (vill increase their size and strength, by increasing the flow of blood to the parts called into action. A muscle should not be used too long, .or remain at rest too long; both are alike injurious. Illustrations. 1st. The blacksmith uses and rests the mus- cles of his arm when striking upon the anvil. They not only become large, but very firm and hard. 2d. The student uses the muscles of the arm but little, in holding his books and pen; they are not only small, but soft. 3d. Let the student leave his books, and wield an iron sledge, and the muscles of his arm will increase in size and firmness. On the other hand, let the blacksmith assume the student's vocation, and the muscles of his arm will become soft and less firm. 101. Exercise should be regular and frequent. The sys- tem needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it doea new supplies of food. It is no more correct that we devote several days to a proper action of the muscles, and then spend one day inactively, than it is to take a proper amount of food for several days, and then withdraw this supply for a day. (See note A. page 42.) 102. Every part of the muscular system should have its appropriate share of exercise. Some employments call into 100—118. Give the hygiene of the muscles. 100. Why should every mus- cle be used ? What is injurious to muscles ? How is the effect of using muscles illustrated ? 101. Why should the exercise of the muscles be regular and frequent ? 102. What employments and amusements are best for the health ? HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 37 exercise the muscles of the upper limbs, as shoe-making ; others the muscles of the lower limbs; while some the muscles of both upper and lower limbs, with those of the trunk, as farming. Those trades and kinds of exercise are most salutary, in which all the muscles have their due proportion of action, as this tends to develop and strengthen them equally. 103. The proper time for exercise should be observed. This is modified by many circumstances. As a general rule, the morning, when the air is pure and the ground dry, is better than the evening; for then, the powers of the body are greatest. We should avoid severe exercise and labor immediately before and after eating a full meal, for the energies of the system are then required to perform the digestive function. 104. The muscles should be used in pure air. The purer the air we breathe, the longer can the muscles be used in labor, walking, or sitting, without fatigue and injury; hence the bene- fit derived in thoroughly ventilating all inhabited rooms. Observation. It is a common remark that sick persons will sit up longer when riding in a carriage, than in an easy chair in the room where they have lain sick. In the one instance, they breathe pure air, in the other, usually, a con- fined, impure air. 105. The muscles should be exercised in the light. Light, particularly that of the sun, exercises as great an influence on man as it does on plants. Both require the stimulus of this ao-ent. Students should take their exercise during the day, rather than in the evening, and the farmer and the mechanic should avoid night toil, as it is much more exhausting than the same effort during daylight. Illustrations. Plants that grow in the shade, as under a board, are of lighter color and more feeble than those thaUire " Whv > 103. What time, in general, is best for exercise ? What should be avoide'd ? 104. Why should the muscles be used in pure air ? Give.obser- vation 105 Why should students take their exercise in the daytime? mat should farmland mechanics avoid? Why? How ts the tnfluence of solar light illustrated ? 4 38 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. exposed to the light of the sun. Persons that dwell in dark rooms, are paler and less vigorous than those who inhabit apartments well lighted, and exposed to solar light. 106. Every muscle should move freely. Compression by any means, lessens the size and strength of the muscle. Illustration. Let a surgeon bandage a limb for some weeks, when a bone is broken, and when the bandage is removed, the limb will be found smaller than when the accident occurred. The compression by close dresses produces similar effects upon the muscles of the body. 107. The state of the mind affects muscular contraction. A person who is cheerful and happy will do more work, and with less fatigue, than one who is peevish and unhappy. Illustration. A sportsman will pursue his game miles with- out fatigue, while his attendant, not having any mental stimu- lus, will become weary. 108. The erect attitude lessens the exhaustion of the muscles A person will stand longer, walk farther, and do more work, when erect, than in a stooping posture; because the muscles of the back, in stooping, are in a state of tension, or stretchinff. to keep the head and trunk from falling forward. In the erect position, the head and trunk are nicely balanced and supported by the bones of the spinal column, and the muscles of the back are called but slightly into action. Experiment. Hold in each hand a pail of water, or equal weights, in a stooping posture, as long as it can be done with- out much suffering and injury. Again, when the muscular pain has ceased, hold the same weights, for the same length of time, in an erect posture, and note the difference in the fatigue of the muscles. Observation. The attitude of children in standing has been 106. Why should every muscle move freely ? How is the effect of com pression illustrated ? 107- Does the mind affect the action of the muscles ? How is this illustrated ? 108. What attitude lessens the exhaustion of the muscles? Why? How is the effect of position shown by experiment ? What is said respecting the attitude of children ? HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 30 much neglected both by parents and teachers. Let a child acquire the habit of inclining his head and shoulders, and the chest will become contracted, the muscles of the back enfeebled, and the deformity thus acquired will progress to advanced age. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 25. 1, A perpendicular line from the centre of the feet to the upper extrem ity of the spinal column, where the head rests. 2, 2,2, The spinal column, with its three natural curves. Here the head and body are balanced upon the spinal column and jjints of the lower extremities, so that the muscles are not ! Fig. 37 Jy i-yy :\y 7 Fig. 37. An idea, view of the*rga„s of option, opened -^ wl^ %£ 1, The upper jaw. 2, The lower jaw. 3, , Theton , sublingualgland. 5 The esophagus. 6, The trachea. 7 11>« P-ot' J • 12, The duct that B, The stomach. 10, .0, The l.ver. 11, The ff^ 15, 15, 15, The conveys the bile to the ^odenuni,(13, W.) ^ 1 p ^ ^ .n .mall intestine. 10, The open.ng o the sma 1 , rt oft)ie spina. 17. 18, 19, 20, The large intestine. 21, The spleen. , rolumn. 56 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. V' CHAPTER XII. HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 160. The perfection of the digestive process, as well as the health of the body, requires the observance of certain condi- tions. These will be considered under four heads. 1st. The quantity of food that should be taken. 2d. Its quality. 3d. The manner in which it should be taken. 4th. The con- dition of the system wJben food is taken. 161. The quantity of food necessary for the system varies. Although many things may aid us in determining the quantity of food proper for an individual, yet there is no certain guide in all cases. Age, occupation, habits, temperament, tempera- ture, health, and disease, all exert an influence. 162. The child and youth require food to promote the growth of the bones, muscles, and the different parts of the body. The more rapid the growth of the child, the greater the demand for food. This accounts for the keen appetite and vigorous digestion in childhood. 163. Food is necessary to repair the toaste which attends the functions of the different organs. The waste is greatest when we exercise most. For this reason, when we increase our exercise or labor, the quantity of food may be increased; while, on the other hand, when we change from an active em- 160—186. Give the hygiene of the digestive organs. 160. What does the perfection of the digestive process require ? 161. Can the quantity of food proper for an individual be determined in all cases ? What exert an influence on the quantity necessary for the body ? 162. At what age is the appetite keen and the digestion vigorous ? Why ? 163. Give another de- mand for food. When is the waste greatest ? When should the amount of food be lessened ? HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 57 ployment to one less active in character, the food should be diminished in nearly the same degree that the exercise is lessened. 164. When the girl leaves the active household employ- ments for the shop of the dress-maker, — when the boy leaves the farm for the school-room, — the amount of food should be diminished as soon as the sedentary employment is com- menced ; for, under such circumstances, the appetite will not guide correctly. Observation. It is a common observation, that in academies and colleges, the older students from the country, who have been accustomed to hard manual labor, suffer more frequently from defective digestion and impaired health than the younger and feebler students from the larger towns or cities. 165. The food aids in supporting the warmth of the body. This is the reason why the appetite for food is keener in the winter than in the summer. It follows, then, that the system requires more food in cold than in hot weather. Observations. 1st. Well-clothed children require less food in cold weather than those thinly dressed. 2d. Flocks and herds that are sheltered in winter, will eat one third less than if exposed to the inclemency of the weather; hence it is true economy to keep the inferior animals warm, as well as children. 166. In all instances, the quantity of food should have reference to the present condition of the digestive organs. If they are weakened or diseased, so that but a small quantity of food can be properly digested or changed, that amount only should be taken. Food does not invigorate the system, except it is changed, as has been' described in Chap. XI. 167. The quality of the food best adapted to the wants of 164. When will not the appetite guide correctly ? What observation re- specting those students that have been accustomed to hard manual labor ? 165. Why is the appetite for food keener in the winter than in the summer ? Give observation 1st. Observation 2d. 166. Why should the present condition of the digestive organs be regarded in reference to the quantity nf food? 167. On what does the quality of food adapted to the wants of f.he system depend ? 58 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. the system depends upon the season, climate, age, &c, of a person. Like the quantity necessary for an individual, there can be no fixed law. 168. The kind of food which is eaten should be adapted to the distensible character of the stomach and alimentary canal. Hence the food should contain nutritious mid innutritions mat- ter— nutritious, to promote the growth a#tl repair the waste of the system ; and innutritious, to distend both the stomach and alimentary canal. Consequently, hot flour bread, rich pies, and jellies, are not so good articles for foodrfas the unbolted wheat bread, ripe fruits, and berries. m 169. The influence of season and climate should be consid- ered in selecting food. Food of a highly stimulating character may be used almost with impunity, during the cold weather of a cold climate, but in the warm season, and in a warm climate, it would be very injurious. Animal food, being more stimu- lating than vegetable, can be eaten in the winter; but vegetable food should be used more freely in the spring and summer. Observation. By abstaining from meats and stimulating drinks in warm weather, and living on nutritious, unstimulating food, the " season " or bowel complaints may be, in a great degree, prevented. 170. The age of persons modifies the influence of food on the system. The organs of a child are more sensitive and excita- ble than those of a person advanced in years. Therefore a vegetable diet would be most appropriate for a child, while stimulating animal food might be conducive to the health of an aged person. 171. The manner in which food should be taken is of much practical importance; upon it the health of the digestive organs depends. 16S. What should all substances used for food contain ? Why ? 169. Should the season of the year influence us in selecting food? Give observation. 170. What kind of food is adapted to the organs of the child ? Why ? What kind to a person advanced in life ? Why ? 171. What is tuid of the manner of taking food ? HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 59 172, Food should be taken at regular periods. The interval between meals should be regulated by the kind of food, the age, health, exercise, and habits of the individual. Children re- quire food more frequently than adults; yet, strict regulan+v and punctuality should be observed in regard to their times of eating. 173. Food should not be taken too frequently. If food is taken before the stomach has regained its tone and energy by repose, or before the digestion of the preceding meal has been completed, not. only will the action of the stomach be imperfect, but the food partially digested becomes mixed with that last taken, inducing irritation or disease. In general, an adult should allow six hours to intervene between meals. 174. Food should be well masticated, or chewed. All solid food should be reduced to a state of comparative fineness, by the teeth, before it is swallowed; the gastric fluid of the stomach will then blend with it more readily, and act more vigorously in reducing it to chyme. 175. Mastication should be moderate, not rapid ; for the salivary glands are excited to action in chewing, and some time must elapse before they can secrete saliva in sufficient quantities \ to moisten the food. 176. Food should be masticated and swallowed without drink. As the salivary glands supply fluid to moisten the dry food, the use of tea, coffee, water, or any other fluid, is not demanded by nature's laws while taking a meal. Observation. Were it customary not to place drinks on the table until the solid food is eaten, the evil arising from drinking too much at meals would be obviated. 177. The condition of the system should be regarded when food is taken. 172. How should food be taken? How should the intervals between meals be regulated ? What should be observed in giving food to children ? 173. What is the effect if food is taken too frequently? 174. Why should food be well masticated? 175. Why should we not eat rapidly ? 176. Why do we aot require drink while chewing our food ? 177. Should the con- dition of the system be regarded when food is taken ? yi (JO ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 178. Food should not be taken immediately after severe exer- tion, either of the body or mind ; for all organs in action require and receive more blood and nervous fluid, than when at rest. Observation. The practice of students and accountants going immediately from severe mental labor to their meals, is a pernicious one, and a fruitful cause of indigestion and mental debility. The custom of farmers and mechanics hurrying from their toil to the dinner-table, " to save time," — which, to say the least, is poor economy, — does much to cause dyspepsia among these classes in community. 179. Severe mental or physical labor should not be entered upon immediately after eating. The amount of blood and nervous fluid supplied to the stomach and alimentary canal during the digestion of food is increased, and a deficiency con- sequently exists in other organs. If the blood is diverted from the stomach to the limbs or brain by active exertion, it will nol only cause disease of the digestive organs, but chyle will not be formed, to nourish the system. 180. Pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and vigor- ous digestion. The digestive organs not only need the stimulus of blood, but they absolutely need the influence of pure blood which cannot exist in the system, except when we breathe pure air. Illustration. A manufacturer stated before a committee of the British parliament, that he removed an arrangement for ventilating his mill, because he noticed that his men ate much more after his mill was ventilated than previous to admitting fresh air into the rooms. The apology for removing the venti- lators was, that he could not afford to have them breathe pure air. 178. Why should not food be taken after severe exertion ? What in one cause of indigestion among students and accountants ? What is said o farmers and mechanics hurrying from their toil to the dinner-table ? 179. Why should not severe exertion be made immediately after eating ? 180. What effect has pure air on digestion ? Give illustration. HYGIENE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 61 181. Persons should abstain from eating, at least three hours before retiring for sleep. It is no unusual occurrence for those persons who have eaten heartily immediately before retiring for sleep, to have unpleasant dreams, or to be aroused from their unquiet slumber by colic pains. Illustration. A healthy farmer, who was in the habit of eating one fourth of a mince pie immediately before going to bed, became annoyed with unpleasant dreams, and, among the varied images of his fancy, he saw that of his deceased father. Becoming alarmed, he consulted a physician, who, after a patient hearing of the case, gravely advised him to eat half of a mince pie, assuring him that he would then see his grandfather. 182. When the general system and digestive organs are enfeebled, mild, unstimulating food, in small quantities, should be given. In the instance of a shipwrecked and famished mariner, or a patient recovering from disease, but a small quantity of nourishment should be given at a time. 183. Water and most fluids are removed from the stomach in a very few minutes, by the action of the veins. In instances of great feebleness, the body can be strengthened sooner by liquid than by solid food. 184. When travelling in coaches or cars, the stomach is not in a state to digest large quantities of food. When food is taken, it should be of the mildest character, and small in quantity. 185. To prevent disease, it is as necessary that the alimen- tary canal be evacuated regularly, as that we take food into the stomach at regular periods. 186. Sitting, standing, and walking erect, aid in keeping the digestive organs healthy. 181. What is the effect of eating immediately before retiring for sleep ? How is this illustrated in the case of a healthy farmer ? 182. How should food be given when both the digestive organs and general system are en feebled ? 183. Which are introduced into the system soonest, fluids or solid food ? 184. What is said in regard to food while we are travelling 186. What position of the body aids digestion ' 6 62 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XIII. THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 187. The blood is distributed to every part of the system. There is no part so minute, that it does not receive this circu- lating fluid. This distribution is effected by the agency of the Heart, Ar'te-ries, Veins, and Cap'il-la-ries. ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 188. The heart is situated in the chest, between the lungs. (Fig. 53.) It is a double organ, or has two sides, called right and left, which are separated by a muscular sep'tum, or partition. 189. Each side of the heart has two cavities. The upper cavity is called the au'ri-cle, (deaf ear.) The lower cavity is called the ven'tri-cle. These cavities are separated from each other by folds of membrane, called valves. (Fig. 38.) 190. Between the auricle and ventricle of the right side of the heart, there are three valves, called tri-cus'pid. Between the auricle and ventricle of the left side of the heart, there are two valves, called mitral. Observation. To obtain a clear idea of the heart and its valves, it is recommended to examine this part of an ox or calf. In order that each ventricle be opened without muti- ----------------flQ|v--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. 187. What is said of the distribution of the blood ? How is it effected ? 188—196. GiiM the anatomy of the circulatory organs. 188. Describe the heart. 189. How many cavities has it ? What is the upper cavity cajled ? What is the lower cavity called ? How are these cavities separated • 100. How many valves between the right auricle and ventricle, and what are they called ? How many valves between the left auricle and ventricle, and what are they called ? How can an idea of the heart be obtained ? ANATOMY Of THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 63 latino the parts that compose its internal structure, cut on each side of the septum parallel to it. This may be easily found between the ventricles, as they differ in thickness. 191. The arteries are the vessels that carry the blood from the heart. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to the pul'mo-na-ry artery ; the left ventricle to a large artery, called the a-ort'a. At the commencement of both of these vessels are valves, and from their shape, they are called sem-i-lu'nar Fig. 38. Fig. 38. 1, The descending vein. 2, The ascending vein. 3, The right auricle. 4, The opening between the right auricle and the right ventricle. 5, The right ven- tricle. 6, The tricuspid valves. 7, The pulmonary artery. 8, 8, The branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung. 9, The semilunar valves of itie pulmonary artery. 10, The division between the two ventricles of the heart. 11, 11, The pulmonary veins. 12, The left auricle. 13, The opening between the left auricle and ventricle. 14, The left ventricle. 15, The mitral valves. 16, 16, The aorta. 17, The semilunar valves of the aorta. Observation. The parts of the circulatory organs most liable to disease are the valves of the heart, particularly the mitral. 191. What are arteties ? Where does the pulmonary artery take its rise ? The aorta ? What valves at the commencement of these vessels i; Describe fig. 38. What parts of the circulatory organs are most liable to disease ? 64 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. When these membranous folds become ossified or ruptured, the blood regurgitates, and causes great distress in breathing. 192. The pulmonary artery commences in front of the aorta. It ascends obliquely to the under surface of the arch of the aorta, where it divides into two branches, one of which passes to the right, the other to the left lung. This artery conveys the dark-colored or "venous" blood to the lungs, and, with its corresponding veins, establishes the pulmonic circu- lation. Fig. 39. Fig. 39. t, The windpipe, h, The heart, a, The aorta, p, The pulmonary artery. 1, The branch of the pulmonary artery that divides in the left lung. 2, The Dranch that divides in the right lung. The divisions of this artery continue to divide and subdivide, until they become no larger than hairs in size. These minute vessels pass over the air-cells, represented by small dark points around the margin of the lungs. 192. Describe the pulmonary artery. What is the function of thia artery ? Explain fig. 39. What is said of the divisions of the pulmonary artery ? ANATOMY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 65 193. The aorta proceeds from the left ventricle of the heart, and contains the pure or " arterial " blood. This vessel gives off branches, which divide and subdivide as they advance. until they are distributed to every part of the body. This artery, with its corresponding veins, establishes the systemic circulation. Fig. 40. Fig. 40. The aorta and its branches, a, The commencement oi the aorta. 193. Describe the aorta. What is represented by fig. 40 ? 6 * 66 ANATOMV, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 194. The veins are the vessels which return the blood to the auricles of the heart, after it has been circulated by the arteries through the lungs and other parts of the body. At certain intervals, they are furnished with valves, which allow the blood to flow toward the heart only. In general, they are nearer the surface of the body than the arteries. 195. The capillaries constitute a microscopic net-work, and are so distributed through every part of the body as to ren- der it impossible to introduce the smallest needle beneath the skin without wounding several of these fine vessels. They establish the communication between the termination of the arteries and the beginning of the veins. 196. The relation of the capillaries to the arteries and veins, is illustrated by figs. 41 and 42. Fig. 41. An ideal view of a portion of the pulmonic circulation. 1, 1, A branch of the artery that carries the impure blood to the lun>is. 3, 3, Capillary vessels. 2, 2, A vein through which the red blood is returned to the left side of the heart. Fig. 42. An ideal view of a portion of the systemic circulation. 1, I, A nranch of the aorta. This terminates in the capillaries 3, 3. 2, 2, A vein through which the impure blood is carried to the right side ot'the heart. 194. What are veins ? With what are they furnished ? 195. What do the capillaries constitute? What do they establish ? What does fig. 41 represent ? Fig. 42 ? PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 67 CHAPTER XIV. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 197. The walls of all the cavities of the heart are composed of muscular fibres, which are endowed with the property of con- tracting and relaxing, like other parts of the muscular system. The contraction and relaxation of the muscular fibres of the heart increase and diminish the size of its cavities. 198. The two auricles dilate at the same instant, and also contract at the same instant. The two ventricles contract, while the auricles dilate. Thus the blood is forced from the heart to every part of the body, and received again on its return. 199. The course of the blood through the heart, arteries, and veins, may be easily comprehended by attention to fig. 43, which gives an ideal view of the circulation of the blood. 200. The heart aids in forcing the blood through the arte- ries, to the different parts of the body. Every time the heart contracts, there is a " pulse," or " pulsation," in the arteries. Experiment. Apply the fingers upon the artery at the wrist, at two different points, about two inches apart; if the pressure be moderately-made, the "pulse" will be felt at both points. Let the upper point be pressed firmly, and there will be no pulsation at the lower point; but make strong pressure upon the lower point only, and. the pulsation will continue at the upper point; proving that the blood flows from the heart, in the arteries, to different parts of the system. 197—203. Give the physiology of the circulatory orgayis. 197 What do the contraction and relaxation of the muscular walls of the heart produce ? 198. What is said of the contraction and dilatation of the auricles ? Of the ventricles ? 200. What causes the "pulse," or "pulsation," in the arteries? How is it proved that the blood flows from the heart in the arteries ? 68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 201. The frequency of the pulse varies according to the age, sex, and degree of health. In adults, it is usually from seventy to seventy-five "beats" in a minute. 202. There is no pulsation in the veins, and the return of the blood to the heart through them can be shown by the fol- lowing experiments. Experiments. 1st. Press firmly on one of the veins upon .he back of the hand, carrying the pressure toward the fingers; for a moment the vein will, disappear. On removing the pressure of the finger, it will reappear, from the blood rushing in from below. 2d. If a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow, the ferns below will become larger and more prominent, and also a greater number will be brought in view. At this time, apply the finger at the wrist, and the pulsation of the arteries still continues, showing that the blood is constantly flowing from the heart, through the arteries, into the veins ; and the increased size of the veins shows that the pressure of the tape prevents its flowing back to the heart. 203. From the right ventricle of the heart, (2, fig. 43,) the dark, impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery, (3;) and its branches (4, 5) carry the blood to the left and right lung. In the capillary vessels (6, 6) of the lungs, the blood becomes pure, or of a red color, and is returned to the left auri- cle of the heart, (9,) by the veins, (7, 8.) From the left auri- cle the pure blood passes into the left ventricle, {10.) By a forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heart, the blood is thrown into the aorta, (11.) Its branches (12, 13, 13) carry the pure blood to every organ, or part of the body. The divisions and subdivisions of the aorta terminate in capillary vessels, represented by 14, 14. In these hair-like vessels the blood becomes dark-colored, and is returned to the right auricle of the heart, (1,) by the ve'na ca'va de-scen'dens (15) and ve'na cava as-cen'dens, (16.) The tricuspid valves (17) pre- vent the reflow of the blood from the right ventricle to the right 201. What varies the frequency of the pulse ? 202, Is there pulsation in the veins ? How is it proved, by experiment 1st, tha* *he blood is returned to the heart by th«* veins ? By experiment 2sols are wounded or cut ? 72 ANATOMY., PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE flow of blood must be immediately * stopped, or the person will soon die. If a large artery is wounded, the blood will be thrown out in jets, or jerks, every time the pulse beats. The flow of blood can be stopped until a surgeon arrives, either by compressing the vessel between the wound and the heart, or by compressing the end of the divided artery in the wound. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Fig. 44. The track of the large artery of the arm. 1, The collar-bone. 9, 10, The large artery of the arm. Fig. 45. B, The manner of compressing the artery near the collar-bone. A, The manner of compressing the large artery of the arm, with the fingers. C, The manner of compressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound, with a finger. 211. After making compression with the fingers, as described and illustrated, take a piece of cloth or handkerchief, twist it cornerwise, and tie a hard knot midway between the two ends. What is shown by fig. 44 ? By fig. 45 ? 211. What is to be done aft« compressing the wound, as before described ? HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 73 This knot should be placed over the artery, between the wound and the heart, and the ends carried around the limb and loosely tied. A stick, five or six inches long, should be placed under the handkerchief, which should be twisted until the knot has made sufficient compression on the artery to allow the removal of the fingers without a return of bleeding. Continue the compression until a surgeon can be called. Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 46. The method of applying the knotted handkerchief to make compression on this artery. A, B, The track of the large artery of the arm. Fig. 47. A, C, The track of the large artery of the thigh. B, The method of apply- ing the knotted handkerchief to compress this artery. In practice, the twisting stick B should be placed opposite the knot over the artery A, C Observation. When an artery of the arm is cut, elevating the wounded limb above the head will tend to arrest the flow of blood. In a wound of a lower limb, raise the foot, so that it shall be higher than the hip, until the bleeding ceases. Illustration. On one occasion, the distinguished Dr. Nathan Smith was called to a person who had divided one of the large arteries below the knee. After trying in vain to find the bleed ing vessel, so as to secure it, he caused the foot to be elevated What is shown by figs. 46, 47 ? Give observation. Relate a simple operation by Dr. Nathan Smith. 7 74 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. higher than the hip. At the first instant, the blood was forced from the wound about twelve inches; in a minute, it was dimin- ished to three or four; and, in a short time, the bleeding ceased. This Dr. S. called his "great" operation; and it was truly great in simplicity and science. 212. In "flesh wounds," when no targe blood-vessel is divided, wash the part with cold water, and, when bleeding has ceased, draw the wound together, and retain it with narrow strips of adhesive plaster. These should be put on smoothly, and a sufficiont number applied to cover the wound. In most instances of domestic practice, the strips of adhesive plaster are too wide. The/ should not exceed in width one fourth of an inch. Then appiy a loose ba.idagc, and avoid all " healing salves," ointments, and washes. Fig. 48. Fig. 48. The manner in which strips of adhesive plaster are applied to wound? 213. The union of the divided parts is effected by the action of the divided blood-vessels, and not by salves and ointments. The only object of the dressing is to keep the parts together, and protect the wound from air and impurities. Nature, in all cases of wounds, performs her own cure. Such simple incisions do not generally require a second dressing, and should not be opened till the parts are heatad. In removing the dressing from a wound, both ends of the strips of plaster should be raised and drawn toward the incision. The liability of the *vound re-opening is thus diminished. ' How should " flesh wounds " be dressed ? 213. How is the union of ■livided parts effected ? What should be avoided ? How should the kinps of plaster be removed from a wound ? HYGIENE OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS. 75 214. The proper position of the limbs favors the union of wounds. If the wound be upon the front part of the leg, between the knee and ankle, extending the knee and bending the ankle will aid its closing. If the wound be upon the back part of the leg, by extending the foot and bending the knee, the gaping of the wound will be diminished. When wounds occur upon the trunk, let the position of the person be rega-ded. Fig. 49. Fig. 49. a, a, Wounds on the back part of the arm and fore-arm. b, b, Wounds on the front part of the arm and fore-arm. By bending the elbow and wrist, the wounds at a, a, are opened, while the wounds at ft, b, are closed. Were the arm ex- tended at the elbow and wrist, the wounds at a, a, would be closed, and those at 6, ft, would be opened. 215. In wounds made by pointed instruments, as a nail, or in lacerated wounds, as those made by forcing a blunt instru- ment, as a hook, into the soft parts, there will be no direct and immediate union. In these cases, apply a soothing poultice, as one made of linseed meal, and also keep the limb still. It is judicious to consult a physician immediately, in punctured or lacerated wounds, because they often induce the most danger ous diseases. 214. Does the proper position of the limbs favor the union of wounds ? 215. How should punctured and lacerated wounds be dressed ? 76 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XVI. ABSORPTION. 216. Absorption is the process by which the nutrient por- tion of the food is removed from the alimentary canal to be conveyed irTto the circulatory vessels. It is likewise the process by which the particles of matter that have become injurious or useless, are removed from the mass of fluids and solids of which the body is composed. These renovating and remov- ing processes are performed by two sets of vessels. ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 217. The vessels that act exclusively for the growth and renovation of the system, are found only in the alimentary canal. They are called lac'te-als* 218. The vessels whose sole function is to remove particles of matter already deposited, are called lym-phat'ics. The radicals, or commencement of the veins, in many, and it may be in all parts of the body, perform the office of absorption. Fig. 50. A representation of the lymphatic vessels and glands. 1,2,3,4,5,6, The lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower limbs. 7, Lymphatic glands. 8, The commencement of the thoracic duct. 9, The lymphatics of the kidney. 10, Of the stomach. 11, Of the liver. 12, 12, The lungs. 13, 14, 15, The lymphatics and glands of the arm. 16, 17, 18, Of the face and neck. 19,20, Large veins. 21, The thoracic duct. 26, The lymphatics of the heart * See paragraph. 142. 216, What is absorption ? 217. What are those vessels called that act exclusively for the growth and renovation of the body ? 218—221. Give the anatomy of the lymphatic vessels. 218. Name those vessels that remove the atoms already deposited. What other vessels perform the office of absorption ? What does fig. 50 represent ? ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. Fig. 50. 1\ R •■^m 78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 219. The lymphatic vessels are very minute at their com- mencement ; so much so, that they cannot be seen without the aid of a magnifying glass. As they proceed, they unite and form larger trunks, that open into the veins. 220. Lymphatic vessels are found in every part of the body, except the brain, yet, it is supposed they exist in this or- gan. The knotted appearance of these vessels is owing to the arrangement of their internal coats, to form valves. 221. In certain parts of the body, as the neck, these ves- sels pass through small, soft bodies, called lymphatic glands, which are to these vessels what the mesenteric glands are to the lacteals. Observation. Sometimes, when we are afflicted with a cold, these glands in the neck enlarge; they are usually called " kernels." PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 222. Though the lacteals and lymphatics resemble each other in their structure and termination, yet they differ as to the nature of the fluids which they convey, as well as the nature of their functions. The lacteals open into the small intestine, and possess the power of rejecting all substances in the passing food but the chyle. 223. The lymphatics, on the contrary, not only imbibe, or suck up, all the various constituents of the body, both fluid and solid, when their vitality has ceased, but they absorb foreign and extraneous substances when presented to their mouths. Observations. 1st. When little or no food is taken into the stomach, life is supported by the lymphatic vessels imbibing 219. Describe the lymphatic vessels. 220. Where are they found ? To what is the knotted appearance of these vessels owing ? 222—224. Give the use of the lymphatic vessels. 221. What are lymphatic glands ? Give observation. 222. What is said of the lacteals and lymphatics ? Give the function of the former. 223. Give the use of the lymphatics. How is life supported when little or no food is eaten ? HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 79 /he fat, and reconveying it into the circulatory vessels. It is the removal of this substance which causes the emaciation of the face and limbs of a person recovering from a fever. In consumption, the extreme attenut tion of the limbs is caused by the absorption, not only of the fct, but also of the muscles and more solid parts of the body. 2d. Animals which live in v half torpid state during the winter, derive their nourishment from the same -source. In other words, we may say the starving animal lives for a time upon itself, eating up, by intern?! absorption, such parts of the body as can be spared, under urgent necessity, to feed these organs, and continue those functions that are absolutely essen- ^alt^ife. 221. The most important absorbing surfaces are the stomctcb^ intestines, Jungs, and skin. Through the lungs, absorption is not omy^very great, but extremely rapid. Illustration. In inhaling su'ohuric ether, or letheon, it is introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor, and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain, and thus influences the nervous system. HYGIENE OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 225. By the action of the lymphatics, substances of an inju- rious, as well as of a beneficial character may be conveyed into the system. These vessels, under certain conditions, are more active in their office than at other periods; and it is of practical utility to know what influences their action. 226. The function of these vessels is increased by moisture. What causes the extreme attenuation of the limbs in consumption ? How do those animals derive their nourishment that live in a half torpid state during winter ? 224. What are the most important absorbing surfaces ? How is letheon introduced into the svstem ? 225—229. Give the hygiene of the lymphatic vessels. 225. What Is said respecting the action of tho lymphatic vessels ? 226. What influences the function of these vessels ? 80 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. and lessened by an inactive state of the lacteals. Obser- vation shows that the ill-fed, and those persons that live in marshy districts, contract contagious diseases more readily than those individuals who are well fed, and breathe a dry and pure air. 227. The skin and the apparel of nurses and watchers should be clean, and as free of perspiration as possible. The air of the sick-room should also be dry. The observance of these conditions tends to prevent the absorption of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases, as small-pox, measles, &c. Observation. When we have been visiting, or attending on a sick person, it is judicious to change the apparel worn in the sick-room, and also give the skin a thorough bathing. T^e ouU side garments, also, should be aired, as poisonous matter may have penetrated the meshes of the cloth. * 228. The stomach should be suppliecF with food of a nutrient and digestible character, in proper quantities, and at stated periods. The chyle formed from the food stimulates the lacteals to activity, which activity is attended with an inactive state of the lymphatics of the skin and lungs. Thus due at- tention should be given to the food of the attendants on the sick, and the children of the family. Observation. Many individuals, to prevent contracting dis- ease that may be communicated from one person to another, use tobacco, either chewed or smoked; and sometimes alco- hol, with decoctions of bitter herbs. These substances do not diminish, but tend to increase the activity of the lymphatics. Thus they make use of the means by which the poisonous matter formed in the system of the diseased person, may be more readily conveyed into their own. What does observation show ? 227. Why should the skin and apparel of nurses and watchers be as free of perspiration as possible ? What sug- gestion when we have been visiting or attending on the sick ? 228. Why thould the stomach be supplied with food of a nutrient and digestible character ? What is said of the use of alcohol or tobacco, in preventing the introduction of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases ? HYGIENE OF THE LVMPHATIC VESSELS. 81 229. Absorption by the skin is most vigorous when the ex- ternal layer is removed by vesication, or blistering. Then, external applications, as ointments, are brought in immediate contact with the orifices, or mouths, of tne lymphatics of the skin, and by them rapidly imbibed and circulated through the system. The same results follow, if the skin is only punctured. Observation. 1st. In case of an accidental wound, it is best immediately to bathe the part thesroughly in pure water, and to avoid all irritating applications. In some instances, it would be well to apply lunar caustic immediately. 2d. When shrouding dead bodies, or removing the skin from animals that have died of disease, it would be well to lubricate the hands with olive-oil or lard. This affords pro- tection to the minute portions of the skin from which the external layer may be removed 3d. In all cases where there is an ulcer, or sore, the part should be covered with something impervious to fluids, as court-plaster, before exposing the system to any animal, vege- table, or mineral poison. 229. When is absorption by the skin most vigorous ? Give observation 1st. Observation 2d. Observation 3d. 82 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XVII. SECRETION. 230. In the human body are found many fluids and solids of dissimilar appearance and character. These are produced by the action of organs called Se'cre-to-ry. Some of these organs are of simple structure, while others are very complicated in their arrangement. ANATOMY OF THE SECRETORY ORGANS. 231. The secretory organs are of three kinds, namely, the Ex-ha'lents, Fol'li-cles, and the Glands. 232. The exhalents are supposed to be terminations of the arteries, or capillaries. They are of two kinds, external and internal. The latter terminate on the surfaces within the body, and the former upon the outside. J Fig. 51.^.' }« m'- V H. Fig. 51. A secretory follicle. An artery is seen, which supplies Has nitrogen? 266. Explain how the blood is changed by the action of the air. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 97 cells every time we breathe. This interchange of gases pro- duces the change in the color of the blood. Experiment. To show that gases may be interchanged through membranes, fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from any animal. Tie the bladder closely, and suspend it in the air. In a few hours, the blood next the membrane will have become of a bright red color. This is owing to the oxygen from the air passing through the bladder, and uniting with the blood, while the carbonic acid has escaped through the mem- brane Fig. 59. An ideal view of the pulmonary circulation. 1, 1, The right lung. S, 2, The left lung. 3, The trachea. 4, The right bronchial tube. 5, The left bronchial tube. 6, 6, 6, 6, Air-cells. 7, The right auricle. 8, The right ventricle. 9, The tricuspid valves. 10, The pulmonary artery. 11, The branch to the right lung. 12, The branch to the left lung. 13, The right pulmonary vein. 14, Th« left pulmonary vein. 15, The left auricle. 16, The left ventricle. 17, The mitral valves. Note. Let a review of the anatomy and physiology of the respiratoiy organs be given from figs. 53,59, or from outline anatomical plates 5 and 7. 9 ■ JC* ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. CHAPTER XXI. HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS 267. For man to enjoy the highest degree of health, it is necessary that the impure "venous" blood be properly changed. As this is effected in the lungs by the action of the air, it follows that this element, when breathed, should be pure, or contain twenty-one per cent, of oxygen to about seventy-nine per cent, of nitrogen. 268. The quality or purity of the air is affected by every respiration. The quantity of nitrogen is nearly the same in the expired, as in the inspired air. But the quantity of oxygen is diminished, and that of carbonic acid is increased. Thus, every time we force air from the lungs, it becomes unfit to be breathed again. ' Experiment. Sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock, or one with a glass stopper, into a pail of water, until the air is expelled from the jar. Fill the lungs with air, and retain it in the chest a short time, and then breathe into the jar, and instantly close the stop-cock. Close the opening of the jar that is under the water with a piece of paper laid on a plate of sufficient size to cover the opening, invert the jar, and sink into it a lighted candle, The flame will be extinguished as quickly as if put in water.* * As a substitute for a jar with a stop-cock, take a piece of lead pipe bent in the form of a siphon, and insert it in the mouth of a reversed jar. This experiment is as conclusive whether the air is in- h°le& once only, or breathed many times. 267—285. Give the hygiene of the respiratory organs. 267. What is ne- cessary that man may enjoy the highest degree of health ? What propor- tion of oxygen and nitrogen should the inspired air contain ? 268. What is the difference between inspired and expired air ? How can this differ- ence b? shown ? HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 99 Remove the carbonic acid by inverting the jar, and place a lighted candle in it, and the flame will be as clear as when out of the jar. Observation. It is familiarly known that a taper will not burn where carbonic acid exists in any considerable quantity, or when there is a marked deficiency of oxygen. From this originated the judicious practice of sinking a lighted candle into a well or pit before descending into it. If the flame is extin- guished, respiration cannot there be maintained, and life would be sacrificed should a person venture in until the noxious air is removed. 269. Air, in which lamps will not burn with brilliancy, is unfitted for respiration. In crowded rooms, which are not ventilated, the air is vitiated, not only by a decrease of oxygen and an increase of carbonic acid, but by the waste, injurious atoms thrown out from the lungs and skin of the audience. The burning lamps, under such circumstances, emit but a feeble light. Let the oxygen gas be more and more expended, and the lamps will burn more and more feebly, until nearly ex Anguished. ^lustrations. 1st. The effects of breathing the same air again and again, are well illustrated by an incident that occurred in one of our halls of learning. A large audience had assembled in an ill-ventilated room, to listen to a lecture ; soon the lamps burned so dimly that the speaker and audience were nearly en- veloped in darkness. The oppression, dizziness, and faintness, experienced by many of the audience, induced them to leave ; and in a few minutes after, the lamps were observed to rekindle, owing to the exchange of pure air on opening the door, which supplied to them oxygen. 2d. The " Black Hole of Calcutta" received its name from the fact, that one hundred and forty-six Englishmen were shut Why should a lighted candle be sunk in a well or pit before a person descends into it ? 269. How is the air of crowded, unventilated rooms vitiated ? What effect has such air upon the burning lamps ? Give an incident that illustrates the effects of impure air upon burning lamps. 100 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. up in a room eighteen feet square, with only two small windows on the same side to admit air. On opening this dungeon, ten Hours after their imprisonment, only twenty-three were alive. The others had died from breathing impure air, that contained animal matter from their own bodies. 270. Churches, concert-halls, and school-rooms should be well ventilated. If they are not, the persons assembled in them will be restless, and complain of languor, and perhaps head- ache. These unpleasant sensations are caused by a want of pure air, to give an adequate supply of oxygen to the lungs. Observation. In all school-rooms, where there is not ade- quate ventilation, it is advisable to have a recess of five or ten minutes each hour. During this time, let the pupils breathe fresh air, and open the doors and windows, so that the air of the room shall be completely changed. 271. While occupying a room, we are insensible to the grad- ual vitiation of the air. This is the result of the diminished sensibility of the nervous system, and gradual adaptation of the organs to blood of a less stimulating character. 272. In the construction of every inhabited room, there should be adequate means of ventilation, as well as warming. No room is well ventilated, unless as much pure air is brought into it, as the occupants vitiate at every respiration. This can be effected by making an aperture in the ceiling of the room, or by constructing a ventilating flue in the chimney. This should be in contact with the flues for the escape of smoke, but separated from them by a thin brick partition. 273. Provision should also be made, by which pure air may be constantly coming into the room, as the crevices of the Of the effects of breathing impure air. 270. Why should churches and school-rooms be well ventilated ? What suggestion when a school-room is not well ventilated? 271. Why are we insensible of the vitiation of the lir of the room in which we are seated ? 272. What is very important in .he construction of every inhabited room ? How can a room be well venti- ated ? 273 Should provision be made to have pure air introduced into a. room ? HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 101 doors and windows are not sufficient. There should be ai aperture at or near the floor, to connect with the outer walls of the building or external air. 274. The sick-room, particularly, should be so arranged that the impure air may escape, and pure air be constantly coming into the room. Curtains around the bed, and the sheet over the face, are injurious. The effect is similar to that produced by sleeping in a small, unventilated room. 275. The change that is effected in the blood while passing through the lungs, not only depends upon the purity of the air, but the amount inspired. The quantity varies according to the size of the chest, and the movement of the ribs and diaphragm. Fig. 60. Fig- 61; Fig. 60. The skeleton of a deformed chest. Fig. 61. The skeleton of a well-formed chest. 276. The size of the chest and lungs can be diminished by moderate and continued pressure. This is most easily done in infancy, when the cartilages and ribs are very pliant; yet it can be effected at more advanced periods of life. Observations. 1st. The Chinese, by compressing the feet of female children, prevent their growth; so that the foot of a ~771 What rooms particularly should be well ventilated ? Why are cur- tains around abed injurious ? 275. What vaues the amount of air received into the lungs ? 276. How can the size of the chest be diminished ? What does fig. 60 represent ? Fig. 61 ? Give observation 1st. 9* 102 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. Chinese belle is not larger than the foot of an American girl of five years. 2d. The American women compress their chests, to prevent their growth; so that the chest of an American belle is not larger than the chest of a Chinese girl of five years. Which country, in this respect, exhibits the greater intelligence ? 3d. The chest can be deformed by making the linings of the waists of the dresses tight, as well as by corsets. Tight vests, upon the same principle, are also injurious. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 62. A correct outline of the Venus de Medici, the beau ideal of female sym- metry. Fig. 63. An outline of a well-corseted modern beauty. One has an artificial, insect waist; the other, a natural waist. One has sloping shoulders, while the shoul- ders of the other are comparatively elevated, square, and angular. The proportion of the corseted female below the waist, is also a departure from the symmetry of nature. 277. In children, who have never worn close garments, the circumference of the chest is generally about equal to that of Give observation 2d. How may the chest be deformed as given by obser- vation 3d ? 277. What is the size of the chest of a child that has always worn loose clothing ? HYGIENE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 10H me body at the hips; and similar proportions would exist through life, if there were no improper pressure of the clothing. Those persons that have large, full chests, particularly at the lower part, are not so liable to diseases of the lungs, as those who have narrow, contracted chests. 278. A contracted chest, caused either by injudicious dress- ing, or by any other means, can be enlarged, although the person is thirty years of age, by permitting the muscles that elevate the ribs and diaphragm to perform their proper function. Observation. Scholars, and persons who sit much of the time, should frequently, during the day, breathe full and deep, so that the smallest air-cells may be fully filled with air. While exercising the lungs, the shoulders should be thrown back and the head held erect. 279. When the lungs are properly filled with air, the chest is enlarged in every direction. If any article of apparel is worn so tight as to prevent the full expansion of the chest and abdomen, the lungs, in consequence, do not receive air suffi- cient to purify the blood. The penalty for thus violating a law of our being, is disease and suffering. Observation. Many individuals do not realize the small amount of pressure that will prevent the enlargement of the chest. This can be shown by drawing a tape tightly around the lower part of the chest of a vigorous adult, and confining it with the thumb and finger. Then endeavor fully to inflate the lungs, and the movement of the ribs will be much restricted. 280. The position in standing and sitting influences the movement of the ribs and diaphragm. When the shoulders are thrown back, and when a person stands or sits erect, the dia- What persons are most free from diseases of the lungs ? 278. Can narrow, contracted chests be enlarged ? How ? What practice is recom- mended to scholars and sedentary persons ? 279. What is the effect if the apparel is worn so tight as to prevent the full expansion of the chest ? How can the amount of pressure necessary to prevent the enlargement of the chest be shown ? 280. Show the effect of position on the movement of the ribs and diaphragm. 104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. phragm and ribs have more freedom of motion, and the abdomi nal muscles act more efficiently ; thus the lungs have broadei range of movement, than when the shoulders incline forward and the body is stooping. 281. The state of the mind exercises a great influence upon respiration. If we are depressed by grief, or feel anxious about friends or property, the diaphragm and muscles that ele- vate the ribs will not contract with the same energy as when the mind is influenced by joy, mirth, and other enlivening emotions. Consequently, our breathing is not as frequent and full in the former as in the latter condition. 282. To recover persons apparently drowned, it is necessary to press the chest, suddenly and forcibly, downward and back- ward, and instantly discontinue the pressure. Repeat this without intermission, until a pair of bellows can be procured. When the bellows are obtained, introduce the nozzle well upon the base of the tongue, and surround the mouth and nose with a towel or handkerchief, to close them. Let another person press upon the projecting part of the neck, called "Adam's apple," while air is introduced into the lungs through the bellows. Then press upon the chest, to force the air from the lungs, to imitate natural breathing. 283. Continue the use of the bellows, and forcing the air out of the chest, for an hour at least, unless signs of natural breath- ing come on. Wrap the body in warm, dry blankets, and place :t near the fire, to preserve the natural warmth, as well as to impart artificial heat. Every thing, however, is secondary to filling the lungs with air. Avoid all friction until breathing is restored. Send for medical aid immediately. 284. In cases of apparent death from hanging or stran- gling, the knot should be untied or cut immediately ; then use artificial respiration, or breathing, as directed in apparent death 281. Does the state of the mind influence our breathing ? 282. How should persons apparently drowned be treated ? 284. How should appa >