'BW F1 ATHFINDE IN NO. 2 
PHYSIOLOGY 
FOR 
YOUNG PEOPLE 
ADAPTED TO 
Intermediate Classes and Common Schools 
NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
A. S. BARNES & CO. 
FROM THE PRESS OF INDORSEMENT. 
Boston, June 20, 1889. 
The Pathfinder Series of Text-Books on Anatomy, Physiology, 
and Hygiene consists of the following volumes: 
I. Child’s Health Primer (for Primary Grades). 
II. Hygiene for Young People ; 
or, Young People’s Physiology. 
(for Intermediate Classes). 
III. Hygienic Physiology (for Advanced Pupils). 
The above are the series originally prepared (as their general 
title indicates) to supply the demand created by the laws for 
temperance instruction in public schools in the United States. 
They were written by experts under the supervision of the Scien- 
tific Department of the National Woman’s Christian Temperance 
Union, published by the instigation of the same, and have been 
carefully revised from time to time, under the same supervision, to 
keep them abreast with the latest teachings of science. 
Being both teachable and well adapted to grade, their educa- 
tional value, as proven by school-room tests, is of the highest 
order. We therefore cordially indorse and highly recommend the 
Pathfinder Series for use in schools. 
MARY H. HUNT, 
National and International Superintendent of the Scientific Deft 
of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union; Life Director 
of the Natiotial Educational Association. 
ADVISORY BOARD: 
Joseph Cook, 
Albert H. Plumb, D.D. 
William E. Sheldon, 
Daniel Dorchester, D.D. 
Copyright, 1884, 1885, and 1888, by A. S. Barnes & Co. 
NEW rr. NO. 2. This book has been prepared to meet the demands 
of intermediate grades of schools. It does not aim 
to give the teaching in anatomy and physiology 
which is required by the medical student, hut pre- 
sents only such obvious facts of these as are needed 
to render intelligible the lessons deemed most im- 
portant — those on hygiene and temperance. 
Since the laws of many States and Territories re- 
quire that these subjects, including special reference 
to the effects of alcoholic and other narcotics, shall 
be studied by all pupils in the public schools, careful 
scientific teaching on the latter topic is here pre- 
sented. Further information in regard to distillation, 
etc., and helps in illustrating the lessons, will be 
found in the appendix. 
Eminent physicians and teachers have contributed 
helpful suggestions in the preparation of this work. 
Among the former, are the late Prof. Palmer, M.D., 
EL.D., Dean of the Medical Department of Michigan 
University; Dr. Ezra M. Hunt, A.M., M.D., President PREFACE. 
of the section of the American Medical Association 
on State Medicine and Public Hygiene, Vice-President 
of the American Public Health Association, etc., and 
author of “Alcohol as a Food and Medicine.” 
Of the teachers who have helped in shaping these 
truths into a suitable form for young minds, iirst 
mention should be made of Miss Alice M. Guernsey, 
of Chicago, 111. 
The aid of Dr. Mary V. Lee, of the Oswego, N. Y., 
Normal School; Prof. Jones, Supt. of Public Instruc- 
tion, Erie, Penn.; D. B. Hagar, Ph.D., Principal of the 
State Normal School, Salem, Mass.; Mr. E. P. Church, 
Supt. of Public Instruction, Greenville, Mich., and 
other practical instructors, is also gratefully recog- 
nized. INTRODUCTION. 
I have examined the manuscript of this book, and 
find it covering more matter that I think should be 
taught in the elementary lessons on life and health 
in the schools, than I have found in the other works, 
with similar objects, which I have had occasion to 
examine. 
It is free from the errors which have been noticed 
and objected to in several other works on this subject 
designed for school use. 
I also think it free from such overstatements as 
are likely to be produced by ardent zeal. 
If all the facts contained in this little work are 
firmly lodged in the minds of the pupils in our pub- 
lic schools throughout the country, an immense work 
for good will be accomplished. 
Being profoundly impressed with the enormous 
evils to our race produced by the habitual use of 
narcotics, including alcohol, opium, and tobacco, I 
can but rejoice at the promising efforts to make ob- 
ligatory in the public schools the teaching of Physi- 
ology and Hygiene, with special reference to these VI 
INTRODUCTION. 
narcotics, and I know of no work which is a better 
introduction to the subject than the present text- 
book. 
Of the diseases, the degeneracy, the vices, and the 
general ill-being produced by the alcohol habit, all 
observers must be aware. 
The evils of the opium habit are scarcely less, in 
proportion to its more limited extent, and the habit 
is, if possible, even less likely to be broken up when 
once established. 
The tobacco habit, though less disastrous to indi- 
viduals and in its moral and social effects upon 
communities, still, by its greater prevalence, is doing 
an amount of mischief, especially with boys, which 
none so fully know as those physicians who have 
given special attention to the subject. 
The influence which indulgence in one narcotic 
has upon the resort to others, should be more fully 
recognized, and the great importance of abstinence 
from all of them will, by these teachings, it is hoped, 
be more fully understood and appreciated. 
It therefore gives me great pleasure to say this 
much, and in this place, in favor of the objects and 
the execution of this work, and in commendation 
of the efforts of those who have had the labor of its 
preparation. 
A. B. PALMER. 
Ann Arbor, Sept. 1, 1884. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER PAGE 
Preface iii 
Introduction ... v 
I.—Food 1 
II.—Alcohol . 13 
III. —Fermentation 18 
IV. Digestion 35 
V.—Tobacco 55 
VI.—The Nervous System . 61 
VII.—Opium 73 
VIII.—Respiration 77 
IX.—Circulation 93 
X.—The Bones 109 
XI.—The Muscles l-a7 
XII.—The Skin 135 
XIII. —Heat of the Body 143 
XIV. —Effects of Alcohol in Life 153 
XV.—Nerve-action 163 
XVI.—Hygiene of the Nervous System .... 173 
XVII.—Special Senses 187 
Appendix 197 
Index 209 “Know thyself!” the ages linger 
Still before the Delphic shrine! 
And with lifted index finger 
Trace they yet its mystic line. 
“Know thyself!” for nerve and sinew 
Powers of good and ill enfold, 
And, perforce, the soul within you, 
Rests, or struggles, in their hold. 
“ Know thyself! ” God-given forces 
Ne'er should mate with brute or clod, 
And “the high stars in their courses” 
Fight for him who fights for God. CHAPTER I. 
FOOD. 
SOOD is any substance which can be taken 
into the body and used for its health, 
life, and growth. We must have daily food to 
repair the daily waste of our bodies, to keep 
them warm, and, in childhood and youth, to 
make them grow. 
SOURCES OF FOOD. 
Tlie eartli and the air contain the ma- 
terials on which onr lives depend. But most 
of these materials must he changed in form, 
before they are fit for us to eat. 
We hold in the hand a grain of wheat. 
It has no sign of life; no leaves show that 
it can drink in moisture and sunlight. Its 
outer husk is hard and dry. It seems no 
more alive than the grains of sand on which 
we are standing. 2 
FOOD 
Put it into well-prepared ground. By the 
help of the sun, air, and moisture, it sends 
out rootlets into the dark earth, green shoots 
break through the soil, and the stem length- 
ens. By-and-by, a graceful plume loaded 
with the grain that is to make our bread, 
trembles in the breeze. 
Down in the meadow is a beautiful car- 
pet of green grass. It is a good place for 
play, but you could not eat the grass; you 
would starve to death if you had nothing else. 
But that grass is growing, in order to 
make food for you. Cattle are feeding on it; 
it goes into their bodies, and out of it, are 
made the milk you drink so freely, and the 
flesh which may come to your table as roast 
beef or beefsteak. 
We eat, unchanged, a few inorganic sub- 
stances, or substances which have never had 
life, such as water and salt; but most of 
our food is organic —has been living,— it has 
been prepared by plants from the earth and 
air, or by animals who, by their own eating 
and living, have changed vegetable into ani- 
mal matter. MINERAL FOOD. 
3 
KINDS OF FOOD. 
Our food is divided into three great classes— 
1st.—Mineral food. 
2d.—Food like the whites of eggs, or lean 
meat, which is needed for the growth or re- 
pair of the various parts of the body ; it is 
sometimes called tissue-making food. 
3d.—Fats or oils, starch and sugar. 
MINERAL FOOD. 
This includes all inorganic substances that 
we eat unchanged, together with some that 
we get in other kinds of food. The most 
important of these are water and salt. 
If a man weigh 160 pounds, about 140 
pounds of this weight is nothing hut water— 
“quite enough, if rightly arranged, to drown 
him.” 
Much of this is in the blood, some in the 
muscles, some in the tears, and the rest in 
other parts of the body, as you will learn by 
further study. It dissolves other food, so that 
the body can use it, and helps to regulate 
the heat of the system 4 
FOOD 
We must have water to drink, and it 
should he pure and good. Death from thirst 
is quicker and more painful than death from 
lack of food. 
We do not drink all the water which the 
hody requires; for a large part of the amount 
needed we get in the food itself, as in milk, 
fruits, vegetables, juices of meat and water 
used in cooking soups and sauces. 
PURITY OF WATER. 
Water tliat runs through, lead pipes, is 
very likely to dissolve some of the lead, if 
it stands in the pipes for any length of time. 
Lead is a very sure poison. Care must 
he taken to draw off all the water that has 
so stood, in order to avoid danger. You 
will learn more about poisoned water in the 
chapter on respiration. 
SALT. 
Watch, the sheep when the farmer “salts” 
them, and see how eager they are for the 
treat. Salt is necessary to man, as well as TISSUE-MAKING FOODS. 
5 
to the lower animals; but it exists natur- 
ally in most food-materials. A moderate 
amount of it, as seasoning, makes our food 
more agreeable and healthful. 
LIME, PHOSPHORUS, AND IRON. 
The bones need lime, the brain requires 
phosphorus, and the blood must have iron, 
in order to be perfectly healthy. 
But we can not eat clear lime, phosphorus, 
or iron. We must get them by eating vege- 
tables which have taken these minerals 
from the ground and made them into ma- 
terial fit for our use, or by eating the flesh 
of animals which have fed upon such vege- 
tables. 
Among the most important of these are 
milk and the grains; they are found, too, in 
eggs and the different kinds of meat. 
Wheat contains more of these foods than 
other common grains, and bread made from 
this grain is most nourishing and best. 
TISSUE-MAKING FOODS. 6 
FOOD 
FATS OR OILS, STARCH AND SUGAR. 
These are used, in part, for the growth and 
repair of the body; but they are of especial 
use in keeping the body warm. 
THE FATS OR OILS. 
These are found in both animal and veg- 
etable food; for example, beef and mutton] 
suets, the cream of milk, the yolks of eggs, 
Indian corn, olive and palm oils. 
PeoiDle who live in cold climates need 
and crave much of this kind of food. 
A story is told of some English sailors; 
who prepared a “Christmas tree,” as a treat 
for a company of Esquimau children. As 
no suitable tree could be had, they made an 
imitation one, by tying together walrus bones, 
shaping the whole to look as much as pos- 
sible like a tree. 
Instead of candy, they made some balls of 
whale blubber and hung them on the “tree.” 
The children were delighted and ate the balls 
of fat as eagerly as you eat your Christmas 
candies. 
Some food of this kind is necessary; and, STARCH. 
7 
if one does not like it, he should learn to 
eat enough of it for health. 
Those who do not eat fats of any kind, 
are usually thin and unhealthy and likely 
to have some serious disease, as scrofula or 
consumption, even while young. Butter may 
be used instead of fat meat if preferred. On 
the other hand, too much fat must not be 
eaten; a naturally fleshy person requires less 
than the average amount. 
STARCH. 
Starch, forms a large part of most grains, 
seeds, roots, and unripe fruits. It must he 
cooked, or, in fruits and nuts, ripened, before 
it is fit for food. 
Corn-starch and potato-starch are in com- 
mon use by the cook and laundress. Rice, 
the chief food of the people of India, China, 
and Japan, is three-quarters starch. Unripe 
fruits, as green apples, contain so much starch 
that they are very likely to make you sick 
if you eat them uncooked. 
All starchy foods, as those from the grains, 
require long and thorough cooking to make 8 
FOOD 
them more easily digested and more nour- 
ishing. 
Gum resembles starch, but is less nutri- 
tious. Some kinds, as gum arabic, are used 
for food in Eastern countries. 
SUGAR. 
Sugar is an important article of food. 
But a person would, in time, starve to death 
if fed alone on either sugar or starch. 
Too much sugar is often taken in the 
form of candy, and does much harm, espe- 
cially when eaten between meals. The re- 
sults of eating much candy are a “sour 
stomach,” “bad breath,” and other serious 
troubles. In order to color it, or to increase 
its weight, injurious substances are often put 
into candy. 
Because of this, colored candies may be 
really poisonous, and even the white, usually 
considered the purest, is sometimes largely 
made of “terra alba,” a kind of white earth. 
Put a piece of candy into a tumbler with 
a little water; if it is not pure, when the 
sugar has dissolved, the terra alba will sink MILK 
9 
to the bottom of the tumbler in the form 
of a white powder. 
Thus you can easily prove whether you 
are eating sugar, or a substance that is worse 
than useless, because it clogs the body. 
MILK. 
Milk is the only food provided by nature 
for young children. Since the child lives 
and grows upon it, we should expect milk 
to contain, as it does, the different classes 
of food. 
The cream is fat, or heat-forming sub- 
stance; the curd, which can be pressed into 
cheese, belongs to the tissue-making foods; 
there is enough sugar to give it a sweet 
taste, and it contains lime and other min- 
erals needed to sustain healthy life, besides 
water, of which it has 88 parts in 100. 
WHAT TO EAT. 
Most people, in temperate climates, eat 
both, animal and vegetable food. Yon will 
nsually find the three great classes of food 
on the dinner-tables of your homes. 10 
FOOD 
Water and salt are mineral, and potatoes 
and meat are lieat and tissue-making foods. 
Most persons crave tlie fat of butter with 
the starch of bread. 
Pepper, mustard, and vinegar, are not j 
needed in building up the body and should 
be very sparingly used, if at all. Probably ] 
a perfectly natural and healthful appetite j 
would not crave them. 
If the system needs acids, lemons and 
limes, which are more healthful than vin- 
egar, may be eaten. Fresh, ripe fruit which 
generally contains some acid, is wholesome 
when too much is not taken. 
TEA AND COFFEE. 
The value of these to adults is doubted 
by many wise physicians. Certainly they | 
are not necessary or safe drinks for chil- 
dren. 
COOKING. 
Health is, in great measure, dependent 
upon the way in which our food is cooked. [ 
Meat should be boiled, roasted, or broiled, j 
Neither meat nor any other food should be COOKING. 
fried: heated fat hardens whatever is cooked 
in it, making- it difficult of digestion. 
To eat or drink what we know is un- 
healthful, because it tastes good, is not only 
foolish but wicked. 
A cook who understands the laws of 
health, will not feed the family on hot 
bread, because it makes in the stomach 
a pasty mass, which can not be easily di- 
gested. 
Instead of rich pastry, and cake heavy 
with fruit and spices, which overload the 
stomach and unfit it for proper work, she 
will prepare juicy meat, mealy potatoes, 
ripe fruit, and light, sweet bread. The 
latter, when it is made from the whole 
wheat, ground, forms, with the addition of 
butter, and some water to satisfy thirst, a 
perfect food. 
Fine wheat flour is not so nourishing for 
the brain and muscles, as that flour which 
contains some of the outer portion of the 
kernel. In “ bolting,” the phosphorus and 
much of the flesh-making part of the grain 
are lost. 12 
food 
FRUITS. 
Ripe fruits, such, as apples, oranges, ba- 
nanas, and berries, make the most healthful 
“dessert.” The skins, cores, and seeds should 
not be swallowed, as they are useless and 
may cause trouble if eaten. 
QU ESTIONS. 
1. What is food? 
2. State three ways in which it is used by our bodies. 
3. What names are given to the three classes of food? 
4. Name the three principal mineral foods. 
5. Do we need to drink all the water the body requires? 
6. What care should be taken in the use of lead water-pipes? 
7. How do we get salt, lime, and other mineral substances for 
our bodies? 
8. Name the principal tissue-making foods ; — heat-making foods, 
9. Where are fats or oils found? 
10. Is it necessary to eat fat of some kind? 
11. How is starch made fit for food? 
12. Why is green food likely to make one sick? 
13. What are the results of eating too much sugar? 
14. Show that all three classes of food are contained in milk 
15. Are pepper, mustard, and vinegar, essential to health ? 
16. Why should a cook understand the laws of health? 
17. Why is whole wheat hour better food than finely., bolted hour ? CHAPTER II. 
ALCOHOL 
&LCOHOL is a colorless, poisonous liquid 
with a stinging taste; it burns with- 
out soot, giving little light, but great heat. 
It is lighter than water, and can not be 
frozen. 
It is used to dissolve gums, resins, and 
oils; to make smokeless flames; to take from 
leaves, roots, barks, and seeds, materials for 
making perfumes and medicines; and to keep 
dead bodies from decaying. 
Water forms tlie larger part of grape, 
apple, and otlier fruit and plant juices. Green 
fruits contain mucli starcli; as tliey ripen 
and become fit for food, this starch turns 
to sugar. Our sweet-tasting fruits and plants 
have sugar in their juices; and from such 
juices, boiled down, we get the sugar used 
for food. 
ORIGIN OF ALCOHOL. 14 
ALCOHOL. 
If tbis fruit or plant juice is drawn off 
from its pulp, and tben exposed to tbe open 
air at summer beat, tbe sweet part changes: 
it is no longer sugar, because it has separated 
into a liquid called alcobol and a gas named 
car bon.' ic ac'id.* Much of tbis gas goes off 
into tbe air; tbe alcobol remains in tbe 
liquid, changing a wholesome food into a 
dangerous drink. 
IS ALCOHOL FOOD? 
A perfect food, as we have seen in tlie 
case of milk, contains water, tissue-making, 
and heat-making materials. 
Rum, whiskey, wine, cider, gin, brandy, 
beer, etc., are water and alcohol with differ- 
ent flavors. Many million gallons of alcohol 
in these liquors are drunk every year by the 
people of this country. Clear alcohol is sel- 
dom used as a drink. 
Alcohol is not a food, for it can not build 
up any part of the body. It contains no min- 
eral substance, and will not make healthy fat. 
* A better, but less common name for tbis gas is carbonic 
dioxide. ALCOHOL AND WATER. 
15 
Materials in the blood which should make 
muscles, bone, etc., as well as those which 
should be sent out of the body, are some- 
times changed into useless fat by the action 
of alcohol. The heat of the body is lessened 
by alcohol, instead of being increased. 
ALCOHOL AND WATER. 
Into a bottle balf full of water, pour alco- 
hol to the top; then shake it well, being- very 
careful not to spill any of the liquid. Now, 
the bottle is not full because the alcohol has 
united with the water. 
Oil and water will not unite ; alcohol and 
water will always unite. 
In our study of the human body, which 
is seven parts out of eight, water,* we shall 
* I took one of those remains of the human body which have 
been preserved some thousands of years, and which is called an 
Egyptian mummy. 
It was probably the body of one who had been a great priest 
or ruler; for it had been embalmed or preserved in the most ex- 
pensive form of embalming and had been inclosed in a tomb 
which must have cost a small fortune. 
I measured the mummy,—its length, its girth, and the relative 
size of its head and limbs and trunk. From these measurements 
I was able to estimate what would have been the weight of the 
body when its owner was moving on the earth in the midst of 16 
ALCOHOL. 
see bow alcobol, beginning at tbe lips, unites 
witb tbe water in every part of tbe drinker’s 
body wbicb it reaches, tbus robbing it of tbe 
needed liquid. 
ALCOHOL A POISON.* 
Any substance whose nature it is to injure 
health or destroy life, if absorbed into tbe 
life and health. The weight of the body at that time, I reckoned, 
would have been 128 pounds. 
In the condition of a mummy, in which it was now before me, 
nothing remained but the dried skeleton or bony framework, and 
the muscles and other organs completely dried. The body, in fact, 
had, in the course of ages, lost all its water. 
In this state it weighed just sixteen pounds, and, as eight times 
sixteen are one hundred and twenty-eight, it is clear that seven 
parts out of eight of the whole body, or one hundred and twelve 
pounds, had passed away as water. In the remaining weight was 
included that of the skeleton, which contains but ten per cent, of 
water, and some mere remnants of canvas and pitchy substances, 
which had been used by the embalmers, and which, like the skele- 
ton, still continued perfect. 
The soft parts of this human body, by which all its active life, 
its moving and thinking functions, had been carried on, were, in 
fact, nearly all removed by the drying process, or loss of water, to 
which they had been subjected. They had not been destroyed by 
passing into new forms of matter, as occurs when a dead substance 
is allowed to decay in the open air; but they had completely lost 
the water which once gave them size, flexibility, shape, and capac- 
ity for motion.—Dr. B. W. Richardson, of London. 
* The late Dr. A. B. Palmer, of Michigan University, said: 
“Medical writers admit that by far the most disastrous and fre- 
quent cause of poisoning in all our communities, is the use of 
alcohol.” 
Dr. W. J. Youmans also wrote of alcohol as a “brain poison.” ALCOHOL A POISON. 
17 
i blood, either in large or small quantities, is 
called a poison. 
Proper food is wrought into our bodies; 
but poisons are thrown out of them, if pos- 
sible, because unlit to be used in making 
any of their parts. 
In large doses, in its pure state, or when 
diluted, as in brandy, whiskey, rum, or gin, 
alcohol is often fatal to life. 
In smaller quantities, or in the lighter 
liquors — beer, wine, and cider — when used as 
' a beverage, alcohol injures the health in pro- 
portion to the amount taken. Alcohol is 
therefore justly classed as a poison. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is alcohol ?—Name some of its qualities. 
2. What are the uses of alcohol? 
3. From what is alcohol made? 
1 4. What does a perfect food contain ? 
I! 5. Can alcohol do the work of any of the three classes of food ? 
6. How does it act to make one fleshy? 
7. How does it affect the heat of the hody? 
8. What is the effect of alcohol upon the water in the human 
hody? 
9. Describe Dr. Richardson’s experiment with the mummy. 
10. How can you prove that alcohol is a poison? 
11. Under what names is alcohol drunk? 
12. What is the difference between a food and a poison ? CHAPTER III. 
FERMENTATION. 
is fer men ta'tion ? When moist 
Acr animal or vegetable matters are ex- 
posed to warm air, certain changes which 
take place alter their nature; these changes 
are produced by a process called fermentation. 
When sugar is turning to alcohol and 
car bon'ic ac'id, the latter escapes in little 
bubbles, giving the entire liquid the appear- 
ance of boiling. We call this process, and 
others much like it, fermentation, from a 
Latin word which means to boil. 
There are several kinds of fermentation. 
In these lessons we shall learn about only 
two of them. 
I. Vi'nous Fermentation—the change of sugar 
to alcohol and carbonic acid. 
II. A ce'tous Fermentation—the change of alco- 
hol and other substances to vinegar. FERMENTATION. 
19 
VINOUS FERMENTATION. 
FERMENTS AND YEAST. 
If you should look at a drop of stagnant 
water placed under a strong mi' cro scope, 
you would he quite likely to find it full of 
small living things, so tiny that you could 
not see them at all with the naked eye; 
these mi nute' animal and vegetable forms 
are alive, and often in rapid motion. 
In the air, also, are many living forms, 
too small to he seen by the naked eye. One 
variety of these is called ferments. 
These ferments are often found resting on 
the stems and surfaces of ripe fruits. They 
have been found in what was before pure 
water after a bunch of grapes had been 
washed in it. With the help of the micro- 
scope, they have been carefully studied. 
These ferments from the stems and skins of 
fruits, or from the air, easily pass into the 
juice of fruits when it is pressed out. In 
this they multiply rapidly as they turn its 
sweet principle, or sugar, to the poison, 
alcohol. 20 
FERMENTATION. 
The juices of the grape, apple, and many 
other fruits, will, if placed under the right 
conditions, ferment hy the action of these 
living forms. 
In order to ferment some other liquids 
and thus obtain intoxicating drinks, yeast * 
must he added. In this way some people 
hrew home-made "beer—hy steeping various 
roots, harks, and kerbs in water, and adding 
yeast and sugar enough to cause fermenta- 
tion. The alcohol that is formed hy the 
change of the sugar, makes the beer a dan- 
gerous drink. 
When a liquid is fermenting, the little 
bubbles of carbonic acid carry a froth to the j 
top, which can he used as yeast to act on 
other liquids. At the bottom lie the “set- 
tlings,” a half-solid mass, sometimes called 
the lees. Between the froth and the lees is a 
thin, intoxicating liquid, which people drink 
under different names, as, wine, cider, beer, etc. 
Dry sugar will not ferment, nor will al- 
cohol he formed in liquids which have an 
* Yeast is really a plant, and it is tlie growth of the yeast plant 
which causes fermentation in these liquids. IS BEER FOOD? 
21 
excess of sugar. The united action of sugar, 
water, heat, and of the ferments in the air, 
or of yeast — each in the right proportion — 
is always required to produce alcohol. 
IS BEER FOOD? 
Starch forms a large part of rye, corn, 
barley, and other grains. If these are kept 
moist and warm — as when planted in the 
earth in spring or summer, — their starch 
turns to sugar, when the grain, which is 
a seed, begins to grow. Chew a grain of 
sprouted corn or barley, and you will find 
it sweet. 
Barley is kept moist with water until it 
sprouts, or throws out roots. During this 
process, most of the starch that is in the 
barley, changes to sugar. Heat is then ap- 
plied, strong enough to dry out all the moist- 
ure of the barley and kill the young roots. 
Grain thus treated is called malt, and 
from this malt, ales and beers are made. 
If the sugar thus formed in barley is dis- 
solved out of the grain with water, and yeast 
is added, and the whole exposed to warm air, 22 
FERMENTATION. 
another change takes place,—the sugar which 
was once starch, becomes alcohol, and car- 
bonic acid. By this process, a good food has 1 
been changed to a poison; for the barley has I 
become an intoxicating drink—ale or beer,— 1 
and the sugar, turned into alcohol by fer- 
mentation, has thus lost its food nature. 
The gummy substance left after the starch 
turned to sugar and then to alcohol, and the 
hops which the brewer adds, may contain a 
slight amount of material that the body can 
use. But the amount of food in beer is so 1 
very small, as scarcely to he worth taking 
into account in speaking of its effects. 
“As much flour as can lie on the point 
of a table-knife is more nutritious than eight 
quarts of the best Bavarian beer.” (Liebig.) 
There is no truth, you see, in the claim ; 
that beer makes one stronger. There is no 
food in it worth mentioning, and its alcohol 
does a vast amount of harm. 
IS WINE FOOD? 
A few raisins contain more nourishment 
than much wine. Sugar in fruit-juice he- IS WINE FOOD? 
23 
comes alcohol by fermentation; it is tlie al- 
cohol, which is not food, that the wine- 
drinker wants. Often more alcohol is added 
to the wine made from pure fruit-juice, to 
satisfy the craving- for a stronger drink. 
The more sugar there is in a liquid un- 
dergoing vinous fermentation, the more al- 
cohol will it produce. Sweet apples and sweet 
grapes make strong cider and strong wine. 
Currant, gooseberry, elderberry, and other 
home-made wines, sometimes contain even 
more alcohol than the wines of commerce, 
because sugar is added to the fermenting 
juices. 
These home-made wines contain the merest 
trifle of food-material, and are no more “in- 
nocent drinks” than any other kind of wine. 
The poison, alcohol, is there, ready to do its 
deadly work. 
People not only become intoxicated by 
drinking these wines; but, by their use, a 
craving is often created for stronger drinks— 
such as rum, gin, brandy, and whiskey. 
By drinking a larger quantity of the 
weaker liquors, the user gets the alcohol his 24 
FERMENTATION. 
increasing appetite demands. This is espe- 
cially true of beer-drinkers. 
IS CIDER FOOD? 
Cider is a fermented drink made from tire 
juice of apples. It consists of alcohol and 
water, and contains very little that serves 
as food. In the open air, at summer heat, 
apple-juice begins to ferment in about six 
hours after it is drawn off from the pulp, 
and sometimes sooner. 
A little juice often remains in the cider 
mill after a previous grinding. If this fer 
ments and is allowed to remain, it will act 
as yeast, hastening fermentation in the juice 
of the next lot of apples ground. 
When little bubbles begin to pass through 
the liquid and break at the top, as the froth 
gathers, we may know that the sugar is 
turning to alcohol. The bubbles are the es- 
caping' carbonic acid gas. 
The cider that may possibly have been 
sweet, when it was put into the cellar, con- 
tinues to ferment, and so gains in alcohol 
every day, until it begins to turn to vinegar. ALCOHOL AND BREAD. 
25 
There is great danger that the cider- 
drinker will learn to crave a stronger drink, 
because alcohol makes those who drink it 
thirsty for more. Many of those who die 
as drunkards in this country, began their 
course at the cider barrel. 
If the people who drink cider for its acid 
taste and effect, would take lemon or lime- 
juice instead, they would get the acid with- 
out the poison of alcohol. 
ALCOHOL AND BREAD. 
We must not conclude that fermentation 
is never a good thing. If it is stopped at 
just the right point, and the alcohol all 
driven off Toy heat, it improves some kinds 
of food. 
Grain made into flour, is a food; hut, in 
this form, it is not suitable to eat. Yeast 
added to warm, moistened flour causes fer- 
mentation. A little sugar in the flour itself 
(called free sugar), turns to alcohol and car- 
bonic acid gas. This gas, in a thin liquid, 
would pass off into the air. But it is im- 
prisoned by the sticky dough, and puffs it 26 
FERMENTATION. 
up with little cells in its effort to escape, 
thus making the otherwise solid mass, light 
and spongy. 
The small quantity of alcohol which was 
formed, turns to vapor "by the heat of the 
oven, and passes off into the air; a light, 
sweet loaf of bread is left, which is better 
food than the flour. 
People who are ignorant of the truths you 
are learning in these lessons, have supposed 
that because fermented dough makes good 
bread to eat, therefore fermented barley-juice 
must make good beer to drink. But you 
know the alcohol stays in the beer and not 
in the bread, and that simple fact makes the 
difference, in this case, between a food and 
a poison. 
AMOUNT OF ALCOHOL IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 
In one hundred parts of cider — tlie fer- 
mented juice of apples — there are from two 
to ten parts of alcohol. In one hundred parts 
of heer—the fermented juice of "barley—there 
are from three to ten parts of alcohol. 
Thus it is shown that a man gets about ALCOHOL IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 
one glass of pure alcoliol in every twenty 
glasses of cider or beer tliat lie drinks; in 
stronger beer, such, as porter, stout, etc., the 
proportion of alcohol is still greater. 
In one hundred parts of the fermented 
juice of grapes and other kinds of fruit, or 
wines, there are from twelve to thirty-seven 
parts of alcohol (or six to seventeen, by 
weight). 
It was estimated in 1880 that twenty-two 
and three-quarter million gallons of alcohol 
were consumed every year by the people of 
this country, in beer alone. 
This makes nearly one half gallon of pure 
alcohol used by every man, woman, and child 
of the 50,000,000 people then in this country 
— if all were foolish enough to drink it. 
As very many people drink no beer at 
all, some of the beer-drinkers must get more 
than this one half gallon of poison during 
each year. Further study will show you 
the fearful consequences of the use of this 
great quantity of alcohol, and its fatal effects 
upon the many and varied functions of the 
body. 28 
FERMENTATION, 
HEAT AND FERMENTED LIQUORS. 
If you were to place fermented liquors of 
any kind in an open kettle over strong heat, 
their charm for the wine, cider, or beer-lover, 
would soon be gone. It is for the sake of 
the alcohol they contain, that people are fond 
of these drinks. As the alcohol passes away 
in the form of vapor from the boiling liquid, 
the liquid which is left, has an insipid taste, 
and no one would care to drink it. 
ALCOHOL AND NATURE. 
It is a mistake to suppose tliat because 
grapes, apples, and barley, are healthful foods, 
tliat wine, cider, and beer, made from tliem, 
must also be liealtbful. 
It is important to remember tliat fermen- 
tation entirely changes the character of the 
substance it works upon. Nature rots her 
various plant forms; but while the juice re- 
mains protected from the air by the skin or 
husk of the unbroken grain, plant, or fruit, 
its sugar will not ferment—therefore, alcohol 
is not found in them. ALCOHOL AND VINEGAR. 
29 
ACETOUS FERMENTATION. 
ALCOHOL AND VINEGAR. 
After alcohol is formed, if the liquid con- 
taining it remains exposed to moderately 
warm air, the second kind — the acetous fer- 
mentation-takes place, changing the alcohol 
to a sharp acid, called acetic acid, commonly 
known as vinegar. 
When the cook has not baked the bread at 
just the right time—that is, has not stopped 
the fermentation before acid began to form 
in the dough, we say “the bread is sour”. 
This acid does not pass off in the heat of the 
oven as alcohol does, but remaining, gives a 
sour taste to the bread. 
Acetic acid is as different from alcohol, as 
alcohol is from sugar. It is used for food. 
Vinegar is made in this way from hard cider 
and other fermented liquors, and will change, 
in its turn, if left m the same conditions that 
produced it, and lose its acid taste; its water 
all evaporating, nothing will remain but a 
brown powder. 30 
FERMENTATION. 
DISTILLATION. 
Unless sugar is dissolved in water, alcoliol 
can not be made from it; therefore, when 
first formed, alcohol is always mixed with 
water. 
Every child who has watched the steam 
puffing’ from a tea-kettle, knows that a boil- 
ing liquid will turn to vapor. Some liquids 
boil with less heat than others. This is espe- 
cially true of alcohol, which, when mixed 
and heated with water, can be made to pass 
off in vapor before the water has reached the 
boiling point. 
By continuing a degree of heat that boils 
the alcohol but does not boil the water, the 
alcohol finally becomes separated from the 
water by passing off in vapor, and taking 
with it but little of the vapor from the 
water. The escaping vapor of the alcohol 
being received into a closely covered kettle, 
called a still, through a coil of cool pipes, is 
turned again to a liquid, the principal part 
of which is alcohol. 
By repeating the process of boiling with DRUGGED LIQUORS. 
31 
this liquid, and again passing the vapor 
through the cool pipes, a liquid containing 
a much greater proportion of alcohol is ob- 
tained. These operations can he repeated 
until nearly a pure alcohol is made. 
When a liquid is thus changed to vapor 
hy heat, and that vapor is turned again to 
a liquid hy cold, the process is called distil- 
lation (dis til la'tion). 
Alcohol and water could not he separated 
until men learned the process of distilling. 
DISTILLED LIQUORS. 
In this way, "brandy, rum, whiskey, and 
gin are made. Ordinarily, these distilled 
liquors are about one half pure alcohol. 
DRUGG-ED LIQUORS. 
Wine in its many forms was prohahly the 
first, and, for many centuries, the only known 
intoxicating drink. 
The ancients supposed that each of the 
various fruit-juices made a different kind of 
liquor; hut we now know that all of them 
are mainly alcohol and water. The different 32 
FERMENTATION. 
taste of each is due to its own peculiar fruit, 
grain, or plant 
flavor. 
Poisonous drugs 
and coloring mat- 
ter are often add- 
ed to alcoliol and 
water 
to imitate tiie 
various liq- 
uors. So much 
of this is done 
that many of 
the fermented 
and distilled liquors now sold and used, con- HOW ALCOHOL WAS DISCOVERED. 
33 
tain other poisons added to their own ever- 
present one — alcohol. As this is the most 
dangerous of all, the idea that “unadulter- 
ated whiskey” or the “pure, fermented juice 
of the grape,” can he “good,” is a mistake. 
HOW ALCOHOL WAS DISCOVERED. 
The people who lived about TOO years ago, 
thought that somewhere, if they could only 
find them, were two things that would greatly 
bless the world. First, something that would 
turn iron and all common metals into gold, 
and thus easily and greatly enrich the finder; 
second, an “elixir of life,” which would pre- 
vent sickness and death, and keep those who 
drank it forever young. 
The men who tried many curious experi- 
ments in search of these two wonders, were 
called alchemists (at ke mists). 
It is supposed an Arab, named Albucasis, 
was thus led to discover alcohol by distill- 
iing it from wine. 
Ilis career of intoxication and violence 
was short. He had found not the “elixir 
of life,” but the “water of death”. FERMENTATION. 
QU EST I O N S. 
1. What is fermentation? 
2. Why do fermenting liquids appear to he boiling ? 
3. About what kinds of fermentation have you learned ? 
4. What are ferments ? 
5. Where are they found ? 
6. What produces fermentation in fruit-juices ? 
7. How are some other liquids made into intoxicating drinks ? 
8. Why are home-made beers dangerous drinks? 
9. What causes froth at the top of a fermenting liquor?—and how 
is it used ? 
10. What conditions will prevent the formation of alcohol from 
sugar ? 
11. What is necessary to produce alcohol ? 
12. What forms the chief part of grain ? 
13. How is the starch in barley turned to sugar? 
14. What is malt? —and what is made from it? 
15. How does alcohol get into the beer? 
16. Compare the food-materials in beer and bread. 
17. Do “home-made wines” contain alcohol? 
18. How is cider made ? 
19. Why do cider-drinkers often become drunkards ? 
20. What acids are more healthful than cider? 
21. How can fermentation be made to improve some foods ? 
22. What makes bread light and spongy ? 
23. What becomes of this alcohol and carbonic acid gas in the 
dough? In beer, wine, and cider? 
24. How much alcohol is there in beer ? In cider ? In wine ? 
25. What effect has boiling on fermented drinks ? 
26. How is the character of a substance affected by fermentation? 
27. Describe acetous fermentation. 
28. Why is bread sometimes sour? 
29. Contrast acetic acid with alcohol. 
30. What is distillation ? 
31. Why are liquors distilled ? 
32. Name the principal distilled liquors. 
33. How are the different flavors imitated? 
34. Are “pure fermented liquors” healthful and safe? Why? 
35. What led to the discovery of alcohol ? 
36. How did it affect the discoverer? CHAPTER IT. 
DIGESTION. 
e UNGER and thirst are demands of tlie 
whole "body for food and water, though 
only the throat seems to call for the water 
and the stomach for the food. 
Digestion is the preparation of the food 
which has been taken into the stomach, for 
the use of the body. 
Many wonderful changes must take place, 
before the beef, potatoes, bread, water, and 
other food which we eat, can become solid 
bone and liquid blood, strong muscle, work- 
ing hand, and thinking brain. 
WASTE AND REPAIR. 
Tearing down and building up — making 
and unmaking — these two processes are al- 
ways going on within us. 
If you stand by a city market, early on 
a summer morning, you may see carts bring- 36 
DIGESTION. 
ing green peas, fresh meat, milk, and other 
food, from the country farms. Other carts, 
at the same time, are carrying off barrels 
of ashes, bones, scraps of food, and other 
waste matter. They will dump this stuff far 
enough from the city to prevent any harm 
to the people from its decay. 
Work very much like this goes on in 
your body. There are certain vessels whose 
special duty it is to carry the prepared food 
to the different organs, and others that are 
the scavengers of the human system. 
If you should stop eating, you would 
starve to death in a short time; if you 
should keep the waste matter in your body, 
instead of letting it pass out through the 
skin, lungs, kidneys, and other organs, you 
would die even more quickly. 
ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 
The principal organs of digestion are tlie 
mouth, gullet or esophagus (e soph'a gas), 
stomacli (stom'a-elp, and intestines (in 
Taken together, these are often called the 
food-canal. THE TEETH. 
37 
This canal, in a full-grown person, is about 
thirty feet long. Here and there, beside it, are 
little fleshy bags called glands ; these glands 
have the curious power of separating cer- 
tain juices from the blood; 
this is called secretion 
(sS -ere' tion). 
It is these juices which 
digest the food. A tongue 
much coated shows that 
other portions of the food- 
canal, as well as the part 
which we can see, are out 
of order. 
Fig. 1. 
THE TEETH. 
Tile moutli, with its 
fixed roof and movable 
floor, takes in the food; 
the tongue, cheeks, and 
jaws, move it backward 
and forward, np and 
down; the teeth cut and grind it. This 
should be well done, because the digestive 
juices can not mix quickly or properly with 
The stomach and intestines. 1, 
stomach ; 3, small intestine ; 7, 8, 9, 
10, large intestine. 38 
DIGESTION. 
lumps of food. A cliild lias twenty teeth; 
these last for a few 
years, and are then 
pushed out by the 
growth of others be- 
hind them. This sec- 
ond set numbers thirty- 
two in all—sixteen in 
each jaw. 
Those in front are 
sharp and of use in 
biting. The back teeth are broad and are 
Fig. 2. 
The teeth at the age of six and one-half 
years. I, the cutting teeth; M, the grind- 
ing teeth; F, C, B, N, the new or second 
set of teeth. 
Fig. 3. 
Different kinds of teeth. 
much, used in chewing-; they are fastened CARE OF THE TEETH, 
39 
into the jaws by two or three roots, while 
the front teeth have each but one root. 
Tlie "bone of a tooth, is covered with a 
hard, smooth coating-, called enamel (enam'ei), 
which protects it. If this enamel is broken in 
any way, the teeth are likely 
to decay and to cause a great 
deal of trouble and pain. 
Fig. 4. 
CARE OF THE TEETH. 
If you wish to have good 
teeth and to escape the pains 
of toothache — brush your 
teeth after each meal, and 
pick them, if necessary to re- 
move particles of food, with a 
quill or wooden tooth-pick — 
never with a pin, lest you break 
the enamel. For the same reason, never use 
the teeth to crack nuts or bite thread. “Better 
to take pains than to have pains take you”. 
It is very warm in the mouth — nearly 
100° by the thermometer, as warm as the air 
on a hot July day. At that temperature, a 
piece of meat would spoil in twenty-four hours. 
Vertical section of a molar 
tooth, moderately magnified. 
a, enamel of the crown, the 
lines of which indicate the 
arrangement of its columns; 
b, dentine; c, cement; d, 
pulp cavity. 40 
DIGESTION. 
If we eat meat, therefore, the little pieces 
which get between our teeth, if not re- 
moved, will soon begin to decay in this 
warm place, and so injure the teeth and 
gums. 
THE SALIVARY GLANDS 
Three pairs of glands — one near and be- 
low the ears,* one 
pair under the 
tongne, and one pair 
nnder the lower jaw 
—aided by other very 
small glands that 
line the inside of the 
cheeks, pour out a 
jnice called saliva 
(sa li'va), which not only moistens the food, 
bnt transforms some of its starch into sugar. 
This is the first of the great changes 
which take place in food dnring the process 
of digestion. Ton will see how important 
Fig. 5. 
The ■parotid—one of the salivary glands. 
* It is the glands under the ears — the parotid (pa rSt' id) glands — 
that swell and are so painful when one has the mumps. THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 
41 
it is that the work of the saliva should he 
thoroughly done, when you remember that 
unchanged starch does not nourish the hody; 
if not changed in the mouth, it must he 
changed, hut with more difficulty, elsewhere 
in the food-canal. 
“Washing down the food,” even with pure 
water, will not take the place of slow eating, 
hy which the starch is thoroughly mixed 
with the saliva and thus changed to sugar. 
Water simply moistens the food so that it 
can he more easily swallowed. 
If the work of the mouth is hut partly 
done, as hy rapid eating, the other organs 
have more than their share to do; they may 
soon break down, and their owner suffers 
from dyspepsia (dys pSp' si &), or some similar 
disease. 
You may prove that starch is changed to 
sugar in the mouth, hy chewing slowly a 
piece of dry cracker and noticing how sweet 
it tastes. 
To say that “the mouth waters,” is often 
exactly true. When we think of some favor- 
ite food, especially if hungry, the glands may 42 
DIGESTION. 
send an extra amount of saliva into the 
mouth, as if the food was there ready for 
its action. 
When divided by the teeth and softened 
and changed by the saliva, the food is ready 
to be swallowed, or sent into the esophagus, 
the passage-way to the stomach. 
Look at the throat of a horse when he 
is drinking, and you will see the motion of 
the ring-shaped muscles of this tube. 
Food and drink do not simply slide down 
the esophagus; a horse often bends his head 
when he drinks, so that his mouth is really 
lower than his stomach. 
The muscles contract, one after the other, 
and push the food gently onward. For this 
reason, a juggler is able to perform the com- 
mon trick of drinking a glass of water, while 
standing on his head. 
THE ESOPHAGUS. 
THE STOMACH. 
The stomach is a strong muscular hag in 
the left side of the abdomen (abdo'men). Its THE STOMACH. 
43 
inner lining- has many glands which separate 
from the “blood a juice, called gastric juice. 
In this is a substance named pepsin (pgp'sin), 
which digests the flesh-making parts of our 
food. 
The next coat contains muscular fibers. 
These stretch and shrink m such a way, 
that the food is gently moved from one end 
of the stomach to the other, and so forced 
to mix with the gastric juice. 
Some parts of the food are ready for use 
when they enter the stomach. These are at 
once taken up by tiny blood-vessels, carried to 
the liver, and then to the heart. 
The process by which these food-materials 
are taken up and carried into the blood, is 
called absorption (ab sorp'shun). 
When the work of the stomach is ended, 
the food which is left is a grayish fluid, 
called chyme (kim). 
Chyme consists largely of the tissue-mak- 
ing substances, and the fats that have been 
eaten. A part of the starch and sugar, after 
being prepared in the mouth, has already en- 
tered the blood. 44 
DIGESTION. 
THE INTESTINES. 
This part of the food-canal is a small 
tuhe, about twenty-five feet long in an adult, 
coiled very closely in the abdomen. You 
will understand it better by looking at the 
intestines of a chicken, when the cook is 
“ drawing ” it in the kitchen. 
Much remains to be done before the 
chyme is ready to enter the blood. The 
glands of the intestines are helped by two 
other glands which lie in the abdomen, one 
on the right side of the body — the liver — 
and the other toward the left — the pancreas 
(p&n'-erS &s). 
These send into the intestines, through a 
small tube, the bile and the pancreatic 
(p&n -ere at'i-e) juice, which, with the intestinal 
juices, divide and prepare the fats. 
If the mouth, or the stomach, has failed 
in any part of its work, these juices in the 
intestines do their best to complete the 
task. They can offcen do but little, however, 
and so we may lose part of the value of the 
food. INTESTINES. 
45 
When fully digested, tlie milky mass is 
called cliyle (kii), and is ready to enter tlie 
blood. It does tliis by soaking through, the 
thin walls of blood-vessels and tiny tubes 
called lacteals (la-e'te ais). 
STEPS OF DIGESTION. 
In a large factory, each man has a special 
task to perform; the spinners do not attend 
to the looms, the weavers have nothing to 
do in the engine-room. So in the body, each 
part has its own work. 
The saliva, to an extent, digests the 
starch foods. The gastric juice digests the 
tissue-making foods. The bile and pancreatic 
juice digest the fats. 
If one must eat rapidly, as at a railroad 
station, the meal should be mainly of meat, 
i as that will give strength and need not be 
mixed with the saliva for digestion. 
The heat of the stomach must be over 
100°, in order to digest the food properly. 
Ice-water at once lowers the temperature: 
if taken too freely at meals, the stomach 
must stop working until it can get “warmed 46 
DIGESTION. 
up ” again. Sucli delays in tlie process of 
digestion are injurious. 
meals. 
Most liealtliy persons have three meals a 
day, at intervals of five or six hours. Since 
the stomach, like other muscles, needs rest, 
one should not eat between meals. The mind 
either helps or hinders the body: the food 
digests much more readily if there is pleasant, 
cheerful thought and talk at the table. 
An old Eastern story tells of a stranger 
who met the Plague coming from Bagdad. 
“You have been committing great havoc 
there,” said the trader, pointing to the city. 
“Not so great,” replied the Plague; “I 
killed only one third of those who died; the 
other two thirds killed themselves with 
fright”. 
ALCOHOL AND THE STOMACH. 
As soon as alcohol enters this organ, it 
is hurried on into the blood-vessels; for the 
stomach knows it can not he digested, and 
is useless to the body. But the very short ALCOHOL AND THE STOMACH. 
47 
time it stays tliere, is enough to cause great 
harm. 
It can not pass through the thin walls 
of the "blood-vessels .unless mixed with water. 
It needs even more water than was con- 
tained in the liquors which were drunk; 
so it shrinks and thickens the delicate lining 
of the stomach, by robbing it of its moist- 
ure. In health, this lining is slightly red, 
tinged with yellow. 
The "blood does not move as it should 
in the blood-vessels of even the “moderate 
drinker,” and those in the stomach soon be- 
come swollen. In the drunkard, the case is 
likely to he still worse; for sores sometimes 
appear on the walls of the stomach. If one 
stops drinking liquors which contain alcohol, 
these will he cured. They do not pain the 
drinker as they would if on the surface of 
the hody, for reasons which you will under- 
stand when you study the nerves. 
Sickness, thirst, headache, coated tongue, 
feverish pulse, go with these conditions of 
the stomach. The only possible cure is to 
stop drinking liquor at once and forever. 48 
DIGESTION. 
Tliere is enough, alcohol in strong spirits 
to harden the tissue-making foods, which 
must he changed to a liquid form in the 
stomach, before they can he absorbed. 
Alcohol, of any considerable strength, sep- 
arates the pepsin from the gastric juice and 
prevents its proper action on the food. 
Dr. Munroe, of England, proved this by 
an interesting experiment. He put equal 
quantities of finely-minced beef into three 
bottles. Then into one, he poured water 
and gastric juice from the stomach of a 
calf; into another, alcohol with gastric 
juice ; and into the third, pale ale and gas- 
tric juice. 
The bottles were kept at the same heat 
as the human stomach, and the contents 
moved about like those of that organ. 
The following table shows the results. 
Study it carefully and see how the clear 
alcohol and that in the ale, destroyed the 
power of the gastric juice, by taking out 
the pepsin from it. It often has a similar 
effect on that in the stomach, though it 
remains there but a short time. SEEING DIGESTION. 
49 
Finely-minced, 
Beef. 
2d Hour. 
hth Hour. 
6th Hour. 
8th Hour. 
10th Hour. 
1st. Bottle. 
Gastric juice 
and water. 
Beef be- 
comes 
opaque. 
Beef sep- 
arating. 
Beef much 
less in 
quantity. 
Beef broken 
into shreds. 
Beef dis- 
solved as in 
soup. 
2d. Bottle. 
Gastric juice 
and alcohol. 
3d. Bottle. 
No 
change. 
No 
change. 
Slight 
coating on 
beef. 
No change. 
Beef solid 
on cooling. 
Pepsin sep- 
arated from 
the gastric 
juice. 
Gastric juice 
and ale. 
No 
change. 
Cloudy 
with 
coating 
on beef. 
Beef partly 
loosened. 
No change. 
Beef not di- 
gested. Pep- 
sin separa- 
ted from 
the gastric 
juice. 
SEEING DIGESTION. 
By this time you wonder, perhaps, how 
all these things are known, when the stom- 
ach is covered up in the hody. 
Some of them the doctors have learned 
hy studying the stomachs of dead persons. 
But there has been one good chance to look 
into a live man’s stomach and see what was 
going on there. 
In 1822, a man named Alexis St. Martin 50 
DIGESTION. 
was shot in his left side. When the wound 
healed, it left a hole in his stomach, partly 
closed by a fold of the inner lining. This 
could be pushed aside, so that one could look 
directly into the stomach. 
By this means, the doctor who had charge 
of him, learned much about the digestion of 
food, and the effects of alcohol upon the 
stomach. Later experiments upon the stom- 
achs of living men and of the lower animals, 
have taught us much more on this subject. 
OTHER ORGANS OF THE ABDOMEN. 
THE LIVER. 
This is the largest organ in the body and 
one of the most important. It fills the whole 
of the right and upper side of the abdomen. 
One part of its work is to secrete the bile, 
or gall, used in digestion. 
This juice, when not needed, is stored in 
a little sac, called the gall-bladder. It is of a 
dark yellow color, and “bitter as gall” is a 
common proverb. 
The liver also changes, in some way not ALCOHOL AND THE LIVER. 
51 
clearly understood, the chyme brought to it 
from the stomach, aids in the manufacture 
of blood, and in the preparation of worn- 
out materials for removal from the body. 
ALCOHOL AND THE LIVER. 
While we can not fully explain all its ac- 
tion, we know that diseases of the liver affect 
all the other organs. More alcohol goes to 
the liver and hrain than to any other parts 
of the body. By it, the gall may he changed 
from yellow to green or black, and from a 
thin fluid to a thick one. 
The liver itself often becomes twice its 
natural size; in other cases, it is filled with 
useless fat, like the muscles. When rough 
and shrunken, with hard lumps or knots, it 
is called by the English, “ hob-nailed,” or 
“gin liver”. This condition is caused only 
by alcohol and is incurable. 
The coal-heavers of London drink a great 
deal of gin, whiskey, and ale. They seem 
strong, but they often sicken and die from 
a mere scratch. Their blood is so poisoned 
from their diseased livers that the wound 52 
DIGESTION. 
festers, does not readily heal, and frequently 
proves fatal. 
THE KIDNEYS. 
These are two oval glands at the back of 
the abdomen, that carry a large part of the 
waste matter out of the body. 
ALCOHOL AND THE KIDNEYS. 
A serious, because usually fatal, disease 
of tire kidneys is called “Bright’s disease.” 
This may be caused in many ways; but it 
is most often the result of alcobolic drinks, 
especially if combined witli exposure to wet 
and cold. 
“ Water supplies every necessity as a liquid 
for tbe body.”* 
Alcohol robs tbe body of water and can 
not be used by it as a fluid. 
Water dissolves other foods. 
Alcohol hardens tissue-making foods, and 
has no power to dissolve any of tbe food- 
materials. 
Water helps tbe digestive juices. 
Alcohol separates pepsin from tbe gastric 
* Dr. B. W. Richardson. QUESTIONS. 
53 
juice, coagulates it, and thus interferes with 
digestion. 
Water carries the digested foods into the 
blood. 
Alcohol hinders the digested foods from 
entering the blood. 
Water is the proper liquid of the blood. 
Alcohol is injurious to the blood. 
Water satisfies our thirst. 
Alcohol does not satisfy thirst, but creates 
a strong craving for itself. 
Water, taken in proper quantities, is a 
healthful food. 
Alcohol, taken in any quantity, injures the 
body in proportion to the amount taken. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is digestion ? 
2. What two kinds of work go on in the body ? 
3. What would happen if you were to stop taking food? — if you 
should prevent the waste matter from leaving your body? 
4. Why is a child’s face plump, and an old man’s wrinkled ? 
5. Name the organs of digestion. 
6. What are glands, and what is their work? 
7. How many teeth has a child? —an adult? 
8. Describe the teeth. 
9. How should the teeth be taken care of? 
10. Where are the salivary glands ? 54 
DIGESTION. 
11. What Is the action of the saliva on the food ? 
12. Prove that starch may he changed to sugar in the mouth. 
13. How do we swallow our food ? 
11. Describe the stomach. Name its digestive juice. 
15. What is the action of the gastric juice on the food? 
16. What is absorption ? 
17. What kinds of food enter the blood from the stomach ? 
18. Describe the intestines. 
19. What juices mix with the partly-digested food in the intes- 
tines ? 
20. What is their action on the food ? 
21. How does the chyle enter the blood-vessels and lacteals ? 
22. State the steps of digestion. 
23. If obliged to eat in haste, what food would you choose? Why? 
21. What is the effect of drinking large quantities of ice-water? 
25. How often should one eat? 
26. Why should the meal-time be made a pleasant time ? 
27. How does alcohol often affect the walls of the stomach ? 
28. What is its effect on the gastric juice? Illustrate by Dr. Mon- 
roe’s experiment. 
29. Give the story of Alexis St. Martin. 
30. Describe the liver; — the gall. 
31. What are the effects of alcohol on the liver and gall ? 
32. What is the “gin liver”? 
33. Why are slight wounds often dangerous to drinking men ? 
31. What is a common effect of alcohol on the kidneys ? 
35. Contrast the effects of water and alcohol. CHAPTER Y. 
TOBACCO. 
TitrTNTIL within a few years, the Middle 
gu and part of the Southern States were 
the chief tobacco-raising regions of our coun- 
try. Now, however, the cultivation of tobacco 
has spread, until many fertile valleys, even 
as far north as Canada, are devoted to its 
growth. 
The plant reaches a height of several feet, 
and has large, spreading, pale-green leaves, 
which are dried, and then made into cigars 
or prepared to be smoked in pipes, or chewed, 
or used as snuff. 
NICOTINE. 
Tobacco, a powerful narcotic, contains a 
substance called nicotine (ni-e'o A single 
drop, if put on tlie tongue of a dog, will soon 
kill tlie animal. An ordinary cigar contains 56 
TOBACCO. 
nicotine enough to kill two men, if taken 
pure. 
One has to learn to like tobacco. Boys 
who try it, know that at first it gives them 
headache, dizziness, and sickness at the stom- 
ach. Their poor bodies try to tell them they 
are taking a poison. 
If they keep on, the nicotine deadens their 
nerves, so they do not feel these effects, 
though they are more or less injured all the 
time. 
CIGARETTES. 
Many boys and young men learn to smoke 
by beginning with eig ar ettes'. These seem . 
harmless because they are so small; but they 
are one of the worst possible preparations of 
tobacco. 
The smoke of the paper wrappings is irri- 
tating to the lungs, and the cigarettes send 
more poisonous fumes into the delicate air- 
cells, than a pipe or a cigar would. 
Drinking men are almost always smokers 
or ehewers, and many a drunkard owes his 
ruined life and happiness, to the appetite TOBACCO AND THE MOUTH. 
57 
for narcotics formed by the use of tobacco, 
and the company into which it led him. 
Old cigar-stumps are often picked up from 
the streets and smoked or made into cigar- 
ettes. This is worse than disgusting; for, in 
this way, diseases may be spread, coming 
from the mouths of the first users. These 
stumps are the “strongest” part of the ci- 
gars—that is, they contain the most nicotine, 
which thus goes into the cigarettes. 
TOBACCO AND THE MOUTH. 
■ Sores on tlie lips, and even cancers, some- 
times result from tlie use of tobacco; tire 
breath, foul and repulsive, shows tire condi- 
tion of the stomach, the tissues, and the 
blood; the gums of smokers and chewers often 
become spongy, and their teeth are soiled 
and dark, instead of being white and pure. 
The effect of the poison is to make the 
mouth dry, thus causing an extra amount 
of saliva to be poured out from the glands. 
But the constant spitting of the tobacco 
juice, robs one of the saliva needed for diges- 
tion, and thus brings on dyspepsia. 58 
TOBACCO. 
Besides doing this harm to the user, the 
habit of spitting is a very impolite one. It 
makes floors and sidewalks unlit for cleanly 
people to walk on, and endangers the cloth- 
ing of all who are near. 
A man who should spit directly at another 
would be thought very insulting. Is he re- 
specting the rights of others, though he may 
not intend to insult them, when he sends 
the foul juice a little to one side — or where 
they must tread at the next step, thus plac- 
ing them in a very unpleasant position ? 
“The worst characteristic of the habit,” 
says H. H. Seerley, Principal of the Iowa State 
Normal School, “is a loss of personal self- 
respect, and of personal regard for the wishes 
of ladies and gentlemen, especially when 
among strangers.” 
TOBACCO AND THE STOMACH. 
As already said, the nicotine of tobacco is 
almost snre to cause sickness of tlie stomach 
and vomiting, in those who are jnst begin- 
ning to nse the poison. It injures the lining 
of the stomach, hinders the flow of the gas- tOBACCO AND THE STOMACH. 
59 
trie juice, and, in this manner, seriously in- 
terferes with digestion. 
Dr. B. W. Richardson says: “One who 
smokes a pipe is very likely to have dys- 
pepsia.” 
Dr. Willard Parker wrote : “ It is now many 
years since my attention was called to the 
insidious, hut positively destructive effects 
of tohacco on the human system. I have 
seen a great deal of its influence upon those 
who use and work in it. Cigar and snuff 
manufacturers have come under my care in 
hospitals and in private practice; and such 
persons can not recover soon and in a healthy 
manner from cases of injury or fever. They 
are more apt to die in epidemics, and more 
prone to apoplexy and paralysis. The same 
is true, also, of those who smoke or chew 
much. 
“ The poison is slow, hut in the second 
or third decade its virus becomes manifest. 
There have died in New York within a few 
years three excellent clergymen, all of whom 
might now have been alive had they not 
used tohacco. The duty of abstaining from 60 
TOBACCO. 
the slow killing of one’s self by this poison 
is as clear as the duty of not cutting one’s 
throat. 
“ Tobacco is doing more harm in the world 
than rum. It is destroying our race, and it 
is sure to destroy the farms producing it, 
also, as it has done some of the best land in 
Virginia.” 
QUESTIONS. 
1. In what sections of this country is tobacco raised ? Describe 
the plant. 
2. Give proof of the poisoning power of nicotine. 
3. What are the usual effects when one uses tobacco for the first 
time ? 
4. Why does the tobacco-user not continue to feel these effects? 
5. Why are cigarettes especially harmful ? 
6. How may the use of tobacco he the means of leading one to 
drink liquors ? 
7. What are the effects of tobacco on the mouth 
8. What do you think of the habit of spitting? 
9. What is the effect of tobacco on the stomach? 
10. Give Dr. Parker’s statement in regard to tobacco-workers and 
users. CHAPTER VI. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
MAN AND OTHER ANIMALS. 
njlN order to understand the action of the 
various organs of the body, some study 
of the nervous system is necessary. In a 
later chapter, the structure and action of 
nerves will he more fully explained. 
Muscular action, digestion, circulation, and 
all the work of the body, need to he directed 
and controlled. This wonderful task is given 
to the nervous system. 
Plants have no power to think or feel: 
cut a tree, and the hark and wood have no 
sense of pain; the rose is neither glad nor 
sorry when you take it from the stem — it 
knows nothing of what is being done. 
The simplest forms of animal life have 
very little of this nervous power; one of 
them, the hydra (hy'dra), may he cut into 62 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Fie. 6. 
The nervous system. A, cer' e brum; B, cer e bel'lum, PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
63 
pieces, and each piece will form a new hydra. 
But animals which have the sense of feeling 
—those which can be taught by man—possess 
most of this power. 
The dog obeys his master’s orders; horses 
are trained to understand the slightest word 
of command. The elephant, though huge 
and clumsy, is used in India to build bridges, 
move and pile heavy logs, and to do many 
other kinds of work. 
But no other animal has so complete a 
nervous system as man; and so, no other 
animal can think and plan so well. He is 
placed at the head of living creatures, not to 
be a tyrant to torment and destroy others; 
but to “protect all harmless living creatures,” 
and to treat none with cruelty. 
PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
The nervous system is divided into cen- 
ters, cords, and nerves. 
The most important center is the brain; 
the principal cord is the spinal cord, which 
passes down the hack through a series of 
holes in the vertebrae; from the brain and 64 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
spinal cord, slender white threads, called 
nerves, extend to all parts of the body. Other 
nerves start from small centers or knots of 
nerve-matter, near the backbone. 
NERVOUS POWER. 
The nerve-centers are mainly composed of 
soft, gray matter; the spinal cord has a core 
of this same gray matter, surrounded by 
white nerve-fibers. 
What nervous power is, or how it is made, 
we do not know; but it begins in the gray 
matter, and is sent along the white fibers. 
The centers are often compared to the 
stations of a telegraph system where all mes- 
sages, home and foreign, are received, and 
whence orders are sent out in every direction. 
The cords and nerves resemble, in the same 
way, the wires along which messages are 
sent. 
THE BRAIN. 
The brain is protected from injury by the 
strong- bones of the skull, and by three cov- 
erings, or coats. The outer coat is very tough; THE CEREBRUM. 
65 
the inner ones are soft and delicate. The 
two principal parts of the brain are called 
the cerebrum brum) and cerebellum 
(9§r e bel'lum). 
THE CEREBRUM. 
Tlie cerebrum is the part of the brain in 
the upper, middle, and front of the head. 
It has gray mat- 
ter on the out- 
side, and white 
nerve-fibers on 
the inside. 
The gray mat- 
ter is coiled back 
and forth, so that 
a great deal is 
packed away in 
this part of the 
skull. You may 
get a good idea of 
these wrinkles, or 
foldings, by look- 
ing at a piece of brain coral, or at the meat 
of an English walnut. 
fis. r. 
Surface of the cer' e brum. 66 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
This is the part of the brain by means of 
which we think; and wise thinking strength- 
ens it, as proper exercise strengthens the 
muscles. The greater the power and activity 
of the mind, the more wrinkled and coiled 
will the gray matter of the cerebrum become. 
In the lower, back part of the skull, is 
the smaller division of the brain called the 
cerebellum. 
THE CEREBELLUM. 
Like the cerebrum, the gray matter is on 
the outside; the white matter inside; but 
the coilings of the gray matter are finer, 
more like layers or foldings; and the white 
fibers extend into the gray, in such a man- 
ner that they look somewhat like the branch 
of a tree — this is sometimes spoken of as 
“the tree of life.” 
The special work of the cerebellum is not 
fully understood. If it is injured, one can 
not use liis body as be wishes; the messages 
of motion are not sent correctly, the muscles 
do not obey his will, and he acts as if in- 
toxicated. THE SPINAL CORD. 
67 
THE SPINAL CORD. 
At the very hase of the brain, is an im- 
portant mass of white and 
gray nerve-matter, situ- 
ated at the upper end of 
the spinal cord; it is often 
called the “vital knot,” 
because one nerve which 
starts from this center, 
controls the act of breath- 
ing-. 
If the knot is injured 
near this nerve, as is the 
case when one’s neck is 
broken, respiration stops and death occurs 
instantly. This part of the brain is so placed 
as to be protected as fully as possible, and 
it is rarely injured except in death by hang- 
ing\ 
The spinal cord, as has been said, extends 
down the trunk through the backbone. It 
is a white cord, about as large as the end of 
a man’s little finger; down its whole length, 
front and back, are two deep furrows. 
Pig. 8. 
Section of the Spinal Cord. 
a, h. Section of the cord. 
c, c, c, c. Spinal nerves. 
d, d, d, d. Posterior or sensory roots 
of the spinal nerves. 
e, e, e, e. Anterior or motory roots 
of the spinal nerves. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
THE SPINAL NERVES. 
Thirty-one pairs of nerves pass off from 
the sides of the spinal cord, divide and re- 
divide, and send tiny nerve-threads all over 
the body. Touch the skin ever so lightly 
and you feel the touch, because the cutis is 
full of nerve-ends. 
WHAT IS A NARCOTIC? 
Any substance that deadens the brain and 
nerves is called a narcotic; for example, ether 
(e'ther) and chloroform (-elgo'ro f6rm), which are 
given by the dentist, that he may extract 
teeth without pain. Alcohol is taken for 
similar purposes, and is a powerful narcotic. 
STIMULANTS. 
A mistaken idea about the character of 
alcohol leading people to think it will do what 
it can not has often led to the formation of 
the alcoholic appetite, and consequent drunk- 
enness. The notion that a stimulant will add 
strength 6r power, and that alcohol is such a 
stimulant, is one of these dangerous mistakes. STIMULANTS. 
69 
An eminent physician* says: “Alcohol is 
a narcotic. If taken in large quantities at 
once, it is capable of completely paralyzing 
the nervous system. In small quantities, 
repeated from day to day, it lessens nerve 
sensibility, blunts mental and moral sense, 
and slowly, but so surely, prevents the 
processes of health as to make the system 
more readily yield to all causes of disease.” 
If alcohol is a narcotic, why does it seem 
to excite those who take it P Two facts ex- 
plain the seeming contradiction. 
First. Every increase of the brain’s supply 
of blood is followed by an increase in the 
activity of that organ. 
Second. Besides affecting other nerves that 
influence the blood circulation, alcohol par- 
alyzes the nerves in the walls of the blood- 
vessels that run in and out through the brain 
substance, and that should cause those vessels 
to expand and contract on the blood within 
them, regulating its flow. The blood-vessels 
stretch. Too much blood rushes to the brain. 
* Dr. 1ST. S. Davis, President of the International Medical Con- 
vention of 1886. 70 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
The eyes flash, the cheeks are bright, the 
words are rapid. But this excitement is not 
trustworthy. The judgment seems paralyzed 
also. Such a drinker often says and does 
what he would otherwise condemn until more 
alcohol produces complete stupor, and the 
drinker is said to he dead drunk. 
Alcohol, therefore, is not a stimulant in the 
proper sense of that word; its effect on pain 
and fatigue, even, is simply the deadening of 
the nerves, so that one does not realize the 
disordered, exhausted condition of his body.* 
ALCOHOLIC APPETITE. 
Like all narcotic poisons, alcoliol has the 
dangerous power of creating an increasing ap- 
petite for itself, that demands not only more 
frequent, hut stronger and larger doses. The 
* Suppose, for instance, you measure your muscular strength 
with a health-lift, and then take some of the drink which you 
think will give you power. When you feel strong, measure your 
strength again. The drink has fooled you, that is all. You felt 
that you were stronger than natural; you find that the narcotic 
has been true to its paralyzing nature and that you are weaker. 
Then, after a time, when the drug has spent itself and yoii 
feel weak and prostrated, measure your strength once more. Fooled 
again; the stuff has fooled you twice. When you felt yourself 
strong, you were weak; and now, when you feel yourself weak, 
you find yourself really stronger, for your natural strength is re- 
turning. —Adapted from Dr. A. F. Kinne. ALCOHOLIC APPETITE. 
71 
greater its work of ruin, the harder and 
more nearly impossible to overcome, will he 
its demand. 
The appetite does not gain with eqnal 
rapidity upon all; hut no one can tell how 
long he will he satisfied with a little. This 
craving, so easily formed, and so hard to 
overcome, clings to its victims. Sometimes 
after slumbering through years of abstinence 
(ab'sti ngnfiso, it is wakened by the first taste. 
The custom of putting wine and other 
alcoholic liquors into cooked foods, is a dan- 
gerous one, often causing the formation or 
return of a fearful appetite. 
In this country, many thousand persons 
every year die as drunkards — that is, are 
killed by alcohol. None of them expected to 
become drunkards when they began to drink 
liquor; but they were ignorant, or careless, 
of the power of a little alcohol to create an 
appetite for more. 
The word intoxicated means poisoned. 
The barbarians poisoned their arrows; hence, 
from the Latin in} into — and toxicum, a poi- 
son into which arrows were dipped, we get 72 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
the word which describes the condition of a 
person under the influence of alcohol. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is the work of the nervous system ? 
2. Name the parts of the nervous system. 
3. What is nervous power?—where does it begin? —along what is 
it sent ? 
4. Compare centers, cords, and nerves, to telegraph stations and 
wires. 
5. How is the brain protected? 
6. What are the parts of the brain called ? — describe each part, 
and its special work. 
7. What is the “vital knot”?—where is it? 
8. Describe the spinal cord; — the spinal nerves. 
9. What is a narcotic? 
10. Why has alcohol been called a stimulant? 
11. What is its effect on pain and fatigue? 
12. How does it seem to increase one’s energy ? 
13. What power have all narcotic poisons? 
14. Why should liquors never be used in cooking? 
15. How are drunkards made? 
16. Explain the meaning of the word “intoxicated”. CHAPTER VII. 
OPIUM. 
SHE white poppy is a plant which is 
largely cultivated in India and China. 
If little slits are cut in the unripe seed- 
vessels, drops of milky juice come out. When 
dry, these are carefully scraped off and sold 
as opium (o'p! am). 
From this opium, laudanum (latyda nam), 
morphine paregoric (par e g6r'i€), 
and the various kinds of soothing syrups 
are made. It is one of the most deadly of 
the narcotic poisons. 
EFFECTS. 
Usually, these various forms of opium are 
taken at first "by the advice of the doctor, to 
relieve pain. But the appetite, like that for 
alcohol and tobacco, grows stronger, and the 
dose is made larger, as the hahit gains upon 
its victim. 
Opium does not make one violent, so as 74 
OPIUM. 
to injure and murder others, as alcohol often 
does; but its effects on the users themselves 
are, if possible, even worse than those of 
alcohol. 
At first, the user seems to be in a pleas- 
ant and wonderful dream; then he grows 
stupid and unconscious. When he comes to 
his senses again, there is a feeling of horror; 
to free himself from this, he longs for more 
of the drug, and will get it if possible. 
The continued use of opium leads to seri- 
ous disorders of the digestive organs, loss of 
appetite, loss of strength, and general weak- 
ness of mind and body. The brain and nerves 
are especially injured by it, as they are by 
all narcotics. The power of self-control is 
lost, and the most solemn promises are broken 
in order to obtain the poison. Many lives 
that might have been grand and noble have 
been destroyed by the use of opium. 
Those who have the care of children, fre- 
quently quiet them by the use of soothing- 
syrup. It stops the baby’s cry, of course; but 
it does it by deadening the nerves and poi- 
soning the tender child-life, often leaving OPIUM, CHLORAL, AND THE STOMACH 
75 
injuries from which it never recovers. An 
overdose at once kills tlie little one. 
Gin and other liquors are sometimes used 
for the same purpose. Because this practice 
injures the health and often creates a craving 
for alcohol, it is a cruel betrayal of trust on 
the part of those charged with the care of 
helpless infants. 
OPIUM, CHLORAL, AND THE STOMACH. 
Chloral (kio'rai) and chloroform (kio'ro f6rm) 
are often used in sickness; hut, like opium, 
are narcotics, and therefore dangerous helps. 
They should never he used in health, or on 
trivial occasions, or for any length of time. 
The stomach of the opium-eater, and of 
the user of chloral, soon has its digestive 
power impaired. 
THE NARCOTIC HABIT. 
One narcotic is very likely to lead to an- 
other. A gentleman once tried to break off 
the habit of smoking, by drinking wine in- 
stead. Tie found the wine was enslaving 
him; he tried morphine, and soon became its 76 
OPIUM 
victim. At last, with, a body sadly wrecked, 
he returned to tobacco, his first enemy, with 
his naturally fine abilities ruined through 
the appetite for narcotics. 
Turning from one narcotic to another is 
merely a change of masters. The only hope 
for the poor victim lies in his power to stop 
using all these poisons. 
QU ESTIONS. 
1. How is opium obtained? 
2. Under what names is it sold ? 
3. Describe its effects on the user. 
4. Why are there more opium-users among women than among 
men ? 
5. Why does soothing-syrup stop a child’s cry ? 
6. What other narcotics are used in a similar way? 
7. Is it safe and right to so use them ? Why ? 
8. Why are opium, chloral, and chloroform called narcotics? 
9. Is any thing gained by changing one narcotic for another? 
10. What is the only safe rule in regard to the use of these 
poisons ? OH APTEE Till. 
RESPIRATION. 
INSPIRATION AND EXPIRATION. 
your hands firmly against yonr 
vfip sides, and draw long, deep breaths. No- 
tice that the side walls of yonr chest are 
not fixed, hut move out and in, as you 
breathe, about eighteen times a minute. 
Hold your hand close before your face, 
and you will feel a current of air upon it, 
as the ribs move in. Breathe upon a mirror, 
and a thin film of water covers it, coming 
from your breath. On a cold winter day, this 
partly freezes, and you say you can “ see 
your breath.” 
The diaphragm (dra fram) is a muscle which 
forms the partition between the chest and 
the abdomen. When the ribs move out- 
ward, this moves downward, and air enters 78 
RESPIRATION 
your chest through tlie organs of breathing; 
this is called inspiration (inspiration). 
When the ribs move back into position, 
and the diaphragm moves upward, the air 
The lungs, showing the larynx. A, the windpipe ; B, the bronchial tubes. 
is forced out, bringing- with, it water and 
other waste material; this is called expira- 
tion (gx pi ra'tion). Taken together, these make 
up breathing or respiration (rgs pi ra' tion). LARYNX AND WINDPIPE. 
79 
ORGANS OF BREATHING. 
The organs of breathing are the nose and 
mouth, through which air enters the body, 
the larynx (l&r'ynx), windpipe, (br6n'- 
ki ai) tubes, and lungs. 
LARYNX AND WINDPIPE. 
From tire back of the mouth, the air 
passes down a straight tube at the front of 
the neck, called the windpipe or trachea (tra'~ 
ke &). This is made of ring-shaped cartilages 
and is easily felt through the skin of the 
neck. Its upper end is the larynx, the organ 
of voice. 
The larynx swells out at the front, is 
larger in men than in women, and is some- 
times called “Adam’s apple.” It is a tube- 
like box, formed by the union of gristly 
and elastic parts, and is covered by a mov- 
able lid, called the epiglottis (gp i giot'tis). This 
is open when we breathe, so that the air 
can enter. When we swallow, the epiglottis 
closes the entrance to the windpipe, and the 
food passes over it to the esophagus. 80 
RESPIRATION. 
Sometimes, we try to swallow and breathe 
at the same time; then this little cover does 
not shut down quickly enough to prevent 
particles of food or drink from going “ the 
wrong way.” .The windpipe can not bear 
this and coughs them out at once, if possi- 
ble; if not, we are “choked.” 
VOCAL CORDS. 
We speak by means of the air moving 
strong bands of membrane, called vocal cords, 
which are at the top of the larynx. The lips, 
teeth, and other organs, help us in talking. 
BRONCHIAL TUBES AND LUNGS. 
Tlie lower end of tlie tracliea separates into 
two branches, one of which, is sent to each 
lung; these branches, called bronchi, divide 
into smaller ones, the bronchial tubes. 
These tubes divide and divide again, as 
the branch of a tree breaks up into smaller 
twigs. They end in very small sacs, or cells, 
into which the air passes. 
Get a piece of a lung of an ox from the 
butcher, and put it into a pail of water. THE CILIA. 
Its little cells are so filled with air that it 
floats like cork. 
Fig. 10. 
Interweaving of the air-tubes and blood-vessels in the lungs. 
a. Windpipe. 
b, c. Eight and left lung. 
d. Heart. 
e, e. Divisions of the great air-tubes 
going to the right lung and the left 
lung. 
f, f. Arteries carrying the blood from 
the heart to the lungs. 
g, g. Veins, carrying the blood from 
the lungs to the heart. 
h, h, h, h. Air-cells at the terminal 
turns of the air-tubes. 
THE CILIA. 
On tlie walls of tlie bronchial tubes are 
minnte, thread-like bodies, called cilia (gli'iA). 
Tbese move back and forth, and help to 
prevent dnst from entering' the lung's with 82 
RESPIRATION. 
the air, and to carry it out with the mucus 
(mu'-eus) when it does get in. 
WORK OF THE LUNGS. 
A network of tiny blood-vessels, or capil- 
laries (-eap' ii la riz), covers the outside of the 
lung-cells. Having thin walls like the cells, 
the hlood which they carry is brought close 
to the air in the lungs. By this means, a 
strange and important change takes place. 
Certain waste matters, including carbonic 
acid and water, pass from the blood through 
the walls of the capillaries and lung-cells, 
into the air, and are breathed out at the 
next expiration. At the same time, the blood 
takes a part of the air, called oxygen (Sx'ijgn), 
which it needs for its own use. 
It is this exchange of impurities for oxy- 
gen, that changes the dark, blue blood that 
was sent to the lungs from one side of the 
heart, to the bright red blood that is ready- 
to nourish the body, and is returned to the 
other side of the heart, from which it is 
sent out by the arteries. 
This work goes on all the time, whether we HYGIENE OF BREATHING. 
are awake or asleep, and without our thought. 
If, in order to hreathe, we had to think 
about it, we should have little time for 
any thing else; and if we forgot it, and so 
stopped breathing, we should soon die. 
HOW TO BREATHE. 
Air should enter the lungs through the 
nose instead of through the mouth. Even 
when running, if possible, keep the mouth 
closed. Fewer impurities will pass into the 
lungs hy so doing, and in cold weather the 
air is slightly warmed before reaching them, 
making one less likely to “take cold.” 
Sometimes, as in running, the heart heats 
so rapidly that the lungs can not keep up 
with it and supply air enough for the blood; 
then we are “out of breath.” 
HYGIENE OF BREATHING. 
As the muscular walls of the chest and 
abdomen help in the act of breathing, noth- 
ing should prevent their free movement. 
For this reason, garments worn. about the 
waist, such as corsets and belts, should never 84 
RESPIRATION. 
he tight. They are sure to do harm hy 
crowding the lungs, thus partly stopping the 
hreath, and hy pressing out of place the or- 
gans of the abdomen. 
Fig. 11. 
A, the natural position of the internal organs. B, when deformed hy tight lacing. 
In this way the liver and the stomach have been forced downward, as seen in the 
cat. 
Among tlie many causes of consumption is 
tight lacing. A small, pinched waist shows 
that its owner is either ignorant or foolish— 
perhaps both. DISEASES. 
85 
The weight of the clothing should not 
rest on the hips, pressing the muscles of the 
abdomen, but be held by shoulder-straps, or 
by waists kept up by shoulder-straps. Round 
shoulders, by pressing the lungs out of their 
proper position, are friends of consumption. 
DISEASES. 
Bronchitis (bron ki'tis) is a disease of the 
bronchial tubes, pleurisy (piu'ri sy) of the 
pleura, the soft skin covering the lungs; 
pneumonia (nu mo' ni a) and consumption affect 
the lungs themselves, and croup is a disease 
of the larynx and windpipe. 
All these dangers may be largely avoided 
by wearing sufficient clothing, by being care- 
ful not to “ take cold,” by eating proper food, 
and by living in houses that are dry, clean, 
light, well-warmed, and well-aired, and built 
in healthy places. 
VENTILATION. 
Ventilation is the removal of impure or 
poisoned air from buildings and the supply- 
ing of fresh air in its place. RESPIRATION. 
CAUSES OF IMPURE AIR. 
In a pleasant village, a few years ago, 
stood a large house, of which people were 
afraid, because all who tried to live there 
sickened, and some of them died. 
But one day, a stranger looked over the 
grounds and house, then bought the estate 
and ordered repairs; when these were fin- 
ished, his family moved in, and were healthy 
and happy there. 
The secret of the change lay in the own- 
er’s knowledge of the laws of health. He 
provided a supply of pure water for family 
use, to take the place of that from the old 
well into which the drainage soaked. De- 
caying vegetables, old boards, ancient brooms, 
and other rubbish in various stages of slimy 
rottenness, were cleared out of the cellar, 
from which they had been sending poison- 
ous gases through the house. 
A long drain was built to carry the dish- 
water out into the garden; and refuse mat- 
ter from the table, such as broken bits of 
meat and skins of fruit and vegetables, was VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 
87 
■burned in tire kitchen range, not thrown 
out at the hack door and left to decay. 
The neighbors no longer feared the house, 
but followed the example of its new owner. 
Gravel and concrete paths and sidewalks re- 
placed those of decaying boards, and piles 
of old saw-dust from the sheds went to feed 
furnace fires. 
At last, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and ma- 
laria, almost disappeared from that locality, 
because their causes were so largely removed. 
Remember that air which contains decay- 
ing animal and vegetable matter, is not fit 
to breathe; and that water, under the same 
conditions, is not fit to drink. It is well 
that winds blow poisonous gases away, that 
the falling rains wash the air clean, and that 
plants live on carbonic acid which, in suffi- 
cient quantity, is fatal to animal life. 
VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 
Waste matter from the body is always 
passing- off by means of tbe skin and lungs; 
fires, wbetber for lighting or beating, send 
out carbonic acid; sweeping and tbe tread RESPI RATION. 
of feet set free dust and "bits of wool from 
tlie carpets. 
Unless great pains are taken to keep tke 
air in our houses, scliool-rooms, halls, and 
churches, lit for breathing, we poison our- 
selves. 
Janitors of churches, school-rooms, and 
other public buildings, should never close 
doors and windows, as soon as an audience 
has passed out, and shut up the poisoned air 
to be breathed over again the next time the 
room is used. 
The air in such rooms in cold weather is 
really carbonic acid gas and other impurities 
“warmed over.” Doors and windows should 
be oxiened on opposite sides, until the fresh 
air has taken the place of that in the room. 
No lesson, sermon, lecture, or concert, can 
be understood or enjoyed by a sleepy, heed- 
less audience—sleepy and heedless because of 
the poisoned air it has taken into its lungs. 
The headache which we so often have in 
ill-ventilated rooms, is the common result of 
re-breathing carbonic acid and other impuri- 
ties. Thus we see that good studying, preach- VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 
mg, and teaching, as well as good health, are 
dependent on good air. 
Special care should he taken in the ven- 
tilation of sleeping-rooms. Leave a close 
room in which you have spent the night, for 
a brisk walk in the open air—then return to 
it again. 
The air is foul with the heavy, suffocating 
odor of waste matter, the product of your 
lungs, which you have heen breathing over 
and over again during your sleeping hours. 
You felt stupid and tired on waking, because 
poisoned by your own breath. 
Sleeping-rooms should be so ventilated in 
the winter, as well as in the summer, that 
the sleeper may have a constant supply of 
moderately warm, fresh air. This can be done 
by raising the lower and dropping the uj)per 
sash of a window in a warm room. 
Cold air is not necessarily pure air, and, in 
northern climates, is often too severe in win- 
ter to be breathed at night by any but the 
most robust. 
Two openings are needed in order to ven- 
tilate a room properly—one through which 90 
RESPIRATION. 
the impure air may pass out, and another by 
which the pure air may enter. 
There are many ways of doing this. One 
is to open the windows a little, both at the 
top and bottom, as already suggested. Open 
fire-places are excellent ventilators. Through 
them, a stream of air from the room goes up 
the chimney, and air from without must 
come in to take its place. 
While we must have fresh air to breathe, 
it is not safe to sit or stand in a draught of 
air. 
AIR IN SICK-ROOMS. 
The air of the sick-room should be always 
pure and fresh. To “take the breath” of 
another person is, of course, to take the car- 
bonic acid and other waste matter from his 
lungs into your own. Contagious diseases are 
often spread in this way. 
ALCOHOL AND THE LUNGS. 
Alcohol, as you have learned, is sent into 
the hlood as soon as possible. The blood car- 
ries a part to the lungs, and thus you may ALCOHOL AND THE LUNGS. 
91 
often know from the breath, that a person 
has been drinking-. 
In passing through them, alcohol injures 
the delicate air-cells of the lungs. The idea 
that this narcotic will prevent consumption 
is a mistake. There is one form of this dis- 
ease, called alcoholic consumption, which is 
caused by alcohol.* 
The drinker looks well and feels well, till 
suddenly comes a “ dropped stitch,” or a pain 
in the side. Then follow difficulty of breath- 
ing and vomiting of blood ; then a rapid pas- 
sage to the grave; for medicine, food, change 
of air, all prove useless. 
* Dr. A. B. Palmer says in a recent work, “Science and Practice 
of Medicine”:—“An impression seems to have obtained a footing in 
this country, that the use of alcohol, even in excessive quantities, 
tends to prevent consumption. 
“The origin of this opinion it is not easy to discover. It was not 
imported from Europe; for, so far as I have been able to ascertain, 
it is not held there by any respectable authority/ It is not sus- 
tained by any authenticated statistics with which I am acquainted. 
“Dr. Peacock, one of the oldest and most highly esteemed spe- 
cialists in lung diseases in London, and Physician to Victoria Park 
Hospital for Consumptives, when told of the American notion of 
the preventive power of alcohol in consumption, and asked whether 
he thought it prevented the disease, replied, that so far from it, it 
was a fruitful cause of a certain form of the disease.” 
Dr. Palmer adds, “Too many persons have been made drunkards 
from the notion that whiskey prevents consumption, to make the 
view of its bearings upon morals and intemperance a matter of 
indifference to the conscientious physician.” 92 
RESPIRATION, 
Alcohol injures muscular power, and, as 
the diaphragm and the muscles which move 
the rihs are used in breathing, respiration is 
often imperfect in those who drink. Some- 
times, these muscles are so affected that 
paralysis or death occurs. Life depends on 
respiration, and liquors are the enemy of 
healthy breathing. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Define respiration, expiration, inspiration. 
2. Give the names of the organs of breathing. 
3. Describe the trachea; —the larynx ; — the epiglottis. 
4. What are the organs used in speaking? 
5. What are the bronchial tubes? —the cilia? 
6. Describe the work of the lungs. 
7. How should we breathe? 
8. How does tight clothing about the waist injure a person ? 
9. Name diseases of the organs of breathing. 
10. How may these diseases be avoided? 
11. What is ventilation ? 
12. Tell the story of the “haunted house” and its changed condi- 
tion. 
13. How did the neighbors improve their premises? 
14. How did the result affect the health of the people? 
15. How are air and water often made unfit for use? 
16. Why do buildings need ventilation ? 
17. What is said of the air in churches, school-rooms, etc. ? 
18. Why does a close room often give one the headache ? 
19. How should sleeping-rooms be ventilated ? 
20. Is it safe to “take the breath” of another person? Why? 
21. How does alcohol affect the lungs? 
22. Describe alcoholic consumption. 
23. How is alcohol likely to injure the organs of breathing? CHAPTER IX 
CIRCULATION. 
THE BLOOD. 
SHE hlood is a thin, watery liquid in 
which float millions of little round 
klood-disks. As most of these are red, the 
hlood looks red. 
Pis. 12. 
A, blood-disks of human blood, highly magnified; B, blood-disks in the blood of an 
animal. 
A French, writer says: “You feel quite 
sure that hlood is red, do you not? Well, 
it is no more red than the water of a stream 
would he, if you were to fill it with little 
red fishes. 94 
CIRCULATION. 
“ Suppose the fishes to be very, very small, 
as small as a grain of sand, and closely 
crowded together through the whole depth 
of the stream, the water would look red, 
would it not ? And this is the way in which 
the blood looks red. Only observe one thing 
— a grain of sand is a mountain in compari- 
son with the little red bodies which float in 
the blood. 
“In a single drop of blood, such as might 
hang on the point of a needle, there are 
millions of these bodies.” 
CLOTTING OF THE BLOOD. 
Tliis rarely occurs in tire living- 13100(1 in- 
side tire vessels. But when blood is taken 
from tbe body and allowed to stand awhile, 
the disks collect so as to form a clot, which 
floats in the watery liquid. 
If the flesh is slightly cut anywhere, and 
the blood flows —as it will, so numerous are 
the blood-vessels — a clot soon forms at the 
mouths of the vessels and stops the flow. 
This clot is really a little plug formed by 
the separation of the parts of the blood. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 
95 
THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 
The lieart is placed a little to tlie left of 
tlie middle line of 
tlie chest. Con- 
nected with it is 
a set of tubes 
which carry blood 
to and from all 
parts of the body. 
The little tubes 
which carry the 
fresh blood from 
the heart to every 
part of the body 
are called arteries 
(ar'terlz); while 
those tubes which 
carry the blood 
back to the heart * 
are called veins (van§). 
Connecting1 the arteries and veins are 
tubes much too small to be seen by the 
Fig. 13. 
The heart. A, the right ventricle ; B, the left ventri- 
cle ; C, the right auricle ; D, the left auricle. 
* The portal vein is an exception to this rule, since it carries 
blood, from the digestive organs to the liver. 96 
CIRCULATION. 
naked eye, called capillaries. So very fine are 
these that the blood-disks have to go through 
them in single file. 
THE HEART. 
The heart is a strong, muscular organ, in 
shape and size somewhat like a very large 
pear. Around it is a loose bag of connective- 
tissue. 
The heart is divided lengthwise, by a par- 
tition called the septum (sgp'tum), into right 
and left halves. Each half is divided crosswise 
into chambers which open into each other. 
The upper chambers are called the right 
and left auricles (aty ri -els); the lower cham- 
bers, the right and left ventricles (vgn' tri -els;. 
As the blood can not pass through the sep- 
tum, the heart is really a double organ. 
MOTIONS OF THE HEART. 
Tlie muscular libers of tbe lieart are so 
arranged as to contract tbe two auricles at 
tbe same time. Tbe blood is tbus sent into 
the ventricles, which, in their turn, contract 
together and so send the blood from the heart. COUSSE OF THE BLOOD. 
97 
The walls of the auricles are much thin- 
ner than those of the ventricles, since they 
have to send the blood so short a distance, 
that hut little strength is needed. 
We may think of the heart as an engine 
which pumps the blood all through the body. 
COURSE OF THE BLOOD. 
Fig. 14. 
Circulation of the blood in the web of a frog's foot, highly magnified. A, an 
artery; B, capillaries crowded with disks; C, a deeper vein. The black spots are 
coloring matter in cells. 
The brig-lit, pure blood is pumped out from 
tbe left side tlirougb a large artery, called 
the aorta (a 6r' ta). 
An express wagon, you know, carries dif- 
ferent kinds of goods. It may have machin- 
ery for a mill, a package of money for the 98 
CIRCULATION. 
bank, a silk dress for your mother, or a bi- 
cycle (br gf for you. The express-man takes 
each thing to the right place, leaves it there, 
and then drives away. 
So the blood passing from the large artery 
into the smaller ones, and then into the 
capillaries, leaves one kind of substance with 
the bones, another with the muscles, and 
still another with the skin. 
If, by the right kind of eating, drinking, 
breathing, and other care, we have put proper 
materials into our blood, it will, in its course 
through the body, leave what each part needs 
for its work in keeping us strong and well. 
Sometimes, when the express-man leaves a 
box at a house, he takes away at the same 
time, a package, or a trunk, for another place. 
The blood does this, too; but the material 
which the blood takes away from the differ- 
ent parts, is worn-out or useless matter that 
must be made over or sent out of the body. 
The tiny veins that join the capillaries 
unite, till at last they form two great veins 
which bring the blood back to the right 
auricle of the heart. COURSE OF THE BLOOD. 
By tBe time it readies tiie veins, it car- 
ries sncli a load of waste matter tliat it is 
of a dark Bine color, as seen in tlie Blood- 
vessels of tBe Avrist. After eating, newly- 
digested food forms a part of tBis venous 
Blood. Sent from tlie rigBt auricle into tlie 
rigBt ventricle, it is tBen liurried to tlie lungs. 
TBere tlie Avonderful cliange takes place 
wliicli you learned aBout in studying res- 
piration. Tlie Avaste matter, largely carBonic 
acid, is sent off witB tlie BreatB, and oxygen 
takes its place. Tlie Blood Becomes Briglit 
scarlet again, and fit to nourisli tlie Body. 
TBe veins tlien carry it to tBe left auricle 
and it starts on anotlier journey tBrougB 
tBe system. It travels so rapidly, as to get 
Back to tBe Beart in less tBan tBirty seconds. 
From two quarts to a gallon of Blood, pass 
tBrougB a man’s Beart every minute. 
TBe walls of tlie left ventricle are mucB 
tBicker and stronger tBan tBose of tBe rigBt, 
Because tBey Bave to contract witB force 
enougB to send tBe Blood tBrougB tBe Body, 
wBile tBe rigBt ventricle sends it only to 
tlie lungs. 100 
CIRCULATION. 
This, then, is the course of the blood : 
Left side of the heart.—Pure, fresh hlood 
comes from the lungs and is sent out to 
nourish the body. 
Right side of the heart. — Impure, blue 
hlood comes from all parts of the body and 
is sent to the lungs. 
This movement of the 
blood round and round in 
the body, is called circu- 
lation (fir -eu la'tion). 
Little flaps of delicate 
skin, called valves, are so 
placed in the heart and 
veins, that if the blood tries to move in the 
wrong direction, the back-flow is prevented 
by the shutting of the valves across the pas- 
sage-ways or tubes. 
Brisk exercise of any kind makes the 
blood flow faster, and thus increases the 
warmth of the body. 
The teamster swings his arms and rubs 
his hands together in cold weather, because 
his blood, being chilled, is moving slowly, 
and he must quicken its flow. 
Fig. 15. 
Valves of the veins. THE PULSE. 
101 
The heat one feels after taking brisk 
exercise, is more natural and more healthful 
than that which is obtained from nearness 
to a warm fire. 
THE PULSE. 
In adults, tlie blood is sent out from tlie 
heart about seventy times a minute; in chil- 
dren, from eighty to ninety times a minute. 
Most of the arteries lie deep in the flesh; 
but, at the wrist and the temple, they are 
so near the surface that you can feel the 
pulse, of the motion of the blood as it is 
sent through the arteries by the “beating” 
of the heart. 
Usually, if the pulse is much faster or 
slower than the average rate, the person is 
ill; the doctor counts the pulse of a patient, 
so as to know how his heart is working. 
Rest is as necessary for the heart as for 
other muscles. To secure it, there is a slight 
pause between the beats. Brief as each pause 
is, if all these moments are added together, 
they make about nine hours of rest during 
the twenty-four. 102 
CIRCULATION. 
WORK OF THE HEART. 
At every beat, tbe beart moves about four 
ounces of blood. 
Suppose you bad a machine which could 
lift very heavy weights. The coal-man brings 
you a ton of coal, and you put it into a large 
box, fasten the box to the machine, turn a 
crank, and the strong arm of your machine 
swings the box of coal up into the air with 
perfect ease. 
You try a heavier weight — say twenty- 
five tons; this also is lifted easily, but not 
so high as before. Try fifty tons and then 
seventy-five ; the heavier the weight of coal, 
the less will be the height to which your 
machine will raise it. 
At last, you try one hundred twenty-two 
tons: the machine can lift this heavy load 
only one foot from the ground; there it 
stops, for there is not power enough to raise 
it any higher. 
The heart of a full-grown man or woman 
uses as much power in moving blood for 
twenty-four hours, as your machine would CUTS AND WOUNDS. 
103 
use in lifting one hundred twenty-two tons, 
one foot high. 
This is what learned men mean when 
they say: “ The daily work of the healthy 
heart in an adult, is equal to lifting one hun- 
dred and twenty-two tons, one foot.” 
CUTS AND WOUNDS. 
The bloocl in the arteries of the limbs is 
pure and fresh, and in rapid motion; in the 
veins, it is impure and moves slowly. 
The arteries, being- deep set, are not easily 
injured; but, if bright, red blood comes in 
jerks from a cut or wound, you may know 
that one is severed. Send for a surgeon at 
once, but do something while waiting for 
him; for there is great danger that the suf- 
ferer will bleed to death. 
Even a child may save a person’s life at 
such a time, if he knows what to do. The 
flow of blood must be stopped by pinching the 
artery, as you would stop the flow of water 
in a rubber hose. 
If possible, take a handkerchief, or a towel, 
or any convenient bandage, and tie it around 104 
CIRCULATION. 
the limb close to the wound, and between 
the wound and the heart. Put a stick into 
the knot and twist it round and round, just 
enough to stop the bleeding by pressing the 
artery. 
This will check the rush of blood coming, 
you remember, from the heart, and enable 
it to form a clot at the cut end of the tube. 
Keep the limb raised as you work. 
If the blood comes in a slow, steady 
stream, a vein is injured. The blood in the 
veins is going to the heart, you know, and 
is moving much more slowly than that in 
the arteries. A clot will usually form in the 
cut veins without the help of a bandage. 
If you can not use the bandage, or if this 
does not stop the bleeding, press a handful 
of dry earth upon the wound and hold it 
there until help comes; this is a “remedy 
that has saved many a life upon the battle- 
field.” 
ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD. 
Often the blood is made thin by the enor- 
mous quantities of water, or of beer, which ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 
105 
are drunk, because of the burning thirst 
caused by alcohol. In case of a severe wound, 
the blood, when it is in such a condition, does 
not readily clot, and there is greater danger 
of bleeding to death. AWiile alcohol is in 
the blood, it acts injuriously upon the vitality 
of the blood-disks, and, when in great excess, 
may cause them to shrink. 
ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 
Tlie motion of tlie lieart is controlled "by 
tlie nerves. Wherever you find blood-vessels 
—even the tiniest capillaries—there are nerves 
entering- into their coats and controlling 
them. 
When in a healthy condition, they keep 
the blood-vessels from stretching or shrink- 
ing, so as to hold too much or too little 
blood. 
But, if a person drinks gin, whiskey, wine, 
cider, or any thing containing alcohol, these 
nerves are at once deadened by this narcotic; 
they fail to do their work properly, and 
therefore the elastic walls of the capillaries 
stretch, letting in too much blood. 106 
CIRCULATION. 
This is often seen in the flushed face, es- 
pecially in the red, blotched nose, of a drink- 
ing- man. The unusual amount of blood in the 
capillaries shows its color through the skin. 
This is a pitiful sight, especially when we 
remember that alcohol affects in a similar 
way, the capillaries of the brain, stomach, 
and other parts of the body. 
ALCOHOL AND THE HEART. 
The pendulum regulates the works of a 
clock, keeping them in motion at the proper 
rate; remove it, and they “ run down,” at 
once. So there are certain nerves which 
cause the heart to beat, and others which, 
like the pendulum of a clock, keep it from 
moving too rapidly. 
Alcohol affects the heart, by acting mainly 
on this last set of nerves which serve as its 
“brakes.” This, like many other of the 
truths you are learning, has been discovered 
by experiments on the lower animals and oil 
man. 
When these nerves are deadened, the heart 
heats quicker, but its power is decreased, and REVIEW QUESTIONS. 
107 
the pulsations are too feehle to send out the 
hlood properly. The rapid working- shortens 
its times of rest, and heart disease is often 
the result. 
TOBACCO AND THE HEART. 
The effect of tohacco on the heart is much 
the same as that of alcohol. The heat is 
quickened, hut the power is weakened: se- 
vere pain around the heart is a common re- 
sult of smoking-. There is a form of disease 
of this organ, which the doctors call “tohacco 
heart.” 
1. Describe the blood. 
2. What is said of it by a French writer? 
3. What is meant by the clotting of the blood? 
4. Name and locate the organs of circulation. 
5. Describe the heart;—its motions. 
6. State the course of the blood. 
7. What does the blood carry to every part of the body:. 
8. What does it take away ? 
9. What kind of blood is in the right side of the heart? 
10. How is the blood changed in the lungs? 
11. What kind of blood is in the left side of the heart? 
12. What is meant by circulation ? 
13. What is the use of the valves in the heart and veins? 
14. What is the effect of exercise on the motion of the heart? 
15. What is the pulse? 
16. How often does it beat in children ?—in adults? 
QU ESTIONS. 108 
CIRCULATION. 
17. Why does the doctor count the pulse of a patient? 
18. When does the heart rest ? 
19. Compare the daily work of the heart with that of a lifting- 
machine. 
20. How may you know whether an artery or a vein has been 
cut? 
21. If an artery, how would you stop the flow of blood? —if a 
vein ? 
22. In what ways is alcohol likely to injure the blood? 
23. What control the motion of the heart and the size of the 
blood-vessels ? 
24. How does alcohol affect these nerves? 
25. What is the cause of the flushed face of the drinking man ? 
26. What two classes of nerves act on the heart? 
27. How does alcohol affect the heart-beat? 
28. How does tobacco affect the heart? CHAPTER X. 
THE BONES. 
.'MNT part of an animal or vegetable body 
wbicb bas some special work to do, is 
called an organ. For example, tbe root takes 
np food for tire plant; tbe eye is tbe organ 
of sigbt; tbe nose is tbe organ of smell. 
Plants and animals are called organic 
bodies, because tbey bave organs. Stone, 
iron, coal, and otber minerals, are called in- 
organic bodies, because tbey bave no organs. 
Tbe solid parts of tbe body are called 
tissnes; tbns we speak of tbe fatty-tissue, 
and tbe muscular-tissue. Supporting tbe’ va- 
rious tissues about wbicb you bave been 
studying, is 
THE HUMAN SKELETON. 
Tbis is so much like tbe skeleton of tbe 
ox or tbe cat, tbat studying tbeir bones will 
belp us to understand about our own. 110 
T HE BONES. 
The human skeleton is composed of about 
two hundred separate bones. It forms the 
frame-work of the body, and fur- 
nishes a hard surface to which to 
fasten the flesh. It also protects 
the softer parts within, as the 
heart and lungs. 
Pis. lfi. 
SHAPE OF THE BONES. 
Some are long, like those of 
the leg and arm;, some are flat, 
like the bones of the head. In 
the ankle and wrist, they are short 
and irregular. All are shaped for 
their special uses in the body. 
COMPOSITION OF THE BONES. 
Tlie bones are made of botb 
mineral and animal matter. 
To prove this, burn the leg- 
bone of a chicken in a slow fire ; 
the animal matter will pass away, 
leaving a white substance the 
shape of the bone, until it is roughly touched 
—then it crumbles into dust. This is a kind 
of lime, and is valuable as a fertilizer. 
The thigh-bone 
{femur) sawed 
lengthwise. GROWTH OF THE BONES. 
The mineral matter may be removed by 
soaking a bone for a few hours in Weak 
muriatic acid; the animal matter, or gristle, 
which is left, is soft and yielding, so that 
you may bend the bone, or tie it in a knot 
if long enough. 
Both the animal and the mineral matter 
are needed to make the bones hard and firm, 
and at the same time tough and elastic. The 
mineral part alone would make them hard, 
but brittle. The animal part alone would 
make them tough, but not firm. It is the 
union of the two substances that gives to the 
bones their great strength. 
In childhood, the bones contain more ani- 
mal than mineral matter, and so are not 
easily broken; in old age, there is more 
mineral than animal matter, and the bones 
are brittle and break very easily. 
GROWTH OF THE BONES. 
Like the rest of the hody, the hones are 
fed hy the food we eat. 
Mix some bright coloring-matter that is 
not poisonous, as madder, with the food given 112 
THE BONES. 
to a young pig for a time, and then give the 
same food without the color. If the animal 
be killed after a short time, each bone will 
show the color of the madder. This proves 
that the bones were made from the food the 
animal had eaten. 
LIFE OF THE BONES. 
In infancy, bones begin their life as a sort 
of jelly, which hardens into gristle, or carti- 
lage, as the child grows. This cartilage re- 
ceives from the blood several kinds of food, 
the most important of which are certain 
forms of lime; these, little by little, change 
the soft gristle to hard bone. 
Farmers give tlieir liens oyster-sliells, 
which, contain lime, so that they may have 
material for the shells of the eggs they lay. 
Unman heings get lime from milk and other 
foods containing it. When the hones have 
too little lime, they are soft and weak. 
A fatty matter, called marrow, is in the 
inside of the long hones, with hlood-vessels 
passing through it and through very small 
holes in the hone itself, carrying food for its BROKEN BONES. 
113 
life and growth. Covering each bone is a 
very thin, tough skin. 
BROKEN BONES. 
If an iron rod in a steam-engine slionld 
break, would it be enough to fasten tire 
broken pieces tightly, end to end, and then 
wait a few weeks for the iron to grow to- 
gether? Yon laugh at the idea. But the 
bones do that—they mend themselves when 
broken. 
What is needed is to put the ends in 
place and fasten them tightly with splints 
and bandages, so that they can not move. 
Soon a jelly-like substance, made from the 
blood, connects the two ends ; then this 
changes to gristle, and, by-and-by, into solid 
bone, and the break is mended. 
The bones of young people, when broken, 
unite readily, and, in a few weeks, become as 
strong as ever. This is due both to the com- 
position of the bones and to the abundant 
supply of repairing substances in the blood. 
A bone broken late in life is a long time 
in being united, and is likely to remain weak. 114 
THE BONES. 
THE SKULL AND FACE BONES. 
These protect the organs of sight, hearing, 
smell, and taste, and the hrain, the organ of 
thought. 
Fig. 17. 
The skull.—1, frontal hone ; 2, parietal hone; S, temporal hone ; 6, superior maxil- 
lary (1upper jaw) hone; 7, malar hone; 9, nasal hone; 10, inferior maxillary (lower 
jaw) bone. 
THE TRUNK. 
The hones of the trunk are the backbone, 
or spine, the ribs, the breast-bone, and the 
hip bones. The spine is composed of a series 
of twenty-four little bones, called vertebrae. THE TRUNK. 
115 
Cushions of gristle lie between 
the vertebrae. If it were not for 
this, walking and running would 
jar the body greatly. 
Pis. 18. 
Cervical. 
In sitting or standing, as we 
do tlirongli the day, these cush- 
ions are pressed, and so flattened. 
When we lie down at night, they 
return to their natural shape, 
much as a rubber eraser would do 
if you pressed it with your finger 
and then took the finger away. 
For this reason, one is really a 
little taller in the morning than 
at night. 
Dorsal. 
Lumbar. 
The ribs are slender, curved 
bones, twenty-four in number, 
twelve on each side of the body. 
Behind, they are attached to the 
backbone; in front, seven pairs 
are joined to a dagger-shaped 
bone, called the breast-bone; 
three pairs are joined by gristle 
to each other, and then to the breast-bone; 
two pairs are “floating” ribs. (See Fig. T.) 
The spine; 
the seven ver- 
tebrae of the 
neck, cervical; 
the twelve of 
the back, dor- 
sal; the jive of 
the loins, lumbar. 116 
THE BONES. 
Tlie trip bones are two large, irregular 
bones which, form the side walls of the lower 
part of the trunk. 
Fig. 20. 
Fig. 19. 
The chest; a, the sternum or breast-bone; 
b to c, the true ribs; d to f, the false ribs; 
g, h, the floating ribs; i to k, the dorsal verte- 
brae. 
Bones of right fore-arm ; H, the 
humerus; R, the radius; U, the 
ulna. 
THE UPPER LIMBS. 
The collar-hones are in front of the upper 
part of the body; the shoulder-blades, at the 
hack. Fastened to the latter, on each side, 
is the large hone of the upper arm; below TIIE LOWER LIMBS. 
117 
the elbow, are the two bones of the fore-arm, 
and those of the wrist, the palm of the hand, 
and the thumb and lingers. 
Fig. 21. 
Fig. 22. 
Bones of the foot; a, b, c, d, e, f, g, bones 
of the ankle and instep ; h, i, forward part 
of the foot; k, 1, bones of the great toe ; 
m, n, o, bones of the other toes. 
The shoulder-joint; a, the collar-bone; 
b, the shoulder-blade; c, the large bona of 
the upper atm. 
THE LOWER LIMBS 
The thigh-bone, in the leg1 above tlie knee, 
joins tlie liip bone. Below tlie knee are tire 
two bones of tlie lower leg- and tkose of tire 
ankle, foot, and toes. In front of tire knee- 
joint is a small bone, called the knee-pan. 118 
THE B 0 NrE S. 
As there are nineteen bones in each hand 
or foot, they have a great variety of motions. 
A hand or foot made of one bone, would be 
stiff and clumsy.* 
CAVITIES. 
There are two principal cavities, or hol- 
low places, in the bony frame-work. 
The first is the cavity of the head. The 
second is a great hollow place, extending 
from the neck to the legs, divided into two 
parts by a strong, yet thin, partition called 
the diaphragm. 
In the upper part—the chest—are the heart 
and lungs; in the lower—the abdomen — are 
the liver, stomach, bowels or intestines, kid- 
neys, and other organs. 
* Many Japanese and Chinese use their toes almost as readily 
as they do their fingers. They will pick up tools with their toes 
and work with them, while managing other instruments in their 
hands. 
Workmen in Constantinople always sit on the ground, even in 
planing a hoard; sometimes they hold a long-handled chisel in the 
left hand, “while the toes guide the cutting edge in turning beau- 
tiful forms in a lathe.” 
“Arabs braid ropes with their toes and fingers laboring in con- 
cert.” Our toes are so cramped in their stiff leather boots that we 
do not pretend to use them. TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL BONES. 
119 
TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL BONES. 
THE HEAD AND FACE. 
No. Scientific Name. Common Name or Position. 
1.—Frdnt'al Forehead. 
1. —Oe £ip'i tal Back of the head. 
2. —Pa rl'e tal Upper side walls of the 
head. 
2.—T6m'po ral Lower side walls of the 
head. 
2.—Su pe'ri or Max'il la ry Upper jaw. 
1. —In fe'ri or Max'il la ry Lower jaw. 
2. —Ma'lar Cheek. 
2.—Na'gal Nose. 
THE SHOULDER, ARM, AND HAND. 
No. Scientific Name. Common Name or Position. 
1-—S-eap'u la Shoulder-blade. 
1.—Clav'i Collar-bone. 
1.—Hu'me rdf Upper arm. 
1.—Ra'di usi 
> Fore-arm. 
1.—Ul'nA I 
8.—Car'pus Wrist. 
5.—Met a ear' pus Hand. 
17*-—Pha lan'geg Thumb and fingers. 120 
THE BONES. 
No. Scientific Name. Common Name or Position. 
24.—Ver'te brae Backbone. 
24.—Ribs Side walls of the chest. 
1. —Ster'num Breast-bone. 
2. —In n6m i n&'ta Hip bones. 
THE TRUNK. 
THE LEG AND FOOT. 
No. Scientific Name. Common Name or Position. 
1.—Fe'mur Thigh. 
1.—Pa tSl'la Knee-pan. 
1.—TIb'ia j 
f. Lower leg. 
1.—Fib'u la I 
7.—Tar'sus Ankle. 
6.—MSt a tar'sus Foot. 
14.—Pha lan'geg Toes. 
GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 
A ndt'o my tells how the body is built and the loca- 
tion of its parts. 
Phpsidl'ogy tells the uses of each part of the body. 
Hy'gi ene tells the conditions of health, and how to 
preserve it, POSITIONS OF THE BODY. 
121 
POSITIONS OF THE BODY. 
Tlie bones of eliildren are easily bent out 
of shape by wrong positions in sitting and 
standing. Their feet should be supported 
when sitting, lest the bones of the lower 
limbs become bent. 
The head and shoulders should be thrown 
back and the body held erect in walking, 
standing, or sitting, else the spine will become 
crooked. 
The cushions of gristle between the ver- 
tebrae permit free and graceful motions of 
the body. If we stand erect, with the chin 
quite close to the neck, the head, without 
being bent forward, is perfectly balanced over 
our feet. 
But if one has the habit of stooping for- 
ward, these cushions are so tightly pressed 
on the front that they lose their elasticity; 
then one can hardly keep erect, and we say 
he is “round-shouldered.” Bad as this looks, 
it is the cause of worse trouble, because it 
prevents the proper action of the lungs. 
If the body leans to one side, when one 122 
THE BONES. 
is standing-, the liip hones will soon grow 
out of shape. Unless careful about this, you 
will make your body one-sided by your po- 
sition at the blackboard, or when standing 
to recite. 
In walking, the foot expands in length 
and breadth. This should be remembered in 
buying shoes. 
The heels of shoes ought to be low and 
broad, and placed well back; high heels 
crowd the foot forward and throw the whole 
body out of position. The shoe should be 
broad across the ball of the foot and the 
toes. 
Tight shoes and high heels make the toes 
over-ride each other, spoil the natural beauty 
of the foot and the graceful carriage of the 
person, and are likely to cause bunions, corns, 
and ingrowing toe nails. 
The laws of health are of much more 
importance than those of fashion. Children’s 
shoes must be changed frequently for larger 
ones, on account of their rapidly-growing 
feet; if this is not done, serious injury will 
be the result. TOBACCO AND THE BONES. 
123 
TOBACCO AND THE BONES. 
In whatever way tobacco may affect grown 
people, it is very certain that its rise in 
childhood stunts the hones and dwarfs all 
the growth of the child. No hoy who wants 
to become a full-grown, well-shaped man, can 
afford to smoke or chew tobacco. 
v 
A hoy who uses tobacco runs the risk of 
being dwarfed in body, mind, and soul; — of 
becoming a nervous, sickly man, with a weak 
memory and a feeble heart. 
Physicians agree that many and serious 
troubles result from its use, even by adults; — 
it is certain that growing boys can never 
indulge in it with safety. 
Dr. A. B. Palmer stated that, in his opin- 
ion, young men who learn to smoke or chew 
tobacco, destroy on an average, by so doing, 
one fifth of the enjoyment and value, and at 
least one tenth of the length of their lives. 
As with other narcotics, using a little 
makes one long for more ; the boy who begins 
with one or two cigars a day, soon increases 
the number. 124 
THE BONES. 
Many men who are now slaves to this poi- 
son, would gladly he free from it; and very 
few tohacco-users would advise their sons to 
adopt the expensive, uncleanly, and worse 
than useless liahit. 
Fio. 23. 
The hip-joint. 
JOINTS. 
A joint is tlie place of union of two or 
more bones. 
At tbe slioulder and hip are “ball-and- 
socket” joints, which permit easy move- 
ments of the arm and leg-. In the fingers, 
wrist, and knee, are “hinge-joints,” so named QUESTIONS. 
125 
because the bones move backward and for- 
ward like a door upon its hinges. The bones 
of the head have rough edges which lit into 
each other, making immovable joints. 
An engine must be often oiled, or it will 
not run properly. It can not take care of 
itself. But the bones not only mend them- 
selves, but oil themselves. The movable 
joints are kept moist by a thin fluid like 
the white of an egg; this comes from the 
smooth lining of the inside of the joint; and 
it makes the ends of the bones move readily 
on each other. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. AYhat is an organ ? 
2. Give examples of organs in plant life —in animal life. 
3. What are organic bodies? —inorganic bodies? 
4. What are the solid parts of the body called? 
5. How many bones are there in the human skeleton ? 
C. What are the uses of the bones ? 
7. What is the composition of the bones? 
8. Why do the bones of a child not break as easily as those of an 
old person? 
9. What mineral food is needed for the bones ? 
10. How is a broken bone mended? 
11. Name the bones of the trunk; — the upper limbs; —the lower 
limbs. 
12. AYhat principal cavities are in the bony frame-work? 126 
THE BONES. 
13. Define Anatomy; Physiology; Hygiene. 
14. How may the bones of the lower limbs be bent ? 
15. Describe the position in which one ought to stand. 
16. What kind of shoes should be worn ? 
17. What are some of the results of wearing tight shoes? 
18. How does tobacco affect the bones of a child ? 
19. What risks does a boy run in using tobacco? 
20. How does the appetite for tobacco change with the use of the 
drug ? Why ? 
21. Which is the more profitable purchase— tobacco or flour? Why? 
22. What is a joint? Describe two kinds. 
23. How are the movable joints kept moist? CHAPTER XI. 
THE MUSCLES. 
SHE muscles are tire flesh 
of the body. They con- 
sist of bundles of threads or 
fibers; between the fibers 
are blood-vessels and nerves. 
The muscles are fastened 
to the bones by strong, 
tough cords, called tendons 
or sinews; these are easily 
seen, by pulling off the meat 
from the leg of a fowl. The 
“lean meat” which we eat 
is the flesh or muscles of 
the animal. 
Cut, carefully, some 
boiled corned beef, and you 
can divide it into the little 
threads of which it is made. 
When people have only 
Fig. 24. 
Tendons of the hand. 128 
THE MUSCLES. 
small, thin muscles attached to their bones, 
they are weak and can not do much work. 
In some parts of the body, fat lies over 
the muscles, and is, to some extent, mingled 
with them. A kind of inner skin, called 
“ connective-tissue,” covers the flesh, bones, 
gristle, and other organs. 
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. 
When a hoy raises his fore-arm, saying, 
“ Feel my muscle,” each fiber of the muscle 
on the front of his upper arm has shortened 
and thickened. This pulls up his fore-arm. 
When he stretches his arm, the fibers 
lengthen and return to their natural shape, 
and a muscle on the back of the upper arm 
shortens and thickens in a similar way. 
USES OF THE MUSCLES. 
It is by means of the muscles that we 
keep erect, walk, run, leap, or move in any , 
way. The motion of the many muscles of 
the face gives it variety of expression, show- 
ing the feelings of the mind. 
Within the skeleton, in the cavities of the HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
129 
trunk, there are muscles at work, without 
which we could not live; for instance, the 
heart, that sends the blood all over the body, 
is a strong muscle; the outer coat of the 
stomach has a lining of muscular fibers. 
VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES. 
Some of the muscles, as those of the arm 
or face, we can move when we choose, or will 
to do so; others, as the heart and diaphragm, 
keep at work without any thought of ours; 
they will not stop by our wishing them to. 
The first are called voluntary muscles; 
the second, involuntary muscles. 
HYGIENE OF THE MUSCLES. 
Good food, pure air, and proper exercise, 
are necessary for muscular health. Long- dis- 
use of a muscle wastes it away. Exercise 
causes new fibers to form and old fibers to 
increase in size. 
But too much., or too violent exercise is 
dangerous, and it is wrong to work so hard 
as to be always tired. Variety of exercise 
rests the muscles. 130 
THE MUSCLES. 
One who has been working with hands, 
or brain, ail day, will be rested by a brisk 
out-door walk. When one has been using his 
lower limbs for some time, they are tired; 
if he then sits down, and uses his arms, or 
hands, and thus rests the muscles of his legs, 
or uses his brain in thinking or reading, he 
will feel refreshed. 
Brisk exercise should not be taken just 
before, nor after a full meal. Exercise out- 
doors is better than exercise in-doors, and 
should be taken daily by all who would have 
good health. 
KINDS OF EXERCISE. 
Playing ball, rolling boop, throwing bean- 
bags, coasting, skating, and swimming, arc 
capital forms of exercise, if not carried too 
far. 
Jumping the rope is not good exercise, for 
it jars the body too much, while there is great 
danger of catching the feet in the rope and 
so getting a hard fall, and, perhaps, a broken 
limb. 
Sawing wood, and keeping the wood-box ALCOHOL AND THE MUSCLES. 
131 
and coal-hod filled, running home-errands 
with happy faces and light hearts, are 
healthful ways of exercise. 
Cheerfulness is a great help to exercise. 
Whistling or singing is a good sign in a 
working boy or girl. 
ALCOHOL AND THE MUSCLES. 
Press your finger on lean beef before it is 
cooked, and notice how tlie part touched 
springs back when you take your finger 
away. 
Do the same with fat meat, and you 
will find that a deeper dent stays there. If 
the flesh in your body, like the fat, could 
not contract, you would not be able to 
move. 
Beer, gin, wine, cider, and all alcoholic 
drinks, tend more or less to change the 
muscles themselves to fat. 
The muscles can not move and work 
properly, when thus changed; not only does 
this fat prevent their healthy action, but it 
is made from waste matter that should be 
sent out of the body. 132 
THE MUSCLES. 
Beer is especially bad in this respect. 
Beer-drinkers think they are growing strong 
because they grow fleshy. But they are 
only loading their muscles with this use- 
less fat, which hinders instead of helping 
them. 
Beer - drinkers often die from a certain 
kind of heart disease, called “ fatty heart.” 
The poor heart is not only clogged, but also 
weakened by this increase of fat, and the more 
beer one drinks, the greater the increase of 
fat. The heart bears this abuse as long as it 
can, and then it stops — the drinker is dead. 
LIFE AND DEATH. 
Let us try to see with, “the mind’s 
eye,” the hones, the gristle, the muscles, the 
tendons and connective-tissue, the cavities 
of the head, chest, and abdomen with their 
organs; remember, as we look, that these 
are all bound together in one life. 
The most wonderful thing in the living 
body is the mind or soul. We think at once, 
when we see a dead body: “ IIow still and 
cold it is ! ” Bodily warmth and motion show QUESTIONS. 
133 
life; but what life is, we have no means of 
knowing. 
Our present study will teacli us liow to 
preserve it, and how to keep our bodies strong 
and healthy. 
So important a subject should receive the 
careful attention of every one, and the rules 
that are of benefit to health, ought to be 
followed. 
QU ESTIONS. 
1. What are muscles? Describe their structure. 
2. How are muscles fastened to the bones? 
3. Where is the fat of the body ? 
4. What is connective-tissue? 
5. How do the muscles act in moving the limhs ? 
6. What is the special work of the muscles on the outside of the 
skeleton ? 
7. Give examples of those muscles within the skeleton. 
8. Name the two classes of muscles, and define each kind. 
9. What things are needed for the production of healthy muscular- 
tissue ? 
10. What are the dangers connected with exercise? 
11. Is overwork wise or right ? 
12. How may one rest and yet keep at work? 
13. When is brisk exercise unhealthful? 
14. What is said of outdoor exercise? 
15. Name some healthful kinds of exercise. 
16. How does cheerfulness help the muscles? 
17. State one difference between flesh and fat. 
18. How is the action of the poison, alcohol, likely to affect mus- 
cular-tissue ? 
19. Does an increase of flesh always mean an increase of health? 
Why? 134 
THE MUSCLES. 
20. What should be done with the waste matter of the body? 
21. How do alcoholic drinks hinder this change? 
22. What is said of beer as a drink ? 
23. Why is the fat caused by beer worse than useless? 
24. How may a “fatty heart” be caused? 
25. How does it result in death? 
26. State the difference between living and dead bodies. 
27. What is life? 
28. What do we need to know in regard to it? 
29. What reasons can you give for studying physiology? CHAPTER XII 
THE SKIN. 
fHE skin has two layers. The lower one 
is called the cutis (-eu' tis), or true skin; 
the upper one, the cuticle These 
layers never interfere with muscular motion; 
for they cover the fLesli more nicely than 
the finest glove fits the hand. 
At the lips and nose, this covering changes 
to a softer and more delicate one, called the 
mucous membrane (mgm'bran), which extends 
into the body and forms the lining of most 
of its organs. 
CUTIS AND CUTICLE. 
THE CUTI S. 
The inner, or true skin, is full of nerves 
and blood-vessels; it has, also, weak muscular 
fibers, by means of which the skin is some- 
times “ puckered ” into “ goose-pimples,” or 
the hair made to “stand on end.” 136 
THE SKIN. 
On the palm of your liand and tire ends of 
your lingers, you can see little ridges called 
papillae (pa pine). These contain so many of 
the tiny nerves by which news is carried to 
the brain, that our hands are the chief or- 
gans of touch. In the ab- 
sence of other senses, es- 
pecially that of sight, one 
learns to rely upon the sense 
of touch. The blind read 
by passing their lingers or 
lips over raised letters. 
Fig. 25. 
THE CUTICLE. 
We could not bear to 
touch, the nerve-ends di- 
rectly, for that would give 
pain in the hands, almost as 
severe as the toothache. 
The cuticle covers the cu- 
tis and protects the nerves. 
It is made of hard, dry 
scales and becomes thicker 
by use, as on the hands of a blacksmith, or 
on the feet of a barefoot boy. Its scales rub 
A, a perspiratory tube with its 
gland ; B, a hair with a muscle 
and two oil-glands; C, cuticle; 
D, the papillae; and E, fat-cells. THE PERSPIRATION. 
137 
off on our under-clothing and on tire sheets 
of our beds. In a blister, bloody or watery 
matter forces itself between tlie two layers 
of the skin. 
THE PERSPIRATION. 
When a workman comes in from the hay- 
field on a hot August day, his face is covered 
with drops of water; so is yours after a run, 
and you say, you are “sweaty.” 
This sweat, or perspiration, is a part of the 
waste matter which must be sent out of the 
body. It oozes through very small holes in 
the skin, called pores — so small that you can 
not see them without a magnifying glass. 
They are the mouths of small tubes that ex- 
tend through the skin, the lower end of 
each being coiled into a tiny ball. 
They are most numerous in the soles of 
the feet, the arm-pits, the palms of the 
hands, and the forehead. If all these drains 
of the body were straightened out and laid 
end to end, they would make a line more 
than three miles long. 
Perspiration is at all times passing off 138 
THE SKIN. 
through the pores; but we notice it only 
when there is enough to form drops. It 
cools the body, and suddenly to stop perspir- 
ing is one of the first symptoms of heat- 
stroke or sun-stroke. 
Mixed with the water of the sweat is 
waste matter from the body. The skin is 
thus one of our most important scavengers, 
and garments which prevent the perspiration 
from passing away into the air, are not 
healthful; the feet become damp and cold, 
if rubber overshoes, which keep in the moist- 
ure, are worn for any great length of time. 
A little boy was once covered with gold- 
leaf to represent an angel in a festival. This 
kept the perspiration from leaving his body, 
and he died in a few hours. 
Tlie skin is kept smooth and soft by an 
oily substance sent out from little sacs in 
the cutis, called oil-glands. A similar oily 
material moistens and keeps the hair glossy. 
The oil, or sebaceous (se ba' shus), glands are 
quite large on the face, and sometimes the 
THE OIL-GLANDS. THE HAIR AND NAILS. 
139 
matter in them hardens and dries. When 
their mouths are open, particles of dirt min- 
gle with the oily matter, and they become 
dark-colored and are often called “worms.” 
They can then be easily pressed out and the 
black spots removed. 
COMPLEXION. 
Small grains of coloring-matter on the 
lower side of the cuticle, cause the different 
colors of the skin. When these collect in 
spots, the skin is freckled. 
THE HAIR AND NAILS. 
These grow from the cuticle. Each hair 
has a tiny sac, or fold of skin, at its root. 
The nails protect the ends of the fingers, and 
grow rapidly. 
You may easily prove this, hy making- a 
little mark near the hase of one of them, 
and watching it from day to day. 
The nails should always he kept clean and 
well-cut; not bitten nor broken off. Finger- 
nails, black with needless dirt under the ends, 
are not the mark of a gentleman or a lady. 140 
THE SKIN. 
BATHING. 
The sweat-tubes will not work properly 
if dirt is allowed to clog- or close the open- 
ings. Bathing, therefore, is very necessary 
to the health of the hody. 
For most strong, well persons, the best 
time for a hath is just after rising. The 
water used may he cold, or slightly warm. 
If hot water is used, a dash of cold water 
at the close of the hath, with vigorous rub- 
bing, will prevent the tired feeling that 
would otherwise follow. 
Cold water drives the blood away from 
the skin for an instant; but it comes back 
when the surface is briskly rubbed, giving 
a delightful warmth and glow to the body. 
A healthy person need not be at all chilled 
by a cold bath. Uncover only a small part 
of the body at a time, and wash rapidly and 
rub well with a coarse towel. If the bath 
is thus taken, and each part covered as soon 
as it is dry and warm, no chill will be felt. 
All should bathe at least twice a week, 
and soap is needed on the whole body at DISEASES TAKEN BY THE SKIN. 
141 
least once a week, to remove the oily matter 
that has dried upon the skin. 
The old idea that it must not he used upon 
the face is a mere whim. When needed for 
cleanliness, use it on the face as freely as on 
any other part of the "body. 
DISEASES TAKEN BY THE SKIN. 
There is danger in using many of the 
cheap toilet soaps, since they are sometimes 
made from the fat of diseased animals, and 
diseases may thus he taken into the system 
through the pores of the skin. 
Soldiers who want to shirk duty, some- 
times put a piece of tohacco under each arm- 
pit. The poison passing through the pores 
soon sickens them, and the surgeon sends 
them to the hospital. 
Painters and operatives in lead works, are 
often made sick hy little particles of the 
lead which they handle, entering the pores 
and poisoning the "blood. 
Face-powders, hair-dyes, and eye-washes, 
do great harm in the same way. Good 
health is the best cosmetic (e6§ met' i-e). Noth- 142 
THE SKIN. 
mg- else will give suck a clear complexion, 
rosy cheeks, and brilliant eyes. Beauty is 
muck more than “skin-deep.” 
THE SUN. 
Sunlight is necessary for the health of 
the skin, as well as for all the other parts 
of the body. In many homes, the closed 
blinds that keep the carpets bright, keep the 
people who live behind them, faded and pale. 
The trees around a house often shade it 
so heavily that it is dark and damp. Plants 
growing in cellars have white, sickly leaves; 
people living in the dark, lose strength of 
body and mind, as well as color. 
The sunlight should not be shut out from 
rooms occupied by human beings, except in 
times of extreme heat. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Name the layers of the skin. 
2. What is the mucous membrane? 
3. Describe the cutis ; — the cuticle. 
4. What are goose-pimples ? —papillae? 
5. What is perspiration ? How does it reach the surface of the body ? 
6. What results from wearing clothing which prevents the per- 
spiration from passing into the air? 
7. How are the skin and hair kept smooth and glossy ? CHAPTER XIII. 
HEAT OF THE BODY. 
USE OF THE THERMOMETER. 
SHE blood in the healthy human body has 
an average heat of 98°; that is, if you 
should put a thermometer (thermom'eter) into 
it as it rushes through its network of tubes, 
the mercury would rise as high as it does 
in the shade on a hot summer day. 
This result can not, of course, be arrived 
at directly; but the blood-vessels come so 
near the surface that a thermometer held in 
the mouth or in the arm-pit for a few min- 
utes, will show the temperature within the 
body. Summer or winter, arctic cold or tor- 
rid heat, make but little difference in the 
internal warmth, so long as one is well. 
If there is much change in the heat of 
the body, it is a sign of danger; in fevers, 
for instance, the doctor keeps careful watch 144 
HEAT OF THE BODY. 
of the internal heat of the patient’s body— 
if it gets above a certain point, there is no 
hope of recovery. 
But this heat is constantly passing off 
through the lungs, skin, and other organs. 
The average amount lost in a day of rest 
would boil about sixty pounds of ice-water; 
in a day of work, about eighty pounds. 
This loss must be balanced by gain. 
SOURCES OF HEAT. 
The heat of the body results from the 
many changes constantly going on within it. 
The changes which take place in the di- 
gestion of food and in the tissues, the heat- 
ing of the heart, the motion of the hlood, 
the movements of the food-canal, the con- 
tracting of the muscles — all the processes of 
the "body, tend to make and preserve its heat. 
CLOTHING. 
Woolen under-garments should he worn in 
the winter in northern climates, and many 
persons require them all the year. 
Men who work in very hot places, such CLOT HI XG. 
as foundries and engine-rooms, find flannel 
shirts more comfortable than cotton ones; for 
they protect from the heat of the fire and 
do not so readily get wet with perspiration 
and then allow the hody to become chilly. 
Loose clothing in several layers is warmer 
than tight and very thick clothing. The 
lower limbs of young children, in these 
days of short pants and short dresses, should 
be warmly clothed; thick boots and woolen 
stockings are necessary for their health and 
comfort, during more than half the year. 
A wise doctor often said to his patients : 
“ Never allow yourselves to feel cold. If you 
are chilly, put on extra clothing, go to a 
warmer room, exercise briskly, in some way 
get warm and keep warm.” “Only fools and 
beggars suffer from the cold ; the latter not 
being able to get sufficient clothes, the oth- 
ers not having the sense to wear them.” 
Tight clothing chills by checking the cir- 
culation. Keeping the body too warm by 
overheated rooms or too much clothing, is 
another extreme which should be avoided. 
None of the under-garments worn during 146 
HEAT OF THE BODY. 
the day, should he kept on at night, because 
waste matter from the perspiration, and 
scales of the cuticle, have collected upon 
them ; they should be taken off and spread 
out so as to be thoroughly aired for next day. 
Outer clothing removed at night should 
not be hung in closed closets or wardrobes ; 
there is more or less perspiration on it, and 
this should have a chance to escape. Be sure 
that closets and wardrobes are often aired. 
In the morning, throw the bed wide open, 
and, if possible, give the sheets and night- 
clothes a good sun bath. A wise housewife 
will not have beds made early; but will let 
them remain open until noon, or even night. 
The family will be gainers in the fresh, 
sweet sleep taken in beds that have been 
freed from foul matter by the air and sun. 
Night-clothes should be hung up exposed 
to the air when the bed is made, instead of 
being placed under the pillow. 
TAKING COLD. 
By exposure to a draught of air when one 
is heated, hy sitting with wet feet or in damp ALCOHOL AND COLD. 
147 
garments, hy going into cold air without ex- 
tra clothing—in these and many other ways, 
the skin is suddenly chilled. The number- 
less little pores at once close, and the waste 
matter can not pass away through them. 
It often tries to escape hy way of the 
inner skin—the mucous membrane of the 
mouth and nose—or by way of the lungs. 
Then we have a “cold in the head” or “on 
the lungs,” which may lead to more serious 
trouble if not attended to at once. 
One may guard against “taking cold” by 
bathing the body often, and rubbing it 
daily with a flesh-brush or a coarse towel, 
thus keeping the pores of the skin in good 
working order. 
ALCOHOL AND COLD. 
“ Bitter cold! must take something to 
warm me up,” cries the driver starting on a. 
long winter ride. So he swallows a glass of 
whiskey; says, “That’s the drink to warm a 
man ; ” and drives away. But is he warmer ? 
Alcohol is a cheat here as elsewhere. The 
nerves being paralyzed, the capillaries en- 148 
HEAT OF THE BODY. 
large, and an increased current of "blood pours 
into those of the skin. This makes a glow 
at the surface of the 
hody, and the man is 
sure he is warmer, be- 
cause he feels warmer. 
The heat of this 
warm blood at once 
passes off from the sur- 
face, and soon more than the proper amount 
of heat has left the hody. 
Try the thermometer—that is a better test 
than the feelings; it shows that the body is 
really colder very soon after the alcohol has 
entered it. But the deadened nerves can not 
carry the message, or sense of cold, to the 
brain, and no effort is made to prevent being 
chilled, for the man does not know he is 
cold. This is the first step toward death, and 
many a drunkard has been frozen to death 
when too much intoxicated to feel his danger. 
Fig. 26. 
A Wayside Inn. 
When something mnst he taken to start 
again the slow moving wheels of life — as 
when one is nearly frozen to death — a little 
red pepper in hot water is an excellent rem- ALCOHOL AND GOLD. 
149 
edy. Clear liot water, lrot coffee, or ginger 
tea, a few drops of ammonia in water, or am- 
monia (not too strong) field to tlie nostrils, 
are also valuable lielps in such, an emergency. 
Arctic explorers have proved that alcohol 
is worse than useless in helping them hear 
extreme cold. Dr. Mcltae says: “The moment 
that a man had swallowed a drink of spirits, 
it was certain that his day’s work was nearly 
at an end In that terrific cold, 
the use of liquor as a beverage, when we had 
work on hand, was out of the question.” 
Until lately, the explorer who had gone 
nearest to the north pole was an English- 
man named Adam Ayles. lie was proud of 
being able to say there had never been a drop 
of alcohol in his body. When in the extreme 
cold of those regions, he bore the hard work 
of sledging and hunting much better than 
the men who used liquor now and then. 
Many of those who drank liquor became 
sick and helpless. When urged to drink 
liquor, Adam Ayles replied bravely: “No! 
when a boy, I promised my mother never to 
touch it; and, if I perish in this ice, I will 150 
HEAT OF THE BODY. 
keep my word.” He returned to England 
alive and well. 
Pig. 27. 
Scern in the Arctic Regions. 
When a detachment of the Russian army 
is about to start on a winter expedition, a 
corporal goes the rounds to smell the breath 
of each soldier. Those who have been drink- QUESTIONS. 
151 
mg liquor are sent "back to tlieir "barracks, 
since they can not endure the cold march. 
ALCOHOL AND HEAT. 
Alcohol is no better protection against 
heat than against cold. Livingstone, the fa- 
mous African explorer, has proved that men 
can endure more in tropical climates with- 
out it than with it. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What is the average heat of the human body? 
2. How do doctors use the thermometer in sickness? For what 
purpose ? 
3. What does a change in the .eriperature of the body indicate? 
4. How does the heat of the body pass away? 
5. How is more heat supplied to balance this loss? 
6. What is said of woolen under-clothing? 
7. Why is flannel worn by those who work in very hot places? 
8. How should the feet and legs of children be dressed? 
9. What should one do if chilly? 
10. What is said of tight clothing? —of keeping the body too 
warm ? 
11. What should be done at night with the garments worn during 
the day ? 
12. How should sheets and night-clothes be aired ? 
13. Is alcohol a good preventive of chills? 
14. Why does one feel warmer after drinking a glass of whiskey? 
15. Is he really warmer or colder? Why? 
16. How would you prove this ? 
17. Why is a man, under the influence of liquor, not apt to feel 
cold ? 
18. Name some good remedies for cases of prostration from cold. 152 
HEAT OF THE BODY. 
19. What do Arctic explorers say of the use of alcohol? 
20. Qive the statement of Dr. McRae. 
21. What was the experience of Adam Ayles in the Arctic regions ? 
22. What was his reply, when urged to drink liquor? 
23. What test is made in the Russian army? 
24. Why are Russian soldiers, who have heen drinking, sent back 
to their barracks? 
25. What is said about alcohol and heat? 
26. Q-ive Livingstone’s testimony. CHAPTER XIV. 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN LIFE. 
WORK. 
« VESSEL coming from Australia sprung 
a leak soon after starting, and tire men 
Lad to work at tire pumps all tLe way Lome. 
At first, regular rations of liquor were 
given; Lut tLe sailors soon Legan to grow 
weak and tired. TLen tLe captain stopped 
tLe use of liquor, giving an extra supply of 
food, instead. At once, tLe men Legan to 
sleep well and to waken strong and rested. 
In spite of tLe Lard work at tLe pumps, 
tLe crew were in good LealtL wLen tLey 
reacLed England. TLe liquor deadened — nar- 
cotized—tLe nerves wLicL control muscular 
action, and tLe men lost strengtL tLereLy; 
tLe food furnisLed Luilding material for 
tLeir Lodies and so increased tLeir working 
power. 154 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN LIFE. 
“ Tlie following- statement was made by Sir 
William Fairbairn, an eminent engineer of 
Manchester, England, when at the bead of a 
firm employing between one and. two thou- 
sand workmen: 
“‘I strictly prohibit on my works the use 
of beer or fermented liquors of any sort, or 
of tobacco. I enforce the prohibition of al- 
coholic drinks so strongly, that if I found 
any man transgressing the rule in that 
respect, I would instantly discharge him.’ 
“The reasons for these measures are thus 
stated: 
“‘In those foundries in which there is 
drinking throughout the works all day long, 
it is observed of the men employed as work- 
men, that they do not work so well; their 
perceptions are clouded, and they are stupe- 
fied and heavy. 
“‘I have provided water for the use of the 
men in every department of the works. In 
summer-time, the men engaged in the strong- 
est work, such as strikers to the heavy 
forges, drink water very copiously. 
“ ‘ I am convinced that workmen who LIFE INSURANCE. 
155 
drink water are really more active and do 
more work, and are more healthy than those 
who drink alcoholic liquors.’ 
“This is the testimony of all accurate ob- 
servers.”—Dr. A. B. Palmer. 
Observation of the effects of alcohol shows 
us — 
1st.—That the healthy action of the mus- 
cles is hindered by the useless fat formed 
I 
through the influence of alcohol. 
2d. — That the nerves are deadened. 
3d. — That strength is lost rather than 
gained by the drinking of alcoholic liquors. 
LIFE INSURANCE. 
Those who never drink liquor have a 
prospect of living much longer than those 
who do. Many diseases are caused hy alco- 
hol, and many more are made worse hy it. 
Of diseases like the cholera and yellow 
fever, pure air, clean houses and streets, and 
blood unpoisoned hy alcohol and tobacco, are 
the best preventives. 
In 1832, when the cholera was in London, 
this notice was posted by the city officers: 156 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN LIFE. 
“ Spirit-drinkers will “be tire first victims of 
tire cholera.” Tire poisoned bodies of alcohol- 
risers rarely can resist the disease. 
Life insurance companies keep careful 
records, showing- how many years different 
classes of men will probably live. Here are 
some of the results of their study in England: 
When a total abstainer is 
20 years old, lie may expect to live 44 years more. 
30 “ “ “ “ “ “ “ 36.5 “ “ • 
4-0 C6 iC (C (6 66 “ (C 28 8 “ i6 
When a moderate drinker is 
20 years old, lie may expect to live 15.5 years more. 
30 “ “ “ “ “ “ “ 13.8 
4Q << a u u u a 11 6 U U 
From these records, it is plain that those 
who never drink liquor have the best chance 
for length of life, as well as for happiness 
and power to work. 
The President of one life insurance com- 
panjr in New England says of beer-drinkers *. 
“The deaths among them were astounding. 
Robust health, full muscles, a fair outside, in- 
creasing weight, florid faces, then a touch of 
disease and quick death. HEREDITY. 
157 
“It was as if the system had been kept 
fair outside, while within, it was eaten to a 
shell, and at the first touch there was utter 
collapse; every fiber was poisoned and weak. 
Beer-drinking is very deceptive, at 
first; it is thoroughly destructive, at last.” 
Some companies will not insure the lives 
of liquor-sellers, because they know that they 
are so often liquor-drinkers. 
HEREDITY. 
You have learned enough, about your body 
by this time, to understand that when people 
are sick, it is generally their own fault; 
either they have not been taught how to 
care for their bodies, or they are heedless in 
spite of their knowledge. 
But sometimes, one is sick or suffers very 
much, because of wrong things that his 
parents or grand-parents did. Does this seem 
strange ? Some one has told you, perhaps, 
that you have your father’s hair and eyes, 
but that your mouth and chin are like your 
mother’s. 
You have heard of children who were 158 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN LIFE. 
quick-tempered, or generous like their par- 
ents. Not only property, but faces and char- 
acter are inherited. Our lives are very 
closely linked with those of our “"blood rela- 
tions,” and evil tendencies, as well as good 
impulses, descend from them to us. 
Over in the poor-house, is a man who does 
not know so much as most children four 
years old. He can not learn to read or write; 
he is an idiot. And this is because he is 
the child of drinking parents whose poisoned 
life-blood tainted his own. 
Many men and women are insane, because 
they inherit disordered bodies and minds, 
caused by the drinking habits of their par- 
ents ; and the descendants of “ moderate 
drinkers” suffer in this way, as well as those 
of the drunkard.* 
* One of the most serious objections to the use of alcoholic liquors 
in any quantity, is the taste it creates, the habit it establishes—a 
taste and habit often transmitted from parents to their children — 
and the very great danger, by continuance in the indulgence, of 
its resulting in gross, degrading, habitual drunkenness. 
Even if a moderate indulgence had no other evil effect, this 
danger is so great, and the influence of the example on others is so 
bad, as to cause every wise and good man, woman, or child, to 
avoid it altogether. 
Everybody knows it does incalculable harm, and if it does no HEREDITY. 
159 
“Probably no one ever suffered from all tbe 
diseases produced by alcohol, but all habitual 
drinkers sooner or later experience one or more 
of them.” * And their children are likely to 
inherit a stronger appetite for narcotics and a 
weaker will with which to control it. 
Tobacco and opium xjroduce similar re- 
sults. This is called the law of heredity f 
(he rSd'i ty). It is one of God’s laws, and, like 
positive good, there is the best possible reason for “total absti- 
nence. '’—Dr. A. B. Palmer. 
* Prof. H. Newell Martin, of Johns Hopkins University. 
t ‘ ‘ Three-fourths of the idiots born are the children of intem- 
perate parents.”—Dr. Howe. 
‘ ‘ Where drinking has been strong in both parents, I think it a 
physical certainty that it will be traced in the children.”—Dr. Amtie. 
“ One more example which has come under my own professional 
observation, may be useful. A gentleman of position, sixty-four 
years of age, is an hereditary drunkard. So violent is he that his 
wife and family had to leave him. 
‘! One of his sisters has lost her mind through drinking. When 
drunk, she has frequently tried to commit suicide by jumping 
from a window, and by drowning. Her insanity has so suicidal 
a tendency that she can not be left for a moment alone. She will 
do any thing for drink —will beg, borrow, or steal, pawn every- 
thing she can lay her hands on, and even essay robbery with vio- 
lence in the hope of obtaining money to gratify her morbid crav- 
ing for alcohol. 
“ Another sister is also an habitual drunkard, who gets into 
fits of ungovernable fury when in drink, and is dangerous both 
to herself and to others. 
“The fatal legacy in this case was from both parents. The 
father shot himself when insane from the use of alcohol, and the 
mother was a drunkard. The grandfather was also a confirmed 
inebriate.”—Norman Kerr, M.D. (See also Appendix, note “•) 160 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN LIFE. 
just earthly laws, helps right living and 
pnnishes those who disohey it. 
The English-speaking races have descended 
from men who were hard drinkers. Our an- 
cestors, the old Northmen, were famous for 
their wild feasts, at which they drank im- 
mense quantities of mead—a fermented liquor 
made from honey and milk. In the early 
days of the English nation, wine and ale 
were every-where used. 
In the early part of this century, cider 
and rum were generally used hy the farmers 
of our country as well as hy other people; 
and no wedding, funeral, or iDublic gathering 
of any sort, was without its free liquor. 
The ignorance at that time in regard to 
the origin, nature, and consequences of al- 
cohol, is shown by the fact that the first 
temperance pledges signed in this country, 
prohibited the use of liquor “ save at wed- 
dings and funerals,” and the taking of “al- 
coholic drinks, excepting wine, beer, and 
cider”. 
The hardy out-door life which was led by 
so many of our forefathers, prevented them QUESTIONS. 
161 
from feeling tire full effects of tlieir poisonous 
beverages. 
Tire English, and Americans of to-day are 
descended from these drinking ancestors, and 
inherit from them a craving for alcohol, and 
are safe from the poison only when they let 
it entirely alone. 
The taking of a single glass of liquor, the 
eating of brandy sauce or wine jelly, may 
rouse this inherited desire, though its pos- 
sessor may not have discovered that the 
taint is in his blood; the appetite, becoming 
uncontrollable, may bring its owner to a 
drunkard’s grave. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Does alcohol give strength for work? Illustrate. 
2. Give Sir Wm. Fairbairn’s statements In regard to the use of 
alcohol and tobacco by the men in his workshops. 
3. Why have those who never drink liquor a prospect of living 
longer than those who do? 
4. Name good preventives of such diseases as cholera and yellow 
fever. 
5. What do the records kept by life insurance companies prove in 
regard to total abstinence ? 
6. What class of men will insurance companies not insure? 
7. If we are sick, whose fault is it usually? 
8. By the faults of what other persons may our illness sometimes 
be caused ? 162 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN LIFE. 
9. What physical traits are often inherited? —what mental traits? 
10. How do the habits of drinking men and women affect their 
descendants ? 
11. What is this law called ? 
12. From whom do English-speaking people inherit the taste for 
alcohol ? 
13. How were liquors used in America, a few years ago? 
14. Why did not our forefathers feel the full effect of the liquor 
they drank? 
15. Is it safe to take “the first glass”? —why? CHAPTER XT. 
NERVE-ACTION. 
STRUCTURE OF NERVES. 
SACII nerve appears to be a 'bundle of 
small libers ; when viewed under a 
strong microscope, the separate libers are seen 
to be really very small tubes. 
These nerve-tubes do not branch off from 
larger nerves as the smaller arteries branch 
from the larger, but lie side by side, bound 
together by delicate membranes. 
Each tiny nerve-tube is distinct from the 
others as it passes into the brain. Were it 
otherwise, we should often be confused and 
often in danger. 
If the nerve-tubes from your first finger 
were to unite with those from your thumb, 
so as to make one large tube, you could not 
tell, unless you used your eyes, whether you 
pricked your finger or your thumb. 
If the nerve-tubes from the feet united 164 
NERVE-ACTION. 
to make one large tube, you could not know 
by feeling, alone, which foot was cold, cut, 
or bruised. But when a fly lights on your 
hand, you do know perfectly well that he is 
not on your face; the nerves carry word of 
his presence to the part of the brain which 
has to do with your hand. 
KINDS OF NERVES. 
In studying the heart, you learned that 
two sets of nerves were necessary to its 
proper “heating.” So the lungs, hrain, and 
other organs, are kept at work "by certain 
nerves and held from overaction by other 
nerves which serve as “brakes.” 
By other sets of these signal lines, we 
know about the world around us. We can 
not hear with our eyes, nor smell with our 
ears; for the nerves of sight are affected by 
light only, those of hearing by sound only. 
By the nerves of smell, we perceive differ- 
ent odors; by those of taste, we enjoy food 
and drink, and dislike some medicines and 
various disagreeable things; while by those 
of touch, we are told about the various FIBERS OF FEELING AND OF MOTION. 
165 
objects with, which we come in contact — as, 
for example, whether they are hard or soft, 
rough or smooth. 
In the cutis, too, lie the ends of those 
fibers, or tubes, by means of which we re- 
ceive our sensations of pain; and there are 
other nerves which give us the power of 
muscular motion. 
FIBERS OF FEELING AND OF MOTION. 
The two sets of nerve-tubes last mentioned, 
though they look exactly alike, have two 
kinds of work to do. However closely they 
may be bound together, each performs its 
own task and never interferes with that of 
its neighbor. 
One set—the fibers of feeling—carries mes- 
sages to the brain from the body; another 
set—the fibers of motion—brings messages 
from the brain to the muscles. 
It is by this means that the countless mo- 
tions of the body are performed. The com- 
mand of the brain is sent along the nerve-line 
to the muscles, thus giving them the power 
to move. 166 
NEE VE-ACT ION. 
HOW THE NERVES WORK. 
Tlie nerve-fibers are like tliose telegraph 
lines on which, messages travel in a single 
direction only: on one wire, all the telegrams 
are sent to the central office; while on the 
other, they are received from the central 
office. 
When the finger touches a hot iron, nerve- 
ends of the fibers of feeling send the message 
along np the arm into the spinal cord, and 
thence to the brain, which feels the pain. 
At once, the brain sends back over the mo- 
tion-fibers a message to the muscles in the 
finger, telling them to remove it from the 
iron. 
All this is done in the twinkling of an 
eye; and the pain, which seems to be in the 
finger, is really perceived in the brain; and 
yet the brain itself may be injured severely 
without suffering, though it is the seat of 
all pain. 
An iron bar was once driven through the 
upper part of a man’s head and he felt no 
pain. INJURIES OF THE NERVES. 
167 
INJURIES OF THE NERVES. 
The fibers of motion and of feeling look 
exactly alike, as has been said. The large 
nerve of the arm or leg is formed of many of 
these fibers hound together. Near the spinal 
cord, it is divided; all its motion-fibers come 
from the front part, all its feeling-fibers from 
the back part of the cord. 
In time of war, soldiers often cut the tele- 
graph lines leading to the enemy’s camp; 
then no message can be given or sent, till the 
line is repaired. 
In a similar way, if the back part of the 
spinal cord, just where the nerve goes off to 
the right foot, is injured, the sense of feeling 
in the foot is gone. 
You may prick it, or burn it, as much as 
you please; no pain will be felt, because the 
nerve fiber which should carry the message 
of trouble to the brain is injured. 
If the front part of the spinal cord is in- 
jured at the same place, the order to move 
the foot may start from the brain; but the 
muscles do not obey, because they do not re- 168 
NERVE-ACTION. 
ceive it. The message can not get by the 
broken place on the line. This is how we 
know there are two sets of fibers connected 
with the brain-center. 
Fig. 28. 
Nerves of the face and neck. 
Have you ever had your foot soundly 
“asleep”? You liad held it in sucli a position 
tliat tlie nerves were pressed, and this partly 
paralyzed them, so that, for a moment, the 
foot could scarcely move or feel. THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
169 
If the spinal cord be divided, or seriously 
diseased or pressed upon, there is no feeling 
or motion in any part of the body below the 
point of injury. This is called paralysis (pa- 
ralysis), and is quite common. 
The nerves which start directly from the 
hrain, are called the cranial (era'niai) nerves. 
Among- these are the nerves of sight, 
smell, hearing, and taste; those which move 
the muscles of the face; and those which con- 
trol digestion, respiration, and the motions 
of the heart. 
From one of these nerves, a number of 
little branches go to the center of each 
tooth, and, in case a tooth decays so that 
either the food or the air can reach them, 
we suffer severe pain. 
Sometimes, the dentist “kills the nerve” 
by putting against it creosote (-ere'o or 
some other substance. Then he takes out a 
piece of the little white thread, and fills the 
cavity with gold, or some other material, to 
prevent further decay. 
THE CRANIAL NERVES. 170 
NERVE-ACTION. 
THOUGHT. 
But tlie “brain lias other important work 
to do "besides merely keeping ns alive. It is 
the organ of the mind. By it, we think and 
reason: how, we do not know; hut God has 
given ns this wonderful instrument, and with 
it we may do either good or evil. 
Every time one does right, it is easier for 
him to keep on doing right, “because he 
strengthens that part of the “brain which is 
used ky the good powers of his mind. 
Every time he does wrong, he weakens 
this part, and strengthens the part used ky 
the powers of his mind for evil—making it 
much easier to do wrong the next time. 
Thus we form habits that control us. 
In this way, hoys and girls who are mean 
and cruel, whose thoughts are impure and 
lives untrue, make the men and women who 
do the mischief and sin of the world; while 
those whose lives are pure and true, make 
the men and women who are honored and 
loved. 
One reason why it is almost impossible THOUGHT. 
for a drunkard to reform, is, because alcohol 
has deadened that part of the brain which 
he needs to use in order to master his appe- 
tite. 
The best quality of brain, as in the case 
of gifted men and women, seems to suffer 
the most. 
Charles Lamb, a famous English writer, 
who understood the terrible results of liquor- 
drinking from his own experience, wrote as 
follows: “ Could the youth, to whom the 
flavor of his first wine is delicious, look into 
my desolation, and be made to understand 
what a dreary thing it is when a man feels 
himself going down a precipice with open 
eyes and a passive will—to see his destruc- 
tion, and to have no power to stop it; and 
yet to feel it, all the way, emanating from 
himself; to perceive all goodness emptied out 
of him, and yet not be able to forget a time 
when it was otherwise—to bear about the 
piteous spectacle of self-ruin! ” 
Little by little, step by step, the drinker 
is almost sure to lose his power of self-con- 
trol, until, even through moderate drinking, 172 
NERVE-ACTION. 
“the loss of will unravels tlie character stitch 
by stitch.” 
QU ESTIONS. 
1. Describe the structure of nerve-fibers. 
2. Do the nerve-tubes unite on their way to the brain?—what is 
the advantage of this ? 
3. Name the different kinds of nerves. 
4. What is the work of the fibers of feeling? —the fibers of motion? 
5. Describe the messages sent and received, when the finger touches 
a hot iron. 
6. Where is pain really perceived? 
7. What causes your foot to get “asleep”? 
8. What is the most important work of the brain? 
9. How does one form good habits ? — how evil ones ? 
10. How does the power of habit make it hard for a drunkard to 
reform ? CHAPTER XVI. 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
SEALTHY blood is needed in order to 
have healthy nerves; and proper food, 
fresh air, and exercise, are necessary to 
healthy blood. 
To keep the mind strong and happy, we 
mnst observe the rules of right living, and 
so protect the brain. When the mind is 
hard at work, an extra supply of blood is 
sent to this organ; if it is overworked, too 
much blood and energy are thus taken from 
other parts of the body, which then become 
weak and feeble. Neither brain-work nor 
muscle-work must be neglected, for both are 
important. 
Itest must also be given to this busy organ, 
and quiet, dreamless sleep is the best brain- 
rest. Sleeplessness is often one of the first 
signs of insanity, that terrible disease in 174 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
wbicb tbe mind loses, more or less, its con- 
trol over tbe brain. 
Blows on tbe bead are dangerous, and 
ebildren in tbeir play, as well as older per- 
sons, should never give tbem. 
Causes wbicb weaken other parts of tbe 
body, weaken tbe brain as well. Hence, im- 
pure air, unwholesome, ill-cooked food, un- 
suitable clothing, lack of cleanliness — all 
these tend to injure not only tbe brain, but 
tbe whole nervous system. 
Tbe lack of properly prepared food and 
other unhealthful ways of living, often lead 
men and women to use alcohol, tobacco, and 
opium, to deaden tbeir feelings of restless 
discomfort. 
ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
You have learned how alcoliol injures tlie 
organs of digestion, so tliat tire food we eat 
can not make us good blood; and liow it 
unfits tire "blood for tire best use of tbe 
body. 
About one-fiftli of all tbe blood in tbe 
body is in tbe brain. Tbrougb and around ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
175 
the soft gray matter, in and out among tlie 
white fibers, are tlie tiny blood-vessels. 
Yon know, already, that these enlarge 
from the drinking of alcohol; the blood then 
sometimes stagnates, and, at other times, 
rushes through them too violently. ISTo won- 
der a headache so often follows the glass of 
liquor. 
Sometimes, an artery bursts, because its 
walls have been weakened by alcohol so that 
they can not bear the extra strain ; the blood 
flows out, and death occurs at once. This is 
called apoplexy (ap' o piex y), and may result 
from other causes than the use of alcohol. 
But this is not all. The brain asks for 
good blood, but it gets injured and unhealth- 
ful blood. Of course the brain can not be 
healthy when made of poor material. 
A boy can not whittle well with a broken, 
rusty knife; a musician can not bring sweet 
music out of a piano whose strings are not 
in tune; and the mind can not do good 
thinking, if it has to work through an un- 
healthy brain. 
A large share of the water in the body is 176 
HYGIENE OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
contained in the hrain and the nerves, and 
alcohol unites with this water, taking- it 
away from the parts where it is needed. More 
alcohol goes to the hrain of the drinking 
man, than to any other organ except the 
liver; its effect on the nerve-substance is 
deadening—paralyzing—as you have learned. 
The drinking man may not feel pain from 
his inflamed stomach, partly because it has 
but few nerves of feeling, and partly because 
these are out of order .and fail to carry mes- 
sages correctly. Supposing the alcohol has 
been a good friend, he satisfies the craving 
it has caused, by another dose. 
Perhaps he takes it under the name of 
“ Bitters,” or “ Patent Medicine,” ignorant of 
the fact that most of these are only extracts 
of herbs mixed with alcohol, and that the 
harm done by the alcohol more than bal- 
ances the good gained from the herbs. 
When the brain is partly paralyzed by this 
narcotic, the man does not know what he 
is doing— his power of thought is deranged, 
and that of correct thought is gone — he is 
“crazy with liquor.” He believes himself ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
stronger in body and mind; be sometimes 
talks faster, bnt tbinks less wisely.* 
“ Tbe word of a drunkard, especially witb 
regard to bis drinking liabits, can not be 
trusted. An old, but true, proverb says: ‘ A 
drunkard is a liar.’ His love of trutb seems 
entirely destroyed. And £tbe tendency to 
♦"Among the immediate effects of a few doses of alcohol, are 
drunkenness, and, in rarer cases, crazy drunkenness and alcoholic 
convulsions or fits. 
“ Still further use of the poison, brings on delirium tremens 
(dS llr' I iim tre' mSne), and various maladies of the stomach, liver, 
kidneys, lungs, and other organs of the body; insanity, and another 
disease of the nervous system, called dipsomania (dip so ms' ni a); tho 
latter is an intense craving for alcoholic or other narcotic sub- 
stances. 
** This uncontrollable desire for liquor does not appear in those 
who have never used alcoholic drinks ; but sometimes, the first in- 
dulgence awakens the desire. With others, only a longer use will 
produce it. 
“ Most persons, in their earlier indulgence, think themselves 
capable of controlling their habits, and indulge without appre- 
hension of danger. 
“ Even when that danger is apparent to others, it may not be 
to them, until the desire and the habit are too strong, the will too 
weak, or the indifference to consequences too great for any effectual 
effort to change this course. 
“The longer the indulgence, the stronger the habit, the feebler 
the resistance, and the greater the indifference —until the victim 
is swallowed up in his self-invited destruction. 
“ Erom this view of the facts, it becomes too obvious to need re- 
peating, that tho remedy for drunkenness as a vice, and inebriety 
as a disease, is abstinence from alcoholic drinks. 
“ It would be an insult to the intelligence of the reader to say 
that the remedy for drunkenness is the use of wine or beer, of 
which alcohol is the essential and active ingredient.”— Dr. Palmer. 178 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
untruthfulness often descends to his chil- 
dren.’ ”—Dr. B. W. Richardson. 
Many railroad companies will not employ 
drinking- men as engineers, since they can 
not trust them to run their engines safely. 
Many battles have been lost, because the 
generals in command were so intoxicated 
that they could not properly order their troops. 
If more liquor is taken, the paralyzed 
nerves can not control the muscles, the man 
staggers, his hands tremble, and are beyond 
his proper control. The brain is still more 
affected, and the drunken talk and actions 
show too plainly that alcohol has conquered 
all the better part of the man. 
It is fully proved that a large number 
of crimes for which men are sent to prisons 
or jails, are committed when they are in 
this condition. 
A noted murderer confessed that never, 
but once, did he feel any remorse. Then he 
was about to kill a babe, and the little crea- 
ture looked up into his face and smiled. 
“ But,” said he, “ I drank a large glass of 
brandy, and then I didn’t care.” ALCOHOL AND SLEEP. 
179 
The poison deadened his nerves and hrain, 
the better part of his mind—his conscience 
—was thus pnt to sleep, and the evil of his 
nature controlled him. Many a man spends 
the most of his life behind prison bars, for 
crimes that he would have shrunk from with 
horror, had he not been drunk when he com- 
mitted them. 
The drinking of a very little alcohol is 
enough to deaden, to some extent, the noblest 
powers of a man’s mind, and to make him 
careless about the results of his actions. But 
anger, cruelty, fierceness — the baser tenden- 
cies, in which he is like savages and wild 
beasts, are not overcome until he is “dead 
drunk.” 
Then all signs of life are gone, save breath- 
ing and the motions of his heart. Probably 
the brain of a man who has once been “ dead 
drunk,” can never be so strong and perfect 
as it otherwise would have been. 
ALCOHOL AND SLEEP. 
The exact cause of sleep is unknown; but 
we do know that in healthful sleep, the heart 180 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
beats more slowly tlian wlien one is awake; 
tlie breathing is less rapid; and less blood is 
coursing through the brain. 
Alcohol interferes with all this, and the 
sleep caused by its use is not healthful brain- 
rest, but a heavy stupor from which the 
drinker wakens tired and often suffering. 
A narcotic has no power to cure fatigue— 
it can only deaden the nerves for a while, 
and thus prevent one while under its in- 
fluence from knowing that he is weary. 
ALCOHOL AND THE MIND. 
No man can explain the connection be- 
tween body and soul, the brain and the mind. 
We simply know that a sound mind goes 
with a sound body, a healthy mind with a 
healthy brain. Alcohol never helps a healthy 
body.* 
The craving for itself which the poison 
sets up in the system, tends to the destruc- 
tion of health, character, friends, happiness, 
* ‘ ‘ Indirectly, alcoholism favors the production of nearly all dis- 
eases, hy lessening the power of resisting their causes ; and it con- 
tributes to their fatality, hy impairing the ability to tolerate or 
overcome themProf. Austin Flint. TOBACCO AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
181 
usefulness, mind, and life. The only safe 
course is never to drink alcohol in any form; 
or, if the habit is formed, to break it off, at 
once and forever. The sudden ceasing to 
drink is not a danger, but the wise way of 
recovering lost health. Men in state-prisons 
are not made sick by having their sujDply 
of liquor taken entirely away. 
TOBACCO AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Dizziness and partial paralysis are com- 
mon results of tlie use of tobacco, especially 
by tbe young. The deadening of the nerves 
explains the “quieting” power of cigars. 
When the first effect of the tobacco has 
passed away, the abused nerves are very 
likely to tell the user of their discomfort, 
by leading him to be irritable and unhappy. 
What would you think of a young man 
who, if his father gave him $1,000 to start 
him in business, should at once burn up 
$500, and then begin work with the rest P 
Just so foolish is the boy who destroys 
the God-given powers of his mind and body, 
by the use of tobacco. He is cheating him- 182 
HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
self, throwing- away a large part of tlie en- 
ergy and strength which he needs for the 
work of life.* 
It is even worse than this; for often one 
of the first effects of tobacco and alcohol is 
to make one nngentlemanly and forgetful of 
the rights and feelings of others. 
Tobacco-users often smoke in the faces of 
other people, without once thinking of the 
impoliteness of such an act, or that the odor 
of the tobacco may make others very sick; 
the smoker “does not think” or does not care 
— he is enjoying “a good smoke.” 
These are not gentlemanly acts, but they 
are the very habits to which the use of 
tobacco often tends. 
In many cases, tobacco acts as the usher 
at the door of the saloon, because the dry- 
ness of the mouth which it produces, makes 
the user thirsty. But it is not a natural 
* Young men who use tobacco, say : “It does not hurt me.” Does 
not hurt you ! Wait and see. In years to come, when you ought to be 
in your prime, you will, probably oe a poor, nervous, irritable, nerve- 
dried creature. Your hands will tremble, your head will ache, your 
sleep will be fitful and disturbed, and your stomach out of order. 
Sins against the laws of health, not punished at one end of life, 
are sure to be at the other.—(Adapted from J. R. Black.) TOBACCO AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
183 
tliirst, — it can not be satisfied by water; for 
tobacco so affects tlie nerves, as often to make 
one crave another narcotic. 
Those in charge of inebriate asylums say 
that nearly all their patients have been users 
of tobacco as well as of alcohol. 
A boy who uses tobacco, must not only 
pay out much money, but must give up a 
large share of his health and manhood, in 
return for its use. 
In Germany, children under sixteen are 
forbidden to use it; the same is true of the 
pupils of the public schools in France; and 
of the students in the United States Naval 
Academy at Annapolis, and in the Military 
School at West Point. 
Those who run races or engage in rowing 
matches, are denied alcohol and tobacco while 
in “ training.” Each man would be glad to 
have his opponent drink a single glass of 
liquor just before the contest, so as to weaken 
him and make his nerves unsteady. 
“ In a word, alcohol [and, we may add, 
tobacco] disappoints and betrays all except 
those who seek sloth and death for body HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
and mind. It is pre-eminently a destroyer 
in every department of life.”—Axel Gustafson. 
OPIUM AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
The opium-eater looks old while yet young-. 
It is harder to break off from the use of this 
drug, than from that of alcohol or tobacco. 
In sickness, it often relieves pain tempo- 
rarily ; but when long continued, and always 
if taken in health, it paralyzes the nerves 
and throws the telegraph lines of the body 
out of order, so that no correct message can 
be given or received, and deranges, often be- 
yond repair, the whole system. 
It is a true narcotic. If a certain amount 
quiets the brain to-day, more must be taken 
next week to produce the same effect. The 
opium-user is so enslaved by the poison, that 
he will lie, or steal, or commit even worse 
crimes, to obtain the fatal drug. 
The eyes of the opium-user become heavy, 
dull, and listless, his motions are slow and 
languid. Sometimes persons, who are ad- 
dicted to the use of this drug, fall asleep 
even while talking; and they are sure to be QUESTIONS. 
185 
very fretful and nervous, if deprived of their 
usual portion. But its evil effects are not so 
apparent as are those of alcohol, hence it is 
even more dangerous. 
CHLORAL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Chloral is also used to quiet the brain 
and induce sleep. It, too, must often be in- 
creased in dose. Its continued use greatly 
injures the health, and there is constant 
danger of taking a fatal overdose. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. What, are necessary to the making of healthy nerves? 
2. How hoes muscle-work help brain-work? 
3. Why is sleep needed ? 
4. How do unhealthful ways of living lead to the use of nar- 
cotics ? 
5. Where are the blood-vessels in the brain? 
6. How does the drinking of alcoholic liquors affect them? 
7. What is apoplexy? 
8. How is the water, contained in the brain and nerves, affected 
by alcohol ? 
9. Why does the drinking man feel no pain from his inflamed 
stomach ? 
10. What is the danger in using “ Bitters” and “Patent Medicines ” ? 
11. Explain the term, “crazy with liquor.” 
12. Why does a drunken man stagger? 
13. What powers of the mind are first deadened by alcohol?—what 
powers are the last to yield? 
14. What are the characteristics of healthful sleeo? HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
15. Do narcotics “cure” pain and fatigue? 
16. Explain the “quieting” power of cigars. 
17. How does tobacco affect the courtesy of the user? 
18. How does its use often lead to the use of alcohol ? 
19. State the laws of different countries in regard to the use of 
tobacco. 
20. Describe the effects of opium on its user. CHAPTER X Y I I. 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
TASTE. 
THE ORGAN OF TASTE. 
SIIE tongue helps in tlie acts of chewing, 
swallowing, and speaking, hut it is the 
special organ of taste. 
The nerves of taste are mainly in the 
papillae of the tongue; as they are covered 
hy a thin skin—the mucous membrane — food 
must be dissolved so as to pass through this 
skin before it can be really tasted. 
If one eats rapidly, he not only injures 
his stomach, but loses much of the flavor of 
the food. When the tongue is coated, as in 
a fever, the sense of taste is impaired or, 
sometimes, lost. 
The nerves of the front part of the tongue 
taste sweet and sour things; those of the 
back part, salt and bitter things. The former 188 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
are connected with those of the face, so, when 
yon eat something sonr, yonr face is likely 
to “pncker np.” The latter are connected 
Fig. 29. 
The tongue, showing the three kinds of papillce—the conical (D), the whip-like (K, 
I), the entrenched (H, L); E, F, G, nerves ; C, glottis. 
with, the nerves of the stomach, hence hitter 
tastes often make ns “sick at the stomach.” THE ORGAN OP SMELL. 
189 
SMELL. 
THE ORGAN OF SMELL. 
The nose is the organ of smell. It is 
composed of hone and gristle. It is con- 
nected with the hack part of the mouth, 
and is lined, like the throat, with the mu- 
cous membrane. It is divided into two parts 
called nostrils. 
The nerves of smell enter the nostrils 
through small openings in the hone at the 
back of the nose. 
The sense of smell helps us to decide what 
things to eat. If, for instance, the nose were 
on one side of the mouth, we should not he so 
likely, as we are now, to smell food before 
eating it, and should be in much more dan- 
ger of eating things unfit for food. 
When we must swallow something that 
is not pleasant to the taste, like some kinds 
of medicine, it is well to shut the eyes and 
hold the nose ; it will not be so disagreeable, 
if we use the sense of taste alone. 
Impure air often warns us of its presence 
through our sense of smell. 190 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
H EARING. 
THE ORGAN OF HEARING. 
The ear is one of the most difficult parts in 
the whole body to study or understand. It is 
divided into the outer, middle, and inner ear. 
When we speak 
of the ears, we usu- 
ally mean the curi- 
ously shaped pieces 
of gristle on the 
sides of the head. 
Their principal use 
seems to he to help 
catch the sound. 
The opening 
which passes from 
these into the head 
is called the auditory (auditory) canal. This 
extends to the middle ear, or the “ drum ” 
of the ear, as it is sometimes called. The 
“head” of the “drum” is a delicate mem- 
brane which is stretched tightly across the 
inner end of the auditory canal. 
Both the middle and the inner ear (which 
Fig. 30. 
The ear. CARE OP THE EARS. 
191 
lies deeper in the head) are in the solid bone 
of the skull, and are thus carefully protected 
from injury. 
A tube leads from the middle ear to the 
throat. Perhaps you have noticed that old 
people who are a little deaf, open their mouths 
when they want to hear distinctly. This is 
to let the sound pass in through this tube, 
as well as through the auditory canal. 
Very small bones, strangely curved tubes, 
a little water, and millions of tiny nerves of 
hearing, are found in the middle and in the 
inner ear. 
CARE OF THE EARS 
Very cold water should not be used in the 
ears, nor should a draught of cold air be al- 
lowed to enter them. 
No hard substance, like a pin, should be 
pushed into the canal; for it might break 
the “head of the drum,” and when this hap- 
pens, the sense of hearing is injured. 
If there is too much ear-wax, it will often 
fall out of itself, in fine scales. It may, how- 
ever, accumulate and require to be carefully 192 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
removed. A “box on the ear” should never 
be given; there is great danger of its making 
one deaf. Pulling the ears is a cruel and in- 
jurious practice. 
TOBACCO AND HEARING. 
Ringing sounds in the ears and partial 
deafness sometimes result from the use of 
tobacco. 
SIGHT. 
THE ORGAN OF SIGHT. 
Tlie eyes are placed in deep, bony sockets 
in tlie bead, and are 
protected by tbe 
brows and lids. 
Tlie eyebrows are 
projections of skin 
covered witb sbort, 
stiff bairs; tlie eye- 
lids are two flaps, or 
curtains, of some- 
what gristly skin. 
They have oil and sweat-glands like the rest 
Fig. 31. 
The eye. THE ORGAN OF SIGHT. 
193 
of tlie skin, and a row of hairs grows from 
each edge. Tkese kairs, or eyeiaskes, kelp to 
keep dust out of tke eye. 
Tke tears come from a gland tkat lies 
above tke eye, and just witkin tke outer edge 
of its roof. Every time you wink, some of 
tkis moisture is waslied over tke eyeball, 
clearing it of dust. Tke overflow passes by 
a small tube, into tke nose. 
Grief, or even great joy, makes tke tears 
flow so freely tkat tkey run down over tke 
ckeeks. Tke eyeball, by means of nerves and 
muscles, can move inward, outward, upward, 
and downward. 
Tke “white of tke eye” is a kard coat 
wkick protects tke parts beneatk. Tke colored 
circle—tkat wkick makes us call tke eyes 
black, or blue, or brown—is tke iris (I'rls). It 
is like a circular curtain witk a kole in the 
center called tke pupil. 
When tke light is too bright, tke pupil 
contracts; when too dim, it enlarges. Tkis 
is done by muscular fibers tkat run round 
tke kole somewhat like tke string in a hat- 
lining ; tkey contract and so draw the sides 194 
SPECIAL SENSE'S. 
of the pupil together, or stretch and make 
it larger. 
A cat’s eyes can do this better and more 
quickly than ours. They need to be able to 
see their prey in the dark, and so can open 
their pupils very wide. 
Back of the iris are various fluids and 
parts, all of which help us to see. The fine 
nerves of sight form a delicate expansion 
or coat, which is the inner lining of the eye. 
CARE OF THE EYES. 
Looking at a bright; light or directly at 
the sun, dazzles the eyes and may greatly 
injure them. Weakness of vision and some- 
times blindness result from allowing sun- 
light or an artificial light, to shine directly 
into an infant’s eyes. 
Squinting or rolling the eyes, even “ for 
fun,” is a dangerous practice, because it 
strains the muscles which should hold the 
eyeball in place. 
School seats ought not to face the win- 
dows, and one should never read or write 
with strong sunlight falling on book or TOBACCO AND SIGHT. 
195 
paper. Reading in tlie twilight, or on the 
cars when in motion, strains the eyes. 
In reading in the evening, be sure you 
do not face the artificial light; let the lamp 
be shaded and the light fall from behind; 
for writing, the lamp should be behind, and 
at the left, so that the shadow of the hand 
will not be in the way of the pen. 
A lighted lamp, standing on a white or 
red cloth, and facing a person, as at the tea 
table, is very trying to the eyes; the cloth 
shonld be of a neutral tint, drab or brown, 
and the light so placed as to be above the 
level of the eyes. 
Sleeping-rooms should be partly darkened, 
so that on waking in the morning, the 
eyes may not be required to meet suddenly 
a bright light. 
Cinders may be removed from the eye, 
by a little loop of line thread or hair. 
TOBACCO AND SIGHT. 
Imperfect sight, and specks of light danc- 
ing before the eyes, sometimes result from 
the use of tobacco. 196 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
A certain kind of “blindness is caused by 
tbis drug, and is cured by stopping its use. 
QUESTIONS. 
1. Where are the nerves of taste? 
2. Which of them are connected with the nerves of the stomach ?— 
with those of the face? 
3. Describe the nose. 
4. How does it act as a sentinel? 
5. Describe the ear. 
6. What care should be taken of the ears ? 
7. How does tobacco affect the sense of hearing? 
8. How is the eye protected? —how kept free from dust? 
9. How is the, eyeball moved ? 
10. Describe the eye. 
11. Why can a cat see better in the dark than we can? 
12. How are the eyes often injured? 
13. How should a light be placed for reading or writing ? 
14. How does tobacco affect the sense of sight? APPENDIX. 
X®THAT is “temperance physiology”? What must 
Vor be taught — what must not be taught —in con- 
nection with the effects of alcoholic drinks 
and other narcotics on the human system ? 
1. Regulation or extermination of the liquor- 
traffic, low license or high license, moral or legal 
measures, temperance as a political issue — questions 
like these have no place in the physiology classes. 
Teachers may and should have, as citizens of the re- 
public, their individual opinions on these points, but 
the physiology class is not the place for expressing 
such opinions. 
2. Tirades against liquor-selling, and personalities, 
are out of place in class work. The teacher needs to 
be on the watch lest some child refer to Mr. A., the 
drinking father of a pupil, or to Mrs. B., whose habit 
of opium-using is well known in the community. 
These illustrations may, indeed, come to the mind 
of every child, but bid the lips be closed that would 
thoughtlessly wound another by their mention. 
3. The medical use of alcohol is a point still 
widely in dispute, but one that does not belong in a 
common school text-book. It is quite within the 198 
APPENDIX. 
province of hygiene, however, to teach efficient sub- 
stitutes for alcoholics as simple home remedies. 
4. The proven facts of science are amply sufficient 
for the purpose sought, without resorting to doubt- 
ful experiments, or overstatements. 
5. Insanity, idiocy, and criminality, as connected 
with the use of narcotics, must not be overlooked; 
let these dangers, both direct and indirect — through 
the law of heredity—be made evident to the pupils. 
CHAPTER I.—Food. 
It will add to the interest, if the children are en- 
couraged to make a “food-collection” in illustration 
of the text. Use small, neatly-labeled vials or boxes, 
to hold salt, the various grains, arrow-root, sago, 
corn-starch, sugar, terra alba, glucose, pepper, tea, 
coffee, cocoa etc. 
CHAPTER II.—Alcohol. 
“ I know there’s no alcohol in my cnrrant wine,” 
says the thrifty housewife, “for I made it myself, 
and I didn’t put in a drop.” 
“ Cider’s nothing but apple-juice,” cries the old 
farmer. 
The true origin of alcohol should he made so clear 
to the mind of the pupils that they will not be led 
astray by these fallacies. Be sure that they under- 
stand that alcohol is not (save as an after-act) “put 
into” fermented fruit-juices, but that it comes there 
of itself, under the right conditions. APPENDIX. 
199 
The use of alcohol for burning, and its affinity 
for water, are easily illustrated. 
Experiment 1.—Add molasses to water in a bottle 
till it is of a deep brown color, tben add a teaspoon- 
ful of yeast; allow it to stand in a warm place for 
a day or two. Then note that the mixture has the 
odor of alcohol; later, a sour, acid odor. The little 
yeast-plant has changed the sugar of the molasses to 
alcohol, and later, the alcohol has changed to an 
acid. 
Experiment 2.—Allow apple-juice to stand exposed 
to warm air for a few days. The liquid acquires the 
odor of alcohol, and later, that of vinegar. Ferments 
from the air have changed the sugar of the apple- 
juice to alcohol. By exposure to the air, the alco- 
hol has changed to vinegar.—Adapted from Arthur C. 
Boy den, A.M. 
CHAPTER III.—Fermentation. 
CHAPTER IV.—Distillation. 
The same truth —the presence of alcohol in even 
the milder liquors —may he shown hy the process of 
distillation. The experiment is easily made. 
Put some hard cider into a teapot (6), and fasten 
a piece of rubber tubing (e) about two feet long to 
the spout. 
Let the other end of the tubing reach into a 
bottle (d) standing in a pail of cold water or on a 
block of ice (c). 200 
APPENDIX. 
Fig. 3?. 
Distillation. 
Heat the cider by means of the lamp (a), being 
careful not to make it hot enough for the water in 
the cider to boil. The vapor will turn to a liquid 
in the cool tube, and drip from the end into the 
bottle. Test it with a lighted match. 
If the cider is not very strong, you may have to 
re-distill it before you find the alcohol is pure 
enough to burn. 
It is mainly alcohol which has been separated — 
distilled — from the fermented mixture. What re- 
mains in the kettle is principally water. The alcohol 
is unchanged in its nature, but is stronger, because 
not so much diluted with water. APPENDIX. 
201 
The alcohol usually sold is distilled from fer- 
mented molasses; but it can be made from any fer- 
mented liquor. It is so greedy for water that entirely 
pure alcohol can be produced only by distilling it 
with some substance such as lime, that is still more 
eager for water, and will take it from the alcohol. 
CHAPTER V.—Tobacco. 
The following1 testimony from the Principal of the 
Iowa State Normal School is a danger-signal that 
teachers will do ivell to heed: 
“After making a stndy of several hundred boys, 
running through a period of ten years, I give only 
observed facts, and neither assume the conditions nor 
jump at fore-ordained conclusions. 
“1. Boys that begin the habit at an early age are 
stunted physically, and never arrive at normal bodily 
development. 
“2. Accompanied with the use of the narcotic 
were certain disordered physical functions, such as 
indigestion, impaired taste, defective eye-sight, dull 
hearing, nervous affections, and diseases of the heart. 
I have not found a single case of early addicting to 
the habit of tobacco-nsing that did not suffer with 
one or more of these direful abnormal conditions. 
“ 3. Tobacco used in any form, destroyed the abil- 
ity to apply one’s self to stndy, and prevented his 
comprehending or remembering his lessons. The 
mental faculties of a boy under the influence of the 
narcotic seem to be in a stupor, and since depraved 202 
APPENDIX. 
nerve power stultifies and weakens the will power, 
there is but- little nse for the teacher to seek to 
arouse the dormant, paralyzed energies, or to interest 
and foster the fagged desire. I have not met a pupil 
that is addicted to the habit who will go through a 
single day’s work and have good lessons. I have 
never had one whose scholarship record was good, 
and in almost every case the deportment was below 
the average standard. At the regular examinations 
for promotion, nearly every one of the tobacco-using 
pupils fail in doing the most reasonable test work, 
even if this is not the first time the work has been 
passed over in class. I have had numbers of cases in 
which they have remained in the same grade for 
four successive years, and then they were not ready 
to be advanced into the next higher class. 
“But the moral results are also as serious. Pupils 
under the influence of the weed are constant subjects 
of discipline, are not truthful, practice deception, and 
can not be depended upon. A change in character 
in a formerly good boy is a very strong indication 
that some habit is getting hold upon him whose 
tyranny must be broken before he will again be 
clothed in his right mind. The worst characteristic 
of the habit is a loss of personal self-respect, and of 
personal regard for the customs and wishes of ladies 
and gentlemen, especially when among strangers. 
“Ii these observations mean any thing, they de- 
clare that something ought to be done to save 
child-life from the pitfalls that commercial interests 
are digging, and that greed is encouraging; that APPENDIX. 
203 
more should be done than to instruct by oral or 
text lessons in schools; that teachers, parents, and 
philanthropists are not yet sufficiently aroused re- 
garding the magnitude of the evil of tobacco-using 
by children; that in the crusade against alcohol we 
should recognize that other evils, though more 
quietly, are just as surely sapping the strength and 
destroying the vigor of the youth of this genera- 
tion.”—If. H. Seerley. 
CHAPTER VI.—The Nervous System. 
STIMULANTS. 
Because it is difficult to define clearly and exactly 
sucli terms as food, poison, stimulant, etc., there has 
been much dispute as to whether or not alcohol 
should he called a stimulant. Careful examination 
and balancing of the statements of medical authorities 
have resulted in the conclusions given in the text. 
The point is an important one, because many persons 
cling to the use of liquor for — as they say — its “stim- 
ulating,” “ tonic ” properties. 
The following quotations are in proof and expla- 
nation of the position taken. Note carefully that the 
paralyzing effects of small doses, or the first effects — 
whatever be the amount taken —are on the inhibitory 
nerves — those which control the action of the internal 
organs, as the heart. Later, the staggering gait and 
trembling hands, show the partial paralysis of the 
nerves of motion, and, in complete intoxication, the 
nerves of feeling are also deadened. 204 
APPENDIX. 
“I will define stimulant to mean such, food, medi- 
cine, or exercise as would in itself be energizing. 
....... Narcotics, on tbe contrary, are poisons 
of a paralyzing nature, and may be divided into two 
classes: plain narcotics, or those whose paralyzing effect 
is patent, and pseudo-stimulants, or those narcotics whose 
benumbing effects assume the guise of temporary 
stimulation, inasmuch as their action is expended 
primarily upon the inhibitory centers 
Most of these narcotics arc, in small doses, pseudo- 
stimulants, and in large doses plain narcotics. Alco- 
hol is pre-eminently of this double character; a 
pseudo-stimulant when taken in small doses, and a 
plain narcotic when heavily imbibed. 
“With the small—the pseudo-stimulant — dose of 
alcohol, there is temporarily all the appearance of 
heightened activity, but the life-forces expend them- 
selves to no purpose —or to a purpose which should 
not have existed, the necessity to dispose of the in- 
truder. The paralyzing effect of alcohol on the nerves 
may be compared to the effect produced on the ma- 
chinery of a clock, by a gradual reduction of the 
weight of its pendulum; the machinery runs faster 
and faster, but this activity is valueless —the real 
principle, the time-keeping faculty, is paralyzed. 
“ Thus the animated appearance, the throbbing of 
the arteries, the peculiar sparkle in the eye, the flush 
of the face, and the activity manifested by the 
drinker, are signs of danger. The extra activity is 
caused by the systematic effort to avert harm, and 
originates in the incipient paralysis of the nerves APPENDIX. 
205 
caused by alcobol In the case of death 
by freezing-, when the cold has paralyzed the nerves 
of sensation, happy visions of shelter and warmth 
lull the sufferer into the fatal sleep. A like incipient 
paralysis of the nerves furnishes the pleasing sensa- 
tions resulting from the use of alcohol.”—" The Founda- 
tion of Death,” by Axel Gustafson. 
“Alcohol is never a stimulant at all when we 
come to examine it. It never acts as any thing but 
a paralyzer The so-called stimulating 
effects of alcohol are really only finer shades of that 
same narcotic influence which produces general stupe- 
faction and universal paralysis when the agent is 
given in large doses.”—Dr. James Edmunds, England. 
“ The flushing of the face (produced by alcohol) is 
caused by the paralysis of the cervical branch of the 
sympathetic There is no stimulation. 
There is nothing but paralytic disorder from the mo- 
ment narcosis begins.” — Prof. John Fiske, Cambridge, Mass. 
From careful experiments in which the quantity 
of liquors used was “ two drachms of alcohol,” repre- 
senting “ not quite half a glassful of port or sherry ; 
a small wine-glassful of claret or champagne; and 
not quite a quarter of a pint of ale,”— quantities so 
small as usually to be considered harmless,—Dr. Ridge 
makes the following conclusions: 
“The fact is established that, from the moment 
when sufficient alcohol has been taken to affect the 
nervous system at all, to the total extinction of nerv- 
ous energy by a fatal quantity, there is progressive 
paralysis of every form of nerve function, capable of 206 
APPENDIX. 
accurate determination, which has hitherto been ex- 
perimented on Alcohol has clearly no 
right to be called a stimulant. It is a narcotic from 
first to last, and the symptoms of stim- 
ulation are only the result of the peculiar, balanced 
condition of many functions, between accelerating 
and checking nerves; the narcotizing of a checking 
nerve producing for the time being the same visible 
effect as the stimulation of an accelerating nerve.”— 
Dr J J, Ridge, England. 
CHAPTER X.—The Bones. 
If possible, obtain the use of a complete skeleton 
for illustrating' this chapter. If the school does not 
own one, a neighboring physician may, and be will- 
ing to lend it, or to permit the class to see it at his 
office. 
When the children have become interested in the 
mystery of life, have learned something of the won- 
drous houses in which they live —of the domes pro- 
tecting their busy brains, through whose windows 
the soul looks forth — of the skillful combinations of 
bones and joints —then is the time to show the mar- 
velous frame-work—to show it quietly, and as a mat- 
ter of course — uncovering but a part at a time, and 
comparing it with the familiar skeletons of the lower 
animals. 
By all means, secure a skull, if the whole skeleton 
can not be shown; the other bones can be located 
readily in the living body, and illustrated by refer- APPENDIX. 
207 
ence to bones of the lower animals. But the skull, 
with its crooked “over and over” seams, or fixed 
joints, its deep eye-sockets, its thin “tear-bones,” its 
cavities for the teeth and holes for the ears —all 
these are much more clearly understood from the 
object than from any picture, however accurate. 
Perhaps it is needless to add that none of these 
aids should be used as playthings, nor, on the other 
hand, should they be held as objects of superstitious 
fear. 
“A sacred burden is this life we bear.” 
CHAPTER XIV —Effects of Alcohol in Life. 
It is an undisputed, fact, that “ strong and healthy 
children can not he horn of parents whose constitu- 
tions have been worn out with intemperance and 
disease.” 
“All the evil resulting from hereditary alcoholism, 
may he transmitted by parents who have never been 
noted for their drunkenness. Long-continued ha- 
bitual indulgence in intoxicating drinks to an extent 
far short of intoxication, is not only sufficient to 
originate and hand down a morbid tendency, but is 
much more likely to do so than even repeated 
drunken outbreaks with intervals of perfect sobriety 
between.”—Dr. Norman K&rr, England. 
While learning the facts concerning this law of 
heredity, the pupil must not be left to think that 
one thus injured is therefore powerless, or under no 
obligation to struggle against his evil inheritance. 208 
APPENDIX. 
The conflict is more severe when one suffers for the 
sins of his parents as well as for his own. But it 
is, none the less, a duty. 
The experience of many men and women, children 
of drinking1 parents, proves that it is possible to over- 
come the hereditary appetite for alcoholics; hut, “ the 
first glass,” with such persons, is even more danger- 
ous than in other cases. Nor should it he forgotten 
that hereditary tendencies often leap over one or 
more steps, the sins of the grandparents affecting 
their children’s children, “unto the third and fourth 
generation.” INDEX. 
A PAGE 
Abdomen 118 
Absorptive power of the skin. 141 
Absorption of food 43 
Acetous fermentation 29 
Air, The 86, 90 
Albucasis 33 
Alcohol 13 
“ amount in Liquors 26 
“ a Narcotic 68 
“ a Poison 16 
“ and Bread 25 
“ and Cold 147 
“ and Heat 151 
“ and Heredity 157 
“ and Life Insurance 155 
“ and Sleep 179 
“ and Water 15 
“ and Work 153 
“ Appetite for 70 
“ Discovery of 33 
‘‘ Effect upon Blood 104 
“ “ Brain 68, 174 
“ “ Circulation 105 
“ “ Digestion 47 
“ “ Heart 106 
“ “ Heat of body 147 
“ “ Kidneys 52 
“ “ Life 153, 207 
“ “ Liver 51 
“ “ Lungs 90 
“ “ Mind. 180 
“ “ Muscles 92, 131 
“ “ Nervous System. 174 
PAGE 
Alcohol, Effect upon Stomach. 46 
“ In Nature ... 28 
“ not a Eood 14 
“ Origin of 13, 198 
“ Properties of 13 
“ Uses of. 13 
Alimentary Canal. 36 
Anatomy 120 
Ancestors, Our 160 
Aorta 97 
Apoplexy 175 
Arteries 95 
Auricles 96 
Ayles, Adam 149 
B 
Bacteria 19 
Ball-and-socket Joint 124 
Barley 21 
Bathing 140 
Beef 127 
Beer 21 
Bile 51 
Bitters 176 
Bleeding 103 
Blindness 194, 196 
Blood, The .. 93, 97 
Bones. The 109, 206 
“ Broken 113 
“ Composition of. 110 
“ Pace 114 
“ Growth of Ill 
“ Life of 112 210 
INDEX 
P.'GE 
Bones, Shape of. 110 
“ Table of 119, 120 
Brakes, The 106, 203 
Brain 64 
“ Exercise of. 173 
Bread 25 
Breast-bone 114 
Breathing — 83 
“ Hygiene of 83 
Bronchial Tubes 80 
Bronchitis 85 
C 
Canal, Food 36 
Capillaries 95 
Carbonic Acid 14, 82 
Cartilage 112 
Cavities 118 
Cerebellum 66 
Cerebrum 65 
Chloral 75 
“ and the Nervous Sys- 
tem 185 
Chloroform 75 
Choking 80 
Chyle 45 
Chyme 43 
Cider. 24 
Cigarettes 56 
Cilia, The 81 
Circulation 93 
Clavicle 116 
Clothing 144 
Clotting of Blood 94 
Coffee 10 
Cold, A 147 
Collar-bones, The T 116 
Complexion, The 139 
Connective-Tissue 128 
Consumption 84, 85, 91 
Cooking 10 
Contraction, Muscular 128 
PAGE 
Corns 122 
Cosmetics 141 
Cranial Nerves 169 
Croup 85 
Curvature of the Spine 121 
Cuticle, The 136 
Cutis, The 135 
Cuts 103 
D 
Death 132 
Delirium Tremens 177 
Diaphragm 77 
Digestion 35 
“ Steps of 45 
Diphtheria 87 
Distillation 30, 199 
Drains 86, 137 
Drinking-water 4, 86 
Drunkards 176 
Dyspepsia 41 
E 
Ear, The 191 
Eating, Rapid ,... 41 
Eggs 6 
Elbow, The 117 
Epiglottis 79 
Esophagus 42 
Ether 68 
Exercise, Muscular 130 
Expansion, Muscular 128 
Expiration 78 
Eye, The 192, 194 
F 
Eats, The 6 
Fermentation 18, 199 
“ Acetous 29 
“ Vinous 19 
Ferments 19 
Fever, Typhoid 87 INDEX. 
211 
PAGE 
Food 1, 198 
“ Absorption of 43 
“ Cooking of 10 
“ Definition of 1 
“ Digestion of. 35 
“ Heat-making 6 
‘ ‘ Kinds of 3, 9 
‘ ‘ Mineral .. 3 
“ Heed of. 35 
“ Sources of. 1 
“ Tissue-making 5 
Foot, The 118 
Frost-bite 148 
Fruit 12 
G 
Gall-bladder 51 
Gastric Juice 43 
Gin 31 
Grains, Alcohol from 21 
Gristle 112 
H 
Hair, The 139 
Hair-dyes 141 
Hand, The 118 
Head 114 
Hearing 190 
Heart 96, 102 
Heat of Body 143 
“ and fermented liquors... 28 
“ Sources of. 144 
Heredity 157 
Hinge-joints 124 
Hip-bones, The .. 116 
Humerus 119 
Hygiene 120 
“ of the Nervous System 173 
I 
Impure Air..., 86 
Inorganic Bodies 109 
PAGE 
Inspiration 78 
Intestines, The 44 
Iris 193 
Iron 5 
J 
Joints 124 
K 
Kidneys 52 
Knee-pan 117 
L 
Lacteals 45 
Larynx 79 
Lees 20 
Life 132 
Life Insurance 155 
Liquors, distilled. 31 
“ drugged 31 
“ fermented 18, 27, 28 
Limbs, Lower 117 
“ Upper 116 
Lime 5 
Liver 50 
Lungs, The 80 
“ Work of the 82 
M 
Malt 21 
Marrow 112 
Mead 160 
Meals 46 
Milk 9 
Mucous Membrane 135 
Mumps, The 40 
Muscles, The 127 
“ Hygiene of 129 
“ Involuntary 129 
“ Uses of 128 
“ Voluntary 129 
Mummy, The 15 212 
iJNDEX 
N PAGE 
Nails, The 139 
Narcotic Habit... 75 
Narcotics 68 
Nerve Action 166 
“ Injuries 167 
Nerves, The 163, 161 
Nerve-fibers 165 
Nerve-tubes 163 
Nervous Power 61 
Nervous System 61, 173 
“ “ Parts of. 63 
Nicotine 55 
Nose, The 189 
O 
(Esophagus, see Esophagus. 
Oil-glands, The 138 
Oils, The 6 
Opium 73, 75 
“ and the Nervous System. 181 
Organs 109 
“ of Breathing 79 
“ “ Circulation... 95 
“ “ Digestion. 36 
Organic bodies 109 
Oxygen 82 
P 
Pancreatic Juice 11 
Papillae 136 
Paralysis 169 
Patella, The 120 
Patent Medicines 176 
Pepsin 13 
Perspiration, The 137 
Phosphorus 5 
Physiology 120 
Pleurisy 85 
Pneumonia 85 
Poison 16 
Pores 137 
PAGE 
Positions of the body 121 
Pulse 101 
Pupil 193 
R 
Radius 119 
Respiration 77 
“ Diseases of. 85 
Rest 130, 173 
Ribs, The 115 
S 
St. Martin, Alexis 49 
Saliva, The 40 
Salivary Glands 40 
Salt 4 
Scapula 116 
Secretion, Definition of 37 
Senses, The 187 
Septum 96 
Settlings 20 
Shoes 122 
Shoulder-blades, The 116 
Sight, Sense of. 192 
Skeleton, The 109 
Skin, The 135, 141 
Skull, The 114 
Sleep 173 
“ by narcotics 179 
Smell, Sense of 189 
Soothing-syrup 74 
Speech, Organs of 80 
Spinal cord 67 
Spinal nerves 68 
Spine, The 114 
Spores 19 
Starch 6, 7 
Sternum 120 
Stimulants 68, 203 
Stomach 12 
Sugar 6, 8 
Sunlight 112 INDEX 
213 
PAGE 
Sunstroke 138 
Sweat 137 
T 
Taste, Sense of 187 
Tea 10 
Tears, The 193 
Teeth, The 37 
“ Care of the 39 
Temperature of the Body 148 
Tendons 127 
Terra alba 8 
Thermometer, Use of. 143 
Thigh-bones, The 117 
Thought 170 
Tight-lacing 84 
Tissues, The 109 
Tobacco 55, 201 
“ and Alcohol 182 
“ and the Heart 107 
“ Effect on Bones 123 
“ “ Growth 123 
“ “ Hearing 192 
“ “ Heart 107 
“ “ Mouth 57 
“ “ Nervous System. 181 
“ “ Sight 195 
“ “ Stomach 58 
PAGE 
Tongue, The 187 
Tooth-ache, The 39 
Touch, Sense of. 136, 164 
Trachea 79 
Training 183 
Trunk, The 114 
V 
Valves of Heart and Veins... 100 
Veins 95 
Ventilation 85, 87 
Ventricles 96 
Vertebrae 114 
Vinegar 29 
Vinous Fermentation 19 
Vocal Chords 80 
W 
Walking 121 
Waste and Repair 35 
Water 4 
“ Purity of. 4 
Windpipe.; 79 
Wine 22, 23 
Woolen 145 
Wounds 103 
Y 
Yeast 19