DUNGLISON'S PHYSIOLOGY. CAREY, LEA & BLANCHARD have lately published a second edition of Human Physiology, illustrated by numerous engravings. By Robley Dungli- son, M. D., Professor of Therapeutics, Materia Medica, Hygiene, and Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Maryland, &c. &c. (Now Professor of the Institutes of Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia.) In two vols. 8vo. " It is the most complete and satisfactory system of Physiology in the English language. It will add to the already high reputation of the author. We feel warranted in recommending the work to the student of physiology as being one of the very best text books with which we are acquainted; while we are persuaded its very superior merits will command for it a place in every medical library."— American Journal of the Medical Sciences. " A work, like this, so abounding in important facts, so correct in its princi- pies, and so free from errors arising from prejudice to favourite opinions, will be cordially received and extensively consulted by the profession, and by all who are desirous of a knowledge of the functions of the human body; and those who are the best qualified to judge of its merits, will pronounce it the best work of the kind in the English language."—Silliman. " This is a work of no common standing; it is characterised by much learning and research, contains a vast amount of important matter, and is written by a scholar and a man of taste. We are inclined to think that it will be placed by general consent at the head of the systems of Physiology, now extant in the English language. Nor are we prepared to say that, all things considered, its superior exists in any language. It has a character of its own, and is a true Anglo-American production, unsophisticated by gairish foreignism."—Transylva- nia Journal. ELEMENTS OF HYGIENE. On the Influence of Atmosphere and Locality; Change of Air and Climate, Sea- sons, Food, Clothing, Bathing, Exercise, Sleep, Corporeal and Intellectual Pur- suits, etc. on Human Health, constituting Elements of Hygiene. By Robley Dunglison, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, Hygiene, and Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Maryland, etc, 1 vol. octavo. " On many points connected with statistics and climate, we might transfer from Dr. Dunglison's pages highly interesting observations and facts, and he generally exercises a very sound judgment where discordant opinions have existed among previous writers. The Hygienic cautions, scattered through his work, are useful and judicious, and we do not know so complete a text-book of Hygiene as that which he has prepared. We have already spoken in commendation of the dietetic portion of his work, and have only to add, that the chapters on Clothing, Bathing, and Exercise, contain numerous particulars interesting to the medical practitioner and to the public. Every subject seems well considered; nothing is neglected, and nothing is pushed to extravagance."—The British and Foreign Review, No. 2. April, 1836. " We can recommend this work to the public with the utmost confidence, as one of the best treatises on the subject we possess."—American Journal of the Medical Sciences, February, 1835. " It is a book, therefore, interesting to the general reader; and, however popu- lar and useful may have been the unrivalled work of Dr. Dewees on Children, we hazard little in predicting that this work will be still more extensively sought and read."—Boston Medical Magazine. "Professor Dunglison has displayed much judgment and ability in selecting and digesting his materials; and has furnished a better exposition of the elements of Hygiene than can be any where found in the English language."—North Ame- rican Archives for Medical and Surgical Science, tor March, 1835. " The extent and variety of the work are sufficient to embrace whatever is most material, as well to the health of communities as of individuals: and all the topics, ADVERTISEMENT. Wumerous and multifarious as they are, are handled with learning, judgment, and skill. The chief value of the performance (the highest, indeed, that it could possess) consists in its being practical in matter, and perfectly perspicuous in style and manner. * * Having felt ourselves justified in remarking, on a for- mer occasion, that we considered Professor Dunglison's System of Human Phy- siology the best in the English language, it is gratifying to us to be able to say the same, now, of his 'Elements of Hygiene.' We know of no other work on the subject which the English reader can peruse with equal advantage. * * "We shall close this article by again very cordially commending the Elements of Hygiene to public attention."— Transylvania Journal of Medicine, Vol. 8, No. 4. " In Professor Dunglison's 'Elements of Hygiene,'the reader will find a great variety of very useful information on all the branches of the subject. The remarks on the different kinds of food and drink, are among the best which I have met with." Dr. A. Combe; Physiology of Digestion, &c. 1836. New York edition, p. 270. GENERAL THERAPEUTICS, General Therapeutics, or Principles of Medical Practice, with tables of the chief remedial agents and their preparations, and of the different poisons and their antidotes. By Robley Dunglison, M. D. &c. &c. One volume, large 8vo. "There being at present before the public several American works on Thera- peutics, written by physicians and teachers of distinction, it might be deemed un- just in us, and would certainly be invidious, to pronounce any one of them supe- rior to the others. We shall not, therefore, do so. If there be, however, in the English language, any work of the kind more valuable than that we have been examining, its title is unknown to us. " We hope to be able to give such an account of the work as will strengthen the desire and determination of our readers to seek for a farther acquaintance with it, by a candid perusal of the volume itself. And, in so doing, we offer them an assurance that they will be amply rewarded for their time and labour."—Tran- sylvania Journal, Vol. IX. No. 3. Dec. 1836. " Few writers in our profession have been more industrious than Professor Dunglison, and fewer still have sustained themselves equally well in the course of so many practical publications. From the hasty perusal which we have given it, we are inclined to think that it possesses equal if not superior merit to any which have preceded it from the prolific pen of its author. * * It shows the learning and research of its author on every page, and as an eclectic production it will bear comparison with similar works in any country. We would advise our readers to purchase and peruse it for themselves."—Western Journal of the Medical Sciences, No. XXXVIII. p. 252, for September, 1836. LATELY PUBLISHED IN BOSTON, AND FOR SALE BY ALL THE BOOKSELLERS, A new Dictionary of Medical Science and Literature, containing a concise ac- count of the various subjects and terms; with the synonymes in different lan- guages, and formulae for various officinal and empirical preparations, etc. etc. By Robley Dunglison, M. D. etc. etc. In two volumes, octavo, containing above 1200 pages. " This is an excellent compilation, and one that cannot fail to be very much referred to. It is the best medical lexicon in the English language that has yet appeared. We do not know any volume which contains so much information in a small compass. Altogether, we can recommend to every medical man to have this work by him, as the cheapest and best dictionary of reference he can have." London Medical and Surgical Journal. THE MEDICAL STUDENT; AIDS TO THE STUDY OF MEDICINE. CIN] ^^ErZtkjf/A*r A GLOSSARY OF THE TERMS OF THE SCIENCE, AND OF THE MODE OF PRE- SCRIBING,—BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF MEDICAL WORKS; THE REGULATIONS OF DIFFERENT MEDICAL COLLEGES OF THE UNION, &C. &C. BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M. D. *?t PROFESSOR OF THE INSTITUTES OF MEDICINE AND MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE; LATELY PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA, THERAPEUTICS, HYGIENE, AND MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, AND FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, PATHO- LOGY, OBSTETRICS, AND MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRCINIA, &C. &C. 2U:"-/ PHILADELPHIA: CAREY, LEA & BLANCHARD. 1837. 1VL p n A* *r . Entered according to the act of congress, in the year 1837, by Carey, Lea & Blanchake-, in the clerk's office of the district court of the eastern district of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: T. K. & P. G. Collins, Printer*, No. 1 Lodge Alley. TO THOSE GENTLEMEN--THROUGHOUT THE UNION-- WHO ARE ALREADY ENGAGED IN, OR ABOUT TO COMMENCE, THE STUDY OF MEDICINE, THE FOLLOWING AIDS TO THE ACQUISITION OF PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND DISTINCTION, ARE RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. In this humble production, as in the Author's more elaborate works on Physiology, Hygiene, and Therapeutics, and in his Medical Dictionary, his sole aim has been utility. He has been desirous of facilitating the labours of the young student in prosecuting a difficult profession, without any ex- pectation that his labours would meet with much regard from the more advanced. From an early period of his professional career, the Author has been so situated, that every effort has been directed to the advancement of the stu- dent, and if he has smoothed away difficulties from his path, he feels himself amply repaid. He seeks —he desires—no other commendation. In all his productions, he has endeavoured to com- pile, from the best sources, the facts and reflections, which may be looked upon as constituting the ex- isting state of the science, without wandering into idle speculation, which would be obviously out of place in works destined as text-books for the in- Vlll PREFACE. struction of the tyro, and for reference to the more advanced student, although they might communi- cate to his volumes a greater appearance of origi- nality. In all cases, however, he has exerted his best judgment, either in adopting the opinions of others, or in opposing them, where accordance did not appear to be admissible. The present work originated in the applications, made to the Author for his opinions, as to the best method of study for one about to enter upon profes- sional life, as well as for one engaged in its pro- secution. Not long ago, he received a letter from a young gentleman, requesting such informa- tion, and asking the Author's permission for pro- mulgating it to the world. This was declined; but the proposition had some influence in producing the present observations on Medical Education. Parts of them likewise formed portions of an intro- ductory, and of a valedictory, lecture, delivered to his class, in November and February last, copies of which were formally solicited for publication; soli- citations which he respectfully declined, wishing that they might appear before them in a more useful shape. The whole of his observations apply to the Study of Medicine as taught in this country. The Au- thor has entered into no speculations as to what PREFACE. ix Medical Education ought to be. The work is intended simply as some guide to the American medical student, who too frequently is totally un- informed as to the course he ought to pursue—not only when he commences to read upon his profes- sion, but when he enters a Medical College for the prosecution of his studies there. Restricted as the subject of the volume may be regarded, it constitutes, in the medical institutions of some countries, the duties of a separate chair. In Berlin, there are two Professors, regularly occupied through the winter session in teaching. Hecker, one of the 'Ordinary Professors,' who teaches pub- licly ' Encyclopaediam et Methodologiam Medicam' every Wednesday and Saturday,—and Kranichfeld, one of the Extraordinary Professors, who lectures on ' Medical Methodology' every Tuesday and Thurs- day.* In the Bibliographical department, the Author has been anxious to give the student a short ac- count of several of the books in the English lan- guage—indigenous and imported—which are placed before him in the ordinary bookstores, or which * Index lectionum quae auspiciis Regis augustissimi Frederici Guilelmi Tertii in universitate litteraria Frederici Guilelmi per semestre hibernum A. D. MDCXXXV. MDCCCXXXYI, &c. &c. instituentur. p. 12, & p. 14. X PREFACE. he sees, from time to time, advertised in the cata- logues. It has always appeared to him. that the brief Bibliography, in the second volume of the work on Natural Philosophy, of Dr. Thomas Young,— one of the most accomplished physicians, by the way, that ever graced the ranks of the profession— was far from being the least useful portion. In this part of the volume, the Author has said nothing of the valuable works of antiquity, or of the standard polygraphic productions of such men as BOERHAAVE, HaLLER, SYDENHAM, ClJLEEN, RUSH, and others. Their character is too well known to render comment necessary. ROBLEY DUNGLISON. Girard Street. Philadelphia, March 11, 1837. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. Importance of practical education. Number of higher schools in the United States. Most advisable system of general education. An- cient languages. Mathematics. Physics. Physiology. Modern languages. English language. Education and mental qualifications of the physician. Use of Greek and Latin to the medical student. Errors from want of this knowledge. Diplomas, Latin and Verna- cular. Prizes for Latin theses. Latin prescriptions; examples of; should be written correctly. Examples of successful industry; Dr. Armstrong, Mr. Hunter, Dr. J. Mason Good, Dr. Godman. Importance of modern languages. The art of drawing. P. 1 to 43. CHAPTER II. MEDICAL EDUCATION PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. Regulations for graduation. Apprenticeship in England. Office attendance in the United States. Important for the tyro to attend to practical pharmacy. Subjects to be read. Difficulties in nomencla- ture. Strange neologisms. Glossary of prefixes, suffixes, and radi- cals. Imperfections of anatomical nomenclature. Chemical nomen- clature. Language of prescriptions. Vocabulary of terms used in prescribing. Subjects of study during the first year in the office. Natural history. Botany. P. 44 to 135. CHAPTER III. MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LEC- TURES. Curriculum of study in some of the medical schools. Choice of subjects in a first year's attendance. Mode of studying to the best Xll CONTENTS. advantage. Practice of taking notes. Objections to reading after the professor. Study of various departments. Anatomy, descriptive, surgical, general, transcendental and pathological. Physiology. Practice of physic. Hygiene. Clinical instruction. Surgery. Ob- stetrics. Chemistry. Great improvements in the science of medi- cine. History of Medicine. Graduation. Responsibility of the medical faculty. Grinding. Quizzing clubs. P. 135 to 183. CHAPTER IV. MEDICAL EDUCATION AFTER GRADUATION. Graduation not the end of study. Dignity of the profession. Ad- vice to the graduate. Mode of observing. Residence in an hospital ad- vised. Necessity for the exercise of sympathy and benevolence, and of attending to the address. Importance of temperance and sobriety, and of presence of mind. Obligations to secrecy, discretion, and honour. Value of tact as well as talent. Professional etiquette. Quali- fications of the young physician. P. 183 to 199. APPENDIX. BIBLIOGRAPHY, &C. &C. Notices of wojks on Anatomy, comparative, descriptive, general, pathological, and surgical. Anatomical preparations. Medical biblio- graphy. Chemistry. Clinical instruction. Dictionaries of terms. Me- dical ethics. History of medicine. Hygiene. Materia medica. Medi- cal jurisprudence. Obstetrics. Pathology and therapeutics. Sur- gery. Therapeutics. Miscellaneous works, (monographic and po- lygraphic.) Medical colleges of the United States. P. 202 to 313. MEDICAL METHODOLOGY. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. The subject of practical education has occupied the attention of every enlightened nation, and has ever been one of intense interest to the reflecting portion of this country. It has been a universally received axiom, that the foundation of a republic must be in the information of its people, and that, whilst the monarchical govern- ments of other countries may be successfully adminis- tered by an oligarchy of intelligence, a government— like that of the United States—cannot be carried on without an extensive diffusion of knowledge amongst those who have to select its very machinery. The po- litical circumstances of a country will, also, modify, most importantly, the course of instruction; and that system, which is adopted in the old universities of Ox- ford, Cambridge, and Dublin, in a nation in which the law of primogeniture exists, where wealth is entailed in families, and where the colleges themselves are richly endowed, may be impracticable, or impolitic, in a coun- try not possessing such incentives. Education must, therefore, be suited to the country, and a long period must elapse before we can expect to have individuals 1 2 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. as deeply instructed as in those universities, although the mass of the community may be more enlightened. We have no benefices, no fellowships with fixed sti- pends, to offer those who may devote themselves to the profound study of certain subjects. In England and Ireland, it is by no means uncommon for a stu- dent to remain at college until he is twenty-two or twenty-three years of age, in the acquisition of his preliminary education, or of those branches that are made to precede a course of professional study—the whole period of his academic residence being consu- med in the study of these branches; but, in this country, such a course would be as unadvisable as it is generally impracticable. The equal division of property pre- cludes any extensive accumulation of wealth in fami- lies: the youth are compelled to launch early into life: the more useful subjects of study have to be selected, and the remainder are postponed as luxuries, to be ac- quired, should circumstances admit of indulgence In no country are the colleges or higher schools so numerous, in proportion to the population, as in the United States. There are not fewer, perhaps, than eighty-five schools capable of conferring degrees; yet an erroneous inference would be drawn, were we to affirm, that the education of a nation is always in a di- rect ratio with the number of its higher schools. Such would be the fact did these institutions assume an ele- vated standard in the distribution of their highest ho- nours, and were the condition of the intermediate schools such, that the youth could be sent to the uni- versity so prepared as to be able to cultivate his stu- dies there to the greatest advantage. Unfortunately in many parts of the United States, the condition of PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 3 the intermediate schools and academies has Deen grie- vously neglected; so that the authorities of the univer- sities have been compelled to lower their standard, and to admit students totally unprepared for more advan- ced studies. In this way, many of the higher schools have degenerated into mere gymnasia, or ordinary academies. This circumstance, with the multiplica- tion of institutions capable of conferring degrees, has been attended with the additional evil, that, in some, the highest honours have been, and are, awarded for acquirements, which would scarcely enable their pos- sessors to enter the lowest classes in others. Every well-devised system of general education should combine an attention to language,—to the sciences that relate to magnitude and numbers,—and to those that embrace the phenomena of mind and of matter. Little doubt can exist in the minds of the intelligent, that the ancient languages should form one element. Much has been said—and will continue to be said—on both sides of this question, into which we do not pro- pose to enter. Admitting, however, that the Latin language, for example, is less necessary now, than when it was the exclusive language of the learned, and that the modern languages have emerged from their then Patois condition, and risen in relative importance, a certain knowledge of that tongue, as well as of the Greek, ought still to form part of the education of every gentleman. The minds of youth cannot be bet- ter engaged, during the early period of their university career, than in becoming acquainted with the classic models of antiquity, and practised in the habits of dis- 4 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. crimination, which the study engenders. Whether it should be prosecuted to the extent inculcated at the English universities, and to the comparative exclusion of other subjects, is another question. In this country, at least, the course would be injudicious, and unfea- sible. In the very earliest copy of the enactments of the University of Virginia, it was determined, by its illustrious founder, and his able associates, that no di- ploma should be given, in any of the schools of the university, to any one, who had not passed such an examination in the Latin language, as had proved him able to read the highest classics in that language, with ease, thorough understanding, and just quantity. " And if he be also a proficient in Greek," adds the enact- ment, " let that too be stated in the diploma; the inten- tion being, that the reputation of the university shall not be committed but to those, who, to an eminence in some one or more of the sciences taught in it, add a proficiency in those languages, which constitute the basis of a good education, and are indispensable to fill up the character of a ' well educated man.'" Without dwelling on the unreasonableness of deny- ing a diploma to one who has a sufficient knowledge of mathematics, or chemistry, or of natural or moral phi- losophy, because he may not be thoroughly acquainted with Latin, it is surprising that the regulation should not have struck that learned and philosophic indivi- dual, as constituting a total prohibition to graduation in certain departments. To be able "to read the highest classics in the Latin language with ease, thorough understanding, and just quantity," would, of itself, require as much time as the majority of Ameri- can youths are capable of devoting to their collegiate PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 5 instruction. Accordingly, the Faculty of Professors, early and judiciously suggested a modification of the rule relating to graduation, which was at once adopted by the Board of Visiters. As it now stands, it merely requires, that every candidate for graduation in any of the schools, shall give the Faculty satisfactory proof of his ability to write'the English language correctly. The ancient languages should certainly form one element of general education, and this, we believe, is conceded in most, if not in all the universities of this country, as regards the attainment of a university de- gree. As little doubt can there be with regard to ma- thematics, which has, in some institutions, been es- teemed the study of primary importance. The utility of a certain acquaintance with numbers, and magni- tude, is obvious in every department of life; but the greatest advantage from the study is the precision and accuracy, which it gives to the reasoning powers. When the student has attained this more elementary instruction, he is capable of undertaking satisfactorily the study of physics, and of becoming acquainted with the bodies that surround him, and the laws that govern them, as well as of entering upon the science of moral philosophy, and of comprehending the interesting sub- ject of his own psychology. These would seem to be the only departments of knowledge, that need be required for the attainment of a university degree. They comprise an acquaint- ance with the ancient classics, and the philosophy of language, as well as with mathematical, physical, and metaphysical facts and reasonings; and their acquisi- tion enables the student to enter upon professional or political life with every advantage. Nothing, it will 1* 6 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. he observed, has been said of the modern languages. The valuable stores to be deduced from these, espe- cially from the French and German, are of themselves attractions, which render collegiate compulsion or re- commendation unnecessary. No one can now be es- teemed well educated, who is thoroughly ignorant of them. Thus far we have spoken of the requisites for a collegiate degree of graduate in the arts. It would be well, were every one—who is destined for a profes- sional or other calling—capable of spending so much time at college as to pass through this prescribed course. But it unfortunately, too often, happens, that the means or the inclinations of the student, or of his parent or guardian, do not permit this. Still, although he may be denied the acquisition of honors, his studies ought to be made to embrace those departments of knowledge, which are required for a degree; and he, who is unable to avail himself of collegiate instruction, should endeavour, as far as practicable, when his op- portunities w7ill permit, to improve himself in those departments. When the Faculty of the University of Virginia re- commended, that no student should be permitted to graduate in any school of that Institution, unless he could give theai satisfactory proofs of his ability to write the English language correctly, the recommenda- tion might seem to have been a work of supererogation, inasmuch as it might be presumed, that every one, be- fore entering a higher school, had attended sufficiently to this matter. It is but too true, however, that the student is received into many of the colleges, after he PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. i has been employed in scraping together a few Greek and Latin words and phrases, although he may be lamentably ignorant of the literature, structure, and even of the commonest principles of the orthography of his own tongue. The organization of our colleges is defective in not having a department of English lan- guage, in which the studies of Rhetoric, and the Eng- lish classics, may be pursued practically. A chair, em- bracing these objects, should be established in all the higher schools, and a certain degree of proficiency, in the subjects taught in it, should be preliminary to every collegiate attainment. It would be an instructive and delightful study to trace back, as far as possible, the lan- guage of Britain to its aboriginal condition, and to fol- low up the changes impressed upon it, by the Keltic, Go- thic, Roman, Saxon, Belgic, Danish and Norman inva- ders; the investigation being accompanied by elucida- tive references to the literature of the different periods. The poetry, romances, and the drama would constitute inquiries of abundant interest and information. To these might be added didactic and rhetorical exercises for improving the student in the practice of writing, not merely accurately, but readily, elegantly, and per- spicuously. Such a professorship was wisely estab- lished in the University of London; but the example has not been followed by many—if by any—of the higher schools on this side of the Atlantic. Yet it is lamentable to observe the ignorance of the vernacular, frequently displayed in the inaugural theses of candi- dates for distinction, not only in our literary, but in our professional schools. The composition is often not only objectionable in point of style; but its orthographi- cal inaccuracies are discreditable to the industry and 8 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. observation of the author; and it might be fairly in- ferred, that if he be faulty in these respects, the defect may extend to subjects of yet greater moment.* The education of the youth, who is intended for the medical profession, should be essentially that adapted for the well educated gentleman. There is no avoca- tion that requires such fertility of resources; none that more demands all those facilities, which an acquaintance with the various kinds of reasoning above mentioned bestows. The study of medicine is essentially physico- moral. It demands, consequently, both physical and metaphysical reasoning: yet how few are there, who enter upon the study, whose minds have been properly tutored for its investigation. It is a prevalent belief, and as erroneous as it is prevalent, that a less degree of talent is required for a physician than for a lawyer; and, strange enough! we sometimes hear a parent speak of placing a son—of the strength of whose in- tellectual powers he has some doubt—to the study of medicine, because he is apprehensive that his talents might not enable him to succeed in the profession of the law. Occasionally, too, we hear the remark, that a certain individual * has a natural turn for physic;' is 'born, as it were, a physician.' The profession of the law doubtless requires some capabilities, which that of medicine does not, to the same extent at least; but no department of science or of art demands greater judgment, a higher reach of intellectual qualifications, or a deeper preparation, by physical and moral culture, * On the subject of college education and discipline, see an article, by the author, in the American Quarterly Review, Vol. ix. p. 283. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 9 than medicine; and this has been the opinion of some of the brightest ornaments of science and literature. Some persons may take greater delight than others in the study. Some may attain a knowledge of its facts and principles with greater facility than others; but it need hardly be said, that he, who has not a mind adapt- ed for reasoning, and for judging, on other difficult to- pics of physical and moral inquiry, cannot possess these powers in reference to the intricate machinery and ac- tions of the human frame, in health and disease; and it may be laid down as incontrovertible, that he whose intellectual manifestations are generally feeble, cannot carry with him the necessary qualifications to the bed of sickness. By the common consent of cultivated nations, the Greek has been selected as the language for the for- mation of the different compound terms employed in science; and hence—if on no other account—the utility of the medical student's being acquainted, to a certain extent, with that language. Independently of the ad- vantage, which it gives him, of being able to peruse the works of the fathers of physic, in the language which they spake and wrote, it enables him to comprehend the various terms of science, and to store them in his mind with much greater ease, than when the medical vocabulary is placed before him without such a valua- ble aid to memory. In this respect, however, it affords him facilities only. A want of acquaintance with the Greek shuts off altogether the perusal of the writers in that language from the pupil of science, but it does not altogether preclude—although it may impede—the ac- quisition of medical technology, any more than a want 10 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. of acquaintance with the Anglo-Saxon precludes the attainment of a knowledge of English. A certain knowledge of the sister language of anti- quity, the Latin, is yet more necessary than of the Greek. In this country, and in Great Britain, espe- cially in the latter, the custom is to write the prescrip- tions in that tongue; but some of the continental na- tions of Europe have discarded it, and now employ, exclusively, their vernacular. A good deal, as shall be shown hereafter, may be said in favour of adhering to the ancient practice. At present, it is enough to say, that no young man is fit to enter the office of either the physician or the surgeon, unless he is so far acquainted with the Latin language as to be able to comprehend, after a little instruction, the various di- rections that may be given for the preparation of ex- temporaneous and officinal formulae. Serious accidents have arisen from ignorance on this point. Sixteen years ago, an action of slander arose between two medical practitioners—the plaintiff an apothecary, and the defendant a physician—which proceeded from the latter having prescribed some laxative medicine for a nervous and costive old lady. The prescription, after directing the constituents of the medicine, added, " Re- petatur si opus sit.''' The apothecary being absent, and his apprentice just from school, instead of construing the prescription properly, " to be repeated if occasion should require," or, " if it should be necessary;" or, in other words, " if the first dose should not operate," wrote on the label, " to be repeated if it operates." The old lady, consequently, after having experienced the effect of the first dose, took another, and repeated it again and again, until she swooned from exhaustion • PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 11 In alarm, the physician was sent for, who incautiously exclaimed, and afterwards repeated to others, " Cole- man has killed my patient!" For this, the action was brought, and forty shillings damages, and about two hundred pounds costs, were awarded to the plaintiff.* In another case, a medicine was directed by the physician to be given to a newly delivered female, and to be repeated, '•''pro re nata" or, "as occasion may arise." This is said to have been translated by an ignorant compounder—" for the little thing just born," which thus became the receiver of that which was in- tended for the parent.t The diplomas, and even the examinations, are yet couched, in some countries, in Latin, although many innovations have been effected in this respect. As re- gards the diploma, the University of Virginia has com- menced the innovation of writing it in English, so that it may,be intelligible to every one. It has been ar- gued, in favour of these documents being in Latin, that it is a universal language with the learned, and there- fore, that a diploma in this language will be under- stood every where: but this is not an argument of much practical weight. How rarely can it happen, that this will apply to a graduate of any of the univer- sities of the United States: on the other hand, the practice, at present pursued in most of our colleges, might lead to much imposture. How easy, for in- stance, for one who has a master's degree, or who has the diploma of membership in a medical society, to * Chitty's Medical Jurisprudence, American edition, p. 11. Note. f "Tirocinium medicum," &c. &c„ by Wm. Chamberlaine, mem- ber of the Royal College of Surgeons, &c. London, 1812. p. 76. 12 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. palm it upon the uninstructed for a doctor's; whilst, if the diploma were written plainly and concisely in En- glish, no fraud could succeed. Besides, there is, too often, a style of composition any thing but Ciceronian. The object of a medical diploma is to satisfy the community, amongst whom a physician may settle, that he has gone through a prescribed course of study, and has proved himself capable of practising his pro- fession. It is, in many places, a permission to prac- tise; although, in some of the states of the union, a farther diploma is necessary before he is regularly licensed to pursue his avocation. Such is the case, also, in London, and within seven miles of it. Every graduate of every university—with the exception of Ox- ford, Cambridge, and Trinity College, Dublin—is com- pelled to subject himself to an examination before the Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians of Lon- don, in order to be permitted to practise within the limits mentioned. In the state of Maryland, the gra- duates of the University of Maryland are allowed to practise without undergoing any examination; but this, we believe, is a privilege to the state university only. No graduate of any other college of the union, or of any other country, can exercise his calling, without be- coming one of the lpermissi.'' A similar law exists in Massachusetts. No one, who is not a doctor in me- dicine of Harvard University, is a licensed practi- tioner in that State, until he has passed an examina- tion before the Massachusetts Medical Society. * The form of the Maryland license is as follows:— PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 13 jFacnltas fflmtutt eMntrnfca Jftarslattfcfae, ANNO DOMINI MDCCXCIX, CONSTITUTA, OMNIBUS AD QUOS PR^ESENTES LITERS PERVENE- RINT, Sainton* (fttttUttt in charta nostra nobis concessum et confirmatum fuit, ut eos qui se Uteris bonis et artium liberalium studiis praecipue ornave- rint, nostra JfatUltatfS gradibus decoremus et quum in ejus modi honorem tales imprimis viros evehi volumus, qui nobis caeterisque literarum studiosis, exempla praeclara praebeant. Quumque orna- tissimum virum ----- nobis amplissima peritiae, doctrinae et virtu- tis documenta peradmodum commendarunt. Idcirco, supra dictse S^CttltStfS auctoritate, conspirantibus sufFragiis, eundem hujusce jFatttltatfS SOtfttttt creavimus et constituimus, eumque virtute praesentis Diplomatis, singulis juribus, privilegiis, et honoribus, huic ordini quaqua pertinentibus, frui et gaudere jussimus. JJtt cujus rei testimonium sigillum Facultatis praesentibus apponi fecimus nostraque nomina infra scripsimus. Datum Baltimorii, die mensis-------, Anno Mundi salutis-------, I Perquisitores. Praises. -------3 ------- ocrioa. The necessity for a local document, like the above, being in Latin cannot wTell be urged on any ground except custom. It entitles the individual to practise in the State of Maryland, and in that State only; and, therefore, on every ground, the vernacular ought to have been chosen. The document is liable, too, to the objection that may be urged against almost every thing of the kind, of unnecessary verbiage, leading to manifest injustice. If intended for those only "qui se Uteris bonis et artium liberalium studiis prcecipue ornave- rint"—for the liornatissimi viri" alone,—the expressions must necessarily be incorrect as to some who have ob- tained it. In this respect, then, if in no other, the con- ception of the document is faulty. 2 14 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. Similar objections are applicable to the generality of Diplomas issued from our medical and other col- leges. The following is one of the most respectable of them. OMNIBUS AD QUOS HIE LITERS PERVENERINT, Sbaltttotl* (SVtUtttt vir ornatus et summis animi dotibus instructus---------- postquam pleno gradu arti medicae studuisset, nos honores academicos poposcerit, seque periculum sui facere in rebus medicis paratum ostenderit; per universam eum medicinam examinavimus. Kit QUO periculo cum scientiarum ac medendi artis se abunde peri- tum probaverit, nos dictum---------Medicinae Doctorem creandum et declarandum censuimus, eumque Medicinae Doctorem creavimus et declaravimus, et his Uteris 230Ct0t*£ttt constituimus, atque apud omnes haberi et appellari volumus. lHif\\it facultatem plenissimam damus de re medica docendi et consultandi, et denique tarn medicinae theoreticae quam practical mu- nera ubicunque terrarum excercendi, et omnes simul honores etjura, et privilegia ei concedimus quae Medicinae HJOCtOtt usquam gen- tium concedentur. Xtt OUOrUm fidem Uteris hisce sigillo ^tUtitVOXUZ communi mu- nitis nomina nostra subscripsimus, ®UtUm mVbt-----, mensis-----, ®m0 390tttfUf,----. Signed by the trustees and the professors of the medical Depart- ment of the University. All these diplomas are in the complimentary diction observed by the older Institutions of Europe, a diction which no one would think of employing, were he com- pelled to furnish a document of the kind in English. Besides, what is the value of the 'vir ornatus et summis animi dotibus instructus] when applied to every one who gains his degree; some of whom, it is well known, PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 15 in spite of every endeavour of the examiners to exe- cute their duty faithfully, will occasionally pass, with- out being by any means ' abunde peritV in their profes- sion. Were the candidate for graduation compelled to write his own diploma in good Latin, and were it known, that he did so write it, there might be this plea for adhering to ancient usages—that it would en- courage the medical student to pay proper attention to his preliminary classical education; but this, as is wrell known, is not the case; and it is equally well known, that many a young man receives his degree, who is incapable of translating his diploma into English. Such being the fact, no matter what may be the fancy, we think it more judicious, that the diploma should be written in English. Already it is so, as has been said, in one University of this country; and the same course has been pursued by the Royal College of Surgeons, and by the Society of Apothecaries, of Eng- land; the apothecary, there, being a kind of sub-physi- cian, required to attend regular courses of prescribed lectures, and to subject himself to an examination for licence, before he can practise his profession in any part of England or Wales. He is the regular family attendant, the physician being called upon mainly in cases of consultation. The apothecary, too, prepares his own prescriptions as well as those of the physician, —in short, practises upon the plan pursued by all our country physicians, and by many of those in the towns. The diplomas of those corporations are simple, but sufficient. They have the merit, too, of being written in good English, and of being intelligible to all. The following is that of the Royal College of Surgeons. 16 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. Know all men by these presents, that We, the Court of Exami- ners of the Royal College of Surgeons in London, have deliberately examined Mr.-----, and have found him to be fit and capable to exercise the Art and Science of Surgery. We, therefore, admit him a member of the college, and authorize him to practise the said art and science accordingly. In witness whereof, we have subscribed our names; and have caused the common Seal of the College to be fixed thereunto. Dated the------day of------, in the year of our Lord-------. Signed by the Masters, Governors, &c. The diploma of the Apothecaries' Society, of Lon- don, is equally simple. W£t, the (KOttrt Of 2framftttr*, chosen by the Master, Wardens, and Assistants of the Society of the Art and Mystery of Apothecaries, of the City of London, in pursuance of a certain act of Parliament, passed in the 55th year of the reign of his Majesty King George the Third, entitled an act for better regulating the practice of apothecaries throughout England and Wales, do hereby, by virtue of the power, and authority in us vested by the said act, certify, that -------has been by us carefully and deliberately examined as to his skill and abilities in the science and practice of medicine, and as to his fitness and qualification to practise as an apothecary, and we do hereby, for and on behalf of the Master, Wardens, and Society, farther certify that the said---------is duly qualified to practise as an apothecary. Dated the------day of------. Apothecaries' Hall, London. Signed by the Board of Examiners. These testimonials are altogether to the point. They depose only as to the evidence of knowledge exhibited by the candidate for graduation, on his ex- amination. They say nothing as to the other intellec- tual and the moral qualifications of the individual, of which the board of examiners can rarely know any thing. We have before us the diploma of the " Medi- cal Society of London," the oldest of that metropolis, PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 17 and, for that reason perhaps, written in Latin; and if we are to credit its assertions, the members of the society must be most distinguished, for their qualities of head and heart,—every one of the " Socii" being admitted " cum propter magna in artem Apollineam merita, turn propter summam humanitatem suavissimos- que mores." The value of the testimonial is, however, greatly diminished by the fact, that these words are the standing portion of the document, and that when a new member is elected, on the proposition of some one or two of the body, his name is inserted in the blank, whatever may be his mental or moral manifes- tations. On the ground, then, of honesty, the testi- monial is defective, and, were the sentence in English, the objection would be so glaring, that its retention would probably be vindicated by no one. Yet, being written in Latin, it is tolerated; and the toleration af- fords some ground for the remark cited by Chitty, " that perhaps a mouthful of nonsense sounds better in Latin, or other dead language, than in English."* How much preferable is the simple Diplome of the sister society of Paris—written in the vernacular of the country. Societe de Medecine de Paris, instituee le 22 Mars, 1796. DIPLOME. La Societe de Medecine de Paris, procedant aux termes de ses re- glemens, a dans sa Seance du------, mil huit cent------, nomine ---------(Membre) M.---------. A Paris, le---- Signed by the Members composing the Bureau de la Societe, and its commission of administration. *Op. citat. p. 11. 2* 18 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. In the establishment of the University of Virginia, the venerable customs that had prevailed for ages were retained only when esteemed worthy of retention. Precedent was wholly disregarded. Its diploma is even more simple than any we have cited, yet, it is suf- ficient for all purposes; and the mere expression, that an individual has attained the highest honours, is pro- perly regarded as ample evidence to the community, that he possesses the requisite qualifications for prac- tising his profession, and that he is entitled to all the rights and privileges of the doctorate. The diploma is in English, and as follows. 8*uttorsit£ of VivQinte. Mr.---------has this day been declared a graduate in the School of Medicine of this Sanftjersftg, with the title of Doctor of Medi- cine. --------------Chairman of the Faculty- --------------Professors. ----------Secretary of the Faculty. A feeling of anxiety to encourage the study of the Latin language has induced the authorities of some colleges to offer a reward for the best Latin disserta- tion, presented by the candidates for graduation. Formerly, it was the custom, in every university, to have all the inaugural dissertations written in that lan- guage; but, in many—in this country, universally—the plan has been abandoned, and wisely, we think, inas- much as the authorities have no evidence whatever that it has been ' done' into Latin by the candidate himself. The converse, indeed, is often notoriously the fact; and it has happened to the author, officially, to have a condidate withdraw his dissertation, from PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 19 compunctions of conscience, and admit, at the same time, that it was not his own composition. A much better course, for testing the classical at- tainments of the candidate for honours, is that fol- lowed in many medical institutions—of requiring him to translate passages from some author, as from Cel- sus, or the Pharmacopoeias; or of conducting the exa- mination altogether, or in part, in Latin; yet, there are objections to the last method, inasmuch as it is difficult to vary the questions sufficiently, and to go into as full an examination as may be necessary to test the medical qualifications. The plan may enable the examiners to judge of the student's acquaintance with the Latin language, but much farther it cannot go. Impressed with such views, the practice of exa- mining in the dead languages, for graduation, has been abandoned in the University of Edinburgh, and we be- lieve in the Scottish universities generally. It is doubt- ful, however, whether the total abandonment of every form of classical examination may not have had a sim- ilar effect to that which was ascribed by Lord Ellenbo- rough to the statute requiring pleadings, proceedings, and records to be in English—that it has rendered attorneys and their clerks still more ignorant of the Latin language, and has caused the literature of the inferior part of the profession of the law to retrograde. We have said, that in this country, and in Great Britain—especially in the latter—it is the custom to write the prescriptions in Latin. Attempts have been made to abolish this practice; but, although they have not succeeded in the United States, the ma- jority of physicians are in the habit of writing every other part of the prescription, except the names of the 20 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. remedies, in English. A cause, assigned for this, is, that the apothecaries and their assistants are usually so badly educated, that if the directions were given in Latin, they would be unable to translate them; but this is a very insufficient reason, inasmuch as if all pre- scriptions were in that tongue, the education of the apothecary would be made to respond, and there can be little doubt, that the effect of the present practice, on the apothecary at least, has been similar to that described by Lord Ellenborough as resulting to the profession of the law from the change of practice above referred to. The only objection, of any weight, that has been urged against writing the prescriptions in English, is, that the patient might be able to detect whatever the physician is prescribing, and that therefore in many cases, the latter might be precluded from using reme- dies, which he considered highly appropriate, but against which the former might have taken up some groundless prepossession; or that, in other cases, where the practitioner had wished to pursue an 'expectant' plan, his object might be defeated by the discovery, and conviction, on the part of the patient, of the inert- ness of the prescribed agents. It has been farther urged, that the patients and their attendants might thus ascertain the dangerous tendency of a disorder, and, becoming alarmed, recovery mio-ht be impeded or prevented. There is not much force, however, in these objections. Almost all the potent articles of the materia medica,—indeed almost all the articles,—have a technical name, which so strikingly resembles the English, that there can be but little dif- ficulty in discovering the medicine which the patient is taking. Mercury is perhaps the therapeutical agent, PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 21 that most frequently suggests concealment, and where such concealment is required, the technical name, at present generally received—'•Hydrargyrum'—is cer- tainly preferable to the English appellation,—but even this term is of modern introduction: the Latin term, Mercurius, having formerly been universally employed. Moreover, the advantage of the present term is rather in its being technical than Latin. As to the objection against the use of English—that patients and their attendants, by the exact knowledge of the components of a medicine, which, they had per- ceived, had succeeded in one or more instances, would be apt, without due regard to the variations in disor- ders, and in constitutions, and other varying circum- stances, to administer the same medicine on other occasions, when wholly inapplicable, and thereby pro- duce the most baneful effects—it is hardly worthy of notice. It applies, indeed, to every extemporaneous formula, written in Latin or not. For, if such a for- mula were to succeed in any case, the patient or his attendants might have the prescription made up at the apothecary's, and applied to the supposed case, with every evil consequence that has been suggested. Be- sides, it is very easy for a patient to have a Latin prescription rendered into English, and thus to obtain all the information he may desire. Perhaps, after all, one great cause of the continu- ance of the present mode of writing prescriptions is, that veneration for antiquity, which vindicates the Latin as the language for diplomas. The whole form of the prescription is, indeed, a memento of bygone periods, when Jove was invoked for his blessing on the medicine, and when symbols—unknown except to the initiated—were always employed. Medicine was then 22 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. an ' art or mystery;' and the prescription of the phy- sician, equally with the labels on the bottles and boxes of the apothecary, conveyed the idea of that mystery, which has been properly designated as imperfect knowledge; but now, that this has been discarded,—that the arcana of the science are thrown freely open, and that the darkness and complicated dogmas of the schools have yielded to a better mode of reasoning and experiment, so that what was formerly taught and implicitly credited, as a dictum of the master, is now exhibited perspicuously and demonstratively, and, un- less rendered intrinsically clear and intelligible, is un- hesitatingly rejected,—these relics of a barbarous pe- riod ought to be discarded. If, however, the custom be retained, it is of some moment, that the prescrip- tions should be creditably written. Too often, we find a jumble of English and Latin, disgraceful to the merest tyro. Occasionally, indeed, in works, which, as regards their practical precepts, are looked upon as authorities, we observe faults in the formula;, that could scarcely be expected from a boy on the fourth form of an ordinary preparatory school. In proof of this, the following prescription is taken from the work of a most respectable practitioner and professional writer. It is a form for the tartar emetic ointment, much used for exciting pustulation on the skin, in vari- ous internal diseases, and it is cited from the second edition. " R.—Tartrite of Antimon. ^iss. Take Tartar emetic \\ drachm. 01. lavend.* vel ess. lem.f Oil of Lavender or g". xx. Essence of bergamot,X 20 drops. Cerate simp. gj. Simple cerate 1 ounce. M. Mix." * Lavand. + Lim. t Lemon. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 23 In the same volume is a ' recipe' for ' Dover's pow- der.' " R.—Pulv. ipecac, pulv. opii. aa. £j. Sulphate of potass. £>viij. M." And a formula for ' nitrous powders.' " R.—Nitrate of potass, giss. Take Nitre, II drachm. Tartrite of antimony, gr. i. Tartar emetic, 1 grain. Calom. ppt. gr. iv. Calomel, 4 grains. M. div. in viij. Mix and divide in 8 parts." The Latin of the formulae, where it is attempted throughout, is equally objectionable. We take two specimens from the same page. R.—Hydrargyr. praecip. alb. sjij. Ess. lemon.* gut. xl. Jldepsi prseparat. Jij. M. and R.—Flor. Sulph. gij. Pulv. muriat. amnion, gij. 01. menthae gi. Jldeps% prseparat. %\v. M. The confusion of tongues, in some of the above, will be made more manifest by writing out the pre- scriptions at length. That for the ' nitrous powders' affords a good example. Recipe.—Nitrate of potass, sesquidrachmam. Tartrite of antimony, granum. Calomelanos praeparati, grana quatuor. Misce. Divide in octo (partes.) * Limon. t Adipis. X Do. 24 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. The wit and sarcasm of Moliere were properly di- rected against the physicians of his day, but we doubt, whether he could have found better subjects for his castigation, than the specimens of medical Latin, which we daily meet with. The classic address of the President of the Faculty, when he confers the doctor's degree on Argan, is scarcely inferior to them. " Ergo cum isto boneto Venerabili et docto, Dono tibi et concedo Virtutem et puissanciam Medicandi Purgandi, Seignandi, Per^andi, Taillandi, Coupandi, Et occidendi, Impune per totam terram."* Admitting, then, that it would be most important for every one, who enters upon the study of medicine, as well as upon the other learned professions, to be able to peruse the writings of the sages of antiquity in the languages in which they wrote, it must be equally admitted, that where an individual has unusual strength of mind and application he may be enabled, after he has commenced his professional studies, and even after he has entered upon the active duties of his profession, to acquire a considerable knowledge of the ancient languages, and even to become distin- guished for his learning; whilst, again, we have many * ' Le Malade Imaginaire,'' Intermede iii. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 25 signal examples, which show, that professional dis- tinction may be attained, where the classical attain- ments have been feeble, or where—if the preliminary classical education has been respectable—its fruits have not been available on occasions where they were needed. In elucidation of these positions, reference might be made to many individuals now living, who are highly distinguished as divines, lawyers, and phy- sicians, but this would be invidious. The lives of the dead—the illustrious dead—are matters of record: from an attention to them we may often discover the grounds for their distinction, and a careful inves- tigation may depict to us defects, which prevented them from attaining a still more commanding eleva- tion. There is not a Tyro in the profession, who has not heard of the name and abilities of the late Dr. Arm- strong, who raised himself to eminence in his profes- sion, in London, by his talents alone. Previous to his removal to the British Metropolis from the North of England, he had published his valuable works on Typhus and Puerperal Fever, and so distinguished had they made him, that when the lady of the author's friend, Mr. C. T, Haden,—himself a man of literary and professional merit,—was attacked with the latter complaint, Mr. Haden—impressed with the fatality of the disease, as then ordinarily treated, and having heard, that Dr. Armstrong was in town—went from house to house, where he was likely to obtain information con- cerning the doctor's lodgings, and, for a long time, without effect. Accidentally, he fell in with an indi- vidual, who directed him to where Doctor Armstrong resided; and to the judicious practice he pursued, Mr. 3 26 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. Haden always ascribed the recovery of the partner of his bosom. This was almost the first case, which Dr. Armstrong attended, after his removal to London, and it was the nucleus of an extensive and lucrative practice. To Mr. Haden, he was previously entirely unknown, except by his works, proverbially the best demonstrations of the man. Yet this distinguished individual—distin- guished in the annals of professional science—was rejected, when examined before the Royal College of Physicians of London, on account of his deficiency in the Latin language, although he had many years pre- viously passed his examinations for a medical degree, in the University of Edinburgh, where the classical re- quisitions were considered to be even higher than in the London College. u In the spring or summer of 1818," says his biographer—Dr. Frank Boott*—a native of this country, " Dr. Armstrong presented him- self for examination at the London College of Physi- cians, conformably to its regulations, which require, that the graduate in medicine of any other University than Oxford or Cambridge should pass the ordeal of its favor, and obtain its licence, before entering upon practice in London, or within a given distance of the metropolis. He had perhaps undervalued the estimate, which the Board of Examiners place on classical dic- tion, and the alphabet of the profession; for this dis- tinguished physician, who had received a diploma from the most efficient and most, celebrated school of me- dicine in Great Britain, who had been in successful *' Memoir of the Life and Medical Opinions of John Armstrong, M. D.' Lond. 1833. p. 30. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 27 practice eleven years, and was the author of three of the most popular works, which the medical press of this country, (England), had ever put forth, the fame of which was still sounding in the periodical journals of the day, was rejected as incompetent to continue in the practice of his profession in London, and as unde- serving the honor of having his name enrolled among the members of the college." It was well known, that Dr. Armstrong was not re- jected for any want of professional attainments: the assumption of this ground would have been untenable. The regulations of the college required, and still require, that the candidate shall be acquainted—to a certain, but to no great, extent—with the Latin language, and in this Dr. Armstrong was found deficient. The re- jection, however, created a reaction in his favour. It was regarded as an act of persecution, and was, thus, one of the elements of his future success; for, a va- cancy having occured in the London Fever Hospital, the rules of which excluded any one, who was not a fellow or licentiate of the college,—in order to obtain the desirable services of one, who had written so ably on Fever, and to show, that their conviction of Dr. Armstrong's professional qualifications was ample, the governors of the institution rescinded the regulation, and appointed him physician to that important charity. The true cause of Dr. Armstrong's rejection was, doubtless, his neglect of his previous classical attain- ments, whilst engaged in the active duties of his pro- fession, and his confidence, that the London College would not reject him on a topic, which, in no way, involved his qualifications as a practitioner. He was, however, mistaken. Yet to a mind, sensitive like that 28 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. of Armstrong, how galling must this rejection have been, especially as he was compelled to present him- self, ao-ain, before the same tribunal, before he could enjoy the full privileges and immunities of his calling. This he did in the following year, when he was ad- mitted one of the 'Permissi' or what are called 'Mem- bers' of the College of Physicians. But, although Armstrong had neglected his classi- cal learning, he was, from the commencement of his professional career, a severe student. No one felt more than he,—to employ the language of a recent writer on Medical Education,*—that the moment a practitioner ceases to be a student, he is no longer worthy of the confidence of the public, and that the life of a physician can only be truly useful and honor- able, when it is unremittingly employed in study, in determining the truth of theoretical opinions by obser- vation, and improving the value of practical sugges- tions by the test of experience. It was in this way, that Armstrong was,—as every distinguished man of science must be,—self-made. Whatever may be the amount of abilities, they cannot be developed without a certain degree of application, and although this amount may vary according to the precise capability, no marked developernent can occur, in any case, with- out study. It is impossible to adduce the name of a single scientific physician, which has survived his ex- istence, who was not through life a student. Colle- giate honors, as has been properly observed by Mon- taigne, may form the pedestal: it is the man that forms * 'Thoughts on Medical Education, addressed to the Council of the University of London,' by Dr. A. T. Thomson. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 29 the statue,—an idea, which has been repeated, in a modified manner, by the Scottish poet,— "The rank is but the guinea stamp, The man's the gowd for a' that." Academic instruction and University degrees may place the candidate for professional eminence in the best road for the attainment of distinction, but, unless he continues to toil, he can never reach what ought to be the height of his ambition. It is to the scientific laborer in the closet, as well as at the bedside, that me- dicine is mainly indebted for its improvement; for, how- ever valuable may be the services of the professional adviser to those, who may fall under his charge,—and whatever may be his titles to the love and admiration of the profession and the public, for his enlightened and honorable conduct in the exercise of his duties— unless he publishes the results of his observations and reflections, they necessarily die with him. It may be said, indeed,—and is often said,—that the physician, who is much engaged in practice, cannot find time for such publication; but this objection is more specious than valid, and it is too often suggested, where there is a deficiency in the requisite qualifications. Besides, an overwhelming practice is not acquired until after the lapse of a considerable period, during some por- tion of which the inclination and the power will be exhibited if they exist,—as the ground of excessive oc- cupation cannot then be assumed. The truth, indeed, is that several of the most useful practical works we possess have emanated from persons enjoying an amount of practice not lo be attained in situations 3* 30 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. where the sphere is more restricted. Some of the most valuable of the productions of Sir Astley Cooper have made their appearance since he was fifty years of age, and when he was enjoying an extent of practice, which has never, perhaps, fallen to the lot of another individual. So long ago as the year 1819, the author was informed by a friend of Sir Astley, that his pro- fessional income was twenty-two thousand five hun- dred pounds sterling,—a larger amount than was pro- bably ever acquired in the same time, by any member of the profession,—of the present, or of any bygone period. Perhaps a more signal example of the results of genius aided by perseverance in the pursuit of know- ledge, and in the absence of the advantages of educa- tion, could not be selected than that of John Hunter,— one of the most profound, original, and successful in- vestigators into the mysteries of the animal economy that ever existed,—especially when the condition of medical science, at the time when he entered upon his useful career, is borne in mind. Hunter's edu- cation was extremely neglected. He was, in the first instance, apprenticed to a cabinet maker; but, hearing of the success of his elder brother—the celebrated Dr. William Hunter—in London, he offered his services to him as anatomical assistant, which were accepted, in the year 1748, when he was 20 years old. In this situation, he improved so rapidly, that in the following winter he was able to undertake the office of Demon- strator to the class. In 1755, he was admitted to a partnership in the lectures delivered by his brother; and, from this period, we may date the commencement PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 31 of those labors, which have stamped him as one of the greatest promoters of medical science that have ever lived. The Windmill street school—originally founded by the Hunters, and supported by the indus- try and talents of some of the best Anatomists and Physiologists of the British Metropolis—is a monu- ment of their zeal for the advancement of a profes- sion, of which they were such splendid ornaments. From this humble commencement, aided, it is true, by his scarcely less distinguished brother, John Hun- ter rose to the highest scientific eminence. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Gottingen, and of the Royal Society of Medi- cine, and Academy of Surgery of Paris: and diedTm 1793, Inspector General of the Hospitals and Sur- geon General to the Army,—leaving behind him a reputation unequalled by his predecessors, or by any of his countrymen, who have succeeded him in the career of scientific glory. " Some when they die, die all: their mouldering clay Is but an emblem of their memories: The space quite closes up through which they pass'd. That Hunter liv'd, he leaves a mark behind Shall pluck the shining age from vulgar time, And give it whole to late posterity." Independently of his various excellent wrorks, with wrhich every medical student must become more or less acquainted in the course of his professional edu- cation, some idea may be formed of the industry of the man, from the fact, that his museum—consisting chiefly of healthy and morbid preparations in human and comparative anatomy—was sold to the British Government for 15.000 pounds sterling, or nearly 32 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 70,000 dollars. It now forms the basis of the exten- sive Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Sur- geons of London. To keep alive the proper remembrance of this great man, the Hunterian oration is annually delivered in the Hall of the Royal College of Surgeons, by one of the most distinguished Surgeons of the Metropolis. The chief part of Mr. Hunter's labors appears to have been of a professional cast, and his knowledge was greatly confined to the efforts of his own country- men. The deficiencies of his early education, and the time, which he devoted to his purely professional studies, prevented him from learning those languages, without some knowledge of which—at the present day at least—it is difficult to keep pace with the progress of medical science. In the late Dr. John Mason Good, who died not lon- ger ago than the year 1827, we have an illustrative instance of the practicability of acquiring high pro- fessional distinction, with the most exalted reputation for literary attainments, where the preliminary educa- tion must evidently have been limited,—from the fact, that, at the early age of fifteen, he quitted the house of his father, who had the pastoral charge of an Inde- pendent church and congregation, at Epping, in Essex, —and who, at the same time, superintended the educa- tion of a few young gentlemen,—to be apprenticed to a surgeon-apothecary. Prior to this, he had obtained some knowledge of the Latin, Greek, and French lan- guages, but he had none of the advantages of colle- giate instruction. So ardent, however, was he, in the pursuit of knowledge, and so desirous of acquiring it PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 33 through every available channel, that he applied him- self—whilst acquiring a knowledge of his profession— not only to the study of different Teutonic, Romanic, and Sclavonic languages, but also of many of the Oriental. At the age of 26, he commenced the study of He- brew, of which he soon acquired a clear, and critical knowledge: and seven years after this, be began his translation of Lucretius, for which he was, at one time, more celebrated than for any of his professional productions. This undertaking stimulated him to the study of various other languages,—in the first instance, to enable him to search successfully for parallel pas- sages, but afterwads with much more enlarged views.* In a letter to his friend, the late Dr. Nathan Drake— the well known and accomplished author of several literary productions of merit—dated in 1799, or when he was 25 years old, he says: " I have just begun the German language, having gone, with tolerable ease, throught the French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese." In a few months afterwards, he sent specimens of his translations,—especially of pieces of elegant poetry— to Dr. Drake, and other friends. In the following year, he informs Dr. Drake, that he had been sedu- lously studying the Arabic, and Persian; and, at no very remote period, the Russian, the Sanscrit, the Chinese, and other languages engaged his attention. * ' Memoirs of the Life &c. of Dr. Good:' by Olinthus Gregory, LL. D. Amer. Edit. p. 57. t To ' go through' a language is a very common, although obviously inaccurate, mode of expression,—employed, in various parts of Great Britain, to signify, that the person has read the usual books employ- ed in acquiring the language. 34 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. In the acquisition of these different languages, he did not follow the beaten and irrational track, of learn- ing the grammar by rote, as it were, but adopted the more natural one, of gaining the vocabulary of the language first, as the child gains its mother tongue, and subsequently correcting the construction by a due at- tention to grammatical rules, many of which apply equally to all tongues. By such a method, he did not attain a critical knowledge of all, but he possessed such an acquaintance with them as was sufficient for useful purposes. " It gave him," says his biographer, Dr. Olinthus Gregory, " the capacity of detecting and relishing the beauties of the best authors, in those lan- guages, which he was most anxious to explore; and it supplied him with views of the general analogies of lan- guage—as well as of the diversities and peculiarities, which prevented those general analogies from becom- ing universal,—more comprehensive, and more prac- tical than any other person (except he were a linguist merely), whom I have had the happiness to know." About this period, Mr. Good—who was at the time, and until the year 1820, when he was 56 years of age, a 'general practitioner,' (surgeon apothecary)—contri- buted largely to the Reviews and other periodical publications, of one of which, the' Critical Review,' he was for some time editor, and the labor of preparing the most elaborate articles often devolved upon him. In the beginning of 1803, his occupations were as- tounding. He was finishing his translation of Solo- mon's ' Song of Songs' from the Hebrew; carrying on his life of Dr. Geddes, and walking from 12 to 13 miles a day, that he might see his numerous patients, —the amount of his professional income being, at this PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 35 time,—according to his own account,—upwards of £1400, or about 6,300 dollars, per annum. Nothing— it is obvious—but the greatest energy, and order, in the management of his multifarious occupations, could have enabled him to accomplish them; yet he effected all, and all satisfactorily. These habits, and this activity of character, con- tinued through life; and the author has been told by a clerical friend, who knew him well, that—like every one, who employs his time to advantage—he was never busy, but could always spare time from his various labors for social and domestic enjoyment. In this re- spect, he resembled one, whose productive powers sur- passed those of any other individual of modern times, and on whose transcendent genius it would be idle to dwell. When Sir Walter Scott was asked by a literary friend, how many hours a day he could write for the press, with effect, he replied,—" I reckon five hours and a half a day as very good work for the mind, when it is engaged in original composition. [ can very seldom reach six hours; and I suspect, that what is written after five or six hours' hard mental labour is not worth much." On being asked, how he divided those hours, he said.—" I try to get two or three of them before breakfast, and the remainder as soon after as may be, so as to leave the afternoon free to walk, or ride, or read, or be idle."* That Dr. Good was a laborious student whilst he d d study, until within a short period of his death, is sufficiently shown by his 'Physiological System of * * Fragments of Voyages and Travels,' 2d and 3d series, by Cap- tain Basil Hall, Chap. 1. 36 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. Nosology,' published in 1820; his 'Study of Medicine,' which appeared in 1822, in four thick octavo volumes, and his ' Book of Nature,' published in 1826,—the year before his death :—all of which have been reprinted in this country, and are referred to, more or less, by every professional inquirer. But it is not necessary to travel to other countries for examples of what unwearied industry, aided by ability, is capable of accomplishing, when we have so signal an example in a native of this country, and a graduate of the University of Maryland, of which he was one of the most, distinguished alumni. I allude to the poor, once almost friendless, and subsequently afflicted, but admired, and now lamented, Godman, who, in spite of every disadvantage from fortune, and notwithstanding his brief career,—for he died at the early age of thirty- six,*—and much of that career spent in sickness and suffering, succeeded in elevating himself to a high rank among physicians and naturalists. The period that has elapsed since he passed away from us is so brief, that the merited eulogies in the different periodicals are known to almost every one. His example, too, has already been selected by more than one teacher, as the loadstar for the guidance of the professional inquirer. From the loss of both his parents, Dr. God- man was early compelled to feel, that his future suc- cess must depend altogether on his own talents and industry. At an early age, he was apprenticed to a * Most of the notices say thirty-two ; but in a letter to his friend, pre- ceptor and benefactor, Dr. Luckey, he asserts, that he had discovered his real age in an old book of his father's, and that he was twenty- one years old the 20th day of December, 1815. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 37 respectable printer in Baltimore, but he soon quitted the occupation as not congenial to his taste, and en- tered, as a sailor, on board the Flotilla, which was then, in the fall of 1814, stationed in the Chesapeake. At the close of the war, when twenty-one years of age, he followed the bent of his inclinations, and immediately commenced the study of medicine,—first under the tuition of Dr. Luckey, of Elizabeth Town, Pennsylva- nia, and soon afterwards under that of Dr. Wright, of Baltimore—a gentleman of high professional merit. It is not necessary to dwell on the various details of his brief history;—how he became successively Professor of Anatomy in the Medical College of Ohio, and sub- sequently in Rutgers' Medical College, established in the city of New York. The main incidents of his life are familiar to his professional countrymen, or, if not, can be readily learned by a reference to any of the memoirs that have been published.* In those inci- dents, and in his various publications on medicine, and natural science, we have a signal illustration of what may be acquired, if it be sought after in the pro- per manner. Like Dr. Good, Dr. Godman early directed his atten- tion to the ancient and modern languages as the cause- ways of knowledge ; and notwithstanding the limited nature of his early education, he had acquired, we are informed, such a knowledge of the Latin, Greek, French, German, Danish, Spanish, and Italian languages, as to read and translate them with fluency, and to write some of them with elegance. " Considering the decline of his health, for a long period," says an eminent literary eulo- * See, especially, the ' Memoir of Dr. Godman,' by Dr. T. Sewall, of Washington City. 4 38 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. gist,* " and the pressure of adverse circumstances, which he too frequently experienced, he performed pro- digies as a student, an author, and a teacher; he prose- cuted extensive and diversified researches; composed superior disquisitions and reviews, and large and valu- able volumes; and in the great number of topics, which he handled simultaneously or in immediate succession, he touched none without doing himself credit, and pro- ducing some new development of light, or happy forms of expression." He lingered for years under pulmo- nary consumption; understood fully the incurable na- ture of his melancholy condition; spake and acted— we are told—with an unfeigned and beautiful resigna- tion ; toiled at his desk to the last day of his existence, and still glowed with the love of science and the do- mestic affections. Personally, the author had no acquaintance with Dr. Godman; but, a few short months before his decease, he entered into a correspondence with him, regarding a new genus of fossil quadrupeds—the subject of Dr. Godman's last communication to the " American Philo- sophical Society," and contained in the third volume of the Society's " Transactions." In this publication, he courteously refers to the insignificant service, which the author was able to render him; and, in the course of his correspondence, and not more than three months before his death, speaks of his intention to publish a work on " Myology," and adds,—" If you have any ob- servations of interesting anomalies or varieties in the muscular system, I shall be delighted to have an op- portunity of adding a communication of them from * Robert Walsh, Esq. PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 39 your hand." Yet, in the very letter that contains this postscript, he says,—" Since that time, (alluding to the visit of a mutual friend, Dr. R. M. Patterson, three weeks before) " until within two days since, I have been confined to bed, and unable to see any one but my physician. Indeed, I am very little better now."— What a striking exemplification of the mind—beauti- fully depicted by Byron—" which disease and poverty could not impair, and which death itself destroyed ra- ther than subdued!" In the contemplation of the termination of his suffer- ings, we find additional evidences, to those already possessed, of the inaccuracy of the deduction too often made,—that the pursuits of the investigator of the ani- mal structure, and especially of that of man, are apt to lead to difficulties and doubts regarding his future des- tination. In some " Lines, written under a feeling of the immediate approach of death," he breathes out the results of his private meditations, and exhibits poetical powers, which, if cultivated, might possibly have gained him some distinction, in a department of the Imagina- tion, not often associated, in the same individual, with the more sober efforts of the judgment required in the pursuits of science. These arc a few—a very few—examples, selected from a host of professional worthies, to exhibit what zeal and enthusiasm in the pursuit of knowledge are capable of effecting; and what honors and reputation may be acquired, by time well spent—not only whilst in the preparatory study of the profession, but during its active exercise; yet what an amount of subsequent labor would have been saved these distinguished men, 40 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. had their early education been more complete ! Al- though, therefore, their examples exhibit, that profes- sional and literary eminence may be attained in spite of such disadvantages, they equally show the import- ance of early culture to prepare the way for more de- cided usefulness thereafter. Of the modern languages, the French and the Ger- man should be studied by every one desirous of excel- ling in professional lore. The march of mind has been so steady and rapid in France and Germany, and so much attention has been paid there, in modern times, to the improvement of medical—and, indeed, of every kind of scientific—knowledge, that no one can well keep pace with the progression of science, unless he is able to peruse the works that are constantly emanating from the press in those countries. It is true, that many of the best productions are translated into our own tongue, and that the important contents of their scientific pe- riodicals are transferred to the pages of our miscella- nies, either directly, or through the medium of the journals of Great Britain;—still, much remains un- culled, and many of the most valuable works are of such a size, and character in other respects, as to pre- clude the publication of an English version. At the present day, there are few youths, who are not re- quired to study the French language, and no one, per- haps, ought to enter within the pales of the Temple of iEsculapius, who is not more or less acquainted with it. There is certainly more reason to hold out induce- ments for the study of this language than of the Latin. There was a time—in the middle ages—when all knowledge was confined to the cloisters, and when it PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 41 was kept so, in order that the mass of the people might remain unenlightened, and power be restricted to the priesthood, by whom the medical art was wholly prac- tised ; and even after the revival of letters, the works of the learned were always written in Latin, in order to distinguish them from the " profanum vulgus." But when the modern languages emerged from their Patois state, and attained the requisite cultivation, the ancient plan was abandoned, and at the present day, except in inaugural dissertations, in certain schools, such a thing as a Latin work on any department of science is rarely seen. The knowledge, consequently, of the Latin lan- guage, which was at one time indispensable, is now only advisable; but it has become almost indispensable, that the student should be acquainted with the chief lan- guages in which the most valuable contributions are now written. Within the present century, the science of medicine has been prosecuted in France with a de- gree of enthusiasm and success before unknown, even in that cultivated nation; and many of the authors, whose productions we shall have to recommend— and, in some of the departments of medicine, the principal authors—are of that country. Where the opportunities of the student will permit, the Italian and the Spanish, of the Romanic stem, and the Danish and Swedish, of the Teutonic, will amply repay him for the time and trouble, which he may de- vote to their acquisition. Italy was, at one time, the favored land, in which the tree of medical know- ledge flourished, and spread its branches towards the other nations of Europe. Its universities were visited by the medical students of Great Britain and other 4# 42 PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. countries, to partake of the rich fruits there presented to them, and the reputation of many of her then pro- fessors will descend to posterity, along with that of those master spirits of antiquity to whom she owed her pristine glory. The various political revolutions, to which she has been subjected, in the present cen- tury, have checked the ardor of scientific investigation: still, we are indebted to her for many valuable works on the healing art, especially in the domain of Surgery, amongst which those of the distinguished Scarpa stand forth in bold relief. Lastly.—There is one useful accomplishment, which may be recommended to form part of the education of every youth, intended for the medical profession;— the art of drawing,—especially as regards the parts of the human figure. Every one, who is ignorant of this art, must have regretted his inability to take the representations of striking cases of malformation or disease, the recollection of which he may have been desirous of perpetuating. Now—that the custom is universally followed by the medical teacher of address- ing the eye by graphic illustrations, where the subject will admit of it—such an acquirement is doubly use- ful. How impaired in interest would be the ' Anatomy of expression' of Sir Charles Bell, if deprived of the embellishments from his pencil. Where the student has the least taste for designing, it ought to be fostered, and he will find ample opportunity, in after life, for being gratified with the attention he has given to it. The art of taking moulds is one, that can be readily acquired whilst his professional education is proceed- PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. 43 ino;. There are manuals,* indeed, wThich teach the different methods of making anatomical preparations, —of which the taking of casts is one. All this is easily attained by a little practice. * See the Bibliography in the Appendix. CHAPTER II. MEDICAL EDUCATION, PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. The regulations for graduation of the chief medical colleges of the union require, that the student shall have applied himself to the study of medicine for three years, and that he shall have attended two full courses of me- dical lectures,—embracing the different departments to be enumerated hereafter. In the University of Pennsyl- vania, it is a rule, that during these three years he shall have been the private pupil, for two years at least, of a respectable practitioner of medicine. The latter part of this requisition is, however, rarely attended to: in- deed, if the student, attending the prescribed courses of lectures, be from the country, where he has already studied one year, it will be obviously impracticable for him to complete his two years—in succession, at least —with the same instructor; and, if the rule were rigidly enforced, he would necessarily be constrained to seek a new preceptor on his arrival in town. In the Jefferson Medical College, and in the University of Maryland, the rule requires, that the candidate shall have applied himself to the study of medicine for three years, with- out specifying the period of private pupilage: whilst at the University of Virginia, no term is mentioned. The candidate is allowed to present himself for examina- tion, at the end of the first session, if he feels himself MEDICAL EDUCATION. 45 qualified. In the universities of Europe, no rule—as to private pupilage—exists. The candidate is required to have attended certain courses of lectures a pre- scribed number of times. After this, he may subject himself to examination, and, if found competent to practice his profession, he receives*'his diploma. A similar rule prevails—or did prevail—at the Royal College of Surgeons; but the Society of Apothecaries, of London, demand, that the student shall have served an apprenticeship with an apothecary for five years, as well as have attended a certain number of courses on medicine, before he can present himself before the Board of Examiners. Generally, however, when cir- cumstances will allow of the indulgence; he is at liberty to attend lectures during the last two years of his ap- prenticeship ; so that, if his age will permit, he may present himself for examination, at the time when his indentures are given up to him. This is the general practice with the metropolitan youths'; as well as with many of those in the country; but some of the latter are retained to make pills and draughts, until the full period of five years has expired. The student is, in- deed, in the latter stages of his apprenticeship, of greater value to his employer, so that if he be of steady and industrious habits, it is greatly to the mas- ter's interest to retain him. Preparing, as he does, his own medicine, the apothecary can teach him the prac- tical matters, connected with the compounding of me- dicines, and the sensible and medical properties of drugs. He instructs him, moreover, how to bleed, glyster, draw teeth, &c.; and, not many years ago, it was the practice, in some of the country places of Eng- land,—and perhaps still is,—to require, that the medi- 46 MEDICAL EDUCATION. cal pupil should attend to the horse, if his employer kept one,—see that it was regularly groomed, fed and watered, and bring it saddled to the door on all sudden emergencies! What an employment for the future member of a liberal and learned profession! and what a waste of time in a pupilage, thus unnecessarily pro- tracted ! The advantage to the master was looked to, in these requisitions, rather than that of the student; —a well-informed youth—well-informed, that is, on preliminary topics—and of ordinary abilities, being capable of attaining every thing taught him, in this long apprenticeship, in a single year well spent. In the towns of the United States—as has been be- fore remarked—it is the custom for the physician to send his prescriptions to the apothecary, who fills the same situation as the chemist and druggist of Eng- land, and the pharmacien of France. There are some, howrever,—especially of the older practitioners,—who have their prescriptions compounded in their own offices. As respects medical education, it is to be regretted, that the latter course is not universal, inas- much as it affords the youth an admirable opportu- nity for becoming practised in the manipulations of phar- macy. Nothing but actual practice can make him well acquainted with the sensible properties of the various articles of the Materia Medica, and with the mode of preparing the different formulas—officinal and extem- poraneous ; and when the physician, who has office- pupils, does not prepare his own prescriptions at home, he ought, at least, to be provided with a collection of specimens of the Materia Medica, which may enable the student to render himself familiar with their ap- pearance : but this is only an imperfect succedaneum, MEDICAL EDUCATION. 47 as it does not instruct him in the art of compounding. Many young men, consequently, pass through their medical education, and receive their diplomas, without ever, perhaps, having made a pill or a potion, and ut- terly ignorant of the method of uniting the articles, which they may have to prescribe at the outset of practice. Where persons can be found to do this—as in the cities—the evil is not of magnitude; but if the young practitioner has settled in a country situation, where no one can prepare his medicines for him, he finds that he has yet much to learn, and has ample grounds for deploring the imperfections of his pharma- ceutical education. Formerly, it was common for the enlightened physicians of Great Britain to place their sons in some pharmacy, for a time, in order that they might attain that practical instruction, which such situations alone afford; but, of late years, the plan has been generally abandoned, and the physician, after he has passed through his three or four years of collegiate study, finds himself lamentably deficient in knowledge on this matter; although, fortunately, owing to the di- vision of labor in the profession there, a physician can no where be found, without one or more apothecaries, or chemists and druggists being easily met with, by whom the formula? can be compounded. It has been a question with some, whether it is advisa- ble for a young man to ' read'—as it is termed—with a physician, before he commences his attendance on lec- tures? The regulations of our colleges, it has been seen, appear to contemplate that one year, at the least, should be so spent. The answer to the question will have to vary according to circumstances. There can be no doubt, that a well informed physician might put 48 MEDICAL EDUCATION. the Tyro upon a course of study, which would mate- rially benefit him: he might, too, be making him ac- quainted with the various therapeutical agents, and thus befit him for deriving full benefit from his colle- giate course; but, there can be as little doubt, that an almost irreparable amount of mischief may be perpe- trated by an unskilful preceptor: doctrines may be in- stilled which a length of time and labor only can dis- place, and habits of study may be engendered,—by no means adapted for satisfactory or enduring results. Under such circumstances, it would be better, that the mind of the student were a ' tabula rasa'—an un- sullied sheet—capable of receiving any impression, that may be made upon it; and of retaining such im- pressions unblurred by the defective observations—the ' facts' and hypotheses—of such as are themselves in- capable of correct judgment. But it is not only essential, that proper books should be placed in the hands of the student; there should be an appropriate selection of subjects, to be investigated by him in due sequence. It often happens, that the very first book, put into his hands, is on the ' practice of physic,'—the department towards which all the others tend, and which cannot be comprehended with- out an adequate knowledge of its elements. It in- cludes, in short, an acquaintance with Anatomy, Physi- ology, Pathology, General Therapeutics, Materia Medi- ca and Chemistry. In other words, when an important organ is diseased, we must know the structure of the organ; the function which it executes in health; the characters of that function, when in a state of aberra- tion; the indications to be laid down for transmuting the diseased into the healthy condition; the agent ca- PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 49 pable of carrying into effect such indication; and—if we put more than one article into the prescription— we must know, that the articles are not incompatible, unless we desire the chemical results of such incom- patibility. One of the greatest stumbling blocks in the path of the young student—and to the removal of which his endeavours should be early directed—is, the heteroge- neous nomenclature in use, in all the departments of medical science, and which will probably be continued, —notwithstanding the various attempts to introduce some greater uniformity and simplicity—inconsequence of the difficulty, that exists in every science, of modi- fying appellations, which are familiar to the older members, and any change from which must necessa- rily be attended with great inconvenience to them. Another difficulty is, the formation of a nomencla- ture of a character satisfactory to all. In every science, terminology is an object meriting attention: and each term—if well chosen—should convey to the mind of the student a definite idea. The Lavoisie- rian nomenclature was a valuable gift to chemistry, and a salutary innovation upon established usages; but all the difficulties, that pervade nomenclatures in ge- neral, were found to apply to this; and, accordingly, many of the old names are still retained, and will be so, in spite of the efforts of the scientific chemist. This is strikingly evidenced in the cases of calomel, and corrosive sublimate,—substances, which, although dif- fering essentially in their action on the animal econo- my, do not differ so much in their chemical constitu- tion. Any nomenclature, consequently, which is found- 5 50 MEDICAL EDUCATION, ed on chemical composition, must assign names to each somewhat similar. Accordingly, as they are both Chlorides of Mercury, the former has been termed the' Proto-chloride,'—the latter, the' Bichloride.' The London College terms them, erroneously, 'Submuriate,' and * Oxymuriate;' whilst the Pharmacopoeia of the United States calls the one, the ' mild chloride,' and the other the ' corrosive chloride,' of mercury. Now, where there is so slight a difference in name, between an entirely harmless, and a most poisonous, chemical, mistakes may readily happen,—in com- pounding prescriptions, for example,—as is said to have been the fact, in more than one instance, soon after the change of name by the London College of Physi- cians,—the virulent' oxymuriate' having been substi- tuted, by accident, for the mild' submuriate.' This pro- bably led the Dublin College—not behind the sister in- stitutions of Great Britain, in chemical knowledge— to retain the name' calomel' for the one, and to adhere to that of ' corrosive muriate of mercury,' by which the other—the ' corrosive sublimate'—was, formerly, generally known. Another reason, too, which has prevented the full adoption of the modern chemical nomenclature, is, that with the new lights, daily breaking in upon a science so constantly improving as chemistry, the views of chemists, regarding the precise composition of sub- stances must change; and therefore, the names,—to keep pace with the science,—must undergo a corres- ponding mutation. Still, to one, who travels with the progress of science, this is no disadvantage; and to him, who does not, the modified name indicates, at PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 51 once, the new ideas, that are entertained of the com- position of the article. The same difficulties, in innovating on an establish- ed nomenclature,—however faulty it may be,—apply to Anatomy, where all is fixed; and although Barclay, Dumas, Chaussier, and others, have attempted to give names to parts indicative of their situation, connections &c, the old unmeaning names are still retained, and the anatomical teacher, who is most anxious to keep up with the spirit of the times, feels it difficult—nay impracticable—to introduce so great a change:— " Such dupes are men to custom, and so prone To rev'rence what is ancient, and can plead A course of long observance for its use." The truth seems to be, that where the English lan- guage is spoken, there is a greater objection to the in- troduction of new words than elsewhere; and, accord- ingly, almost all our new scientific terms are coined in France or Germany, and then imported into Great Britain, and this country; as if the transgression were more venial—to give currency to the coin than to fa- bricate it. " Neology, or the novelty of words and phrases," says the author of the' Curiosities of Litera- ture,'* " is an innovation, which, with the opulence of our present language, the English philologer is most jealous to allow; but we have puritans or precisians in English, superstitiously nice! The fantastic coinage of affectation or caprice will cease to circulate from its own alloy; but. shall we reject the ore of fine work- manship and solid weight? There is no government * ' Second Series,' Vol. I. 251, Amer. Edit. Boston, 1834. 52 MEDICAL EDUCATION, of words, and it is no statutable offence to invent a felicitous or daring expression, unauthorized by Mr. Todd." The same objection to the introduction of new words prevailed, however, long before the language attained its present opulence. In one of our old plays, the neologist is described as one, who,— ------" Strikes no coin, 'tis true, but coins new phrases, And vends them forth as knaves vend gilded counters, Which wise men scorn, and fools accept in payment." Yet it is somewhat strange, that the objection should have extended, with us, to the introduction of new scientific terms. As science improves, the words, pre- viously in use, are insufficient to express the new ideas, and neologisms become not only pardonable, but indis- pensable. Fortunately, the French and German literati have an insatiable desire for this application of philo- logy, so that the toil of invention is spared us; and all that is necessary is to make a judicious selec- tion. The nomenclature of disease has required the great- est attention, and although repeated attempts have been made to improve it, the barbarous terms, sanc- tioned by usage, are still retained, in preference to the more classical. As it now exists, it consists of Hebrew and Arabic terms; Greek and Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, German, English, and even Indian and Afri- can, often barbarously and illegitimately compounded.* The object of modern terminologists has been to * Dr. J. M. Good, in ' Transactions of the Medical Society of London,' vol. i. part I. p. 3: and sect. ii. of a Preliminary Disserta- tion to his ' Physiological System of Nosology.' • PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 53 rectify this chaos; and, by the use of a learned lan- guage, which admits of the ready formation of com- pounds, and which is every where more or less studied, to apply names, that may indicate the suffering organ, or the precise character of the morbid derangement, so far as this can be done by names only. But, where so much latitude is permitted, it would be strange if the privilege were not occasionally abused, and if terms were not, at times, proposed merely to exhibit the learning of the inventors. Accordingly, we find such words as pathopatridalgia, philopatridalgia, and philo- patridomania, applied to the affection, commonly termed nostalgia,—a variety of melancholy, produced by the desire of returning to one's country or home, and which is described, by the French medical writers, as having been extremely common amongst the troops,— and especially amongst the auxiliaries from other coun- tries,—formerly sent on their distant expeditions. The ne plus ultra, however, of terminology ' run mad,' is to be found in a treatise on ' Croup,' published, within the last twelve years, by Blaud,—a respectable French physician. This disease,—too well known amongst us, and indeed, in almost every nation of Eu- rope, by its English name croup,—inasmuch as it is seated in the parts of the windpipe, called the larynx and trachea,—and as the inflammation is accompa- nied by increased secretion of mucus,—sometimes of pus, sometimes of membrane, and sometimes of all to- gether,—Blaud proposes—with the view of comprising all these conditions in the name—to call by the scarce- ly pronounceable one of laryngo-tracheite-myxa-pyo- meningogene.—So far, the term has, happily, rested with its propounder. 5* 54 MEDICAL EDUCATION, It is fortunate for the student, that although medical technology is sufficiently copious, and, at times, extra- vagant, such an unnecessary tax is rarely, if ever, im- posed on the memory, as in the case of the instances cited. Considerable simplicity will, indeed, be found to exist, even where the first impression may have been one of complexity. Still, as Dr. Good has pro- perly remarked, a serious evil is the want of a common principle upon which the technical terms of medicine have been founded. They have been formed:—-first, from colour: and hence there are black, white, green, red, scarlet, yellow and purple diseases,—as melasna, melas, atrabdis, melancholia, leuce, alphos, albugo, chlorosis, rosa, roseola, rubedo, rubeola, erythema, scarlatina, icteritia, aurigo, purpura, &c. Secondly:— they have been designated, according to time;—as acute and chronic; ephemeral or quotidian; continent or continued; remittent and intermittent; tertian, quar- tan, quintan, autumnal, and vernal fevers; summer complaint, &c. &c. Thirdly: from objects of natural history,—birds, beasts, fishes, insects and plants,—as fames canina, cynorexia {doghunger); rabies canina, cynolissa {dogmadness); hippus {horse twinkle); scrofula {swine evil); elephantiasis {elephant skin); ichthyosis {fish skin); cancer, {crab ulcer); tarantismus {tarantula dance); urticaria {nettle rash); lichen {liverwort rash,) &c. &c. Fourthly: from the names of persons or places; as morbus Herculeus {epilepsy); facies Hippo- cratica; lepra Arabum; lepra Graecorum; plica Polo- nica; sudor Anglicus; morbus Gallicus; morbus Hun- garicus; ignis Sancti Antonii; chorea Sancti Viti; Daemonomania, &c. &c. The nomenclature of anatomy is not less fantastic. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 55 Often, it is dependent upon fancied resemblance; as to basins {pelves); cups {cotyloid cavities); the beak of a crow {coracoid); a thorn (the spine and spinous pro- cesses); an ancient pen {styloid); and, in the brain alone,—as Dr. Good has remarked,—we meet with an assemblage of terms, so ridiculously diversified in their sources, as frequently to overpower the gravity of the face in running them over; and at the same time so obscene in many of their references, as to render it impossible to read them aloud except in a dead lan- guage.* To facilitate the labors of the student, in acquiring some of the principles of medical technology, as it now exists, the following glossary of the prefixes, suf- fixes, and radicals of many of the terms legitimately compounded, especially from the Greek, may be found useful.f A. A : before a consonant; An before a vowel, has—in the compound medical terms—a privative or debasing signification, like that of the particles in, im, un, ir, in English. Thus, SthenTa (odsvoi) means strength ; Asthenia ; want of strength, debility. Acephalous (xsfyaU], ' head'); devoid of head. Anencephalous (tyxt^axov, ' the brain'), a foetus with an imperfect brain. Acardia (xaphta, ' heart'); devoid of heart. Anaemia (c«/*a, ' blood') want of blood. * ' Transactions of the Medical Society of London,' Lib. cit. p. 13. f When the author wrote the following glossary, he was not aware that the plan had suggested itself to any other individual. Since it was written, he has seen ' A Dictionary of Terms used in Medicine, &c.,' by Richard D. Hoblyn, published in London, during the last year, which shows, that the same idea had occurred to him. The two glos- saries, however, are identical in idea only. A 56 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Acros, ' elevated; at the top,' (dxpoi); as Acrocheir (*»P> ' the hand,') the extremity of the hand or fingers. Acromion (w/ioj, ' the shoulder,') the top of the shoulder. Aden (a8qv) ' a gland;' hence, AJenalgia (cO/yoj, ' pain') glandular pain. AaVnemphraxis (s^aiij, 'obstruction') glandular obstruction. Adenitis, (see Itis) glandular inflammation. Arfenology, (xoyoj, ' description,') a treatise on the glands. Acfmomeningea, (^vtyt, ' a membrane') mucous fever, because seated in the glands or follicles of the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels. Aomoncus (oyxoj, ' a tumor,') a swelling of the glands. JEdcea (tttfiota) ' the parts of generation.' Hence, JEdceilis, inflam- mation of the genital organs; A?fteodynia (see Odyne) ' pain in the genital organs ;' and A^rfceopsophia (40$£«, ' I emit a noise') a dis- charge of air from the parts of generation. iEaiA, see H^ma. iEREsis, (acpsotj) ' the removal of any thing.' A suffix denoting 'a removal or separation,' as aphasresis (axo, ' from,') the removal of any part. Diaeresis (Swi, ' through') a breach of continuity. iEsTHEMA (aoaQqua, genitive avaOri^a-to^d) ' a sensation,' ' a percep- tion.' Hence, .5Esthematonusi (vovooi, ' diseases.') and AEsthetica,' dis- eases affecting sensation;' A?s£/*ema/organonusi, ' diseases of the organs of sensation.' Agogue, (ay«yoj, ' a leader') from oyt>,' I lead or expel.' Hence, cholagogue (^o^, ' bile') an expeller of bile. Hydragogwe (a>Swp, ' water') a medicine, which causes watery evacuations.' Agra (oypa, from ayp£«,' I seize,' ' I lay hold of,') ' a seizure:' as odontagra, (o8m>s—genitive oSov-tos ' a tooth,') toothache; Chiragra {xttp> ' the hand') gout in the hand; Podagra (rtouj, ' the foot',) gout in the foot. Agrypnus (aypurtcoj) ' sleepless,' ' vigilant.' Agrypnocomz (xoua « stupor,') ' sleeplessness, with great inclination to sleep.' Agrypno- des (febris, jtvptto$) (siSoj, ' resemblance,') 'fever attended with watching.' Aima. See HjEma. Algos (pw, ' a nerve') nerveache, &c. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 57 Allas( awiaj) 'a sausage.' Hence, Allantodes or Allantcrides (*c8oj, ' shape') sausage-shaped, theAllantois; A//an/otoxicum {_totixoV, 'a poison') sausage poison. Allos (axxoi) ' another,' ' different'—as AZ/opathia (rta0o$, ' dis- ease') the opposite to homoeopathy,—the ordinary doctrine of medi- cal practice: AZ/o/riophagia (aMiofptoj, ' foreign,' and oy£w ' I eat') a morbid appetite for substances, that are not alimentary. Amblus (afifixvi) ' obscure.' Hence, Amblyopia, (o^-tj, ' vision') fee- bleness of vision. Amnos (a/tvoj,)' a sheep.' Hence, Amnion (apviov, dfivstov) the in- nermost of the foetal membranes;—because first observed in the sheep (?). Amm'oclepsis, (xXi7itu, ' I steal or take away unobserv- ed') the too early discharge of the liquor amnii: AmnTtis or Amra'Itis, inflammation of the amnion, &c. Amphi (au^x) ' both, around, on all sides.' Amp/itarthrosis (apBpov, 'a joint') a mixed articulation, where there is an intermediate body between the bones, as in the joints of the vertebral column. Amphi- blestr5des tunica (a[t$tf}%fiofpov, ' a net') the retina. Amjo/ribranchia (jSpoy^ia, ' the gills') the tonsils and surrounding parts. Amphidexios (fisfioj, ' dexter, right.') ' ambidexter;' one who uses both hands, with equal facility. Ana (aw») ' in,' ' through' ' upwards,' ' above,'—in opposition to Cata (q. v.); also, 'repetition,' like the English re. Anabasis (j3an>u, ' I go') the period of increment of a disease. Anabexis (j3^|, ' a cough') expectoration. Anacatharsis {xadapoii, ' purging') purgation upwards, by expectoration or by vomiting. Anadiplosis (gwtxwff^, ' a doubling'). The reduplication of an intermittent. Analeptic {avaXriTftixov) ' restorative.' A restorative medicine. Anasarca (trapi, ' the flesh') dropsy of the cellular membrane. Anaspadiaeus (ojtao, ' I contract,') one, whose urethra opens on the upper part of the male organ. Anastomosis (fl-fo^a, ' a mouth,') inosculation: a commu- nication between two vessels. Anatomy (*o^, ' incision') dissec- tion. The doctrine of the structure of the organism. Ancos (ayxoj)' a hook,'' an angle.' Hence, Ancon, (ayxuw) the bend of the elbow; and Ancyle (ayxv'Kri), having the same signification as Ancos and Ancon. AncyZohlepharon (jtf^apov,' the eyelid') growing together of the eyelids. Ancylosis, a stiff joint. Andria (avSpta., owSpfia) manhood, virility. Hence, Anrfranatomy, the anatomy of man. Androgynous (ywtj,' a woman') hermaphroditic: AnoVomania, nymphomania. 58 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Angos (ayyos)' a vessel,' and Angion or Angeion (ayyuov,) ' a small vessel.' Hence, Angiology (jioyoj, ' a discourse') a treatise on the vessels. Angzopathla (rtafloj, ' disease') a disease of the vessels. Angiosteosis {ootsov,' a bone') ossification of the vessels. Angiotomy {■tour}, ' incision') dissection of the vessels. Ano (tmo) ' above,' ' up;' as Anochilon (^«aoj, ' the lip') having a large upper lip. Anti {avti), in composition, generally means opposition; as Ant- algic (see Algos), an anodyne. An/arthritic (see Arthron) a gout remedy. AnJhelix (Jjicf, ' the helix of the ear') an eminence in front of the helix of the ear: Anthelmintic (Jji/uvj, 'a worm') a vermifuge. Anfo'pharmaca {yapuaxov, ' a poison') an Anh'dote, (Sow, 'I give'). Antiades (avtcaSsi) 'the tonsils.' Hence, Anta'adTtis, inflamma- tion of the tonsils. Anta'arfoncus (oyxoj, ' a tumor') swelling of the tonsils. Anthr5pos (avepwios) 'man.' Hence, AnZAropography (ypa^, 'a description') the Natural History of Man: as well as Anthropology (xoyoj, 'a discourse'). An/Ztropophagus (ayo, 'I eat') a man-eater. Anthropotomy (tfo^, ' incision') the anatomy of man. AphE, See Haphe. Apo (j, «a stench,' or ' smell,' especially the smell of the male goat. Bronchus (Bpoy^oj) ' the windpipe.' Bronchia, (Bpoy^io) the rami- fications of the windpipe. Bronchitis, inflammation of the bronchia. Bronchocele (xipq, ' a swelling,' < hernia,') the goitre. Broncho- tomy (tow, ' incision.') The operation of opening the windpipe. Bu (Bov, abbreviation of Bwj, ' an ox,') in composition, expresses ' excess,' ' greatness.' Hence, Mlmus (upoS, ' hunger,') ox-appe- tite; voracious appetite, ifaphthalmus (o^o^oj 'eye.') Ox-eye. Dropsy in the eye, Bubo (BwSw) ' the groin;' the inguinal glands. Hence, Bubon- algia, (see Algos.) Pain in the groin. Bubonocele {xnxn, ' rupture.') Inguinal hernia. C. Cacos (*a*oS) in composition, 'badness,' ' faultiness,' 'defi- ciency.' Cachexia (||tJ, ' habit,') a bad habit of body. Cacochymia (xvw, 'juice.) A bad condition of the humors. Cacoethes (v$oS, ' disposition/ < habit.') Of a bad or vitiated character. Carcinos (xapsw-oj) 'a crab.' Hence Carcinodes, Carcinoides (««oJf ' resemblance,') crablike, cancerlike,—as ulcera carcinodea. Carcinoma (vop?, ' an eating ulcer,') a cancerous ulcer or tumor. Cardia (xapSta.) the heart. Also, the upper orifice of the stomach. Hence, Cardiaca, cordials. CWialgia (axyoj, ' pain.') Pain in the stomach. Heartburn. Carrfiopalmus (*«*,«,* 'palpitation,') PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 61 palpitation of the heart. CartZiorrhexis (p^itj, ' rupture.') Rupture of the heart. Carditis, inflammation of the heart. Cara (xapa) ' the head;' and Caros (xapoj) ' stupor.' Hence Card- sis, stupefaction. Caroticus (xapwtixoi) any thing that causes stupor. Carotid, the artery of the head. Carphus (xap4>oj) any light flocculent substance; also, dried straw. Hence, CarjaZiologia (uyu, ' I collect,' ' I pluck.') Picking the bed clothes, as if to gather flocculi. Cata {xato) ' downwards,' ' after,' applied to time. Hence, Catalepsy (x^cj, ' a seizing hold of,' ' an attack.') Cafamenia, (uijv ' a month.') The menses. Cafarrhus (psw, ' I flow,') a catarrh. Catharsis, (atpw, ' I take away.') Purgation. Ca^Ziemerinus (ijucpa, ' a day,') daily: xo.e'qiispa.v, per diem. Catheter ((.»?/», ' to send.') An instrument for drawing off the urine. Cato (xatfw) ' beneath.' Hence Cafochilon (^tawj/ ' the lip',) The under lip. Cauma (xavua) ' a burnt part.' This and the following are from seatw, ' I burn.' Causus (xavaoi) ' a burning fever.' Cawsodes (siSoj, ' resemblance,') 'burning,' as Febris causodes,—the same as Causus. Caustic, a burning or corrosive agent. Cautery (xawtqpiov) a burn- ing agent. CelE (xyxri) ' a tumor,' ' a rupture.' A very common suffix; as BubonoceZe (see Bubon.) HydroceZe, (see Hydor.) CeZotomia {■eofxri, ' incision,') an operation for rupture. Cenos (xsvoi) ' empty;' as Ceneangia (xtcEoyytw?,) (oyyttoi', 'a ves- sel.') Emptiness of vessels. Cendsis (xsvuerts,) Evacuation. Inani- tion. CephalE (xs$a%ri) ' the head.' Hence, Cephaloea (xtj, ' a band or bond.') A ligament. Hence, Ztesmography (yga^»?, ' a description.') A de- scription of the ligaments. Di, (8t, 815) ' bis, twice, double.' Hence, Dicrotus (xpctsa, ' I strike,') beating double; as Pulsus dicrotus. Digastricus (yaat^, ' the belly,') double-bellied. Diploe (rttexu, 'I plait or fold.') The cellular structure between the tables of the skull. Diplopia (S«aooj, ' double,' and o^ij, ' vision.') Double vision. 6* 66 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Dia (Jta) in composition, ' through,' ' asunder,' ' out of,' ' sepa- rated.' Hence, diabetes (/3owo, ' I go.') A morbid discharge of urine. Diachylon (21*05, ' a juice.') A plaster formerly made of vegetable juices. Diacodium (SiaxuSiav,) (xabeiov, ' a poppy head,') a medicine made of poppy heads. Diagnosis (yvioais, ' learning.') Discrimination. Z/iapedesis (rt^Sao, ' I spring.') Transudation; as hemorrhage by diapedesis. Diaphoresis (8t,a$ogijaif,) {fyogcu, ' I con- vey.') Perspiration. Diaphragm (£ayua, ' an inclosure,') a parti- tion. Diarrhoea (g£«, ' I flow.') Diastole (Siaatsxxu, ' I put asun- der.') Dilatation. Diathesis (ttfrjui ' to place.') Disposition to disease. Diuresis (wgfo, ' I pass the urine.') An abundant secre- tion of urine. DiphthEra (SifyOiga) ' a skin;' leather.' Hence, Diphtheritis. Inflammation of a mucous membrane, accompanied by a membrani- form exudation. Dipsa (o~t4o) ' thirst.' Hence, Dipsdsis. Morbid thirst. Poly- dipsia (rtoXv;, ' much.') Excessive thirst. Dothien (poQiriv) ' a boil.' ' a pustule. Hence, DothinenZen/is {Enteritis. Inflammation of the intestines.) Follicular gastro- enteritis. Dyn amis (Swa^tij,'strength.') The vital power. Hence, Dynamo- meter ([tstgov, ' a measure.') A measurer of strength. Dys (Svj) in composition, ' difficult,' ' faulty;' sometimes privative: mostly, answering to the English particles dis, in, mis, or un. Hence, Dysaesthesiae (ataOfja^, ' sensation.') Dulness of sensation, or diseases of sensation. Dyscrasia (x^okhs, ' a mixture.') A faulty mixture of the juices, a cachectic condition. Dysecoia (axo^) ' hear- ing.' Difficulty of hearing, Dysentery (svfs^ov, ' an intestine.') The bloody flux. Dysmenorrhcea, see (Men) painful and difficult menstruation. Dysopsia (04-15, ' vision.') Defective vision, dys- pepsia (**4i5, ' digestion.') Indigestion, dysphagia (ay, ' I turn.') A turning out,'—as of the eyelids. Eczema (£j«, ' I boil.') A hot eruption. Z?xaemia (ai^a, ' blood.') Want of blood. Exanthema (ow0o5, ' a flower.') An efflorescence. Dxomphalos (opfyaxo;, ' the navel.') Rupture of the navel. Z?xophthalmus (ofyOaXuo;, ' the eye.') Projection of the eye out of the orbit. Dxostdsis (ootsov, ' a bone.') A bony tumor. Dxosmose (uu^os, ' impulsion.') Outward impulsion. [Dutrochet.] Eidos (^805, ' form,' ' resemblance.') The « is often changed into co, at the termination of words. Thus Haematoi'rZes (aifiatosiSqs) is often written Haematoo'es (dt^cwuS^.) The English termination oid is from 0,80$; as Haematoia", Phlegmonoia*, &c. Elytron (txvtgov) ' a sheath.' The vagina. Hence, Elytritis. Inflammation of the vagina. Leucorrhcea. Elytrodes (tiSos, ' form.') Sheathlike;—as the tunica vaginalis, vel elytrodes, testis. Elytro- ptosis (rttftto-is, ' a falling down.') A prolapsus of the vagina. En and Em (ev) ' in,' ' into,' ' within;' also, ' excess;' (frequently used in this last sense, by Dr. Good.) A common prefix, answer- ing, generally, to the prefixes im and in, in English. In composi- tion, before j3, tt, $, 4, and p, the v is changed into p; before y, x, f, and xi into y; before x, into %; and before §, generally, into£. Hence, Embryo (sufevov) (few, ' I biid forth.') A fecundated germ. Em- &ryothlasis (exacts, ' a breaking to pieces.') The destruction of the foetus in utero. Embryotomy (tout], ' incision.') The anatomy of the embryo; destruction of the foetus. Embryulcia (cxxa, ' I draw.') The forcible removal of the foetus from the uterus. Z7mmenia (urjv, ' a month.') The menses; and Z?mmmagogue (ayw, ' I expel.') A promoter of the menses. Z?mphysema (fvsrifm or fvaqois, ' infla- tion.') Infiltration with air. Z?mpiric (ftetga, ' experience.') One who makes experiments; also, a quack. Z7mplastrum (nxaagu, ' I smear.') A plaster. Z?mpresma (rt^gfia, ' a burn,' from neyfia, ' I set on fire.') An internal inflammation. [Good.] Empyema (sfiftvTjua, rtvyats, ' suppuration.') Internal suppuration, especially in the chest. Dmprosthotonus (ttgoadtv, ' before,' and twa, ' I extend.') Tetanus, in which the body is bent fowards* En- 68 MEDICAL EDUCATION, arthrosis (ae,6e,ov, 4 a joint.') A deep, yet perfect and free joint. Encephalitis (xtfaxrj, ' head.') Inflammation of the brain. En- cephalocele (xt-paxy, ' head,' and xqxq, ' rupture.') Hernia Cerebri. Encephalon or Encephalos (cyxs$a.xo(, ' the brain,') ' the contents of the cranium.' Endemic (8^05, ' the people.') A disease of a lo- cality. Endon (' within.') Hence, Endosmose (g£to, ' I make water.') Incontinence of urine, Errhine (e,w, ' the nose.') A sternutatory. Ep\ Eph, Epi (frt', s<|>, Erti) ' upon,' * above;' in composition it generally means augmentation, addition, increase, reciprocal action, repetition. Hence, Epacme (ax/tij, ' the top') increase of a disease. one that is approaching its height. Ephebia (Vty, ' the pubes or down on the parts of generation') puberty; and Ephebus, a young woman. Ephelides ('^tuoj, ' the sun') sun freckles. Ephemeras ('^^tt,' a day') of one day's duration. Ephialtes (axxo^at,, ' to jump') nightmare. Ephidrosis ('tSgwortj, ' sweating') a profuse sweating. Ephippium (trtTioi, ' a horse') the sella turcica. Epidemic (8^05, ' the people') an atmospheric disease. Epidermis (8f^a, ' the skin') the cuticle. Epididymis (8181^05,' the testis') a small body, that lies on the testicle. Epigastrium (ycw*%, ' the stomach') the region of the stomach. Epiglottis (ya.cor'tfa, 'the tongue') Epilepsy (xappava—future, xtj^u—' I seize hold of) the falling sickness. Epiphysis (foa, ' I grow') a process, united to the bone by car- tilage. Epiploon (iTtinxoov,) (jtxsu, ' I float'.) The omentum or caul. Hence Epiplocele (x^, 'a rupture.') An omental rupture. Epispadias (ejtaa, ' I draw, or contract') one whose urethra opens on the dorsum penis. Epispastic (the same etymon) ' a draw- ing' application, as a blister. Epistaxis (orotic, < dropping') PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 69 frequent dropping. Hemorrhage from the nose. Epistropheus (co, ' I turn,') the second vertebra of the neck. Epithem (tidfifit,, ' to put') a cataplasm. Epulis (odXov, ' the gum') a gumboil. E^pulotic (ovXrj, ' cicatrization') a cicatrisant. Eros (£gw5, ' love.') Hence, Erotic; as Erotic mania and Eroto- mania, love madness. Erysos (te,vaoi) Erythos (^005) and Erythros (te,v9e,os) ' red,' ' rose-coloured.' Hence Erysipelas; (itsxas, ' near.' (?) ) St. An- thony's fire. Erythema, redness; and erythrema. Erythrbdes (1-1805, ' resemblanee') as the tunica erythrodes of the testis. Ethmos (^fytoj, ' a sieve.') Hence, eZAmoid (st8o5, ' resemblance') sieve-like, as the ethmoid bone. Eu (fw) ' good,' ' proper,'—when prefixed to words, as ezoemia (dtjua, ' blood') a good condition of the blood. Eaaesthesia (0,106*101$, ' feeling') a good state of feeling. Enchrcea (xe,oio. or xe,oa, ' color of the surface') a good colour of the skin. Ewcrasia (x^aois, ' mix- ture.') The opposite to oyscrasia. E?a£w, ' I carry') lactiferous. GaZacZopoietic (rto««, ' I make') milk making, milk favoring. GaZacZorrhcea (gsa, ' to flow') a copious flow of milk. Gaster (yaotrie,,) the stomach; the belly. Hence, GasZralgia (aXyos, ' pain') stomach-ache, belly-ache. Gastricism, the doctrine which refers most complaints to the stomach. Gastritis, inflamma- tion of the stomach. Gastrocnemius (xvruxrj, ' the leg') the belly or calf of the leg; or rather the parts forming it. GasZrodynia (oSw^, 70 MEDICAL EDUCATION, ' pain') pain in the stomach. Gastrotomy (ro^, ' incision') the ope- ration of opening the belly. Gen, genEsis (yiviois) ' generation.' Hence, Hydrogm (vSu^, ' water') a gas, which enters into the formation of water. Osteogeny (our'f or, ' a bone') the formation of bone. GenTon (yevuov) ' the chin.' Hence, Genioglossus (yxaoo*;, ' the tongue') a muscle, arising from the chin, and passing to the tongue. Genys (yswi) 'the jaw,' also, the chin. Hence, Genyantron (av*e,ov, ' a cavity') the antrum of Highmore; and Genyantralgia (tOyoj, ' pain') pain in the antrum of Highmore. Geron (ys^uv,) ' an old person.' Hence Gerocomium (xo/a.su, ' I take care of) an invalid hospital. An hospital for the aged. Geusis (yevoii) ' taste.' Hence, Geasionosi, and GewsZionosi (fooj3o5, ' dread') a dread of blood. ZfemaZopoiesis (rfocfu, ' I make') and Hsematbsis, sanguification. Hsematuresis and Haematuria (ov^cu, ' I pass urine') bloody urine. Hssmoptoe, and ZZamoptysis (n-evu, ' I spit') spitting of blood. Zfemorrhage (goy»7, ' a breaking out') a preternatural flow of blood. Zfemorrhoea (e,eu, ' I flow') hemorrhage. Zfemorrhoids (same etymon) piles. ZZsemostatic (coverts, ' stagnation') a styptic. Hals (aa.5, ' salt.') Hence, ZZaZogenium (ywvato, ' I make.') Ha- logene. The basis of common salt. Haloid (1=1805, 'resemblance.') Like salt. HaphE (6\$ri ' feeling,' ' touch.') Haphonbsi (vooo$, ' a disease.') Diseases of touch. AmblyopAia (a/xpxvs, 'dull.') Obtuseness of feeling. Helcos (&X05 ' an ulcer.') Helcbdes and Helcoides (nSos, ' re- semblance,') ulcerous. Helcdma (txxiofna) ' an ulcer,' especially of the cornea. Helcdsis (txxaoii) ' ulceration.' Helios (ijXLos) ' the sun.' Heliasis (^xiaocs,) and Heliosis (yXiuoii) ' insolation.' Exposure to the sun. Helmins (Ixjmvs, genitive ixpwdos) ' a worm.' Hence, Helminth- agogue (ayo, ' I expel.') A vermifuge. Helminthia, and Helminthi- asis, invermination. A worm disease. Helminthica, worm remedies. Helminthology {xoyos, ' a discourse.') A treatise on worms. Hel- minthopyra (ftvg, ' fire,' ' fever.') Worm fever. Helos (J51.05, ' a marsh.') Hence, Helbdes and Helo'ides (^805, ' form,' ' resemblance,') marshy; as Febris helodes, marsh fever, and Helopyra and Helopyretos (ttvg, and Ttvgstos, ' fever,') having the same signification. Hemera (fi/j-sQa) ' a day.' Hence, Hemeralopia (0415, ' sight.') Dayvision. Nightblindness. Hemi (iifn, ijfiuov, ' half,' ' semi.') Hence, ZZemicephalus (xefynxy, ' head.') One, who has half a head. ZZemicrania (xgcwtov, ' the cra- nium,') megrim; pain in one half the head. Hemiopia (otys, ' vision.') The sight of only half an object. Hemipagia and ZZemipegia (rtayos, ^05, ' fastened,' ' nailed.') Hemicrania, clavus 72 MEDICAL EDUCATION, hystericus. ZZcraitritaeus (r^itaioy, ' tertian;') happening on the third day. HEpar (rrta^, genitive, r^atos, ' liver. ') ZZepaZalgia (axyoy,' pain.') Pain in the liver. ZZepa/apostema (o.7tootrjixa, ' an abscess.') An abscess of the liver. ZZepaZization. Conversion of the lung into a liverlike substance. Hepatitis. Inflammation of the liver. Hermes ('E^firjs ' Mercury.') Hence, ZZermaphrodite (A^oSitr, ' Venus.') Hernia (of uncertain etymon.) A rupture. Herniotomy (to/it;, ' incision.') The operation for hernia. HEteros (it egos) ' the one of two:' ' the other.' Hence, Hetero- phonia (^>uvrj, ' voice.') A cracked or broken voice. Heterorexh op4t5, ' appetite.') Appetite for all kinds of strange aliments. Hexis (iie-s) ' habit,' ' constitution.' Hence, Hectic fever; a fever of the habit. Cachexia (xaxo5, ' bad.') A bad habit of body. Hidros (£8£»5, genitive i^utos) ' sweat.' Hence, Hidrda, and Hidrdta. A sweat or heat eruption. Hidropyra (nve,, ' a fire or fever.') A sweating fever, Sudor anglicus. Hidrbsis (IS^uats) ' sweating.' Hidroterium (LSgot^iov) ' a sudatorium or sweating place.' Himas [tfiat, genitive Ipavt05) ' the uvula.' Also, elongation of the uvula. Himantbma (Ipcwfapa) and Himantbsis (Ipavtuots) have the same signification. Hippus (laeoi) ' a horse.' Hence, Z/ippiatria (tcw^oj, ' a physi- cian.') The veterinary art. ZZippocampus (xaparj, ' a winding.') A medullary projection in the posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle of the brain. Hippotomy (topy, ' incision.') Anatomy or dissection of the horse. Histos (Lotos) ' texture.' The organic texture. Hence, Histo- genia (yivopcu, ' to arise.') The formation of the organic textures. Histology^xoyos, 'a description.') The doctrine of the organic tex- tures; general anatomy. Anhistous, (av, ' privative,') without organi- zation, as the ' anhistous' membrane, or decidua. [Velpeau.] Homo:os (6^0105) ' like.' Hence, ZZbmaopathy («a0o5, ' disease.') The doctrine of Hahnemann—similia similibus curantur. HyAlos (.{.aa.05) ' glass.' Hence, Hyalbdes and Hyaloides, («8o5, • resemblance.') Glasslike, as the hyaloid coat of the eye. Hydor (i&ta£, genitive £8a*05) ' water.' Hence, Hydatid, a blad- der of water, an acephalocyst. Hyderos (iStgoy) ' dropsy, especially PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 73 anarsarca. Hydragogue (ayw, ' I expel.') A cathartic that occasions watery evacuations. Hydrargyria, and DyrZrargyriasis (apyvpos, 'silver.') The mercurial disease. ZZy cZrargy rum, quicksilver. Hydr arthrus (apflpov, ♦ a joint.') Dropsy of a joint. ZZy ' sweating.') Excessive sweating. ZZypcrosphresia (ocrp^itj, ' smell.') Excessive acuteness of smell. Hypersarcbma (oapxupa, ' growth of flesh.') Luxuriant flesh. ZZypersthenla (o5, ' strength.') Excessive vital power. ZZypertrophy (tpo^, ' nutrition.') Supernutrition. Hypnos (vnvos) ' sleep.' Hence, Hypnotic, (invutixos)' a soporific' Hypc (t,rto) ' under.' Hence, Z/ypacticus (vrta.xtt,xos) (ayw, ' I expel.') A cathartic. ZZypamaurosis, an imperfect amaurosis. Dypae- mia or Hypoxemia (dijua, ' blood.') A deficiency of blood; also, ex- travasation of blood. ZZypochondria (Xov8pos, ' a cartilage.') The regions under the cartilages of the false ribs. ZZypochondrlasis. The disease of the hypochondres. Hypochyma and ZZypochysis t 74 MEDICAL EDUCATION, (xva or 2sw, ' I pour out.') A suffusion. A cataract. Hypogas- trium (yao-i-jyp, ' the belly.') The lowest portion of the belly. Hypo- glossal (yxuooa, ' the tongue.') Lying under the tongue. The ninth pair of nerves. ZZypospadias (ortaw, ' I draw.') The opposite to Epispadias: the urethra terminating beneath the male organ. Hypo- theton (diois, 'the act of placing.') A suppository. HystEra (votepa, votcpr;) ' the uterus.' Hence, Hysteria, a disease often referred to the uterus. Hysteritis, inflammation of the uterus. ZZysferopsophia (4o<}>ew, ' I emit a sound') discharge of wind from the uterus. Hysteroptbsis (rttuoiSf ' a falling down') prolapsus uteri. Hysterotomy (topy, ' incision') the caesarean section: also, Hyste- rotomotocia (toxos, 'parturition'). I. Iatros (tafpos, ' a physician'.) Hence, ZaZraliptic (iatpaxwtti,x*;) (aXft$w, ' I anoint') the art of applying by friction. Zafrochemia, medical chemistry. ZaZromathematicus. A mathematical physician. Za/rotechnica (tixvq, ' art') the healing art. Ichthus (ixSvs) ' a fish.' Hence, Ichthyophagus ($oyw, ' I eat') a fish eater. Ichthyosis. Fish skin,—a cutaneous disease. Ichthyo- colla (xoxxa, ' glue') fish glue. Isinglass. Idios (18105,) ' proper,' ' peculiar.' Hence, Zozopathic (ftaOos, ' af- fection') primary suffering, in contradistinction to symptomatic. Idiosyncrasy, and Idiosyncrisy (owxpaois, ' commixture;' ovyxpms, ' composition') peculiarity of constitution. Idros, See Hidros. IlEon, Ilium (from uxea, ' I roll') the gut Ileum: also, the bone of the pelvis on which the Ileum rests. Ileus; volvulus,—a variety of colic,—the Colica Ileus. Iliac; referable to the Ilium; as Iliac passion; Iliac muscle. Imas, See Himas. Ion (toy) ' the violet.' Hence, Zonthus, 'violet eruption;' some, however, derive it from avflos, 'a flower;' others from oj/005, 'foulness') an eruption on the face. Iris (tpis, genitive ^805) a rainbow. The Iris or diaphragm of the eye. Zriancistron and /rirfancistron (ayxiatpov, ' a hook') an instru- ment used in the formation of artificial pupil. Zrio'ectomia (txtoprj ' excision') formation of an artificial pupil: also, Iridotomy (top^, ' incision.') Zritis. Inflammation of the Iris. Ischo (texa, 'I keep back,' 'I restrain,' 'I hold firm.' Hence, PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 75 ZscAaemia (avpa, ' blood') suppression of hemorrhage. Iscliion (oa- 2io,) the ischium. The hip. Seat bone. ZscAias, pain in the hip. Ischiadic, and Ischiatic, Sciatic. ZscAialgia (a*yo5, ' pain') the same as Ischias. ZscAolochia (ko^ia, ' the lochia') suppression of the lochia. ZscAomenia (prjv, ' a month') suppression of the menses. Ischuria (ovpov, ' urine') suppression of urine. L. Lagos (xoyos) ' a hare.' Hence, Zagochllus (xeaos, ' a lip') and Zagostoma (otopa, ' mouth') harelip. Lambda (the Greek letter A, xappSa.) Hence, Zam&aacismus. The frequent use of the L for the R. Zam&doidal, Lambdbdes, Lamdo'ides (a,8os,' form') shaped like the letter A.—As the Sutura lambdoidalis. Larynx (a.apuy|). The upper part of the windpipe. Hence, Laryngeal, belonging to the larynx. Laryngitis, inflammation of the larynx. Laryngotomy (topq, ' incision') cutting into the larynx. Leipo, See Lipo. Lepis (xs7tis, genitive xatiSos,) Lepas (7^7(05, genitive xsrtaSos), ' a scale.' Hence, Lepidbdes and Lepidoides (siSos, ' form') Squamous, scaly; as the Sutura lepidodes vel squamosa. Lepsis (x^is) ' a taking hold of,' from xapfiava, 'I take.' Hence, Epilepsy (t7th '.upon') ' a seizing upon.' AnaZepsis (aw*, ' again') a recovery. Leptos (xsrttos,)' thin,' 'light.' Hence, ZcpZophonia^w^,'voice') a fine, delicate voice. ZepZotrophia (tpo$q, ' nourishment') light nu- trition. Leptysmus (xtiatvopos) emaciation: wasting. LethE (xfjOtj) ' oblivion, death.' Hence, Lethargy (spyov, 'work.') Stupor, morbid drowsiness. ZeZ/iiferous (£pw, 'I bear') death bear- ing. Deadly. Leucos (xsvxos,) ' white.' Hence, Zewcaethiops (Ai0«>4, ' an ^Ethiopian:' itself from ai0w, ' to burn,' and w4 ' the face') an Albino. Zeacoma (xsvxupa) ' a whiteness of the cornea: also, Albumen. Zeacophlegmatia ($xsypa, ' phlegm,) a dropsical condition. Leuco- rrhoea (ptw, ' I flow') ±luor albus. Lien (?i«05, ' smooth, slippery,' [?]. The spleen. Zientery (evtipov, 'intestine') a watery diarrhoea, with undigested food;—formerly, called ' slipperiness of the guts.' Limos (xipos) ' hunger.' Hence, Zimanchia, (oyx«, 'I choke') and 76 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Ziwoctonia (xtovos,' murder,'' death') death from hunger. TJmdsis, appetite for food impaired, excessive, or depraved. (Good). Lipa (jurfa,) ' fat,' and Liparos (xmapos,) ' fatty.' Liparia, fat- ness. Lipoma, a fatty tumour. Lipo or Lkipo (xeutu) ' to leave,' ' to forsake.' Hence, Lipopsy- chia (41^17, ' the mind,') fainting; and, also, Zipothymia (Ovpos, ' the soul or mind'). Lithos (xi6os) ' a stone.' Hence, Lithagogues (ayw, ' I expel') remedies for the stone. Litharge (*.i0apyvpo5) (apyrpos, ' silver'). The semivitreous oxide of lead. Lithiasis. A calculous disease. IAth- odes, Lithoides (41805,' form') stonelike;—as Os lithddes: the petrous portion of the temporal bone. ZifAonthryptic (dpvrttu, ' I break to pieces') a solvent of stone. ZiVAothrypsy or Lithotripsy (0pt4i5, or tfpi4t5, ' a breaking,' crushing, or rubbing to pieces.') The art of breaking, or rubbing to pieces, stone in the bladder. Lithotomy (topy, ' an incision') the operation for the stone. Lithotrity (*pi/3«, ' I break') an operation for breaking the stone in the bladder. Lochos (xoxos) a woman in childbed. Hence, Lochia; the dis- charge from a childbed woman. ZocAodochium (Ssxopat,, 'to receive') a lying-in hospital. LffiMus, Loimos (xocpos) 'plague.' Hence, Loemology (ju>yof, 'a discourse') the doctrine of contagious diseases. Loemopyra (nvp, ' fever') the plague. Logy (jioyoj, ' a description') a suffix denoting ' a treatise or des- cription.' Hence, AngioZogy (wyytiov, ' a vessel') ' a description of the vessels.' Neurology (vtvpov, ' a nerve') a description of the nerves. NosoZogy (vooos, ' a disease') a description or arrangement of diseases. Lordos (^805) ' bent, bent forwards.' Hence, Lorddma and Lor- dosis. A curvature of the spine forwards. Lycos (xvxos) ' a wolf.' Hence, Zycanche (ay^u, ' I choke') hy- drophobia. Zycorexia (optfis, ' appetite') a canine appetite. Lympha, ' Lymph.' ZympAangeitis (ayyuov, ' a vessel') inflamma- tion of the lymphatics. Lymphangcon, a lymphatic. ZympAangio- logy (*oyo5, ' a discourse') a treatise on the lymphatics. Lysis (xvois) ' a solution,' from xvu, ' I loosen.' Hence, Paraly- sis (rtapa, ' throughout') a palsy. Dialysis (8«v, ' through') a solu- tion of continuity. Lyssa (xvooa, xvtto) ' madness,' canine madness. Zyssodectos (8^15, ' a bite') one bitten by a mad dog. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 77 M. Macros (paxpos) ' extended;' ' long.' Hence, iJZacrauchen ((wx^v, ' neck') a long neck. Mzcrobiosis (/3m>j, ' life') a long life. Macro- nosia (Vo ' mixture') a drink of honey and water. Men (pnv, genitive ^05) Mensis. A month. Hence, Menagogue (ayw, ' I expel') an emmenagogue. il/enorrhagia ('pay»?' ' a vio- lent flow') immoderate flow of the menses, JZenostasis (otaevs, ' stagnation') retention of the menses. Meninx (^tyl, genitive pqviyyos, ' a skin or membrane;' espe- cially a membrane of the brain). Hence, Meninges (privvyyts, prural of prjviy%) the membranes of the brain. Meningea, belonging to the membranes of the brain. Meningion (prjviyyt,ov) a very delicate mem- brane, and especially the Tunica Arachnoides of the brain. Mening- itis, inflammation of the membranes of the brain. MEros (pepos) ' a part,' ' a member.' Hence, il/eramaurosis, in- complete amaurosis. il/eridrosis (;8pw<»5, ' sweating') a partial y sweat. J/erobalneum (balneum, j3aXavs(,ov, ' a bath') a partial bath. Meros (pypos) also means ' the thigh.' Hence, Merocele (xqXri, } ' rupture') Femoral hernia. Merycismus (pqpvxiopos) rumination. Hence, Merycology (xoyos, ' a description') the doctrine, or description of rumination. Mesos (psoos) ' middle, in the midst of.' Hence, Mesaraeum . (apato5, ' rare' ' thin'), Mesenterium (tvtipov, ' an intestine') the me- ^ sentery; Mesocolon (xioxov), and Mesorectum. Mesoscelon, (oxsxos, { ' the leg') the perinaeum. ', Meta (pita) meth (^£0') ' with, together with, after, change of '1 form and place.' Hence, Metacarpus (pEta, 'after, behind;' and xaprtoj, ' the wrist'). iJZeZamorphosis (pop^y, ' shape') change of shape. Me- tastasis (otaovs, ' position') a change of position. .Metatarsus (taboos, 'the middle foot, the instep'). The part beyond the tarsus—between it and the toes. TkZe/hemerina (ypega, ' a day') daily; as Febris Met- hemerina; a quotidian. MeZAodus (0805, ' way') way, mode. Met- opon (w4, ' the eye') the forehead; and MeZopantron (w4, ' the eye,' omtgov, ' a cavity') the frontal sinus. Metopantritis; inflammation of the frontal sinuses. Meter (pctgov,' a measure') a suffix denoting a measurer. Hence, Barometer (j3agos, ' weight') an instrument for measuring the weight of the air. Pleximeter (rtxijfe, ' percussion') an instrument for mea- suring sound on percussion. Metra (prjte,a) Matrix,' the womb.' Hence, J/eZrhelcosis and MeZrelcosis (ixxos, ' ulcer') ulceration of the uterus. .Metritis, in- PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 79s flammation of the uterus. .MeZrocarcinoma (xagxivupa, « cancer') cancer of the womb. .MeZromania, furor uterinus. MeZroptosis (ewwmy, ' a falling down') prolapsus uteri. MeZrorrhagia ('^ay^, * a violent flow') uterine hemorrhage. MeZrorrhcea ('gea, ' I flow') a morbid discharge from the uterus. MeZrotomy (topri, ' incision.') The Caesarean section. Micros (pvxe,os) ' small.' Hence, Microcephalus (xE8i]s) ' exciting nausea.' Necros (vsxpos) ' death.' Hence, Necrology (jioyoy, ♦ a discourse.') An obituary; a description of death. iVecromancy (pavtsia, ' divi- nation.') Divination by the dead. iVecrosis,—death,—as of a bone. JVecropsy (0415, ' sight,') and iVecrotomy (topy, ' incision.') Dissection; examination after death. Neos (vsos) novus,' new,' ' fresh.' Hence, iVeogala (yaa.a, ' milk.') The first milk or colostrum. iVeognos (vsoyvos) (y£wo, ' I beget.') A new-born infant. Nephos (»/£$05,) nubes, ' a cloud.' Hence, Nephela, Nephele (vt$txv[,) and Nephelium (vEfsXw) ' a little cloud;' Nubecula; a speck on the cornea. Nephelbdes (Vs$s%a8iji) Nubilosus, cloudy. Nephros, (vc$pos) ren, ' a kidney.' Hence, iVepAralgia (a7iyo5, 'pain.') Pain of the kidney. iVepArltis, inflammation of the kidney. iVepArolithlasis (uOos, ' a stone.') The disease of renal calculus. iVepAroncus (07x05, ' a tumor.') A swelling of the kid- ney. Neuron (vsvpov, nervus,) 'a nerve.' Hence, iVewralgia (ajiyo;, ' pain.') Nerveache. iVewrilema, or Neurilyma (et,xw, ' I envelope.') The sheath of a nerve. Neuritis, inflammation of a nerve. Neurd- des (eiSoj, ' like.') Nervosus, nervous. iVewrology (xoyoj, ' a dis- course.') A description of the nerves. iVewronosos (voaos, * a dis- ease.') A disease of the nerves. iVewropathic (#a9os, ' affection.') Belonging to disease of the nerves. Nosos (yoffoy) ' a disease.' Hence, iVbsocomium (xopta. ' I take care of.') An hospital; and iVbsodochlum (8eX», «I receive.') Noso- logy (xoyos,' a description.') The doctrine of disease; generaUy, the classification of diseases. Nostos (voetos) ' a journey home.' [Hence, Nostalgia (afcyo*, ' pain,') and iVbsZomania, homeache. Notos («,*>*) 'the back.' Hence, Notalgia. (axyos, 'pain.') PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 81 Pain in the back. iVoZencephalous (tyxaqaxov, ' the brain.') A foetus having the head with the brain on the back. Nux (w%, genitive wxtos) ' night.' Hence, Nyctalopia (w4, ' the sight.') Nightsight; dayblindness. iVycZobatesis (jianw, ' I go,' ' I wander.') Somnambulism. Nymphs (wpfa, wp$rj, ' a bride.') The lesser labia of the female parts of generation. AympAomania, Furor uterinus. Nymphotomy (topy, ' an incision.') The removal of the nymphae. O. Oarion (wapioj/) (wov, ' an egg.') The ovarium; also, called Oo- phoron (<}>£pw, ' I carry.') The egg vessel. Hence, Oaritis, inflam- tion of the ovarium. Odous (080D5, genitive oSovtos) ' a tooth.' Hence,. OoonZagogum (ayw, ' I expel,') and Odontagra (oypa, ' a seizure.') An instrument for extracting teeth. Odontalgia (aXyos, ' pain;') too-thache. Odontia- sis, dentition, and painful dentition. Odontia, pain or derangement of the teeth or their sockets. [Good.] Odyne (o8w*i) 'pain.' A very common suffix; as in Anodyne, PleurocZyne, fyc. (EdEma (oiStjpa) from otSaw, ' I swell.' A swelling;—especially a watery swelling. Hence, (Edematous,—of the nature of oedema;. and (Edematoid (aiSoy, * resemblance.') Resembling oedema. (Enus (on/05) ' wine.' Hence, GEnomania, delirium tremens* (Esophagus (oKjo^oyos,—from otw, ' I carry;' and $ayw, ' I eat.') The gullet. Hence, Oesophagitis, inflammation of the oesopha- gus. QZsophagotomy (topri,' incision.') An incision into the oeso- phagus. (Estrus (oistpos). ' a violent impulse or desire.' Hence, QHstrus veriereus, and CE&tromania, nymphomania. Oid and Ode, (see Eidos.) OlEne (uxev*!,,) ulna, ' the elbow.' Hence, OZecranon or Olecra- non (xpavov, ' the head.') The head of the elbow:—the Acrolenion. (See Acros.) Oligos (o*tyo5,) ' few,' ' little.' Hence, OZigaemia (dipa, ' blood.') Paucity of blood. O/igotrophia (tpo$y, ' nourishment.') Defective nutrition. Omos (apos) ' the shoulder.' Hence, Omagra (oypa, ' a seizure.') Pain or gout in the shoulder. 82 MEDICAL EDUCATION, OmphXlus (op$axos) ' the navel.' The Cmbiticus. Hence, Om- phalelcbsis (Jjixo5, ' ulcer.') Ulceration of the navel. Omphalitis, inflammation of the navel. Omphalocele (xtjxtj, ' rupture.') Umbi- lical hernia. Oncos, Oncus (oyxos) ' a tumor.' Oncdses; tumors, as diseases. Oncotomy (topri, ' incision.') The opening of an abscess, or removal of a tumor. Oneiros (ovEipos) ' a dream.' Hence, Oneirodynia (o8wq, ' pain.') A painful dreaming. Oneirogmus, (ovupuypos) ' a lively dream.' Nocturnal pollution. Onyx (ow|, genitive owxos, ' a nail.') Hence, OnycAoptosis (rttoois, ' a falling off.') Loss of a nail. Ophthalmos (o$9aXpos) ' the eye.' Hence, Ophthalmia, and OpA- thalmitis, inflammation of the eye. Ophthalmiater (tatpos, ' a phy- sician.') An oculist. Ophthalmocarcinbma (xagxwupa, ' cancer.') Cancer of the eye. OpisthE (o7H,o9e) ' from behind,' ' backwards.' Hence, Opistho- cephalon (xtrpaxi;, ' head') the back part of the head. OpisthoZonos (tswu, ' I extend'). Tetanus dorsalis vel posticus. Ops (w4) ' the eye, the look.' Hence, Opsis (o4k,) ' sight,' ' vi- sion', and Opsionusi (vovoov, ' diseases') diseases of vision. Ambly- opia (apfixvs,' dull.') Dulness of vision. Autopsy (avtos, ' himself) self-inspection. Diplopia (Siitxoos, ' double') Double vision. Cycl- opia, (xvxxoi, ' a circle') the state of having one eye; and Monopsia (povos, ' one') having the same signification. Orchis (opz^, genitive oPXeus, and opXi8os) ' the testicle.' Hence, OrcAeotomy (topyj, 'incision') and Orchidotomy. Castration. OrcZtitis. Inflammation of the testicle. Orchos (0P205) ' a row:' as of the eyelashes. The tarsus. Orcho- tomy (topy, ' incision') the removal of the tarsus. Orexis (opslis) ' appetite.' Hence, Anorexia (aorav, ' privative') want of appetite. Orthos (Op0o5) ' right,' ' upright.' Hence, OrZAopaedia (rtat5, gen- itive *at8o5, ' a child') the art of correcting, or preventing deformities in the young. OrtAopnoea (7ivon, ' breathing') dyspnoea, requiring the patient to be erect. OschE (ooxn) ' the scrotum.' Hence, OscZiltis. Inflammation of the scrotum. OscAocarcinSma (xapxwapa, ' cancer') cancer scroti. OsmE (oopn, ' an odour,' from ofc, ' I smell'). Ozsena, (o?ao/a) a PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 83 fetid ulcer of the nose, is from the same root, Osmonosi (vooos, ' a disease') diseases of the sense of smell. Osmos ((007*0$, ' a pushing'). Hence, Endosmose (ev8ov, ' within') an inward impulsion. Exosmose («|, ' out'). An outward impulsion. Osphrasia (oofgaota) ' an odour.' Osphresis, (oa$e,*iot,s) ' the sense of smell. Hence, Osphresiology, (xoyos, ' a discourse') a treatise on, or description of, odours. Osphys (oofvs) Coxa. 'The hip.' Hence, Osphyalgia (oxyos, 'pain') coxalgia. Pain in the hip. Osphyitis, inflammation of the parts about the hip. Osteon (ootsov) 'a bone.' Hence, Ostarion, a little bone. Osteo- copus (xorfos, ' fatigue,' 'pain') pain or fatigue in a bone: also, Oste- algia (axyos, 'pain') and Osteodynia (o8wq, 'pain'). OsZeology (^05, ' a discourse.') A description of the bones. OsZeomalacia (paXaxos, ' soft') softness of bones. OsZeonosi (vocos, < a disease') diseases of bone. Osteosarcoma (capl, ' flesh') a kind of fleshy swelling of bone. Osteosis and Ostdsis; a bony tumor; ossification. Osteo- steatoma (oteatupa, ' a fatty tumor;') a kind of suety tumor of bone. Ota (uta) ' the ears.' Hence, O/agra (oypa, ' seizure') an ear pick. OZalgia (a^yo5,' pain') earache. Otenchytes (tyxvu, from tv, and xw, ' I pour') an ear syringe. Otica. Remedies for the ear. Ot- itis. Inflammation of the ear. OZorrhoea (£j«, ' I flow.') A discharge from the ear. Oxys (o%vs) ' acute, sharp, sour.' Oxos (0I05,) ' vinegar. Oxide. A diminutive of oxos. Oxycratum (xpao^, 'a mixture') a mixture of vinegar, honey, and water. Oxyecoia (oi^xota) (axoij, ' audition,) too great acuteness of hearing. Oxygala (yaxa, ' milk') sour milk. Oxygen (ysj/w, ' I make') the oxidizing gas. Oxymel (ptxt, ' honey') a mixture of vinegar and honey. Oxynosos, Oxynosema (vooos, 'a disease') an acute disease. Oxyopia (w4, 'vision') acuteness of vision. Oxyosphresia (oa^>p7jois, ' smell') acuteness of the sense of smell. Oxyphlegraasia (qxtypaota, ' inflammation.') Acute inflammation. Oxyregmia (tgtvyopat, ' to belch.') An acid eructation. P. Pachys (itaxvs) ' thick,' ' fat,' fleshy.' Hence, ZJacAaemia, and Pachyxmia (atpa, ' blood.') Too great thickness of the blood. Pais (rtats, genitive rtatSos) ' a boy,' ' a child.' Hence, Paeda- 84 MEDICAL EDUCATION, trophia (a, privative, and tgofrj, ' nourishment.') Atrophy of chil- dren. Palin (ttaxiv) ' again.' Hence, PaZindromia (8%opos, ' a race,' 'a course.') A relapse. Palmos, Palmus (rtaxpos) * palpitation.' Palmic, belonging to palpitation. Pan (nao, ftaoa, rtav, genitive ttavtos) ' all.' Panplegia or Para- plegia (rtxrjyy, ' a stroke.') General palsy. Panchymagogue (#0710$, 'ajuice,' ayw, 'I expel.') A cathartic, which evacuates every thing. Pancreas (x£e«5, ' flesh,') ' all flesh.' The sweetbread. Pancreat- itis, inflammation of the pancreas. Pun^agogue (ayw, ' I expel;') a panchymagogue. Pantophobia (<}>oj3o5) ' a universal dread.' Para (rtaga) ' by, near, contrary to, through, (per); above, and beyond, (ultra); besides, (praeterd) Hence, Paracentesis (naeaxtv tyots) (xevteu), ' I stick.') A perforation of the abdomen, in asci- tes. Paracme (axpq, ' the top.') The stage of declension, after a disease has attained the height. Hence, also, Paracmastic. Para- lysis (xw, ' I loosen;') palsy. Paraphim5sis (f^ow, ' I constrict,' < I bind tight.') A constriction of the prepuce behind the glans. Para- plegia, and Paraplexia (xagartxifcta,) ($, atxvi, aexxts, ' a dish' or ' bowl.') The pelvis. Hence, Pelyometer, or PeZycometer (pEtgov, 'measure.') A pelvimeter. Pepsis (^415) (oyw, ' to eat.') Hence, Phagxna and Phagedaena, an eating ulcer. Dysphagia (8vs, ' difficult') difficulty of deglutition. PhalAcros ($axaxe,os, 'bald.') Hence, Phalacrdma, baldness; and Phalacrotes. Phalanx and Phalange ($axayf, and ^aayy^,) ' a row or series.' The small bones of the fingers and toes are called Phalanges. Pha- langbsis (^axayywo-is) trichiasis. Phalangettianus, anything relating to the third phalanx of the fingers or toes. Phatangianus, any thing relating to the first phalanx. Phalanginianus, any thing re- lating to the second. Phallus ($axxos) * the penis.' Hence, PAaZZocarcinoma (xagxwapa, 8 86 MEDICAL EDUCATION, ' cancer') cancer of the penis. PAaZZorrhagia ('^oy^, ' a violent flow') hemorrhage from the male organ. PharmAcon (i,) Pharus ($0^05) 'the swallow;' the top of the gullet. Hence, Pharyngitis, inflammation of the pharynx. Pharyngotomy (topi;, ' incision') the operation of cutting into the pharynx. PhatnE ($atvq,) Phatnion ($atvtov) an alveolus. Hence, PAa- Znorrhagia ('gayy,' a violent flow') hemorrhage from the alveoli. Phimos ($tpos) 'a muzzle, a bit.' Hence, Phimosis. A con- striction of the prepuce, so that it cannot be drawn back over the glans. Phlebs ($7i«4) ' a vein.' Hence, Phlebeurysma (tvpvopa, ' dilata- tion') a varix. Phlebitis, inflammation of a vein. Phlebotomy (topri, ' incision') venesection. Phlegma ($xtypa, genitive, ^xtypatos) * heat, inflammation;' also, phlegm. Hence, Phlegmagogue (oyo, ' I expel') a cathartic, that expels mucus. Phlegmasia, inflammation. Phlegmatia, a watery or phlegmatic swelling. Phlegmatopyxa (7tv%, ' fever') a mucous fever. PAZegmaZorrhoea (1£e«, 'I flow') a catarrh. Phlegmon (tyxcypovr;) inflammation; also, an inflammatory swelling. Phleg- monodes (ctSos, ' resemblance') inflammatory. PAZegmymenitis ('vpqv, a ' membrane') inflammation of a mucous membrane. Phlox ($a.o£) ' flame.' Hence, Phlogbdes (0,80$, ' form, resem- blance') inflamed. Phlogopyra (rtve,, ' fever') inflammatory fever. Phlogdsis, inflammation. Phlogotica, inflammations. Phlyctis (qxvxtts) and Phlyct^ena (qxvxtawa) (from $xw, $xv%o, ' I boil') a vesicular eruption. Phlycteenoid ($xvx*atvu8ys) resem- bling Phlyctaenae. Phlyzacium {^xv^axwv) a vesicular eruption. Phlysis, a genus to which Paronychia belongs. [Good.] Phobos ($o/3o$) ' dread.' Hence, PAo&odipson (8140, ' thirst') hy- drophobia. Phone ($avq) ' voice.' Hence, Phonica, Phononbsi (vooos, ' a disease') diseases of the voice. Aphonia (a privative) loss of voice. Dysphdnia ($vj, ' difficult') impaired voice. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 87 Phorous (<}>££"> ' I carry') a suffix denoting conveyance. Hence, GalactopAorows (yaxa, ya^axT'05, ' milk') a conveyor of milk. Phren (tc«?") ' the mind.' The diaphragm. Hence, PArenltis, inflammation of the brain; also, Phrenesis, Phrenetiasis, and PAre- netismus. Phrenic, belonging to the diaphragm. Phrenology (xoyos, 'a discourse') the doctrine of the mind; craniology. Phrix (£(|, genitive, $£1x05) PhricE ($e,tx7i) Phricasmus ($e,txaopos) ' shivering.' Hence, Phricbdes (eiSo$, ' form') Febris algida. Phtheir (^0ei^) ' a louse.' Hence, Phtheiriasis or Ptheriasis. The Morbus pediculosus. Phthoe (fOotf) (f9tu, ' I waste away.') Phthisis, consumption. Hence, Phthisical, consumptive. PZAisuria (ovgov, ' urine') diabetes mellitus. PHYMA (fvpa, genitive tyvpatos) (fva, fvaa, guffaw, ' I inflate') a swelling. Phymaticus, belonging to a swelling. Phymation (qvpattov) a small boil. Physa ($voa) a bladder. A bulla or bleb. Physconia, a prominence of the lower belly. Pot belly. Physema, inflation with wind. Physometra (pqtga, ' the womb') inflation of the womb by air. PAysothorax, pneumothorax. Physis ($vots—$vw> ' I generate') nature. Hence, Physics, the doctrine of nature; and Physiology (xoyos, ' a discourse') now gene- rally restricted to the doctrine of the functions of the human body. Physiognomy (yvaots, ' descrimination') the art of judging of dispo- sition, &c. by the countenance. PZtysiatrice (tat^txtj, • the healing art') the vis medicatrix naturae. Phyton (fvtov) ' a plant,' ' a vegetable' (same etymon.) PAyZology (a.oyo5, ' a discourse') botany. Phytotomy (toptj, ' incision') vege- table anatomy. Picros (tux^os) ' bitter.' Hence, Picromel (ptxt, ' honey;' having the consistence of honey) the bitter principle of the bile. Picro- toxine (tot-txov, ' a poison') ' bitter poison.' The poisonous prin- ciple of the Cocculus Indicus. Pityron (itttvpov) ' bran.' Hence, Pityriasis, dandriff. Plaga, PlEgE (7ixrtyri) ' a stroke.' Hence, HemipZegia, &c. Plastic (rtxaotixos) ' forming, formative.' Hence, Plasticismus, the formative impulse, orbildungstrieb. BlepharqpZas^ice (pxtfapov, ' the eyelid') formation of a new eyelid. Platys (ftxatvs) ' flat, broad.' Hence, Platysma (mxatvopa) a broad surface;—as Platysma-myodes, a broad muscle of the neck. 88 MEDICAL EDUCATION, PlErks (xxripris) PlEnus: ' full.' Hence, Plerdsis, and Plerdma. Fulness. Repletion. Plethora (Ttx^apij, from ?t^0w, ' I fill') fulness of vessels. Pleura (rt^E-upa) ' the membrane lining the chest' (from rtxypris [?]). Hence, PZearalgia (aXyos, ' pain') and Pleurodyne (o8vvi;, ' pain') pain in the side. Pleuresia and Pleuritis. Inflammation of the pleura. Pleurothotbnos (7txtvpo9sv, ' from the side.' and tetvu, ' I extend') tetanus lateralis. Plexis (jtxrjZts) same as Plaga and PlEgE, 'a stroke.' Hence, PZeximeter (petpov, ' measure,') the measurer of a stroke. An in- strument used in percussion. Pneuma (rtvevpa) ' air, wind.' Hence, Pneumatic, belonging to air. Pneumatica, diseases of the respiratory function. [Gcod.] Pneumatosis, flatulence. Pnenmatothorax, and Pneumothorax (flu- pal;, ' the chest') wind in the cavity of the chest. Pneumonia and Pneumonitis, inflammation of the lungs. Pneumomca, diseases affecting the lungs, their membranes or motive power. [Good.] Pnigma (rtviypa) Pnixis («vt,t-t,s) Pnix (tffi|): from wvtyw, 'I stran- gle.' Strangulation. Suffocation: A high degree of asthma. Hence, Pnigalion (cnyaxtwj') the nightmare. Pnoe favor;) and Pnosa (rtvot*]) ' breath,'—Hence, Dyspnea, Or- thopnea, &c. Podos (genitive of rtovs, pes, ' the foot.') Hence, Poaagra (ay^o, ' a seizure') gout. Porfencephalous (tyxtyaxov, ' the brain.') A foetus having the brain on a kind of pedicle. Polys (rfokuj) ' many: full.' Hence, PoZyaemia (aipa, ' blood') Plethora. PoZychrestus (x&su, ' to use') much used;—as Sal Poly- chrestum. Polydipsia (8&4a, ' thirst') much thirst. Polypus (nws, « a foot') having many feet. A tumor compared to certain zoophytes. PoZysarcia. Having much flesh. Obesity: also, PoZysomatia (oupa, ' the body'). PoZytrophia (tpofV, ' nourishment') supernutrition. Pomphos (ftop^os) ' a blister,' ' a bleb,' ' a vesicle:' The same as Pemphix, and Pemphigus, and Pompholyx. Posia, Posis (rioots) ' drinking.' Hence, Brachyjoosia (j3pa^5, ' short') drinking little. The same as Hydrophobia. PosthE (rtoa0^) 'the prepuce' also, 'the penis:' Posthitis, in- flammation of the prepuce. Presbys (rtpEofivs,) ' old.' Hence, Presbyopia (w4, ' vision'). The vision of the aged. Longsightedness, PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 89 PriApus (jTptajtoj) the god Priapus: also, the penis. Hence, Pri- apism. Constant and distressing erection. Pro (*po) Pros (rtpos) ' before.' Hence, Procatarctic (xata, and opa:w, ' I begin') precursory, preparatory. Prodromus (8po^*aw, ' I run'), (jtpoSpo^os.) A precursor, forerunner. A premonitory. Pro- egumenos (yyiopat, ' to precede.') The same as Procatarctic. Progno- sis (yvuots,' discrimination'). Judgment regarding the future progress of a disease. Prophylaxis ($vXaooa, ' I guard') prevention. Pro- ptosis (Tttuots, ' a falling down') prolapsus; and Proptoma. Pros- opon (w4, ' the eye') the forehead. Prosopalgia (aXyos, ' pain') pain in the forehead. Prostate (c-r'aw, ' I stand') the prostate gland. Prostatitis. Inflammation of the prostate. Proctos (/tpoxtos) ' the anus.' Hence, ProcZalgia (axyos, ' pain') pain in the anus. ProcZItis. Inflammation of the anus. Proctocele (xrjXrj,' rupture'); ProcZoptoma (7ttupa,' a falling down') and Procto- ptosis (rctuots, ' a falling down') Prolapsus ani. >i-V. p ■' ' Protos (xputos) the first.' As ProZogala, (yatot, ' milk') the colostrum or first milk. Pseudos (4*1)805) ' false.' Hence, Pseudacbe (axo^, ' audition,') false hearing. Psewrfaesthesis (atodtjots,' feeling') depraved feeling. Pseudomeninx (pjjvty^, ' a membrane') a false membrane. Pseudo- morphe (poppy, * form.') A false or irregular form. Psewoopia, Psewrfopsia, PsewcZopsis (0415, ' vision'). False vision. Pseudo- syphilis, spurious syphilis. Psilos (40,05) ' bald, naked: bare.' Hence, Psildma (^txapa) ' baldness.' Psildsis (4o,w<»5) the act of making bald. Psildthron (4aw0poi>) a depilatory. Psoa (40a) 'the region of the loins.' Hence, Psoas, applied to a muscle, and an abscess. Psoitis. Inflammation of the psoas muscle. Psophos (40^05) ' a rattling noise.' Hence, Psophema (40^^1*0), and Psophesis (40^015). A sonorous discharge of wind. Psora ( 4w^a) ' the itch.' Hence, Psoriasis. An itching erup- tion. Psoropthalmia (o$9axpos, ' the eye') an itching ophthalmia. Psyche (^vx*i) 'the soul,' the mind. Hence Psychology (xoyos, 1 a description') the doctrine of the mind: mental philosophy. Psychros (4**p°s) ' cold: frosty: cool.' Hence, PsycArolutron (xovu, xovtp*w,' to wash') the cold bath. Psychroposia (rfo<»5,' drink') the use of cold drinks. Psycticus. A refrigerant. 8* 90 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Ptarmos (rtrapjuoj.) sneezing, sternutation. Hence, Ptarmica. Sternutatories. Pteryx (rittpv%) ' a wing.' Hence, Pterygium (itttpvytov) a small wing. An aliform formation, extending from the lachrymal caruncle to- wards the cornea. Pterygbdes, Pterygoid (tiSos, ' shape') wing- shaped. As the Pterygoid processes. Ptochos (ittuxos) ' a poor person.' Hence, PfocAocomlum (xo^em) ' I take care of) and PZocAodochlum (8sxopat, ' I receive') an alms- house. Ptoma (yttupa) ' a fall;' and Ptosis (**«<»$) ' falling.' Common suffixes denoting Prolapsus;—as ArchopZoma, and Archoptdsis (ap^oy, ' the anus'). Prolapsus ani. PtyAlon, Ptyelon (fttvaxov, ittvexov) ' saliva,' (tttw, 'to spit'). Hence, P/yaZagogues (ayw, ' to expel') salivants. Ptyalism. Sali- vation. From the same root proceed, Ptysis, (xtvots) the act of spitting, and Ptysma, the sputum; Ptysmagogue (ayw, ' to expel;') an expectorant. PylE (ftvXrj) porta, ' a gate, or door.' Hence, PyZemphraxis (j/*$pa£t5, ' obstruction;') an obstruction of the vena portae. Py- lorus (nvxecpos, ' a door-keeper.') The lower orifice of the sto- mach. Pyon (rtvov) Pyos (jtvos) ' pus.' Hence, Pyogenia (yswaw, ' I form,') and Pydsis and Pyopoiesis (rtoiw, ' to make.') The forma- tion of pus; suppuration. Pyothorax (0wpai) 'the chest;' Empyema. Pyuria (oupoi/, ' urine;') purulent urine. Pyr (wup) ' fire;' also fever heat, and fever. Pyra («vpa) and Py- retos (wpstos) fever. Pyreclica, fevers. [Good.] Pyretology (xoyos, ' a discourse.') The doctrine of fever. Pyrexia (cupsita) ' fever;') an attack of fever. Pyrosis (tsvpwcts, ' burning;') heartburn; water brash. R. Rachis or Rhachis ('paxts) ' a thorn;' the spine. Hence, Rhachi- algia (aXyoS, ' pain;') pain in the back: also, Colica Pictonum. Rhachitis, inflammation of the spine: also, Rickets. Rage or RhagE ('pay?) as a suffix, means violent rupture or dis- charge; as in HemorrZiagia, MenorrZtagia, &c. &c. [See Rhexis.] Rax or Rhax ('pa|, genitive 'payos) ' a grape;' uva. Hence, 2?Aag- PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 91 6des, Rhagoides (aSos, ' resemblance;') grapelike. The uvea is so called. Raphe or Rhapi-ie ('pa$r;) 'a suture;' and Raphis or Rhaphis ('pafts) ' a needle.' Hence, Rhaphiancistron (oyxtotpov, ' a hook;') an instrument for drawing the iris forward. Rhachis, see Rachis. RhagE, see Rage. Rhax, see Rax. Rheuma ('pEvpa) ' a flux,' ('psu, ' I flow.') Hence, Rheumatalgia (aXyos, ' pain;') a rheumatic pain; Rheumatism. Rheumatopyra (aupa, ' fever;') rheumatic fever. Rhexis ('peZls) ' a tearing away,' ' a rupture.' Like Rhage. Rhin, Rhis ('pw, 'pi$, genitive lptvos) ' the nose.' PAinoplastic (toatfuo, ' I form.') The Taliacotian operation. PAinorrhagia ^payri, [see Rage], Epistaxis. RhoE «, ' I moisten;') tannin. Sema (etipo) Semeion (otjpEtov) ' a sign,' ' a symptom.'' Hence, Semeiology or Semiology (xoyos, ' a discourse.') The doctrine of symptoms. Semeiotice or Semiotice, semiology. Sepsis (»e4'j) ' putrefaction;' also, SepEdon, (o-ErtsSwi-) Septic, a promoter of putrefaction. tfepZopyra (jtuga, ' fever,') a putrid fever. SesAmon (ayeapov) 'the seed of the sesamumd Hence, Sesamoid, Sesamoides, Sesambdes(Et8os, ' resemblance;') sesamum-like; as the sesamoid bones. SiAlon (otaxov,) SiElon (etEXov) ' saliva.' Hence, Sia/agogues (ayw, ' I expel;') salivants. Sigma (otypa) ' the old Greek s or c. 'Hence, SigmaZodes, Sigm- odes, Sigmoid (11805, ' form;') like the c; semilunar in shape;—-as the sigmoid valves. Sitos (0-1*05) ' food.' Hence, tfiZology (xoyos, ' a discourse.') The •doctrine of food. Soma (oapa) * body.' A common suffix to words. Spasmus (0-^07*05) (onaa, ' to draw up;') ' spasm, cramp.' Hence, -Spasmodic («8o$, ' resemblance;') relating to spasm. Spastic. Sperma (ajttppa) ' sperm, seed.' Hence, Spermatic, relating to the sperm. iSpermaZopoietic (rtoww, ' to make;') sperm making. Sphacelus (efynxcxoi) ' mortification.1 Sphaceloid (£t8o$, ' resem- blance;') gangrenous. Sphen (y/*os, oj>) ' the breast bone.' ■S'Zernalgia (axyo$, ' pain.') angina pectoris. StEthos (atri9os) ' the breast.' Hence, Stethoscope (oxoTtio, ' 1 view,' ' I examine.') An instrument used in the diagnosis of chest diseases. Sthenia and Sthenos (aSivos) ' strength.' Hence, Sthenic, connected with strength. Asthenic, (a, privative) connected with privation of strength. Stole (otoxrj, a ' mission.') Hence, DiasZoZe (8iaoYfM.w, ' I dilate;') dilatation of the heart. Systole (ovotEXXu, ' I contract;') contraction of the heart. Stoma (otopa, genitive o-tfo^aT^) ' the mouth.' Hence, Stomatic, a remedy for the mouth. Astomia, (a, privative) the state in which the mouth is wanting. Strabus (ofpaj3os) ' twisting;' one who squints. Strabismus, the act of squinting. Stranx (otpayi) ' a drop.' Hence, Strangury (ovpov, ' urine;') the urine passed by drops. 94 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Strophy (otpoocystis (xvotts, ' a bladder;') the urinary bladder. Crolithus (jufloj, ' a stone;') a urinary calculus. Uromantia (pavtsta, ' divination;') divination by the urine. ZTroscopy (oxortEa, ' I examine;') investiga- tion of the urine. Urus, Uris (oupa) ' a tail.' Hence, HippSris (1**05, ' a horse;') horse-tail; the cauda equina. Oxyuris (o|i>5, ' sharp;') sharp-tailed; the ascaris vermicularis. Trichuris (>pt|, 1^05, ' hair;') hair-tailed; the long thread worm. X Xeros (|Wo5 and 1^05) ' dry; hard.' Hence, Xeransis (fypavots,) Xerasia (i^paota,) and Xerasmus (fypaopos) dryness, as of the hair. Anophthalmia (o^daXpta, ' inflammation of the eye;') ophthalmia, without discharge. Xerotribia, (t^porp^a) and Xerotripsis (*pij3w, ' I rub;') dry rubbing. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 99 Xiphos (£«j>05) ' a sword.' Hence, XipAoid, XipAoides; XipZwdes (ei865, ' resemblance;') sword-like, as the Xiphoid or ensiform car- tilage. Z. Zema (^a) ' a decoction;' also, Apozem, (£e'w, ' to boil.') Zesis, coction, and decoction. Zestos (&otos) ' boiled.' ZesZolusia (xova, ' to wash;') the hot-bath. ZdMos (£upos) ' broth or soup.' Hence, Osmazome or Osmozome (00707, ' smell.') A proximate principle, which gives the flavour of meat to soups. Zoon (£woj<) ' an animal.' Hence, Zoochemia, animal chemistry. Zoodynamia (Swapts, ' power;') the animal or vital force. Zoology (xoyo5, ' a discourse;') the science of animals. Zoonomia (vopos, ' a law;') the laws of animal life. Zoophyte (fvtov, ' a vegetable;') one of the lowest classes of animals, closely approximating to the vege- table. Zootomy (topy, ' incision;') the anatomy of animals. Zygos (£uyo5, jugum) ' a yoke.' Hence, Zygoma, the malar or cheek-bone; and Zygomatic, belonging to the cheek-bone,—as zygo- matic arch, zygomatic process, fyc. The nomenclature of a/iatomy has been a subject of complaint in all times. Having had no fixed principles in its formation, it is extremely difficult for the stu- dent to attain. It is encumbered, too, unnecessarily, with forms of expression, that are any thing but con- cise; and on that account has drawn upon it the cen- sures, not only of the amateur, who may be desirous of making himself acquainted with the different organs of the human body, but also of anatomical writers themselves. As regards the names of various organs, it may be difficult, and perhaps unadvisable, to change such as have been applied to them for ages,—whimsi- cal as the causes of such appellations may have been; but the labors of the student might be greatly facili- 100 MEDICAL EDUCATION, tated, were the anatomists of the day,—in the case of muscles, nerves, &c, which proceed from one part of the economy to another,—to adhere to the kind of nomenclature, for example, proposed by Dumas and Chaussier,—or to any other based on similar principles. Some of the muscles, indeed, are t^hus designated in the nomenclature—or rather, in the names—generally adopted; they are few, however, yet they are sufficient to occasion the student deep regret, that the plan has not been followed throughout. Taking the muscles by way of elucidation, the stu- dent will soon discover, that the most heterogeneous reasons have swayed the anatomist in his selection of names. First. Uses. Thus we have diaphragm (' a partition.) Buccinator {buccinare, ' to sound a trum- pet.') Extensors, flexors, abductors, adductors, levators, depressors, 8$c. Secondly. Position; as Interspinales (between the spines of the vertebrae.) Interossei, subclavius {clavis, 1 the clavicle.') Poplitceus {poples,nhe ham.') Anconeus, (see Ancon, in the vocabulary.) Cubitalis, {cubitus, ' the elbow;' also, one of the bones of the forearm.) Iliacus; temporalis {tempus, « the temple,') &c. &c. Thirdly. Shape; as Trapezius, (see Trapeza, in the vocabulary.) Splenius (' like a spleen.') Lumbricales {lumbricus, ' an earth worm.') Serrati {serra, 'a saw.') Digastric (' double bellied,') (see Di, in the vocabu- lary.) Deltoid (' delta shaped,') (see Delta, in the vo- cabulary.) Scalenus {oxaxVvos, «irregular,' ' unequal.') Rhomboides, (see Rhombos, in the vocabulary, &c. &c.) Fourthly. Dimension; as pectoralis major; rectus capitis anticus major. Glutaeus—maximus, minimus and medius, fyc. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 101 Fifthly. Direction; as Obliquus abdominis; transver- salis abdominis; Rectus femoris; Rectus abdominis, &c. &c. Sixthly. Composition; as Semi-membranosus; semi- tcndinosus; complexus, <^c. fyc. Seventhly. Attachment; as sterno-cleido-mastoideus— according to the different points of the skeleton, with which they are connected by means of tendons or aponeuroses. Thus—in the case of the muscle just mentioned—the name indicates, that it is attached to the sternum, clavicle {xxsts, xxstSos,) (see the vocabulary, under Cleis) and mastoid process of the temporal bone,—or, according to common expression, that the muscle arises from the sternum and clavicle, and is inserted into the mastoid process. This is the prin- ciple on which the nomenclature of Chaussier is found- ed, and it is good,—inasmuch as, when the student has attained the name of the muscle, it suggests the seat, and likewise the use; for the main action of a muscle is back from its insertion towards its origin. The sterno-cleido-mastoideus, when it contracts, has its fibres drawn towards the sternum and clavicle; and, of course, the head, of which the mastoid process forms part, is moved. The order of contraction is, however, reversed occasionally, so that the origin and insertion, so far as regards their physiological action, change places. Thus, the deltoid muscle, as it is usually called, —the infra-acromio-humeralis of Chaussier,—issues, as the latter appellation imports, from below the acro- mion process of the scapula, and is inserted into the os humeri. When the muscle contracts, in its usual direction, the os humeri is moved by it, as when we raise a weight: but if the body be in the recumbent 9* 102 MEDICAL EDUCATION, posture, and the individual attempt to raise himself, by laying hold of a rope or cross-bar above him, then the muscle contracts towards the humeral attachment, and the scapula and body are elevated. The value of this kind of nomenclature will be readily apprehended, if we cast our eye over any table of muscles, in which the old, and the new names pro- posed by Chaussier, are placed in juxta-position. Valid objections may, indeed, be urged against some of the names of the French anatomist, but as his nomencla- ture is followed by many, it might be as well, perhaps, to adopt it without modification. Old Names. New Names. Orbicularis palpebrarum. Naso-palpebralis. Corrugator supercilii. Fronto-superciliaris. Buccinator. Alveolo-labialis. Masseter. Zygomato-maxillaris. Temporalis. Temporo-maxillaris. Platysma myodes. Thoraco-facialis. Psoas magnus. Prxlumbo-trochanterianus. Psoas parvus. Prselumbo-pubianus. Latissimus dorsi. Lumbo-humeralis. Sphincter ani. Coccygeo-analis. Biceps flexor cubiti. Scapulo-radialis. Brachialis internus. Humero-cubitalis. Sartorius. Ilio-prsetibialis. Gracilis. Infra-pubio-praetibialis. Allusion has already been made to the improvement introduced into chemistry, by the adoption of the no- menclature, which has been generally termed « Lavoi- sierian;' the credit of which ought, however, to be divided between that distinguished chemist, and his able coadjutors, Berthollet, Guyton de Morveau, and PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 103 Fourcroy. But, subject as the views of the chemist are to change, in consequence of the discoveries,—ever and anon made,—of the composition of bodies, the no- menclature of chemistry will have to vary, in order to keep pace with the progress of the science. Thirty years ago, oxygen, as its name imports,* was esteemed the great acidifying principle, whilst the alkalies were looked upon as simple bodies, and as antitheses to the acids. The chemical analyst has, since then, shown, that acids may be formed without oxygen, and that the alkalies—potassa and soda, for example—are com- pounds of oxygen with a metallic base. The erroneous idea of oxygen being the general acidifying principle— as Dr. Turner has remarked—has exercised an inju- rious influence over the whole structure. " But it is now too late," he adds, " to attempt a change; for the confusion, attending such an innovation, would more than counterbalance its advantages. The original no- menclature has therefore been preserved, and such additions have been made to it as the progress of the science rendered necessary. The most essential im- provement was suggested by the discovery of the laws of chemical combination. The different salts, formed of the same constituents, were formerly divided into neutral, super and swZjsalts. They were called neutral, if the acid and alkali were in such proportion that one neutralized the other: super-salts, if the acid prevailed; and sub-salts, if the alkali was in excess. The name is now regulated by the atomic constitution of the salt. If it is a compound of an equivalent of the acid and the alkali, the generic name of the salt is em- ployed without any other addition; but if two or more * See the Glossary. 104 MEDICAL EDUCATION, equivalents of the acid are attached to one of the base, or two or more equivalents of the base to one of the acid, a numeral is prefixed so as to indicate its composition. The two salts of sulphuric acid and potassa are called sulphate, and Sisulphate; the first containing an equiva- lent of the acid and the alkali; and the second salt, two of the former to one of the latter. The three salts of oxalic acid and potassa are termed the oxalate, bin- oxalate and quadroxn\a.te of potassa, because one equivalent of the alkali is united with one equivalent of acid in the first, with two in the second, and with four in the third salt."* It would be useless—as it would be unintelligible— to the student, to attempt here an explanation of the whole system of chemical nomenclature. To compre- hend it requires some acquaintance with the first principles of the science; yet, in many—it may be said in most—cases, the foundation of the nomenclature is sufficiently simple. Formerly, as has been observed, all acids were conceived to contain oxygen as the acidifying principle; but if they did not hold oxygen enough to give them the acid character, they were termed oxides. The substance, acidified by the oxy- gen, gave the name to the acid,—ic being added. Sulphuric acid, for example, is a compound of sulphur and oxygen. But if different acids were formed by a substance with different doses of oxygen, then the ter- mination was modified; the one with the larger dose of oxygen having the ending in ic, whilst the other was made to end in ous. Hence, we have the sulphuric and the sulphuroi/s acids. The termination uret denoted * Elements of Chemistry, &c, by Edward Turner, M. D., &c. Fifth American from the fifth London edition, p. 124. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 105 combinations of the simple non-metallic substances with each other, or with a metal, or a metallic oxide— as sulphwreZ of iron, which is a compound of sulphur and iron. This course has not been abandoned, although the different degrees of oxidation are now generally distin- guished by prefixes from the Greek or Latin. Thus, protoxide {*Potos, ' first,') denotes the first degree of oxidation; deutoxide (Sei^e^, * the second,') or Zjmoxide, the second; and Zrz'Zoxide (^05, ' the third,') or Zeroxide, the third. Peroxide is often applied to the highest de- gree of oxidation. Compounds, that consist of acids combined with metallic oxides or alkaline bases, are termed salts, and the names are so formed as to indicate the substances contained in them. If the salt has the acid at a maxi- mum of oxidation, the name ends in ate. Hence, the sulphaZe of potassa consists of the base potassa with the sulphuric acid. On the other hand, if the acidified substance has a minimum of oxygen, the name is made to end in ite. Hence, the sulphiZe of potassa is a com- position of sulphurous acid and potassa. In all this, there is system; but the rage for super- erogatory nomenclature prevails also here; and many innovations are constantly made, to the confusion of the student without any marked advantage to science. It would be comparatively well did the evil stop here. The rage has extended to the adoption of a style and manner, which is vicious in the extreme, and is too much based on the pleonastic style of some of the modern writers of France and Germany. It has been properly remarked by Sir Charles Bell, that although medical men may use a foreign or dead language with 106 MEDICAL EDUCATION, propriety, they should avoid a peculiarity of style and phrase, which no one can understand unless he be initiated, and has studied the science itself so intense- ly, that he has also learned the jargon in which it is conveyed. He observes, " that no one but a thorough anatomist can understand the adulterated language of anatomy, nor can he understand it without some labor; for anatomists have buried their science under the rub- bish of names; and there is not a difficult or hard- sounding word, upon which they have the least pre- tence of claim, that they have not retained; they have choked their subject with useless minutiae; they have polluted their language by transferring to it from the Latin many words, which, by their continual inflec- tions in that language, were beautiful, while their un- varied, uncouth termination in ours is barbarous in the utterance, and tends but to interrupt and puzzle the sense: they have impressed into the service of their science a great many poor words, which would get their habeas corpus from any court in Christendom." " Thus,"—he continues,*—" an anatomist will describe an artery as ' going to the radial edge of the second me- tacarpal bone; then supplying the abductor and flexor muscles; then going along the bone of the first pha- lange, seated upon this second metacarpal bone,' with many other distortions, ambiguities, and little contri- vances; to conceal (as one would believe,) that he is describing so simple a matter as the artery of the fore- finger, which the reader at last finds out, either by some lucky chance, or by reflecting how many meta- carpal bones there are, and then reckoning them first forwards, and then backwards, that he may be sure ' Anatomy, &c.' ii., Introduction, xxiv. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 107 which it is that the author means; for his author may count from the little finger towards the thumb; or from the thumb towards the little finger; or he may have a fancy of leaving out the thumb, and reckoning only four." " What,"—adds Sir Charles,—" must be the surprise of any well educated young man, when he reads in those books, which he must, of the regions of the elbow or thumb, or forefinger? And if an anatomist understand such things with difficulty, how distressing must they be to the student." And he concludes,— " This is the scholastic jargon, which has so long been the pride of anatomists, and the disgrace of their sci- ence, which has given young men a dislike for the most useful of all their studies, and which it is now full time to banish from our schools. These are the au- thors, who avoid plainness as if it were meanness; who are studious of hard words, as if they constituted the perfection of science: ' it is their trade, it is their mys- tery to write obscurely;' and full sorely does the stu- dent feel it." A similar difficulty is experienced by the student in the investigation of disease, from the careless use of unmeaning terms, or rather of terms, which convey no precise idea to his mind. Thus, we constantly hear of a person's being ' bilious,' and of an article of diet being ' bilious,'—the idea intended to be conveyed being, that the person is dyspeptic, or the diet difficult of digestion; and as the bile has, in recent times, been esteemed the great cause of indigestion, the epithet ' bilious' has been thus employed. It has been properly remarked by Dr. Abercrombie,* that "• if we would * 'Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers,' &c. Amer. edit. p. 329. 108 MEDICAL EDUCATION, contribute something towards diminishing the uncer- tainty of medical researches, and introducing a greater degree of precision into medical reasoning, there are certain rules, which we ought to keep steadily in view, both in conducting our own inquiries, and examining the investigations of others;" and that an important rule is to endeavour to have all our terms fully defined. " If we speak, for example, of a person being bilious, or laboring under biliary derangement, or derangement of the chylopoietic viscera, let it be explained what particular condition of the biliary or digestive organs we mean to express by these terms; or if this cannot be done, let it at least be clearly understood what par- ticular symptoms we include under them." " If," he adds, " they were defined in this manner, they would be merely names, and no harm could result from the use of them, but, as they are frequently employed, they seem to have no explicit signification." In prescribing, a mode of expression is employed, which, although conveyed in the Latin language, re- quires attention even on the part of those whose acade- mical education has been properly directed. Some acquaintance with the language of prescriptions is, therefore, indispensable, should the physician, with whom the student is placed, be in the habit of having his prescriptions prepared in his own office; and, espe- cially, if he be in the habit of writing his prescriptions, in the mode universally adopted by the physicians, and even by the apothecaries, of Great Britain. Mr. Cham- berlaine* has given the following specimen of the Prescription Book of the English apothecary, which * ' Tirocinium Medicum,' p. 96. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 109 may be taken as a correct illustration of the mode in which the diary of his proceedings is usually kept. " Die Lunce, 15to Januarii, 1813. Pitt, Mrs. Repetantur Haust.* iij.f ut heri. Hewitt, Mrs. Repr.:£ Mistura. Repr. Haustus anodyn. hora somni sumendus. Leonard's Child. R_Ung.§ Cetacei gj.fl Repetantur pulveres ut die Veneris ultimo praescr."lf The practitioner, when he returns from paying his visits, enters the prescriptions in his book, as above; and this is the guidance to the assistant or the appren- tice in his office, whose duty it is to prepare, and send out, the medicines.—Mrs. Pitt is to have the three draughts as yesterday.—Mrs. Hewitt is to have a repe- tition of the mixture; and the anodyrte draught, to be taken at bed-time, is to be repeated.—Leonard's child is to have an ounce of the ointment of spermaceti; and a repetition of the powders, prescribed last Friday. The prescriptions of the physician are issued in a similar style, of which the following may be taken as a sample. R.—Infus. Calumb. ^iss. Tinct. Gent. comp. gj. Syrup. Cort. Aurant. gij. Tinct. Capsic. gtt. xl. (vel m. xxx.) Capiat coch. ij. p. r. n. M. R. D. lmo. Martis, 1837. John Smith, Esq. * Haustus. t Tres. % Repetatur. § Unguenti. H Unciam. V Praescripti. 10 110 MEDICAL EDUCATION, This, when written at length, will read as follows— Recipe.—Infusi Calumbae, sesquiunciam, (vel unciam cum semisse.) Tincturae gentianee composite, drachmam; Syrupi corticis Aurantiorum, drachmas duas; Tincturae Capsici, guttas quadraginta, (vel minima triginta,) Misce. Capiat cochlearia duo pro re nata. There are several points, in these brief examples, which, to the tyro, require explanation. In the first place, it will be observed, a character, bearing the appearance of the letter R, but having— what Dr. Paris has termed—a ' cloven foot,' is placed at the head of every formula. This is now—univer- sally—a representative of the Latin word ' Recipe? and is always so rendered. Originally, however, it was not so. It is a relic of ancient superstitions, and, like many such relics, has had its functions so modi- fied, as to leave scarcely a vestige of its former appro- priation. The symbol, in question, is the old astrolo- gical sign for Jupiter, 2ji, and it was, anciently, placed at the head of the prescription, to invoke the aid of the god of thunder in its operation. Secondly. It rarely happens, that the different com- ponents of a prescription have their names written at full length. Thus, we have, in the last of the prescrip- tions, Infus. Calumb., Tinct. Gent, comp., Syrup, cort. Aurant., Tinct. Capsic, #c. This plan has, doubtless, been adopted to save the time of the practitioner: no other good reason can be assigned for it. There is no invariable rule adopted by prescribers in this matter. Sometimes those very articles will be written Inf. Calumb.; Tinctur. or %. .Gentian, c; Syr. cort. Aur.; Tinctur. or 'R. Caps., fyc. fyc. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. Ill It has been urged against the use of abbrevia- tions, that mistakes may arise, in consequence of the great similarity between the abridged names of cer- tain articles; but it cannot often happen that serious risk of this kind can be incurred. If the prescriber exerts ordinary caution, the merest tyro can compre- hend his directions. There are some newly introduced agents, however, which demand great care, inasmuch as they are the active principles of active remedies, and a mistake in compounding them might be followed by serious consequences. In the second edition of a translation of Magendie's " Formulaire pour la pre- paration et Vemploi de plusieurs nouveaux medicamens," by the author's friend and preceptor,—the late Charles Thomas Haden, Esq.,—the author of this work ad- vised the ending in ina, in the case of several of the newly discovered active principles of vegetable sub- stances,—inasmuch as errors would be less likely to arise, from the greater dissimilarity between the termi- nations of the name of the plant and its base, than when any other of the names that have been proposed are employed. Thus, the terms Cinchonia, Veratria, Solania, and Atropia are so similar to those of the plants of which they are the bases, that if the words were abridged in a prescription, the occurrence of many mistakes might be apprehended. Besides, Mor- phines, and Emetma, admitted into the pharmacopoeia of Paris, have been latinised according to the plan recommended.* * ' Formulary for the preparation and mode of employing several new remedies, &c.' Translated by C. T. Haden, Esq.: 2d edit., by Robley Dunglison, M. D. Lond. 1824. p. 1.—Reprinted in this country. 112 MEDICAL EDUCATION, In another work,* the author has given a table of the chief abbreviations that are used in medicinal for- mulae. They are by no means as frequently employed at the present day as they were formerly. Of old, every article of the materia medica had its appro- priate symbol; but the era of darkness has almost passed away, and most of the chemical, astrological *and other signs are now disregarded, except as indexes of a by-gone period of ignorance and superstition. The abbreviations, generally used at the present day, sufficiently indicate the words which they repre- sent. We still, however, meet with a few, that require a glossary; for example, A or aa, (««,) ana ' of each ingredient.' BB. Bbds. Barbadensis, ' Barbadoes.' C. C, Cornu cervi, 'hartshorn.' C. C. u., Cornu cervi ustum, i burnt hartshorn.' C. m., Cras mane, ' to- morrow morning.' De d. in d., De die in diem,' from day to day.' F. fiat, ' let it be made;' as /. pil.,— fiat pilula,' make into a pill.' F. VS., Fiat venassectio, ' let bleeding be performed.' G. g. g., Gummi guttce gambice, ' Gamboge.' U.S., Flora somni, i at the hour of sleep;'—' at bed time.' H. s.s., Hord somni sumen- dus, ' to be taken at bed time.' M. or M, Misce, * mix.' N. M., Nux moschata, ' nutmeg.' 01. s. i., Oleum sine igne,i oil, prepared without fire;' as Ol. lini s. i.,t cold- drawn linseed or flaxseed oil.' O. O. o., Oleum oliva optimum, ' best olive oil.' P., Pondere, l by weight.' P. and Pug., Pugillus, ' a pugil.' P. ce., Partes aiquales,' equal parts.' P. P., Pulvis Patrum, ' Jesuit's bark.' P. r. n., pro re nata, ' as occasion may arise.' * ' A new Dictionary of Medical Science and Literature, &c.' Bos- ton, 1833. p. 1. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 113 Q. p., Quantum placeat, ' as much as may please.' Q. s., Quantum sufficiat or sufficit, ' as much as may suffice, or suffices.' Q. v., Quantum volueris,' as much as you wish.' S. a., secundum artem, ' according to the rules of art.' S. V., Spiritus vini, ' spirit of wine.' S. V. r., Spiritus vini rectificatus, * rectified spirit of wine.' *S. V. t., Spiritus vini tenuior, ' proof spirit of wine.' T. O., Tinctura opii, ' tincture of opium,' ' laudanum.' TR. and X., Tinctura, ' tincture.' V. o. s., Vitello ovi solutus ' dissolved in the yolk of egg.1 ZZ., formerly ' myrrh,' now Zinziber,' ginger.' Thirdly. Particular hieroglyphics are usually em- ployed to mark the quantities of the different articles in a prescription. Thus, lfe> libra, is a pound; %, uncia, an ounce; z, drachma, a drachm; d, scrupulum, a scru- ple; gr., granum, a grain; O., octarius, a pint, f., pre- fixed to the symbol for the ounce and drachm, means an ounce or a drachm by measure,—' a fluidounce,' fluiduncia, or i fluidrachm,' fiuidrachma. ni,. signifies minimum, the least or sixtieth part of a fluidrachm, gtt., gutta, ' a drop;' ss., semissis, or half; iss., one and a half; j., one; ij., two; iij., three; iv., four; x., ten; xij., twelve, &c. &c. To this kind of symbolic language, great objection has been made, and not without apparent foundation. It has been affirmed, for example, that a physician's prescription should be intelligible to all who can read, and so clear, that the nurse, who attends the sick, may know its import: that the quantities should be written in words, and not in the usual characters; for, suppose—it is urged—in the case of some powerful medicines, in the hurried way of almost all affected bad writing, in pre- 10* 114 MEDICAL EDUCATION, scriptions,—there should be an extra z, at the top of the symbol for a drachm; or, in other words, there should be an 5 (ounce) instead of a 5 (drachm,)—the latter being only the eighth part of the ounce,—how fatal might be the consequences! It, doubtless, would be bet- ter, that these symbols should not be used in extempo- raneous formulae, yet a very ordinary degree of atten- tion, on the part of the prescriber, or the compounder, will be sufficient to prevent mistakes. . As regards the weights and measures, used by the apothecary in compounding, it is only necessary to refer the student to his ' Dispensatory.'* The import- ance of possessing a uniform system of weights and measures has impressed the scientific of all countries, and numerous endeavours have been made to accom- plish the object. It is, however, a matter of much diffi- culty, and not likely to be easily effected. The new French measures are upon decidedly the best footing, but they are not adopted out of France. They are not used, indeed, universally in it. The weight,by which the apothecary buys his drugs, is the avoirdupois: that, by which he compounds, is a modification of the troy,—called apothecaries1 weight. The last two correspond with each other in pounds, ounces and grains; but they differ in the division of the ounce, which, in the troy weight, contains twenty pennyweights, each pennyweight weighing twenty-four grains; whilst, in the apothecaries' weight, the ounce is divided into eight drachms,—each drachm into three scruples;—and each scruple into twenty grains. * See, also, the article ' Pondera et Mensurs,' in the author's ' Medical Dictionary.' Vol. II. 198. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. H5 It has been remarked above, that the French do not always employ the weights of modern introduction. They usually adhere to the poids de marc, which differs again from both the troy or apothecaries, and the avoirdupois. The sub-divisions, however, resemble those of the last. The relative values of the old French—the poids de marc, and the English or troy— are as follows:— Poids de marc. Troy weight. Troy grains. 1 pound, = 1.31268 = 7561. The ounce, = .984504 = 472.5625 The gros or drachm, = .984504 = 59.070312 The grain, •= .820421 Troy. Poids de marc. French grains. 1 Pound, = 0.76180 = 7561. The ounce, = 1.01574 = 585.083 The drachm, = 1.01574 = 73.135 The grain, = 1.219 The difference between the French and the English grain has, therefore, to be borne in mind. In the case of very active remedies, the adoption of the grain troy, for the grain poids de marc, might be the source of in- convenience. Thus, in the ' Formulary' to which allu- sion has been made, the weights of the ingredients in the different formulas are given in French grains. In that, for example, for the Gouttes calmantes—the * Guttce anodynaP or ' anodyne drops,' of the translation—six- teen grains of the acetate of morphine are directed to the ounce of distilled water. These, in the troy com- putation,are 13i grains: and seven drachms,52£ grains, respectively. Again, in the Sirop de quinine, or ' syrup of quinine,' 116 MEDICAL EDUCATION, the computation of the ingredients in the poids de marc, and the troy, is as follows:— Simple syrup, 2 pounds (31oz. 4 dr. 2 gr. Troy.) Sulphate of quinine, 64 grains (gr. 52.48 Troy.) If, then, in this formula, the compounder were to read two pounds troy, instead of two pounds poids de marc, the difference would be great,—two pounds troy being 24 troy ounces, whilst two pounds, poids de marc, are upwards of 3l£ ounces. To convert the poids de marc grains into troy grains, it is but necessary to divide by 1.219; and to convert troy grains into French grains to multiply by the same. The measures of capacity in use with the apothe- cary are sufficiently simple. .- Formerly, libra was used for the pint, and the symbol Ife. was adopted to express both a pound by weight, and a pint by measure. Dif- ferent liquids, however, are of different specific gravity, and, therefore, the London College of Physicians sug- gested the term octarius for the pint,—libra being re- stricted to the pound by weight. In like manner, gutta was formerly used universally for the smallest division of the measures of capacity: but the drop varies materially in weight, as well as in dimensions, according to the nature of the fluid, and the thickness of the lip of the phial from which it may be dropped. Accordingly, the same college suggested a division of the fluid drachm into 60 equal parts, and proposed, for each of these, the name minimum or minim. Both suggestions have been embraced by the framers of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 117 The gallon (Congius,) ~\ f"8 pints. The pint (Octarius,) 16 fluidounces, The fluidounce (fluiduncia,) ^-contains <^ 8 fluidrachms, The fluidrachm (fiuidrachma,) \ \ 60 minims. The minim (minimum,) J ^ Besides these weights and measures, there are cer- tain modes of estimating quantities of substances by approximation. A cupful is giv. or v. A vvineglassful, giss. to §ij. A tablespoonful, f.gss. A coffee or dessert spoonful, f.^iij- A teaspoonful, f. 3j. Pugillus, (French Pincee) is as much as can be held by the three fingers. &c. &c. The following vocabulary will aid the student, not only in translating, but in writing, his prescriptions more solito. A. Aciditas, * sharpness.' Adde succum limonis ad gratam acidi- tatem, ' add the lemon juice so as to make it agreeably acid.' Adjequo, ' to be equal to.' Quod pisum adoequat infricandum, ' the size of a pea to be rubbed in.' Adde, ' add.' Addatur, addantur, ' let there be added;' Adden- do, ' adding.'—Sub finem coctionis, adde, addatur vel addantur, addendo:—' towards the end of the boiling'—(as in the preparation of decoction) ' add, let there be added, or adding.' Admoveatur, Admoveantur, ' let there be applied.' Admoveatur epispasticum dorso:—' let a blister be applied to the back.' Adstans, ' present.' Omittatur cinchona adstante febre. ' Omit the bark or cinchona, whilst the fever is present.' iEoER, ./Egra, ' a sick person.' Habeat Mger vel Addgra Haustum anodynum. ' Let the patient have an anodyne draught.' Aggrediens, 'coming on,' ' approaching.' Sumat haustum eme- ticum aggrediente febre. ' Let him have an emetic draught, when the fever is coming on.' 118 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Agito, ' to shake;' Agitatus, ' shaken.' Agita phialam, ' shake the vial.' Agitato vase, ' the vessel being shaken.' Alternus, ' alternate,' ' every other.' Sumatur alternis horis, vel alternis diebus, ' let it be taken every second hour, or every se- cond day.' Aluta, ' leather.' Extende emplastrum super alutam mollem, ' extend or spread the plaster on soft leather.' Alvus, ' the belly,' ' the bowels.' Utatur oleo ricini alvo ad- stricta, ' let castor oil be used, when the bowels are confined.' Donee alvus soluta sit, ( until the bowels are opened.' Animus, 'the mind.' Ad defectionem animi:—' to fainting.' *■■ Antemeridianus, ' in the forenoon.' Utatur enemate hora oc- tava, antemeridiand, ' let the enema be used at eight o'clock in the morning. Aqua, ' water.' Aqua calida, ' warm water.' Aqua tepida, ' tepid water.' Aqua frigida, ' cold water.' Aqua fervens, ' hot water.' Aqua bulliens, ' boiling water. Aqua fontana, ' spring water.' Aqua pluvialis, ' rain water.' Armatus, ' armed,' ' provided.' Fistula armata, « an armed pipe.' The prepared bag and pipe for giving clysters. B. Biduum, * the space of two days.' Omni biduo, ' every two days.' Bihorium, ' the space of two hours.' Sumatur omni bihorio, ' let it be taken every two hours.' Binus, 'two.' Macera per horas Unas, 'macerate for two hours.' Bis, ' twice.' Capiat pulverem bis terve, ' let him take a powder twice or thrice.' C. Capio, ' I take;'—as in the example just given. Capiat cochl. ij., ' let him take two table-spoonfuls.' Cerevisia, 'ale or beer.' Cerevisia, 'porter' dicta, Cerevisia Londinensis, ' porter.' Charta, ' paper.' Cola trans (vel per) chartam bibulam, ' filter through bibulous paper.' Divide in chartulas vj., < divide into six papers.' Detur ad chartulam, 'let the quantity in the paper be given.' PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 119 Clausus, ' shut; covered.' Digere in vase clauso, ' digest in a covered vessel.' Cochleare, 'a spoonful.' Cochleare magnum vel amplum, 'a table-spoonful.' Co.chleare medium; Cochleare infantulorum vel in- fantum; Cochleare modicum, ' a dessert-spoonful; a child's spoonful.' Cochleare parvum vel parvulum, ' a tea-spoonful.' Coctio, ' a boiling.' Adde sub finem coctionis, ' add towards the end of the boiling.' Co3na, ' supper.' Capiat pilulam hora ante coenam; ' take a pill an hour before supper.' Colo, ' I strain;' Colatus, ' strained.' Cola misturam, ' strain the mixture.' Liquori colato adde, ' to the strained liquor add.' Cola- turae adde—has the same meaning. Concido, ' I cut to pieces;' Concisus, ' cut to pieces.' Radi- cibus concisis, ' the roots being cut to pieces.' Contundo, ' I bruise;' Contusus, * bruised.' Contunde gummi in mortario, ' bruise the gum in a mortar. Radicibus contusis, ' the roots being bruised.' CoRrus, ' a body.' Contunde donee corpus sit unum, ' bruise until they are incorporated, or form one body.' Cras, ' to-morrow.' Sumatur eras mane, 'let it be taken to-mor- row morning.' Cras vespere, ' to-morrow evening.' In usum cras- tinum, ' for to-morrow's use.' Cucurbitula, ' a gourd,' ' a cupping-glass;' C. C. Cucurbitiilae siccae, ' dry cupping.' Cucurbitulae cruentae, (vel cum ferro,) ' cup- ping with the scarificator.' CyAthus, ' a cup, ' a cupful,' Cyathus vini vel vinarius, ' a wine-glass.' Cyathus theae, ' a teacup.' D. Decubitus, ' lying down.' Hora decubitus, ' the hour of lying down;' ' bed-time.' Deglutio, 'I swallow.' Deglutietur bolus vespere, 'let the bolus be swallowed in the evening.' Dejectio, ' a depositing;' also, ' an alvine discharge,' from Deji- cio, ' I go to stool.' Post duas dejectiones alvi habeat enema opiatum, ' after two evacuations, let him have the opiate enema.' Repetatur catharticum donee alvus bis dejiciat, ' repeat the cathartic until the bowels shall respond twice.' Dies, ' a day.' In dies, ' every day, daily.' Bis die, ' twice a 120 MEDICAL EDUCATION, day.' Secundis diebus, ' every second day.' Alternis diebus, ' every alternate day.' De die, ' in a day.' De die in diem, ' from day to day.' Diluculum, ' daybreak.' Sumatur diluculo, ' let it be taken at break of day.' Diu, ' a long while.' Tere diu, ' rub for a long time.' Diuturna coctione, ' by long continued boiling.' Do, ' to give.' Da pilulam statim, ' give the pill immediately;' or Detur pilula statim, ' let the pill be given immediately.' Dolor, ' pain.' Urgenti doldre, ' the pain being urgent.' Durante dolore, ' the pain continuing.' Applicetur cataplasma parti dolenti, ' apply the cataplasm to the pained part.' E. ExhibEo, 'I exhibit.' Exhibeatur enema, 'let the glyster be given.' Fiat mistura ter die exhibenda, ' make into a mixture to be given three times a day.' F. Farina, ' flour,' meal.' Farina seminis lini, ' flaxseed me'al.' Fictilis, ' earthen.' Serva in vasis fctilibus, ' keep in earthen vessels. Fistula, ' a pipe.' See Armatus. Fonticulus, ' a little fountain,' ' an issue.' Fiat fonticulus, ' let an issue be made.' Fotus ' a fomentation;' from Foveo, ' I foment.' Utatur fotu aquae ferventis, ' let him use a fomentation of hot water.' Foveantur partes aqua calida, ' let the parts be fomented with warm water.' Frico, ' to rub.' Fricetur corpus oleo, ' let the body be rubbed with oil.' G. GelatTna, ' jelly.' Gelatina ribesiorum, ' currant jeUy.' H.- Heri, ' yesterday;' Hesternus, ' belonging to yesterday. Capiat haustum ut heri, ' take the draught as yesterday.' Capiat haustum ut hesternd nocte, ' take the draught as last night.' PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 121 Hirudo, ' a leech.' Applicentur hirudines xviij dorso; ' let eighteen leeches be applied to the back.' Hora, ' an hour.' Hora ante ccenam, ' an hour before supper.' Hora somni,—abbreviated, h. s. ' at the hour of sleep.' Hora somni sumendus;—abbreviated, h. s. s. ' to be taken at the hour of sleep.' Hora decubitus, ' at bed time.' Horx unius spatio, ' at the end of an hour.' In horas, ' every hour.' Hora septima vespertina ' at seven o'clock in the evening.' Hora septima matutina ' at seven o'clock in the morning.' Horx quadrans vel pars quarta, ' a quarter of an hour.' Horis intermediis, ' at intermediate hours,'—as where two medicines are prescribed. I. Illixo or IllTnio, ' to anoint, or besmear gently.' Minere un- guento oculis, ' to anoint the eyes with ointment.' Oculos sanare Hit tii, ' to cure the eyes by anointing.' Impono, ' I place on.' Imponatur emplastrum lateri, ' let the plaster be put on the side. IncTdo, ' I cut;' Incisus, ' cut.' Radicibus inclsis adde, ' to the cut roots add.' InjicEo, ' I inject.' Injiciatur enema, 'let theglysterbe injected.' Fiat enema statim injiciendum, ' make into an enema, to be injected immediately.' Instar, 'bigness.' Sumat molem instar nucis avellanae, ' let him take the bigness of a hazel nut.' Internus, 'internal.' Applicentur sinapismata internis femori- bus, ' let sinapisms be applied to the interior of the thighs.' J. Jentaculum, ' breakfast.' Sumatur pulvis horis binis ante jenta- culum, ' let the powder be taken two hours before breakfast. Jus, Jusculum, ' broth.' Jusculum ovillum, ' mutton broth.' Jusculum vitulinum, ' veal broth.' Jus bovinum, 'beef tea.' L. Lanula, ' flannel,' from Lana, ' wool.' Utatur lanuld nova, ' let new flannel be used.' Languor, ' faintness.' Capiat misturam in languoribus, ' let the mixture be taken when faint.' 11 122 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Latus, ' the side.' Admoveatur vesicatorium lateri dolenti, ' let a blister be applied to the pained side.' Libitum, ' one's will, and liking.' Bibat potum bitartratis potassae ad libitum, 'let him take the drink of bitartrate of potassa at pleasure.' Liquesco, ' to liquify, melt;' also Liquo. Donee liquescat, ' until it melts.' Liqua simul, ' melt together.' M. Mane, ' in the morning.' Primo mane, and valde mane, ' early in the morning.' Cras mane, ' to-morrow morning.' Matutlnus, ' belonging to the morning or forenoon;' as Hora undecima matutind, at ' eleven in the morning.' Medius, ' middle;' as media nocte, ' in the middle of the night.' Minor, ' to threaten.' Capiat cinchona minante paroxysmo, ' let the cinchona be taken—the paroxysm threatening.' Mitto, ' to send.' Mitte chartas sex; vel mittantur chartae sex, ' send six papers;' or, let six papers be sent.' Mittatur sanguis ad uncias duodecim, ' let blood be lost to twelve ounces.' Modus, ' a manner.' Sumantur pilulae modo praescripto, ' let the pills be taken in the manner prescribed.' Moles, ' a mass;' ' a piece.' Sumat molem instar nucis moschatas, ' let him take a piece the size of a nutmeg.' Molestus, ' troublesome.' Molestante dolore capiat, &c, ' the pain being troublesome, let him take.' Molestante tussi, 'the cough being troublesome.' Mora, ' delay.' Mittatur sanguis, sine mora, ' let blood be drawn without delay.' Mortarium, ' a mortar.' Mortarium aheneum, ' a brass mortar.' Mortarium marmoreum, ' a marble mortar.' Mortarium vitreum, ' a glass mortar.' Mos, ' manner.' Utatur gargarismate more solito, 'let the gargle be used in the wonted manner.' N. NarthEcium, * a gallipot.' Nox, ' night.' Sumatur nocte, vel nocte maneque, vel alternis noctibus, ' let it be taken at night, or day and night; or every other night.' Nucha, ' the nape of the neck.' Applicetur moxa nuchae, ' let moxa be applied to the nape of the neck.' PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 123 O. Obstans, ' hindering,' ' opposing.' Utatur cinchona paroxysmo non obstante, '\etthe bark be used, the paroxysm not preventing.' Obturo, ' to stop up;' Obturatus, ' stopped up.' Serva in vase bene obturato, ' keep in a vessel well stopped.' Olla, ' a pot;' also, ' a gallipot.' Ovum, ' an eggd Albumen ovi, ' the white of eggd ViteUus ovi, ' the yolk of eggd P. Pannus, ' a cloth.' Pannus linteus, ' a linen rag or cloth.' Pan- nus laneus; Pannus e lana vel lanula, ' a flannel cloth.' Foveantur partes aqua fervente ope panni lanei, ' let the parts be fomented with hot water by means of flannel.' Pendo, ' to weigh.' Pensus, ' weighed.' Recipe strychninae, accurate pensx, &c. * take of strychnine, accurately weighed.' &c. Pergo, ' to go on; to continue.' Pergat in usu medicaminum, ' continue in the use of the medicines.' PerAgo, ' to finish;' Peractus, ' finished.' Peracta operatione emetici,' the action of the emetic being finished.' Perfrico, ' to rub.' Perfricentur partes affectae linimento prae- scripto, ' let the affected parts be rubbed with the prescribed lini- ment.' Pomeridianus, Postmeridianus, ' belonging to the afternoon;' as hora prima pomeridiand, ' at one in the afternoon.' Potus, ' drink.' Habeat solutum bitartratis potassae pro potu communi, ' let him have the solution of cream of tartar for common drink.' Prandium, ' dinner.' Sumatur pilula hora ante prandium, ' let the pill be taken an hour before dinner.' Pro re nata; abridged p. r. n. ' as occasion may require.' Pulmentum, ' gruel.' Capiat pulverem in pulmento, ' let the powder be taken in gruel.' Pyxis, genitive Pyxidis, ' a pill-box;' ' a lozenge box.' Q. Quamprimiim, ' as soon as possible.' Adhibeatur enema quampri- mum, ' let the injection be given as soon as possible.' 124 MEDICAL EDUCATION, Quivis, ' any one.' Sumatur quovis vehiculo, ' let it be taken in any vehicle.' Quiesco, ' to go to rest;' ' to become easy;' as, continuetur reme- dium donee quiescat, ' continue the remedy until he grows easy.' Quantum sufficit, ' as much as is sufficient;' often abridged a. s. R. Ratio, ' a proportion.' Pro ratione aetatis, ' according to the age.' Pro ratione doloris, ' according to the urgency of the pain.' RecidTvus, ' relapsing;' ' ad recidivum praecavendum, to prevent a relapse.' Regio, ' a region.' ' Applicetur regidni epigastricae; regioni lumborum, Regidni umbilicali, &c, 'let it be applied to the epigas- tric region, the lumbar region, the umbilical region, &c.' Redigo, ' to reduce;' Redactus, ' reduced.' Redige vel redigatur in pulverem, ' reduce, or let it be reduced into powder.' In pulve- rem redactum, ' reduced into powder.' Repeto, ' to repeat.' Repete vel repetantur remedia, ' repeat the medicines, or let them be repeated.' Respondeo, ' to answer.' Donee alvus bene respondent, ' until the bowels have well responded.' S. Sedes, ' an evacuation by the bowels.' Capiat anodynum post singulas sedes liquidas, ' take the anodyne after every liquid evacu- ation.' Serum, Serum Lactis, ' whey.' Sumatur in sero lactis vinoso, ' in wine whey.' Singulus, ' each.' Pulveris jalapae, hydrargyri submuriatis, sin- gulorum (vel ana) grana quinque, ' of powdered jalap and calomel, each five grains. Solutus, ' dissolved,' loosened.' Donee alvus soliita fuerit, ' until the bowels be opened.' SpissTtas, ' thickness.' Spissus, ' thick.' Sumatur hydrarygri submurias in quovis vehiculo spisso, ' let the calomel be taken in some thick vehicle.' Coque ad debitam spissitatem, ' boil to the proper consistence.' Stupa, ' tow.' Involvantur partes in stupa, ' let the parts be wrapped in tow.' Sub, ' under;' prefixed to many words, has the signification of the I PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 125 English termination ish. Subniger, ' blackzsZV Subtepidus, ' warm- ishd Subacutus, ' acutish, fyc. Subigo, ' to subdue,' ' to dissolve,' ' to cause to unite.' Subige hydrargyrum adipe, ' subdue the mercury with lard.' Hydrargyro subacto, ' the mercury being subdued.' Subtilis, ' subtile,' ' reduced to fine powder.' Pulvis subtilissi- mus, ' the very finest powder.' Sumo, ' to take.' Sumat aeger pilulas duas, ' let the parent take two pills.' Sumatur, ' let it be taken.' SuperbTbo, ' to drink after.' Post emeticum superbibat infusum anthemidis, ' after the emetic, let him drink chamomile tea.' T Tempus, genitive Temporis, * time,' ' the temple.' Applicetur lotio tempori dextro, ' let the lotion be applied to the right temple.' Tero, ' to rub;' Tritus, ' rubbed.' Tere simul, ' rub together.' Simul triti, ' rubbed or ground together.' Triduum, ' the space of three days.' Omni triduo, ' every three days.' U. *~ Ultimo, ' last.' Continuetur potio ultimo praescripta, ' let the potion, last prescribed, be continued.' UrgEo, ' to urge, ' to be troublesome.' Urgenti dolore, ' the pain being troublesome.' Usque ad, ' up to,' ' as far as.' Pergat in uso antimonii usque ad nauseam, ' continue the use of the antimony until it induces nausea.' V. Valeo, ' to avail.' Repete catharticum si non valeat, ' repeat the cathartic, if it does not answer.' Vehiculum, * a vehicle,' ' that in which a medicine is taken.' Sumatur in quovis vehiculo, ' let it be taken in any vehicle.' VespEre, ' in the evening.' Vespertinus, ' belonging to the evening.' Repetatur haustus vespere;—hora sexta vespertind, ' let the draught be repeated in the evening;—at six o'clock in the evening.' Vices, ' turns.' Ad duas vices sumendus, ' to be taken at twice.' Partitis vicibus, ' in divided or broken doses.' 11* 126 MEDICAL EDUCATION, We come now to the question:—what subjects the office-student should peruse during his first year, and before he has commenced his attendance on lectures? Generally, on this point, the preceptor gives himself but little trouble. The youth is received into the office: the books,—few or many as the case may be —are placed at his disposal, and he is left to his own discretion—which may be a negative quantity—as to the topics he shall peruse. Under such circumstances, it will almost always happen, that those subjects, which minister most to his curiosity, and which are, there- fore, the least dry, will first attract his attention, and a discursive habit may, in this manner, be acquired, which may shed its injurious influence over his subse- quent career. In other cases, a ' Dispensatory' is placed in his hands; the greater part of which he necessarily finds it impossible to comprehend, in consequence of the perpetual recurrence of terms belonging to the natural sciences, and indeed of explanations, by no means demanded in a work, which is strictly devoted to the materia medica. In the very first article, for example, of his Dispensatory, he finds ' Acacle Gummi,' gum arabic; the concrete juice of the Acacia vera, which is said to be in the class Polygamia; order monazcia, of Linnaeus; monadelphia polyandria, of Per- soon; and of the natural order Leguminosce, of Jussieu. The general characters are described to be ' Herma- phrodite; Calyx, fivetoothed: Corolla, fivecleft or form- ed of five petals. Stamens, 4—100: Pistil, one. Le- gume, bivalve. Male, Calyx, fivetoothed. Corolla, fivecleft, or formed of five petals. Stamens 4—100.' Again; if he turns to the Cantharis or ' Spanish prior to attendance on lectures. 127 fly,' he finds it is in the class Insecta; order Coleoptera; formerly, Trachelides; tribe Cantharidece, of Latreille; and that its general characters are; " Tarsi, entire—nails, bifid; head not produced into a rostrum; elytra flexi- ble, covering the whole abdomen, linear, semicylindric; wings perfect; maxillm with two membranaceous laci- nise, the external one acute within, subuncinate; an- tennae longer than the head and thorax, rectilinear; first joint largest, the second transverse, very short; maxillary palpi larger at tip. Say."----All of which must necessarily be impenetrable to one, whose atten- tion has not been largely directed to the study of the natural sciences,—and such is the case with almost every medical student. " The extent and nature of the subject" (Materia me- dica)—says a recent writer*—"has been too little considered, and the preliminary acquisitions, requisite for its proper acquirement, most unaccountably over- looked, in the course of studies prescribed by the in- corporated medical bodies in this country (England). Instead of commencing his medical education, by at- tending lectures on materia medica, which is an obli- gation imposed upon him by the existing regulations, the student should previously attend, at least, one course of Natural History, Botany, Chemistry, Anato- my, and Physiology: and not till then can he be ex- pected to comprehend the doctrines delivered in a course of materia medica, far less those relating to Therapeutics." In accordance with those views, Dr. Thomson has endeavoured to incorporate into his work everything, * Professor A. T. Thomson, in ' Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics,' 1st. edit, vol i. preface. 128 MEDICAL education, that can be regarded as elucidative of the subject, from the domains of Natural History, Botany, Chem- istry, Anatomy, Physiology, and indeed of every de- partment of the science. It is obvious, that there may be some advantage in this plan; but, if it were followed throughout, works, professing to be on isola- ted branches, would cease to be confined to them, and details would be introduced, which would necessarily add largely to the expense of such productions, and which might readily be found elsewhere: in this way, endless repetition would be indulged without any equi- valent advantage. As, too, the medical schools—of this continent especially—are constituted, it would not be an easy matter to carry into effect the recommendation of Professor Thomson, were it eminently desirable. For- tunately, the evil is not as great as has been repre- sented. It would, doubtless, be well, that the physi- cian should know the natural history of the animal whence he obtains his castor, his musk, &c, and that he should be acquainted with the botanical relations of the plants, whose preparations he prescribes: but such a knowledge is no more indispensable, than Greek is to an acquaintance with medical Technology. The argument may, indeed, be extended to the consumer of the products of the animal and vegetable kingdom as articles of diet. It would be well for him, no doubt, to be acquainted with the natural history of the ox, the sheep, the hog, &c, whence he derives his sustenance; yet, notwithstanding his ignorance on this point, uni- versal experience demonstrates, that he has no diffi- culty in appropriating them to his dietetic necessities. "The different professions"—observes a recent learn- PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 129 ed author*—" have one way of glorifying themselves, which is common to all. It is by setting forth a vast array of preparatory studies, and pretending they are indispensable in order to fit a man for the simple ex- ercise of the practical duties that belong to them. I have heard lawyers make such a mighty parade of the things, which a man must know before he is called to the bar, that, according to the average of human ca- pacities, not one in fifty has the smallest chance of mastering them; and of those who do master them, not one in fifty can employ them to the uses for which they are intended. I once saw a list of books recom- mended by a professor of divinity to the study of those going into holy orders. They were more numerous than the majority of even studious men ever read in their whole lives; yet these were a few prolegomena introductory to the office of a parish priest. We, too, conceive that it befits our dignity to magnify ourselves at certain seasons. The commencement of a session is usually the time chosen; and then, what a croud of wonderful things are marshalled by authority around the entrance of our profession! And through this croud, it is implied every man must press his way be- fore he can obtain admission. As if we wished to guard and garrison ourselves against invaders, rather than to gain good and useful confederates! In the affair of literature are reckoned Latin, and Greek, and French, and Italian, and German. In the affair of science, mathematics, and metaphysics, and me- chanics, and optics, and hydraulics, and pneumatics, * " Lectures on subjects connected with Clinical Medicine." By P. M. Latham, M. D., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, &c. Lond. 1836. p. 9 and 22. 130 MEDICAL EDUCATION, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and geology. Such are the portentous forms that guard the threshold. But farther onward are placed anatomy human and com- parative, and morbid; physiology and pathology; chem- istry, general and pharmaceutical, and matera medica; surgery, theoretical, clinical, operative, and ophthal- mical; medicine, theoretical, clinical, obstetrical, and forensical. The general display of objects so grand and multifarious is formidable enough; but not half so for- midable as their representation in detail. Of the great cosmogony of medicine there are several departments, and each professor never fails to magnify his own, by counting the cost of time and labor, which you must be prepared to bestow, if you wish to make any pro- gress in it. " Haller (perhaps such an one will say) surely knew what anatomy is, and how much goes to make an anatomist; and Haller has estimated the cost at twenty years of time and labour." " Now, I am persuaded that there does not exist at this day in the profession an individual who comes up to this standard, which (it is implied) all ought to reach. If all medical students had fifteen or twenty years at their disposal, and could dedicate them all to professional education, we might pardon a little inno- cent declamation in displaying the rich and varied field of knowledge about to be disclosed to them, but even then, sober truth would compel us to confess, that the field so pompously displayed far excelled in extent what the best minds could hope to compass, even in fifteen or twenty years. When, however, we recollect what space of time the majority of men so addressed really can give to their education, the whole affair becomes inexpressibly ludicrous. Now I do protest, PRIOR TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 131 in the name of common sense, against all such pro- ceeding as this. It is all very fine to insist that the eye cannot be understood without a knowledge of op- tics, nor the circulation without hydraulics, nor the bones and muscles without mechanics: that metaphy- sics may have their use in leading us through the in- tricate functions of the nervous system, and the mys- terious connection of mind and matter. It is a truth; and it is a truth, also, that the whole circle of the sci- ences is required to comprehend a single particle of matter: but the most solemn truth of all is, that the life of man is threescore years and ten." " You may re- commend,'''1 he subsequently remarks, " that every man, before he enters upon the study of physic, should ob- tain the best general education within his reach; but you must specify nothing as absolutely necessary but what bears immediately upon professional use." It is not in its relation to materia medica, that the study of natural history ought to be esteemed most important. As physiology investigates the nature and functions of all living bodies, it is, necessarily, intimately associated with natural history. It is, indeed, indebted to this branch of physics, more, perhaps, than to any other. A comparative view of the various gradations amongst organised beings, has taught us to appreciate the nature of the several functions, that characterise vitality; and has demonstrated, that in proportion as the structure is more complex the functions are more numerous and perfect. Repeated observations, and multiplied experiments, on various tribes of animated nature, have elucidated many doubtful and obscure phenomena in the economy of man; and a continuation of this method of research promises to place physiology 132 MEDICAL EDUCATION on the firm basis of rational experience; and to enable us to reason—where only we can reason with safety— by a deduction from facts. The more numerous these facts, and the more satisfactory their arrangement, the more extensive and the more secure will be the found- ation they afford for physiological conclusions. Botany might seem to be of much more service to the physician than zoology, inasmuch as so many of our remedies are derived from the vegetable kingdom. At one time, indeed, nothing but ' galenicals,' as they were termed, were employed, and these were mainly of vegetable origin. We can imagine the importance of an acquaintance with the botanical characters of dif- ferent vegetables, should destiny cast the physician on some unknown shore, where the sole sustenance may have to be derived from the vegetable kingdom, and where hundreds, perhaps, may have to be guided to a knowledge of the innoxious and the noxious, by his de- cision. It might happen, too, that the physician, may be so situated, as to be unable to procure those in- digenous productions, which are usually selected so carefully by the professed herbalist, as to render it less necessary that they should be culled by him. In such case, his botanic knowledge would be called into play. Still, these are rare emergencies, on account of the fa- cility, with which articles of merchandise can be trans- ported every where; and, as the preparation of medi- cinal productions constitutes a distinct calling, the physician is generally in the habit of depending upon the apothecary,—who gets them from the herbalist,— for his supplies. It is of more practical importance, that the physi- cian should know the genuineness of every article PREVIOUS TO ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 133 that comes to him;—a knowledge, which observation —rather than Botany—gives him. Still, like every branch of the tree of knowledge, phytology and the natural sciences in general have a tendency to expand the mind, and to react upon trains of thought, with which they do not, at first, appear to be intimately associated. In but few of the medical schools of this continent, is botany or natural history made a distinct branch of medical education. The period of the year, at which medical instruction is chiefly conveyed, is unfavorable to botanical exercises; but the seasons of Spring, Sum- mer, and Autumn, are well adapted,—especially the first, when all Nature smiles; and " From the meadow to the wither'd hill, Led by the breeze, the vivid verdure runs, And swells, and deepens; and the juicy groves Put forth their buds, unfolding by degrees, Till the whole leafy forest stands display'd, In full luxuriance, to the sighing gales." At these seasons, the student cannot do better— should his opportunities, whilst in the office of his preceptor, permit—than make himself acquainted prac- tically with botany—both by study and observation in the fields; and should he be unable to become a good zoologist,—so far as regards a knowledge of the generic and specific characters of animals,—he can, at least, acquire a knowledge of the ' philosophy of zoology;'—one of the most interesting of the applica- tions of natural science, and one that throws import- ant light on the functions of the human body. It embraces, indeed, the physiology of animals, every topic of which elucidates that of man. 12 134 MEDICAL EDUCATION, &C During the first year of office study, full benefit cannot accrue from the perusal of works on any of the branches of medical science. Perhaps, the most pro- per to be placed in the student's hands would be a treatise on physiology, which contains sufficient anato- my to enable him to acquire the terms, and to have a general idea of the structure and functions of the dif- ferent parts of the organism. If he possess but a slight acquaintance with chemistry, general anatomy or the anatomy of the textures can be studied, at this period, almost as well as at any other. The knowledge, which the student attains of his profession during the first year of his application, in an office, will necessarily be mainly restricted to the subjects that have been expatiated upon. He will, then, be enabled to enter upon his collegiate attendance with every advantage. CHAPTER III. MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF AT- TENDANCE ON LECTURES. The regulations of almost every medical college in the Union require, that the student shall have attended two full courses of the lectures delivered therein, be- fore he is permitted to offer himself for graduation. In the schools of Philadelphia, until recently, the fol- lowing subjects constituted the curriculum: 1. Anatomy. 2. Theory and Practice of Physic. 3. Materia Medica and Pharmacy. 4. Chemistry. 5. Surgery. 6. Midwifery and the Diseases of Women and Children. Of late, in the University of Pennsylvania, the de- partment of Institutes of Medicine—a term of some- what indefinite meaning, but generally understood to comprise, the general physiological, pathological, hy- gienic and therapeutical relations of medicine—has been separated from the chair of Theory and Practice, and erected into a separate professorship; and, still more recently, in the Jefferson Medical College, a chair of the Institutes of Medicine and Medical Juris- 136 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE prudence has been created, to which the author was appointed. In the University of Maryland, the curriculum of studies is as follows: 1. Anatomy and Physiology. 2. Pathology, and Practice of Medicine. 3. Materia Medica, Therapeutics, Hygiene, and Medical Jurisprudence. 4. Chemistry and Pharmacy. 5. Principles and Practice of Surgery. 6. Obstetrics, and the Diseases of Women and Children.* It is expected, too, in the different schools—and oc- casionally required—that the candidate for the summi honores shall have attended the clinical course, and practical anatomy in the dissecting room, for one session at least. It is obvious, that if the circumstances of the stu- dent will only enable him to attend the collegiate exer- cises during two sessions, there is no opportunity afforded him for the selection of subjects for study, in the order of time. He is compelled to attend to all, and to exhibit his qualifications in all, at the expiration of the second session, when he presents himself as a candidate for graduation. If, however, he is enabled to devote three years to his attendance on lectures, it may admit of a moment's question, as to the depart- ments to which his attention should be mainly—if not exclusively—directed during the first year. * For an account of the curriculum of study in different medical coUeges of the Union, see the Appendix. PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 137 The common feeling is, that he should confine him- self to attendance on the lectures on anatomy and che- mistry;—and the view is, perhaps, judicious. These departments are introductory to the rest, and an ac- quaintance with them facilitates the labors of the stu- dent in his after attendance. It would certainly be advisable, that a course of lectures on anatomy should be followed, before prac- tical anatomy is prosecuted,—upon the principle, that it is well for a traveller to possess some knowledge of the geography, names, &c. of a district, before he under- takes a journey through it; but, as the first of the three years' study—conducted in the manner advised—is comparatively one of leisure, it may admit of dispute, whether a larger amount of positive benefit might not accrue to the student, from a prosecution of his ana- tomical pursuits practically in the dissecting room, even during a first year's attendance upon lectures. Again, it has been maintained by some, that from the very outset of his career of professional inquiry, the student should follow the professor through the wards of an hospital. " Physicians," says a modern writer on this subject, " are not agreed as to the period at which the pupil should commence his attention to clinical medicine. I am firmly convinced, that he should do so from the first day of his studies. The art of healing, like every art, is acquired essentially by prac- tice. To teach pathology to a man who has never seen disease is to weary his attention without the slightest profit. The objects, which have to be treated, are as yet devoid of existence to him. What can be understood of the theory of inflammation and of sup- puration, by one, who has neither seen phlegmon nor 12* 138 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE ulcer ? He must commence, therefore, by the empiri- cal observation of facts. The theoretical explanation of those facts, and their systematic co-ordination must come afterwards to constitute the science. The pupil will not at first comprehend what the clinical professor may say, but he will assist himself by a dictionary of medical terms, and he can besides consult such of his fellow pupils as are more advanced than himself."* The different departments of medical science are, in truth, so dovetailed into each other—so mutually de- pendent—that hesitation may exist as to those, which ought to be selected in the way of priority. Still, it must be better for the student to postpone the practical examination of cases, until he has obtained some of that preliminary instruction, which—as we have seen— is so important to the anatomist before he commences the dissection of the subject. By a sedulous attend- ance on a single course of the lectures delivered in a medical school, he attains this instruction; and, during his second year, he is enabled to reap all the advan- tage from clinical observation, which it is capable of affording him. The difficulty of selecting the departments for a first year's employment, where the student has three years at his disposal, has led some to advise, that he should attend a full course during the first and second years; and—as according to the regulations of the different medical institutions, he is free to the lectures after he has attended two courses—that he should se- lect, during the third year, those departments in which * Vaidy, Art. Methodologie medicate, in Diction, des Sciences Medicates. PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 139 he is most deficient, or to which his attention ought especially to be directed. Perhaps, on the whole, this is the wisest course; in- asmuch as, during the third year, he is better able to seize on all the valuable information, which an atten- tion to medical and surgical clinics cannot fail to pre- sent to him. He is situated, indeed, during this third year, like the majority of the young graduates, who commence the practice of their profession;—by far the greater number of those, who attain the summi honores, having had no opportunity of following collegiate in- struction longer than two sessions. The mode to be pursued by those whose opportu- nities are so restricted—for attaining the greatest amount of good—forms an interesting topic of inquiry, and is the proper subject of' Medical Methodology.' At the very commencement of his attendance upon lectures, the student is apt to conceive, that, in the multiplicity of subjects to which his attention is neces- sarily directed through the day, it is impossible for him to succeed, and he is often disposed to relinquish the study in despair. Fortunately, however, it rarely happens, that this disposition is carried into effect, be- fore he finds, that his mind is every day expanding; that the truths of science become more and more in- telligible; the memory more retentive, and the labor, therefore, largely diminished. Despair now vanishes, and hope—" the glad ray, glanc'd from eternal good," —cheers him on his course, until he vanquishes all obstacles, and attains that goal, which has been the source of his loftiest aspirations. In a previous chapter, a few—a very few—examples were given,—selected from a host of professional 140 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE worthies, now no more,—with the view of showing what zeal and enthusiasm in the pursuit of knowledge are capable of effecting; and what honor and reputa- tion may be acquired, by time well spent, not only whilst in the preparatory study of the profession, but during its active exercise. Yet, to attain the high degree of eminence of any one of the scientific indivi- duals instanced requires, on the part of the student, rather, that the time passed in reflection should be well spent, than that it should be long protracted. Attempts have been made, by such men as Lord Coke, and the leviathan of English literature—Dr. Samuel Johnson—to fix the time, that may be daily employed in study with advantage; but, although the latter affirms, that " a young man should read five hours a day, and so may acquire a great deal of know- ledge"—he properly adds, that " a man ought to read just as inclination leads him; for what he reads as a task will do him little good." " Idleness," he says, " is a disease, that must be combated; but I wTould not advise a rigid adherence to a particular plan of study. I myself have never persisted in any plan for two days together." Fortunately, for the medical student, it happens, that there is ample choice of subjects in the interesting science he has embraced, so that he need never be at a loss for variety, and when one palls tem- porarily on the mind, it can be replaced with facility by another. The estimate of the proper daily duration of study, made by these illustrious individuals, is scarcely, how- ever, applicable to the medical student. The neces- sary attendance upon lectures keeps,—or ought to keep,—his mind engaged for at least six or seven PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 141 hours in the day, and renders application at his desk or his books much less necessary than in the case of the student of law, who must derive all his informa- tion from written authorities.* It is, moreover, the business of the medical professor to lighten the labors of the student. It is for him to collect and condense the existing knowledge of the subject he teaches, to explain away difficulties, and to suggest materials for reflection—trains of thought—that may tend to expand the minds of his hearers; but this reflection and these trains of thought ought to accompany the well devised lecture, and the chief labor of the evening should be, to embody the information, that has been acquired through the day, and to investigate the facts and ar- guments on which it reposes. The period for more extensive reading succeeds to the collegiate career. It is then a luxury, on which the well constituted mind hastens to banquet, and which it never cloys. At the commencement of his attendance upon lec- tures, the student always experiences more or less difficulty in so employing his time, after the labors of the day are over, as to reap the greatest pos- sible benefit. He is apt to fly from one subject of thought to another without settling down upon any; and their multiplicity confounds him, so that he con- cludes they are invincible. Let him, however, take them calmly, and in regular detail for a few weeks, and he will be astonished at the facility with which he stores away that, wThich once seemed to him so formi- * In other words, in following a course on law—as usually con- ducted, and as meant by Lord Coke—the student himself is presumed to read for that number of hours; whilst, in following a course on medicine, he is lectured or read to. 142 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE dable. The excuse of want of time is rarely valid; and he who avails himself of it, if he examines his conduct, will discover, that it is not the want of time, but time misspent, which he has to deplore. He may be occu- pied from morning till night; but like as solitude—a " populous solitude"—may exist in cities—" midst the crowd, the hum, the shock of men,"—so may idleness be conspicuous in the midst of apparent occupation. The man, who has been accustomed to spend a cer- tain number of hours in a given employment, will while away the same time should his business be re- duced one half, and yet he may believe himself equally engaged, and would spurn the appellation of ' idler.' In like manner, we may be seemingly busy in confirm- ing truths well established, and in upsetting positions, by common consent abandoned: we may employ our- selves in scientific experiments, which may not add one solitary idea to those universally received; may desire to be regarded as industrious promoters of sci- ence, and be shocked to be thought mere idlers. Yet, if we examine—as utilitarians—into the results of our labours, we cannot, or ought not, to cavil at the judg- ment. " Amongst those," says Dr. Samuel Johnson, " whom I never could persuade to rank themselves with idlers, and who speak, with indignation, of my morning sleeps, and nocturnal rambles, one passes the day in catching spiders, that he may count their eyes with a microscope; another erects his head, and exhi- bits the dust of a marigold, separated from the flower with a dexterity worthy of a Leeuenhoeck himself. Some turn the wheel of electricity; some suspend rings to a loadstone, and find that what they did yesterday, they can do again to-day; some register the changes PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 143 of the wind, and die fully convinced, that the wind is changeable. There are men yet more profound, who have heard, that two colorless liquors may produce a color by union, and that two cold bodies will grow hot if they are mingled: they mingle them, and produce the effect expected; say it is strange, and mingle them again." In the way to study,—as in the way to wealth,— fractions must not be disregarded. It is a trite, but a wise, maxim,—that if we take care of the pence, the pounds will take care of themselves; and the parody is no less just,—that if wre take care of the minutes, the hours will take care of themselves also. It is sur- prising what may be accomplished by seizing upon every interval for study, and by disciplining the mind to the effective exercise of its powers. If the student succeed in this, but little nocturnal application will be necessary to treasure up the materials of science, whilst if he commences with attempting too much,— like the improvident racer, who puts forth his full strength at the onset,—he may find himself distanced by competitors, who have been more prudent of their forces, and yet, who may not excel him in abilities. In the one case, too, he incurs the risk of injuring his health by collateral irregularities; whilst, in the other, study becomes—not a toil but a pleasure. He has " a time for all things," and if a portion of that time be employed in recalling, and investigating the know- ledge daily derived from his instructers, and in de- ducing the lessons of wisdom from such knowledge, it will be well spent. There is, indeed, a wide distinction between knowledge and wisdom,* although a certain * Latham op. citat., p. 20. 144 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE portion of the former may be necessary to the latter,— a distinction which has been well pointed out by the great moral poet of modern times, and should be ever present to the mind of the student. " Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, Have oft'times no connection. Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom in minds attentive to their own. Knowledge—a rude unprofitable mass, The mere materials with which wisdom builds, Till smooth'd, and squar'd, and fitted to its place, Does but encumber whom it seems to enrich. Knowledge is proud, that he has learnt so much; Wisdom is humble, that he knows no more."* In striving to reach the temple of science,—situated, as it is, at a giddy elevation,—the youthful aspirant will find the path often skirted with the fairest flowers, but occasionally sterile and cheerless, as it passes through the different zones of vegetation. Yet, by judicious perseverance, he will surmount, in succession, the "hills on hills and Alps on Alps," until he ulti- mately attains the summit of his wishes, and from the magnificent portals of the temple is enabled to dis- pense health and consolation to the afflicted, and to look back, with pride and satisfaction, on the steadiness of purpose, which has enabled him to overcome the toils and the difficulties of the ascent. As aids to memory, whilst the student is attending lectures, some are in favor of his taking copious notes. To this course there are weighty objections as re- gards students of every standing, but, a fortiori, as * Cowper's Task, 16., vi. PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 145 respects the junior. Whilst the student is endeavor- ing to record one fact, or one train of reasoning, of importance, a number may escape him; and every one, who has had experience in this matter, knows, that it requires an education to enable the student to seize upon the prominent points of a discourse. It is said, that at an inspection of a respectable college in Eng- land, and in the class of chemistry, conducted by an accomplished and excellent professor, the committee had the curiosity to look at the notes taken by one student, when they discovered, that the only point he had noted was,—that "water will freeze." This was not, necessarily, an evidence of defective intelli- gence on the part of the student; it might have been mainly owing to his having begun to take notes at too early a period of his collegiate attendance, and before he could discriminate, and lay hold of the most promi- nent subjects. Catchwords, or short sentences, written down at the time they are delivered, or afterwards, so as to attract the attention of the student, when he reconsiders the events of the day, may be advantageously used from the very commencement of attendance upon lectures; but no attempt should be made to record every thing, that the professor says. Such a course always inter- feres with the due exercise of the memory, and with after reflection, independently of other disadvantages that attend it. Another objectionable plan—which prevails more largely perhaps than the one just animadverted upon —is that of attempting, before retiring to rest, to read over all the subjects on which the various professors have lectured during the day, in the pages of some 13 146 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE text book, or approved author. According to the com- mon course in our medical colleges, six or seven hours of the day are devoted to lectures; one to hospital at- tendance; and, occasionally, one to clinical lectures, besides the time, that is occupied in the department of practical anatomy. This, of itself, is sufficient daily employment for the student, if the time be well spent. If he has carefully followed the professor in the state- ment of facts and arguments, his mind must have been kept upon the stretch for almost as long a period as it can be engaged profitably. He should not attempt to devour more intellectual aliment than he can well dis- pose of. Let him rather digest that which he has received through the day, and refer to his books, should his memory or reflection fail to serve him ade- quately upon any topic. The time for examining and reconciling conflicting opinions must occur at a future period. It should be postponed until there is sufficient leisure for the inquiry. The author has had extensive experience on this point, and he has no hesitation in affirming, that those students, who have followed the plan here recommend- ed, have risen pre-eminently above such of their fel- low students, as have appeared to be situated alike in other respects, but have pursued the objectionable course of attempting to cram the mind with more than it is capable of receiving,—or of assimilating, if re- ceived. All the studies, which, by common consent, form the curriculum in our medical schools, are of essential im- portance. They ought, indeed, to be esteemed to merit equally the devoted attention of the student. The very fact, that they are prescribed, ought to be enough PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 147 with him, and no comparisons should be instituted, during the period of collegiate attendance, as to their relative value when he becomes a practitioner. On these topics, indeed, the student is but ill qualified to judge; and he is apt to receive partial opinions from older individuals, founded, too often, on particular biases, or on their greater or less acquaintance or fa- miliarity with certain departments of the science, rather than with others. If practice were alone con- sidered, the practical departments—medical, surgical, and obstetrical—ought to claim the precedence; but, to be well acquainted with these, absolutely requires an adequate knowledge of the others. To the young student, the department of Anatomy is decidedly the most attractive. It ministers most to his curiosity. It makes him informed respecting his own organisation. It demands, chiefly, the exercise of memory; requiring but little reflection; and the student, therefore, dis- covers, as in acquiring a new language, that he is daily adding to his stock of positive information. These remarks apply, however, to descriptive anatomy only. The other divisions of the subject—especially, general and transcendental anatomy—require mental qualifications and exertions, which many do not pos- sess; and, therefore, they are considered dry and use- less, and meet with but little favor, except from the advanced student. He is esteemed the best anatomist in the class, who is acquainted with the names and si- tuations of the greatest number of organs and parts of organs. And how needlessly are the different parts of the organism divided and subdivided! and what a waste of time in directing the serious attention of the student to insignificant points, the recollection of which may «* 148 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE be a good exercise for the memory, but can be of little or no advantage in after life. The sphenoid bone, for example, seated at the base of the skull, has various projections from its circumference, to all of which names have been assigned; yet to the physician or surgeon, in the practice of his profession, the know- ledge of most of these is wholly useless. No case can arise, in which this minute topographical division can assist him. Anatomy is universally admitted to be the basis of medical education; but it is only the basis. Without a proper acquaintance with this department, it would be impossible for the student to comprehend the func- tions of the different organs of the body; their disor- dered actions, and the mode of treating such disorders with full advantage. To the surgeon it is indispensa- ble, that he should be intimately acquainted with the absolute and relative situation of the various organs,— constituting what has been termed 'Surgical, or Topo- graphical Anatomy.' Although a close connection exists between organi- sation and function,—the existence of the former being necessary to that of the latter,—the nicest attention to the anatomy of an organ will not teach the nature of the function, which it executes. We have an accu- rate knowledge of several parts of the human body, whose offices are wholly unknown. We know the eye anatomically, as perfectly perhaps as is practicable: the structure of the tongue is entirely familiar to us, yet the nicest dissection of these organs does not explain to us how the former is capable of conveying to us our visual ideas of external objects; or how the * PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 149 latter can enable us to discriminate between the flavors of the various sapid bodies that are presented to it. It has been already remarked, that if the time and opportunities of the student will permit, it would be well for him to follow one course of lectures on des- criptive anatomy before he dissects; but, if unable to do this, his attention may be devoted to practical ana- tomy simultaneously with his attendance upon the lectures. One thing is clear, that no course—or number of courses—of lectures can make a man a practical anatomist. Nothing but the use of the knife, and the careful dissection of the different parts of the frame— in the first instance, under a competent instructor— can convey to him that information, which he ought to possess when sent abroad with a license to pursue his profession practically as a physician, and particu- larly as an operative surgeon. The authorities of some of the medical schools have therefore wisely required, that no young man shall present himself for gradua- tion, who has not attended at least one course of ana- tomical dissections. Not many years ago, the study of anatomy in the schools was restricted to a simple acquaintance with the different organs as exhibited on dissection, and if the student could point out the various prominences, and demarcations of the bones, muscles, &c. he was looked upon, even by the teacher, as an accomplished anatomist. The verbal memory was taxed to infini- tude, whilst the higher powers of the intellect were suffered to lie dormant, and the beautiful, but myste- rious, investigation of the intimate nature of the dif- 13* 150 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE ferent tissues, and their mode of formation was to- tally disregarded. During the present century, how- ever, more especially, the science of anatomy has been made to embrace new grounds. ' General Ana- tomy,' or' Histology,' as it has been termed—forwhich we are principally indebted to the illustrious Bichat— includes these interesting topics of inquiry; and the anatomist now travels unhesitatingly into regions, half a century ago unknown to the scientific world. It is general anatomy, that teaches us the intimate texture and arrangement of the different organs, their corre- lations, the origin and formation of the human body, the character of its numerous constituents, and the changes, that supervene in the different stages of ex- istence. The same diseased action, affecting different tissues, may occasion symptoms of the most varied character. If the morbid condition of vessels, constituting inflam- mation, takes place in the cellular membrane, it gives rise to phlegmonous inflammation, of which the ordi- nary boil or abscess is an example. If it attacks the skin, the resulting inflammation is erysipelatous. How different, again, in its symptoms, progress, and termi- nation, is the inflammation of the serous from that of the mucous membranes! Without an attention to the evolution of organs, it would be impossible for the pathologist to comprehend the diseased conditions, that occur at different stages of existence. At particular ages, or in certain states of evolution and modification of structure, there is a tendency, in particular organs, rather than in others, to assume a morbid condition. This is strikingly ex- emplified in the supervention of hemorrhage at differ- PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 151 ent ages. Whilst hemorrhage from the nose is very common about the period of puberty; it is more apt to occur from the lungs, during the age of adolescence; and, after this period, the tendency is again to the head or to the abdomen. A knowledge of the correlation of organs is all im- portant to the pathologist. Hepatitis or inflammation of the liver,—enteritis or inflammation of the bowels, and gastritis or inflammation of the stomach, may all be varieties of inflammation of the peritoneum; yet how much the symptoms vary from those of peritonitis or of common inflammation of the peritoneum, owing to the functions of the parts, situated beneath the peritoneal covering of the liver, bowels, and sto- mach, being modified through this correlation! All these topics are elucidated by an attention to general anatomy. Of late, attention has been directed to a mode of studying anatomy in relations of a deeply interesting character, which were at one time wholly overlooked. To this branch the name ' philosophical' or i transcen- dental' has been applied. It embraces a knowledge of the relative importance of organs; their presence or absence in the animal series; the study, indeed, of living beings throughout the whole chain, " Each moss, each shell, each crawling insect;" and from such study to deduce great general analogies, and fundamental laws, that may be applicable to all. For example, it is generally maintained, that the ex- istence of a placenta and umbilical cord is indispensa- 152 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE ble to foetal nutrition. As a general rule, these parts are present; and, in the opinion of most physiologists, no other function exists for them than that of being the receivers and conveyers of the blood of the mother to the child, and of returning that of the child to the mother, when it has administered to the nutrition of the former. Now, if the placenta and umbilical cord were always present, when a living child is born, and in every animal, the inference would be irrefragable, that such are their functions; but transcendental ana- tomy teaches us, that children have been carried to the full term in utero, and have been born alive, and in vigor, who had neither the appendages of placenta nor umbilical cord; and comparative anatomy further instructs us, that in the kangaroo, the opossum, the wombat, &c. they never exist. We, therefore, infer, that the placenta and umbilical cord are not indispen- sable to foetal nutrition, and to this deduction we are led by inquiries appertaining to 'transcendental ana- tomy.' The labors of the French and Germans, more par- ticularly, have been devoted to these 'transcendental' inquiries, and although we may be frequently disposed to smile—and with reason—at some of the general- isations suggested by transcendentalism, the inge- nuity, displayed on many subjects, has furnished ma- terials for reflection to the inquiring mind, and has suggested investigations, which might otherwise have wholly escaped attention. They have led the reflecting anthropologist to a knowledge of the surprising uniformity that prevails in the organisation of animated nature,—the wonder- PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 1 53 ful, but all perfect simplicity, that characterises the works of the Almighty architect,—and, in many in- stances, to comprehend the existence of parts, which are apparently useless in a particular species or indi- vidual, but which are capable of being called into activity under favourable circumstances. In this way, the labors of the transcendental anatomists, of modern times, have tended to elucidate the complicated human organism,—that " mighty maze, but not without a plan." Transcendentalism, in anatomy and physi- ology, is engaged in daily throwing more and more light on the inimitable plan; whilst the maze is gra- dually disappearing under the influence of careful ob- servation, and philosophical induction; and, although we may occasionally meet with suggestions which may appear to be philosophy in sport, we have the advan- tage, frequently resulting from them, that in sober minds they become science in earnest. The branch of anatomical science, to which the pa- thologist is most largely indebted, is that which has been termed ' pathological' or 'morbid anatomy.' Since the inspection of the dead has been permitted, and practised, to a greater extent, the discrimination of diseases has been rendered more easy, and the prog- nosis and treatment have become more satisfactory. Not many years ago, a hue and cry was raised against every one, who violated—as it was conceived—the sanc- tuary of death, and the anatomist was exposed to the most wanton insults and outrages. But the commu- nity have become more enlightened; and although, in some parts of the Union, legislative impediments may be thrown in the way of the anatomist, but few cases exist of a feeling so far behind the spirit of the age, 154 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE and still fewer in which the pathological inquirer, who may desire to investigate the morbid appearances in any unfortunate case that may have fallen under his management, is refused assent. Such objections, it need scarcely be said, ought never to exist. No pro- fessional man of character will request to examine a body, unless the object with him is one of importance, as regards the views he may have taken of the nature of the malady, or as an aid in the discrimination of similar morbid conditions. Philanthropy would sug- gest, that, in all such cases, the permission should be granted. By dissection, we are enabled to observe the morbid appearances in any fatal case, and to compare them with the symptoms, that were present during life; whence, by careful analogy, inferences may be de- duced, which may enable us to detect similar diseases when they occur, and to treat them successfully. But, independently of these benefits, the mourning relative should bear in mind, that many diseases are of a family nature, and that, by careful inspection of one fatal case, the family physician may have his judgment so strength- ened as to succeed in warding off a similar attack, should it threaten another of the family,—when, with- out the instruction afforded by his pathological inves- tigations, he might have failed, and the life of a second member of the family might thus be sacrificed to the unfortunate—but amiable—prejudice. Every where the difficulties thrown in the way of pathological anatomy are yielding. The press teems with the valuable contributions of the pathological ana- tomist; and some few philanthropists have gone so far—in their desire to remove the prepossessions of those, who are opposed to such investigations—as not PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 155 only to direct their bodies to be opened, but to be dis- sected in the public theatre, and demonstrated for the benefit of the student. Such was the testamentary re- quest of the celebrated Bentham,—a request, which was faithfully executed by his friend Dr. Southwood Smith, of London, in the anatomical theatre of the school to which Dr. Smith is attached, and of which he is a valued ornament. The student should omit no opportunity, that may offer—either before or after graduation—for post mortem examination; and, in every case in which he is permitted to carry it into effect, he will find, that he has made a satisfactory addition to his knowledge of the healthy and diseased conditions. Let him embrace every occasion for discriminating the appearances, which the parts present in health, from those which they assume under disease; and, in this way, he will be able to say what are healthy, what morbid, and what cadaveric,—that is, produced during, or after, dis- solution; and lastly, let him be extremely cautious in referring the malady to the pathological lesion, which may be apparent on dissection. Often, he will be amply justified in so doing,—as where the symptoms have in- dicated inflammation of an organ, and evidences of such inflammation or its consequences appear on dis- section,—but, in other cases, such an inference might be most unfounded; as where irregularity of the or- ganic actions has persisted for days and weeks—in a case of remittent fever for example—and more or less inflammation is perceptible in the lining membrane of the intestines. Such inflammation ought often, perhaps, to be considered rather as a consequence of the exal- tation and irregularity of the organic actions than as 156 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE their cause; and hence it is, that they are so common in those affections. Yet, if it should accord with the theory of any writer or teacher,—that inflammation in this or any other part of the economy is the essence of all fevers, and on dissection, evidences of such inflam- mation shall be apparent,—the student—whose mind has not been sufficiently trained by observation and reflection—is apt to give almost involuntary assent to the doctrine, and future observation is long in rectify- ing the error. The author is in the habit of examining the cavities of the abdomen and cranium in diseases, where mischief in the abdominal and cranial viscera has not been suspected; and he has rarely failed to observe appearances in the lining membrane of the ali- mentary canal, which a reckless or inveterate theorist might have invoked as ' confirmation strong,' did his views lead him to place the primary seat of disease in this portion of the economy. On the importance of an acquaintance with Physi- ology,—or with the functions of the frame, as executed in health,—it is scarcely necessary to dwell. It is to existing observers, that this deeply interesting and valuable department of medical knowledge owes most of its improvements. Physiology may, indeed, be re- garded as a new science, and as the source of nume- rous important improvements in the healing art, of recent introduction. It is to the want of a due know- ledge of the healthy functions, that we must ascribe most of the errors, which have prevailed in therapeu- tics, and which still prevail in the practice of those, who adhere to old notions, or who have not taken the necessary steps for keeping pace with the rapidly ad- PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 157 vancing condition of medical science. Who, indeed, can honestly profess to know the signs, that indicate the diseased state of an organ, if he is utterly ignorant of the healthy manifestations? The science of physi- ology must, therefore, be an important object of study with every one desirous of distinguishing himself in his profession. A stimulus is now applied to the in- dolent physician, which did not formerly exist. The public are aware of the importance of attending to this " proper study of mankind;" the youths in some parts of the Union are required to study physiology in the ordinary schools, and the members of the bar, every where, find the utility of having paid some attention to it, in many of those intricate cases of forensic medi- cine, which so often agitate our halls of justice. This extension of the study of physiology cannot fail to exert a salutary excitation on those of our profession, who are disposed to be idle and listless; for what man of character could brook to be excelled, by the unpro- fessional, on topics, which so eminently belong to his course of study, and without which it is impossible for him to be a learned and truly useful physician! It has been well remarked, by an intelligent writer* on the best modes of improving the study of the seve- ral branches of medicine, that the crying defect of the British anatomical schools—and the remark is appli- cable elsewhere—is, that they teach anatomy as if a knowledge of the dead body were the sole foundation of medical study; whereas it is a knowledge of the * C. T. Haden, in the Introductory Essay to the Transactions of the Associated Apothecaries and Surgeon Apothecaries of Eng- land and Wales. 14 158 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE living body, which constitutes that foundation; and, therefore, it is not the parts of the body themselves, as they lie exanimate on the dissecting table, which are of importance, but the actions and functions of those parts, as they administer to the wants of the living man; and, hence, that physiology, or " living ana- tomy,"—anatome animata, as Haller appropriately termed it—is the real foundation of medical know- ledge; and anatomy, in this view, is only requisite, in- asmuch as, before the functions of a part can be com- prehended, its structure must be examined and under- stood. After all—as respects anatomy—the student's main attention, during his collegiate course, will necessarily be devoted to the practical and topographical depart- ments. He will have to make himself familiar with every essential anatomical constituent of the body, and will be especially careful in attaining an accurate knowledge of the relative situation of parts—to ena- ble him to undertake the different surgical operations, which he may be called upon to perform at a moment's notice. The valuable information, which may be con- veyed by the lecturer on the other branches of anato- my, must be treasured up for subsequent reflection; and if the student employs his time to good purpose, he will daily find opportunity for pondering upon them, and impressing them on his memory. If the study of any of the ramifications of the subject be postponed, it had better be the last mentioned,—inasmuch as the purely practical departments can only be acquired where the requisite facilities exist. The mode, in which the Practice of Physic is usually PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 159 taught, is replete with difficulties to the student. In- stead of giving the symptoms that are pathognomonic or characteristic, the teacher generally goes over, under each disease, the symptoms that belong to the class. This is a fault, which likewise exists in the different treatises on the subject. Thus, under inflam- mation of an internal organ—say of the liver—we find all the symptoms, that are present in every form of in- flammation, enumerated, along with those that belong to the particular affection; and this detail is repeated, under each variety of internal inflammation—a repeti- tion, which occasions great confusion in the mind of the student, and induces him to consider, that the whole subject of semeiotics is an affair of mere memo- ry; whilst, if his attention had been restricted to the physiology—sound and morbid—of the organ, the symptoms, common to the different cases, would gene- rally suggest themselves on slight reflection. In like manner, remedy after remedy is recommend- ed without the rationale of their action being explained, or even hinted at. Hence it is, that a distinct depart- ment of Therapeutics is so essential in our schools;—a department, in other words, which treats of the great general principles involved in the modus operandi of remedial agents, and of their application to the dis- eased condition. This is commonly associated with materia medica or pharmacology, to which it is made subordinate. It is, however, of at least equal import- ance with the latter, and is easily separable from it. Materia medica teaches the properties of the tools or agents with which the physician has to fulfil his remedial indications, whilst therapeutics establishes those indications, and points out the mode, in which 160 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE such agents can be applied with the greatest advan- tage. ''Preventive medicine'' or '•Hygiene,^ is a branch of therapeutics, to which too little attention has generally been paid. It includes the materia alimentaria, or the effect of different kinds of aliment as respects their nutrient and digestible properties, and their adaptation in sickness and in health, and canvasses every topic, that relates to the preservation of health. It is in these departments, that we have to deplore the admixture of credulity, superstition, and faulty metaphysics, which so long disgraced the science of medicine. If we refer to the early history of our art, we are astonished to find the multitude of articles, that crowded the shop of the apothecary, were admitted into the catalogues of the materia medica, and, not- withstanding the testimonials in their favor, were—in a short space of time afterwards—discharged from them as injurious or inert.* A better attention to the series implexa causarum, and to their relation with effects, has been yearly exhibiting the false reasoning, which occasioned the admission of many of those arti- cles; and, accordingly, the number has been gradually diminishing. The tendency still is—and must be—to a farther diminution, and to get rid of those agents, that possess no advantages over others equally common, or of those whose properties are equivocal. The London Pharmacopoeia contains about two hundred and thirty articles; the Pharmacopoeia of the United States about two hundred and eighty; and the Parisian ' Codex' up- wards of 900! Yet there are few physicians, who * See the Author's ' General Therapeutics,' p. 52. PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 161 employ a fifth part of those, that are comprised in the London Pharmacopoeia, which is only one-fourth as copious as the French ' Codex.' When we revert to the state of medical knowledge, not more than a hundred or a hundred and fifty years ago, and note the improvements, that have taken place in the interval in every branch of it, we cannot fail to be struck with the difference, and can readily account for the numerous disquisitions, that have appeared on the uncertainty of medicine, and for the ridicule, occa- sionally cast upon its professors by the various sati- rists. Medicine has always kept pace with the progress of the physical and moral sciences, and where these have been defective, or marked by folly and credulity, it has exhibited the same failings. Even so late as the time of Rousseau and D'Alembert, there was ample ground for the ridicule so frequently indulged by those, and other distinguished writers. " The following apo- logue," says D'Alembert, "made by a physician, a man of wit and philosophy, represents very well the state of that science. Nature is fighting with disease; a blind man, armed with a club,—that is the physi- cian,—comes to settle the difference. He first tries to make peace; when he cannot accomplish this, he lifts his club, and strikes at random; if he strikes Nature, he kills Nature." At that time, however, in the country in which D'Alembert wrote, the art of medicine—in the case of most of the fraternity—was enveloped in mystery and empiricism, and, too often, in fraud and imposture. Until a comparatively recent period, the doctrines and precepts of Hippocrates were reverentially fol- lowed; and the most degraded attention was paid to 14* 162 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE authority and established routine. Moliere has pro- perly castigated this folly in his VAmour Medecin, in the dialogue maintained between the physician Tomes and the maid Lisette. " M. Tomes. How is the coachman? Lisette. Very well. He is dead. M. Tomes. Dead? Lisette. Yes. 31. Tomes. That is impossible. Lisette. It may be impossible, but it is so. M. Tomes. He cannot be dead, I say. Lisette. I tell you he is dead and buried. M. Tomes. You are mistaken. Lisette. I saw it. M. Tomes. It is impossible. Hippocrates says, that such diseases do not terminate till the fourteenth or twenty-first day, and it is only six days since he was taken sick. Lisette. Hippocrates may say what he pleases, but the coachman is dead.*" Moliere died about the commencement of the last century, and although his art had, doubtless, some effect in rectifying that, which should have yielded to sober reflection, his censures were well merited a cen- tury after they were written, and they are by no means devoid of application at the present time. It is but recently, that the minds of many were usurped by the notions of a celebrated systematist, whose dicta were—and still are by some—regarded as ca- *L'Amour Medecin, Acte ii. Scene 2. PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 163 nons; yet how few, at this day, pride themselves on an adherence to his views, and how small is now his influence, even in the very seat of his scientific exertions. Still, others have arisen, and are arising, to whom the same kind of homage, as masters, is paid; whose inculcations are received as indisputable authorities; and, mainly, because it is easier to embrace the views of a leader, and to find support under his responsibility, than it is to work out a path of our own. Of late years, great advancement has taken place in the more purely practical parts of the profession. Instead of attending—as is too often the case with the mere routine practitioner—to the more prominent symptoms of disease, and attempting to remove them, the inquiries of the scientific physician are now directed to the pathological condition of the suffering organ ; and on this all his rational indications of treat- ment repose.* Of the valuable auxiliaries in the discrimination of disease,—the gifts of modern times,—one of the most so is that of 'Auscultation' or listening—with or without the stethoscope—the invention of the late eminent French pathologist, and professor, Laennec. By this simple instrument, the physician is enabled to to obtain audible evidences of the state of the lungs, and the heart, not to be acquired in any other manner. They, who have listened attentively and repeatedly, are alone able to appreciate the information it is capable of conveying, especially in that intractable malady—intractable in its advanced stages at least— * See the Author's ' General Therapeutics,' p. 20. 164 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE pulmonary consumption. It is now well established, that if relief is to be experienced, in this dread disease, by any change of climate, the remedy must be had recourse to, before the malady has made such pro- gress, that cavities have formed in the lungs, or before it has become—what has been called—' confirmed.' In detecting whether this unhappy advancement has taken place, auscultation is one of our chief guides; and if it should indicate the presence of abscesses or cavities in the lungs, the physician assumes a fearful responsibility, in advising a patient to incur all the evils of expatriation—the inconveniences dependent upon a removal from family and friends—under the delusive—the forlorn—hope, that a warmer or more equable climate may repair the mischief—alas! irre- mediable.* How important, then, to be able to dis- criminate, whether the lungs are yet in a state to admit of well-founded expectations of benefit from change of climate; and how valuable the means of diagnosis or discrimination, which aids in substituting certainty, or a high degree of probability, for doubt, in cases where the steps of the sufferer, and of anxious relatives, are to be guided by the decision of the prac- titioner; and where such decision is to be attended, on the one hand, with prostration of their hopes; and, on the other, is to subject them to all the inconve- niences of a distant, and often uncomfortable pilgri- mage! In respect to the best method of profiting by the Clinical course, a great deal will depend upon the me- thod adopted by the professor,—as to the plan the stu- * See the Author's ' Elements of Hygiene,' p. 195. PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 165 dent should pursue. Too often, perhaps, the clinical instructor selects the singular and the striking, rather than the common and more useful cases; and it has fallen to the lot of the author—as it must have done, more or less, to every one—to have had his attention directed chiefly to cases, during his period of hospital attendance, which he has rarely or never met with since. The object of the clinical professor should be to select mainly those cases, that must necessarily present them- selves to all in their ordinary course of practice; to inquire aloud into the history of the case, and, at a fitting opportunity, to explain the etiology, semeiotics, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment adapted for the particular case, and for the class to which it belongs, —attracting the attention of the student to the more prominent points. With these views, acute cases should be first considered, as being most common and urgent; and, afterwards the more chronic. The young student is generally disposed to be over active in his treatment; and, if one remedy does not appear to be pro- ducing all the effect he anticipated, he is apt to fly at once to another; but if the professor be judicious, the student will soon learn that infinite mischief may be done in this manner, and that more reliance has to be placed upon the recuperative powers of the system, than he may have been disposed to imagine. It will be well for the clinical pupil to keep a journal of such cases as may merit the trouble; and never to permit an occasion to slip for verifying or disproving, by dis- section, the views which he or his teacher may have been led to form of the precise nature of fatal maladies. The remarks that have been made on medical, 166 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE apply equally to surgical, pathology. The operative department requires, however, a distinct consideration. In well devised lectures on operative surgery, all the operations are exhibited, and illustrated by a demon- stration of the parts concerned. The diversified in- struments and apparatuses of modern surgery are shown to the class, and their uses explained; yet the student should lose no opportunity for repeating the operations on the dead body, and, although this is by no means the same as operating on the living body, amidst the effusion of blood, and the sufferings of the patient, an intimate acquaintance with the relative situation of parts, derived from surgical dissection, places the operator comparatively at his ease, under the most trying circumstances. In some of our medi- cal institutions, not only has the student the opportu- nity of attending the lectures of the professor of sur- gery; but it enters into the plan of instruction, to teach him the most improved methods of perform- ing surgical operations, while he is is engaged in prose- cuting his dissections under the guidance of the demonstrator of anatomy,—an arrangement adopted for frequent illustration of those operative details, with which practice alone can make the \ student familiar. In the present improved condition of Surgery, in all its branches, the philanthropist finds much to excite his warm admiration. The major operations have been simplified by the invention of appropriate instruments, and the bold daring of the modern surgeon has led him to perform operations, which were totally un- known, even in the middle of the last century;—for example, the ligature of the larger arteries, in cases PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 167 of aneurismal diseases, which, at one time, would have been permitted to run their course to a fatal termina- tion without interference, but are now controlled by the discoveries of modern science. It is not only in the operative part, however, that the advancement of surgery is manifested. The skilful and benevolent surgeon has more gratification in saving a limb, which has been doomed to the knife, than in his most bril- liant operations. There was a period, when every compound fracture was considered to require amputa- tion; and this sentiment prevailed until within a com- paratively recent period. At this time, the contrary doctrine is maintained, and no case is now subjected to amputation, unless supervening circumstances should render such a step imperiously necessary. To know, whether a severe and dangerous operation is demand- ed, is one of the most difficult parts of the surgeon's duty,—far more so than the operation when once de- termined upon. Yet, the public,—who are, in general, but imperfect judges of professional merit,—are infi- nitely more impressed with the success of an operation —which, perhaps, ought never to have been under- taken—than by the skilful and humane exertions of the surgeon to render such operation unnecessary. The author well recollects the eclat obtained by a sur- geon, for performing the operation of the trephine, in a case of fracture of the skull, with slight depression, unaccompanied with a single symptom of injury of the brain; although, if fatal mischief had resulted from the operation, it might have been a question, whether the operator would not have been amenable, in a court of justice, for the injury he had inflicted;—as no principle is better established, than that the trephine should 168 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE never be employed except for the removal of existing bad symptoms, or of conditions, which must render the occurrence of such symptoms almost inevitable. The community at large are fond of the exhibition of activity by the physician or surgeon, and this feel- ing has doubtless, at times, led a practititioner,—not possessed of extraordinary presence of mind or firm- ness of character,—to have recourse to measures of which his better judgment might not approve. Surgery is always a more popular branch with the student— and indeed with the laity—than medicine. Treating— as it does—the morbi externi or external diseases, it addresses itself more to the eye; its results are com- monly palpable to the meanest capacity, and its agency is heroic, and commonly successful, if not in curing, at least in removing the mischief. Hence it has been termed and regarded ' medicina efificax.'* " The adap- tation of curative means requires more vigilance in medicine than in surgery. There is no end of the cir- cumstances to be taken into consideration, day after day, in order to practise medicine with tolerable suc- cess. A man has an external inflammation: the surp-eon sees it, and is at once sure of its existence; he pre- scribes for it, and sees its gradual decline as plainly at he first saw its rise and progress. A man has an internal inflammation; but the physician, not seeing it, is obliged to come to the knowledge of its existence by a great variety of considerations before he can know that it has begun to decline or has ceased. The uncertainty of physic I readily admit; but I do not admit the vul- gar reproach which has followed from it. There is nothing absolutely sure but what rests on the basis of numbers, or falls within the sphere of the senses. PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 169 Where reasoning begins, there begins uncertainty; and on this account, the highest and the best things in the world are all uncertain, and so is our profession. But from this very uncertainty, those who practise it suc- cessfully claim their greatest honor; for where there is no possibility of error, no praise is due to the judg- ment of what is right."* The department of Obstetrics—as generally taught in our schools—includes not only the practice of the art, but subjects that might be considered to appertain to other departments. It teaches, for example, the physiology of the pregnant and parturient states; em- bryology; as well as the different diseases to which the sex are subject; with the physiology and pathology of infancy, &c. &c. The same method of studying these physiological and pathological topics, is demanded, as in the case of physiology and pathology in general. The practical part of obstetrics may be regarded as a branch of sur- gery—the operations, at least, which are required, when the powers of the mother have to be aided, or when they are totally inoperative, from causes apper- taining to mother or child. There is but one mode, in which practical obstetrics can be perfectly taught; and that is by practice on the living female. Accordingly, wherever circumstances will admit, a lying-in hospital is attached to the medi- cal school, at which opportunities are afforded for the student to officiate as accoucheur, under the guidance of an expert. In this country, this desirable appendage * Dr. Latham, Op. citat., p. 51. 15 170 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE to the obstetrical chair does not always exist; but, in Europe, it is rare to find one unprovided. Generally, the students are divided into classes, which are sum- moned in turn; and, in France, towards the termina- tion of labor, the clothes are thrown up, and as the woman is delivered on her back, and on an inclined plane, full opportunity is afforded for witnessing the mode in which the extrusion of the foetus is accom- plished. Similar opportunities exist for' touching' or exploring the condition of the uterus during the different stages of pregnancy, and thus for enabling the young physi- cian to verify or disprove the existence of pregnancy in doubtful cases,—a topic, which,—since the intro- duction of the stethoscope more especially,—has been full of interest, in a practical point of view, to the ob- stetrician. In schools, to which a lying-in establishment is not an adjunct, the student should embrace every oppor- tunity for noting the different presentations on the ' mannekin;' and for rendering himself familiar with the various obstetrical instruments, and their applica- tion. The young practitioner is apt to become con- fused, if, in applying his forceps, the locking parts of the blades do not correspond. Familiarity with the instrument, which can be acquired by very slight at- tention, will prevent this; and if he practise frequently on the mannekin, he will not have much difficulty in the adaptation of his knowledge to the living female. The department of medical science, to which the least importance is apt to be attached by the student, is Chemistry; and this accounts for the lamentable de- PERIOD OF ATTENDANCE ON LECTURES. 171 ficiency in chemical attainments, observable amongst students and physicians in general. The notion ought to be discouraged, and it would be easily accomplished, were the authorities of the medioal colleges to require an adequate acquaintance with the laws and facts of chemistry as essential to graduation. Many of the functions of the living body are carried on by chemi- cal agency, and are incomprehensible without an ac- quaintance with that science. " Chemistry was once thought to be conversant only with the physiology of external nature; but every day is bringing us to look more and more to chemistry to explain the physiology of our own bodies. It cannot, therefore, be suffered to become a less prominent part of medical education than it is."* What student could understand the changes, pro- duced in the air by respiration, unless he had some knowledge of chemistry; or how could he comprehend many of the other functions, that seem to be accom- plished under chemico-vital influence? In like man- ner, the action of antilithics, antacids, and disinfect- ants; the knowledge of substances, that are compatible or incompatible in the same prescription; the action of antidotes, when poison has been taken,—indeed, the whole subject of toxicology, in order to be under- stood, requires an acquaintance with chemistry. The author well recollects a case of internal hemorrhage, treated by a practitioner by means altogether inert, in consequence of his ignorance on this point. He argued that sulphuric acid was a good astringent; that the acetate of lead possessed like virtues; and that if he * Latham, Op. citat., p. 41. 172 MEDICAL EDUCATION DURING THE a. The bearings of civilization on human life—comprising the characteristics of political medicine. 63. Combe, Andrew.—The Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health, and to the Improvement of Phy- sical and Mental Education. By Andrew Combe, M. D., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. New York. 12mo. 1834. pp. 291. This is an excellent production, intended, however, more for the people than for the profession. Its object, as expressed by the author, is " to assist in diffusing such a general acquaintance with the struc- ture and functions of the human body, as will enable individuals to adopt the best means for developing their mental and bodily powers; to protect themselves from the more common causes of disease, and to co-operate with effect in the recovery of themselves or their friends, when sick;" and he adds—" In endeavouring partially to fulfil this object, I have the general reader alone in view, and do not pretend to offer any thing new to the profession, for the subjects treated of must be familiar to every practitioner. At the same time I am not with- 20 230 BIBLIOGRAPHY out hope, that the method followed of connecting details with practical applications, may be found useful to the student, and help to direct him in his future inquiries." The physiological investigations embrace the functions of the skin, muscles, bones, respiration, and nervous system, with their various interesting applications to Hygiene. The reproductive functions are passed by. They could not, indeed, have easily been included in a work, which was intended to form part of the domestic library. 64. Kitchener, William.—Directions for Invigorating and Pro- longing Life: or the Invalid's Oracle. Containing Pep- tic Precepts, pointing out agreeable and effectual Methods to prevent and relieve Indigestion, and to regulate and strengthen the action of the Stomach and Bowels. By Wm. Kitchener, M. D., Author of the Cook's Oracle, and Housekeeper's Manual, Carolina......\ 14. Jefferson Medical College . 15. University of Virginia . . . 16. Washington Medical College , 17. Medical College of Georgia . 18. Medical College of the State ) of South Carolina ~. . . ^ 19. Medical College of Louisiana 20. Medical Institution of Ge-) neva College, New York $ 21. Cincinnati College . . . . 22. School of Medicine at Wood-1 stock, Vermont . . . j 23. Willoughby University . . . Baltimore; June 10th, 1836. Lexington, Brunswick, < Pittsfield, j Charleston, < Philadelphia, Charlottesville Baltimore, Augusta, Charleston, New Orleans, Geneva, Cincinnati, Woodstock, J Chagrine, f Lake Erie, Last week in October. Last Monday in October. Second Thursday in August, and a spring term begin- ning on the second Thurs- day in March. Each ses- sion of 14 weeks. First Monday in November. Third Monday of February. Session 3 months. Last Thursday in August, session 13 Weeks. Second Monday in No- vember. The regular series,in the first week of November. First of September. Last Monday in October. In October. Second Monday in Novem- ber. First Monday in December. First Tuesday in October. Last Monday in October. Second Thursday in March. First of November. The following are the published regulations, at present in force, in relation to the acquisition of the doctorate in the University of Penn- sylvania. I. Every candidate for the degree must have attained the age of twenty-one years, applied himself to the study of medicine for three years, and been, during that time, the private pupil, for two years at least, of a respectable practitioner of medicine. OP THE UNITED STATES. 309 II. Preparatory to obtaining his tickets, the student must matricu- late, by having his name registered by the Dean of the Medical Fa- culty. III. The candidate must have attended two complete courses of the following lectures in this institution. Anatomy, Practice of Physic, Materia Medica and Pharmacy, Chemistry, Surgery, Midwifery, and the Diseases of Women and Children, and Institutes of Medicine. He must also have attended one course of Clinical Instruction, in the Philadelphia Hospital (Blockley,) or the Pennsylvania Hospital, or some other institution approved of by the Faculty of Medicine. IV. Medical students who have attended one complete couise, in a respectable medical school, where the attendance on two complete courses is necessary to a degree, where the same branches are taught as in this, and which is placed on the ad eundem of this school, are permitted to become candidates by attendance here for one full course only, and have the same privilege with students who have at- tended this school twice. V. When the candidates for a medical degree apply to the dean for admission to an examination, they must exhibit their tickets and certi- ficates to prove that these qualifications have been observed. VI. Each candidate, at the time of his application, must deliver to the dean of the faculty a medical thesis composed by himself. This thesis is referred to one of the professors, who shall examine the can- didate thereon, and report the same to the medical faculty. VII. When a candidate is rejected, his thesis will be retained by the medical faculty. VIII. When candidates withdraw their theses, for any purpose whatever, they, on re-application, will be placed at the foot of the list. IX. The thesis must be in the candidate's own handwriting, and must be written uniformly on paper of the same size, the alternate pages being left blank. General bad spelling in it, or general inat- tention to the rules of grammar, will be sufficient ground to exclude a candidate from examination for a degree. X. When a thesis is published by the candidate, the permission of the professor, by whom he was examined thereon must be ob- 310 MEDICAL COLLEGES tained, and no alteration without his consent, shall be made therein after such permission is given. XL The voting on the case of each candidate is by private ballot, and three negative votes reject him. XII. Each candidate shall pay the fees of graduation, at the time of having the success of his examination announced to him by the Dean. XIII. Candidates, who have passed their examination, and in other respects complied with the regulations, must be reported by the Dean to the Provost, who in turn will communicate such report to the Board of Trustees, in order that if approved of by them, their man- damus be issued for conferring the degree at such time as they may think expedient. XIV. The degree will not be conferred upon a candidate who ab- sents himself from the public commencement, except by a special permission of the medical faculty. XV. Graduates of medical schools, on the ad eundem list, by at- tending one complete course in this institution, are put upon the same footing with students, who have attended two complete courses here. The regulations of the Jefferson Medical School, of the College of t Physicians and Surgeons of the city of New York, and of the Western and Southern Medical Schools are in all essential respects the same as those of the University of Pennsylvania. The examina- tions in the first of these institutions, are, however, peculiar. Those of the University of Pennsylvania, and of the other medical schools of the union, are altogether oral. At the Jefferson School they are oral or written, at the option of the candidate. The following account of the plan, adopted in this school, is from their ' announcement' for the session, 1836-7.* * "The officers of Jefferson Medical College would particularly solicit the attention of the Profession to the mode of examination for the degree of M. D., which they have lately adopted. Every one acquainted with the subject is aware of the great difficulty of fixing a standard, by which the qualifications of the candidate shall be fairly determined, so that equal justice shall be done to the public and individuals. Oral examinations, after a certain routine of study, have been heretofore universally relied upon in the United States, This mode of ex- amination is admitted to be very imperfect, and obnoxious to many serious ob- jections. It is in itself extremely tedious, necessarily consuming, where the class is large, a great length of time, each candidate requiring, at least, from an OF THE UNITED STATES. 311 The following are the regulations for graduation in the medical de- partment of the University of Maryland. 1. Any student, who desires to become a candidate, must exhibit the tickets of admission to the different lectures to the Dean. 2. He must have attended two full courses of all the lectures deliver- hour and a quarter, to an hour and a half. The situation of the candidates is embarrassing; some become agitated and lose their self-possession, and are thus unable to do justice to themselves; others again, by appearing to be so, enlist the feelings of the examiners, and, by their address, elude scrutiny; while, however conscientious and upright in his intentions, the examiner must have the common sympathies of our nature, and is therefore always liable to be suspected of favor- itism or prejudice. These, and many other unanswerable objections, may be urged against oral examinations, as tests of medical qualifications. The follow- ing plan of written examinations was pursued, with about two-thirds of the can- didates, at their last graduation. The mode being unusual, the candidates were allowed a choice of an oral or written examination; when 86 preferred the latter. Preparatory to the written examination, the candidates were requested to send to the Dean a sealed note, with their names written on the inside; on the outside was written a motto or sentence. A day was then set apart for each Professor to examine on his branch. The evening befote meeting the class, the Professor prepared from 20 to 40 comprehensive questions, on various subjects relating to his department. A sufficient number of copies was printed, by a confidential person, and delivered to the Professor. The class was assembled at 10 o'clock A. M. the next day, in the lecture room, prepared for their examination; when a copy of the questions was handed to each candidate, by the Professor in the pre- sence of his colleagues. The candidates were distributed over the room, so that they could hold no intercourse with each other; each being provided with a small copy book, on which was written the motto already handed to the Dean, and with pen and ink. They were informed that the answers were expected to be full and satisfactory. It was announced that any attempt to whisper, or to communicate information to each other, or the use of any book, would, if discovered, be con- sidered sufficient ground for the unqualified rejection of the individual. They were at liberty to take what time they required; but, after finishing their tasks, the book, containing the answers to the questions, was to be deposited in a cover- ed basket placed upon the table. During the time they were thus employed, one or more of the Professors was constantly present in a part of the room where every candidate was under his direct surveillance. No candidate left the room, but for a few moments, with permission, until his task was completed. From the novelty of this mode of examination, the Professors were apprehen- sive that some inconvenience might practically arise. It was most gratifying, however, to find that none was actually felt. The moment the printed copies of the questions were received, the candidates proceeded, with the regularity of so many well trained Clerks, to the accomplishment of their task. Instead of at- tempting to prompt each other, each seemed conscious that he had quite suffi- cient employment in attending to his own affairs, and, by the time the questions 312 MEDICAL COLLEGES ed in the Institution; one course of practical anatomy under the De- monstrator of the University, and one course of clinical instruction at the Infirmary. Students, who have attended a full course of medical lectures in any respectable school, are permitted to become candidates after at- tending one full course of the lectures in the medical department of the University of Maryland. Each candidate must deliver to the Dean an inaugural dissertation, of his own composing, on some medical subject. Should the can- didate be rejected, his essay will be returned to him. The dissertation must be in the candidate's own writing, and must be written correctly and on appropriate paper. The order in which the candidates shall present themselves for ex- amination will be determined by lot, on the 15th day of February, the candidate delivering in his inaugural dissertation, at the time, to the Dean. Each candidate shall pay to the Dean of the Faculty the fees for graduation, at the time of his examination. The degree will not be conferred upon any candidate—although he may have been successful in his examinations—who may absent himself from the Public Commencement, except by special permis- sion of the Medical Faculty. A medal shall be awarded to the writer of the best Latin disserta- tion,—the announcement to be made on the day of the public com- mencement. Graduates of respectable medical schools are permitted to attend were answered, they were quite fatigued enough to feel no desire of remaining longer in the room. The book of answers was deposited in the covered basket and the candidate retired. The examination began at 10 o'clock in the morning, and generally it was about five before the last candidate, and with him the Pro- fessors, left the room. The basket containing the written answers was sent to the Professor's house, who, after carefully examining them, wrote down his judg- ment of each. On this decision the vote was taken, without the name of the candidate being known.—This course was pursued, successively, by each Pro- fessor. It will be perceived that the excellence of this mode of examination mainly depends on the questions being entirely unknown until they are presented in the examining room, and the candidate having no extrinsic aid from books or prompting. Such were the precautions, that these were entirely impracticable. At the same time, they must do the candidates the justice to say, that not the slightest disposition to take any undue advantage was shown by a single indi- vidual within the knowledge of the Professors." OP THE UNITED STATES. 313 all the lectures, on payment of a fee of twenty dollars to the Medical Faculty. According to the regulations of the Medical School of Harvard University:— Every candidate for the degree of Doctor of Medicine must com- ply with the following conditions before being admitted to a private examination, viz: He shall satisfy the faculty that he has arrived at the age of twenty-one. He shall have attended two courses of the lectures delivered at the Massachusetts Medical College by each of the Professors. Except that if he have attended a course of similar lectures in any other college or university, the same may take the place of one of the above courses. He shall have employed three years in his professional studies under the direction of a regular practitioner of medicine. If he has not received a university education, he shall satisfy the Faculty of Medicine in respect to his knowledge of the Latin lan- guage, and experimental philosophy. He shall, four weeks previous to the day on which he presents himself for examination, have given notice of his intention to the Dean of the Faculty, and at the same time shall have delivered or transmitted to the Dean, a dissertation written by himself, on some subject connected with medicine. In the University of Virginia—as was remarked in an early part of this volume—no length of study is demanded. The candidate is admitted to an examination during the first year of his attendance, should he feel qualified and desire it. 27 ADDENDA. RECENT CHANGES IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS. The whole of this work, as the date of the preface sufficiently indicates, has been printed since the month of March; but it has not been issued in consequence of the difficulties arising from the pressure of the times. Since then changes unusually numerous have been made in various medical schools. These it is esteemed proper to add here, with a reference to the page in the body of the work in which the particular school is noticed. II. COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS, NEW YORK, p. 294. Dr. Alban G. Smith (formerly of the Medical College of Ohio) has been ap- pointed Professor of the Principles and Practice of Surgery, in place of Dr. A. H. Stevens, M. D., resigned. V. UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, (BALTIMORE.) p. 296. The whole of the old Faculty have resigned. The following is the present Faculty: 1. H. Willis Baxley, M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology. 2. Henry Howard, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics and of the Diseases of Women and Children. 3. Michael A. Finley, M. D., Professor of Pathology and the Practice of Medicine. 4. Robert E. Dorsey, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica, Therapeutics, Hy- giene and Medical Jurisprudence. 5. W. R. Fisher, M. IX, Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy. 6. John Frederick May, M. D., Professor of the principles and Practice of Surgery. Ellis Hughes, M. D., Dissector and Demonstrator of Anatomy. Fee for each Professor, 15 dollars. VIII. TRANSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY, (LEXINGTON, KY.) p. 298. All these chairs having been vacated by the Board of Trustees, the following new appointments have been made: 1. Benjamin Winslow Dudley, M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Surgery. 2. James B. Bush, M. D., Adjunct Professor of Anatomy. 3. James Conquest Cross, Professor of the Institutes and Clinical Practice, and of Medical Jurisprudence. 4. John Eberle, M. D., Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine. 5. William Hall Richardson, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics and^the Diseases of Women and Children. 6. Charles Wilkins Short, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and Medical Botany. 7. Thomas D. Mitchell, M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy. IX. MEDICAL COLLEGE OF OHIO, (CINCINNATI.) p. 299. Several of the Professors in this School have resigned, and, at this date, their places have not been supplied. Drs. Cobb and Locke have received appoint- ments in the Louisville Medical School. Dr. Alban G. Smith has been trans- ferred to the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York; and Drs. Cross and Eberle have accepted appointments in the Transylvania Medical School. XIII. MEDICAL COLLEGE OF SOUTH CAROLINA, (CHARLESTON.) p. 301. Dr. Charles Davis having resigned the Chair of Chemistry, Dr. William Hume has been transferred from the Chair of Anatomy to that of Chemistry and Phar- macy, and Dr. B. B. Strobel has been appointed Professor of Anatomy. XV. UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, (CHARLOTTESVILLE.) p. 302. Robert E. Griffith, M. D., (previously of the University of Maryland,) Pro- fessor of Theory and Practice of Medicine, &c, in the place of Alfred T. Magill, M. D., deceased. James L. Cabell, M. D., Professor of Anatomy, Physiology, and Surgery, in the place of Augustus L. Warner, M. D., resigned. 316 ADDENDA. XVI. WASHINGTON MEDICAL COLLEGE, (BALTIMORE.) p. 302. J. R. W. Dunbar, M. D., Professor of Surgery and Surgical Anatomy, in place of John P. Mettauer, M. D., resigned. XVII. MEDICAL COLLEGE OF GEORGIA, (AUGUSTA.) p. 303. Two new Professorships have been added to this School; the one of Physiology and Pathological Anatomy; the other of Institutes of Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence. To the former, Dr. George M. Newton, Adjunct Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, has been appointed; to the litter, Dr. Lewis D. Ford, previously Professor of Chemistry in the Institution. The Chair of Chemistry has been filled by the appointment of Dr. Charles Davis, previously Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of South Carolina. XVIII. MEDICAL COLLEGE OF THE STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA, (CHARLES- TON.) ;;. 304. A Chair of Pathological Anatomy and Medical Jurisprudence has been added to this college, to which Dr. Eli Geddings, previously Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in the University of Maryland, has been appointed. K. Wurdemann, M. D., Demonstrator, in place of John Bellinger, M. D. XIX. MEDICAL COLLEGE OF LOUISIANA. (NEW ORLEANS.)p. 304. W. Stone, M. D., Professor of Surgery, in place of Charles A. Luzenburg. J. L. Riddel, M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy, in place of W. Byrd Powell, M. D. J. Jones, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children and Clinics, in place of Thomas R. Ingalls, M. D. Warren Stone, M. D., Professor of Anatomy. XX. MEDICAL INSTITUTION OF GENEVA COLLEGE, NEW YORK, (GENEVA.) James Webster, M. D., has been appointed Professor of Anatomy and Physi- ology, in the place of W. Parker, M. D. The same gentleman will also deliver the Lectures on Surgery the ensuing term, in place of Dr. Morgan, resigned. The Professorship of Medical Jurisprudence and Botany has been discontinued. XXI. MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OF CINCINNATI COLLEGE, (CINCINNATI.) Dr. John L. Riddel, Adjunct Professor of Chemistry and Lecturer on Botany, has been appointed to the Chair of Chemistry and Pharmacy in the Medical College of Louisiana. Dr. Trimble is Demonstrator of Anatomy. NEW SCHOOL. LOUISVILLE MEDICAL INSTITUTE, (LOUISVILLE.) A Faculty has been recently appointed, connected with this Institute. 1. Jedediah Cobb, M. D., (previously of the Medical College of Ohio,) Pro- fessor of Anatomy. 2. Joshua B. Flint, M. D., (lately of Boston,) Professor of Surgery. 3. Charles Caldwell, M. D., (previously of the Transylvania University,) Pro- fessor of the Institutes of Medicine and Clinical Practice. 4. John E. Cooke, M. D., (lately of the Transylvania University,) Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine. 5. Lunsford P. Yandell, M. D., (lately of the Transylvania University,) Pro- fessor of Materia Medica. 6. Henry Miller, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children. 7. John Locke, M. D., (of the Medical College of Ohio,) Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy. N. B. Dr. Locke is at this time in Europe. The Trustees appointed him, believing, from the assurances of his friends, that he would accept Should he decline, Chemistry will be taught during the ensuing winter by Dr. Yandell. The above comprise all the changes that have come to the author's knowledge. Philadelphia, September 6, 1837. INDEX. A. Abbreviations used in prescribing, 112. Abercrombie, Dr. On the best method of observing, 186.—On diseases of the brain and spinal cord, 271.—On diseases of the stomach, &c, 271.— On the intellectual powers, 271.— His remarks on the precision of terms, 107. Abernethy, Mr. Lectures on Surgery, 263. " S J Akerly, Dr. S. Edition of Hooper's Medical Dictionary, 225. Alcock, Mr. T. Lectures on Surgery, 268. Alison, Dr. W. P. Outlines of Patho- logy. 254.—Outlines of Physiology, 261. Anatomical preparations, works on, 217. Anatomy, attendance on, during the first year, 137.—Best mode of study- ing, 147.—Works on, 200.—Compa- rative, works on, 201.—Descriptive, works on, 202.—General, 150.—Ge- neral, works on, 209.—Morbid, 153. Works on, 211.—Nomenclature of, 199.—Pathological, 153.—Works on, 211.—Philosophical, 151.—Surgical, 148.—Surgical, works on, 215.—To- pographical, 148.—Transcendental, 151. Andral, G. Clinique Medicale, 271.— Pathological Anatomy, 211. Apjohn, Dr. J., in Select Medico-Chi- rurgical Transactions, 283. Apothecaries' Society, Diploma of the, 16.—Rules of the, 45. Armstrong, Dr. Appointment to the London Fever Hospital, 27.—His ex- ample recommended, 25.—Practice of Physic, 250.—His rejection by the London College of Physicians, 26.— Was a severe student, 28. Arnott, Dr. N. Elements of Physics, 272. Aselli, discoverer of the lacteals, 177. Auscultation, value of, 163. Authority, deference paid to, in medi cine, 163. Averill, Mr. Operative Surgery, 264. B. Bache Dr. F. Articles in Hays's Cy- clopedia, 282.—Edition of Turner's Chemistry, 222. Baillie, M. Morbid Anatomy, 212. Ballingall, Sir G. Military Surgery, 269. Baltimore, Medical Schools of, 296 and 302. Barclay, Dr. His attempt to improve nomenclature, 51. Bard, Samuel. Compendium of Mid- wifery, 242. Barrett, T. S. Edition of Kitchener's Invalid's Oracle, 230. Barton, Dr. W. P. C. Materia Me- dica, 281. Bateman, Dr. Synopsis of cutaneous diseases, 272. Baudelocque's Midwifery, 242. Bayle, A. L. J. Anatomy, 203.—Ge- neral Anatomy, 209. Beck, Dr. J. B. Edition of Murray's Materia Medica, 236.—Edition of Paris's Pharmacologia, 236.—Re- searches in Medicine, 272. ---- T. R. and J. B., Medical Juris- prudence, 238. Beclard, P. H. Additions to Bichat, 210.—General Anatomy, 209.—MS. of Bichat's Pathological Anatomy, 212. Bedford, G. S. Edition of Maygrier's Anatomy, 205. Begin, L. J. Therapeutics, 251. Belinage, Mr. H. On Hygiene, 228. Bell, Mr. John. Principles of Surgery, 269. ----J. $; C. Anatomy, 203. ---- Sir Charles. His Anatomy of Expression, 42.—Dissections, 204.— On the nerves, 273.—His remarks on nomenclature, 105. 316 INDEX. Bell, Dr. J. On Baths and Mineral waters, 273.—Edition of Broussais' Physiology, 257. ----Mr. T. On the teeth, 273. Benevolence, advantage of, to the phy- sician, 191. Bentham, Mr. left his body for dissec- tion, 155. Berkshire Medical Institution, 300. Berthollet. His nomenclature of che- mistry, 102. Bibliography, 201. -----------medical, works on, 218. Bichat, X. General Anatomy, 209.— General Anatomy, additions to, 210. —Pathological Anatomy, 212.—Phy- siology, &c. Epitome of, by Dr. Hen- derson, 255. Bigelow, Dr. Materia Medica, 232.— On the best mode of observing, 186. Blackstone, Sir W. His opinion of physicians, 183. Blandin, Ph. F. Surgical Anatomy, 215. Blaud. His new name for croup, 53. Blumenbach, J. F. Comparative Ana- tomy, 201.—Elements of Physio- logy, 257. Blundell, James. Principles of Ob- stetricy, 243. Boisseau, F. G. Edition of Bichat's Pathological Anatomy, 212. Books, proper, to be placed in the hands of the tyro, 49. Boot, Dr. F. The Biographer of Dr. Armstrong, 26. Bostock, Dr. John. Elementary Sys- tem of Physiology, 256.—History of Medicine, 226. Botany, importance of, 132. Bourgery, J. Anatomy, 207.—Lesser Surgery, 264. Bowditch, Dr. Edition of Louis on Phthisis, 285.—Translation of Louis on typhoid fever, 285. Breschet, G. Translation of Meckel's Anatomy, 205. Broussais, F. J. V. Principles of Phy- siological Medicine, 251.—Treatise on Physiology, 257. Bryant, Dr. T. S. Examinations in Anatomy and Physiology, 274. Burns, Mr. Allan. On the surgical anatomy of the head and neck, 274. -----John. Midwifery, 243.—Prin- ciples of Surgery, 265. C. Cambridge, University of, education in the, 1. Campbell, Dr. W. Work on Midwife- ry, 246. Carswell, Robert. Pathological Ana- tomy, 213. Carus, C. G. Comparative Anatomy, 201. Castle, Dr. Thomas. Edition of Blun- dell's Obstetricy, 243. Catchwords during lecture, 145. Cazenave Sf Schedel. Synopsis of cu- taneous diseases, 272. Chamberlaine, Mr. His specimen of a prescription book, 108. Chapman, Dr. Articles in Hays's Cy- clopedia, 282.—Elements of Thera- peutics, 232. Chase, Dr. H. On the radical cure of hernia, 274. Chaussier. His attempt to improve nomenclature, 51.—His Nomencla- ture of Anatomy, 100, 101, 102. Chemistry, attendance on, during the first year, 137.—How best studied, 170.—Works on, 219. Chitty, G. Medical Jurisprudence, 239. Christison, Dr. R. In Select Medico- Chirurgical Transactions, 283.— Treatise on Poisons, 275. Cicero. His opinion of physicians, 184. Cincinnati College, Medical School of, 305. Clark, Dr. James. Treatise on pulmo- nary consumption, 275. Clinical, attendance during the first year, 137.—Course, how best studied, 164.—Instruction, works on, 222. Cloquet, H. Human Anatomy, 204. Coates, Dr. Reynell. Articles in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282. Coke, Lord. His opinion of the length of daily study, 140. Colhoun, Di. S. Edition of Gregory's Practice, 252. Colleges, number of, in the United States, 2. Colles, Abraham. Surgical Anatomy, 216. Combe, Dr. A. Principles of Physi- ology, &c. 229.—Physiology of Di- gestion, 276. Condie, Dr. Articles in Hays's Cy- clopedia, 282. Condorcet. On the perfectibility of man, 176. Cooke, William. Edition of Morgagni, Cooper, Sir A. His industry, 30.—His large practice, 30.—Lectures of, 265. —Treatise on dislocations, &c. 276. INDEX. 317 Cooper, B. B. Lectures on Anatomv, 207. y' ------ & Dictionary of Practical Surgery, 266—First Lines of the Practice of Surgery, 265.—Edition of Good's Study of Medicine, 252. ------Dr. Thomas. Tracts on Medi- cal Jurisprudence, 240. Copland, Dr. J. Dictionary of Prac- tical Medicine, 276.— Edition of Richerand's Physiology, 260. Coster, J. Practice of Medicine, 252. Coulson, W. Edition of Lawrence's Blumenbach's Comparative Ana- tomy, 201.—Translation of Ed- wards's Surgical Anatomy, 216. Cowan, Dr. Ch. Translation of Louis on Phthisis, 285. Cowper, Mr. On the distinction be- tween knowledge and wisdom, 144. Coxe, J. R. Dispensatory, 233.—Me- dical Dictionary, 223. Craigie, David. General and Patholo- gical Anatomy, 210. Cuming, Dr. T., in Select Medical Chi- rurgical Transactions, 283. D. D'Alembert, ridicule of medicine, 161. Dartmouth College, N. H. Medical school of, 295. Davis, Dr. D. Elements of Operative Midwifery, 247.—Principles of Ob- stetric Medicine, 247. De Lys, G. J. M. Translation of Riche- rand's Physiology, 260. De Saint Pierre, Bernardin. Rous- seau's letter to, 184. Dease. Medical Jurisprudence, 240. Degree of the arts, requisites for a, 6. Denman, Dr. Thos. Midwifery, 243. Dewees, Dr. Articles in Hays's Cyclo- pedia, 282.—Edition of Baude- locque's Midwifery, 242.—Edition of Ramsbotham's Midwifery, 246.—On the Medical and Moral Treatment of Children, 277.—Practice of Physic, 248.—System of Midwifery, 242.— Treatise on the Diseases of Females, 277,—Dictionaries, Medical, 223. Diplomas, medical, objects of, 12.— Written in Latin, 11. Discretion in the Physician, advantage of, 192. Dispensatory, eclectic, 233. Dissection, first, in the United States, 291. Dissector, Dublin, 205. Doane, A. S. Edition of Bayle's Ana- tomy, 203.—Translation ot Blandin's Surg. Anat. 215.—Edition of Good's Study of Medicine, 252.—Edition of Maygrier's Midwifery, 245.—Edi- tion of Meckel's Anatomy, 205.— Surgery illustrated, 262. Dobson, Dr. R., in Select-Medico-Chi- rurgical Transactions, 283. Dorsey, Dr. Elements of Surgery, 262. Drawing, a useful accomplishment to the medical student, 42. Dublin, University, education in the, 1. Ducatel, Dr. Manual of Practical Tox- icology, 277. Dumas, his attempt to improve nomen- clature, 51—Nomenclature of Ana- tomy, 100. Dunglison, Dr. Articles in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282.—Hygiene, 227. Human Physiology, 255.—Edition of Magendie's Formulary, 235.—Ap- pendix to Magendie's Formulary, 236.—Edition of Hooper's Surgeon's Vade Mecum, 270.—Medical Dic- tionary, 224.—General Therapeutics, 249. Duparcque, M. On Diseases of the Uterus, 278. Durand, E. Translation of Edwards and Vavasseur's Mat. Med. 235. E. Eberle, Dr. Diseases, &c. of Children, 279.—Materia Medica, 233.—Notes on Practice of Medicine, 249. Edinburgh, University of, diploma of the, 193. Education, preliminary, 1.—General, well devised system of, 3.—Of the youth destined for medicine, 8.—Me- dical, prior to attendance on lectures, 44.—In the office of the Physician, 46.—After graduation, 183.—Of the office student, during the first year, 126.—During attendance on lectures, 135. Edwards, H. M.—Manual of Materia Medica, 235.—Surgical Anatomy, 216. Ellis, Dr. B.—Medical Formulary, 234. Elliotson, D. John. Human Physiolo- gy, 258. Emerson, Dr. G. Articles in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282. English language, inattention to the, 6. Ethics, medical, 196.—Works on, 225. 27* 318 INDEX. F. Ferguson, Dr. J. C, in Select Medico- Chirurgical Transactions, 283. Fonblanque, J. S. M. Medical Juris- prudence, 241. Forbes, Dr. Medical Bibliography, 218, —Translation of Laennec on the chest, 284. Fourcroy, his Nomenclature of Chemis- try, 103. Francis, Dr. J. W. Edition of Den- man's Midwifery, 244. French, use of, to the medical student, 40. G. Geddings, Dr. Articles in Hays's Cy- clopedia, 282. Georgia, medical school of, 303. Gerhard, Dr. Diagnosis of diseases of the chest, 279. German, use of, to the medical student, 40. Gibson, Dr. W. Institutes of Surgery, 263. Glanvil, on the Improvements of Sci- ence, 174. Glossary of prefixes, suffixes, &c, 55. Goddard, Dr. Plates of the cerebro- spinal nerves, 279. Godman, Dr. Correspondence with the author, 39.—His example inculcated, 36.—His piety, 39. His study of lan- guages, 37.—Edition of Bell's Ana- tomy, 204.—Edition of Sir. A. Coo- per, on Dislocations, &c, 276. Gooch, Robt. Compendium of Mid- wifery, 244.—On some of the more important diseases of women, 280. Good, Dr., his extensive works, 36.— His example inculcated, 36.—His knowledge of languages, 33.—His literary habits and activity, 35.—His remarks on nomenclature, 54.—Stu- dy of medicine, 252. Gore, R. T. Translation of Carus's Com p. Anatomy, 201. Graduation, medical education after, 183.—Preparation for, 181.—Regu- lations for, in the different schools, 307. Grainger, R. D. General Anat. 210. Grant, Robt. E. Compar. Anatomy, 202. Granville, Dr. Catechism of Health, 280. Graves, Dr. R. J., in Select Medico- Chirurgical Transactions, 283. Green, Dr. Jacob. Chemistry, 219. Greek language, important to the me- dical student, 9. Gregory, Dr. G. Practice of Physic, 252. ------Dr. John. On the duties, &c. of a physician, 225.—On the impor- tance of sympathy, 189.—On the study of the history of medicine, 180. —Dr. Olinthus, his opinion of Dr. Good, 34. Griffith, Dr. R. E. Articles in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282.—Edition of Caze- nove and Schedel, on cutaneous dis- eases, 272.—Edition of Ryan's Me- dical Jurisprudence, 240.—Transla- tion of Broussais's ' Principles,' 251. 1 Grinding,' objections to, 182. Gross, Dr. S. D. Translation of Bayle and Hollard's General Anatomy, 209.—Edition of Tavernier's Opera- tive Surgery, 268. Gully, Dr. Translation of Tiedemann's Physiology, 261. Guyton de Morveau, his Nomenclature of Chemistry, 102. H. Haden, C. T. On the causes of success in physicians, 195.—His opinion of physiology, 157.—Translation of Ma- gendie's Formulary, 111, 235. Hall, Capt. His anecdote of Sir W. Scott's literary habits, 35. ---- M. On the circulation of the blood, 280.—Lectures on the nerv- ous system, 281.—Researches on loss of blood, 280.—Principles of diagno- sis, 280. Hamilton, Dr. James. Practical Ob- servations on Midwifery, 247. --------Dr. W. History of Medi- cine, 227. Hare, Dr. Robert. Chemistry, 220. Harlan, Dr. MediGal and Physical Researches, 281. Harris, Dr. Thos. Article in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282. Harvard, Medical school of, 294. Haslam, Dr. Treatise on Insanity, 240. Hays, Dr. American Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine, &c. 282.—Arti- cles in his Cyclopedia, 283.—Edition of Arnott's Elements of Physics, 272. —Select Medico-Chirurgical Trans- INDEX. 319 actions, 283—Translation of Brous. sais's 'Principles,'251. Hayward, Geo. Translation of Bichat's Anat. 210.—Translation of additions to Bichat, 210. Henderson, Thomas. Epitome of the Physiology, &e. of Bichat, 255. Hennen, Dr. J. Military Surgery, 266. Henry, Dr. W. Chemistry, 221. Hippocrates, his doctrines reverentially followed until recently, 161.—Oath of, 193. Histology, 150. History of medicine, study of the, 176. —Works on, 226. Hoblyn, R. D. Dictionary of Terms, 55.—Medical Dictionary, 225. Hodge, Dr. Articles in Hays's Cyclo- pedia, 282. Hodgkin, T. Lectures on Health, 231. Hollard, H. General Anatomy, 209. Honour, in the physician, advantage of, 192. Hooper, Robert. Medical Dictionary, 224.—Surgeon's Vade Medum, 270. Hope, J. Pathological Anatomy, 213. Hopkinson, Dr. J. P. Engravings of the arteries, 283.—Edition of Colles's Surg. Anat. 216. Horner, Dr. Articles in Hays's Cyclo- pedia, 282.—Special and General Anatomy, 202.—Pathological Anato- my, 211.—Practical Anatomy, 202. —Edition of Wistar's Anatomy, 203. Hospital attendance during the first year, 137. Hunter, John. His example inculcated, 30.—The extent of his museum, 32. —His wonderful industry, 31. Hutchinson, Mr. Copland, in Select Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, 283. Hutin, Ph. Physiology of Man, 259. Hygiene, study of, 160.—Works on, 227. I. Italian, use of to the Medical Student, 41. J. Jackson, Dr. James. Appendix, &c. to Louis on bloodletting, 286. ______Dr. S. Articles in Hays's Cy- clopedia, 282.—Principles of Medi- cine, 255. Jacob, N. H. Plates to Bourgery's Ana- tomy, 207, James, Dr. T. C. Edition of Burns's Midwifery, 243__Edition of Merri- man's Synopsis of Midwifery, 245. Jefferson Medical College, 301.—Curri- culum in the, 135.—Examinations for a degree at, 310.—Rules of the,44. Johnson, Dr. S. His definition of me- dicine, 188.—On the employment of time, 142.—Opinion of the length of daily study, 140. Jourdan, A. J. L. Translation of Meck- el's Anatomy, 205. Jupiter, the sign of, placed at the head of a prescription, 110. K. Kennedy, Dr. E., in Select Medico-Chi- rurgical Transactions, 283. Kissam, Dr. J. B. Translation of Bour- gery's Surgery, 264. Kitchener, Dr. Invalid's Oracle, 230. Knox, Dr. Edition of Cloquet's Ana- tomy, 204. L. La Roche, Dr. Edition of Broussais's Physiology, 257. Laennec, the discoverer of auscultation, 163.—On Diseases of the Chest, 284. Lane, Dr. J. H. Translation of Tiede- mann's Physiology, 261. Languages, modern, use of to the medi- cal student, 40. Latham, P. M. On Clinical Medicine, 222.—On the distinction between knowledge and wisdom, 143.—His views on medical education, 129. Latin diplomas, 11.—Dissertations, prizes for, 18.—Important to the me- dical student, 10. Lawrence, Mr. On diseases of the eye, 284.—Lectures on Surgery, 270.— In Select Medico-Chirurgical Trans- actions, 283.—His translation of Blu- menbach's Comparative Anat. 201. Lectures, commencement of in the me- dical schools, 308.—Medical educa- tion prior to attendance on, 44.— Education during attendance on, 135. —During first year of attendance, 138.—Taking notes during, 145. Lewis, Winslow. Edition of Paxton's Anatomy, 206. Liston, Robert. Elements of Surgery, 270. 320 INDEX. Littell, Dr. S., Jun. On diseases of the eye, 284. Lizars, John. Anatomical Plates, 208. Lobstein, J. F. On the sympathetic nerve, 285. London University, a profess6rship of English at the, 7. Lovis, P. Ch. A.—On clinical instruc- tion, 223.—On the effects of blood- letting, 286.—Pathological research- es on phthisis, 285.—On typhoid fe- ver, 285. Louisiana, medical college of, 304. Luckey, Dr. The preceptor of Dr. Godman, 37. M. Mackintosh, Dr. Principles of Patho- logy, 253. MLellan, R. D. Translation of Ra- tier's Formulary, 237. M'Clellan, Dr. S. Edition of S. Cooper's First Lines, 265. Magendie, F. Compendium of Physi- ology, 259.—Formulary, 235.—For- mulary referred to, 111. Maine, Medical School of, 300. Male, Dr. Forensic Medicine, 240. Manec. Plates of the nerves, 285, Manners, of the physician, 191.— rough, objections to, 194. Marsh, Dr. In Select Medico-chirur- gical Transactions, 283. Martin, Peter. His translation of Louis on clinical instruction, 223. Martinet, L. Manual of Pathology, 254. Maryland, state license of, 12.—Uni- versity of, curriculum at the, 136.— School of the, 296.—regulations for a degree at the, 311.—Rules of the, 44. Materia |Medica, only to be attained by practice, 46.—Dr. Thomson's of, 127.—Works on, 231. Maygrier, J. P. Anatomist's Manual, 205.—Midwifery illustrated, 245. Mayo, Herbert. Outlines of Human Physiology, 261. Measures used in prescribing, 114. Meckel, J. F. Anatomy of Man, 205. Medical Bibliography, works on, 218. Medical Jurisprudence, works on, 238. Medical schools of the Union, 290.— Commencement of lectures in the, 308.—Regulations for graduation in the, 310.—Of Berkshire, (Pittsfield,) 300—Of Castleton, (Vermont,) 299. —Of Cincinnati, 299 and 305.—Of Dartmouth College, (N. H.) 295.— Of Fairfield, (N. Y.) 297.—Of Ge- neva College, New York, 305.— of Georgia, 303.—Of Harvard, 294. —Of Louisiana, 304.—Of Maine, 300.—Of the University of Maryland, 296.—Of New York, (College of Physicians and Surgeons,) 293.—Of Ohio, 299, 305.—Of Philadelphia, 291 and 301. Of the University of Pennsylvania, 291.—Of South Caro- lina, 301 and 304.—Of Transylvania University, 298.—Of Vermont, 299, 306.—Of University of Virginia, 302. Of Willoughby University, 306.— OfYale^College, 298. Medicine, history of, study of the, 176. —Works on, 226.—Improvement in, in modern times, 174.—Preventive, 160.—Study of, physico-moral, 8. Meigs, Dr. Ch. D. Edition of Velpeau's Midwifery, 246. Merriman, Dr. S. Synopsis of Mid- wifery, 245. Midwifery, works on, 242. Milligan, Dr. E. Translation of Ma- gendie's Physiology, 259. Miscellaneous medical works, 271. Mitchell, Dr. J. K. Article in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282. Moir, D. M. History of Medicine, 227. Moliere. His ridicule of Medicine, 162. —His ridicule of Medical Latin, 24. Money, W. Morbid Anatomy, 214. Monographic medical works, 271. Morgagni, J. B. Seats and causes of diseases, 213. Morton, Dr. S. G. Illustrations of pul- monary consumption, 286.—Edition of Mackintosh's Pathology, 253. Murray, John. Materia Medica, 236. N. Natural history, importance of, 131. Neology, objections to, 51. New York, Medical Schools of, 293, 297 and 305.—College of Physicians and Surgeons of, 293.—State of, Col- lege of Physicians and Surgeons of the Western district of, 297. Nomenclature of anatomy, 99.—Of chemistry, 102.—Heterogeneous, of disease, 52.—Lavoisierian, advan- tages of the, 49.—Medical, difficul- ties of, 49. Notes, short, during lecture, 144. INDEX. 321 o. Observation, method of, in disease, 186. Obstetrics, how best studied, 169.— Works on, 242. Office student, subjects of study for the first year, 126. Ohio, Medical College of, 299. Olivier, Daniel. First Lines of Physi- ology, 256. Oliver. Memoir of Beclard, 209. Otto, W. A. Human and Comparative Anatomy, 215. Oxford, University of, education in the, P. Pancoast, Dr. Edition of Manec's Plates of the Nerves, 285.—Transla- tion of Lobstein on the Sympathetic, 285. Paris, Dr. Medical Chemistry, 221. —Medical Jurisprudence, 241.— Pharmacologia,236.—Remarks upon prescriptions, 110.—Treatise on Diet, 287. Parr, Dr. His opinion of physicians, 183. Parrish, Dr. Joseph. On Strangulated Hernia, 289. Parsons, Usher. On anatomical pre- parations, 217. Pathology and Therapeutics, works on, 248. Patterson, Dr. R. M. Article in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282. Pattison, Dr. G. S. Edition of Burns on the Head and Neck, 274. Paxton, James. Human Anatomy, 206. Pearson, Mr. John. Principles of Sur- gery, 267. Pennsylvania, University of, curricu- lum of the, 135.—Medical School of the, 291.—Regulations of the, 44, 308. Percival, Dr. T. Medical Ethics, 226. Pharmacien, of France, the chemist and druggist of England, 46. Pharmacopoeia, of London, number of articles in, 160.—Of Paris, num- ber of articles in the, 160.—Of the United States, number of articles in the, 160. Physiology, nature and study of, 156. —Works on, 255. Plumbe, Mr. S. On diseases of the skin, 272. Polygraphic Medical Works, 271. Potter, Dr. N. Edition of Gregory's Practice, 252. Practice of medicine, study of the, 158. —Works on the, 248. Prefixes of terms, glossary of, 55. Prescribing, method of, 108. Prescriptions, abbreviations used in, 112.—Of the physician, examples of the, 109.—Latin, faulty, 22.—Sym- bols used in, 113.—Terms used in, 107.—Weights and measures used in, 114.—Written in Latin, 19. Presence of mind, in the physician, ad- vantage of, 192. Putnam, Dr. C. J. Translation of Louis on bloodletting, 286. Q. Quain, Dr. Edition of Martinet's Pa- thology, 254. Quizzing clubs, uses of, 181. R. Radicals of terms, glossary of the, 55. Ramsbotham, Dr. J. Practical Obser- vations on Midwifery, 246. Randolph, Dr. Edition of Dorsey's Surgery, 263. Ratier, F. S. Formulary, 237. Rayer, P. On diseases of the skin, 272. Reese, Dr. Edition of Cooper's Surgi- cal Dictionary, 266. Revere, Dr. Translation of Magendie's Physiology, 260. Review, British and Foreign Medical, referred to, 275, 291. Richerand, A. Elements of Physiology, 260. Roberts, Dr. W. B. Translation of Bourgery's Surgery, 264. ------W. C. Translation of Sarlan- diere's Anatomy, 206. Roget, Dr. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, 260. Rousseau, J. J. Ridicule of Medicine, 161. Rudbeck. Discoverer of the lymphatics, 177. Ryan, Michael. Medical Jurispru- dence, 240.—On the dignity of the medical profession, 197. 322 INDEX. S. Sarlandiere, Chev. J. Anatomy, 206. Schedel, H. E. See Cazenave. Scott, Sir Walter. His literary habits, 35. Secrecy in the physician, advantage of, 192. Severn, Charles. First Lines of Mid- wifery, 248. Sewall, Dr. T. Introductory lecture, referred to, 290.—His memoir of Dr. Godman, 37. Silliman, Benjamin. Chemistry, 220. Skinner, George. Edition of Gooch's Midwifery, 244. Smith, Dr. N. R. Surgical Anatomy of the Arteries, 288. ------Dr. S. A Treatise on Fever, 288. Dissects the body of Mr. Ben- tham, 155. Sobriety, advantage of, in the physi- cian, 192. Societe de Medecine of Paris, Diploma of the, 17. Society, Medical, of London, Diploma of the, 16. South, John F. Translation of Otto's Human and Comparative Anatomy, 215. South Carolina, Medical College of, 301. Spanish, use of, to the medical student, 41. Spillan, Dr. Translation of Andral's 'Clinique,' 271. Sterling, J. W. Translation of Vel- peau's Surgical Anatomy, 217. Stevens, Dr. A. H. Edition of S". Cooper's First Lines, 265. Stokes, Dr. W. In Select Medico-chi- rurgical Transactions, 283. Student, best mode of employing his time daily, after lectures, 142. Study, curriculum of, in the various schools, 135. Suffixes of terms, glossary of, 55. Surgeons, Royal College of, of London, Diploma of, 16.—Rules of the, 45. Surgery, how best studied, 166.— Works on, 262. Swan, Joseph. On anatomical prepa- rations, 218. Symbols used in prescriptions, 113. Syme, Mr. J. Principles of Surgery, 269. Sympathy, importance of, to the phy- sician, 189. T. Tact, in the physician, importance of] 193. Tavernier, A. Elements of Operative Surgery, 268. Temperance, advantage of, in the phy- sician, 192. Tessier, X. Translation of Begin's Therapeutics, 251. Text book, evils arising from, 145. Thacher, Dr. American Medical Bi- ography, 290. Therapeutics, study of, 159.—Works on, 248. Thomson, A. T. Materia Medica, 238. —views of Materia Medica, 127. Ticknor, Dr. C. On Hygiene, 228. Tiedemann, Frederick. Comparative Physiology, 261. Togno, Dr. Translation of Beclard's Anatomy, 209.—Translation of Ed- wards 8f Vavasseur's Materia Medica 235.—Translation of Hutin's Physi- ology, 259. Townsend, R. Translation of Andral's Pathological Anatomy, 212. Transylvania University, Medical School of, 298. Turner, Dr. E. Chemistry, 222.— Remarks on nomenclature, 103. Tuson, W. E. Dissector's Guide, 208. Tweedie, Dr. A. Clinical Illustrations of Fever, 288. Tyrrel, Mr. Edition of Sir A. Cooper's Lectures, 265. V. Vaidy, M. His view respecting clini- cal attendance, 137. Vavasseur, P. Manual of Materia Me- dica, 235. Velpeau, A. L. M. Midwifery, 246.— Surgical Anatomy, 217. Vermont Academy of Medicine, 299.— Medical College, 306. University of Virginia, Diploma of the, 18.—Medical department of the, 302. —Rules of the, as to Latin, 4.—Re- gulations for graduation in the, 313. —Rules of the, 44. Vocabulary of terms, used in prescri- bing, 117. Voltaire. His opinion of physicians, 189. INDEX. 323 w. Warren, Dr. J. C. Article in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282. Warrington, Dr. Translation of Du- parcque on the Uterus, 278. Washington Medical College, Balti- more, 302. Webster, James. Edition of Coulson's translation of Edward's Surgical Anatomy, 216. ---— Dr. J. W. Chemistry, 220. Weights and measures, 114. West, Dr. William. Translation of Andral's Pathological Anatomy, 212. Williams, Dr. C. B. On physical 6igns of diseases of the lungs, 289. Willis, K. Translation of Bourgery's Anatomy, 207. Willoughby University, Medical School of, 306. Wistar, C. System of Anatomy, 203. Wood, Dr. G. B. Articles in Hays's Cyclopedia, 282.—Dispensatory, 234. ----Mr. W. In Select Medico-chirur- gical Transactions, 283. Wright, Dr. The preceptor of Dr. Godman, 37. Y. Yale College, Medical School of, 298. Yelloly, Dr. J. In Select Medico-chi- rurgical Transactions, 283. Young, Dr. Introduction to Medical Literature, 219.