J. H. MEDAIRY & CO., 
Booksellers, Printers, and 
Stationers, Lithographers, 
NO. 6 HOWARD STREET, 
BALTIMORE, MD. Physiology lor Boys and Girls 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
A Text-Book of Health 
FOR USE IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS, WITH SPECIAL 
REFERENCE TO THE EFFECTS OF ALCOPIOLIC 
DRINKS AND NARCOTICS UPON THE 
HUMAN SYSTEM 
ALBERT F. BLAISDELL, M.D. 
13Y 
\UTHOR OF “ OUR BODIES, AND HOW WE LIVE,” “ CHILD’S BOOK 
OF HEALTH,” ETC. 
ADAPTED TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MARYLAND 
THOMAS C. BRUFF, ESO. 
BOARD OF COUNTY SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS OF 
BALTIMORE COUNTY 
BY 
BALTIMORE 
7TH. MEDAIRY & CO., PUBLISHERS 
No. 6 Howard Street 
1885 Copyright, 1885, 
By LEE AND SHEPARD. 
Copyright, 1886, 
By LEE AND SHEPARD. 
All rights reserved. 
MARYLAND EDITION. PREFACE 
TO THE MARYLAND EDITION. 
At the request of the publishers, I have attempted to 
revise Dr. Blaisdell’s “ How to Keep Well,” so as to adapt 
it to the intermediate grades of the Maryland schools. It is 
full of useful information and practical suggestions about the 
ordinary matters of every-day health, so simply told that 
even the young must understand. The book is so well 
written in this respect, that very few changes were necessary 
in the text; here and there a difficult word has been omitted 
and a simpler one substituted. 
The most important alterations from the original are the 
notes by eminent Maryland physicians, and the chapter on 
“ Malaria,” by Jackson Piper, M.D., president of the State 
Board of Health. 
I have also arranged questions at the bottom of each 
page, instead of having review questions after the chapters, 
as in the original book. These questions are intended more 
for the teacher than for the pupil. They are the sign- 
boards, always within eight, and are intended to direct the 
attention to the most important points in any lesson. 
V vi 
PREFACE. 
The book may be used as a supplementary reader, and 
the subject-matter impressed on the minds of the pupils by 
familiar talks, frequent reviews, and blackboard, or chart, 
illustrations. 
August, 1886. 
THOMAS C. ERUFF. CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER I. 
PAGE 
Introduction i 
CHAPTER II. 
The Bony Framework 12 
CHAPTER III. 
The Muscles 34 
CHAPTER IV. 
What we Eat and Drink 48 
CHAPTER V. 
Digestion, and how it goes on .65 
CHAPTER VI. 
The Blood, the River of Life 92 
CHAPTER VII. 
How and Why we Breathe 106 VIII 
CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER VIII. 
PAGE 
How our Bodies are Covered 121 
CHAPTER IX. 
The Nervous System: How it Governs the Body . . . 138 
CHAPTER X. 
The Special Senses .......... 158 
CHAPTER XI. 
Hints and Helps for Every-day Health . . . . 174 
CHAPTER XII. 
Malarial and Typhoid Fevers 191 
Glossary 197 
Index 201 HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTION. 
i. What the Book is about. — When we get used 
to any common event, as, for example, to seeing a 
boy or girl moving, talking, and breathing, we forget 
to wonder at it, simply because it is so common a 
sight. But, when one does think about it, how very 
wonderful it is to be alive ! One begins to ask, How 
do we manage to move our bodies ? When one has 
hurt his foot, how does his head know that he has 
done so ? Why do we breathe and eat ? How do we 
think ? and how do we speak ? 
All these things this little book will try to explain 
to you. There will not be room to tell you about 
all the wonders of our bodies, but you will be able 
to learn the beginning of the story. There is very 
much more to learn. When you have learned all 
that is told you here, you will feel so much inter- 
Questions. — On thinking about our bodies, what questions should 
we naturally begin to ask ? What is this little book intended to ex- 
plain ? 2 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
ested, we hope, that you will wish to learn more. 
The study of our bodies will not only make us ac- 
quainted with many wonderful things, but will also 
tell us how to get and how to keep good health. 
Therefore let us do our best to learn as much as 
possible about our bodies, and how we live. 
2. Our Bodily Life. — We need not be told that 
our bodies are made of flesh and bone, whose sub- 
stance we see and handle every day of our lives. 
Even a child knows that certain parts of his body, 
as the walls of his chest, and his heart that he feels 
beating within it, are always moving of themselves. 
We can move of our own free will from one place 
to another. The wind may rustle the leaves, and a 
breeze may sway a strong oak; but the leaves and 
the oak have no power to move themselves. We 
need not wait, like the trees of the forest, for the 
wind to blow us to and fro, or, like the pebbles by 
the roadside, for some one to stir us. Like the 
horse, the dog, the bird, or any other animal that 
has life, we can move from place to place. 
Again : every child cannot but notice that he is 
always warm. Even in the coldest day of mid- 
winter, let the stones and trees be as cold as the 
winter wind, our bodies, except perhaps the tips of 
Questions.—Tell in your own words some of the good to be 
gained by its study. How may a child get some idea that his body 
moves ? Tell what is said of the warmth of the body. INTRODUCTION. 
3 
the fingers and toes, are always warm. The horse, 
the dog, and even the birds and the bees, are warm : 
all animals, in fact, are more or less warm as long 
as they are alive. 
3. The Body compared to a Steam-Engine.— 
Our bodies are in some ways very much like a 
steam-engine. The bones and the muscles resemble 
the machinery of the engine, while the motive-power 
is produced by the food we eat. We put fuel into 
the furnace. The water in the boiler is heated, and 
expands into steam. Then the piston begins to 
work to and fro : this moves the wheels, joints, and 
levers, and so the whole engine is set in motion by 
the fuel in the furnace. 
Now, just the same thing occurs in our bodies. 
We take food, and that food passes into the stom- 
ach. By reason of that food we are kept warm, 
muscular force is developed, and the levers and 
joints within us are set working, as we see in the 
steam-engine. There is, however, this important 
difference between the two : The engine is all the 
time wearing itself out; it works badly now and 
then, so it must be stopped, taken to pieces, and 
repaired. Our bodies, too, are all the time wearing 
out; but they are continually repairing themselves, 
even while in constant use. Hence we take food, 
Questions. — In what way does the body resemble a steam- 
engine ? What important difference is there between the two ? 4 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
not only to warm us, but also to build up and repair 
our bodies. 
4. The Body and its Nervous System. — Every 
child knows that when he cuts his finger with a 
knife, touches a hot stove, or has eaten unwhole- 
some food, as an unripe apple, pain is produced. 
Silvery-white cords, called nerves, start from the 
brain, and are spread all over the body ; and, when 
any thing wrong happens, these little nerves, like 
telegraph-wires, carry special despatches to the cen- 
tral station (that is, to the brain), and thus the feel- 
ing of pain is there made known. In this way every 
part of our bodies is watched over and protected. 
If it were not so, we should be continually hurting 
ourselves, and not know it. For example, a drunken 
man, whose nerves had been deadened by alcoholic 
liquors, once went to sleep by a camp-fire ; and, when 
he woke up, his feet were so horribly burned that 
they had to be cut off. If his brain and nerves had 
not been benumbed, he would have felt the alarm 
of pain, and saved himself. 
If we exert our will, or “make up our mind ” as 
we call it, to write with a pen, to pick a flower, or 
to call the name of some friend, we can do it. The 
mind, or brain, wills to do this or that thing. It 
Questions. — What happens when a child cuts his finger with a 
knife, touches a hot stove, or eats unripe fruit ? Explain in what way 
we are kept informed of injuries done to any part of our bodies. INTRODUCTION. 
5 
sends out its order by the tiny white nerves, and 
the muscles are put in motion to do whatever the 
brain has willed them to do. This mind, which feels 
and thinks, but which we cannot see, forms the real 
part of our being. It is the power to feel, to know, 
to reason, and to will, that makes us what we are. 
When we stop to think about it, how wonderful it is! 
Indeed, the more we think of it, the more we shall real- 
ize the fact that the all-wise Creator, in his goodness 
and wisdom, has given us bodies which, in the words 
of the Psalmist, are “fearfully and wonderfully made.” 
5. Some Hard Words explained. — Before we 
can reach, the more interesting part of our study, 
we have to do something like cracking the shell of 
a nut to get at its kernel : we shall have to learn 
the meaning of a few hard words which must be 
used in talking about this subject, and will be often 
used in this book. Before we can tell how plants 
and animals live, we must know what plants and 
animals are. A watchmaker could not describe the 
working of a watch unless he first carefully learned 
the various parts. So it is with the study of our 
bodies : we must learn their structure before we can 
understand the manner in which they act and move, 
or, in short, how they live. The science which tells 
Questions. — What is it that makes us what we are? Why is it 
necessary to know the meaning of certain words at the beginning of 
this study ? 6 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
us about the structure, form, and position of the dif- 
ferent parts of our bodies, is called Anatomy. It tells 
us what these parts are, where they are, and how 
they look. The science which explains the uses of 
the different parts of the body is called Physiology. 
Now, after we have learned something about the 
structure and the uses of different parts of the body, 
we ought to learn how to take care of them and to 
keep them in health. We do this by the study of 
Hygiene, or the science which tells us about health. 
Take the skin for an illustration. If we learn what 
it is, how it looks, its various parts, this would be 
its Anatomy. Now, if we learn for what special 
purpose it is made, just what its different parts do, 
and how they do it, this would be its Physiology. 
Finally, if we learn how each part is kept in good 
order, what will injure its health, and what will do 
it good, this would be its Hygiene. 
A tissue is the simplest form in which any part of 
the body can exist. We thus speak of the skin 
as a tissue, bony tissue, muscular tissue, fatty tissue, 
and so on. Each tissue has certain features about 
it which mark it wherever in the body it is found. 
They may be compared to the brick, stone, iron, 
mortar, glass, and other materials which, properly 
arranged, make up a house. 
Questions. — What is meant by anatomy? physiology? hygiene? 
a tissue? Illustrate. What is an organ? INTRODUCTION. 
7 
Any part of the body which does a special work 
is called an organ. It is simply several tissues work- 
ing together as a whole, and specially fitted to do a 
certain thing: thus the eye is the organ of sight, 
the nose of smell, the ear of hearing, the stomach 
of digestion, and so on. When there is a series of 
organs scattered through the body, similar in struc- 
ture, and all doing the same work, we call it a “ sys- 
tem : ” thus we speak of the arterial system, the 
nervous system, and so on. The special work which 
an organ has to do is said to be the function, or use, 
of that organ : thus it is the function of the eye to 
see, and of the stomach to digest food. The word 
“ glands ” will be often used. Glands are factories of 
all kinds of shapes and sizes, and located in many 
different places in the body, whose business it is to 
make out of the blood something to be used again, 
or to rid the blood of something to be cast out of 
the body. Thus the salivary glands make saliva, 
or spittle, and the sweat glands make sweat. The 
liver, which weighs about five pounds, is a single 
gland, and secretes bile; while the glands in the 
intestines cannot be seen by the naked eye. 
6. General Parts of the Body. — If we look 
at our body, we see that it is made up of a middle, 
Questions. — What is meant by the functions of an organ ? Illus- 
trate. What are the glands ? Name some, and give their use. Name 
the general parts of the body. 8 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
barrel-shaped part, which is called the trunk. Above 
this is placed a kind of round ball, which is called the 
head; while two pairs of branches, called the limbs, 
are attached to the upper and lower corners of the 
trunk. Again, we see that the whole body has an 
outer covering, the skin. Underneath the skin lie 
long bundles of red flesh, called muscles. These 
are mostly fastened at each end to the hard parts 
or bones. The bones make up the framework or 
skeleton of our bodies. The limbs are solid ; but the 
head is hollow, and holds an organ called the brain, 
the centre of the nervous system. A cheesy-like 
substance, called the spinal cord, passes from the 
brain down the middle of the backbone, and sends 
its thread-like branches, called nerves, all over the 
body. 
It is through the nervous system that we are able 
to think or feel, or, in fact, to know any thing. Most 
of the organs of the body are in the trunk. Suppose 
we take away the skin, the muscles, and the ribs, 
which hide the inside of the body from us, and what 
shall we see ? (Fig. i.) Perhaps you have won- 
dered how your heart, your lungs, and all the other 
parts which you know you have in your body, are 
arranged. You may be able to see, very likely, the 
Questions. — Locate the skin and muscles. Where and what is 
the brain ? Where and of what use is the spinal cord ? Where are 
most of the organs of the body located ? INTRODUCTION. 
9 
body of some dead animal, such as a rabbit or a pig, 
cut open. If you can, this will give you a better 
idea of your own self than any picture can do. The 
inside of our body is very nearly like that of one of 
Fig. i. Contents of the Chest and Abdomen. 
the lower animals. They have the same organs we 
have, doing the same work. If you can see the in- 
side of any animal, you will be sure to notice how 
closely and carefully the organs are packed in the 
trunk. There is no space for any one of them to 10 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
move about; if one is ever pushed from its place, it 
must crowd upon and hurt another. 
One of the first things you will notice in Fig. 1 
is a partition, in the form of an arch, separating the 
top part of the trunk from the bottom. This is 
called the diaphragm. It makes the trunk a two- 
story house, — the abdomen down-stairs, and the 
heart and lungs in the chamber. 
Above the diaphragm — that is, in the chamber, 
or chest — are the heart and the two lungs. Below 
the diaphragm — that is, down-stairs, or in the 
abdomen — are the stomach, the liver, the pancreas, 
the spleen, the intestines, and the kidneys. These 
last-named organs lie behind the intestines, and you 
cannot see them in the picture. You can see neither 
the whole of the stomach nor its exact shape. The 
same is true of the liver and spleen and the pan- 
creas ; for these are behind the stomach, next to the 
backbone. But you can see the position in which 
most of them lie beside each other, and you should 
study the picture (Fig. 1) till you can remember 
their arrangement very well. 
7. Why the Care of our Health is a Duty.—We 
ought to keep ourselves in good health as far as we 
are able, that we may do well the duties of life, and 
Questions. — What is the diaphragm, and where is it located? 
Name the organs located in the chamber above the diaphragm. Name 
those in the chamber below it. INTRODUCTION. 
be useful to others instead of being a burden to 
them. Few people can be happy or very useful if 
they are not well. Every one has some work to do 
in the world : no one is made to be idle. Some 
have to work with their hands, others with their 
heads ; but no kind of work can be done well unless 
the body and the mind are healthy.1 
To keep ourselves alive, we must have two things, 
— food and air. But to keep ourselves healthy, the 
food must be of the right sort, and the air must be 
pure ; we must be cleanly and temperate ; we must 
have plenty of exercise in the daytime, and plenty 
of sleep at night. If we know the use of the dif- 
ferent parts of our bodies, as the lungs, the heart, 
and the stomach, we shall understand better how 
to keep them in good order; just as a man can take 
better care of his watch if he learns the use of 
the different wheels and springs. We cannot pre- 
vent all sickness and disease, but a great deal may 
be prevented when people learn to take care of 
their health. 
Questions. — Why is it a duty to take care of our health ? What 
does I)r. McSherry say in regard to the bad effects of neglecting this 
duty? 
1 Perverted health is a great factor in personal, domestic, and social unhappiness. 
Riches and fame, and power and glory, and learning, are all bagatelle as compared 
with health. Now, as health is the best gift that man can have, so far as the mere 
mortal career is concerned, it follows that its conservation merits perpetual and uni- 
versal attention.— Richard McSherry, M.D. 12 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER II. 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
8. The Framework of the Body. — The bones 
are the framework of the body. They are to the body 
what whalebones are to an umbrella, what timbers 
are to a house, or ribs to a vessel. They are the 
framework of the engine, while the chest and abdo- 
men are the boiler and tender; our food being the 
coal. The brain is like the engineer, who directs 
all. When he moves a lever, the steam rushes into 
the machinery, and puts it in motion. When we 
wish to move, a message goes from the brain to 
the muscles along the nerves, and the muscles move 
the bones. ' 
But bones are something more than a framework 
They serve many useful purposes. They protect 
the soft parts which lie beneath them. Thus the 
bones of the skull shut up the soft and delicate brain 
in a box of bone, and the ribs protect the heart and 
lungs in a barrel-shaped cage of bone. Little cups 
and tunnels are hewn out of hard bone to shield 
Questions. — To what may the bones be compared? What use- 
ful purposes do they serve ? THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
13 
vital organs. Grooves and canals are made in solid 
bone to shelter tiny blood-vessels and delicate nerves. 
Even the outside of bones is fitted with little knobs, 
grooves, and sharp edges, to which muscles and cords 
are fastened. In short, the bones are, as it were, a 
foundation upon which our bodies are securely built. 
How many bones do you think we have ? Let me 
tell you. There are in all about two hundred sepa- 
rate bones of various sizes and shapes. Taken to- 
gether they make the skeleton. We are all familiar 
with the picture of the human skeleton (Fig. 7). 
9. How Bone is made up. — Bones are very hard 
and strong. On examining a ham or mutton bone, 
we would hardly believe there is any soft matter in 
it. In reality, every bone is made up, both of a soft, 
jelly-like substance, called gelatine or animal matter, 
and a hard substance, earthy matter, made largely 
of the mineral known as lime. Let us show this by 
two simple experiments. Soak a chicken’s leg-bone 
for three days in a mixture of two ounces of muriatic 
acid and one pint of water. On taking it out, while 
the shape of the bone is the same, we find we can 
easily bend it, like a piece of rubber, or even tie it 
into a knot. What has taken place ? Why, the acid 
has eaten out the bits of lime, and left only the soft 
gelatine. 
Questions. — About how many bones are there in the human body? 
What is the skeleton ? Explain the general structure of the bones. 14 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
Again : put a soup-bone on the hot coals, and let 
it burn for three hours. Take it out carefully, and 
examine it. What do you see ? The shape of the 
bone is the same ; but it is brittle, and will easily 
crumble between the fingers. Why so ? The heat 
has burned out the soft gelatine, and left only the 
bone-earth. In childhood the bones have more ani- 
mal matter than earthy salts, while in old age they 
have more lime than gelatine. Hence the bones of 
children often bend rather than break in the many 
severe falls they meet with ; while the bones of old 
people, being brittle, often snap like a pipe-stem 
with very slight injuries. 
Bones are elastic. If a skull falls on the floor, it 
will rebound. The ribs are elastic. The Arab chil- 
dren make excellent bows with the ribs of camels. 
The power of bone to resist decay is remarkable. 
The gelatine — enough to make good glue — will 
last in a bone for hundreds of years. 
io. General Structure of Bones. — If we take a 
long bone, like that from a sheep’s leg, or even one 
end of a soup-bone, and saw it lengthwise, we see 
that the ends are soft and spongy, while the rest is 
as hard as a rock (Fig. 2). The bone is hollow 
inside, and filled with a soft, oily substance, called 
Questions. — What two experiments prove that the bones are 
composed of animal and vegetable matter? Why are the bones of 
old people more liable to break than those of the young ? TIIK BONY FRAMEWORK. 
15 
marrOW. It is this which makes the flavor and rich- 
ness of soup. Crush one end of a bone, and hold it 
over a hot fire. The heat will soon melt the mar- 
row, which will sputter and burn like tallow. The 
marrow is the life of the bone. When people speak 
of a person wanting in energy, they say, “ He has 
no marrow in his bones.” The Bible tells us that 
the “bones are moistened with marrow.” Achilles 
Fig. 2. — End of a Bone sawed open, showing the Spongy and Compact Portions. 
was a famous Greek warrior of olden times. His 
teacher, a fabled giant, it is said, fed his pupil upon 
the marrow of the lion to make him brave. The 
bones of some animals, like lobsters, are, as you 
know, on the outside. All our bones are, of course, 
inside, and are covered with muscles and fat ; and 
over all is the skin. 
Again : while we do not cast off our skeleton for a 
Questions. — With what is the inside of the bones filled? Of 
what use is this substance to the bone? 16 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
new one every year, as the lobster does, yet our bones 
are all the time being changed. They are never the 
same throughout any single hour of our lives. The 
bones are supplied with millions of the tiniest holes, 
through which hair-like blood-vessels wind their way, 
bringing food for the bone, and carrying away waste 
matters (Figs. 3 and 4). 
Thus the blood, “ the 
river of life,” oozes its 
way through every bit 
of bone as freely as 
through any other liv- 
ing tissue. 
Bones are of many 
different shapes, ac- 
cording to the uses 
to which they are put. 
Some are long and 
hollow, as the bones of 
the arm and leg; while 
others are short, as the 
bone of the fingers and toes. Some are flat, to 
cover exposed places, like the knee-pan and shoul- 
der-blades ; while others are of various odd shapes, 
as the bones of the ankle and wrist, and the back- 
bone (Figs. 3 and 4). 
Fig. 3. — Section of Bone as it looks under the 
Microscope, showing Openings of Canals. 
Question. — Explain how the bones are kept in a healthy condi- 
tion. THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
17 
ii. The Head. — The skeleton, or bony framework 
of the house we live in, — a 
house far more wonderful than 
any king’s palace, since it can 
walk, and the walls are living, 
— consists of the bones of the 
head, the trunk, and the limbs. 
The bones of the head make 
a very strong box of bone, 
commonly called the skull 
(Fig. 5). When we speak of 
the head we mean the head 
and face. 
The top part of the head, which is sometimes 
Fig. 4. — Cross Section of Bone, 
highly magnified; the Canals 
are left White. 
Fig. 5. —The Skull. 
Questions. —For convenience, into what divisions are the bones 
of the body divided? Tell what you can about the bones of the head. IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
called the brain-case, is a kind of bony shell which 
holds the brain. It is made up of several bones 
tightly locked together by seams something like the 
dovetailing used by a carpenter (Fig. 6). Put your 
hand on the head of a babe just above the forehead, 
and you will find a soft space, called a “little foun- 
tain.” Why is this ? 
Simply because, in very 
young children, these 
bones, which grow on 
their edges, do not yet 
meet, and the throbbing 
of the brain is easily 
seen and felt through 
the thin scalp. Now, 
as the bones of a child’s 
head are thus dove- 
tailed into each other, 
they yield a little, and 
do not break even if he 
tumbles and bumps his head every day. 
All the bones of the head, except the lower jaw, — 
the only movable bone of the head, — are firmly 
locked together by these dovetailed stitches, or 
sutures as they are called. The dome shape of the 
skull makes it stronger. If you have ever tried the 
Flu. 6. — The Dovetailed Joints, or Sutures, 
on Top of the Skull. 
Questions. — How are these bones fastened together? What 
gives them their strength ? THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
19 
Fig. 7.— Skeleton of Man. 20 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
strength of an egg-shell, you can understand what 
hard blows the head will bear. 
Let us see what this box of bone, 
the cupola of our bodily house, holds : 
our eyes, with which we see ; our 
ears, with which we hear; our mouths, 
into which we put our food ; the nose, 
with which we smell ; and then our 
brain. Indeed, it is a very precious 
box, we think. 
12. The Trunk. — The trunk is 
the central part of the body. Let us 
describe its bones, as those of the 
backbone, the ribs, and the hips. The 
backbone, or spine, the main pillar of 
the building, is a tapering pile of sep- 
arate bones put one on top of the 
other. The bottom of each fits ex- 
actly into the top of the next. Be- 
tween the bones are little cushions 
of gristle. They help break the force 
of any shock or injury to the spine, 
just as the springs of a carriage less- 
en the jolting. They also save any 
wear or tear of one bone on another, 
Questions. — Name all the organs contained within the skull. 
What is the trunk ? Where is the backbone, or spine ? What is 
placed between these bones, and what useful purposes does it serve ? 
Fig. 8. —The Backbone. THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
21 
and yet allow of their moving pretty freely (Fig. 8). 
You would hardly believe it, but people who stand or 
walk much are really a little shorter at night than 
they were in the morning. A day’s work presses 
together these magic springs; while a night’s rest 
allows them to expand, so that by the next morning 
we arc as tall as ever. The story is told of a young 
man, who, being just the exact height for military 
service, walked all night before going up for exami- 
nation. He gained his point, for he was no longer 
tall enough to serve as a soldier. 
Each bone of the spine has a large hole through 
it. Imagine a number of spools piled end on end, 
with the holes exactly over each other. Then there 
would be, of course, one long hole through the whole 
string of spools. This is somewhat the way the 
bones of the spine are arranged. From each bone 
of the spine project thorns of bone, to which are 
fastened muscles which keep the back up, and lift 
the head and shoulders. We can feel these bony 
ridges by running the fingers up and down the 
middle of the back. The next time you see a fish 
on the dinner-table, ask to be shown the large middle 
bone. It is the fish’s backbone ; and it will give 
you an idea of your own, for it is built on the same 
plan. 
Questions. — Why is the body shorter at night than it was in the 
morning ? How is the spine arranged ? Illustrate. 22 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
The spine is really one of the most curious things 
in nature, so firm and yet so elastic, giving the body 
its graceful form. Think of the great weight which 
a man can carry on his head with ease and safety. 
Circus-performers will bend their heads back until 
they almost touch their feet, thus bringing this curi- 
ous pile of bones nearly into the shape of a bow. 
Fig. 9. — The Hip-Bones. 
The ribs, twelve on each side, spring from the 
backbone, and pass round the chest somewhat like 
the hoops of a barrel, and are united in front to the 
breast-bone. The upper ribs are fixed : the lower 
ones bend and move when we breathe. If we press 
our hands on our sides, and take a deep breath, we 
can feel how much the ribs move. 
Every child knows how to rest his hands on the 
Questions. — Describe the location of the ribs. How many on 
each side ? Locate and describe the hip-bones. THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
23 
hips, the two large, strong bones which make up 
the lower part of the trunk (Fig. 9),—the sills of the 
house, as it were. Each of these bones has a deep, 
cup-shaped cavity on its side, about as large as a 
toy china teacup, into which the round head of the 
thigh-bone fits. 
13- The Shoulder and Arm. — The shoulder con- 
sists of the collar-bone and the shoulder-blade, the 
braces of the upper part of the body, one before and 
one behind. We can easily feel the collar-bone run- 
ning across the top of the chest, like a slender cross- 
beam, over and above the first rib. It is fastened at 
one end to the shoulder-blade and at the other to 
the breast-bone. The shoulder-blade is easily found. 
Put your hand to your shoulder where officers wear 
their epaulets, and move your 
arm up and down. You will 
feel a bone which seems to 
dance with every movement of 
the arm. This is the shoulder- 
blade (Fig. io). It has a cup- 
like cavity, into which the round 
head of the arm-bone fits, and in 
which it moves with the greatest 
ease. The main bone of the arm extends to the 
elbow, where it meets the two bones of the fore-arm. 
Fig. io. — Back of Right 
Shoulder-Blade. 
Questions. — Describe the collar-bone. The shoulder-blade. The 
bones of the arm. What are they ? 24 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
Now comes the wrist, made up of eight little bones 
wedged together like the stones of a pavement, only 
not quite so firmly. From the wrist come the bones 
of the hand, ending with the thumb and fingers 
(Fig. ii). The hand enables us to take hold of any 
thing, as a cane, or to strike a blow when the fist 
is doubled up. The bones of the hand, wrist, and 
Fig. ii. — Palm of Right Hand. 
fingers are held in place by strong but flexible bands 
and cords. This gives, as you may imagine, a great 
variety to their motions ; so that the hand can do 
almost any thing that we wish it to do, from grasp- 
ing heavy hammers, to holding a pen, and threading 
the finest needle. 
It is very curious, that, although the hand of the 
monkey and the orang-outang seems very much like 
Questions. — Describe the wrist and the hand. Iiow are these 
bones all held in place ? THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
25 
yours and mine, yet his thumb is on a line with his 
fingers, and bends in the same direction they do ; 
while our thumbs are opposite our fingers, giving 
us a wonderful advantage in grasping and holding 
objects. Man is the only animal that has his thumb 
opposed to bis fingers. 
How wonderful it is that the deaf and dumb talk 
with their hands, and the blind read with their 
fingers! Even the most common things that we 
do with our hands every day are really wonderful. 
In brief, the arm and hand, with their fifty different 
muscles and thirty bones, supplied with cords, nerves, 
blood-vessels, covered with skin, and furnished with 
nails, make a wonderful set of machinery. 
14. The Legs.— How useful are the legs to every 
other part of the body! Without bones in our 
legs we could not stand or walk. They are made 
so strong that they can support the weight of the 
body, and so light that they are capable of a great 
variety of movement. The upper bone of the leg, 
the thigh-bone, the longest and strongest bone in the 
body, reaches down to the knee. It is so large and 
so heavy, that, in handling it, one might imagine it 
to be a club; in fact, the warriors of savage tribes 
sometimes wear the thigh-bones of slain enemies, as 
a weapon, at their waists. At the knee-joint the 
Questions. — What is the difference between our thumbs and 
those of other animals ? Describe the thigh-bone. 2 6 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
thigh-bone meets the bones of the lower leg, to 
which it is united by stout cords and bands. A flat, 
three-sided bone, called the knee-pau, fits over the 
knee-joint in front. You know, if we fall in run- 
ning, we are apt to strike on the knee. This little 
heart-shaped bone keeps the joint from getting hurt. 
Fig. i2. — Bones of Foot and Ankle. 
There are two bones in the leg below the knee, 
— the shin-bone and the splint-bone, connected with 
the foot at the ankle-joint. The ankle contains seven 
queer-shaped bones, something like those of the 
wrist, but rather larger. They are bound firmly 
Questions. — Describe the knee-pan. Name the two bones in 
the leg below the knee. What can you say of the ankle ? TIIE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
27 
together, and are strong enough to bear the weight 
of the body (Fig. 12). 
The foot forms an arch known as the instep, not 
unlike the arch of a bridge, with the heel at the 
back and the toes in front. On this arch the body 
rests. It is not only very strong, but, owing to the 
toes being formed by several bones, the whole foot 
is elastic, and forms a spring by which the body is 
thrown forward without the other bones being shaken 
or jarred against each other. 
In animals which leap after their prey with a jump 
or spring, this elastic character is increased; and 
they are provided with pads under each joint, which 
serve to break the shock they would otherwise re- 
ceive. You know how quietly and nimbly a cat 
runs. Now, if you look at her paws when she has 
gloves on,” you will see that this is owing to the 
little black cushions under them. 
Wc have, as every one knows, ten toes, — five on 
each foot. The toes help us spring in walking. 
Gristly bands and cords bind the twenty-six little 
bones of the foot firmly together, and yet allow of 
many different motions. It is wonderful what habit 
and necessity will make the foot do. We who cramp 
our feet in tight boots can hardly believe it when 
we hear of persons carving, writing, and even paint- 
ing, with the toes. A few years ago a French artist 
Question. — What can you say of the foot ? 28 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
used to paint with his toes pictures worthy of a 
place in the French Exhibition. Some savage tribes 
in Australia, it is said, walk into shallow streams, 
and catch fish with their toes. Travellers tell us 
that certain African tribes steal with their toes as 
easily as with their fingers. Chinese mechanics will 
pick up tools with their toes, and work with them 
while using other tools with their hands. The 
Arabs use their fingers and toes at the same time 
in braiding ropes. 
15. How Bones are joined together. — The place 
where one or more bones meet and move upon each 
other is called a joint. Get a knuckle of ham or 
mutton at the market, open the joint by cutting 
into it, and study what you see. Our own joints 
are made exactly after the same general plan. The 
ends of the bones, shaped, as you will see, accord- 
ing to the needs of each joint, are moist, and tipped 
with a smooth, glistening layer of gristle. The 
next time you have a piece of roast veal on the 
table, examine it carefully, and you will see at 
the end a white substance, which crackles under 
your teeth : this is gristle. 
Joints are bathed with a sticky fluid something 
like the white of an egg: the common name for it 
is joint-oil. It allows the rubbing surfaces to move 
Questions. — What is a joint ? What is placed between the 
joints of the bones, and for what wise purpose ? TIIE BONY FRAMEWORK 
29 
smoothly one on another, thus saving much wear 
and tear. Think of a man who could build a ma- 
chine which would last “ threescor e years and ten ” 
or more, and keep its own joints oiled all the time! 
Some of our joints are real hinges. At the elbow 
there is a hinge-joint (Fig. 13). All the time a 
carpenter hammers, he uses 
the hinge-joint at his elbow. 
All our fingers and toes have 
hinge-joints. The most cu- 
rious joints are called ball- 
and-socket joints. The head 
of the arm - bone, as you 
know, fits into a cup in the 
shoulder - blade. When we 
move our arms round and 
round at the shoulders, we 
use this joint. A boy uses 
this joint all the time he 
turns a grindstone, or swings a bat in playing 
base-ball. 
The round head of the thigh-bone, as you already 
know, fits into the cup-like socket of the hip-bone, 
thus giving the legs great freedom of motion (Fig. 
14). All these joints are liable to be put out of 
their place. This often happens to the shoulder- 
Fig. 13. —The Right Shoulder- 
Joint. 
Questions. — Mention the different kinds of joints. What may 
often happen to any of the joints? With which is it most frequent? 30 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
joint, and occasionally to the hip-joint. Those who 
play ball, often put their finger-joints out of place. 
We should be careful not to play at too violent and 
rough games, by which we may not only put the 
joints out of place, but may also break the bones 
and sprain the cords. Many children have the habit 
Fig. 14. — The Right Hip-Joint. 
of pulling the finger-joints to make them “crack.” 
This is a foolish custom : it disfigures the hand by 
enlarging the knuckles, and, besides, may cause per- 
manent injury. 
16. How Bones are tied to Each Other. — If 
we pick up two bones that have lain for years, per- 
haps, bleaching in the sun and rain, we find that 
Questions. — Why should we be careful in our play? In what 
foolish custom do children, and sometimes grown persons, indulge ? THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
31 
the ends are smooth, and may fit exactly into each 
other. Put the ends together, and they will not stay 
a moment unless tied together by strings or some- 
thing of the kind. How, then, are the joints held in 
their places ? How are bones kept together in the 
living person ? Simply by strong straps. Some of 
them are as narrow as a 
piece of tape; others, as at 
the side of the knee or at 
the shoulder, are quite wide. 
Some cross each other, as 
at the knee-joint; while 
others shut in a joint, like 
a bag or sack, thus saving 
it from being easily slipped 
out of place. You will find 
out some day that it takes 
some skill to carve a turkey 
or a fowl, because we have to cut round these cords 
to disjoint it neatly, and serve it out in pieces for 
the plate. (Fig- 15-) 
Fig. 15. — Showing how the Wrist- 
Bones are tied together. 
17. The Health of the Bones. — The bones of 
an infant will easily bend, and even grow out of 
place, because they are soft and gristly. Stories are 
told of Indian tribes, the Flatheads, who used to 
tie small pieces of board, with bands and bandages, 
firmly on the soft and tender heads of their babies, 
Question. — How are the bones of the body tied together? 32 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
to flatten them, thinking that a flattened skull of 
this shape is beautiful. Bones, especially in chil- 
dren, are readily changed by long-continued pressure 
or strain. You may have heard of the distorted feet 
of Chinese women. These people think it is low- 
bred for women to be useful, and have natural feet: 
so they bind the baby’s feet, if it is a girl, with 
strong bands, to prevent them growing. When 
these poor children become women, they are scarcely 
able to move about. 
Did you ever think how hurtful and silly is the 
fashion of wearing tight and high-heeled boots and 
shoes ? Why so ? Because high heels throw the 
weight of the body forward, and force the foot down 
on the toes. This tends not only to crowd the toes 
out of shape, causing tender feet, corns, bunions, 
in-growing nails, and swollen joints, but makes the 
natural gait stiff and ungainly. 
Knowing the practical importance of having com- 
fortable feet, Frederick the Great kept a servant 
whose foot was exactly his size, and made him wear 
his new shoes till he himself could wear them with 
comfort; and, poor fellow, he sometimes wore them 
too long, and got kicked by his royal master for his 
pains. The Duke of Wellington, being asked once 
as to the most essential article of a soldier’s clothing, 
Question. —Why is it hurtful to wear tight and high-heeled boots 
or shoes ? THE BONY FRAMEWORK. 
33 
replied, “A good pair of shoes.” — “What next?” 
— “A spare pair of shoes.” And even thirdly, “A 
spare pair of soles.” 
Children should not be allowed to walk too early, 
before their legs are strong enough to bear the 
weight of the body. The soft bones may bend, and 
cause “ bow-legs,” so commonly seen on the street. 
Children should not get into the habit of taking 
unlikely positions, such as sliding down into the 
seat, or sitting on the foot. Bending over too much 
while reading, writing, sewing, or otherwise at work, 
is apt to cause round shoulders. 
At school the desks should not be too low, thus 
causing a forward stoop; or too high, thereby throw- 
ing one shoulder up too much, and giving a twist 
to the spine. If the seats are too high, the feet 
have no support, and injury to the thigh may result; 
if too low, there is undue strain on the shoulder and 
backbone. Round shoulders and curvature of the 
spine may result from long-continued positions of 
this kind. 
Collateral Reading. — Hooker’s Child's Book of Nature, Part 
II.; McSherry’s Health, and How to Promote It. 
Questions. — What is likely to occur if children are allowed to 
walk too early? What may cause round shoulders and curvature of 
the spine ? 34 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER III. 
THE MUSCLES 
i8. Our Muscles. — We move and walk from 
place to place by means 
of our muscles. Our 
limbs are moved by 
the muscles. Muscles 
move not only the 
limbs, but the skin. 
Watch the horse, and 
see him shake his hide 
to get rid of the biting flies. Our bones, our fingers 
and toes, our mouths, 
our eye-lids, — all are 
moved by muscles. In 
short, all motion in our 
bodies is dependent 
upon them. 
Muscle is simply lean 
meat or flesh. When 
we eat beefsteak or lean 
mutton for dinner, we are eating muscle. When 
Fig. — 16. A Muscular Bundle teased out to 
show its Fibres. 
Fig 17. — Portions of Muscular Fibre, highly 
magnified. 
Question. — Of what use are the muscles? THE MUSCLES. 
35 
Fig. 18. — Principal Muscles of the Front of the Body. 36 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
corned beef is boiled very tender, so it falls apart, 
we can easily divide it into strings : these strings 
are muscular fibres (Figs. 16 and 17). See how they 
are glued together, into bundles of various shapes, by 
a very thin web not unlike the thinnest of thin tis- 
sue-paper. Each bundle is called a muscle. We 
may compare a muscle to a handful of tiny skeins of 
silk packed into bundles, and dividing again and 
again until they are a thousand times finer than the 
finest hair on our heads. 
Muscles are of all sizes and shapes. Some are 
large, others very small ; some are shaped like fans, 
others like quill pens ; many are broad and flat in 
the middle, and taper down at each end. In brief, 
the shape of muscles varies according to the place 
where they are put and the work they have to do. 
Sometimes we can see the shape of the muscles 
through the skin, especially in the arm and shoulder 
of a man who does hard work. See the brawny arm 
of the blacksmith as he works at his forge. Look 
at those large muscles, strong as iron bands, that 
swell out as he brings his hammer down on his 
anvil. 
ig. How the Muscles do their Work.—Mus- 
cles have a peculiar power of their own, which no 
other kind of tissue in the body has. This is the 
Questions. — Describe the muscles. What may be saicl of their 
sizes and shapes ? THE MUSCLES. 
37 
power to become shorter and thicker. We see some- 
thing like muscular action in a piece of india-rub- 
ber. If we take a piece of this, and pull it out 
longer, we see that it becomes thinner ; and when 
we let it go, it snaps back, and once more becomes 
short and thick. This is very much like the action 
of our muscles; but muscular tissues do this by 
Fig. 19. — Action of a Muscle illustrated by the Biceps. 
their own peculiar power, without being pulled by 
some one else, as a piece of india-rubber must be. 
Now, let us see how this power in our muscles 
enables us to move. Let us notice what happens 
when we bend the arm, as boys do “ to try their 
muscle.” You will understand that all similar ac- 
tions — such as closing the hand, opening the mouth, 
lifting the leg, and so on — are done practically in 
Question. — In what ways may a muscle alter its shape ? 38 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
the same way. Stretch out your right arm, and 
grasp it with your left hand above the elbow, half- 
way to the shoulder (Fig. 19). Now bend your right 
arm briskly up and down, and feel the big muscle on 
the front of the arm swell and harden as you hold 
your hand upon it. What has happened ? Let me 
tell you. When we wish to draw up our hand to- 
ward our shoulder, the brain sends a message to the 
muscle ; and the muscle at once becomes thicker and 
shorter, and pulls up the fore-arm towards the shoul- 
der. Watch the bare arm of a strong man while 
he pulls up his hand to his shoulder, and you will 
see the muscle swell up as it becomes thicker and 
shorter. In this way almost all our movements are 
made. 
This is muscular action ; and this growing thicker 
and shorter, by which the action is done, is called the 
contraction of a muscle. All muscles act in this way 
by contraction; though, of course, all the muscles 
are not fastened to bones. Thus the tube by which 
food passes from the mouth to our stomach is made 
of rings of muscle. These rings contract, one after 
another, and so the food is pushed by a worm-like 
motion into the stomach. So one of the muscles of 
the mouth is a ring. This enables us to pucker our 
lips. 
Questions. — Explain how this power in the muscles enables us 
to move. What is meant by the contraction of a muscle ? THE MUSCLES. 
39 
20. Some Muscles not under the Control of our 
Will. — There are some muscles in our bodies, 
however, not under the control of our will. We do 
not mean to say that they are not controlled by 
the nervous system, but simply that they are not 
directed by our brain at first hand. In brief, these 
muscles do not need to have a message come from 
the brain telling them what to do. Let us study 
this a little. The stomach, for instance, which 
digests our food, is made of this muscular tissue 
which our will does not control. As soon as we 
swallow a mouthful of food, and it passes into the 
stomach, the nerves feel that it is there, and cause 
the muscles to begin to act in the proper manner 
for digesting it. Thus food is digested whether we 
are willing or not. 
The heart, which pumps the blood is another of 
these muscles which serve to show us the reason 
why they act without our will having to order them. 
We know that the heart is always beating. If we 
lay our hand on our left side, there it is, thud, thud, 
never stopping so long as we live. If it stops, we 
shall die. Now, if we had to will every beat of our 
heart, how dreadful it would be ! We should not be 
able to think about any thing else. Years ago a 
man lived in Ireland who could, by an effort of his 
Questions. — Name the muscles that are not under the direct 
control of our will. Illustrate by the stomach and heart. 40 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
will, cause his heart to stop beating for a few mo- 
ments. He at last lost his life in the act. 
Remember, then, that many important organs, 
made of muscular tissue, but intended always to do 
some special work, are under the management of 
nerves, but not of that part of the brain through 
which our will acts; while other muscles which have 
to do different things at different times, such as 
those of our hands, our feet, our eyes, and our lips, 
are under the control of our will, and do what we 
bid them. 
21. The Tendons.— Some of the muscles are 
fastened directly to the bones, and grow, as it were, 
into them. As a general thing, however, muscles 
are not themselves fastened to bones, but taper into 
white, tough cords, called tendons. Put your hand 
in the hollow of the knee, and you will feel some- 
thing like cords which you would almost mistake for 
bones when they stiffen. If we put our fingers on 
the front part of our wrist, and then work our hands 
and fingers, we feel some cords just beneath the 
skin (f'ig. 20). These are tendons, the little ropes 
with which the muscles in the fore-arm pull the hand 
and fingers. 
Again : if we bend our fingers to and fro, we can 
Questions.—What kind of work are these muscles required to 
do ? What kind of work are those required to do that are under the 
direct control of the will? What are tendons? THE MUSCLES. 
41 
see the tendons move on the back of the hand. 
Children at Thanksgiving-time often amuse them- 
selves by pulling the white cord in the leg of the 
turkey, and seeing its toes move. Tendons are 
most numerous about the joints, especially the larger 
Fig. 20. — Showing the Muscles and Tendons of the Hand 
ones, like the knee and elbow. They save a great 
deal of space, and allow great freedom of movement 
where muscles large enough to do the work would 
be bulky and clumsy. What a large and clumsy 
foot we should have if all the muscles which are 
needed to pull the toes were in the foot! 
Questions. — Where are the tendons to be found ? Explain their 
uses. HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
The longest and strongest tendon in the body is 
just back of the ankle (Fig. 21). It is called the 
tendon of Achilles, after the Greek hero of that 
name. According to one story, Achilles received 
his death-wound in the heel, no other part of his 
body being liable to injury. 
A horse is said to be “ham- 
strung,” and so rendered use- 
less, when this tendon is cut. 
22. Why we need Exercise. 
— Every part of our bodies 
ought to be used if we wish 
to be vigorous and healthy. 
You know what stout, strong 
arms a blacksmith has : that is 
because he uses them so much. 
Constant use, instead of wear- 
ing them out, as it would if 
they were tools, does them 
good. It is just the same 
with other parts. A person 
who uses his eyes as he ought, 
has good eyesight, and sees many things another 
person cannot see. A person who uses his ears as 
he ought, comes in time to hear many things another 
person does not hear. We are told that savages, 
Fig. 2i. — Bones of Leg and 
Foot, and Muscles of Calf. 
Questions. —Name and locate the longest and strongest tendon 
in the whole body. Why do we need plenty of exercise ? THE MUSCLES. 
43 
who are always looking and listening with all their 
might, either for enemies or game, have parts of 
their eyes actually larger than ours, just as a black- 
smith’s arms grow larger by constant use. 
Any part of our body that we do not use, finally 
becomes weak and helpless. Let the blacksmith 
change his work for that of a clerk, and the once 
brawny arms become smaller and weaker. We read 
of certain people in India, who, as an act of wor- 
ship, keep one arm raised hbove the head until the 
muscles shrivel, and become useless. 
All the parts of the body have so much to do 
with each other, that each one has some effect on 
all the others. Now, what we commonly call taking 
exercise — that is, walking, running, and jumping — 
not only strengthens our arms and legs and backs, 
but makes our blood flow faster and brisker. It 
makes us breathe in a great deal more fresh air, it 
helps us to get rid of more waste matter, it makes 
us warm and comfortable, and it keeps our digestive 
organs in good order. In brief, exercise makes us 
stronger and better all over. 
What a good thing it is for boys and girls that 
they are so fond of play ! Playing base-ball, running 
races, skipping with a rope, — all these games help 
Questions. — What would happen to any part of our bodies 
should it get no exercise ? Of what use is walking, running, and 
jumping to boys and girls ? 44 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
them to grow up into active, healthy men and women. 
The old adage says, “ Change of work is as good as 
play.” There is a sense in which it is quite true. If 
we have been sitting and reading a long time, it rests 
us to get up and take a walk. If we have taken a 
long walk, it rests us to sit down and read. In 
these ways change of work is as good as play, be- 
cause it is a real change, and exercises quite a 
different part of our bodies. 
23. Time for Exercise'. — The best time to take 
exercise is about two hours after a meal. It is not 
best to do hard work or take severe exercise before 
breakfast. Those who go to work, or study, before 
breakfast, should first eat a little plain food, or even 
drink a glass of milk, just enough to “stay the 
stomach.” Just after a full meal, the stomach is 
busily doing its duty : hence severe exercise at this 
time is apt to hinder its action, and results sooner 
or later in ill digestion. 
The evening is not the best time for exercise, 
because the body is tired after the labor of the day. 
It is useless to make any exact rule for any one 
person. Ordinary work or moderate exercise, as 
walking, is healthful at almost any time, except just 
after a full meal. 
Questions. — How do you explain the old adage which says, 
“ Change of work is as good as play ” ? What is the best time to 
take exercise ? THE MUSCLES. 
45 
24- Different Kinds of Exercise. — The kind of 
exercise depends very much upon one’s daily work. 
Persons who sit at desks, stand at counters, or work 
in close rooms, as clerks, teachers, tailors, and print- 
ers, are apt to suffer from a lack of bodily exercise 
and from foul air. Every person should learn by 
careful observation to know his own needs and his 
own dangers. All sound persons should every day 
do some work or take some exercise with both body 
and mind. To get and to keep vigorous health, it 
is not at all necessary to increase the size of our 
muscles very much, or to do great feats of strength. 
Walking is the best of all exercises. It takes us 
into the open air and the bright sunlight; it puts 
new life into many important muscles of the chest, 
abdomen, and limbs. With a brisk walk every day, 
taking care to keep warm and dry, no one need 
suffer from lack of proper exercise. Running, leap- 
ing, climbing, and other vigorous sports, are well 
enough if we do not get over-tired. Violent sports, 
such as base-ball and foot-ball, are severe exercises, 
and occasionally dangerous. Rowing is admirably 
suited to most persons of either sex. Horseback 
riding, coasting, swimming, and skating are impor- 
tant helps to increase bodily vigor. 
Questions. — What classes of persons most need exercise, ard 
why? What is the advantage of walking as an exercise? Explain 
why we should be careful with violent sports. 46 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
The quick and graceful gymnastic exercises prac- 
tised in many of our schools are especially healthful, 
and should be more generally used. Growing chil- 
dren should be trained every day, at home or in 
school, in the use of light wooden dumb-bells, light 
clubs, or wands. A daily exercise of ten minutes 
will do much to develop feeble and narrow chests, 
to check a tendency to curvature of the spine and 
round shoulders, so common with young people, 
and to give strength 
and vigor to all parts 
of the body. 
One of the simplest 
and most useful modes 
of light gymnastics is, 
to fasten a broomstick 
in some suitable place in 
your house, suspending 
it securely over your 
head as high as you can reach. Exercise several 
times every day in this way : swing, hanging by both 
hands ; after a while with one hand, and drawing the 
body up to the stick. Physicians often work wonders 
by similar means towards improving the health and 
developing the lungs of feeble children. (Fig. 22.) 
Fig. 22. — Exercise on the Swinging-Bar. 
Collateral Reading. — Blaikie’s How to Get Strong, How to Stay 
So ; Blaikie’s Sound Bodies for our Boys and Girls. 
Question. — What is the advantage of light gymnastics? THE MUSCLES. 
47 
25. Effect of Alcohol on the Muscles. — If a 
person drinks more or less alcoholic liquor, the mus- 
cles are acted upon in a peculiar way, Why so ? 
Because the nerve-force that governs the muscles is 
weakened, and they show a lack of control. Every 
one is familiar with the unsteady and staggering gait 
of a drunken person. 
The delicate movements which require the long 
training of certain muscles, as in handling fine tools 
and doing gymnastic feats, cannot be done. An in- 
toxicated person may know the right way of making 
each movement, and may succeed, after a fashion, in 
doing it; but, when a certain point of intoxication 
has been reached, this is impossible. 
Under the influence of alcohol, the trained muscles 
become feeble and trembling, and are no longer whol- 
ly under the control of the will. The rapidity with 
which this loss of control is produced varies greatly 
with the individual, with the kind of liquor, the rate 
at which it is taken, and many other circumstances. 
Note. — The subject of physical training, especially in our schools 
and colleges, has been ably discussed by Professor Edward M. Mart- 
well of Johns- Hopkins University, in one of the “Circulars of Infor- 
mation of the Bureau of Education,” published by the United-States 
Government, No. 5, 1885. 
Questions. —What is the effect of alcohol on the muscles? Why 
is this true ? 48 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER IV. 
WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
26. Why we need Food. — Our bodies, as you 
have been told before, are in some respects like a 
steam-engine. Our food is to us what coal is to 
the engine. Like the locomotive, our bodies move 
about, and are warm, because a fire is always burn- 
ing in them. This fire, like that of the engine, 
needs fresh fuel from time to time. Without fuel 
and air, the fire in the engine will go out. So it is 
with our bodies : without food and air, the bodily 
fire would soon go out, and we should die for want 
of them. When coal or wood is burned, we get 
ashes. So, too, in our bodies: we produce not 
exactly ashes, but something like them, which must 
be got rid of, else the fire would flag. 
Again : each and every part of the steam-engine 
is always wearing out. So it is with our bodies : we 
are all the time wearing out. Every beat of the 
heart, every movement of a muscle, the wink of an 
eyelid and the twist of the tongue, even our very 
Question. —In the matter of work, waste, and repair, how does 
0 
the human body resemble a steam-engine? Illustrate. WIIAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
49 
thoughts, — all these lead to waste. Plvery step we 
take, every word we speak, wastes a little bit of our 
bodies. In short, we are working and wasting all 
the time, at the expense of some tiny portion of the 
body. 
Then, why do we not waste away ? We weighed 
this morning just as much as we did three days ago ; 
some of us, we hope, a little more. How can this 
be ? Why, we have been doing something else, part 
of the day, besides working and wasting. This some- 
thing was to eat our dinner yesterday and our break- 
fast to-day. This is the whole story. What we eat 
and drink takes the place of what is used up or 
wasted. If we are young and growing, we must 
take in a little more than the actual waste. Nearly 
all this waste is made good by our food and drink: 
the rest of it comes from the air we breathe. 
The food we eat, you will think, does not look 
much like our bodies, of which it is to make a part. 
Perhaps we may think the meat is rather like it; 
but how about bread, milk, butter, and potatoes ? 
How are all these things turned into flesh, hair, and 
bone? How, indeed, does it ever get to them,—to 
our knees, fingers, toes, and eyes, for instance? Let 
me tell you in four words: the blood carries it. The 
blood not only carries away the waste matter from 
Questions. — Why do we need food? How does the food which 
we eat and drink, and the air we breathe, become a part «f our bodies ? 50 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
every part of the body, but also brings nourishment 
to every part. In brief, as the Bible says, “The 
blood is the life.” 
27. Tissue Foods; the Albumens. — What a 
great variety of articles we eat and drink! Is this 
a good or a bad thing ? A good thing, as we shall 
soon see. Many unnatural things are eaten for food 
in certain parts of the world. Thus certain tribes 
of Indians in South America eat a peculiar kind of 
clay. Beetles were eaten by Roman epicures, and 
are said also to be eaten by Turkish women to make 
themselves fat. Bees, moths, ants, mice, and many 
small animals, form staple articles of diet in other 
countries. Humboldt, the great traveller, tells us 
that centipedes are eaten eagerly by some of the na- 
tives of South America. Locusts and grasshoppers 
are eaten by the Digger Indians in the West. 
We can easily put all ordinary foods into three 
great groups. First, we have certain kinds of food to 
make up for the wear and tear of the body; that is, 
tissue foods, or albumens, so called because they build 
up the tissues. They are called albumens because 
they contain a whitish substance called albumen. 
The white of an egg is a familiar illustration : it is 
almost wholly made up of albumen. Lean meat, the 
cheesy part or curd of milk, pease, and beans are 
Questions. — What is meant by tissue food? Name the most 
familiar examples of albumenous food. WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
rich in albumen. Wheat, barley, oats, rice, and corn 
also contain albumen. All these foods hold some- 
thing which in its usual form is a gas, and makes 
up a large part of the air around us. This is nitro- 
gen : it is never found by itself in the body, but is 
always combined with other things. Our muscles 
and blood are especially rich in nitrogen. We are 
using up and getting rid of it every moment. 
Hence, to make good this loss, we must eat tissue- 
making food, or else we should slowly starve to 
death. 
28. Fuel Food : the Sugars and Starches. — 
Now, while some foods are chiefly useful as flesh- 
formers,— that is, they mainly go to make new flesh 
and new bone, — other foods more especially make 
heat, and enable us to do work. These fuel or heat- 
giving foods have no nitrogen ; but they do have 
much of a well-known element called carbon, known 
in another form as charcoal. We may divide them 
into two classes, — the sugars and starches, and the 
fats. 
We might, perhaps, think that all our sugar comes 
from sugar-cane, and must be bought at the grocer’s ; 
but this is quite wrong. There is a little sugar in 
wheat, and a good deal in some other things we eat, 
such as pease, oatmeal, beets, honey, milk, grapes, 
Questions. — What gas does all tissue food contain, and why is it 
necessary to our bodies ? Of what use arc the sugars and starches ? 52 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
watermelons, and many other articles. Sugar is very 
easily digested ; it is dissolved in the mouth by the 
saliva, and then passes down the food-pipe into the 
stomach, where it is taken up by the blood-vessels. 
In the blood the carbon of the sugar combines with 
another element, called oxygen, and makes heat. 
The sugars and starches form a large part of all 
those plants commonly used as food. Wheat, barley, 
rye, oats, rice, corn, arrowroot, sago, and potatoes 
are rich in starch. In its natural state, starch is 
useless as food until it has been acted upon by the 
digestive fluids. 
When starch is well chewed, it is changed into 
sugar by the action of the saliva. This is why a 
piece of bread tastes sweeter after it has been in 
the mouth for a few minutes. Old people with poor 
teeth, and young people too, indeed, often like the 
crust of bread, or the heel of a loaf, especially if it 
is soaked in milk or tea. Why? Because it is 
sweet; and it is sweet because, having been baked 
harder, the starch has been partly changed into 
sugar. We seldom, however, keep the food long 
enough in the mouth to change all the starch of 
our food into sugar; this is done farther along in 
the act of digestion, as we shall soon see. 
Questions.—Of what use is the sugar to the body after it has 
been digested in the stomach ? From what sources is it most abun- 
dantly obtained? WIIAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
53 
29. The Fats. — Some people, especially children, 
do not like fat; some of us may have a feeling of 
disgust at the mere thought of it. But we all must 
eat fat in some form or other. We are familiar with 
this class of food, under the names of pork, fatty 
meat, suet, lard, butter, olive-oil, and cod-liver oil. 
Fat is rich in carbon, and another element called 
hydrogen. It is a heat-giving or fuel food. Its two 
parts, the carbon and hydrogen, combine with the 
oxygen in the blood, and make much heat. We 
know how brightly and quickly fatty substances 
burn in the air when set on fire. Now, they burn 
just as well in the body, but much more slowly; 
thus making a gentler heat, but one which lasts a 
longer time. For this reason, fatty foods are much 
used by people who live in cold countries. The 
Esquimaux, who live in Greenland, drink one or two 
quarts of oil, and eat several pounds of tallow can- 
dles, every day. Their children, it is said, have as 
keen a relish for tallow candles as our children have 
for bananas or ice-cream. Sir John Franklin once 
tried to find out how much fat an Esquimau boy could 
eat. Fourteen pounds of tallow candles quickly disap- 
peared ; and Sir John, feeling alarmed for his stores, 
closed the experiment with a large piece of fat pork. 
Questions. — Name another class of heat-giving food. How is 
the body supplied with heat from the fats? Why are the fats eaten 
by people who live in a cold country ? 54 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
Oil is a luxury greedily devoured by the Northern 
races, as was amusingly proved in a seaport town 
some years ago. The town was lighted with oil- 
lamps, and it was noticed that they went out early 
for several successive nights. At last it was discov- 
ered that some Russian sailors in the harbor climbed 
the lamp-posts and drank the oil. Once upon a time 
some English sailors made a “ Christmas-tree ” for 
some Esquimau children by tying together some 
walrus-bones, and hanging on them balls of whale- 
blubber, instead of bonbons. This was a rare treat 
for the children, who ate the balls of fat as eagerly 
as we would eat chocolate-creams. 
30. The Mineral Foods: the Salts and Iron.— 
All the foods we have just studied come from living 
things, as animals and vegetables. Besides these, 
we must cat certain things which have no life, and 
never had. We will call these mineral foods. First 
of all, water is a mineral food ; but this will be de- 
scribed more fully hereafter. We cannot do without 
common salt as an article of food. All nations, both 
civilized people and savage tribes, eat it daily, both by 
itself and along with other food. The lower animals 
like it too. Farmers put lumps of salt in their fields 
for the sheep and cows to eat. Wild animals flock 
in great numbers to places known as salt-licks. 
Questions.—Explain what is meant by mineral food. Explain 
the importance of salt as a food. WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
55 
Men have risked their lives to get even a taste of 
salt. In olden times untold tortures were inflicted 
upon prisoners by feeding them on bread alone, and 
that made without salt. In most countries it “is as 
cheap as dirt,” while in parts of Africa it is worth 
its weight in gold. Salt has always been the symbol 
of life, hospitality, and wisdom ; and the Scriptures 
tell us, “ Salt is good. Have salt in yourselves, 
and have peace one with another.” 
How much salt do you suppose we have in our 
bodies? About half a pound, but we are all the time 
losing it. Tears, we know, contain salt ; and it is 
also found in the sweat. Some may think they do 
not eat any salt, because they do not eat it by itself. 
But we must remember that many foods we eat, as 
meat, oatmeal, and cheese, have just a little of it. 
Now, we need some other salts to help purify the 
blood. These are the salts of potash, found in 
the vegetables, especially lettuce. Sailors who have 
been forced to go for a long time without fresh vege- 
tables always suffer much from a fearful disease 
called scurvy. In Lord Anson’s celebrated expedi- 
tion round the world, which left England in 1740, 
four out of five of the original crew died of scurvy. 
Again, we all need, especially growing children, salts 
Questions. — About how much salt is contained in the human 
body ? Of what use to the body are the salts obtained from eating 
vegetables ? 56 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
of lime to make the bones harder and stronger. 
This is one reason why children should eat plenty 
of bread and milk. 
Would you think that we need any iron in our 
food ? Well, we do ; for it is iron that helps to make 
good blood, and to color it a bright-red hue. Iron in 
small amounts is found in many of the foods we eat. 
Some years ago, as the story is told, a certain gen- 
tleman desired in his will that his body should be 
burned instead of being buried. His friend, a fa- 
mous chemist, saw that his wish was gratified; and, 
collecting the ashes of the body, he obtained from 
them enough iron to make a mourning-ring. 
31. Water as a Food. — Pure water is our great 
natural drink. Many savage nations know no other 
drink, and require no other. Water helps to change 
our food into the blood, dissolving it in the stomach 
just as it would in a glass. A lump of sugar put 
into a glass of water soon disappears, but we know 
it is still in the water by its sweet taste. Not only 
is the greater part of our drink water; but bread, 
meat, potatoes, fruits, and other foods, also have 
water to make them easy to digest. Nearly three- 
fourths of the weight of our body is made up of 
water ; in fact, every tissue and organ in the body 
is watery. 
Questions. — Of what use is iron in our f@od ? How does it get 
into the body ? Explain the importance of pure water as a food. WIIAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
57 
How important it is, then, to have the water we 
drink pure and fresh ! We are all the time getting 
rid of a great deal of water, — nearly two quarts 
every day, — through the skin, lungs, and kidneys: 
hence we must take in water every day to make up 
for this loss, besides what we drink. Certain foods, 
as lettuce, cabbage, apples, fish, potatoes, and lean 
meat, are more than three-fourths water. Water 
alone will prolong life if nothing else can be had. 
A few years ago, as some of us remember, it was 
claimed that Dr. Tanner lived forty days without 
taking any other food than water. There is a well- 
known case of a miner who lived twenty-three days, 
buried in a coal-mine, without swallowing any thing 
but water sucked through a straw. 
32. Important Articles of Diet. — The most im- 
portant food is bread, “ the staff of life,” without 
which we should indeed be poorly off. There is no 
single food in the world which meets so many real 
wants of the body. Bread may be made from the 
flour of many kinds of seeds, — such as wheat, oats, 
barley, rye, and Indian corn ; but in this country it 
is nearly always made from wheat. Wheat-flour 
gives us starch, sugar, and a kind of albumen called 
gluten ; hence wheat has nearly every thing to sup- 
Questions. — Name some articles of diet that contain a large pro- 
portion of water. What can you say of the importance of bread as 
an article of diet? What is nearly a perfect food, and why? 58 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
port life, except fat. When we eat bread and butter, 
we have nearly a perfect food. 
Corn-meal is a highly nutritious and cheap article 
of food. Oatmeal and milk is a very cheap and 
nutritious article of diet. The famous Dr. Johnson 
once spoke of oats as “food for men in Scotland, 
and horses in England ; ” and a sturdy Scotchman 
added, “Yes, indeed; and where will you find such 
men and such horses ? ” 
Rice, though rich in carbon, is one of the least 
nutritious of all the cereals. Pease and beans con- 
tain more nitrogen than any of the cereals, and are 
as rich in carbon as is wheat-flour. The common 
or Irish potato is a most important article of diet; 
although it is more than two-thirds water, and has 
little nutriment, yet it is easily digested, and is a 
cheap and economical article of diet. 
Ripe fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, melons, 
grapes, and oranges, though not of much nutritious 
value, are prized for their agreeable flavor. Sugar 
and molasses are both largely used in cooking and 
confectionery. 
Among animal foods, milk is the simplest and 
best. It is, indeed, a model food. It has flesh- 
forming, bone-making, and heat-giving material in 
Questions. — What can you say of corn-meal as an article of 
diet ? of rice ? of the ripe fruits ? Of the animal foods, which is the 
best, and why ? WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
59 
the right proportions, especially for children. What 
a wonderful thing is an egg! It has a great amount 
of nutriment packed away in the smallest space, and 
is easily digested. Its value as food is equal to that 
of the same weight of meat. 
Meats, for the most part, consist of the muscles 
of the various animals. The most common are beef, 
mutton, lamb, veal, and pork. Meat is rich in albu- 
men, and has more or less of fat. It is a most impor- 
tant article of diet, and, as a whole, is easily digested, 
except, perhaps, veal and pork. Fish is at once a 
cheap and nourishing food. Poultry is easy to digest, 
and gives a deal of nourishment, especially for the 
sick. Like all fats, butter is almost entirely a heat- 
giving and force-making food. Cheese is nutritious, 
but is not easily digested. 
33. Artificial Drinks. — Man has always contrived 
many ways to flavor his drink. The greater portion 
of almost every drink is water, but in various ways 
other substances are mingled with it to give it a 
pleasant taste. Such drinks have always been 
highly prized by all nations. Tea, coffee, cocoa, 
beer, wine, and distilled liquors are the more com- 
mon artificial drinks. All such beverages rank as 
articles of luxury, and not as real necessities of life. 
Questions.—Name the meats used as food that are easily di- 
gested ; that are hardest to digest. What can you say of fish ? poul- 
try ? butter and cheese ? Name the artificial drinks. 60 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
34. Tea and Coffee.— Tea and coffee are useful 
additions to the diet. They gently stimulate the 
nervous system, producing a slight feeling of excite- 
ment and a relief from fatigue. Coffee is especially 
useful as a stimulant after severe labor, great ex- 
posure, and hard study. Soldiers, sailors, miners, 
and others exposed to hardships, will thrive on 
scanty food if well supplied with coffee. If taken in 
moderation, tea and coffee seldom do harm. Some 
persons, however, cannot drink a single cup of coffee 
or of tea without feeling the worse for it; headache, 
indigestion, heartburn, wakefulness at night, and 
costiveness are the most common effects. 
Strong tea in large quantities should never take 
the place of ordinary food. Hard-working women 
and others too often make their meals of dry 
toast and several cups of strong tea. Such a habit 
is sure to result in indigestion. Taken in excess, 
tea may weaken the action of the heart, and produce 
the peculiar beating, after much exertion, known 
as palpitation: hence we have the “tea-drinker’s 
heart.” Coffee and tea are hurtful articles of diet 
for growing boys and girls. 
35. Alcohol. — When the juice of apples is first 
pressed out, it is sweet. If kept warm, or allowed to 
Questions. —In what way may coffee and tea be made useful ad- 
ditions to the diet ? In what way may they be made to do harm ? 
What may be said of their effects upon growing boys and girls ? WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK. 
61 
stand, it soon begins to “work,” or ferment. The 
new cider loses its sweet taste, begins to bubble, and 
becomes of a very different taste and odor. The 
sweet cider has become hard. The sugar has 
changed into a gas called carbonic acid, and into 
alcohol, which gives a peculiar flavor. The juices of 
all kinds of ripe fruit will soon begin to “work,” 
or ferment, in the same way. The starchy grains of 
corn, rye, barley, and other cereals, if kept warm 
and moist, are rapidly changed into sugar, and then 
into alcohol. This change is called fermentation. 
Thus wine is fermented grape-juice, and cider is fer- 
mented apple-juice. The carbonic-acid gas partly 
evaporates, and partly remains to give life to the 
liquor. 
The intoxicating principle is the alcohol, which, 
when once taken up by the blood, acts upon the body 
in a remarkable manner. 
Alcohol is a clear, colorless liquid with a burning 
taste. It is lighter than water, and mingles freely 
with it. It has a penetrating and peculiar odor; it 
has never been frozen ; it burns readily, giving much 
heat and but little light. Alcohol is a staple article 
of commerce, and is used extensively in various 
trades and professions. 
Almost every drink that intoxicates contains more 
or less alcohol. Such beverages may differ a great 
Question. — What is alcohol ? describe its properties. 62 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
deal, as much as old cider does from rare wine, or 
the costliest brandy from the cheapest whiskey ; and 
yet the intoxicating power is always there, due solely 
to the alcohol each contains. 
36. Principal Drinks that contain Alcohol. — 
Under the name of “beer” may be included lager- 
beer, ale, and porter. Beer is very extensively used 
as a beverage. Compared with distilled liquors, it 
has a small amount of alcohol. Wine is made from 
the sweet juices of fruits, which are pressed out, 
allowed to ferment, and then bottled. 
By heating a fermented liquid, the alcohol in it 
can be readily driven off in the form of vapor ; this 
is condensed in a cool receiver, and the result is a 
new and stronger liquor. This process is called dis- 
tillation. The alcohol of commerce is distilled from 
whiskey. Beverages thus distilled are commonly 
known as “spirits” and “ardent (burning) spirits.” 
Brandy is distilled from wine, whiskey from fer- 
mented corn and rye, gin from barley and rye, and 
rum from fermented molasses. Distilled liquors con- 
tain from forty to fifty per cent of alcohol, the rest 
being water flavored with various aromatics. Enor- 
mous quantities of alcoholic beverages are used in 
almost every part of the world. The effect of alco- 
Questions. — Mention some of the principal drinks that contain 
alcohol. What is distillation ? From what articles are these prin- 
cipal drinks distilled ? WHAT WE EAT ANI) DRINK. 
63 
hoi upon our bodily life is a subject of the most 
profound importance. 
37. Alcohol as a Food. —A certain portion of a 
small dose of alcohol serves, like tea and coffee, to 
hinder the waste of the tissues in a very limited way. 
Scientifically speaking, then, alcohol has been held 
by some as a food in the widest sense of the word. 
Now, because alcohol is regarded by some as a pos- 
sible food, it by no means follows that it is a safe 
food. In fact, it is plainly evident to any sensible 
person that alcohol is so dangerous an article of diet 
that practically we do not call it a food, but a poison. 
Certain poisonous drugs, arsenic for example, given 
by doctors as medicines, hinder the waste of the 
tissues ; but we certainly should not on this account 
class or use them as food. 
As a beverage, alcohol in its various forms is the 
deadly enemy of human life, either from a physical, 
moral, or intellectual point of view. The position of 
alcohol as a substitute for ordinary food, or as an 
addition to it, cannot be correctly defined without 
reference to its effects upon the nervous system, — 
effects so rapid, so far-reaching, and so poisonous, 
that its influence upon the general nutrition is of 
little account. 
38. Alcohol and Work. — Does alcohol enable us 
Questions. — Why is not alcohol a safe food ? What can be said 
of it as a beverage ? 64 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
to do more work ? Many interesting experiments 
have been tried to test this point. At first alcohol 
may give a slight and short renewal of strength, but 
it is only for a moment. It is rapidly followed by a 
diminished ability to wrork. How shall we explain 
it ? Let me tell you. We shall learn in a following 
chapter that alcohol increases and weakens the beat 
of the heart, and lowers the bodily temperature.1 
Hence, because the pumping-engine of the body is 
working more feebly and faster, and because there is 
less heat in the body in consequence of the alcohol, 
it is not at all strange that the power to do muscular 
work should be lessened. 
Hence men who are in training for boat-racing, 
base-ball, foot-racing, and other sports where great 
exertion is called for, are never allowed to use alco- 
holic liquors. The recent war in the Soudan showed 
that the British soldiers could endure the hardships 
of war in that hot country better without alcohol 
than with a regular ration of strong drink. 
Questions.—Does alcohol enable us to do more work? What 
does Dr. McSherry say on this subject ? 
1 “ Alcohol is quite capable of damaging each and every organ and tissue of the 
human body; and, furthermore, its victim transmits mental and physical disease, or 
strong tendencies thereto, to succeeding generations. Hence, alcohol becomes a dan- 
gerous instrument, even in the hands of the strong and wise, a murderous instrument 
in the hands of the foolish and weak.” — Richard McSherry, M.D. DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
65 
CHAPTER V. 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
3g. What is meant by Digestion. — When a sick 
person is very feeble indeed, especially from the loss 
of blood, the doctors sometimes do a remarkable 
surgical operation : they open the sick person’s vein, 
and inject warm milk or beef-tea, or perhaps fresh 
blood directly from another person’s veins. They 
inject enough of this to revive the sick man, and 
thus perhaps save his life. But no one would ever 
think of feeding a person many days in this unnatural 
way. Of course, the best way to be fed is by the 
good old mode of eating and drinking. 
A part of what we eat is not nutritious, and would 
clog up the body instead of feeding it. The waste 
part of the food, therefore, must be got rid of; but 
the nourishing part, after it has gone through many 
changes, and has had some things added to it, be- 
comes at last the living fluid called blood. Can any 
thing be more wonderful than that flesh and vegeta- 
bles, and bread and water, and other things that 
have no life in themselves, should, when once taken 
Question. — Explain what is meant by digestion. 66 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
into the body, change into living flesh, living bone, 
living skin ? 
The process by which food is thus made fit to 
mix with the blood is called digestion. 
In a general way, we may 
compare this process to a 
vegetable-garden, where 
side by side, from the same 
soil, grow pease, corn, toma- 
toes, pungent horse-radish, 
and sharp peppers, — and 
poisonous weeds by the 
fence on the edge of the 
garden. 
40. What takes Place in 
the Mouth. The Teeth. 
— The food is broken into 
pieces in the mouth by the 
teeth, — valuable little jew- 
els, of which the jaws are 
the jewel-cases (Figs. 24 
and 25). During our life- 
time we have two sets of 
teeth. The first set, twenty in number, begins to 
appear when a child is about six months old. A 
child may really be born with teeth. Some day you 
will read in your history that Louis XIV., a great 
Fig. 23. — Diagram of the Digestive 
Canal. 
Question. — Describe the two sets of teeth. DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
67 
king of France, Richard III., a wicked king of Eng- 
land, and Mirabeau, a famous French orator, were 
born into the world with teeth. 
When we are about six years old, the first set, 
commonly called the milk-teeth, drops out ; and the 
second or permanent set of teeth, thirty-two in num- 
The teeth of one-half of the jaw separated. 
Fig. 24.— Vertical Section through 
a Tooth lodged in its Socket. 
Fig. 25. — The Teeth. 
ber, gradually takes its place. Each tooth is set 
clown into a socket in the jaw-bone, like a post in a 
hole. The teeth are coated with a thin layer of 
a very hard substance, called enamel. Each tooth 
has inside a fine tube filled with blood-vessels and 
nerves (Fig. 24). When a tooth is decayed, and the 
nerve is open to the air, it makes it ache. 
Questions. — What can you say of the structure of the tooth? 
Explain the cause of tooth-ache. 68 
now TO KEEP WELL. 
As some of you know, it hurts to have a tooth 
pulled out. Cruel men have taken advantage of this 
fact, and used it as a means of torture. In some 
countries they used to pull the teeth of those con- 
victed of offences against the law. Louis XI., a 
cruel king of France, tortured the children of his 
Fig. 26. — Section of Jaws, showing the Milk and Second Teeth. 
nobles in this way. In early English times, gold 
was thus cruelly wrested from rich money-lenders. 
41. Mixing the Food with Saliva. — The food, 
chewed by the teeth, is rolled around by the tongue, 
hard pressed against the roof of the mouth, and then 
swallowed. During this time the food is well mixed 
with the fluid of the mouth, called saliva, which 
Question. — Explain the work performed by the teeth and the 
tongue in preparing the food for digestion in the stomach. DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
69 
flows from a number of little spongy organs inside 
the mouth (Fig. 27). Probably you have had the 
“mumps,” or at least have seen some friend who 
has had the disease. What is it ? Why, sometimes 
these little organs, 
of which there is 
one under each 
ear, become in- 
flamed, and grow 
large; and this is 
known as the 
“ mumps.” 
The saliva wets 
the food, and so 
makes it easier to 
swallow. It has, besides, another very important 
work to do : it acts on the starchy part of the food, 
changing some of it into sugar. You know that a 
piece of bread grows sweet in the mouth when it 
is well wet with saliva. This work of the saliva is 
important, else starch could not be dissolved, and 
therefore would do us no good as food, while sugar 
is readily dissolved. 
When we are not eating, the saliva flows only in 
small quantities, just enough to keep the mouth 
comfortably moist; but when we begin to eat, these 
little factories do a brisk business, and pour into the 
Fig. 27.—One of the Salivary Glands. 
Questions. — What is saliva ? what office does it perform ? 70 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
mouth a large quantity, about half a pint, it is said, 
at a single meal. The sight, or even the thought, of 
a savory dish, will make the saliva flow, or, as we 
say, “make the mouth water.” The sight of a piece 
of meat will make the saliva run out of a hungry 
dog’s mouth. Run your finger to and fro in the 
mouth several times, and notice how quickly the 
saliva flows. 
Smoking and chewing tobacco cause an undue 
amount of saliva to flow from these glands, thus 
making the mouth dry. The constant spitting of 
tobacco-juice wastes the saliva needed to digest the 
food, and after a time causes ill digestion. 
We can now understand how necessary it is to 
chew our food well with our teeth before swallowing 
it. If we eat very fast, and bolt our food nearly 
whole, we get little good from it. It does not digest 
easily, and sooner or later we shall suffer for our 
negligence.' 
42. How the Food is swallowed. — The food is 
now ready to be swallowed. The soft, moist mass, 
pushed into the back of the mouth, is forced down 
Questions. — Why are smoking and chewing tobacco injurious to 
the digestive organs ? In what other way may the digestive organs 
be impaired ? 
1 “ If the food reaches the stomach imperfectly masticated, the process of digestion 
is delayed, and as a result the stomach may become dilated. The habitual drinking ol 
large quantities may cause dilation of the stomach.” — Professor William H. Welch, 
Johns Hopkins University. DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
71 
the gullet, or food-pipe, by a peculiar motion some- 
thing like the waving of the skin of a worm’s body 
when it is crawling. If you watch a horse’s neck 
when he is drinking, you will see the peculiar motion 
Fig. 28, — Section showing Passages to the Gullet and Windpipe. 
along his food-pipe. A wave of motion follows just 
behind the food, and pushes it down. 
Another hollow tube, in front of the gullet, opens 
into the back of the mouth,—for you know it is as 
Question. — How is the food swallowed? 72 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
necessary to breath air into our lungs as it is to 
take food into our stomach, — and this other tube, 
or wind-pipe as it is called, is therefore for the air 
to go down. If the food were to slip down the wind- 
pipe instead of the food-pipe, we should be choked 
to death. We all know, when a bit of food goes 
“ the wrong way,” how we have to cough until we 
get it up. In order, then, to prevent mistakes, the 
top of the wind-pipe is protected by a trap-door. 
A very clever fellow this little trap-door is. When 
we are just going to swallow a morsel of food, down 
it goes quick and tight, and keeps the food out of 
the wind-pipe ; but, as soon as the food is down, up 
jumps the trap-door, so as to let air pass down to the 
lungs. This wonderfully useful little servant does 
not have any common name, but is called the epi- 
glottis, meaning, “upon the tongue.” 
43- What takes Place in the Stomach. — The 
food, a moistened, partly digested mass, has now 
reached the stomach (Fig. 29). This is a pear-shaped 
bag, capable of holding about two quarts. It lies 
across the upper part of the abdomen, a little toward 
the left side. The size of the stomach depends 
upon what there is in it. As we fill it with food, it 
swells out larger, like a toy balloon, which becomes 
smaller or larger according to the amount of air in it. 
Questions. — Explain the action of the epiglottis in swallowing. 
After the food is properly masticated and swallowed, where does it go? DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
73 
The stomach has two openings, — the gullet end, 
through which the food enters ; and the out-going 
end, a kind of muscular ring. This out-going end, 
called the “gate-keeper,” is made in such a wonder- 
ful manner that any food trying to get through too 
soon is sent back again, so that only properly 
digested food is 
allowed to pass. 
Would not that 
carpenter be called 
a very clever man 
who could make a 
door which would 
open and shut of 
itself at the right 
time, which would 
let only the right sort of people go in, and would 
crowd away the wrong ones ? 
As we begin to eat, the walls of the stomach 
stretch themselves out to make room for the food, 
and begin to move gently with a wavy motion, which 
carries the food round and round, as if it were 
being churned. This churning motion is slow and 
gentle at first, but gets faster and faster as digestion 
goes on. 
Fig. 29. — The Stomach. 
As soon as the food arrives in the stomach, thou- 
sands of tiny glands in its walls pour out on the food 
Question. —Tell all you can about the stomach. 74 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
a fluid called the gastric juice. This flows in great 
abundance, — several quarts, probably, every day, — 
and has in it a peculiar substance something like 
yeast, called “pepsin,” which is necessary to the 
digestion of food in 
the stomach. The 
gastric juice dis- 
solves, and thus 
helps digest, that 
part of food which 
has albumen in it, 
— the lean meat, 
gluten of flour, and 
so on. 
A part of the contents of the stomach, being 
easily dissolved, and so already sufficiently digested 
in the stomach, need not go any farther, but is 
readily absorbed through its walls ; while the other 
contents, needing further digestion, have to pass on 
into the intestines. 
Fig. 30. — Section of Stomach. 
If we could only see all these wonderful things 
going on inside of us, especially in the stomach ! It 
would be more instructive than watching the bees 
make honey through the glass windows of their 
hives. Well, do you know that the inside working 
of a man’s stomach has really been watched through 
Questions. — What is the gastric juice ? Explain its action upon 
the food. DIGESTION, AND IIOW IT GOES ON. 
an opening in his side ? About sixty years ago a 
Canadian named Alexis St. Martin was accidentally 
shot in the left side. After much pain and suffering 
he recovered ; but the opening into the body never 
healed up, but remained a kind of window through 
which his doctor could look in and see what was 
going on in his 
stomach. The 
doctor saw the gas- 
tric juice pour in 
upon the food, and 
he found that some 
things were much 
more easily di- 
gested than others. 
He also discovered 
that, when the 
young man ate 
things which were unwholesome, the inside of the 
stomach became red and inflamed, and did not do its 
work properly. 
Fig 31. — The Inside of the Stomach, showing the 
Opening of the Glands, highly magnified. 
Thus we see that the stomach has a great deal of 
hard work to do : it is a busy workshop, where all 
that is eaten is partly made ready for the use of 
the body. It was a favorite saying of Frederick the 
Great, that “an army moved on its stomach.” 
Question. — What happens inside the stomach when we eat un- 
wholesome food? HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
44. How the Intestines do their Work.—The 
gate-keeper of the stomach now opens his gate for 
the partly digested food to pass out into the long 
tube known as the intestines, or the bowels. This tube 
is about thirty feet long, but it is so rolled up and 
folded away in the body that it takes up very little 
room. In the first foot of the intestine, the food is 
mixed with two fluids which flow into it through two 
little pipes (Fig. 30). One is of a greenish-yellow 
color, called the bile, which is made in the liver; 
the other, called pancreatic juice, by the pancreas, or 
sweetbread as we call it in animals. 
The liver is so important a part of our bodies, that 
we must learn a few things about it. It is the 
largest organ in the body, and weighs about five 
pounds. It is on the right side, in the upper part of 
the abdomen, and its lower edge is sometimes easily 
felt just below the ribs. 
The bile is made by the liver, and stored lip in a 
little pear-shaped bag attached to the liver, called 
the gall-bladder. This little bag is made aware, in 
the twinkling of an eye, when the food enters the 
first part of the intestines, and straightway pours 
out its greenish fluid. The next time the cook 
cleans a fowl, ask her to show you the little greenish 
bladder which she calls the gall, and which she takes 
Question":. —Describe the intestines and their work. What two 
juices aid in digestion here? Describe the liver. DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
77 
care not to burst, because it holds a bitter fluid which, 
if spilt upon the fowl, would quite ruin its flavor. 
The liver is a very busy workshop; in fact, it does 
double duty. It is the great rag-picker of the body. 
It makes, out of the waste matter of the blood, the 
bile which is so necessary to our health. Again, 
the liver is a storehouse, storing up a kind of sugar, 
which is gradually doled out to the blood as it is 
needed for the use of the body. 
The fat we eat is not digested in the mouth or 
stomach, but in the first part of the intestine. The 
bile helps divide the fat into the tiniest pieces, and 
so fits it to be taken up by the blood. The fluid 
from the sweetbreak also aids in the digestion of fat, 
finishes the digestion of the starchy foods not already 
changed into sugar by the saliva, and carries on the 
digestion of other foods which the stomach has failed 
to do. 
45* How the Blood feeds on the Food.—Now 
that the food has been acted upon by the digestive 
fluids, and has become a thick, creamy mass, it re- 
mains for us to see how the rich, nutritious part is to 
get into the blood. This is done chiefly by two sets 
of vessels,—the blood-vessels and the lacteals. This 
process is called absorption. The inner lining of the 
Question. —What fluid is manufactured here, and what can you 
say of its use ? After the food has been properly digested, how do 
the nutritious parts get into the blood? What is this process called? HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
digestive tube is richly supplied with blood-vessels. 
Certain parts of the food can readily soak through 
the delicate walls of these vessels, and so are taken 
directly into the blood. 
Again, the inside lining of the intestines is not 
smooth, like the outside, but has a velvety appear- 
ance (Fig. 32). Millions of 
short, velvety threads, called 
“villi,” meaning tufts of hair, 
hang down, like very small 
tongues, into the inside of the 
intestines. They are tiny af- 
fairs, about one thirtieth of an 
inch long, and a five-cent piece 
would cover five hundred of 
them. They have the look of the pile on plush. We 
are, of course, familiar with this appearance in tripe. 
In each one of these villi is a network of the finest 
blood-vessels, and a tube called a lacteal, meaning 
“ milky,” because it carries a white, milky fluid. 
Millions of these lacteals dip down into the intes- 
tines, like little root fibres, and suck up, like so many 
open mouths, the fatty matters of the food from its 
creamy contents. The lacteals, after passing through 
a number of glands in the abdomen, like way-stations 
on a railroad, unite into larger tubes, and finally open 
into a little sac in the loins. 
Fig. 32.— Piece of Inner Surface 
of Intestine, showing the Villi. 
Question. — Explain the action of the lacteals. DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
79 
Leading upward from this is a tube about eighteen 
inches long and about as large as a lead-pencil, called 
the thoracic duct, which carries the fluid upwards 
Fig. 33. — Lacteals ending in Thoracic Duct, which empties into a Vein in the Neck, 
beside the backbone, and pours it into a large vein 
situated close to the heart. 
The nutritive matter thus absorbed from the food 
leaps into the blood-current, carrying with it a renewal 
of life and power. The life of the body is thus, as 80 
HOW TO KEEP WEEK. 
you see, supported by the nutritive part of the food, 
every drop of which will turn into blood,—the blood 
which flows through our hearts, nourishes our limbs, 
and is flushed into every nook of our bodies. 
The lower part of. the intestines is a kind of tem- 
porary storehouse for undigested and waste matter, 
which must be got rid of as speedily as possible. 
46. How much to eat. — The quantity of food 
needed to keep the body in good health varies very 
much. The greater the amount of exercise, the 
more food is needed to make up for the waste. 
During the time of growth, a still greater quantity is 
needed to build up new tissues : hence growing chil- 
dren generally have a good appetite and a vigorous 
digestion. The same holds good of persons getting 
well of some long and wasting sickness. 
The quantity required also depends very much 
upon one’s business. Those who work hard and 
long, either with the body or mind, as teamsters, 
blacksmiths, farmers, doctors, and editors, need a 
goodly amount of nutritious food. Those who work 
indoors, as clerks, milliners, students, and bookkeep- 
ers, can get along with a smaller quantity. In cold 
weather and in cold climates, a greater quantity of 
fuel-food is necessary than in warm weather and in 
a tropical climate. 
Question. — What may be said of the quantity of food needed to 
keep the body in good health ? DIGESTION, AND IIOW IT GOES ON. 
Si 
An appetite for plain, well-cooked food is a safe 
guide to follow. Every person in good health and 
Fig. 34. — Blackboard Diagram of the Digestive Canal, 
with moderate exercise should eat well: he should 
have a keen appetite for his food, and enjoy it. 82 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
Young, growing, and vigorous persons should eat 
slowly, and until the appetite is fully satisfied. 
It is easy to know when we are eating too much. 
An overloaded stomach makes itself known by a 
sense of fulness, uneasiness, drowsiness after meals, 
and sometimes a real distress. If we keep on eating 
too much and too rich food, as growing children are 
apt to do, the complexion becomes muddy, the face 
marred with blotches and pimples, the breath has an 
unpleasant odor, and the general look of the coun- 
tenance is dull and unwholesome. 
47- What to eat.—Food should be both nutri- 
tious and digestible. It is nutritious in proportion 
to its capacity to furnish suitable substances to be 
taken into the blood. It is digestible according to 
the ease with which it is acted upon by the digestive 
fluids. Certain vegetable foods are both nutritious 
and digestible. A man will grow strong and keep 
healthy on any of them. 
The splendid races of Northern India live on bar- 
ley, wheat, millet, and rice as their staple food. In 
Southern India, millions of people live on pease and 
rice. Many generations of the hardiest men in the 
world, in the North of England and Scotland, have 
lived on oatmeal and milk. The Roman gladiator 
was trained on barley; and the Roman soldier en- 
Questions. — Name some general rules to be observed in eating. 
When is food said to be both nutritious and digestible ? DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
dured his long marches and severe fighting on grain 
boiled in water, when meat could not be had. 
We may safely eat some animal food every day, 
yet the vegetable albumens supply all that is needed 
for the nourishment of the body. Solomon briefly 
puts an important lesson upon this point: “ Excess 
of meats bringeth sickness.” 
William Cullen Bryant, one of the hardest literary 
workers of our times, died at the age of eighty-four 
from an accident. His breakfast was made of hominy 
and milk, with a little fruit. He ate meat only once 
a day. For supper, no tea, but bread, butter, and 
fruit. Yet when he was over eighty he could do 
more literary work on this simple diet than most 
ordinary men of middle age. 
Beef, pork, ham, oysters, and rich pastry should be 
given sparingly to young people. The plainest and 
simplest diet is the best. It is much better for a child 
to go to bed on a supper of oatmeal, baked apples, or 
mush and milk, than of hot biscuit, cake, pie, and fried 
meat; better to begin a day’s work with a breakfast 
of oatmeal, stale bread, a soft-boiled egg, and a glass of 
milk, than of strong coffee, sausage, and hot bread. 
Frying food is the worst possible mode of cooking it, 
and should never be done when it can be avoided. 
Questions. — What is said of the value of vegetable food to the 
human body? What is the best food for children? What kind of 
cooking should be avoided? 84 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
Some persons are made sick by eating certain 
articles of food which to most people are harmless. 
Some are thus affected by various kinds of shell-fish, 
others by eggs or by fruit. The story is told of a 
lady who could digest hard salt-beef, but who suffered 
dreadful pain if she ate a single strawberry; one 
person was thrown into convulsions whenever he ate 
onions; Francis the First, a king of France, could 
not eat bread ; and there are several cases recorded 
of people who had to avoid apples and cheese. Ex- 
perience is the only guide for us as to what will dis- 
agree with us ; and for this reason we have given 
only hints, not rules, for selecting your daily articles 
of food. 
Eating too frequently, as well as too much at a 
time, will cause indigestion. The stomach is not an 
organ intended, as is the heart, to be constantly at 
work : after it has done its work, it requires a short 
period of rest. Most articles of food need from three 
to five hours to digest. 
48. When to eat. — Three meals a day, from five 
to six hours apart, arranged according to our occu- 
pation, should be eaten. The stomach, like other 
organs, does its work best when its tasks are done 
at regular periods : hence regularity in eating is of 
Questions.— What should be the best guide in the selection of 
our food? Name two of the most common causes of indigestion. 
Why should we eat regularly ? DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
85 
the utmost importance. Eating out of meal-times 
should be strictly avoided, for it robs the stomach 
of its needed rest. Children should not be allowed 
to eat “between meals.” Food eaten when the 
body and mind are very much fatigued is not well 
digested. Rest, even for a few minutes, should be 
taken before a full meal. It is a good plan to lie 
down, or sit quietly and read, fifteen minutes before 
eating. 
Severe exercise and hard study just after a full 
meal are very apt to stop digestion. Remember the 
story of the two hounds. Both were fed alike in 
the morning. One was taken out on a hunt, the 
other was tied up at home. When the master came 
back from the hunt, both dogs were killed, and their 
stomachs examined. It was found that the dog that 
hunted, still had the stomach full of food, while that 
of the stay-at-home was empty. 
The reason is plain : after a full meal, the vital 
forces of the body are called upon to help the 
stomach digest the food. If they are forced, instead 
of this, to help the muscles or brain, digestion is 
hindered, and a feeling of dulness and heaviness 
follows. This in time often results in the common 
form of ill digestion called “dyspepsia.” Healthy 
persons rarely need food for two or three hours 
Questions. — What care should be observed before and after 
eating ? Repeat the story of the two hounds. 86 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
before going to bed. When we are asleep, all the vital 
forces are at a low ebb, and digestion is difficult. 
We should make it a point not to skip a meal un- 
less forced to do so. Children, and even grown-up 
people, often have the bad habit of going to school 
or to work in a hurry, without eating any breakfast. 
There is sure to be an “ all-gone ” feeling at the 
stomach before another meal-time; and this, if neg- 
lected, is sure, sooner or later, to cause serious injury 
to the health. 
The state of the mind has a great deal to do with 
digestion, as with the use of every other part of the 
body. An old Eastern fable tells of a traveller who 
met the Plague coming from Bagdad. 
“You have been making great havoc there,’’ said 
the man, pointing to the city. 
“ Not so great,” replied the Plague. “ I killed only 
one-third of those who died: the other two-thirds 
killed themselves with fright.” 1 
Sudden fear or joy, or any startling news, may 
take away the appetite at once : hence, so far as we 
can, we should laugh and talk at our meals, and drive 
Questions. — Why do we not need food just before going to bed ? 
What habit should be avoided? 
1 “We too often lose sight of the interdependence of the mind and body; but 
none the less is it impossible to separate the two, and train either independently of the 
other; for, as was well said by Sterne, ‘The body and mind are like a jerkin and its 
lining. If you rumple the one, you rumple the other.'” — Edward M. Hartwell, 
M.D., Johns Hopkins University. DIGESTION, AND IIOW IT GOES ON. 
87 
away all anxious thoughts and unpleasant topics of 
discussion. If hunger is a good sauce, so also is a 
jolly laugh. 
4g. How to eat. — Eat slowly, and chew the food 
thoroughly. It is not only bad manners to eat rap- 
idly, but it is a violation of the simplest law of diges- 
tion. Our teeth were made to chew the food, and 
the saliva to moisten it and help along digestion. If 
the food is taken slowly, and well chewed, the saliva 
and the gastric juice act more readily. 
Do not take too much drink with the food. If we 
do so, the flow of the saliva is checked, and diges- 
tion is thus hindered. Do not take the food and 
drink too hot or too cold. Such substances as very 
hot bread and coffee injure the enamel of the teeth, 
and are digested but slowly in the stomach. 
Drinking freely of very cold water when the body 
is heated, is also a dangerous practice, and, aside 
from its ill effects on digestion, has occasionally re- 
sulted fatally. It is a poor plan to spur on a flagging 
appetite with highly spiced food and bitter drinks. 
An undue amount of pepper, mustard, horse-radish, 
pickles, fancy meat-dressings, and highly seasoned 
sauces, may stimulate digestion for the time, but, 
used in excess, soon weaken it. 
Questions. — Explain the importance of being cheerful at meal- 
time. Name some important rules on how to eat. What is said of 
drinking cold water and eating highly spiced foods? 88 
HOW TO KEEP WELT.. 
50. Care of the Teeth. — We should take the 
very best care of our teeth, and keep them as long 
as possible. Teeth are apt to decay. We may in- 
herit poor and soft teeth. Our ways of living may 
make bad teeth worse. If an ounce of prevention 
is ever worth a pound of cure, it is in keeping the 
teeth in good order. They should be thoroughly 
cleansed night and morning with a soft brush and 
warm water. Castile soap, and some simple tooth- 
powder with no grit in it, may be sometimes used. 
The brush should be used on the inner or back side 
of the teeth, as well as on the front side. 
The enamel once broken or destroyed is never 
renewed; the tooth is left to decay, slowly but 
surely : hence we must be on our guard against cer- 
tain things which hurt the enamel. Picking the 
teeth with pins and needles is hurtful. We should 
never crack nuts, crush hard candy, or bite off stout 
thread, with the teeth. 
Dirty and decayed teeth are a frequent cause of 
an offensive breath and a foul stomach. We should 
exercise the greatest care to save the teeth. The 
last resort of all is to lose a tooth by having it 
pulled. Some one has quaintly remarked that to 
lose a grinder is very much like losing an old friend. 
51. Indigestion due to Alcohol. — Drinking alco- 
holic liquors, especially in the morning on an empty 
Question. — How may the teeth be preserved? DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
89 
stomach, results in alcoholic indigestion. A person 
begins with a slight loss of appetite for breakfast, 
“spits cotton-wool,” has a dull headache, and feels a 
little sick at the stomach. He is peevish and irrita- 
ble, and is not comfortable until he has a drink of 
liquor. After “bracing up his stomach,” as he calls 
it, he feels more like eating: hence arises the crav- 
ing for “ morning bitters,” cordials, wormwood, and 
other things, to excite an appetite. After eating, 
there is a dull, heavy feeling of discomfort. With 
the old drinker of ardent spirits, there is in the 
morning a dry throat, trembling of the tongue, and 
a thirst which amounts to real suffering. 
52. Effect of Alcohol on Stomach Digestion. — 
Alcoholic liquors are a mild or a strong irritant of 
the stomach, just as they are taken raw or diluted, 
or in small or large quantity. Their habitual use 
leads to most distressing forms of stomach disease. 
The color of the inside of a healthy stomach is a 
deep pink, like the inside of the mouth and throat. 
Now, if we could look into the stomach, as Dr. 
Beaumont looked into the stomach of Alexis St. 
Martin, just after taking raw spirit, we should find 
that the inner surface would be bright red, far more 
so than after taking ordinary food. In fact, Dr. 
Beaumont himself says, that, when Alexis drank 
Questions. — In what does the regular drinking of alcoholic 
liquors result ? What is said of their habitual us; ? 90 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
brandy and gin in large quantities, he saw that the 
inside of his stomach became covered with red 
patches, and the food he ate was not properly 
digested. 
Alcohol irritates the lining of the stomach, and 
dilates the tiny blood-vessels, just as brandy dropped 
into the eye would make it look red and fiery. 
Alcohol, like any other irritant, also makes the 
gastric juice flow; but it lessens the power of the 
gastric fluid to digest food, by checking the activity 
of its pepsin. The injury to the liver from alcoholic 
liquors also adds to the disturbance in the stomach. 
Now, when this alcohol irritant is poured into the 
stomach for days, weeks, and even for years, it is no 
wonder that the stomach becomes altered in its struc- 
ture. The walls of the stomach become thicker and 
harder, and after death traces of deep sores are found. 
53. Effect of Alcohol on the Liver. — When alco- 
hol is taken up by the blood-vessels of the stomach, 
it is carried to the liver, and filtered through this 
great organ before it reaches the heart. Hence the 
poisonous effects of alcohol are strongly marked 
in the liver, especially among hard drinkers. The 
blood-vessels of the liver are overworked, and are 
engorged with blood. 
Questions. — What effect will alcohol have on the lining of the 
stomach? on the gastric fluids ? Why are its poisonous effects more 
marked in the liver than in any other organ of the body ? DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON. 
Many different diseases are produced, some enlar- 
ging and others contracting it, but each serious and 
fatal. A liver which has become contracted from 
alcoholic excess is so common, and its cause is so 
well known, that it is spoken of in every-day lan- 
guage as the “gin-drinker’s liver.” 
“Alcoholism is a powerful predisposing cause of pleurisy.” — 
Professor Frank Donaldson, University of Maryland, Baltimore. 
“ Many cases of dyspepsia are due to alcohol, solely and wholly.” 
— J. Milner Fothergill. 
“ Nothing with such certainty impairs the appetite and the diges- 
tive power as the continual use of alcoholic liquids.” — Povy, on 
“ Food." 92 
HOW TO KEEr WELL. 
CHAPTER VI. 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE. 
54- The Blood: what it is, how it looks. — We 
all know how blood looks to the naked eye. It is 
a red fluid, which thickens, or clots as it is called, 
when much of it is shed outside of the body. Let 
us not be too sure that the blood is red. It is 
really not red at all, being nearly as colorless as 
water. Then, why does it look 
red ? Let me tell you. The red 
color is due to millions of little 
red bodies, called corpuscles, which 
are swept along in the blood-cur- 
rent like tiny red fishes in the 
rapids of a river (Fig. 35). There 
are so many of them that they 
make the blood look uniformly 
red. Fill a clear glass bottle with the smallest red 
beads, and then with pure water: the water would 
then look red at a short distance. Imagine the clear 
waters of a brook alive with little red fishes ; sup- 
Fig. 35. — Blood Corpuscles. 
Questions. — What is the blood? Explain how it gets its red 
color. THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE. 
93 
pose the fishes to be very, very small, and closely 
crowded together through the whole depth of the 
stream : the water would look red, would it not ? In 
a single drop of blood, there are about five millions of 
these bodies; so you see that they are very tiny 
affairs, and very numerous. If we had fingers deli- 
cate enough, we could pack about fifty thousand of 
them on the head of a pin. The shape of these little 
corpuscles is something like that of a cent. 
Of what use are these red corpuscles ? All the use 
in the world. They have the power of taking up gases 
as a sponge can take in water. We shall study in 
the next chapter something about the oxygen that we 
breathe in, and the carbonic-acid gas that we breathe 
out. Now, these red corpuscles are the oxygen- 
carriers for the blood. We may compare them to a 
countless fleet of little boats, carrying their precious 
cargoes of oxygen to every part of the body. A 
very busy life these corpuscles live. Night and day, 
whether we are asleep or awake, these tiny oxygen- 
carriers are busy as bees. 
If we beat up some fresh blood in a bowl with 
an egg-beater, we find entangled some white, sticky 
threads, which are easily seen after the coloring- 
matter has been washed away. This is called fibrine, 
— a kind of glue used by nature to stop bleeding, by 
Questions. — Of what use are these red corpuscles in the blood? 
What is fibrine, and what is its use? 94 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
making a plug for fresh wounds ; otherwise we might 
bleed to death from even a slight cut. Again, if we 
fill a tumbler half full of fresh blood, and let it stand 
over night, we shall find in the morning it has sepa- 
rated into two parts. One, a sticky, jelly-like mass, 
called the clot, sinks to the bottom ; the other, a 
straw-colored, watery fluid, called serum, is on top. 
Serum is made up of albumen dissolved in a great 
deal of water. We cannot boil it. Before we get it 
as hot as boiling water, it “ sets ” into a solid mass, 
like the white of a hard-boiled egg. It is the serum, 
which feeds the tissues of the body with nutritive 
material. 
55. The Circulation of the Blood. —To circulate 
means to go around, and the circulation is so called 
because the blood goes round and round in the body. 
It is carried by a number of pipes, starting from the 
heart, and branching into all parts of the body. We 
know we can draw blood from any part of our bodies 
if we puncture it with a needle. In fact, there is not 
a spot on us the size of a needle’s point which has 
not its own little tube filled with blood. Compared 
with these tiny blood-vessels, our needle is a huge 
stake, and tears not only one, but a thousand, of 
these little tubes, every time we draw blood with it. 
This circulation of the blood has been understood 
Questions. — Describe the serum, and explain its use. Explain 
what is meant by the circulation of the blood. TIIE BLOOD, TIIE RIVER OF LIFE. 
95 
for only about two hundred and fifty years, and the 
man who made this great discovery richly deserves 
a few words. His name was Harvey. He was an 
Englishman, and a physician to the King of England. 
For many years before, learned men had a glimmer 
of light on the subject; but it was Dr. Harvey who 
put together all that had been discovered, and really 
found out the way in which the blood circulates in 
the human body. The good doctor died in 1657, 
nearly forty years afterwards; living long enough to 
see his discovery generally accepted, and himself 
honored as a benefactor of his race. 
56. The Blood-vessels. — The pipes in which the 
blood flows from the heart are called arteries, mean- 
ing “air-carriers.” Before the time of Harvey, 
learned men, not being able to explain the fact that 
the arteries were found empty after death, supposed 
that they carried air, and not blood, throughout the 
body. The pipes in which the blood flows toward 
the heart are called reins. Joining these two sets of 
vessels is another set of little pipes, called capillaries. 
This long name means hair-like, and probably learned 
men could think of no better way to describe their 
size than by comparing them to hairs ; still, our 
delicate hairs, fine as they are, are really cables, 
Questions. — By whom was the circulation of the blood discov- 
ered ? Distinguish between arteries, veins, and capillaries. Explain 
the work of each. 96 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
and coarse cables too, compared to the capillaries. 
They form a network which serves as a passage-way 
between the arteries and veins. We may think of 
an artery and a vein as like two streets, and the 
capillaries like a host of little lanes, through which 
we must find our way to pass from one street to the 
other. 
Suppose our eyes were sharp enough to watch one 
of the tiny corpuscles whirling round and round in 
the circulation of the blood, we should find it sure 
to get to the heart at last. In brief, the blood-vessels 
form a sort of ring,—a circle without a break in it. 
The heart is the centre of the circle. 
57- The Heart, the Centre of Circulation.— 
The heart is the most wonderful little pump in the 
world ; in fact, it is two pumps in one, a double 
pump. There is no steam-engine half so clever at 
its work, or so strong. We all know that our heart 
is in the middle of the chest, between the two lungs, 
with its pointed end turned towards the left side 
(Fig. 40). Here it is, then, beating like a watch, 
ticking all day and all night, year after year, never 
stopping, and never needing to be wound up. 
The heart is somewhat like a strawberry in shape, 
and about the size of the closed fist (Fig. 36). It is 
a muscle, hence it can contract. When it is cut 
open, it is seen to be hollow inside, and is divided 
Question. —Describe the heart. TIIE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE. 
97 
into four rooms. First, it is divided right down the 
middle from top to bottom ; and there is no door in 
the partition, so no blood can go from one side to the 
other. Then, each one of these halves is divided 
crossways. But this partition is not quite complete : 
it has little doors that 
constantly open and 
shut, which act like the 
valves of a pump. They 
open to let the blood 
through, and close to 
prevent its return. Let 
us now learn the names 
of these four rooms in 
the heart, and see what 
is going on in each. 
The two upper rooms 
are called the right and 
left auricles, the two 
lower rooms the right 
and left ventricles. In each, a blood-vessel either 
enters or starts off. Out of the left ventricle goes 
the largest artery in the body, a big pipe called the 
aorta. Did you ever notice a blackish thread run- 
ning along the backbone of a fish ready for the 
table ? Well, this is the fish’s aorta. This great 
tube makes a horseshoe bend near the heart, and, 
Fig. 36.—The Heart and its Large Bloed- 
Vessels. 
Question. — Describe the auricles, ventricles, and the aorta. 98 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
clinging close to the backbone, goes down towards 
the hips, sending out a great number of branches. 
Arrived at the loins, it makes a fork dividing into 
two great branches, which keep on going down, one 
on each leg, to the very tips of the toes. 
Like the trunk of a tree, the arteries divide into 
branches again and again, and these into still smaller 
branches and twigs, until at last the capillaries are 
reached. The countless little capillaries then grad- 
ually join together as brooks unite to form a river, 
and make larger and larger vessels, called veins. By 
means of these the blood goes back to the heart 
through the two largest veins in the body, which 
empty into the right auricle. 
58. What takes Place in the Lungs. — How docs 
the blood get from one side of the heart to the 
other, since there is no opening in that partition 
which we told you about ? Why, it goes around 
through the lungs, where it is changed from a dark 
color to a bright red, or, in other words, is purified 
by the oxygen of the air. The blood goes out of the 
lower room on the right side of the heart by a great 
tube called the lung artery. This divides over and 
over again into branches, in the substance of the 
lungs, until it makes a network of lung capillaries. 
These unite as they do in the body, and grow into 
Question. — Tell what takes place after the blood reaches the 
heart. THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE. 
99 
veins which, gradually becoming larger and larger, all 
unite into four great veins, called lung veins, which 
empty into the upper room on the left side of the 
heart. From this side of the heart, the blood is 
pumped all over the body through the arteries. Thus 
the blood goes round and 
round in the body, making 
what is called the circula- 
tion; carrying nutriment 
to all the tissues, and 
bringing away dead mat- 
ter from them. 
5g. How the Heart 
does its Work. — The 
heart is not simply the 
centre of circulation : it is 
also the power which 
drives the blood over all 
the body. It is really a vigorous little force-pump. 
Every time it beats against our side, it pumps into 
the arteries a fresh quantity of blood. The force 
given by this beat of the heart, added to the elastic 
pressure of the walls of the vessels, drives the blood 
through all the arteries, all the capillaries, all the 
veins, and back again to the other side of the heart. 
The heart does this because it is a sturdy muscle, 
Fig. 37. — Diagram of the Heart and its 
Large Blood-Vessels. 
Question. — Explain the action of the heart in the work of circu* 
lation. HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
and can draw itself together with wonderful power. 
If you think for a moment, you will see, that, when 
the walls of a cavity become at one time shorter and 
thicker, they draw nearer together, and the space 
inside becomes very small. This is really what oc- 
curs in the four rooms of the heart (Fig. 37). 
Let us follow a drop of blood in its travels around 
the body. It returns bright and red from the lungs 
to the left auricle ; this chamber contracts, and the 
blood is forced down through the trap-door into the 
left ventricle ; then this cavity contracts, and pumps 
the blood into the aorta; from that forcible impulse, 
on it rushes through all the arteries, capillaries, and 
veins, and is at last emptied into the right auricle, a 
dark, worn-out drop of blood. This chamber in turn 
now contracts, and crowds the blood down through 
the little swinging doors into the right ventricle ; 
this cavity now contracts, and drives the drop of 
weary blood through the lung artery into the lungs 
to be purified. Then it is ready once more to go on 
its restless journey. 
More wonderful still! How long do you think it 
takes the little 'drop of blood to go its grand round 
in the body ? Only while you are counting twenty- 
two. All the blood we have, say about one-tenth 
Questions. — Illustrate with a little drop of blood starting from 
the left auricle. How long does it take the blood to make a complete 
circuit ? THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE. 
of our weight, makes this complete circuit in two 
minutes. What a wonderful machine the heart is ! 
It is busily pumping away, without getting tired, 
night and day, for threescore years and ten, and 
even a full century, seventy-two strokes every min- 
ute, over forty-three hundred times every hour, and 
nearly thirty-eight million beats every year. Let our 
heart come to a standstill for one minute, for a sec- 
ond even, and we cease to live. 
At each stroke each ventricle pumps about four 
tablespoonfuls of blood. Nearly seven pounds of 
blood are moved every minute. How quietly this 
rapid stream of life flows on within us, never stop- 
ping for a second from birth till death ! We feel 
nothing of it but the gentle tapping of the heart, 
and the regular throb of the pulse, as the life-blood 
goes on its ceaseless round. 
60. The Pulse, and what it tells Us. — Press 
the wrist of a friend, laying three fingers over the 
outer bone of his arm, or press three of your own 
fingers over the same bone in your wrist. You can 
thus feel very easily the pulse or beat of the heart, 
because there is an artery at the wrist, which tells 
11s exactly how the heart is working ; and by feeling 
this, doctors can find out whether the blood is trav- 
elling through the body too quickly or too slowly, 
Questions. — About how much blood is there in the human 
body? What is the pulse ? What does it tell ? 102 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
or just as it ought to do in health. You have prob- 
ably seen an india-rubber tube on a garden-hose move 
on the grass at each stroke of the pump-handle. 
That is a pulse, and 
is exactly the same 
as the pulse in our 
large blood-vessels. 
The pulse is really 
everywhere in the 
body where an ar- 
tery comes near the 
surface, as on the 
temples, the sides of 
the neck, and near 
the ankle. 
The doctor feels 
your pulse at the 
wrist, simply because 
it is more convenient 
for him to do so. 
Most of the arteries 
are more dee ply 
buried in the flesh, 
where it is not easy to reach them. 
In a healthy adult, the pulse beats about seventy- 
two times a minute. In children the pulse is quicker 
Fig. 38. — Diagram of the Arterial System. 
Questions. — Why do doctors prefer the pulse at the wrist ? In what 
way does the pulse show health and strength, or the opposite of these ? THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE. 
103 
than in adults, and slower in old age than in middle 
life. Napoleon’s heart, it is said, beat only forty 
strokes a minute. In certain diseases, especially in 
fevers, the pulse goes with great sudden leaps, like a 
galloping horse; in others it trots in little jerks; 
while in a feeble person it moves slowly and wearily, 
and its throbs are so weak that we can scarcely feel 
them. 
61. Good Circulation, and how to promote it.— 
A proper amount of exercise enables all the organs of 
the body to do their work with more vigor. When 
we feel cold, a brisk walk or a lively game will “ start 
the blood,” make us feel warm. A daily bath, fol- 
lowed by a brisk rubbing of the skin with a coarse 
towel, promotes the circulation. Excessive exercise 
is, however, to be avoided. Like any machine, the 
heart may be strained by violent efforts. Gymnasts 
oarsmen, base-ball players, and others occasionally 
wrench the delicate machinery of the heart, causing 
oftentimes many years of ill heath. 
Many of the veins lie so near the surface of the 
body, that the flow of blood through them is easily 
hindered by pressure : hence no article of clothing 
should be worn tight enough to stop the flow of the 
blood. Tight garters, by checking the circulation, 
often cause cold feet and chilblains. Tight collars 
Questions. — What kind of exercise should we take to promote 
circulation ? What is said of violent exercise ? of tight clothing ? HOW TO KEEL WELL. 
and clothing about the neck may cause dizziness 
and a feeling of fulness in the head. Bands, belts, 
and straps, and even boots and shoes, may be worn 
tight enough to hinder the free circulation of blood 
in various parts of the body. The health of the 
blood, like that of any other tissue of the body, may 
be promoted by a nourishing diet, pure air, and a 
proper amount of rest and clothing. 
62. How Alcohol gets into the Blood. — Alcohol 
gets into the blood by two distinct routes. When 
we take alcoholic liquor into the stomach, some of it 
at once soaks through the coats of the tiny blood- 
vessels with which the lining of the stomach is cov- 
ered, and is carried directly into the blood-current. 
Alcohol is also taken up by the lacteals, and is 
emptied into the blood through the thoracic duct. 
It takes only a minute or two for alcohol to get into 
the main blood-stream. A glass of strong drink 
soon “goes to the head,” as many people know; 
showing that its effects are rapidly produced in the 
remotest tissues of the brain. 
63. Effect of Alcohol on the Circulation. — The 
flushed face of a person who drinks ardent spirits 
is an every-day sight. It may seem to him and to 
others a sign of health, but it is really one of the 
many symptoms of alcoholic poisoning. The alcohol 
Questions. — How does alcohol get into the blood ? What causes 
the flushed face of a person addicted to alcoholic drinks ? THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE. 
105 
has weakened the nerves which regulate the flow of 
blood in the vessels, thus allowing too much blood 
to flow through them. The arteries are relaxed, the 
capillaries are overflowing, and the undue amount of 
blood makes the skin look red. This action, which 
medical men call “congestion,” we must remember, 
is not confined to the vessels near the surface of 
the body, but really extends to every organ and 
every tissue. 
64. Effect of Alcohol upon the Heart.—The 
nerves have now lost their grip on the blood-vessels, 
and hence the heart has less resistance to overcome. 
Consequently it is forced to beat faster, and work 
harder, to fill the dilated vessels with blood. This 
increased frequency of the heart’s stroke means 
more wear and tear, and less rest, for this vital organ. 
With this increased action, there are, to be sure, a 
flushing of the face, a feeling of warmth, and other 
marks of increased activity; but these are not last- 
ing. This effect of alcohol is often called its stimu- 
lant action. It is not so much a real stimulant as a 
whip to spur the heart, for the time, to beat faster. 
It would be more exact to call it the beginning of 
the poisonous effect of alcohol. 
Questions. — What effect does alcohol have on the heart? 106 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER VII. 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE. 
65. What is Breathing? — Night and day, with- 
out one minute’s rest, from the first to the last mo- 
ment of our lives, we are always breathing. About 
eighteen times every minute, more than twenty- 
four thousand times every day, we draw in and 
send out our breath. Most of the time we do 
not think any thing about it. Cats and dogs 
breathe ; we see their sides move in and out, the 
same as our chests do. We notice the breath 
puffing out of a horse’s nostrils as he rests after 
a hard trot. Even plants also breathe, doing it 
through tiny holes in their leaves, just as truly as 
animals, though in a different way. On cold 
winter mornings we see our breath like a cloud 
of steam. It feels cold as it passes in over the 
teeth ; but it is warm as it goes out, for you know 
we can warm our cold finger-tips with our breath. 
Breathing, both by plants and animals, is taking* 
invisible air into the lungs, and sending it out 
again. Animals breathe by means of a wonderful 
Question. — What is breathing? HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE. 
107 
and beautiful set of machinery, which we will now 
explain. 
66. The Lungs, and how they look. — Strike 
the upper part of your right chest, just below the 
collar-bone, with the flat of your hand. Now strike 
the knee in the same 
way. See what very dif- 
ferent sounds you get. 
The lungs lie on each 
side of your chest, just 
within the place you 
struck. The chest sounds 
quite hollow, about like a 
drum, because the lungs 
within it are full of air. 
How do the lungs, or 
“ lights ” as the butchers 
call them, look ? They 
are two large, pinkish, 
spongy organs, a mass of 
air-passages, with arte- 
ries, veins, and capilla- 
ries, which extend to the collar-bone in front, and 
go down below the shoulder-blade behind (Fig. 39). 
The next time you go to the market, ask the 
market-man to show you the lungs or “lights” of a 
Fig. 39. — Windpipe and one of the 
Lungs. 
Questions. — Why does the chest sound hollow when it is struck 
with a blow ? Describe the lungs. 108 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
calf or sheep. Cut off a small piece, and examine 
it at home carefully. Take a piece in your hand, 
and you find you have something quite light and 
soft, which sinks under your finger if you press it, 
and rises again like a sponge. You will also notice 
a crackling sound caused by air being forced out of 
the air-cells. In fact, the lungs, like a sponge, are 
made up of a countless number of the smallest 
elastic cavities, into every one of which blood and 
air keep running, each on its own side, to bid good- 
day to each other, shake hands, as it were, and then 
hurry out as briskly as they came in. 
67. The Air-Passages. — The air is drawn into 
the lungs through the mouth, nostrils, and windpipe. 
The nostrils are really the passage-ways for the air, 
and warm the air somewhat before it gets into the 
lungs. If you lean your head back, you can easily 
feel in the middle of the neck, in front, a stiff tube. 
This is the windpipe, which opens into the back of 
the mouth. There is a small lid of gristle in front 
of the open top of the windpipe, which, as you have 
been told before, is called the epiglottis (Sect. 42). 
It stands upright when we draw air in, and does not 
in the least prevent the breath from entering the 
windpipe. 
The upper part of the windpipe is a kind of box 
Questions. — Through what channels does the air get into the 
lungs ? Describe them. HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE. 
109 
containing the organs of voice. In this box, easily 
seen and felt in spare people, and the front of 
which is commonly called “Adam’s apple,” are the 
vocal cords. These cords are not strings, but elastic 
strips, with free edges which can be made tight or 
loose. As the air passes to and from the lungs, 
through the narrow chink between these cords, it 
sets them to vibrating, and thus the sound called 
the voice is produced. During ordinary breathing, 
the vocal cords are widely separated. 
The windpipe runs down through the neck into 
the chest, dividing into two branches, one going 
into each lung. It then divides into two others, 
and each of these into two more, and so on. Thus 
it goes on dividing into branches, the tubes becom- 
ing finer with every division, until the pipes are 
smaller than the tiniest hair. Every one of them 
has on its end a little hollow ball, called an air-sac, 
something like a red currant on its stalk, only much 
smaller than the smallest grain of sand. They are 
hollow, like tiny bladders ; and around them, inside, 
are little recesses, like caverns in their walls: these 
are the air-cells (Fig. 41). 
Imagine a short, thick tree, crowded with leaves; 
imagine the trunk and all the branches, even the 
Questions. — Where are the vocal cords, and what is their use? 
Explain how the air reaches the inside of the lungs through the wind- 
pipe. TIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
smallest twigs, to be hollow. Suppose the leaves 
were tiny bladders, blown up, and fastened to the 
smallest hollow twigs, and made up of some delicate 
but very elastic substance. Roughly speaking, so it 
is with the build of the innermost parts of the 
lungs. Around such a 
framework of hollow 
branches, called bron- 
chial tubes, and hollow 
elastic bladders, called 
air-cells, is wrapped a 
finely woven network 
of arteries, veins, and 
capillaries, like a child’s 
ball covered with a fine 
network of red and 
blue yarn. As the air 
fills the elastic cavities 
in the lungs, just as a 
boy blows up his toy balloon, the chest swells up ; 
as the air is forced out, the chest sinks down again. 
Drawing in the breath is called inspiration; sending 
it out is expiration. The whole act of breathing is 
called respiration. 
Fig. 40. — The Lungs and Heart 
(viewed in front). 
68. How we breathe. — How do we draw our 
breath ? Let me tell you the simplest things about 
Question. — Explain the terms inspiration, expiration, and res- 
piration. HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE. 
111 
it. First, the lungs are elastic. The air-tubes and 
air-sacs make up nearly one-half of the substance of 
the lung, and nearly the other half consists of blood- 
vessels. Both the blood-vessels and air-sacs are sup- 
ported by a framework of elastic tissue. You know 
that you can stretch out a piece of elastic to a cer- 
tain length, and then it springs back to its first size. 
Just so does this elastic tissue of the lungs act. It 
is stretched by the air being drawn into the air-tubes, 
but returns to its first size as soon as the inspiration 
stops, and so presses on the larger air-tubes, and 
forces the air out of them. Second, the lungs are 
fastened, on the under side, to a great muscle called 
the diaphragm, which we have told you about (Sect. 6). 
This is, as you know, stretched like a stout piece of 
rubber cloth between the chest and abdomen. In 
its natural position it bulges upwards in the middle, 
like a handkerchief swollen by the wind, and thus occu- 
pies a portion of the chest at the expense of the lungs. 
When we breathe air in, its muscular fibres tighten, 
and make it flat again, just as you make the hand- 
kerchief flat by tightening it. When the diaphragm 
relaxes, the lungs contract, causing their elastic 
tissue to shrink together again ; and so the air is 
forced out of the larger air-tubes. This process is 
repeated over and over again, as long as we live. 
Question. — Explain the action of the lungs and diaphragm used 
in breathing. 112 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
This faithful old servant, the diaphragm, quietly 
began his duties the moment we breathed for the 
first time. Since that time this sleepless guardian 
of our life has watched over every breath, and his 
last effort will be our last sigh. 
The muscles between the ribs also contract and 
relax, and are thus useful helps in the act of breathing. 
69. What takes Place in the Lungs. — There are 
two kinds of gas in pure air. The first is very 
lively and active, called oxygen. It is very fond of 
uniting with other things, and burning them. The 
second gas is a very slow, dull, stupid affair, called 
nitrogen; and nothing will 
burn in it. Oxygen, if quite 
pure, would be altogether 
too active a gas for us to 
live in, so kind Nature di- 
lutes it for us with nitrogen. 
When the oxygen reaches 
the tiniest capillaries in the 
air-sacs of the lungs (Fig. 
41), it is almost in contact 
with the blood itself. There 
is only a very, very thin membrane between the blood 
and the air. Now, experiments carried on outside 
Fig. 41. — The Air-Cells and Bron- 
chial Tubes of the Lungs. 
Questions. — What other muscles are also useful in breathing? 
Name the two gases contained in pure air. What happens when this 
reaches the lungs? IIOW AND WHY WE BREATHE. 
113 
the body prove that gases can pass through delicate 
membranes. If a bladder filled with oxygen is hung 
up in a bottle filled with carbonic-acid gas, the two 
gases will mix with each other. The oxygen will 
pass out through the walls of the bladder, and the 
carbonic acid will pass in. This is called the “dif- 
fusion of gases.” This is practically what occurs in 
the lungs. Thus there is an exchange, but no rob- 
bery. The red corpuscles of the blood exchange a 
poisonous gas for one which gives them new life. 
We may, in brief, look upon the lungs as a kind 
of market-place or exchange, where two merchants, 
the blood and the air, meet to exchange their wares. 
About twenty cubic inches of air pass in and out of 
the lungs with every breath, or about what would fill 
sixty barrels every twenty-four hours. Indeed, it is 
a very busy market-place. 
70. Changes in the Air from Breathing. — When 
we breathe, we do not simply draw in the air and 
send it back again. We breathe out some things 
which were not in the air when we took it in. One 
of these is water. On a cold, frosty morning, you 
know we see the clouds of vapor, or very fine drops 
of water, coming from our mouths. In hot weather 
or in a warm room we do not see this vapor, but it 
is there all the same. If we breathe on a looking- 
Questions. — What is meant by diffusion of gases? How do we 
know that the air which is drawn from the lungs contains water? HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
glass, it becomes dim and damp with the water of 
our breath. There is, of course, a little watery 
vapor in the air, but hardly any compared to what 
there is in the breath. 
We also breathe out a small amount of animal mat- 
tor, — little bits of our own bodies, just ready to decay. 
This gives the air of an ill-ventilated or over-crowded 
room the close, disagreeable odor we all know so 
well. Pure air has no smell at all. 
Again, we send out with every breath a kind of 
gas called carbonic-acid gas, which we can no more 
see than we can the air itself. Let me tell you of a 
simple experiment. Pour some clear lime-water into 
a goblet. Take a straw, or a sheet of stiff paper 
rolled into a tube, and blow through it into the lime- 
water. The carbonic-acid gas of our breath will rap- 
idly make the clear liquid quite milky. 
7i. How Carbonic-Acid Gas may poison Us.— 
Carbonic-acid gas in its pure state acts as a deadly 
poison. If there is too much of it in the air we 
breathe, it poisons us. We soon breathe hard, get 
pale, faint, and dizzy, and after a time would die. 
Every one has read the story of the “ Black Hole 
of Calcutta.” In the year 1756, a cruel tyrant in 
India, having captured a hundred and forty-six Eng- 
Questions. — What can you say about animal matter drawn off 
with the breath ? What gas do we get rid of in this way? Explain 
its nature. HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE. 
115 
lishmen, crowded them one hot night into a room 
where one little window did not admit enough air 
for the poor prisoners to breathe. They struggled 
and fought for the air, and in the morning only 
twenty-three were alive. After one of Napoleon’s 
great battles, three hundred prisoners were crowded 
into a cave for safe-keeping, where in a few hours 
over two hundred died from the foul air. 
In the mines this gas becomes the dreaded “choke- 
damp.” Persons bent on suicide sometimes inhale 
the carbonic-acid gas from a little charcoal burning 
in a closed room. This same deadly gas sometimes 
flows naturally from the earth. Some of us have 
heard of the “ Valley of Poison ” in the island of 
Java. The gas is very abundant in this valley, and, 
from its weight, sinks to the ground, where may be 
seen, it is said, the skeletons of birds and animals 
which have been suffocated in their attempt to cross 
this death-trap. 
72. Pure Air, and how it is kept so. — One 
would think that we should soon use up all the good 
air, and make it all bad. If we think for a moment 
what a great number of people there are in the world, 
— how many there are in great cities like Baltimore 
and Philadelphia, — breathing out the carbonic-acid 
gas from their lungs, it seems strange there is any air 
Question. — Name some instances to show the poisonous nature 
of carbonic-acid gas. 116 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
left fit for us to breathe ; for it is not only men, women, 
and children who must have oxygen to support their 
lives, but also every other animal. The little worms 
that live in their holes under ground want the oxy- 
gen of the air just as much as the cows and the 
sheep. Even fishes could not live if the water did 
not contain air enough for them to breathe. 
Why does not the supply of oxygen ever fall short ? 
What becomes of the carbonic-acid gas ? First, let 
me tell you what it is made of: two very good 
things, — oxygen and carbon. A great deal of our 
flesh and blood is made of these two things ; but 
when they are united, and make this gas, they are of 
no use to us. We might go to the store and buy 
salt and sugar; but, if they got mixed together as we 
brought them home, we could not use either, unless 
some good fairy could pick them apart for us. 
Now, can anybody pick apart the carbon and 
oxygen in the carbonic-acid gas, and make them fit 
for us to use again ? Yes, indeed. We have millions 
of workmen about us that are busily doing this very 
thing all the time. Every plant, every green leaf, 
every blade of grass, does this for us. When the sun 
shines on them, they pick the carbon out, and send 
back the oxygen for us to breathe. They keep the 
carbon, and make that fit for us and other animals to 
eat. Is not this a wonderful arrangement ? 
Question. — Explain how the air is kept pure. IIOW AND WIIY WE BREATHE. 
117 
How does all the bad air get out of the towns and 
cities, where men live, and get to the forests and 
plains ? The wind carries it. Air is constantly mov- 
ing about, rising up, falling down, sweeping this way 
or that way, and roving from place to place. In brief, 
as the Bible tells us, “the wind bloweth where it 
listeth [pleases].” 
73- How People poison Themselves with Bad 
Air. — Let us now see some other ways in which air 
may be spoiled, besides by breathing it. Not only 
the little particles out of our breath, but many other 
things, may make it unwholesome. Even pleasant 
odors, like roses or lilies, are unwholesome if shut 
up in a room. Dirty walls, ceilings, and floors give 
the air a musty, close smell; so do dirty clothes, 
filthy sinks, and the contents of slop-pails. Some of 
these ought not to be in the house at all; others 
remind us to open our windows wide, and let in pure 
air. 
While all we have told you about pure air applies 
to persons in health, it applies still more to sick 
people. First, because sick people need every possi- 
ble chance to help them get well. They need good 
air just as much as they do good food. Second, be- 
cause every thing that comes from a sick person’s 
body is still more unwholesome than that from a 
Question. — In what other ways is the air made impure besides 
breathing it ? 118 
IIOW TO KEEr WELL. 
healthy person, and may be a downright poison. 
Many learned men now believe that numerous dis- 
eases are really sown in our bodies by a kind of very 
small seeds or “germs,” much as plants are sown in 
the ground. For instance, scarlet-fever, it is claimed, 
has its own seeds, or germs, which are shed in count- 
less numbers from the body of a person who is suf- 
fering from it. Some of these float in the air; and, 
if we breathe them in, they are quite likely to give 
us the fever. The same may be true of measles, 
small-pox, whooping-cough, and other diseases. 
Many other things make the air unwholesome. 
The foul air from chemical works, bone and soap fac- 
tories, and many other manufacturing places, is more 
or less hurtful to health. Certain trades shorten life 
by exposure to air loaded with impurities. Thus 
there is the “miner’s consumption,” due to the dust 
breathed into the lungs. Those who work on steel, 
emery, pottery, etc., also breathe in the irritating 
dust floating in the air. Other impurities are highly 
injurious to the lungs, as the dust in match-factories, 
white-lead works, copper and brass founderies, and 
arsenic in wall-papers. 
74. Ventilation, or how to get rid of Impure 
Air. — How are we to get rid of the bad air in our 
living-rooms, and to get in fresh air without being 
Questions. — What is the supposed cause of the spread of many 
contagious diseases ? What kinds of trades are unhealthy, and why ? HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE. 
119 
too cold ? In summer-time this is quite easy; but in 
winter it is more difficult, because it is very uncom- 
fortable and often dangerous to be cold. It is a 
good plan to open your window at the top, which 
will let out the bad air. If you have a good fire and 
proper clothing, it is very seldom that you cannot 
bear the window open a little way at the top. An- 
other excellent plan is to raise the lower sash, putting 
below it a strip of board two or three inches wide, the 
length of the window, and shut the sash on it. This 
leaves, at the middle of the window, an opening for 
fresh air. If two such windows are thus set on oppo- 
site sides of the room, it gives a constant change of 
air, and free from direct draughts. 
Good ventilation is just as necessary by night as 
by day, because, of course, we go on breathing all 
night. People who take pains to shut in the bad and 
to shut out the good air, all night long, can never 
expect to awake refreshed. It is very unpleasant 
to go into the bedrooms of such people before they 
have left them in the morning. It is not strange that 
such persons are so often languid, pale, and peevish 
all the first part of the day. We hardly know why 
it is, people are so afraid of letting in night air, or 
what harm it is supposed to do. Those who have 
Questions. — What is ventilation ? Name some simple means to 
secure it. Explain the importance of keeping the air in the bedroom 
fresh and pure. 120 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
tried it know very well that they sleep better, and 
wake fresher, if they keep the air of their bedrooms 
clean and sweet all night. As the famous nurse 
Florence Nightingale aptly says, “ What other air 
can we breathe at night ? ” 
There is hardly a night in the whole year when it 
is not safe to keep a window open an inch or two at 
the top, and those who do so are not so apt to catch 
cold as those who do not. We must have, however, 
proper coverings on our beds to keep us warm. 
75- Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the 
Air-Passages. — Alcohol tends to bring on inflam- 
mation of the lung-tissues, and hence to lessen the 
breathing capacity. The wheezy, broken speech of the 
drunkard is due partly to an irritation of the air-pas- 
sages, and partly to the thickening of the lung-tissue. 
Again, the repeated stretching of the lung capil- 
laries tends to make the habitual user of alcohol more 
liable to attacks of severe colds and pneumonia; be- 
sides making due allowance for the exposure to cold 
and wet, so common with the intemperate. 
Breathing air full of tobacco-smoke is apt to cause 
sore throat. The habit of inhaling tobacco-smoke, 
or breathing it through the nose, is injurious to the 
throat and lungs. Cigarette-smoke is especially 
hurtful to the air-passages. 
Questions. — What is said of the effects of alcohol on the air- 
passages ? of tobacco ? HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
121 
CHAPTER VIII. 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
76. Getting rid of Waste Matters.—When afire 
in a stove or furnace burns, it uses up coal and wood, 
leaving behind dust and ashes ; which must be got 
rid of, or before long the fire will go out. Our bodies 
are doing something very similar. They are all the 
time using up our fuel-food, and all the time making 
some waste matter which must be got rid of. There 
are three doors, or outlets, by which the body rids 
itself of its waste. One of these is the lungs, which 
carry of, as we havd seen, carbonic-acid gas, water, 
and animal matter. 
The second is the kidneys, which filter off water 
holding a number of salts dissolved in it. The 
action of the kidneys is explained in more advanced 
books. 
Let us now see how the third outlet of the body, 
or the skin, does its work. 
77. How the Skin looks. — Our body is covered 
with a soft, elastic, tight-fitting garment, — the skin. 
Questions. — In what three ways does the body get rid of its 
waste matter ? Describe the skin. HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
It is easily kept clean, and never wears out. Every 
child knows how to run a fine needle through the 
outer skin without feeling it or drawing blood ; but 
push the needle in a little deeper, and the blood will 
run at once. Why is this ? Simply because there 
Fig. 42. — Vertical Section of the Skin. 
is a lower, thick layer, full of the finest blood-vessels 
and nerves, called the true skin. The puncture of a 
pin, or the sting of the tiniest insect, causes pain. 
We all know how very tender and painful is the 
delicate pink skin seen when the outer layer of the 
blister is torn away. This is the true skin. When 
it is destroyed, a scar results. Look and see if HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
123 
you can find a white scar on your hand, due to a 
deep cut. 
Over the true skin lies another layer of flat, horny, 
and lifeless scales, in which are no blood-vessels and 
no nerves. This is called the scarf-skin, or epidermis. 
We often give ourselves a little scratch, or pare a 
corn, without making the blood run, or feeling any 
pain. It is the scarf-skin which is raised into a blis- 
ter when we burn our fingers. 
The scarf-skin really consists of a countless num- 
ber of little horny scales, laid one above another, as 
you might imagine the 
roof of a house would 
look with a dozen or more 
layers of shingles. The 
outer scales are all the 
time wearing out and rub- 
bing off, and new ones 
are always forming under- 
neath. A snake, as you 
may know, sheds its whole 
skin at once, as if a boy 
should crawl out of his clothes ; and sometimes you 
may find in the fields its cast-off skin turned inside 
out, just as the snake squirmed out of it, and crawled 
off with a soft new dress on. Now, we shed our skin 
Fig. 43. — The Scarf-Skin from the Palm 
of the Hand, showing the Pores. 
Questions. — Describe the scarf-skin, or epidermis. Tell what is 
happening to this outer skin all the time. 124 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
a little at a time, and in such tiny powdery scales 
that we cannot usually see them. However, if we 
take any garment that has been worn next the skin, 
and shake it in the sunlight, we see how much dust 
there is inside of it. This dust is really little bits of 
the scarf-skin which have dropped off or worn away. 
Where the skin is pretty thick, as on the palms of the 
hands or the soles of the feet, we can, when we wash 
ourselves, see dead skin peeling off in little scales. 
78. The Sweat: what it is, and where it 
comes from. — If we look at the skin on the tip of 
the fingers through an ordinary magnifying-glass, we 
see a great number of little holes, called pores. Just 
think how small they are ! More than five thousand 
have been counted on the tip of one finger, and 
there are more than three millions of them in the 
covering of the whole body. Each pore is the end 
or opening of a tube called a sweat-gland. Each 
gland is a tiny tube just under the scarf-skin, rolled 
round and round like a ball of the finest silk. If all 
the sweat-glands in our body could be unrolled, and 
laid end to end like a long gas-pipe, they would be 
about four miles long. What work do these sweat- 
glands do ? Why, a great deal of it. Let me tell 
you about it. Certain waste matter picked up by 
the blood is strained out through the thin walls of the 
Questions.—Where are the pores ? Describe them. What work 
do these little glands accomplish ? HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
125 
blood-vessels into the sweat-glands, up which it rises 
until it runs out of the openings, when it is called 
sweat. 
If we hold the tip of our finger very close to a 
mirror, but without touching the glass, we see the 
place has become dim and moist. This is because 
the sweat has oozed out of the pores of our finger 
on the glass. If the mirror were held to any other 
part of the skin, it would become dim and moist just 
the same. Thus we see that the sweat-glands, if 
they are kept in good order, serve as little drain- 
pipes to rid our bodies of waste matters. When the 
weather is very hot, or when we are working hard, 
or are exposed to much heat, the sweat flows so 
freely that it stands on the skin in big drops ; but at 
other times it flows more slowly. Still, it is always 
oozing out, even in the coldest winter weather. 
About two pints of sweat ooze every day through 
these busy little glands in the skin. 
The skin is naturally soft, and the hair moist and 
glossy. What makes them so ? Two little oil-glands, 
attached to each hair, furnish this natural dressing 
for the hair and the skin. We may call it Nature’s 
hair-oil. 
7g. Why we need to wash ourselves. — A 
great deal of the sweat soaks into our clothing, so 
Question. — Explain why the skin is naturally soft, and the hair 
moist and glossy. 126 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
that it needs frequent washing; but most of the 
moisture dries off into the air, and so cools the body. 
Some of the oily matter, however, sticks to the skin, 
and, together with the dirt or dust from the outside, 
makes a little plug, as it were, over the pores. The 
waste matter cannot filter through the skin, and has 
to stay in the body, or find its way out elsewhere. 
Suppose the drain-pipes which lead from a house 
got stopped up : we can imagine what an unhealthy 
state the house would soon be in. Just so it is in 
our body if the little pipes which drain the skin get 
clogged. If a person had his skin varnished all 
over, so as to stop up all the pores, he would die 
within a few hours. An instance proving this oc- 
curred at Rome many years ago, when the body of a 
little boy was completely covered with gold-leaf, in 
order that he might play the part of a cherub or 
an angel in a show. He was afterwards put to bed 
without the gold having been washed off ; and, when 
his parents tried to rouse him the next morning, he 
was dead. It is said that the reason why the small 
pox was so fatal among the Indians in this country 
was because they always kept the pores of their skin 
closed with bear’s grease, to protect them against 
cold, and daubed themselves with earthy paints for 
the sake of ornament. 
Question.—Explain the necessity of frequent bathing for all 
parts of the body. HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
127 
How necessary, then, it is to have a clean skin, 
and to wear clean clothes ! Many people think they 
have done quite enough if they wash every day their 
hands and faces, and the parts that are seen ; but it 
is even more necessary to wash the parts of the body 
that are not seen, and are covered with our clothes, 
because all the dirt which comes from inside the 
body stays on the surface, and is not rubbed off, as 
it might be on our hands or faces. 
80. The Hair and the Nails. — The hair and the 
nails really belong to the skin. The hair grows out 
from little sacs or bags in the skin, and so do the 
nails. Every hair has a little bulb or root, which is 
fixed in the skin, and soaks up the nourishment from 
the blood-vessels. It adds to our health and comfort 
to keep the hair clean. The oil-glands get clogged ; 
and the dust and dirt, rapidly making a coating, com- 
monly called “dandruff,” on the scalp, get caught in 
the hair. Hence the hair should be often washed, 
combed, and brushed. 
The color of the hair is given to it by little bags 
filled with coloring-matter. These are found in the 
hair and in the skin. In some people, especially old 
persons, this, Nature’s paint-stuff, dries up; and the 
hair becomes colorless, or, as we say, begins to turn 
gray. When Nature spatters some extra drops of 
Questions. — Explain the necessity of taking care of our hair. 
IIow does the hair get its coloring matter? 128 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
her paint here and there, especially on the face and 
arms, we call them freckles. Sudden fright or great 
sorrow will sometimes turn the hair white in the 
course of a few hours. It is said, that, at the time 
of the cruel Revolution in France, the hair of the 
poor French queen, Marie Antoinette, turned white 
in a single night, owing to the distress and agony of 
mind she suffered for the safety of her husband and 
her children. 
The nails of our fingers and toes grow out from 
our skin, like broad, flat hairs, and are really only a 
kind of horny skin. They serve to protect the ends 
of the fingers and toes. Some people, especially 
school-children, spoil the look of their fingers by 
biting their nails; so that, instead of pretty oval, 
bright-pink, shell-like ornaments, as they should be, 
we see only ugly, stumpy fingers, with sore tips to 
them, which can feel nothing delicately or tenderly. 
The toe-nails require as much attention as the fin- 
gers. If we look at a baby’s tiny foot before it has 
worn shoes, we see how pretty the little toes and 
nails are. 
The finger-nails should be trimmed with scissors 
once a week, leaving them long enough to protect 
the ends of the fingers. Nails should never be 
Questions. — What is the cause of gray hair ? What useful pur- 
pose do the nails serve? IIow are their beauty and usefulness fre- 
quently injured by children ? HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
129 
trimmed to the quick. They should not be cleaned 
with any thing harder than a brush or bit of soft 
wood. They should not be scraped with a penknife 
or scissors, as these hurt their nice polish. To pre- 
vent hangnails, the skin should be often loosened 
from the nail, not with a knife or scissors, but with 
something blunt, such as the handle of a tooth-brush, 
or an ivory paper-cutter. 
81. Baths, and how to take them. — It takes 
very little time, expense, or trouble to take a daily 
bath of some sort. A hand-basin, a sponge, a strip 
of cotton-flannel, a piece of castile-soap, a gallon of 
water, and a towel, are all that are required. Even 
rubbing the body every day, first with a damp towel, 
and afterwards very briskly with a dry one, will in 
most cases keep the skin clean enough during the 
week, provided a bath with soap and warm water is 
taken once a week. Most persons, especially the 
young and vigorous, soon get used to cool, and even 
cold, water baths. 
The first effect of any cold bath is to shrivel up all 
the vessels of the skin, and make it look like “goose- 
flesh.” Brisk rubbing will soon cause a glow, or 
bring on a re-action as it is called, after which a feel- 
ing of genial warmth is felt all over the person. 
Questions. — What can you say of baths, and how to take them ? 
After a bath, why is it necessary that the skin should be well rubbed 
with a coarse towel ? 130 
IIOW TO KEEP WELT.. 
Coarse towels should always be used if the skin will 
bear it. 
It is a good time for vigorous persons to take a 
cold bath just after getting out of bed in the morn- 
ing. A bath at bed-time is refreshing, and favors 
sound sleep. There is little risk of taking cold if we 
go to bed at once. Young and feeble children should 
bathe two or three hours after breakfast. 
Swimming in running fresh water or in the salt 
water has a wholesome effect on the skin, and is one 
of the healthiest of all exercises.1 
Never go in swimming when the body is over- 
heated or very tired. Better sit down quietly, and 
cool off for half an hour. Many are drowned every 
year from ignorance or carelessness in this matter 
alone. The risk is from sudden cramps, which cause 
even a strong swimmer to sink like a lump of lead. 
For the same reason, it is not safe to take a swim 
just after a full meal. Alexander the Great once 
nearly lost his life by swimming in a very cold river 
:ust after a meal. 
Questions. — What is the best time for taking a bath? What 
does Prof. John S. Lynch say on this important question? What 
rule should be observed before you go in swimming? 
1 “ Bathing in proper season is also very useful. Sea-bathing, especially, has long 
enjoyed great credit; but it is often resorted to too soon, and practised at improper 
times. Due regard should be had to the power of resistance to cold, and the prompt- 
ness of re-action after a bath.” — Prof. John S. Lynch, College of Physicians and 
Surgeons, Baltimore. HOW ARE BODIES ARE COVERED. 
131 
82. Why the Body is warm. — Every one knows 
that the outside of the body is warm. If we get into 
a cold bed on a winter’s night, our body soon warms 
it, and, however cold we feel at first, the heat of 
our bodies, like a fire always burning, keeps up the 
warmth of the bed. Put a little thermometer in 
your mouth, and close the lips around it for five min- 
utes. What do we find ? Why, on taking out the 
instrument, we find that the natural heat of the body 
is about ninety-eight degrees Fahrenheit, even on the 
coldest day of winter or the hottest day of summer. 
Where does this heat come from ? How does the 
body make this heat ? Let me try to help you under- 
stand this by reminding you of what you have already 
been told about air in chapter vii. Oxygen is, as we 
know, very fond of joining itself with other things, 
and burning them. When oxygen joins itself with 
any other thing, it always makes some heat; and it 
is called a burning, whether there is any flame or not. 
We know that we are in some ways very much like 
a candle. Let me tell you of another way. When a 
candle is burning, what really takes place is, that 
the different things of which the candle is made 
unite with the oxygen to make carbonic-acid gas. 
There is another gas in the candle, called hydrogen, 
which unites with the oxygen to turn into water, 
Questions. — Where does the heat come from that keeps ouv 
bodies warm ? Explain what takes place when a candle burns. 132 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
This goes on very fast indeed, and makes the candle 
very hot. Now, we know there is plenty of carbon 
in our bodies, and also plenty of hydrogen. When 
the oxygen of the air comes near them, they unite 
with it, and burn, as a candle does, and turn into 
carbonic-acid gas and water. This makes us warm. 
The great difference is, that they do not burn nearly 
as fast in our bodies as they do in the candle ; there- 
fore we do not flame and blaze up, nor are we nearly 
so hot as a lighted candle. A piece of fat, for 
instance, burns rapidly and brightly when put in the 
fire. But, if we eat the piece of fat, it will make 
just as much heat within our bodies as if we burned 
it in the fire. True, the burning will not be so rapid, 
nor the degree of heat produced so great ; but it will 
last for a much longer time, and the total quantity 
of heat given out will be the same in both cases. 
Hence our bodies are warm because we are burn- 
ing away bit by bit, just as a candle does. Every 
time we move, feel, think, or, in fact, do any thing at 
all, this burning goes on. Thus our bodily heat is 
produced, and life is kept up. In brief, Nature warms 
our bodies on somewat the same plan by which we 
warm our houses with a coal-stove in the winter. 
83. How the Heat of the Body is regulated. — 
How is it that the warmth of the body is the same 
Questions. — Explain how the heat within the body is made. 
Why is the heat not so great in the body as it was in the candle ? HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
133 
at every season of the year and in every climate ? 
Let me try to make this plain. If we put a drop of 
water, ether, or alcohol on the back of our hand, we 
feel the skin there grow colder; this is because the 
heat required to evaporate the liquid is taken from 
the skin. As the sweat evaporates from our skin, 
it produces cold. Now, the hotter the air outside of 
us, the more we sweat; but, as fast as the sweat 
comes out of the pores, it evaporates, and so more 
cold is produced. In this way the heat of the skin 
and of the blood is kept from rising much above 
ninety-eight degrees Fahrenheit. If the air outside 
is very cold, the pores contract, and very little sweat 
comes out of them. Thus, in summer and in hot 
countries the abundant sweating tends to cool our 
bodies ; while in winter and in cold countries, since 
little sweating takes place, the body does not lose 
much heat. 
Men who have to work in the midst of great hot 
furnaces, such as blacksmiths or workers in iron- 
founderies and glass-works, are no hotter inside their 
bodies than fishermen or teamsters. The blood may 
become hotter or colder from causes within us, —for 
instance, fevers make it hotter; want of food makes 
it colder,—but it has such a power of resisting the 
heat and cold outside the body, that persons have 
Questions. — How is the heat of the body regulated? What 
natural causes may change the temperature of the blood? 134 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
been known to go for a few minutes into ovens hot 
enough to bake bread. Years ago there was a man, 
called the “ Fire King,” who could go into a red-hot 
oven, and stay five minutes. It was found, while he 
was in the oven, that the heat of his blood was ex- 
actly the same as when he entered it. We may be 
sure that he sweated profusely. It is because the 
blood always keeps at about the same degree of 
warmth, whatever the heat or cold outside, that peo- 
ple are able to live in all climates, and to bear all 
seasons. The Esquimau, who lives amidst the ice 
and snow of the polar regions, has as much warmth in 
his blood as the African, who lives under the scorch- 
ing sun of the tropics. Man is the only animal that 
endures and flourishes in every climate of the globe. 
84. Why we need Clothing. — A thin and deli- 
cate skin is our only covering. Why do we need 
any other ? Why do we need clothing ? Let me 
tell you. Our bodies are, as you know, much warmer 
than the air out of doors, so they are continually 
giving out their heat to the air. When our bare 
skin is exposed, we lose heat rapidly, and feel chilly 
and cold : hence we wear clothes to keep the heat of 
our bodies from escaping too rapidly into the air. 
Is there another reason ? Yes. In hot summer 
weather, especially in hot countries, the direct rays 
of the sun would scorch our skin. Again, clothes 
Question. —Why do we need clothing? HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
135 
save the skin from being torn or hurt by accidents. 
They also keep out the wet, so that we can better 
bear exposure to rain or snow. The frequent 
changes of weather, so common in this country, are 
a severe tax on the body, against which our clothes 
are our chief means of defence. 
85. Hints about wearing Clothes. — Clothes 
should be changed according to the climate or sea- 
son of the year. It is not prudent to leave off win- 
ter clothing too early in the spring, for our seasons 
are most uncertain. Woollen should be worn next 
the skin, whether in summer or winter. A most 
imprudent but common error is to take off our win- 
ter flannels early in summer because it happens to 
be warm. With our sudden changes of weather, 
a person may thus run great risk of taking severe 
colds, pneumonia, and even “quick consumption.” 
To keep our persons neat and clean, we must 
change our clothes often. This applies not only to 
garments used for daily wear, but to bed-clothes and 
night-clothes. No one should sleep in the clothes 
he wears during the day. Under-garments should 
be frequently and regularly changed. Bed-clothes 
should be exposed freely to the light and air. Young 
Collateral Reading. — Bulkley’s Skin in Health and Disease. 
Packard’s Sea-Air and Sea-Bathing, “American Health Primers.” 
Questions.—Name a few safe rules for changing our clothing. 
Give some other reasons for frequent changing. 136 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
children are less able than grown-up people to re- 
sist cold and sudden changes, hence great care must 
be taken as to their clothing. The legs and chests 
of children should not be exposed to the bitter blasts 
of winter nor to the cold winds of spring. Hun- 
dreds of children die every year from diseases due 
to ignorance or neglect in this matter. 
Never wear wet or damp clothes one moment 
longer than possible. Little harm results from 
wearing wet clothes, provided the person keeps ac- 
tively moving about while they are drying on him. 
If you have on wet clothes, take the shortest way 
home, rub down thoroughly, and put on at once dry, 
warm clothes. Do not let your damp skirts, wet 
stockings, or shoes dry on you; but always change 
them at once. Do not wear clothing tight enough 
to prevent the free movements of the body. See to 
it that cnildren wear proper outside garments on 
going out, and that they are taken off on coming in- 
doors. Pupils should not sit in the schoolroom with 
outside garments on, such as waterproofs, gossa- 
mers, cloaks, rubbers, rubber boots, and leggings. 
86. Alcohol and the Bodily Heat. — Soon after 
taking a small quantity of alcohol, there is a feeling 
of warmth over the surface of the body. The body 
is not really warmer, but the skin feels warmer. On 
Questions. — What care should be observed with young children? 
What is said of wet and tight clothing? HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED. 
137 
the contrary, we are really colder, because heat is 
more rapidly lost from the surface. The skin is 
warmer after taking alcoholic liquor, because the 
nerves that regulate the hair-like vessels on the sur- 
face, being weakened, lose their grip : hence more 
blood is sent from the inner parts of the body to 
the surface. There is no real increase of heat; the 
surface is warmed for the time, at the expense of 
the deeper portions of the body. This surface 
warmth is now rapidly lost, and the general heat of 
the body is lowered below its natural temperature. 
Experience has proved, time and time again, that 
alcohol lessens our power to endure extremes of 
heat and cold. Arctic explorers find that exposure 
to severe cold can be endured far better without 
alcohol. The people of the coldest regions of 
Canada will seldom take even a single glass of 
spirits when exposed to severe cold. Army life is, 
perhaps, the best possible test. It is the almost uni- 
versal experience of British army officers who have 
led their men through the campaigns in the hottest 
parts of India and Africa, that alcohol, so far from 
being a help to resist great extremes of heat, acts as 
a positive injury. 
Questions.—What effect does alcohol have on bodily heat? 
What does experience prove in this matter? 138 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER IX. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM : HOW IT GOVERNS 
THE BODY. 
87. How all Parts of the Body work together 
for its Good. — We have studied the human body 
as a kind of living machine. We have examined its 
various parts, and found each adapted, not only to 
take care of itself, but to do some special work essen- 
tial to the well-being of the whole. Everywhere 
organs are working together for the common good. 
Strike suddenly at the eye, and the lids shut to 
protect it. Tickle the foot, and the muscles of the 
leg pull it away. 
Fifty skilled mechanics might do their best at 
building a house; but, if each worked as he pleased, 
the result of their work would be of little value. 
The master-builder must be at his post, skilful to 
direct, and quick to act. So with our bodies ; and the 
wonderful agency which governs every part of our 
bodies is the nervous system. Let us learn a few 
Questions. — Explain how all the organs of the body work to- 
gether for the common good of all. What is the wonderful agency 
called that governs all this ? THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
139 
things about its several parts, the brain, the spinal 
cord, and the nerves. 
88. The Brain. — The brain is one of the most 
wonderful and important organs in the body. It fills 
Fig. 44. — Diagram of Brain and Spinal Cord. 
the inside of the skull, and is a curious, pulpy-looking 
mass, not unlike blanc-mange. The outer surface is 
grooved into folds something like the appearance of 
Questions. — Name the several parts of the nervous system. 
Name the two parts of the brain, as shown by this cut. HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
a crumpled silk handkerchief. The brain consists of 
two parts, — one large, the other small. The upper 
portion, or brain proper, is nearly seven-eighths of 
the whole mass. It 
is in halves, one on 
each side, separated 
from each other by 
a deep groove. The 
little brain lies be- 
neath the back part 
of the brain proper. 
How much do you 
suppose the brain 
weighs ? Well, about 
three pounds. As a 
rule, a large brain is- 
the sign of a superior 
mind. Daniel Web- 
ster’s brain weighed 
fifty -three and a half 
ounces. Agassiz’s 
weighed the same. 
That of Cuvier, the 
celebrated naturalist, 
weighed sixty-four ounces and a third. An idiot’s 
brain rarely exceeds thirty ounces. 
Fig. 45. — Diagram of the Brain, Spinal Marrow, 
and Nerves, from behind. 
Questions.—Describe each part of the brain. What is the 
weight of an ordinary brain ? What is said of large brains? THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
141 
89. The Nerves. — Now, our backbone, or spine, 
has inside of it a large nerve, about two feet long, of 
a whitish gray color, called the spinal cord. This goes 
from the brain down the back of the neck ; and all 
along it gives out little white, glistening threads, 
called spinal nerves (Fig. 45). These come off in 
pairs from the spine, one to each side of the body; 
sending out many other branches as they go. These 
nerve branches go to the muscles, to the organs, 
to the skin, and to the tissues generally. In fact, 
every part of the body you could touch has nerves 
in it. 
If you could follow a nerve along its course, you 
would find, by and by, that you trace it into either 
the spinal cord or the brain itself, — most likely into 
the cord, for the greater number of the nerves of the 
body branch out from it. 
Now, messages pass along these nerves from the 
brain, and also back to it. It is in the brain that we 
feel and will. No part of the body has in itself any 
feeling, or any power of willing its own movement. 
If all the nerves leading from your hand to the brain 
were cut across, you would not feel any pain in your 
hand, nor could you move it at all. 
go. The Telegraph System in our Bodies. — 
The nervous system is like a complete telegraphic 
system. The brain is the main office ; and the thou- 
Question. —What is the spinal cord, and what is its use ? 142 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
sands of nerve fibres, branching off to all parts of 
the body, are the telegraph-wires. Despatches are 
constantly being sent to the brain, to tell what is 
going on in various parts of the body. The brain, 
on receiving the news, at once sends back its orders 
Fig. 46. — Upper Surface of Brain, showing the Convolutions and its Double Structure. 
as to what must be done ; and the order flies through 
the nerves faster than it is possible for us to think. 
Thus, if you put your hand accidentally on a hot 
stove, you would not be long in pulling it away. Yet 
really this is what happened : a message flashed along 
Questions.—What may the nervous system be compared to? 
Illustrate. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
143 
the nerves from your hand, through the spinal cord, 
to the brain, “ We are burnt! ” The brain at once 
returned the message to the muscles, “ Pull the 
hand away! ” Then the muscles contracted, and 
the hand was removed. 
91. What is meant by Reflex Action. — Now, 
every message from various parts of the body does 
not travel as far as the main office, — that is, to the 
brain, — but some of them are switched off, or “ re- 
flected ” as we call it, at some of the little offices on 
the way. These way-stations, located along the spinal 
cord, receive messages, and send back answers, 
without consulting the brain. If some one should 
tickle our toes when we were fast asleep, we would 
draw our feet away ; and yet we would know nothing 
about it when we awoke. 
In eating, we sometimes get a crumb into the 
windpipe, and cough hard to get rid of it. We can- 
not help coughing: it goes on without our will. 
This is called a “ reflex action.” The impressions 
made by the tickling and the crumb do not go to 
the brain ; but the signal of danger or distress is sent 
to one of the way-stations in the cord, and the order 
to do something is sent back, or “reflected,” to the 
muscles which control the part in need of help. 
92. The Importance of Reflex Action. — Did you 
ever think how important reflex action is to our 
Question. — Tell what is meant by reflex action. 144 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
health, comfort, and safety ? Ten thousand acts 
take place which tend to keep us well, and yet we 
have as little control over them as over the stars 
above us. If the feet slip, the body tends to recover 
itself without the effort of the will. We try to brush 
the flies away when we are asleep. 
The story is told of an old soldier who, while 
carrying a bowl of soup across the street, suddenly 
dropped it on hearing some wag call “Attention!” 
so used was he, at that word of command, to stand 
erect, with his hands at his side. By an effort of 
the will, we can stop our breath for a moment or 
two; but soon the call for air must be obeyed, 
whether we will or not. The great work of diges- 
tion is going on all our lives, and we have no control 
over its complicated movements. 
What is the good of all this ? Why, all the good 
in the world. By this wonderful provision, our brain 
is relieved of a vast amount of work. If we were 
forced to use our will-power to digest our food, the 
brain would be put to a constant strain We could 
not, as now, eat and then go about our business. If 
we had to plan and will every heart-beat, we should 
soon be tired of life. We could never sleep; for 
the brain would be on the watch to decide if it were 
time for the next heart-beat, the next breath, and the 
proper time for each digestive fluid to flow. 
Question. — Explain the importance of reflex action. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
145 
93. The Health of the Nervous System.—The 
health of the nervous system is woven into the 
welfare of every organ in the body, just as colored 
threads are woven through a piece of cloth. An 
Fig. 47. — Base of Brain 
injury to one part affects another part, through the 
shock to the nervous system. A blow on the head 
often causes vomiting. An overloaded stomach may 
make the brain dull and stupid for several hours. 
Ill digestion may make us at times cross and peevish. 
Let a small artery inside the skull be broken by a 
Question. — What is said of the health of the nervous system? 146 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
fall or a blow, and a clot no larger than a bean may 
be formed, which presses on the brain ; and complete 
loss of motion on one side may result. An acci- 
dental blow on the head gave a European ruler, a 
man of limited intellect, ever afterwards a wonderful 
memory. It is not an uncommon thing for a person 
to fall and strike his head, and thus produce a fatal 
disease of the kidneys. 
The brain, or the thinking-part, is a most precious 
gift. It needs exercise, as well as any other organ. 
As its office is to think, we should give it good 
things to think about, just as we give the stomach 
good food to digest. How necessary it is to keep it 
sound and healthy ! We should bring the brain into 
the habit of thinking in earnest, so that it may grow 
strong and vigorous. A gentleman once asked a 
boy who was idling about the fields, “ What are you 
thinking about ? ” — “ Mostly nought, sir,” said the 
boy; and so it would be with many young people if 
they were left to themselves, and not taught from 
their infancy to think. 
The little brain of a child should be trained to all 
that is true, noble, and good. Children should be 
encouraged to find out all they can about flowers, 
birds, trees, and animals, and to learn all about this 
beautiful world. We must learn to use our reason 
Question. — Why is it necessary to keep the brain sound and 
healthy? What encouragement should be given children? THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
147 
and judgment in all that we do. Self-indulgence 
should be the last object we have in mind. Self- 
control is one of the greatest victories we can gain 
in life, and it will help us to many more. Unhealthy 
and evil habits are steady drains upon the limited 
amount of nervous force that each one has. All 
forms of sensual gratification that excite pleasure, 
only to be followed by depression, cause a great 
waste of nervous energy, and tend to sap the very 
foundation of health and happiness. 
94. Sleep, and how to get it. — Of all the wonder- 
ful things about us which we do not wonder at be- 
cause they are so common, sleep is one of the 
strangest. How it comes, why it comes, how it does 
its kind, helpful work, not even the wisest people 
are able to tell. We do not have much trouble in 
seeking it: it comes to us of itself. It takes us 
in its kindly arms, quiets and comforts us, repairs and 
refreshes us, and turns us out in the morning quite 
like new people. 
Sleep is necessary to life and health. We crave 
it as urgently as we do food or drink. In our wak- 
ing hours, rest is obtained only at short intervals ; 
the muscles and nerves, and the brain, are in full 
activity. Repair goes on every moment, whether we 
are awake or asleep; but during the waking-hours 
Question. — What is said of sleep? Explain why sleep is so 
necessary to health. 148 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
the waste of the tissues is far ahead of the repair, 
while during sleep the repair exceeds the waste. 
Hence good mother Nature at regular intervals 
causes all parts of the bodily machinery to be run 
at their lowest rate; in other words, we are put to 
sleep. 
Fig. 48. — Cross-Section of the Left Half of the Brain. 
Sleep is more or less sound, according to circum- 
stances. Fatigue, if not too great, aids it; while idle- 
ness lessens it. Some kinds of food, as tea and coffee, 
may prevent it. Anxious thought, and pain, and even 
anticipated pleasure, may keep us awake : hence we 
should not go to bed with the brain excited or too 
Question. — What is necessary to secure healthful and refreshing 
sleep ? THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
149 
active. Read some pleasant book, laugh, talk, sing, 
or take a brisk walk, or otherwise rest for half an 
hour before going to bed. 
The best time for sleep is during the silence and 
darkness of night. People who have to work nights, 
and to sleep during the day, have a strained and 
wearied look. The amount of sleep depends upon 
the temperament of each individual. Some require 
little sleep, while others need a great deal. Eight 
hours of sleep for an adult, and from ten to twelve 
hours for children and old pople, is about the 
average amount required. Frederick the Great and 
Napoleon were light sleepers, four hours daily being 
the usual time given to sleep by these tireless war- 
riors. Most of the world’s great workers have rec- 
ognized the necessity of a goodly amount of sleep. 
Sir Walter Scott, the great master of fiction, took 
much exercise, and always insisted upon having eight 
hours of sound sleep every night. 
Children naturally need more sleep than grown-up 
people, because their bodies require more rest during 
the period of growth : hence children should be put 
to bed early, and sleep in the morning until they 
awake. Children should not play too hard during 
the hour before bed-time ; but the time should be 
spent in quiet and restful talk, avoiding startling 
Question. — What is the best time for sleep, and what amount is 
necessary ? What is said of the sleep that children require ? 150 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
stories. When fairly awake, we should get up. Doz- 
ing, neither asleep nor awake, is not healthful, espe- 
cially for young people. The Duke of Wellington 
used to say, “ When it is time to turn over, it is time 
to turn out.” 
95. Effect of Alcohol on the Nervous System. 
— The brain and the nerves are very sensitive to the 
action of alcohol. The first thing we notice is the 
quickened action of the heart, and with it the dila- 
tion of the blood-vessels. The face is flushed, and 
there is a warm glow all over the body. This is 
caused by a loss of power in the nerves which con- 
trol the flow of the blood through its vessels. The 
tiny vessels of the brain are over-charged : it thus 
becomes more active, thoughts flow more rapidly, 
and the speech becomes more fluent. 
If still more alcohol is taken, those functions 
which arc under the direct control of the spinal cord 
become disturbed. The power over some of the 
muscles is lost. The muscles of the lower lip and 
of the legs are the first to feel this lack of control. 
The speech is thick, and the gait uncertain. Reason 
is off duty, and the lower or animal impulses begin 
to manifest themselves. The control of the judg- 
ment and of the will is lost; and the emotional, the 
impulsive, and the purely instinctive parts of our 
Question. — Explain the effects of alcohol on the nervous sys- 
tem. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
nature act without a master. Many and many a 
success in life has been lost, because he who should 
have beep the man of the hour was unfit for duty 
by woful drunkenness. 
In the last stage of all, the paralysis of the nerve 
centres and of the brain is carried to its full extent. 
All the inlets of the senses are closed, consciousness 
and sensation are lost, and control of the voluntary 
movements is gone. 
96. The Final Result of Alcoholic Excess. — In- 
dulgence in alcohol steadily weakens the self-control 
of its hapless victim, and at last makes him an utter 
slave to its lower nature. The most brutal crimes 
are often committed while a person is crazed with 
strong drink. The craving for ardent spirits be- 
comes well-nigh irresistible. Self-respect, honor, 
conscience, common decency, — every thing is sacri- 
ficed to get fresh fuel for the alcoholic fire which is 
burning up its victim. 
The disease known as delirium tremens, meaning 
“a trembling madness,” is a terrible example of the 
profound effect which alcoholic excess may have 
over the nervous system. It is marked by muscular 
tremors, persistent wakefulness, muttering talk, wild 
delirium, and all the horrors of hideous delusions 
Questions. — What are the last stages of the effects of alcohol on 
the nervous system ? Name some of the final results of alcoholic 
excess. 152 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
which the imagination can possibly conceive. These 
extreme instances of the breaking-up of the nervous 
system are found in “homes for the intemperate” 
and in our insane-asylums, — men and women who 
have lost every better trace of humanity, hopeless, 
helpless, doomed to a living death until they cease 
to live. 
97. The Inherited Craving for Alcohol. — The 
craving for alcohol may be inherited by its victim’s 
innocent children, just as we inherit mental and phys- 
ical vigor or weakness, our features, and even our 
moral traits. The inherited curse for strong drink has 
caused many a family to “ run out,” and leave the chil- 
dren and grandchildren pitiable wrecks of humanity. 
98. The Use of Tobacco. — The enormous use of 
tobacco is well known, whether smoked, chewed, or 
used as snuff. However used, it is a narcotic and a 
poison. Its injurious effects are due to its “nico- 
tine,” which is one of the most rapidly fatal poisons 
known, rivalling prussic acid in this respect. It 
takes about one minute for a single drop of nicotine 
to kill a full-grown cat, and it has killed a rabbit in 
three minutes. The application of tobacco to chafed 
surfaces, and even to the healthy skin, occasions 
severe and sometimes fatal results. A tea made of 
tobacco and applied to the skin has caused death in 
Questions. — Show how the craving for alcohol may be inherited. 
What is said of the use of tobacco ? THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
153 
three hours. Soldiers have been known to shirk 
military duty by making themselves sick with a leaf 
of tobacco put under the arm or over the stomach. 
The injury done by tobacco varies with its moder- 
ate or its excessive use. Even in moderate use it is 
hurtful, especially to young persons. It certainly 
does no good, and the tobacco habit once acquired 
leads to its excessive use. The fact that the habit 
is foolish, costly, and ill becoming, needs no physio- 
logical proof. 
99. The Excessive Use of Tobacco. — The exces- 
sive use of tobacco produces palpitation of the heart, 
certain forms of dyspepsia, irritation of the throat 
and lungs, and a general breaking-up of the nervous 
system. Sometimes, after long smoking, a feeling 
of dizziness, with a brief loss of consciousness, is 
produced. At other times, if walking, there is a 
sense of falling forward, or as if the feet were sink- 
ing into cotton-wool. 
The excessive use of tobacco may injure the brain. 
Ideas lack clearness of outline. The will-power is 
weakened, till it is an effort to do the routine duties 
of every-day life. The old tobacco-user is often cross, 
irritable, and liable to outbursts of passion. The 
memory is also often impaired : the nicotine deadens 
the delicate nerve-tissue, and hinders its nutrition. 
Questions. — Why shouid young persons avoid contracting this 
habit? What will its excessive use lead to? 154 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
ioo. Effect of Tobacco upon Young People.— 
Tobacco in any form has a peculiarly injurious effect 
upon young and growing persons.1 It seriously im- 
pairs muscular growth and mental activity. The 
profound effect it has upon the nervous system 
after the first trial of smoking or chewing is well 
known. Even after the system gets used to tobacco, 
young people continue to suffer from nausea, dizzi- 
ness, headache, muscular trembling, loss of appetite, 
and general weakness. No boy can continue the 
practice of smoking or chewing without becoming 
physically or mentally injured by the time he is 
twenty-one. No young person should learn to 
smoke, especially if he wishes to keep strong and 
vigorous, or is ambitious to succeed in life. 
The use of cigarettes by young persons cannot be 
too severely condemned. These are made of the 
cheapest materials, which are often adulterated with 
refuse substances, and even with opium. Cigarettes 
are so common and so cheap that their use to an 
injurious extent by thousands of young people is 
really a matter of great practical importance. 
Questions. — Tell some of the effects of the use of tobacco by 
young people. What does Dr. McSherry say on this point ? In what 
form should it especially be avoided? 
1 “ Accumulated facts go to show that growing boys are the worse, mentally and 
physically, for the use of tobacco. It is a subject not open to discussion.” — Richard 
McSherry, M.D. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
155 
ioi. Opium.—Opium, the most valuable of all 
medicines, is the dried juice of the white poppy. It 
has the wonderful power of relieving pain, and pro- 
ducing sleep, and is thus indispensable to the 
physician. Morphine is a white powder made from 
opium. A solution of opium in alcohol is called 
laudanum. Paregoric is a weak form of opium com- 
bined with other things. Various forms of opium 
are generally used in liniments, cough-killers, sooth- 
ing-sirups, stomach-bitters, cholera-mixtures, and 
countless other preparations which people are eager 
to buy, hoping for relief from some real or fancied 
disease. 
Opium may be at once a blessing and a curse to 
mankind. Used with skill by a physician, it does 
wonders in relieving suffering. Eaten or smoked 
habitually, to gratify a craving, it makes a living 
death for its victim. A person may begin in the 
most innocent way to use opium to relieve pain ; 
little by little the meshes of this fascinating nar- 
cotic are woven about him. A person cannot leave 
off its use without the greatest effort. A craving is 
created, which no one can realize unless he has once 
felt the fascination of this wonderful drug. To quit 
it is untold misery: to continue it is certain death. 
Questions. — What is opium? morphine? laudanum? In what 
preparations do we find opium in one form or another ? Describe the 
opium habit. 156 
IIOW TO KEEP WEEK. 
Opium completely changes its victim. A man 
once upright and honest will lie, cheat, or commit 
any crime, to get a dose of the fatal drug. Promises 
and resolutions to stop its use may be sincerely 
made, but are no more binding than ropes of sand. 
The deepest melancholy settles on the opium-eater; 
and life, once full of joy and happiness, is indeed a 
heavy burden. 
Opium-eaters often take enormous quantities. De 
Quincey, the famous author and opium-eater, brought 
himself to drink more than half a pint of laudanum 
a day. About twenty drops is the ordinary dose. 
102. Practical Points about Opium. — The utmost 
care should be taken in giving infants and children 
any of the so-called soothing-sirups, cough-killers, 
and cholera-mixtures. However soothing the effect 
may be, the child is simply drugged, and not cured. 
The practice of giving any opiates for summer com- 
plaints, and other household ways of using opium, 
should be sparingly and very cautiously resorted to. 
Children as a rule, and many grown-up people 
too, are very susceptible to the action of opium. 
Young boys have been made stupid, and their health 
seriously endangered, by smoking in excess cigar- 
ettes that have been drugged with opium. Above 
all things, do not give to others, especially to chil 
Questions. — What change does the use of opium effect in its 
victim’s character ? Give some practical points about opium. TIIE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
157 
dren, any opium mixture that has been prescribed 
for some one else. It is a safe rule to avoid every 
thing that has opium in it unless ordered by the 
family physician. 
103. Chloral. — Chloral is a powerful drug, capable 
of producing sleep. Because it is known to induce 
sleep, especially in those who suffer from excessive 
mental strain, from anxiety, or other like cause, it 
has come of late years to be often used without a 
physician’s advice. Like all narcotics, the dose 
must be steadily increased to get the required effect. 
The “chloral habit” is soon formed, and the person 
becomes a slave to a dangerous drug. Without it 
the chloral-taker cannot sleep : with it his digestion 
is sadly out of order. He suffers from dyspepsia, 
shortness of breath, and palpitation of the heart. 
The habit begets carelessness in its use, and the 
fatal dose is so uncertain that chloral-takers often 
die from an over-dose. The only safe rule is, never 
to touch so dangerous a drug unless prescribed by a 
skilful physician. 
Questions. —What is chloral, and what are its effects? What is 
the only safe rule to be observed in taking any of these narcotics ? 158 
ILOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER X. 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
104- The Five Gateways of Knowledge. — Some 
nerves, as we have learned, control the action of the 
muscles ; others carry a variety of impressions from 
every part of the body to the brain. When the 
brain receives a distinct impression through certain 
nerves, we become conscious of a sensation. Exactly 
how it occurs is one of the many mysteries of our 
bodily life. Most sensations are produced by some- 
thing outside of us. Thus, if we hear a child cry or 
a bird sing, we have a sensation of sound; if we 
put sugar on the tongue, hold a rose to the nose, 
or prick the skin, certain organs receive the impres- 
sions, then faithful nerves carry them to the brain, 
and we become conscious of these different sensa- 
tions. 
There are five “gateways” through which the 
brain learns what takes place in the outer world ; 
in other words, we have five special senses,—touch, 
taste, smell, hearing, and sight. 
Questions. — What is sensation? Illustrate. Name the five 
special senses. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
105- Touch. — Touch, the simplest of the senses, 
is given to some extent to the whole body; but it is 
more delicate in the hands and fingers than else- 
where. When we pass our fingers over an object, 
we say we have felt it, and can tell if it is soft or 
hard, rough or smooth. If we look carefully at the 
palm of the hand or at the inner surface of the 
finger or thumb, we see it is grooved in tiny furrows 
(Fig. 43). At the tips of the fingers these furrows 
form circles, growing larger and larger. If the fin- 
ger-tips be smeared with ink, an impression can be 
made on paper, showing these widening circles. In 
these furrows are the nerves, which are exquisitely 
sensitive. In old times, before the art of writing, 
and therefore of signing one’s name, was common, 
the old English kings, to sign a document, would ink 
the end of the thumb, and stamp it on the paper : 
hence the phrase, “my hcuid and seal.” 
This sense can be cultivated to a marvellous ex- 
tent. Think what blind people can do! They read 
rapidly by running their fingers over slightly raised 
letters, and recognize their friends by feeling their 
faces. Watch an expert pianist, and see the skill and 
the precision with which he handles many keys in a 
few seconds of time. 
106. Taste. — The tongue is the principal organ of 
Questions. — Where does the sense of touch reside ? Where are 
the nerves? Show how this sense may be highly cultivated. 160 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
taste (Fig. 49). It has two coverings, — an outer layer, 
and a deep, sensitive layer. In some diseases this 
outer layer becomes coated with a whitish or yel- 
lowish matter. The deep layer is raised up, like the 
true skin, into tiny hill- 
ocks, or papilla, which 
are abundantly supplied 
with delicate nerves, — 
the nerves of taste. The 
tip and back of the tongue 
are supplied with differ- 
ent nerves. Hence it 
makes a difference wheth- 
er we put a substance to 
be tasted, on the tip or 
back of the tongue. Thus 
alum tastes acid on the 
tip, and has a sweetish 
taste on the back part 
of the tongue. In certain animals these papillae are 
very large, and give a roughness to the tongue. We 
know how rough a cat’s tongue is. It is this which 
enables the cat to strip off the flesh from a bone by 
simply licking it, while the lion strips the skin from 
his victim with one stroke of his tongue. 
Taste is very much a matter of custom. The Lap- 
Fig. 49.— Upper Surface of the Tongue 
showing the Papillae. 
Questions. — In what organ does the sense of taste principally 
reside ? Describe the tongue. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
landers drink rancid fish-oil with a relish ; the Per- 
sians used as an appetizer the offensive assafoetida, 
which they called the divine 
perfume; and the Chinese 
season their salad with cas- 
tor - oil. Great acuteness 
may be gained in the sense 
of taste. The skill of the 
“ tea-tasters ” is something 
wonderful. 
107. Smell. — The seat 
of the sense of smell is in 
the cavities of the nose, 
into which the nostrils open, and which connect be- 
hind with the back part of the mouth, The walls 
of the nasal cavities are lined with a thick, velvety 
membrane, over which the nerves of smell are dis-, 
tributed. This membrane is kept continually moist 
by a fluid which it secretes. At the beginning of a 
cold in the head, this membrane becomes dry and 
swollen, and the sense of smell is lessened. In the 
roof of the nasal cavities the sense of smell is most 
acute : hence, when we wish to detect a faint odor, 
we sniff up the air. 
The sense of smell varies very much in different 
individuals ; in some persons it is very dull, while 
Fig. 50. — How the Papillae of the 
Tongue look under the Microscope. 
Questions. — Where does the sense of smell reside ? Describe 
the nose. 162 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
others have a very “sharp nose.” In savage races 
this sense is most acute. We are told that the 
South-American Indians can by their sense of smell 
detect the approach of a stranger, even in a dark 
night, and can also distinguish whether he is white 
or black. Many animals are more highly endowed 
Fig. 51. — The Organ of Smell. 
with this sense than man. A dog will smell the 
footsteps of his master amid those of a hundred 
other people, and can trace him for miles, although 
he has been for hours out of sight. Pointers also 
scent game at a great distance. 
The sense of smell is nature’s sentinel to guard 
Questions. — I low does this sense vary in different individuals? 
What protection does it afford? THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
163 
against taking improper food into the stomach, and 
impure air into the lungs. 
iog. Hearing. — Next to sight, hearing is the most 
important of the senses. We could get along with- 
out being able to taste ; but without seeing and hear- 
ing, life would be almost a blank. Our ears have 
their delicate structure securely lodged in the “tem- 
ple” bones. The outer ear is a piece of gristle cov- 
ered with skin, and curiously moulded for catching 
sounds. In animals it is quite movable ; hence the 
timid rabbit and the intelligent horse “prick up their 
ears ” to listen. The tube in the ear is about an inch 
long, and guides the sound in just as an ear-trumpet 
does. At the lower end of this passage we find a 
delicate membrane stretched across, which serves as 
a partition between the outer and the middle ear. 
It is thin and elastic, hence easily broken by a blow 
or by pushing any thing into the ear. If once broken 
or destroyed, the hearing is impaired. 
The middle ear is really the “drum,” and in form 
resembles an ordinary drum. Three of the tiniest 
bones in the body stretch across it. They are so 
small that you can easily balance them on the tip of 
your finger. One curious thing is, that they are as 
large in infancy as they ever will be. The air reaches 
the inside of our “ear-drum ” through a little tube 
Questions. — Which is the most important of all the senses ? 
Where does this sense reside? Describe the outer ear. 164 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
about an inch long, which leads into it from the 
throat. It serves to keep the air on both sides of 
the drum at a constant and even pressure. Hence 
gunners open their mouths when a heavy cannon is 
about to be fired, so that the shock may be felt less 
forcibly. In going up a high mountain or down in 
a diving-bell, people swallow repeatedly, to save the 
feeling of discomfort and pain in the ears. 
Fig. 52. — Sectional View of the Ear. 
The inner car is one of the most delicate and com- 
plex pieces of mechanism in the whole body. It is 
really a bony case of the tiniest winding chambers 
and spiral tubes hollowed out in the solid bone. 
These little passages are lined with a delicate bag of 
membrane of exactly the same shape as themselves. 
The nerve of hearing passes from the brain, through 
a little hole in the skull, to the inner ear, and is 
Question. — Describe the middle ear; the inner ear. TIIE SPECIAL SENSES. 
165 
spread out on this lining. The impression thus per- 
ceived is carried to the brain, where it gives rise to 
the sensation of hearing. 
109. Care of the Ear. — The ear is a very deli 
cate organ. It is often carelessly and ignorantly 
tampered with. It is often neglected when skilled 
treatment is urgently needed. The ear-canal should 
never be rudely or hastily washed out, but the 
utmost gentleness used in cleansing it. 
Children’s ears should never be pulled or boxed, 
for even a slight blow has resulted in deafness. 
Never use ear-picks, ear-spoons, the end of pencils 
or pen-holders, pins, hair-pins, tooth picks, etc., to 
pick or scratch the ear-canal. It is a foolish, need 
less, and dangerous practice. 
Cotton wads may be gently put into the ears to 
shield them from the cold, or they may be worn in 
swimming or diving to keep the water out. Diving 
in deep water, or bathing in the breakers, often 
injures the ears. If flies, bugs, ants, and the like 
crawl into the ears, this may cause some pain and 
fright, and perhaps lead to vomiting and even con- 
vulsions. The ear may then be syringed out with a 
little warm soap-suds, or drop in a few drops of mo- 
lasses or sweet-oil. Cold water should never be put 
into the ears, but only tepid water. Do not go to 
Question. — What care should be observed with the ear, and 
why ? 166 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
sleep with the head in any position that may expose 
the ears to a draught of cold or damp air. 
no. Sight. — Sight, or vision, when we think about 
it, is a wonderful thing. That we have a means by 
which we can learn what is going on in the outside 
world, miles away from us, is a precious gift. We 
watch a huge balloon from the time it leaves the 
ground till it is a black speck in the air above us. 
We watch a vessel sailing along on the dim hori- 
zon, and the next instant we are reading the fine 
print of a newspaper. We are able to recognize the 
form, size, color, and distance of thousands of differ- 
ent objects in nature. This sense is so woven into 
the countless acts of our every-day affairs, that we 
scarcely appreciate this marvellous gift, so essential 
not only to the simplest matters of comfort, but also 
to the culture of the mind, and the higher forms of 
pleasure. Sight is well held to be the highest and 
most perfect of all the senses. 
in. The Eye. — The eye, a most beautiful and 
ingeniously contrived organ, is the instrument of 
sight. It is really one of the greatest wonders in 
nature. All the seeing parts of the eye are held 
in an egg-shaped bag lodged in a cavity of the skull. 
It is well protected by the strong bones of the head. 
Passing to the brain, through a crevice in the bot- 
Questions. — What is said of the sense of sight? How is this 
wonderful organ of sight protected from injury? THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
167 
tom of the cavity, is the optic nerve, which gives 
the power of sight. It spreads itself like a network 
upon the inner surface of the eyeball, and is then 
called the retina. It is upon this that the pictures 
of all objects are thrown. The impression of the 
pictures is carried to the brain, and causes the sen- 
sation of sight. We must rememher that it is not 
Fig. 53. — Section of Eyeball. 
the eye that sees, but the mind behind it; it is not 
the ear that hears, but the mind through the ear. 
This network also takes in the most delicate shades 
of color; and, by the action of the nerves of both 
eyes at the same time, we get the idea of the shape 
of objects, and of their distance from each other. 
Sometimes the optic nerve is diseased, and total 
blindness results. The great poet John Milton suf- 
Questions. — What is the optic nerve, and what office does it 
perform ? 168 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
fered from this disease, and in his blindness dictated 
to his daughters the immortal poem, “Paradise Lost.” 
The eyeball is a bag almost round, thick and dull 
everywhere but in front, where it has a transparent 
covering called the cornea, meaning “a horn.” This 
is fitted into the eye just as a watch-crystal is fitted 
into a watch. Sometimes it bulges out a trifle too 
much, and an imperfect picture is made on the 
retina. Such a person is said to be near-sighted. 
Through this watch-glass the rays of light pass into 
the ball of the eye. Behind it is a space, called the 
front chamber of the eye, filled with a watery fluid. 
In this chamber hangs a curtain called the iris, 
meaning “rainbow.” It has through its centre a 
hole called the pupil, poetically called “the apple 
of the eye.” This curtain gives the color to the 
eye. 
Behind the pupil is a transparent, jelly-like body, 
about the size of a French bean, called the crystal- 
line lens. It separates the front chamber of the eye 
from the back chamber. This beautiful lens helps 
the cornea to bring the pictures to a point, or “fo- 
cus,” on the retina. The back chamber also holds a 
jelly-like fluid, called the “glassy humor,” which 
allows the iris-curtain to float and move freely. 
112. How the Eye is protected. — The eye is 
like a precious gem placed in a carefully prepared 
Questions. — Describe the eyeball; the crystalline lens. 169 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
case. The eyelids, by continually winking, protect 
the eye from insects and from dust. They are 
fringed with the delicate hairs of the eyelashes, 
which are so sensitive that the slightest touch gives 
warning, and the lids close. By means of little 
muscles the eye is moved up and down, and rolled 
sideways. Sometimes these muscles do not act 
properly, and a person is said to squint or be cross- 
eyed. 
Fig. 54. —Muscles of Eyeball. 
At the upper and outer side of each eye is a little 
gland which is constantly forming a saltish kind of 
fluid. Sometimes more of this fluid comes out of 
the little gland than can be carried away through 
the nose, and it flows over the eyelids down the 
cheeks, and is called tears. Tears are constantly 
passing over the front of the eye, washing it clean, 
and keeping it moist; while the eyelid wipes it dry, as 
Questions. — What is the use of the eye-lashes ? What are tears, 
and what is their use ? 170 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
it were, by forcing the tears into a little drain-pipe, 
which carries them off into the nose. Nature, how- 
ever, kindly oils the edges of the eyelids, to prevent, 
to some extent, the overflow of tears. 
113. Color-Blindness. — Color-blindness is the in- 
ability to tell certain colors. It is sometimes pro- 
duced by sickness, but generally exists at birth. 
This defect of sight is quite common. It is found 
that four or five out of every hundred people are 
color-blind. A person may be color-blind, and not 
know it until the defect is accidentally revealed. It 
is a matter of the utmost practical importance to 
those employed on railroads, vessels, and other 
places where colored signals are used. Some are 
only partially color-blind, while others are wholly so. 
The most common form of color-blindness is that in 
which one fails to distinguish red. 
H4- Care of the Eyes. — The eye is an exceed- 
ingly delicate and sensitive organ. It is easy to get 
it out of order, and very tedious to restore it to 
health. The eyes are often weak after certain sick- 
nesses, especially measles and scarlet-fever. The 
habit of reading in the cars or a carriage the daily 
papers, with their blurred and fine print, is a severe 
strain on the eyes. 
It is a dangerous practice to read in bed at night, 
Questions. — What is color-blindness ? To what class of people 
is it important to be able to distinguish color readily ? THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
171 
or while lying down in a darkened room. The small 
type and poor paper of the many cheap “ libraries,” 
now so popular, are very frequent causes of weak' 
and diseased eyes. The direction in which the light 
comes is an important matter. The worst of all is 
from in front. The direct light should fall upon 
the print from above and behind, and from the left 
side. After reading steadily for some time, we 
should rest the eyes, even for only a minute, by 
looking at some distant object. A person should 
never read, write, sew, stitch, or otherwise use the 
eyes, when they tingle or smart, or the sight is dim 
or blurred; for they are weary, and need rest. Using 
the eyes at dusk, or by artificial light in the early 
morning, often leads to serious disorders of vision. 
The eyes should never be rubbed or handled 
roughly, much less when they are irritated by some 
foreign substance. The sooner such is removed, the 
better. Rubbing the eye, or pulling the eyelids, 
only makes a bad matter worse. It is not a wise 
economy to tamper with one’s eyes when they are 
ailing. If a few days’ rest does not give relief, se- 
cure proper medical advice. 
115. Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on the 
Special Senses.—Whatever dulls or weakens the 
nerves, must exert the same effect upon the special 
Qusstion. — Name a few important rules to be observed in the 
use of our eyes. 172 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
senses. Hence alcohol and tobacco dull the senses, 
and also provoke changes in the sense-organs them- 
selves. Thus alcohol used in excess often injures 
the ears by inflaming the throat, and then the tube 
which leads to the middle ear. 
Tobacco is apt to cause an inflamed state of the 
throat and nose, and hence ear-disease. Excessive 
smokers occasionally suffer from a dimmed vision due 
to a partial paralysis of the optic nerve. Excessive 
use of alcohol is said to cause the same disease. 
Tobacco and alcohol often produce an inflammation 
of the eyes and of the lining of the lids. 
Cigarettes are said to be especially hurtful to the 
lining of the throat, and the eyes. An atmosphere 
loaded with tobacco-smoke is apt to provoke an in- 
flammation of the throat, nose, and ears. 
Questions. — What is the effect of alcohol on the special senses? 
of tobacco ? REVIEW ANALYSIS: 
STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
1. The Muscles. 
(Chap. iii. p. 34.) 
Effect of Alcohol on the Muscles (25).1 
2. What we eat 
and drink. 
(Chap. iv. p. 48.) 
1. Artificial Drinks (33). 
2. Effect of drinking Tea and Coffee (34). 
3. Alcohol described (35). 
4. Principal Drinks that contain Alcohol (36). 
5. Alcohol as a Food (37). 
6. Alcohol and Work (38). 
3. How Digestion 
goes on. 
(Chap. v. p. 65.) 
f 1. Indigestion due to Alcohol (51). 
’ 2. Effect of Alcohol on the Stomach Digestion (52). 
I 3. Effect of Alcohol on the Liver (53). 
4. The Blood. 
(Chap. vi. p. 92.) 
1. How Alcohol gets into the Blood (62). 
2. Effect of Alcohol on the Circulation (63). 
3. Effect of Alcohol upon the Heart (64). 
5. How and Why 
we Breathe. 
(Chap. vii. p. 106.) 
Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Air- 
Passages (75). 
6. How the Body 
is covered. 
(Chap. viii. p. 121.) 
Alcohol and the Bodily Heat (86). 
r. Effect of Alcohol on the Nervous System (95) 
2. Final Result of Alcoholic Excess (96). 
3. Inherited Craving for Alcohol (97). 
4. Tobacco and its Moderate Use (98). 
5. Excessive Use of Tobacco (99). 
6. Effect of Tobacco upon Young People (100). 
7. Opium (101). 
8. Practical Points about Opium (102). 
9. Chloral (103). 
7. The Nervous 
System. 
(Chap. ix. p. 138.) 
8. The Special 
Senses. 
(Chap. x. p. 158.) 
Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Special Senses 
(115). 
1 The figures in full-face type, in the parentheses, refer to the numbcis of the 
sections in the preceding chapters of this book. 174 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
CHAPTER XI. 
HINTS AND HELPS FOR EVERY-DAY HEALTH. 
116. Accidents and Emergencies.—All kinds of 
accidents and emergencies may happen at any mo- 
ment. A friend may cut himself with a scythe or 
a knife ; a child may accidentally swallow some poi- 
son ; a boy may be taken out of the river apparently 
drowned ; one of our own family may be sick with 
some contagious disease, or may be nearly suffo- 
cated with coal-gas. All these, and many other 
things of a like nature, call for a cool head, a steady 
hand, and some practical knowledge of the best thing 
to do “till the doctor comes.” 
117. Fainting. —A fainting person should be laid 
flat at once, with the head very low. Give plenty of 
fresh air; and dash cold water, if necessary, on the 
head and neck. Loosen all tight clothing. 
Collateral Reading. — Hope’s Till the Doctor comes; Dulles's 
IVhat to do first in Emergencies; Turners Common Accidents and 
Diseases; Dixon’s IVhat is to he Done: An Emergency Handbook; 
Tracy’s Handbook of Sanitary Information. 
Questions. — Name some accidents that are liable to occur at any 
moment. What is required at such times ? HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
175 
118. Frostbite.—The ears, toes, nose, and fin- 
gers are occasionally frostbitten or frozen. Rub the 
frozen parts gently with snow or snow-water, in a 
cold room. The circulation should be restored very 
slowly. Hot milk with cayenne pepper, and hot 
strong coffee, should be freely given as stimulants. 
119. Fits, Convulsions. — A sufferer from “fits” 
should be treated much the same as for fainting. 
There is foaming at the mouth, the eyes are rolled 
up, and the tongue or lips are often bitten. See 
that the person does not injure himself; crowd a 
folded handkerchief between the teeth, to prevent 
biting the lips or tongue. Persons who are subject 
to such fits should not go into crowded or excited 
gatherings of any kind. 
120. Suffocation. —The chief clangers from poi- 
soning by noxious gases come from the fumes of 
burning coal in the furnace, stove, or range; from 
gas blown out by a draught; from the foul air often 
found in old wells ; and from the fumes of charcoal 
and the foul air of mines. 
The first thing to do is to give fresh air. Remove 
the person to the open air, loosen all tight clothing, 
dash on cold water, and, if necessary, use artificial 
respiration, as stated in the section on “ Drown- 
ing." 
Questions. —What should be done for a person fainting? W’hat 
is the treatment for frost-bites ? for fits or convulsions ? for suffocation ? 176 
IIOW TO KEEP WELL. 
121. Broken Bones. — Send for a surgeon at once. 
Loss of power, pain, and swelling are symptoms of 
a broken bone, that may be easily recognized. 
Broken limbs should always be handled with great 
care and tenderness. If the accident happens in the 
woods, the limb should be bound to a piece of board 
or bark, padded with moss or grass, which will do 
well enough for a splint until the patient reaches 
home. 
122. Sting of Insects. — If a piece of the sting 
remains in the wound, extract it with the fingers or 
with a pair of tweezers. The best application is 
diluted ammonia-water, after which a cloth wet with 
sweet-oil should be placed upon the part. 
123. Nosebleed. — Slight nosebleed requires little 
treatment. Keep the head erect, place a basin 
under the chin for the blood to run into, and then 
the patient should take several deep inspirations, fill- 
ing the chest fully at each breath. In most cases 
this will soon stop the bleeding. Ice may be applied 
to the nose. 
124. Foreign Bodies in the Nose. — Children are 
apt to push marbles, beans, peas, fruit-stones, but- 
tons, and other small objects, into the nose. Some- 
times we can get the child to help by blowing his 
nose hard. At other times a sharp blow between 
Questions. — What should be done for broken bones f for the 
sting of insects ? for nosebleed ? HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
177 
the shoulders will cause the substance to fall out. 
Stop the well nostril, and blow suddenly and forcibly 
through the mouth. Call in medical help at once if 
you do not meet with success, especially if it is a pea 
or bean, which is apt to swell with the warmth and 
moisture. 
125. Foreign Bodies in the Ear.—The simplest 
thing to do is to syringe in a little warm water, 
which will often wash out the substance. If insects 
crawl into the ear, drop in a little sweet-oil or molas- 
ses. If the tip of the ear is pulled up gently, the 
liquid will flow in more readily. 
126. Foreign Bodies in the Throat. — Bits of 
food and other small objects sometimes get lodged 
in the throat, and are easily got out by the fore- 
finger or by sharp slaps on the back. If it is a sliver 
from a toothpick, a match, or a fish-bone, it is no easy 
matter to remove it; for it generally sticks into the 
lining of the passage. If the object has actually 
passed into the windpipe, and then occur sudden 
fits of spasmodic coughing, with a dusky hue to the 
face and fingers, there is great danger of life : sur- 
gical help must be called without delay. 
If a foreign body, like coins, pencils, keys, fruit- 
stones, etc., is swallowed, it is not wise to give 
physic. Let the bowels alone, and give plenty of 
Questions. — What should be done for foreign bodies in the 
nose ? for foreign bodies in the ears ? for foreign bodies in the throat ? 178 
IIOW TO KEEP WEEL. 
hard-boiled eggs, cheese, and butter-crackers, so that 
the substance may be passed off in the natural way, 
in a bulky stool. 
127. Foreign Bodies in the Eye. — Cinders, par- 
ticles of dust, and other small substances, often get 
into the eye, and cause much pain. Do not rub the 
eye : it will only make bad matters worse. Often a 
copious flow of tears will wash the substance away : 
it is sometimes removed with the twisted corner of a 
handkerchief carefully used. If it is not removed, 
or if not found, in this way, the upper lid must be 
turned back. This requires skilled help. 
128. Sunstroke or Heatstroke. — The worst cases 
of “sunstroke” often happen in places where the 
sun’s rays never penetrate. There is sudden loss 
of consciousness, with deep, labored breathing, an 
intense, burning heat of the skin, and a marked ab- 
sence of sweat. The main thing is to lower the 
temperature. Strip off the clothing. Apply to the 
head chopped ice wrapped in flannel. Rub ice over 
the chest, and place pieces under the arm-pits and 
at the sides. If there is no ice, use cloths wet with 
cold water. The body may be stripped, and sprinkled 
with ice-water from a common watering-pot. Persons 
who have once suffered from sunstroke should avoid 
any risk in the future. 
Questions. — What should be done for foreign bodies in the eye ? 
for sunstroke or heatstroke ? HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
179 
129. Burns or Scalds. — Remove the clothing with 
the greatest care. Do not pull, but carefully cut and 
coax, the clothes away from the burned places. Save 
the skin unbroken if possible, taking care not to 
break the blisters. The secret of treatment is to 
avoid chafing, and to keep out the air. Baking-soda, 
used dry or dissolved in water, is a very good house- 
hold remedy for burns. Another remedy is to soak 
strips of old linen in a mixture of half linseed-oil 
and half lime-water. A deep or extensive burn 
should have prompt medical attendance. 
130. Bruises, Cut and Torn Wounds. —A bruise 
is a wound of the soft tissues, caused by blows. A 
black eye, and a lip or finger hurt by a base-ball, are 
familiar examples. Soak the injured part at first in 
cloths wrung out in cold water. Very hot water is 
often used to relieve the pain. If the cuts are small, 
clean the parts, bring the edges together, and stick 
them with plaster. When wounds are made with 
ragged edges, such as those made by broken glass, 
splinters, toy pistols, and rusty nails, more skill is 
called for. Such wounds, if neglected, often lead to 
serious results from blood-poisoning. The services 
of a doctor are generally necessary. • 
131. Bleeding. — It is very important to know the 
difference between bleeding from an artery and that 
Questions. — What should be done for burns or scalds? for 
bruises, cut or torn wounds ? 180 
now TO KEEP WELL. 
from a vein. If an artery bleeds, the blood is of a 
bright-scarlet color, and spurts in a stream. If a 
vein bleeds, the blood is of a dark and purple color, 
and slowly oozes out, or 
flows in a steady stream. 
Bleeding from an ar- 
tery is a dangerous mat- 
ter in proportion to the 
size of the vessel, and life 
itself may be speedily 
lost; while bleeding 
from a vein is rarely a 
serious injury, and gen- 
erally stops of itself, 
aided, if need be, by 
pressure. When an ar- 
tery is bleeding, always 
remember to make deep 
pressure between the 
wound and the heart. 
Send at once for the 
doctor. 
Meanwhile there is 
something to do. Keep 
cool, and do not be afraid to act at once. A firm grip 
in the right place with the fingers will do, until a 
twisted handkerchief, stout cord, shoestring, or sus- 
Fig 55. 
Explanation — The dots mark the places on 
which to press when the person is bleeding 
from an artery wound. In each case the dot 
marks the nearest place above the wound 
(on side nearest the heart) upon which pres- 
sure can be of use to stop the bleeding. 
Question. — What should be done for bleeding? HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
181 
pender is ready to take its place. If the artery is 
of some size, make a knot in whatever is used, and 
bring the pressure of the knot to bear over the 
artery. If the flow of blood does not stop, change 
the pressure until the right spot is found. Strips of 
an old handkerchief, a bunch of moss, underclothing, 
or cotton wading, might be stuffed into the wound, 
keeping up the pressure all the time ; or seize a 
handful of dry earth, and crowd it down into the 
bleeding wound with a firm pressure. 
Let me tell you of the principal places to apply 
pressure when arteries are injured and bleeding. If 
in the finger, grasp it with the thumb and forefinger, 
and pinch it firmly on each side ; if in the hand, 
press with the thumb just above, and in front of, the 
wrist. For injuries below the elboiv, grasp the upper 
part of the arm with the hands, and squeeze hard. 
For the upper arm, press with the fingers against 
the inner edge of the biceps muscle. For the foot 
or leg, press as before in the hollow behind the 
knee, just above the calf of the leg. 
132. Apparent Drowning. — Remove all tight 
clothing from the neck, chest, and waist. Sweep 
the forefinger, covered with a handkerchief or towel, 
round through the mouth, to free it from froth and 
mucus. Turn the body on the face, raising it a 
little, with the hands under the hips, to allow any 
Question. — What should be done for apparent drowning? 182 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
water to run out from the air-passages. Take only 
a moment for this. Lay the person flat upon the 
back, with a folded coat, or pad of any kind, to keep 
the shoulders raised a little. Remove all the wet, 
clinging clothing that is convenient. If in a room 
or sheltered place, strip the body, and wrap it . in 
Fig. 56. 
blankets, overcoats, etc. Use bottles of hot water, 
if at hand, hot flat-irons, or hot sand, round the 
limbs and feet. 
The main thing to do is to keep up artificial respi- 
ration until the natural breathing comes, or till all 
hope is lost. This is the simplest way to do it: The 
person is laid on the back. Let some one kneel be- 
hind the head. Grasp both arms near the elbows, 
and sweep them upward above the head until they HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
183 
nearly touch. Make a firm pull for a moment. This 
tends to fill the lungs with air by drawing the ribs 
up, and making the chest cavity larger. Now return 
the arms to the sides of the body until they press 
hard against the ribs. This tends to force out the 
air. This makes, artificially, a complete act of respi- 
ration. Repeat this act about fifteen times every 
minute. All this may be kept up for several hours. 
Fig. 57. 
When a person can breathe, even a little, he can 
swallow. Give then hot, strong coffee every few 
minutes, a teaspoonful at a time, or a little ammonia 
and water. Meanwhile do not fail to keep up arti- 
ficial warmth. Do not move a person who is just 
beginning to breathe again, from one place to an- 
other, except when forced to do so from cold or some 
pressing necessity. 184 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
133- The Proper Use of Alcoholic Drinks. — 
In the hands of a good physician, alcohol, like many 
other powerful agents, often proves a valuable rem- 
edy. In cases of extreme weakness and bodily peril, 
undoubtedly alcoholic drinks, either alone or com- 
bined with other things, as milk, ammonia, etc., serve 
to bridge over critical moments of disease when other 
agents would not be tolerated. Upon the doctor 
rests the responsibility of giving alcohol, as well as 
such drugs as aconite, arsenic, strychnia, opium, bel- 
ladonna, and other poisons. It is well to remember 
that good physicians, as a rule, are slow to prescribe, 
or even to use, the various forms of alcohol in their 
professional labors. 
Alcohol is the basis of most liniments, and, as 
such, is a useful agent. People are much inclined 
to use alcohol and rum in family use for all kinds of 
outward applications.' No doubt, very cold or very 
hot water would do just as well in most cases. The 
use of some form of alcoholic liquor for every little 
ache or pain that occurs in the family, cannot be too 
severely condemned. 
Alcoholic mixtures must be used with the greatest 
caution, especially if there is any danger of arousing 
the alcoholic appetite. Use common sense, and act 
honestly and consistently in this matter of using 
alcohol as in every other act of life. Black coffee, 
strong tea, hot water, cold water, hot milk, cayenne HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
185 
pepper, and ammonia water, in most emergencies, 
are strong remedies enough to use “ till the doctor 
comes.” 
134. The Habit of taking Unknown Medicines. 
— The habit of taking medicines, especially of an un- 
known character, is something alarmingly common. 
If we have an ache or pain about us, a friend advises 
this or that medicine because “it did him good,” or 
we are foolish enough to spend our money for some 
advertised nostrum claiming to have wonderful 
virtues. All people, especially sensible young per- 
sons, should have respect enough for their health to 
let all unknown medicines alone. Rest assured, if 
the skilful physician cannot help us, medicines made 
by some “benefactor of mankind,” simply to sell, 
will do us no good. 
135. Hints for the Sick-Room.—The sick-room 
should be the lightest and most pleasant room in 
the house. Take away all extra carpets, upholstered 
furniture, heavy curtains, etc. : they absorb the im- 
purities, and help keep the room foul. A clean 
floor, with a few rugs to deaden the footsteps, is 
much better than a woollen carpet. Let the room 
be open to the sunlight and the fresh air. Guard 
the patient from the noise of passing steam and 
horse cars, heavy teams, and playing children. With 
Questions. —-What is said of the habit of taking unknown medi- 
cines ? 186 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
a little pains any sick-room may be supplied with 
pure air. Do not let the disagreeable odors due to 
cooking victuals, especially frying fish or pork, cook- 
ing cabbage, etc., reach the sick-room. Do not allow 
a kerosene light, with its flame turned down, to burn 
through the night. 
Keep a sick-room neat and trim. Remove at once 
all offensive matters. Never allow such to remain 
in the room. In many diseases, especially scarlet- 
fever, diphtheria, consumption, etc., use pieces of 
old linen instead of handkerchiefs, and burn them 
as soon as used. Carelessness or ignorance in this 
matter often spreads contagious disease. Change 
the clothes of the bed and of the patient quite often. 
Do not let such clothing be put away in a closet with 
other clothing. Put it to soak at once in boiling 
water, with some disinfectant added if necessary. 
Do not have food left in the room. Do not make a 
great show of bottles of medicines, spoons, glasses, 
etc., carefully spread out on the bureau or table. 
Keep all such things in an adjoining room. To a 
patient not used to sickness, a great show of drugs 
and sick apparatus is discouraging. Some simple 
thing like an orange, a few favorite flowers, and one 
or two playthings, may take their place. 
Never get behind the door, in a corner, or in an 
adjoining room and whisper. Whatever must be 
Question. — Give some hints about the sick-room. HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
187 
said, say it openly and aloud. Answer a sick per- 
son’s questions plainly and squarely. Nothing is 
gained by trying to avoid a straightforward reply. 
If a doctor is employed, carry out his orders to the 
very letter. 
136. Poisons in General. — Poisons of various 
kinds are often used in the trades, and kept about the 
house and premises as medicines, as disinfectants, 
for killing insects and animals, and for many other 
purposes. People are often careless about them, and 
leave them in the cupboard or on a shelf about the 
shed or stable, wrapped in a piece of paper, or in 
some unlabelled bottle. Children either mistake 
them, or are urged by some playmate to swallow 
them. The many accidents due to drinking carbolic 
acid by mistake are a familiar example of how stupid 
or careless people may be. 
Poisons should always be carefully labelled, and the 
word “POISON” plainly printed in large letters 
across the label. Fasten the cork firmly to the bottle 
by wire, twisted into a knot at the top. This would 
certainly prevent a person from mistaking carbolic 
acid, oxalic acid, etc., in the dark, for medicine. 
Poisons should never be kept in the same place with 
medicines or other bottled preparations used in the 
household. Put them in some secure place, and 
Questions. — What can you say about poisons ? What about 
their preservation ? 188 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
under lock and key. Never use the contents of 
any package or bottle unless you know exactly what 
it is. Do not guess at it, or take any chances ; but 
destroy it at once. 
Poisons may be taken when medical help, espe- 
cially in the country, cannot be had at short notice. 
They do their work rapidly. Something must be 
done, and that at once and in earnest. The stomach 
must be emptied as speedily as possible. Make a 
quart of warm soapsuds. Force the sufferer to gulp 
it down, a cupful at a time. Run the finger or a 
feather “down the throat,” and hasten the vomiting. 
A good emetic is made by putting a heaping table- 
spoonful of ground mustard into a pint of water. 
Drink a cupful every ten minutes until vomiting is 
produced. Stir up a handful of powdered alum in a 
cupful of molasses, and swallow this, a tablespoonful 
every ten minutes. Vomiting will do no harm, and 
the poison may destroy life in a few minutes. 
The young student is referred to more advanced 
books than this, for mention of antidotes for par- 
ticular poisons. 
137. Sicknesses that spread.—We have learned 
in a preceding chapter (chap, vii.) that the air may be 
poisoned by the products of respiration, and by other 
waste matters thrown off from healthy human bodies. 
The air may be poisoned also by the products of res- 
Question. — When is it necessary to use emetics ? HINTS AND HELPS FOR HEALTH. 
189 
piration and bodily discharges of diseased persons. 
Thus, in certain diseases, called contagious, there are 
thrown off in some way from the persons of the sick, 
organic matters, which tend to reproduce themselves 
in the bodies of other persons. Small-pox and 
scarlet-fever are examples of severe and contagious 
diseases; while whooping-cough, measles, and mumps 
are contagious, but less harmful. 
Again: the air may be poisoned with the foul gases 
arising from the contents of cesspools, sewers, and 
other sources. The living particles, or “germs,” of 
such diseases as typhoid-fever and dysentery, are 
believed to be contained or developed in the dis- 
charges both from the stomach and bowels of per- 
sons suffering from these diseases. Diphtheria and 
typhoid-fever are believed to be due oftentimes to 
the foul contents of cesspools and sewers. Finally, 
the air may be poisoned by the decay of organic 
matters in the ground, and drawn into the house in 
various ways. Thus there seems to be a connection 
between malarial fever and bad drainage. 
138. Disinfection. — With our present knowledge, 
it is not possible to get rid of the germs of disease 
after they are once lodged in the body. We are 
able, however, to a certain extent, to destroy them 
after they leave the body in the excretions of dis- 
Question. — Mention the ways in which the air may be poisoned 
by contagious diseases. 190 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
eased persons. This destruction of the poisons of 
infectious and contagious diseases is called disinfec- 
tion, and the means used are called disinfectants. We 
must remember that disinfection cannot make up for 
the want of cleanliness or of ventilation. Practical 
directions for the use of disinfectants are given in 
the more advanced text-books. 
Question. — Tell something about disinfectants and their uses. MALARIAL AND TYPHOID FEVERS. 
191 
CHAPTER XII. 
MALARIAL AND TYPHOID FEVERS.1 
139. Malarial Fever. — An old writer has said, 
that if our bodies were incased in glass, and if we 
could look therein, and see the workings of our 
hearts, lungs, and other organs, we would be in 
hourly dread of doing fatal injury to this delicate 
and complicated machinery of ours, by our slightest 
movement. 
And yet young people, and old people too, are 
continually committing some act of folly which ren- 
ders them liable to disease, and even to death. A 
little girl, over-tired by rope-jumping or other violent 
exercise, or a boy fatigued by hard play or too much 
bicycle, seeks rest by lying on the damp ground in 
the hot sun, or perhaps in the cool of the late 
evening. 
Questions. — Tell what an old writer has said of our bodies. Ex- 
plain the danger of resting on the damp ground in the hot sun, or 
late in the evening. 
1 This admirable chapter has been especially written for this book by Jackson 
Piper, M.D., president of the Maryland State Board of Health. The young student 
will find it worthy of his best study. IIOW TO KEEP WEEK 
A subtle vapor, exhaling from the moist earth, 
enters the lungs, and is carried thence into the blood 
and through the entire system. A chill is the result, 
followed by a hot fever, ending in a profuse and 
weakening perspiration. For a time the little suf- 
ferer is better; but a like chill, fever, and perspira- 
tion come the next day, and the next, and so on 
for weeks, until the disease is checked by bitter 
quinine or some other nauseous medicine. It does 
not always stop here, but leaves behind it diseases 
of the liver and spleen, and a tendency to recur. 
This disease is called intermittent fever, because the 
fever intermits; that is, the sick person is entirely 
free from fever after the perspiration and until the 
next chill, when the fever begins again. Other 
names are malarial fever of the intermittent type, 
chills and fever, and the ague. 
Three things cause it: first, decay of vegetable 
substances (such as rank weeds, plants, and decaying 
wood), vegetables allowed to remain too long in the 
cellar, and slops thrown out on the ground ; second, 
moisture ; third, heat. Thus this fever is most prev- 
alent in the summer and autumn. The poison, there- 
fore, consists of vegetable matter, and exists about 
all damp, moist localities, such as marshy places, wet 
Questions. — What is this disease called, and why ? By what 
other names is it known ? Name its causes. Where is it most preva- 
lent ? MALARIAL AND TYPHOID FEVERS. 
193 
cellars, choked drains, stagnant water about lakes 
and along rivers. In fact, this fever lurks in any 
place where plants are allowed to decay in heat and 
moisture, or where new earth is upturned, as in 
making railroads, and grading for new houses. This 
poison has been called at different times by differ- 
ent names, and, latterly, germs. 
Another form of this fever is called the remittent 
malaria, or bilious fever, because the fever is present 
all the time, but is higher at one time than at an- 
other ; that is, it remits. This fever depends upon 
the same causes and influences as the first mentioned 
fever, and, while lasting longer, does not recur again, 
or leave the bad after-effects that follow intermittent 
fever. 
140. Typhoid Fever. — The next fever that de- 
pends upon a germ, or active principle, is typhoid- 
fever. This germ is generated from animal matter, 
— most frequently from the discharges of persons 
sick with the disease. Under putrefying changes 
or decay, the air is poisoned, or, sinking into the 
earth, the poison finds its way into our wells and 
springs. If we inhale this poisoned air, or drink 
this tainted water, and our bodies are not in good 
order, typhoid-fever is the result. Its symptoms 
Questions. — Describe another form of this disease. What can 
you say about typhoid fever? Explain how it may get into the 
system. 194 
HOW TO KEEP WELL. 
are a constant fever, great prostration, profuse 
sweating, delirium, headache, and other bad symp- 
toms, which often lead to a fatal result. 
This disease does not pass from one person to 
another,—that is, it is not contagious; neither 
does it come of itself from decaying animal matter. 
The poison must come from the sick person, and 
must first infect or poison matter in a condition of 
decay. This matter so poisoned enters our drinking- 
water, or arises in a state of vapor from bad drain- 
age and sewers, and is drawn into the mouth and 
swallowed. 
141. Protection against Fevers. — All low, moist 
countries are greatly subject to malarial and typhoid 
fevers. Formerly malarial fevers were most preva- 
lent on the eastern shore and the lower counties of 
our State, — St. Mary’s and Charles. The marshy 
grounds, rivers, and inlets of the Chesapeake Bay 
formed an extensive and fertile soil for this disease. 
Of late years these fevers have invaded the western 
shore of Maryland, even up to the high lands of the 
Blue Ridge Mountains. 
Children are peculiarly susceptible to intermittent 
and remittent fevers, and, to a less degree, to typhoid- 
fever. In many parts of our State, there appears 
just enough of the malarial poison to affect them, 
Questions. — What kind of countries are most subject to ma- 
laria? MALARIAL AND TYPHOID FEVERS. 
195 
while grown persons escape. This is an important 
truth not generally known. It is well for young 
people to recognize its importance. 
Much can be done to avoid these fevers. Cleanli- 
ness of person, a careful diet, avoidance of late out- 
door hours, and sleeping in over-crowded and badly 
ventilated rooms, should be rigidly observed. Clean 
cellars, open drains, and properly built and cleanly 
kept sewers, tend to ward off disease. All bad- 
smelling places should be freely sprinkled with chlo- 
ride of lime. Schoolrooms should be well ventilated, 
and too many pupils should not be crowded into 
one room. Too much study or too much play weak- 
ens the body, and renders it a fit soil for the growth 
of these dreaded diseases. 
Question. — What may be done to avoid these fevers ? GLOSSARY. 
Ab-do'men. See Sect. 6. 
Ab-sorp'tion. The process of 
sucking up nutritive or waste 
matters by the blood-vessels. 
A'cid. A substance usually sour, 
sharp, or biting to the taste. 
Ad'am’s Ap'ple. An angular 
projection of cartilage in the 
front of the neck. It is promi- 
nent in males. 
Al-bu'men. An animal sub- 
stance resembling the white of 
an egg. 
A-nat'o-my. See Sect. 5. 
A-or'ta. The largest artery of 
the body. 
A'que-ous Humor. The wa- 
tery fluid occupying the space 
between the cornea and crys- 
talline lens of the eye. 
Ar'te-ry. A vessel by which 
blood is carried from the heart. 
Au'di-to-ry Nerve. The spe- 
cial nerve of hearing. 
Au'ri-cle. A cavity of the heart. 
Bile. The gall; a secretion of 
the liver. 
Bronch'i. The first two branches 
of the windpipe. 
Bronch'i-al Tubes. The smaller 
branches of the windpipe. 
Bun'ion. An enlargement and 
inflammation at the first joint 
of the great toe. 
Ca-nal'. In the body, any tube 
or passage. 
Cap'il-la-ry. The “ hair-like ” 
blood-vessels. 
Car-bon'ic A'cid. The gas 
which is breathed out from the 
lungs; a waste product of the 
animal kingdom, and a food of 
the vegetable kingdom. 
Car'di-ac. The orifice of the 
stomach, near the heart. 
Car'ron Oil. A mixture of equal 
parts of linseed-oil and lime- 
water. 
Car'ti-lage. A tough but flexible 
material, forming a part of the 
joints, nostrils, ears ; gristle. 
Ca'se-ine. The albumen part 
of milk; forming the basis of 
cheese. 
Cer-e-bel'lum. The little brain. 
Cer'e-brum. The brain proper. 
Chlo'ral. A powerful drug used 
by physicians to induce sleep. 
Cir-cu-la'tion. The course of 
the blood through the blood- 
vessels of the body. 
Co-ag-u-la'tion. Applied to the 198 
GLOSSARY. 
process by which the blood clots 
or becomes solid. 
Con-ges'tion. An unnatural 
gathering of blood in any part 
of the body. 
Con-sti-pa'tion. Costiveness; 
tardiness in evacuating the 
bowels. 
Con-vul'sion. A more, or less 
violent agitation of the limbs or 
body; a fit. 
Corn. A portion of the outer 
skin, of horn-like hardness. 
Cor'ne-a. The transparent sub- 
stance which covers a part of 
the front of the eyeball. 
Cor'pus-cles, Blood. The small 
bodies which give to the blood 
its red color. 
Crys'tal-line Lens. A double- 
convex body situated in the 
front part of the eyeball. 
Cu'ti-cle. The scarf-skin; also 
called the epider'mis. 
Cu'tis. The true skin, lying be- 
neath the cuticle; also called 
the der'mis. 
De-lir'i-um. A state in which 
the ideas of a person are wild, 
irregular, and unconnected. 
Di'a-phragm. See Sect. 6. 
Di-ar-rhoe'a. Unnaturally fre- 
quent and liquid evacuations of 
the bowels. 
Dis-in-fect'ants. Agents used to 
destroy the causes of infection. 
Duct. A canal or tube. 
Dys-pep'si-a. Indigestion. 
El'e*ment. One of the simplest 
parts of which any thing con- 
sists. 
E-met'ic. A medicine which 
causes vomiting. 
E-mul'sion. Oil in a finely di- 
vided state, suspended in water. 
En-am'el. The dense material 
which covers the crown of a 
tooth. 
Ep-i-glot'tis. See Sect. 41. 
Ex-cre'tion. The separation 
from the blood of the waste 
matters of the body. 
Ex-pi-ra'tion. The act of for- 
cing air out of the lungs. 
Ex-ten'sion. The act of restor- 
ing a limb, etc., to its natural 
position after it has been flexed. 
Fi'bre. One of the tiny threads 
of which many parts of the body 
are composed. 
Fi'brine. A substance like albu- 
men, found in the blood. 
Flex'ion. The act of bending a 
limb. 
Func'tion. The special duty of 
any organ of the body. 
Gas'tric. Pertaining to the 
stomach. 
Gel'a-tine. An animal substance 
which dissolves in hot water, 
and forms a jelly on cooling. 
Germ. A living particle detached 
from already existing living mat- 
ter. 
Gland. See Sect. 5. 
Glu'ten. The albumen-like part 
of wheat. 
Gym-nas'tics. The practice of 
athletic exercises. 
Hy'gi-ene. See Sect. 5. 
In-spi-ra'tion. The act of draw- 
ing in the breath. GLOSSARY. 
199 
In-tes'tines. The bowels. 
I'ris. The thin curtain between 
the cornea and crystalline lens, 
giving the eye its color. 
Lac'te-als. The absorbent ves- 
sels of the small intestines. 
Lig'a-ment. A strong, fibrous 
material, binding bones or other 
parts together. 
Mar'row. The soft, fatty sub- 
stance contained in bones. 
Mas-ti-ca'tion. Chewing. 
Mi'cro-scope. An optical instru- 
ment which assists in the exam- 
ination of minute objects. 
Mu'cous Mem'brane. The thin 
layer of tissue which covers 
those parts which communicate 
with the external air. 
Mu'cus. The glairy fluid which 
is secreted by mucous mem- 
branes, serving to keep them in 
a moist condition. 
Nar-cot'ic. A medicine which 
in poisonous doses produces 
stupor, convulsions, and some- 
times death. 
Na'sal. Pertaining to the nose. 
Nic'o-tine. The poisonous oil 
extracted from tobacco. 
Mos'trils. The two outer open- 
ings of the nose. 
Nu-tri'tion. The processes by 
which the nourishment of the 
body is accomplished. 
Ol-fac'to-ry. Pertaining to the 
sense of smell. 
Op'tic. Pertaining to the sense 
of sight. 
Or'bit. The bony socket in which 
the eyeball is situated. 
Or'gan. A portion of the body 
having some special duty. 
Pal-pi-ta'tion. A violent and 
irregular beating of the heart. 
Pa-pil'la. The name of the 
small elevations found on the 
skin and mucous membranes. 
Par-aTy-sis. Loss of motion or 
feeling; palsy. 
Pep'sin. The active principle of 
the gastric juice. 
Per-spi-ra'tion. The sweat. 
Pha-lan'ges. The bones of the 
fingers and toes. 
Phys-i-ol'o-gy. See Sect. 5. 
Plas'ma. The liquid part of the 
blood. 
Poi'son. Any substance which, 
when applied externally, or 
taken into the stomach or the 
blood, produces disease or death. 
PuPmo-na-ry. Pertaining to the 
lungs. 
Pulse. See Sect. 60. 
Pu-pil. The opening in the iris 
through which light passes into 
the eye. 
Py-lo'rus. The outlet from the 
stomach into the small intes- 
tines. 
Re'flex. The name given to cer- 
tain involuntary movements. 
Res-pi-ra'tion. Breathing. 
Ret'i-na. The innermost of the 
coats of the eyeball, being an 
expansion of the optic nerve. 
Sa-li'va. The spittle. 
Se-cre'tion. The process of 
separating from the blood some 
essential fluid, which is also 
called a secretion. 200 
GLOSSARY. 
Sen-sa'tion. The perception of 
an external impression by the 
nervous system. 
Se'rum. The clear, watery fluid 
which separates from the clot 
of the blood. 
Sock'et. An opening into which 
any thing is fitted. 
Spasm. A sudden, violent, and 
involuntary contraction of one 
or more muscles. 
Spe'cial Sense. A sense by 
which we receive particular sen- 
sations, such as those of sight, 
hearing, taste, and smell. 
Sprain. An injury to the liga- 
ments or tendons about a 
joint. 
Stim'u-lant. An agent which 
causes an increase of vital ac- 
tivity in the body or any of its 
parts. 
Sut'ure. The union of certain 
bones of the skull by the inter- 
locking of jagged edges. 
Ten'don. The white, fibrous 
cord by which a muscle is at- 
tached to a bone ; a sinew. 
Tho'rax. The chest. 
Tis'sue. See Sect. 5. 
To-bac'co. A plant used for 
smoking and chewing, and in 
snuff. 
Tra'che-a. The windpipe. 
Vein. A vessel by which blood 
is carried to the heart. 
Ven-ti-la'tion. The introduc- 
tion of fresh air into a room or 
building in such a manner as to 
keep pure the air within it. 
Ven'tri-cles of the Heart. The 
two largest cavities of the heart. 
Ver'te-bra. One of the bones 
which make the backbone. 
Ver'te-bral Col'umn. The back- 
bone ; also called the spinal 
column, and spine. 
Vil'li. Minute thread-like pro- 
jections found upon the inner 
surface of the small intestine, 
giving it an appearance like 
plush. 
Vit're-ous. Having the appear- 
ance of glass; applied to a fluid 
in the cavity of the eyeball. 
Vo'cal Cords. Two elastic bands 
in the windpipe; the essential 
parts of the Organ of voice. INDEX. 
PAGE 
Abdomen 10 
Apsorption by blood-vessels . . 78 
by the lacteals 78 
Accidents and emergencies . . 174 
Air, Changes in, from breathing, 113 
Carbonic acid in . . . . 114 
Impurities in 117 
renovation by ventilation . 118 
Pure 115 
Air-passages 108 
Albumens 50 
Alcohol 60 
as a food 63 
how it gets into the blood . 104 
and work 63 
and bodily heat 136 
Drinks that contain ... 62 
Effect of, upon nervous sys- 
tem 150 
Effect of, on digestion . . 89 
Effect of, on muscles ... 47 
Effect of, upon the circula- 
tion 104 
Effect of, upon the heart . 105 
Effect of, upon the lungs . 120 
Effect of, upon the liver . . 90 
Effect of, upon special 
senses 171 
Indigestion due to ... . 88 
Inherited craving for . . . 152 
Alcoholic excess, Result of . . 151 
Alcoholic drinks, Proper use of. 184 
Alexis St. Martin 75 
PAGE 
Anatomy defined 6 
Ankle 26 
Arm . 23 
Arteries 95 
Artificial drinks 59 
Backbone 20 
Baths, and how to take them . 129 
Bile 76 
Bleeding, how stopped ....179 
Blood 92 
Circulation of 94 
Circulation of, in lungs . . 98 
corpuscles 92 
vessels 95 
Body, General parts of. . . . 7 
compared to steam-engine . 3 
and its nervous system . . 4 
Bone, how made up 13 
General structure of . . . 14 
Bones, Health of 31 
how joined 28 
how tied together .... 30 
Broken 176 
Bony framework 12 
Brain . . . 139 
Breathe, How we 110 
Breathing, what it is . . . . 10S 
Bruises, how treated 179 
Burns 179 
Capillaries 95 
Carbonic-acid gas exhaled from 
the lungs 114 
in the air 115 202 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Chest 10 
Chloral 157 
Cigarettes 154, 172 
Circulation of the blood ... 94 
through the heart .... 100 
through the lungs .... 98 
How to promote . . . . 103 
Clothing, Why we need ... 134 
Hints about wearing . . . 135 
Coffee, Effects of 60 
Collar-bone 23 
Color-blindness 170 
Contraction of muscles.... 38 
Convulsions 175 
Corpuscles, Blood 92 
Diaphragm 10 
Movements of the, in respi- 
■ ration in 
Diet, Important articles of . . 57 
Digestion 65 
Disinfection 189 
Drowning, Apparent .... 181 
Ear 163 
Care of the 165 
Epidermis 123 
Epiglottis 72, 114 
Exercise, Different kinds of . . 45 
Time for 44 
why we need it 42 
Expiration no 
Eye 166 
how protected 168 
Eyes, Care of the 170 
Fainting 174 
Fats 53 
Fever, Malarial 191 
Typhoid 193 
Protection against. . . . 194 
Fibrine of the blood 93 
Fits 175 
Food, Water as a 56 
why we need it 4S 
how it is swallowed ... 70 
how much to eat .... 80 
PAGE 
Food, what to eat 82 
when to eat 84 
how to eat 87 
Foods, Tissue 50 
Mineral 54 
Fuel 51 
Foot £7 
Foreign bodies in throat ... 177 
in nose 176 
in eye 178 
in ear 177 
Frostbite 175 
Function defined . ...... 7 
Gall-bladder 76 
Gases, Interchange of, in the 
lungs 112 
Gastric juice 74 
Glands 7 
Oil 125 
Salivary 69 
Sweat 124 
Gristle 28 
Gullet 71 
Hair 127 
Hand 24 
Head 16 
Bones of, how joined. . . 18 
Health, Care of 10 
Hearing, Sense of 163 
Heart 96 
Beating of the 96 
Cavities of the 97 
Circulation through the . . 100 
Work done by the .... 99 
Heat, Bodily 131 
how regulated 132 
Heat and alcohol 136 
Heatstroke 178 
Hips '. . 23 
Hygiene defined 6 
Inspiration no 
Intestines 76 
Villi of the 78 
Iron in the blood 56 INDEX. 
203 
PAGE 
Joints 28 
Kinds of 29 
Kidneys 121 
Knee-pan 26 
Lacteals 77 
Legs 25 
Liver 76 
Effects of alcohol upon . . 90 
Lungs 107 
What takes place in . . 98, 112 
Malarial fever 191 
Medicines, unknown. Habit of 
taking 185 
Mouth 66 
Muscles 34 
Structure of 36 
how they act 361 
Contraction of 48 
Effect of alcohol on . . . 47 
not under control of will , 39 
Nails 127 
Nerves 141 
Spinal 141 
Nervous system 138 
and the body 4 
compared to telegraph sys- 
tem 141 
Health of the 145 
Effect of alcohol upon . . 150 
and alcoholic excess . . . 151 
Nosebleed 176 
Oil glands 125 
Opium 155 
Practical points about . . 156 
Organ defined 7 
Pancreas 76 
Pancreatic juice 76 
Papillae 160 
Physiology defined 6 
Poisons in general 187 
Pulse 101 
Reading, Collateral . 33, 46, 135, 174 
Reflex action 143 
Importance of 143 
PAGE 
Respiration 
Ribs 22 
Saliva, Mixing food with ... 68 
Salt, Importance of .... . 54 
Sensation 138 
Senses, Special . . . . . . 158 
Shin-bone 26 
Shoulder-blade 23 
Sick-room, Hints for ... . 185 
Sicknesses that spread .... 188 
Sight, Sense of 166 
Skeleton 8, 14 
Skin, how it looks 121 
Scarf 123 
True 122 
Care of the 126 
Skull 18 
■ Sleep 147 
! Smell, Sense of 161 
Special senses 158 
Spinal cord 141 
Spinal nerves 141 
Spine 
Splint-bone 26 
Starches 31 
Stings, Insect 176 
Stomach 72 
Effects of alcohol upon . . 89 
Suffocation 173 
Sugars 5I 
Sunstroke 178 
Sutures of skull 19 
Sweat 124 
Taste, Sense of 159 
Tea, Effect of 60 
Tears 169 
Teeth 66 
Care of 88 
Temperature of the body . . . 131 
Tendon of Achilles 42 
Tendons 40 
Thigh-bone 25 
Thoracic duct 79 
Tissue defined 6 204 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Tobacco 152 
Effects of, upon the young. 154 
Effects of, upon air-pas- 
sages 120 
Effect of, upon special 
senses 171 
Excessive use of .... 153 
Tongue 160 
Touch, Sense of 159 
Trunk 8,20 
Typhoid fever 193 
Veins 93 
PAGE 
Ventilation n8 
Villi of the intestines . . . . 78 
Absorption by .... . 78 
Vocal cords 109 
Voice 109 
Warm, Why the body is . . . 131 
Wash, Why we need to . . . 125 
Waste matters, Getting rid of . 121 
Water -(, 
Windpipe 108 
Work and alcohol 63 
Wrist 24