A 
TABULATED MANUAL 
OF 
philology and ftygieqe, 
TOGETHER WITH 
Tlje Effect? of Upon the j&J?tem, 
Clearly and Scientifically Stated. 
ESPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF TEACH- 
ERS AND STUDENTS iN TEACHING, IN 
REVIEWING, AND IN PREPARING 
FOR EXAMINATIONS. 
BY 
GEORGE W. HENDERSON, 
Author of the 
“ Revised Golden Chain,” and 
u A Vest-Pocket Manual or Civil Government.” 
“.Know thy Opportunity.”—Pittacus. 
& HENDERSON, PUBLISHERS, 
Yanghnsville, Ohio; 
1 8 89 . Entered According to Act of Congress, 
in the year 1880, 
by mckinley & hende&son. 
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at 
Washington, D. C. 
Record Steam 
Job Printing House, 
Ada, Ohio. My Dear Preceptor : 
to e. b. McKinley, m. d. 
3n affectionate remembrance of your personal 
friendship and the great interest you have al- 
ways taken in educational matters, I beg leave 
to dedicate this Manual to you. I wish it were more 
worthy of the honor you do me in granting me this 
privilege. Please to accept it as a mark of the highest 
esteem in which you are held by the author for your 
aid and support to his every honest endeavor. 
I am Yours Fraternally, 
George W. If end hr sox. PREFACE. 
Shis Manual is the outgrowth of a series of notes 
made by the author through along course of study. 
His experience teaches him that most books of 
this class now in use treat the subjects in frag- 
ments in too many different places. Believing that a 
judicious abridgment that does not slight the essen 
tial facts of the subjects treated can not be considered 
■other than a benefit to any department of science, the 
iniportanceand convenience of having all the essential 
points in relation to any particular subject tabulated or 
placed immediately under it can not fail to be appre- 
ciated. 
This arrangement will greatly facilitate a rapid ac- 
quirement of such things as should be thoroughly 
known, in order to pass a rigid examination or to give 
instruction. The object of this Manual is not to teach 
new facts, but those which are already known to 
- science in such a manner as to be easily comprehend- 
ed for the purpose of aiding teachers and students 
in memorizing and teaching them. The immediate 
-’end the student is diligently seeking to obtain is to 
pass his examinations in a creditable and satisfactory 
; manner. The chief end the teacher is diligently 
endeavoring to obtain is to bring his teaching within 
the grasp of his pupils. These facts have been care- 
fully taken into consideration by the author in pre- 
paring the following pages. To give the names of all 
the authors consulted in the preparation of this work 
would needlessly encumber its pages. Neither time, 
patience, nor thorough research have been spared to 
verify every statement made. 
Hoping it may contribute to lighten the labors of 
his fellow teachers and students, in teaching, in 
reviewing, and in preparing for examinations, the 
author commits this little Manual into their hands ; 
appealing to their indulgence for any short-comings, 
. and wishing them success in preparing for the great- 
•est possible usefulness and improvement both now 
~and forever. George W. Henderson. 
Waughnsville, 0., January, 1889. ERRATA. 
Page 27, point 2, read “ 1618’* instead of “1819,” 
Page 42, point 6, read “ tarsal ” instead of “ meta- 
tarsal.” 
Page 45, point 6, read “fossae” instead of “fossa.” 
Page 52, point 10, read “ centrifugal ” instead of 
“ centripetal.” 
Page 59, Table, Ist column, read “ portio ” instead 
of “ portis.” 
Page 60, point 9, “Aponeuroses instead of 
“Apomeuroses.” 
Page 66, point 4, read “ fraaenum ” instead of “ tras- 
num.” 
Page 70, point 7, read “ food ” instead of “ blood.” 
Page 71, Table, 4th column, read “thoracic” in- 
stead of “ thorax.” 
Page 74, Table, Ist column, read “ mucus ” instead 
of “ mucous.” 
Page 76, point 9, read “ ductus ” instead of “ ducts.” 
Page 77, point 13, read “ pre ” instead of “per.” Ir)f i®o J u cf'o py . 
ANATOMY, 
1. From(l) ana, through, and (2) tome, a cutting. 
2. Treats of the structure of organized beings, 
being learned by dissection. 
3. It is divided into (1) Human, relating to man, 
(2) Comparative, relating to inferior animals. 
4. It is divided also into (1) General, (2)Descriptive. 
1. General Anatomy gives structure and physical 
properties without reference to form or situation. 
2. Descriptive Anatomy, the shape, position, and 
connection of the parts of the body. 
PHYSIOLOGY. 
1. From (1) phusis, nature, and (2) logos, a dis- 
course, 
2. It signifies in moderli application the study of life. 
3. Human Physiology, the study of the functions 
exhibited by the human organization in a state of 
health. 
4. It is divided into (1) General, (2) Special. 
1. General Physiology treats of the general laws 
of life. 
2, Special Physiology, of the functions of particu- 
lar organs. 
HYGIENE. 
1. From hugieinon, health, 
2. It treats of the conditions most favorable to 
health, i. e.\ what is best calculated to secure and 
preserve a healthy condition of the body. 
3. No health,—no energy, no vigor, no happiness. 
4. The art of preserving health is surely one of the 
most important subjects for the special consideration 
of mankind. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
5. Human Nature consists of four principal and 
eminent divisions,—physical, intellectual, moral, and 
devotional. They are dependent upon each other; if 
one suffers, all the others suffer with it, and man is 
dwarfed or incomplete, in proportion as he is defi- 
cient in any of these parts. Hence, look well to your 
physical, intellectual, moral, and devotional well- 
being. . 
DEFINITIONS. 
1. Osteology* an account of bones*, (2) Myology, of 
muscles ; (3) Neurology, of nerves; (4) Angiology, of 
veins and arteries ; (5) Ichorology, of lymphatics and 
secretion; (6) Splanchnology, of the internal parts; 
(7) Histology, of the minute structure of the human 
body ; (8) Pneumonology, of the vocal and respiratory 
organs; (9) Adenology, of the glands; (10) Derma- 
tology, of the skin; (11) Syndesmology, of the joints; 
2. A function is the action of a tissue or organ. 
3. Organ, part of an organized body. 
4. Apparatus, a collection of organs, designed to 
produce a certain result. 
5. Cells compose tissues, and tissues compose or- 
gans; collectively, an organized being. 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
1. They are the type of the earliest form of life. 
2. The entire body grows out of, and for the most 
part, is made up of, cells. 
3 Their shape is either (1) spheroidal, (2) flat, (3) 
elongated, (4) cylindrical, (5.) fusiform, (6) stellate, 
4. An egg without the shell is a good example of a 
cell on a very large scale ; i. e., cell (soft shell), 
protoplasm (white of egg), nucleus (yolk) and 
nucleolus (germ spot). 
CELLS. Epithelium. 
7 
5. Very small when first formed, enlarging toward 
maturity. 
6. They have a limited period of growth. 
7. They multiply in three ways; viz 
1. By hour-glass contraction, separating in the 
middle. 
2. By division of nucleus within the cell. 
3. Denovo, from the protoplasm. 
8. They vary in size from to of an inch in 
diameter. 
9. The cell substance is albuminous, insoluble in 
water. 
10. They are the fundamental structural elements of 
which the tissues are composed. 
11. The cell substance is known as bioplasm, sar- 
code, etc. 
12. In old cells, their substance undergoes various 
transformations, partly replaced by fat-globules, pig- 
ment, and crystals. 
13. Cells are the “Original Structural Elements?' 
EPITHELIUM. 
1. There are four kinds, viz : 
1. Pavement, 
2. Columnar, 
3. Spheroidal, 
4. Ciliated. 
1. Known also as tassellated. 
2. Flat, nucleated cells of various kinds. 
3. On surface of the skin, 
4. On lining membrane of the blood vessels, 
5. On all the serous cavities except the ventricles 
of the brain, 
6. In the ducts, 
7. On many of the mucous membranes. 
8. Function, (1) Secretion, (2) Smoothness. 
PAVEMENT EPITHELIUM. 8 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
COLUMNAR EPITH ELIUM. 
1. Cylindrical cells set together. 
2. It covers the mucous membrane of the gastro- 
intestinal tract and its glands. 
3. Its functions are; 1. To secrete from the blood. 
2. To secrete from the alimentary fluid. 3. To insure 
smoothness. 
4. SPHEROIDAL EPITHELIUM. 
1. Circular cells, 
2. Their contents are glanular, 
3. Found in secreting glands. 
4. Its functions are : I. Secretion, 2. Smoothness. 
5. CILIATED EPITHELIUM. 
1. May be any of the preceding forms. 
2. It stands up from the free surface. 
3. Found in respiratory tract from nose downward, 
4. In eustachian tube, 
5. In ventricles of the brain, 
(>. In the tympanum. 
7. Its functions are : 1. To moisten ; 2. To insure 
a smooth surface. 
6. BASEMENT MEMBRANE. 
1. A very thin layer of protoplasm which is 
“the formal basis of all living bodies,” 
2. Resembles clear gelatine in color. 
3. Structureless, 
4. Composed of coagulated albumen, 
5. It is often not more than the ./oU o °f an inch 
in thickness. 
6. In this membrane the epithelium isimbedded. Tissues. 
We shall do well to notice here that the arrange- 
ment of the epithelium and basement membrane to- 
gether with the fibro-areolar tissue make up the fol- 
lowing structural elements : 
1. Mucous membrane, 
2. Synovial membrane, 
3. Serous membrane, 
4. The inner coats of blood vessels, 
5. The lymphatics, 
(b The ducts of all glands, 
7. The skin. 
TISSUES. 
1. The connective tissues are, (1) Fibrous (2) 
Areolar, (3) Cartilaginous. 
2. The fibrous tissue has two forms: 
1. White fibrous, 
2. Yellow fibrous. 
1. WHITE FIBROUS. 
1. Widely diffused. 
2. Developed from cells. 
3. Consists of interlacing fibers. 
4. It enters into the formation of nearly every 
organ. 
5. It forms nearly the whole of the investing 
membranes; be.'fascia, periosteum, neurilemma, in- 
vesting membranes of the glands and of the eye, also 
tendons and ligaments (yellow interwoven to some 
extent in the latter). 
2. YELLOW FIBROUS. 
1. Yellow, elastic. 
2. Elasticity, its chief characteristic. 
3. Fibers branch and anastomose freely with, 
each other. 10 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
4. Organs formed almost entirely of this tissue are 
(1) Ligamenta subflava of the vertebrae. 
(2) Elastic ligaments of larynx. 
(3) Middle coat of arteries. 
(4) Ligamentum nuchea. 
(5) Vocal chords. 
AREOLAR. 
1. Fibers interwoven in every direction, with spaces 
or cells between. 
2. Called “ Cellular” or a Cellular membrane.” 
3. Forms a ready exit for inflammatory and other 
fluids effused. 
4. In most situations it contains fat. 
5. The spaces contain a fluid resembling serum. 
6. The whole tissue forms an unbroken membrane. 
7. It enters into the composition of all organs. 
8. The spaces all open freely into each other. 
9. Great excess of fluid produces general dropsy. 
ADIPOSE TISSUE. 
1. Vesicles formed by an extremely delicate struct- 
ureless membrane either round (not subjected to 
pressure) or flattened (subjected to pressure). 
2. Each vesicle is filled with fat, held together by 
fine connective tissue and supplied by capillary 
blood vessels. 
3. It gives roundness and beauty of form. 
4. None within the skull, lungs and eyelids. 
For muscular and nervous tissue see Muscles and 
Nerves. Chemical Composition of Body. 
11 
PER 
NAME. 
CENT 
AGE 
, WHERE FOUND. 
Oxygen . 
72 
Lungs and blood 
Hvdrogen . 
9.1 
Stomach and intestines 
Nitrogen . . 
2.5 
Intestines and blood 
Chlorine.. . 
085 
In all solids and fluids 
Fluorine . . 
.08 
Bones and teeth 
Carbon . . 
13.5 
Expired air of lungs,lungs,intestines, 
exhalation from skin 
Phosphorus 
1.15 
In brain; albumen, fibrin, blood, etc. 
Calcium , . 
1.3 
Lymph, chyle, saliva, blood, bones 
and teeth 
Sulphur.. . 
.1470 
Gelatine, fibrin, saliva, sweat, albu- 
men and casein 
Sodium. . . 
.1 
All solids(except enamel)andfluids. 
Potassium. 
026 
In muscles, saliva, gastric juice, etc. 
Iron 
.01 
In the blood-globules 
Magnesium 
,0012|In all solids and fluids 
Silicon .... 
.0002Blood, hair, and bones 
Manganese. 
tracejBones, nails, and hair 
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BODY. 
Number of chemical elements, 15 to 18. Number 
of proximate principles, about 100. Water, 70 %of 
body-weight; in all solids and fluids; gives solubility, 
promotes chemical changes, and is eliminated by the 
kidneys, lungs, and skin. 
Animal Heat is produced by a combination of 
oxygen with carbon in all tissues of the body in com- 
mon with all the organic functions and chemical 
changes. 
Mean Normal Temperature, 98.6 Fahr. 
1. Aii elementary gaseous body, discovered in 1774 
by Scheele and Dr. Priestly. 
2. It is the most widely diffused of any of the 
elementary bodies. 
3. It is necessary to our existence. 
OXYGEN. 12 
Tubulated Manual of Physiology. 
4. Found in air mixed with nitrogen (About 28 to 
78). 
5. Found in water with hydrogen (About 8 to 1 by 
weight). 
6. Pure oxygen causes great fever and excitement 
amounting to madness. 
7. United with carbon and hydrogen of coals, causes 
a more rapid combustion and increased heat. 
8. Although non-combustible itself, it is the most 
powerful supporter of combustion. 
9. It is found in the tissues, in the blood and in 
various compounds called oxides. 
10. When we exercise, the carbon in the blood and 
oxygen inhaled causes greater combustion, and hence 
increased heat; i. c., oxygen is absorbed into the 
arterial blood by the Imunaglobin, being disengaged 
during nutrition. 
ii vimon KX. 
1. An elementary gas. 
2. The lightest of all known bodies. 
8. It will not support life, nor combustion. 
4. It chiefly exists in water. 
5. It is never found but in a state of combination. 
As, with oxygen in water, with chlorine in hydro- 
chloric acid, etc. 
0. 7 or 8 parts of air to lof gas produces the great- 
est explosive effect; more or less diminishes the 
effect. 
7. The effect of its inhalation on the human system 
is general prostration. 
8. Composition of water first discovered in 1781 by 
Cavendish. 
1. An elementary gaseous body. 
2. Found chiefly in the air. 
8. In most animal matter, probably derived from 
XITROO EX, Carbon, and the Blood. 
iiitrogenized food, and held in solution in the plasma. 
4. It will not burn, but will support combustion. 
5. It is not a constituent of the vegetable acids, 
but is found in most of the vegetable alkalies. 
1. An elementary body. 
2. Said to be pure in the diamond, and almost pure 
in charcoal. 
3. When burning it gives off carbonic acid. 
4. Carbonic acid, then, is the union of carbon and 
Oxygen. 
5. It is sent out of the lungs by compressure and 
mingled with the air; also exhaled from the skin. 
6. Charcoal is made from wood by the application 
of heat without the admission of air, expelling the 
oxygen and hydrogen. 
7. Ivory Black (Animal Charcoal) from the bones 
of animals heated generally in iron cylinders. 
8. Coke, is coal divested of its hydrogen. 
GARBQN. 
Til E BLOOD. 
1. Blood-corpuscles, blood-disks, blood-globules 
and blood-cells, all mean the same thing. 
2. Total amount of blood in the body is about | of 
body weight. , 
3. A fluid holding large numbers of corpuscles in 
suspension. 
4. It is purple in the veins. 
5. It is scarlet in the arteries. 
6. Slightly alkaline; saltish to the taste. 
7. Specific gravity, 1055. 
8. Consists naturally of two parts,—(l) Liquor 
Sanguinis or Plasma composed of water, albumen 
(nutritious principle) paraglobulin, fatty matters, 
fibrinogen, organic matters and mineral salts, (2) 
Pec! Corpuscles, composed of water, globulin, haema- Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
glohin (the coloring matter, an albuminious com- 
pound) mineral salts, .extractives and fatty matter, 
and originate from colorless nucleated corpuscles 
closely resembling white corpuscles, and “finally de- 
stroyed in the spleen.'’ 
9. After the blood is drawn the two parts are; (1) 
The clot (corpuscles-f-fibrin of plasma). (2) The serum 
(remainder of the plasma). 
10. The corpuscles consist of an elastic colorless 
framework (stroma) in which is entangled the color- 
ing matter (hmmaglobin). 
11. Use of corpuscles, to carry oxygen to the tissues. 
12. The corpuscles are of two kinds; 
(1) Red,, 
(2) White.—Proportion, 300 to 1. 
13. The corpuscles are circular, biconcave disks. 
14. There are about 5,000,000 disks in a cubic milli- 
meter of blood (the cubic of au inch). 
15. Blood coagulates in the body after breathing has 
ceased in from 12 to 24 hours. 
16. It contains all the necessary elements for the 
repair of the tissues. 
17. It also conveys waste principles absorbed 
from the tissues to the excretory ducts which elimin- 
ate them from the system. 
18. Without blood, no tissue activity,no life,no mind, 
no vigor. 
VASCULAR SYSTEM, OR CIRCULATORY APPARATUS, 
CONSISTS OF 
1. The Heart, 
2. The Arteries, 
3. The Capillaries, 
4. The Veins. 
1. A hollow, muscular, pyramidal organ. 
2. Enclosed in pericardium, which consists of an 
outer fibrous coat and an inner serous coat; the latter 
THE HEART. The Heart. 
15 
consisting of a parietal and visceral layer and secretes 
normally about one drachm of thin fluid, for lubrica- 
ting its surfaces. 
3. Lined by endocardium, a serous membrane, 
continuous with lining membrane of the great vessels. 
4. Joined to vertebral column by large blood vessels 
from the fourth to the eight dorsal. 
5. Free except at base. 
6. AVeight 10 to 12 ozs. in males, 8 to 10 ozs. in 
females. 
7. It, consists of four cavities. 
(1) Right auricle, (3) Left auricle. 
(2) Right ventricle (4) Left ventricle. 
8. The auricles occupy the basal end. 
9. The ventricles occupy the body and apex. 
10. A longitudinal septum divides it into right 
(pulmonic) and left (systemic) heart. 
11. Each chamber divided by a transverse constric- 
tion into the auricle and ventricle. 
12. Each cavity holds about 2 to 3 fluid ounces. 
13. The cavities in the right side, triangular shape. 
14. The cavities in the left side, oval in shape. 
15. Fibrous Zones. 
1. Four rings of fibro-elastic tissue, 
2. At .opening between auricles and ventricles, 
3. At beginning of aorta and pulmonary artery. 
16. In the auricles, the walls are thin and bluish, 
17. In the ventricles, thicker with fleshy columns 
(columnoe carneoe) arising on interior. 
18. Valves formed from the (for their 
position, see circulation traced). 
19. Number of valves: Six semilunar, three tricus- 
pid, and two bicuspid or mitral. 
20. The fibers of the heart cross in at least three 
different directions. 16 
'Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
21. The heart is the connecting link between the 
voluntary and involuntary muscles, i. e.: 
(1.) It is intermediate in structure, 
(2) It is involuntary in action, 
(3) Composed of striated muscle. 
(4) The sheath is wantincj. 
22. There are two openings to each ventricle, o*ie 
in, and one out; both at upper part of the ventricle. 
23. Capacity, nearly a pint. 
24. Average size,—five inches long by four inches 
wide by two and a half inches thick. 
25. The left ventricle beats with a force equal to 
from 52 to 60 pounds at every stroke. At 80 beats per 
minute, one ounce being received and thrown out at 
each beat, it will equal 5 pounds per minute, (more 
than a barrel per hour). 
26. The force of the heart is ascertained by multi- 
plying the pressure in the aorta (4 pounds) by the 
area of the inner surface of the left ventricle (about 
13 inches.) 
27. The work done by the entire heart is estimated 
by multiplying the amount of blood sent out from 
the right and left ventricles at each contraction by 
the pressure in the pulmonary artery and aorta re- 
spectively. 
Demonstration: 
1. The right ventricle in forcing out \ lbs. of 
blood must overcome a pressure in the pulmonary 
artery sufficient to support a column of blood three 
feet high, i. e., must raise f lb. 3 feet, or \ times 3, or 
| lb. one foot. 
2. The left ventricle contracting sends out \ 
lbs. and must exert or overcome a pressure in the 
aorta sufficient to support a column of blood 9 feet 
high, i. e., \ lb. 9 ft. or times 9or 2f lbs. one foot. 
3. Each contraction exerts a force sufficient to 
raise 3 foot pounds; 72 contractions per minute would Arteries. 
17 
be 72 times 3, or 216 foot pounds, in one hour(2l6X 
60) or 12,960 foot pounds ; in 24 hours (12960X24) or 
311,040 foot pounds or foot tons. 
28. The nerves of organic life cause its contraction 
(systole) and dilation (diastole), propelling blood 
to all parts of the system. 
29. The heart is influenced by age, exercise, diges- 
tion, posture, etc. 
30. Beats oftener in the young than the old. 
31. The principal nerves modifying the action of 
the heart are : 
(1) The Pneumogastric, 
(2) The Accelerator. 
32. The time required for the entire mass of blood 
to pass through the heart is 58 pulsations or 48 
seconds. 
33. Average pulsations in the adult per minute, in 
males, 72; in females, 80. 
1. A series of branching tubes. 
2. They convey blood from heart to all parts of the 
body, at an average rate of 16 inches per second. 
3. They have three coats : 
1. Internal, (epithelium and basement mem- 
brane). 
2. Middle, (fibrous, circular coat). 
3. External, (cellular, or tunica adventitia). 
4. They are endowed with (I) Contractility; (2) 
Elasticity. 
5. They therefore can accommodate themselves 
(1) To the blood coming into themselves; (2) Equal- 
izing the blood pressure. 
6. The pressure of blood is greatest in the large 
arteries, decreasing towards the capillaries. 
7. The blood pressure is influenced, i. e., increased 
or lessened, (1) By influences acting upon the heart. 
(2) By the peripheral resistance of the capillaries. 
ARTERIES. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
8. The caliber of the blood-vessels is regulated by 
the vasomotor neivas originating in the medulla ob- 
longata. 
9. The pulse is the distention of the artery, in a 
longitudinal and transverse direction caused by an 
injection of blood at the time of the ventricular con- 
traction. 
10. How to know when an artery has been severed: 
(l)Blood is scarlet; (2) Comes forth in jerks. 
11, Nourished by the vasa vasorum. 
CAPILLARIES. 
1. They inosculate with the arteries and veins. 
2. Their diameter varies from to °f an inch. 
3. Their walls are of an inch thick, lined by 
elongated, flattened cells. 
4. Through the agency of the capillaries take place* 
(1) Nutrition; (2) Secretion. 
5. The rate of the blood current through them is 
one inch in 30 seconds. 
6. Corpuscles: (1) The red keep in the middle of 
the stream; (2)The white adhere to their walls. 
7. Passage of blood through them is mainly due (1) 
To the force produced by contraction of the heart ; 
(2) To the elasticity of the arteries. 
8. They branch and communicate in every possible 
direction. 
9. They distribute the blood to the inmost recesses 
of the tissues. 
All the arteries originate from the pulmonary 
artery and the aorta. 
The pulmonary astery emerges from the right 
ventricle of the heart, soon dividing into a right and 
left branch, ramifying by innumerable branches 
through the lungs. 
TABLE OF ARTERIES. Table oj Arteries. 
19 
The aorta arises from the left ventricle of the heart 
giving off immediately at its origin the anterior and 
posterior coronary arteries. It then proceeds to sup- 
ply every part of the body with blood in the follow- 
ing order; 
(1) It forms an arch, 
(2) It then descends along the spine; and, 
(3) It divides into the two common iliac arteries. 
(1) The arch of the aorta gives off three branches: 
1. The innominata, dividing into right common 
carotid and right subclavian. 
2. The left common carotid. 
3. The left subclavian. 
I. The common carotids are divided into external 
and internal. 
The external carotids give off 
1. The superior thyroid, 
2. The lingual, 
3. The facial, 
4. The inferior pharyngeal, 
5. The occipital, 
6. The posterior auris, 
7. The internal maxillary, from which arise the 
spinous artery of the dura mater, the lower maxil- 
lary, and several branches about the palate and 
orbit. 
8. The temporal. 
The internal carotid, gives off 
1. The opthalmic, 
2. The middle cerebral, 
3. The communicans, inosculating with the ver- 
tebral. 
11. The Subclaviaxs, give off 
1. The internal mammary, from which arise the 
thymic, comes phrenici, pericardiac, and phrenico- 
pericardiac. 
2. The inferior thyroidgiving off the tracheal, as- 
cending thyroid, and transversalis humeri. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
3. The vertebral, ascending on each side through 
a canal formed by foramina in the transverse pro- 
cesses of the cervical vertebrae, and, giving oft' the 
anterior arteries of the spinal cord, joins its fellow 
of the opposite side ivithin the cranium to form 
the basilar artery, from which proceed the anterior 
cerebelli, the posterior cerebelli, which usually 
give off the posterior arteries of the spinal cord, the 
posterior cerebri, and many branches about the 
brain. 
4. The cervicalis profunda. 
5. The cervicalis superficialis. 
(). The superior intercostal. 
7. The supra scapular. 
As soon as the subclavian artery reaches the arm- 
pit, it is called the Axillary artery and when the 
latter reaches the arm it is called the Brachial. 
The Axillary Artery gives off, 
1. Four external (mammary) arteries, 
% The subscapular, dividing into subscapularis 
interna, and dorsalis scapulae inferior. 
3. The posterior circumflex, and 
4, The anterior circumflex, both ramifying about 
the shoulder joint. 
The Brachial Artery, gives oIT, 
1. Many lateral branches, 
2. The profunda superior (humeri) 
3. The profunda inferior, (humeri) 
4. The great anastomosing artery ramifying about 
the elbow joint. 
The brachial artery then divides, about the bend 
of the arm into ulnar and radial, ramifying 'to the 
ends of the fingers. 
The Ulnar Artery gives off, 
1. The ulnar recurrent. 
2. The posterior interosseous. 'Table of Arteries. 
3. The anterior interosseous. 
The ulnar artery ends forming the superficial pal- 
mar arch from which proceed the digital arteries. 
The Radial Artery gives off, 
1. The radial recurrent, 
2. The Superticialis vobe, 
3. The palmaris profunda, forming deep, palmar 
arch. 
B, The Descending 'Aorta gives off 
(1) In the Thorax, 
1. The bronchial, and, 
2. The oesophageal arteries (varying in number), 
3. The inferior intercostals. 
(2) In the Abdomen, 
1. The inferior diaphragmatic, 
2. The cadiac which divides into three branches, 
I. The hepatic which gives off before it reaches 
the liver, (1) the duodeno-gastric, sending off the 
right gastro-epiploicand(2)thepancreatico-duodenal. 
11. The pylorica superior hepatica, giving off (1) 
the coronaria ventriculi, (2) the splenic which emits 
the great and small pancreatics, the posterior gastric, 
the left gastro-epiploic and the vasa brevia. 
3. The superior mesenteric, 
4. The renal, (“ emulgents,”) 
5. The spermatics, 
6. The inferior mesenteric, 
7. The lumbar arteries, 
,8. The middle sacral. 
. 0. The Aorta then bifurcates into the common 
iliacs each of which divides into an external and in- 
ternal iliac. 
The Internal Iliac (hypogastric), gives off, 
1. The ileo-lumbar, 
2. The lateral sacrals, Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
3. The gluteal, 
4. The obturatory, 
5. The umbilical, 
6. The uterine, 
T. The middle hemorrhoidal,, 
S. The pudic. 
The External Iliac gives off, 
(1) In the groin, 
1. The epigastric, 
2. The circumflexa iliaca. 
It then passes under Pcupart’s ligament, and called 
The Femoral Artery, gives off, 
1., The external pudics, 
2. The profunda, 
3. and 4. The internal and external circumflex. 
5. The ramus anastomoticus magnus, ramifying 
about the knee-joint. 
The femoral on reaching the ham is termed the 
popliteal and here gives off the articular arteries. 
It then divides into the anterior and posterior tibial. 
The Anterior Tibial, gives off, 
1. The recurrent; 2, internal malleolar; 3, external; 
malleolar; 4, tarsel; 5, metatarsal; 6, dorsalis halicis. 
The posterior tibial divides into fibular (paroneal), 
posterior tibial (properly so called). 
The peroneal divides into anterior and posterior. 
The Posterior Tibial sends off, 
1. The nutritia tibiae; 2, many small branches; 3, 
and 4, internal and external plantar, giving off the 
digitals of the toes. 
VEINS. 
1. Return the blood to the heart, 
2. They have three coats ; 
1. Internal, (epithelium) Veins and Valves. 
2. Middle, (fibrous), 
3. External, (cellular or areolar tissue). 
3. The main differences between these and the ar- 
teries : 
(1) The weakness of the middle coat of the vein#, 
(2) Veins passive, rather than active organs, 
(3) They do not stand open when divided, a# 
arteries do. 
4. VALVES. 
1. Prevent a reflux of blood by distension, 
2. Formed by a reduplication of middle and 
inner coats of veins, 
3. They consist of connective tissue and elastic 
fibers, 
4. They are covered on both surfaces by epithel- 
ium, 
5. They are semi-lunar in form, 
6. Their convex edge attached to wall of vein, 
7. Concave margin free, 
8. Lie close to the wall as long as the blood flow# 
its natural course, 
9. Two valves are generally placed opposite each 
other, (in some places 3, in others only 1). 
10. Most numerous in the lower extremities, 
11. They are absent in a number of veins, 
5. The veins are nourished by the Vasa vasorum, 
6. Nerves not usually distributed upon them, 
7. All veins finally terminate in the vense cav«e 
which empties into right auricle of heart, 
8. Flow of blood in veins mainly due 
1. To action of heart, 
2. To contraction of voluntary muscles, 
3. To force of aspiration. 7'abnlated Manual of Physiology. 
TABLE OF VEINS. 
The blood is returned from every part of the body, 
except the lungs, into the right auricle, from three 
sources; 1. The vena cava superior, bringing it from 
the head, neck, thorax, and superior extremities. 2. 
The vena cava inferior, from the abdomen and inferior 
extremities. 3-; The coronary vein receiving it from 
the coronary arteries of the heart. 
1. THE VENA CAVA SUPERIOR. 
This vein ends in the superior part of the right 
auricle, into which it evacuates the blood from the 
right and left subclavian vein, and the vena azygos. 
The right and left subclavian veins receive the blood 
from the head and upper extremities in the following 
manner: 
The veins of the lingers, called digitals, receive 
the bloOd from the digital arteries, and empty it into 
the cephalic of the thumb, which runs on the back of 
the hand along the thumb, and evacuates its blood 
into the external radial. 
The salvatella, which runs along the little finger,, 
unites with the former, and empties its blood into 
the internal and external cubital veins. At the end 
o’f the forearm there are three veins, called (1) the 
great cephalic, (2) the basilic, and (3) the median. 
The great cephalic runs along the superior part of 
forearm, and receives the blood from the external 
radial. 
The basilic ascends on the under side, and receives 
the blood from the external and internal cubital veins, 
and some branches which accompany the brachial 
artery, called venae satellites. 
The median is in the middle of the forearm arising 
from the union of several branches. 
The three veins above-named unite above the 
bend of the arm, and form— 7'he Vena Cava Superior. 
The hrachial vein which receives all their blood 
and is continued into the axilla, where it is called— 
The Axillary vein which receives also the blood 
from the scapula, and superior and inferior parts of 
the chest, by the superior and inferior thoracic vein, 
the vena muscularis, and the scapularis. 
The axillary vein then passes under the clavicle, 
where it is called the subclavian, which unites with 
the external and internal jugular veins, and the 
vertebral vein, which brings the blood from the ver- 
tebral sinuses; it receives, also, the blood from the 
mediastinal, pericardiac,diaphragmatic, thymic, inter- 
nal mammary, and the laryngeal veins, and then 
unites with its fellow to form the vend cava superior 
otherwise known as descending vena cava. 
The blood from the internal and external parts of 
the face and head is returned, in the manner follow- 
ing, into the external and internal jugulars, which 
terminate in the subclavians : 
The frontal, angular, temporal, auricular, sublingual 
and occipital veins receive the blood from the parts 
after which they are named, and all converge to each 
side of the neck and form the external jugular vein. 
The blood from the brain, and its membranes, is 
received into the lateral sinuses (or veins of the dura 
mater) one of which empties through the foramen 
lacerum in basii cranii on each side into the internal 
jugular, which descends in the neck by the carotid 
arteries, and receives the blood from the thyroideal 
and internal maxillary veins, and empties into the 
suhclaveans within the thorax. 
The vena azygos receives the blood from the bron- 
chial, superior, oesophageal, vertebral, and intercostal 
veins, and empties into the descending vena cava. 
2. Vena cava inferior (“ascending vena cava”) 
is the trunk of all the abdominal veins, and those 
of the lower extremities, from which parts the blood 
is returned in the manner following : Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
The veins of the toes, called digital, receive the 
blood from the digital arteries, and form on the back 
of the foot three branches: one on the great toe, called 
cephalic, one on the little toe, called vena saphena, 
and a third on the back of the foot, called vena 
dorsalis pedis; those on the sole of the foot empty 
into the plantar veins. 
The three veins on the upper part of the foot com- 
ing together above the ankle, form the anterior tibial; 
the plantar veins, with a branch from the calf of the 
leg, called sural vein, form the posterior tibial\ a 
branch also ascends in the direction of the fibula, 
called peroneal vein. The last three named in italics 
unite before the ham into one branch, the sub-popli- 
teal vein which ascends through the ham, carrying all 
the blood from the foot; it then proceeds upon the 
interior part of the thigh, in which site it is called 
the femoral (or crural) vein, and receiving many mus- 
cular branches, passes under Poupart’s ligament into 
the cavity of the pelvis, where it is called (he external 
iliac vein. 
The arteries distributed about the pelvis evacuate 
their blood (through capillaries) into five or six veins 
which unite in the pelvis to form the internal iliac 
vein. 
The external iliac vein unites with the internal 
iliac at the last lumbar vertebra, forming the com- 
mon iliac; the two common iliacs then form the 
ascending vena cava, which ascends on the right side 
of the spine, receiving the blood from the lumbar, 
sacral, etc., and the vena cava hepatica; and arriving 
at the diaphragm, it passes through the right foramen, 
and enters the right auricle of the heart, into which 
it empties all the blood from the abdominal viscera 
and lower extremities. 
Vena cava hepatica.—Ramifies in the substance of 
the liver, and brings the blood into the ascending 
vena cava from the branches of the vena portea, 
(portal vein) a great vein that carries the blood from The Circulation. 
the abdominal viscera into the substance of the liver. 
The trunk of the vena portea, about the fissure of the 
liver, in which it is situated, is divided into the hep- 
atic and abdominal portions. 
The abdominal portion consists of the splenic, 
meseraic, and internal haemorrhoidal veins, which 
three carry all the blood from the stomach, spleen, 
pancreas, omentum, mesentery, gall-bladder, and the 
large and small intestines into the sinus or fissure of 
the vena portea. 
The hepatic portion enters the substance of the 
liver, divides into innumerable ramifications, which 
secrete the bile, and the superfluous blood passes into 
corresponding branches of the vena cava hepatica. 
1. Cardiac and Pulmonic : 
THE CIRCULATION. 
(1) The venae cavae receive the systemic ven- 
ous blood and (2) convey it into the right auricle, 
(no valves); then (3) it passes into the right ventricle 
through the tricuspid (auriculo-ventricular) valves 
to be (4) thrown into the pulmonary artery through 
the semilunar (pulmonary) valves; then (5) convey- 
ed to the lungs and oxygenized in the capillary plexus 
about the intercellular structure and the air-cells, 
and (6) returned by the four pulmonary veins to the 
left’side of the heart, into the left auricle, (no valves); 
it then (7) passes into the left ventricle through the 
mitral valve to be (S) forced into the aorta through 
semilunar valves, and (9) thence to all parts of the 
system : 
2. Discovered by Harvey in 1819. 
3. The forces keeping the blood in circulation are, 
1. Action of the heart. 
2. Elasticity of the arteries. 
3- Contractility of the arteries. 
4. Capillary force. 
5, Respiratory movements. 28 
Tabulated Tlanual of Physiology. 
6. Contractility of voluntary muscles upon the 
veins. ' . 
•1. Organs,—(l) Larynx, (2) Trachea, (3) Lungs. 
RESPIRATION. 
1. LARYNX. 
1. Organ of voice, 
'2. From aperture behind epiglottis to lower bor- 
-4 t of the cricoid cartilage. 
3. Pharynx opens into it. 
4. Composed of 5 principal cartilages,—(l) Thy- 
roid, (2) Cricoid, (3) The two Arytenoid, (4) 
epiglottis. 
1. THYROID. 
1. The largest. 
2. Consists of 2 lateral quadrangular plates,, 
meeting in front, (“Adam’s Apple”) 
3. Connects above with hyoid bone. 
4. Connects below with cricoid cartilage. 
5. Its structure resembles costal cartilages. 
2. CRICOID. 
1. Connects above with thyroid. 
2. Connects below with trachea. 
3. inch wide in front, 1 inch wide behind. 
4. Forms back part of cavity of larynx. 
5. Structure, as above. 
3. THE TWO ARYTENOID. 
1. Small, triangular, and curved. 
2. On top and back part of cricoid. 
3. Forms articulations with cricoid. 
4. At back part of larynx. 
5. Structure, as above. 
4. EPIGLOTTIS. 
1. Composed of yellow tibro-cartilage. Vocal, False, and True Cords, 
2. Shape,—leaf, rounded at free extremity. 
3. Behind, and curving forwards towards tongue, 
4. In front of superior opening of larynx, 
5. During deglutition completely closes opening 
of larynx. 
6. Connected to back part of hyroid bone and 
angle reaching between plates of thyroid. 
VOCAL COEDS. 
1. Composed of yellow elastic tissue. 
2. Extent,—from fore part each arytenoid to 
recessed part of thyroid. 
3. There are two kinds,—(1) False, (2) True. 
1. FALSE CORDS. 
1. Above true vocal cords. 
2. Not directly concerned in producing voice. 
3. Two in number. 
4. Formed by a folding in of the raucous mem- 
brane. 
5. The saculus laryngis is a pouch on the outside 
of the false cords, being an extension of the ven- 
tricle of the larynx, an open depression between 
the false and true cords; it secretes a fiuid which 
lubricates the vocal cords. 
2. TRUE CORDS. 
1. Two in number. 
2. Formed of mucous membrane and fibers; 
3. The glottis (rima glottis), a fissure between 
these cords, 
4. The glottis varies in size according to the 
voice, and 
(T) Length about 1 inch. 
(2) Width from £ to T inch, (less in females) 
(3) The cords enlarge at 14 or 15 years old. 
(;‘ change of voice ”) ~ Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
(4) Voice is produced by vibrations of these 
membranes. 
(5) A change of Inch in length produces a 
change ot note. 
TRACHEA. 
1. A cylindrical, cartilaginous and membranous 
air tube. 
2. Flattened somewhat, behind. 
3. Extent,—from larynx, level with sth cervical 
to opposite 3d dorsal where it divides into 
(1) Eight bronchus, (2) Left bronchus. 
1. RIGHT BRONCHUS. 
1. About 1 inch long. 
2. Enters right lung opposite 4th dorsal. 
3. Divides and subdivides till it ends in the pul- 
monary lobules. 
3. LEFT BRONCHUS. 
1. Smaller, but longer than right. 
2. Length nearly two inches. 
3, Enters root of left lung opposite sth dorsal. 
4, Divides and subdivides till it enters pulmon- 
ary lobules. 
4. The length of trachea is 4 or 5 inches. 
5. Diameter from f to 1 inch, 
6. Composed of a series of cartilaginous rings ex- 
tending f round its circumference. 
7. The posterior composed of non-striated mus- 
cular fibers capable of lessening its caliber. 
8. Lined by ciliated epithelium. 
9. Diameter always less in females. 
LUNGS. 
1. Two in number, 
2. One in each lateral cavity of the chest. Lungs. 
3. Separated by heart and other contents of the 
mediastinum. 
4. Shape, conical. 
5. Parts, 
1. Apex,—tapering cone, extending to about Ip 
inches above first rib. 
2. Base,—broad, concave, resting on diaphragm, 
3. Two Borders, viz ; 
(1) Posterior,—round, broad, fills cavity on each 
side of spinal column. 
(2) Anterior,—thin, sharp, overlapping front of 
pericardium. 
4. Two Surfaces, viz : 
(1) External, convex and smooth ; 
(2) Inner, concave fissure behind, giving attach- 
ment to root of lung. 
6. Root, at middle, and inner surface connecting 
lung to heart and trachea, and consisting of, 
1. Bronchial tube, artery and veins, 
2. Pulmonary artery and veins, 
3. Pulmonary plexus of nerves, 
4. Lymphatics and areolar tissue. 
7. Pleura, interposed down as low as fourth dorsal, 
8. Below fourth dorsal, pericardium is interposed^ 
9. Right lung larger, shorter, and has three lobes, 
10. Left lung smaller, longer, and has two lobes. 
11. Weight of both, 42 ounces. 
12. Right lung, 2 ounces heavier than the left. 
13. They are heavier in males than females. 
14. Specific gravity, from 345 to 746. 
15. Color, pinkish or mottled in appearance. 
16. Color, from deposition of carbonaceous matter 
in the areolar tissue. 
17. Substance, elastic and spongy in texture. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
18. Float in water, crepitate when handled owing to 
air in the tissue. 
19. Structure, 
1. Serous coat, the pleura. 
2. Sub-serous areolar tissue, invests entire lung. 
3. Parenchyma, little lobules, connected by 
fibrous tissue. 
20. Air-cells, from jiw to 70 inch in diameter. 
21. Walls of air-cells lined internally by tessalated 
epithelium ; covered externally by elastic fibers, 
22. Whole number of air-cells, 600,000,000, 
23. The air and blood are separated by the walls of 
the air-cells and capillaries. 
24. The lungs receive their nutrition from the 
brachial arteries. 
25. The pulmonary capillaries are on the walls and 
speta of the air-cells. 
26. Area of lung tissue, 21,000 square inches. 
27. The vital capacity of a person 5 feet, 7 inches 
high is 230 cubic inches. (Varies with stature). 
28. The movements of the lungs are called forth by 
impulses emanating from the medulla oblongata. 
29. There passes in and out of the lungs, in 24 hours 
about 300 cubic feet of air. 
30. Tidal air, that passing in and out at each in- 
spiration—2s to 30 cubic inches. 
31. Reserve air, remaining after ordinary breath- 
ing but can be forcibly expelled—about 100 cubic 
inches. 
32. Complement at air, all that can be forced into 
the lungs plus the tidal air—about 110 cubic inches. 
33. Residual air, remaining in the chest and can- 
not be forcibly expelled—about 100 cubic inches. 
34. The oxygen, imbibed from the air in 24 hours— 
about 15 cubic feet, or .18 ounces. Hones. 
33 
35. Carbonic Acid exhaled in 24 hours—about 14 
cubic feet, or T ounces pure carbon. 
Remark ;—The first cubic foot of oxygen unites 
with hydrogen, perhaps, forming water. 
36. Nerves,—pneumogastric and sympathetic. 
37. Lymphatics,—end at root in bronchial glands. 
38. Pulmonary artery conveys blood to lungs. 
39. Pulmonary veins convey blood from the lungs. 
40. Function of Lungs,—(1) To purify the blood, 
(2) Ultimately, to produce heat, motion and nervous 
energy. 
BONES. 
L Composition: 
1. Blood-vessels and cartilage 33 (/o 
2. Phosphate of lime 51 °/o 
3. Carbonate of lime 11 % 
(Phosphate of magnesia ) 
4. of sodium \ % 
/Fluoride of calcium ) 
2. Structure: 
1. Surrounded by the periosteum (vascular 
fibrous membrane). 
2. Lined internally by the endosteum. 
3. Arteries,—small and very numerous. 
Haversian Canals: 
1. From ToVo 1° sou °f an'inch in diameter. 
2. The larger ones contain marrow. 
3. They afford free communication between the 
vessels of the endosteum and periosteum. 
4. Each canal, surrounded by 8 to 15 concentric 
rings (lamdice) among which are small cavities 
(lacuna’). 
5. Canals issuing from the lacunae, the tfofo °f 
an inch in diameter, are the canaliculi, communi- 
cating with adjacent lacunae. 
6. Haversian Systems,—separated by interstitial 
lamellae. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
7. A Haversian System consists of (1) concentric 
lamella?, (2) lacunas, (3) canaliculi. 
8. Haversian Spaces, between adjoining systems. 
9. Nerves and lymphatics have been traced into 
the bone substance. 
3. Medulla. 
1. That composed of fat (96%) and extractive 
(4%),—in (1) medullary canal, (2) cancellous text- 
ure, (3) larger Haversian canals. 
2. That composed of albumen, fibrin, extractive, 
and fat, (redish in color),—in articular ends of long 
bones, the diploe, short bones, ribs, Ac. 
4. Development.—Two ways: (1) from cartilage, 
(2) from membrane. 
5. Manner of Development : 
1. Intra-cartilaginous,—the deposition of earthy 
salts in the interior of the cartilage. 
2. Intra-membranous,—a deposition of mineral 
matter in the membrane. 
6. Centers of Ossification,—point of deposits. 
7. Epiphyses,—become attached to main bone in- 
versely to the order of the appearance of their ossifi- 
cation. 
8. Apiphyses,—a regular enlarged, continuous part 
of the bone. 
9. Diaphysis,—that part between the articular ends. 
THE SKELETON. 
1. °f body weight. 
2. The frame-work of the body. 
3. Prevents body from sinking by its own weight. 
4. It serves as a basis for the attachment of muscles. 
5. Composed of 4 kind of bones, 
1. Long,—medullary canal in center, and 
number 90 Vertebra. 
2. Short,—strength, with limited motion, 
number 30 
3. Flat,—form walls around viscera, number. .38 
4. Irregular,—vertebrae, ethmoid, sphenoid, 
etc., number 39 
6. Total number of bones 200 if we include the 
patellae and os hyoid. 
7. Again: 
1. Spinal column 26 
2. Cranium and face 22 
3. Os hyoides, ribs and sternum 26 
4. Upper extremities 64 
5. Lower extremities 62 
8. VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 
1. It supports the head, 
2. Itself, supported by the pelvis. 
3. Its bones are, (1) movable, (2) united. 
9. MOVABLE VERTEBRAL 
1. 24 in number, 
2. Divided into 3 groups,—(l) Seven cervical, (2) 
Twelve dorsal, (3) Five lumbar. 
UNITED VERTEBRAL 
1. They enter into the formation of the pelvis. 
2. They are coalesced, forming two pieces : 
1. The sacrum. 
2, Coccyx. 
1. Body, 
1. Forms anterior part. 
2. Has small apertures for nutrient vessels, 
3. Connected above and below to the bodies of 
the vertebrae by inter-vertebral fibro-cartilages. 
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF A VERTEBRA. I'abulated Manual of Physiology. 
2, Pedicles, 
1. Two thin portions of bone, 
2. Connect the sides of the body with the laminae, 
3. Grooved above and belowr, forming the inter- 
vertebral notches, transmitting the spinal nerves. 
3. laminae, 
1. Two lateral plates, 
2. Pass back from posterior part of body, 
3. Unite in the middle line forming spinous.pro- 
cess. 
4. Ligamenta subllava attached to upper and 
lower borders. 
4. Articular Processes, 
1. Four in number, 
2. Two on upper and two on lower surfaces of 
the laminae, 
3. At the roots of the transverse processes, 
4. Articulate above and below with the trans- 
verse processes. 
5. Notches, 
1. Four in number, 
2. Two above and two below, 
3. Formed by a groove in the lamina where it 
joins the body. 
4. The corresponding notches above and below 
form the inter-vertebral notches. 
t>. The Foramen, 
1. A ring inclosed by the body and lamina?, 
2. Called spinal canal, 
3. Contains spinal cord with its blood-vessels 
and membranes. 
DEVIATIONS. 
4. The Atlas, 
1. A bony ring, inclosing an irregular foramen, 
divided into two unequal segments by the trans- 
verse ligament. Fixed J'crtebrec and Entire Spine. 
37 
2. The anterior segment contains odontoid pro- 
cess of the axis, 
3. The posterior segment contains the spinal cord. 
4. Articulates with condyles of the occipital 
above, and the axis below. 
2. Axis, 
1. The foramen is heart-shaped with apex 
posterior. 
2. It has a tooth-like(odontoid)process articulat- 
ing in front with ring of atlas, behind against trans- 
verse ligament, having the check ligaments which 
extend to the tubercles on the inner aspects of the 
condyles of the occipital bone attached to its apex. 
Note:—Chech ligaments serve to “check” the 
limit to which rotation of the cranium may be 
carried. 
3. Peculiar Dorsal. 
1. The First—facet above, demifacet below, 
2. The Ninth—demifacet above, 
3. The Tenth—one entire facet, 
4. The Eleventh—an entire facet, none on trans- 
verse process, 
5. The Twelfth—ditto. 
4. Seventh Cervical, 
1. Very long, prominent spinous process, 
2. Called “ vertebras prominens.” 
1. Nine in number, 
2. The live upper constitute the sacrum, 
3. The four lower form the coccyx. 
4. They are united with the innominata. 
fixed (united) vertebrae, 
ENTIRE SPINE. 
1. Made up of the vertebrae, 
2. Average length 27 inches; Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
3. Viewed sideways it presents four curves, (1) 
Cervical, (2) Dorsal, (3) Lumbar, (4) Pelvic. 
THE RIBS. 
1. Twelve in number on each side, forming lateral 
boundary of thorax, 
2. kSeven are called true ribs, 
3. Five are called false ribs, 
4. The two lowest of the false called floating, 
5. The true ribs are connected to the sternum by 
separate cartilages. 
6. The three upper false have their cartilages 
attached to each other and the seventh. 
7. The floating have their cartilages/ree. 
STERNUM. 
1. Flat, and elongated, 
2. Broader above than below, 
3. Narrow in the center. 
4. Originally has six segments, 
5. In adults has three segments: (1) Manubrium, 
(2) Gladiolus, (3) Fusiform cartilage, 
6. Articulates with 7 pairs of ribs and 2 clavicles. 
7. It is the anterior boundary of thorax. 
1. lii youth 3 parts, 
2. Aids in formation of pelvis, 
3. In manhood a single bone, of irregular shape, 
4. Articulates with its fellow, sacrum and femur, 
5. Acetabulum—a socket in this bone into which 
the head of the femur fits. 
6'. In the center of the socket is fixed the round 
ligament of the u thigh bone.” 
OS INNOMINAT UM. 
1, Basis of spinal cord. 
SACRUM. Coccyx, Scapula and Humerus. 
39 
2. Wedge-shaped, 
3. Composed of 5 vertebrae, 
4. In texture, light and spongy, 
5. Between the innominata, 
6. Articulates with last lumbar and coccyx. 
1. Lower extremity of spinal cord, 
2. Formed of 4 vertebrae, 
3. Articulates with sacrum only. 
COCCYX. 
UPPER EXTREMITY CONSISTS OF 
1. Shoulder, 3. Forearm, 
2. Arm, 4. Hand. 
1. SCAPULA. 
1. On upper and back part of the thorax, 
2. Extends from the second to the seventh rib, 
3. Triangular in shape, 
4. Coracoid Process hangs over upper and inner 
part of glenoid cavity. 
5. Articulates with clavical and humerus. 
2. HUMERUS. 
1. Consists of a shaft and two extremities, 
2. Head—smooth, covered with cartilage, fits 
into the glenoid cavity of the scapula, 
3. Neck—constricted part of head for capsular 
ligament. 
4. Two tuberosities at top of shafts with bicipital 
groove between. 
5. Articulates with scapula above, and radius 
and ulna below. 
6. Trochlear surface received into sigmoid cav- 
ity of ulna, admitting flexion and extension. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
3. ULNA. 
1. On inner side of forearm, 
2. Longer and stronger than the radius, 
3. Upper end articulates with humerus and radius, 
4. It is the u small bone of the forearm.” 
5. The olecranon process forms the projection of 
the elbow and is that much longer than the radius. 
4. RADIUS. 
1. Larger, but shorter than the ulna, 
2. It is external to the ulna, (on thumb side), 
3. Articulates with ulna, at elbow and wrist. 
4. At the wrist it articulates with the first row of 
bones, forming wrist-joint. 
5. THE CARPUS. 
1. Consist of two rows of bones, 
2. Four bones in each row, 
3. Between forearm and metacarpus. 
4. First row—(1) Scaphoid, (2) semilunar, (3) 
cuneiform, (4) pisiform. 
5. Second row—(1) Trapezium, (2) trapezoid, (3) 
magnum, (4) unciform. 
6. FINGERS. 
1. Composed of 3 phalanges, 
2. The thumb has 2 phalanges, 
3. The first phalanges are 5 in number, 
4. The second, 4 in number, 
5. The third, (ungual) 5 in number and smallest, 
(>. Whole number of phalanges, 14. 
1, The Femur, 3. The Fibula, 
2. The Tibia, 4. The Patella, 5. The Foot. 
LOWER EXTREMITY. Femur, Patella. Tibia and Fibula. 
1. Longest, strongest bone in the body. 
2. Supports weight of head, trunk and upper ex- 
tremities. 
-V 
3. Head received in acetabulum, forming an en 
arthrodial or ball-and-socket joint. 
4. Articulates with os innominatum, tibia and 
patella. 
5. Movements permitted are—Flexion, extension, 
adduction, abduction, circumduction and rotation. 
FK.MLH, 
PATELLA. 
1. A sesamoid bone, 
2. Triangular in shape. 
3. Base above, apex below, 
4. Anterior surface, convex, 
5. Posterior surface divided by a prominent ridge. 
6. Connected with tibia by the ligamentum patella.. 
7. On anterior part of lower extremity of femur. 
8. Articulates with condyles of femur. 
1. Situated at fore and inner part of leg, 
2. Triangular in shape, and larger than the fibula, 
3. Articulates with femur, fibula and astragalus. 
4. Where it articulates with the femur it is ex 
panded from side to side, tlie condyles of the femur 
resting upon it. 
5. Between the tibia and fibula is the interosseous 
membrane. 
6. It is prolonged downward on its inner side,form- 
ing the internal malleolus (ankle joint). 
TIBIA. 
FIBTLA. 
1, Smaller than the tibia and similar in shape., 
2. On outer side of leg, 42 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
3. In proportion to its length most slender of all 
long bones, 
4. Upper end below level of knee-joint and 
excluded from its formation. 
5. Lower end projects below the tibia forming 
the outer malleolus (ankle) 
fi. Articulates with tibia and astragalus. 
TARSUS. 
1. Bones composing it are seven, 
2. Connected above to tibia and fibula, 
3. Forms posterior part of foot. 
4. Below it is arched, 
5. Articulates in front with the bases of 5 met- 
atarsal bones. 
6. The 7 metatarsal bones are,—Calcaneum, 
Astragalus, scaphoid, cuboid, and internal, middle 
and external cuneiform. 
7. Firmly bound together by a few large, strong 
ligaments on back and sole of foot. 
1. The middle part of the foot. 
2. Composed of 5 long bones, 
3. Between tarsus and toes. 
METATARSUS. 
1. Composed of 14 bones, 
2. Three bones to each toe, except first. 
3. The great toe has only 2 bones. 
PHALANGES. 
THE CRANIUM. 
1. Composed of 8 bones, 
1. Occipital,—posterior part of skull. 
2. Two Parietal,—lateral parts of head. 
3. Frontal,—forehead. 
4. Ethmoid,—between eye-sockets. 
5. Sphenoid,—across base of brain. 
6. Two Temporal,—temples. (See skull hones) Bones of Face, Ear, and Sup. Maxillary. 
43 
FACE. 
1. Composed of 14 bones, towit: 
Two Malar, Two Palate, 
Two Nasal, TwolnferiorTurbinated, 
Two Superior Maxillary, The Vomer, 
Two Lachrymal, The Inferior Maxillary. 
1. Composed of 3 bones, viz : 
Incus or Anvil, 
Malleus or Hammer, 
Stapedius or Stirrup. 
EAR. 
1. Malar. 
RONES OF FACE 
1. Prominent part of cheek, 
2. At outer and under part of orbit. 
3. Of quadrangular form. 
4. Articulates with frontal, temporal, sphenoid 
and superior maxillary. 
2. SUPERIOR MAXILLARY. 
1. Hollow; quadrangular in form, 
2. Forms facial surface externally, 
3. Nasal process joins frontal bone, 
4. Alveolar Process forms lower part of body 
and is hollowed out into sockets for 8 teeth. 
5. Nasal spine extends above and between the 
central incisor teeth. 
6. Antrum of Highmore—below the orbital plate, 
and above the alveoli of the molar teeth. 
7. Articulates with frontal, ethmoid, nasal, ma- 
lar, lachrymal, inferior turbinated, palate, vomer, 
and its fellow of the opposite side. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
S. LACHRYMAL. 
1. At inner and front part of orbit, 
2. In size and shape like a finger nail, 
3. Articulates with frontal, ethmoid, superior 
maxillary and inferior turbinated. 
4. PALATE. 
1. Form, quadrangular, 
2. Concave, 
3. Completes the door of the nose, 
4. Its posterior edge gives attachment to the soft 
palate, a freely moving partition. 
5. It sends up a crest to support the vomer. 
G. Articulates with sphenoid, ethmoid, superior 
maxillary, superior and inferior turbinated, audits 
fellow of the opposite side. 
5. TURBINATED BONES. 
(Called also superior and inferior spongy portion 
of ethmoid by some writers). 
1. Attached to lachrymal and ethmoid above, 
2. Attached to ridge on palate and the superior 
maxillary below. 
3. Helps to complete nasal duct, 
4. Helps to enclose the Antrum of Highmore. 
G. VOMER. 
1. In the central line of the nose, 
2. It forms part of the septum of the nose, 
3. Articulates with sphenoid, ethmoid, superior 
maxillaries, palate, and lachrymal. 
7. NASAL BONE. 
1. Between nasal processes, superior maxillary, 
2. Forms the=“ bridge of the nose.’’ Inf. Maxillary, Os Uyoides, Articulations. 
3. Articulates with ethmoid, frontal, superior 
maxillary and its fellow of the opposite side. 
8. INFERIOR MAXILLARY. 
1. Anterior part forms mental jirocess of chin, 
2. Symphysis, a ridge in the center of anterior 
•part. 
3. Alveolar process on upper edge of body and 
horizontal rami. 
4. Ascending rami, from angle to glenoid fossa 
of temporals. 
5. A dental canal communicates with each alveoli- 
6. Articulates at glenoid fossa with each tem- 
poral bone. 
9. OS HYOIDES. 
1. At root of tongue, 
2. Corresponds to epiglottis behind. 
3. Shaped like a horse shoe. 
4. Has no articulations. 
5. To it 11 muscles are attached. 
* 
ARTICUL AT I ONS, (.) 01 NTS ) 
1. In number about 200. 
2. Classes.,— 
1. Synarthrosis,—immovable, as of cranium. 
2. Amphiarthrosis, Synchondrosis or Symphysis, 
having limited motion, as the vertebne. 
3. Diarthrosis,—having free motion. 
3. Varieties of Motion,—(1) flexion, (2) extension, 
(3) adduction, (4) abduction, (5) rotation, (6) circum- 
duction, (7) gliding. 
4. By sutures are meant processes and indentations 
interlocked together; as inter-parietal, inter-frontal, 
fronto-parietal, etc*. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
5. Gomphosis,—an articulation by the insertion of 
a cone-like process into a socket ; as, teeth. 
6. Schindylesis,—the reception of a pi ate into the 
fissure of anot her bone ; as rostrum of sphenoid with 
vomer. 
7...Lateral Ginglymus,—a pivot process turning 
within a ring, or a ring turning round a pivot; as 
superior radi-ulnar and atlo-axoid joint. 
8. Structures entering into formation of joints : 
(1) articular lamella of bone, (2) ligaments, (3) flbro- 
cartilage, (4) cartilage, (5) synovial membrane. 
(See MEMBRANES) 
LIGAMENTS. 
1. Found in nearly all movable articulations. 
2. They consist of variously formed bands made up 
of white fibrous tissue, mostly, and have a shining 
silvery appearance. 
3. They are pliant and flexible, yet strong, tough 
and inextensible. 
4. They are the connecting medium between joints. 
5. Where the elasticity of the ligament acts as a 
substitute for muscular power, they consist of yellow 
elastic tissue, as the ligamenta subflava connecting 
the adjacent arches of the vertebra. 
G. Capsular ligaments surround joints like a bag, 
thus preventing any efflux of synovia. 
7. Connecting ligaments (external and internal) 
strengthen the union of ends of movable bones. Cartilage, Shoulder. Elbow and Wrist Joints. -Vt 
cartilage, or “Gristle.” 
1. Consists mostly of chondrine with about 4 
bone earth. 
2. White, glistening and elastic. 
3. It may be,—(l) Obducent, covering movable 
articulations; (2) Inter-articular, between articula- 
tions; (3) Uniting, uniting one bone with another. 
0. SHOULDER JOINT. 
1. Ball and socket. 
2. Head of humerus received into glenoid cavity 
of scapula. 
3. The ligaments preventing displacement are,— 
(1) Capsular,(completely encircling it), (2) Coraco- 
humeral, (strengthening upper and inner part of 
the capsular) (3) glenoid, (around margin of cavity, 
4. Lined by synovial membrane, and moistened 
and lubricated by synovia. 
10. ELBOW JOINT. 
1. Hinge-joint 
2. Trochlear surface of humerus received in great- 
er sigmoid cavity of ulna (flexion and extension), 
the depression on head of radius articulating with 
radial tuberosity of humerus ; circumference of head 
of radius with lesser sigmoid cavity of ulna (rota- 
tion), 
3. Ligaments,—(l) anterior, (2) posterior, (3) 
internal lateral, (4) external lateral. 
11. WRIST JOINT. 
1. Arthrodia. 
2. Above, are radius and fibro-cartilage, 
3. Below, scaphoid, semilunar, and cuneiform. 
4. Ligaments,—(l) anterior, (2) posterior, (3) 
external and (4) internal lateral. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
T± HIP JOINT. 
1. Ball and socket. 
2. Head of femur received into cavity of ace- 
tabulum. 
3. Articulating surfaces covered with cartilage, 
and lubricated by synovia. 
4. Ligaments,—(l) Capsular, (around margin of 
cavity above and neck ot femur below); (2) Teres, 
(fastened about the center of the head of femur 
blending with transverse); (3) cotyloid, (fills up all 
inequalities ); (4) Ilio-femoral ( across front of 
joint); (5) Transverse, (crosses notch at lower part 
acetabulum). 
5. Movement, very extensive. 
13. KNEE JOINT. 
L Hinge joint. 
2. Head of femur above, tibia below, patella in 
front. 
3. Some ligaments outside, others inside. 
4. Ligaments outside,—(1) Ligamentura Patellae, 
(2) posterior, (3) internal lateral, (4) 2 external 
lateral, (5)-Capsular. 
5. Ligaments inside,—(1) External crucial, (2) 
Internal crucial, (3) transverse, (4) coronary, (5) 
ligamentum mucosum, (6) ligamenta Alaria, and 
(7) 2 semilunar fibre-cartilages, 
Aote.—We do not attempt a full description of 
all joints. Simply remember what enters into the 
formation of joints and the bones that articulate, and 
you will experience no trouble in understanding and 
(describing articulations. (See abridgment). Abridgment of Osteology. 
NAME OF BONE. 
No. of 
Articulations 
No. Muscles 
Attached 
Devetopm’tal 
Centers 
NAME OF BONE. 
No. of 
Articulations 
No. Muscles 
Attached 
(Uevelopm tap 
1 Centers 1 
Frontal 
12 
3 
2 
Trapezoid 
4 
1 
1 
Parietal 
5 
1 
1 
Os Magnum 
7 
1 
1 
Occipital 
6 
12 
4 
LI nciform 
5 
2 
1 
Temporal 
5 
14 
4 
Metacarpal . ... 
19 
18 
10 
Sphenoid 
12 
12 
10 
Phalanges 
23 
20 
28 
Ethmoid 
15 
0 
3 
Vertebrae ...... 
72 
39 
85 
Nasal 
4 
0 
1 
Sacrum 
4 
5 
11 
Lachrymal 
4 
1 
1 
Coccyx 
1 
4 
4 
Malar 
4 
5 
1 
Os Innominatum 
3 
3 
5 
Inf. Turbinated. 
4 
0 
1 
Femur 
3 
23 
5 
Vomer. . 
6 
0 
9 
Patella 
1 
4 
ses. 
Sup, Maxillary, 
9 
9 
4 
Tibia . 
3 
10 
3 
Inf. Maxillary.. . 
2 
14 
2 
Fibula 
2- 
9 
3 
Sternum 
16 
10 
6 
Os Calcis.. 
2 
8 
1 
Os Hyoides..... 
0 
11 
5 
Cuboid '. . . . 
4 
1 
1 
Ribs (4-) 
24 
19 
34 
Astragalus. 
4 
0 
1 
Scapula 
2 
17 
7 
Scaphoid ■: . ... 
4 
1 
1 
Olavical 
3 
6 
2 
Int. Cuneiform. . 
4 
2 
1 
Humerus 
3 
24 
7 
Mid. Cuneiform.. 
4 
0 
1 
Ulna., *. ., . 
2 
13 
o 
O 
Ext. Cuneiform.. 
6 
2 
2 
Radius 
4 
9 
3 
Metatarsal 
21 
13 
10 
Scaphoid 
5 
0 
1 
Phalanges 
23 
23 
28 
Semilunar 
5 
0 
1 
Malleus.". . . . ; 
1 
3 
9. 
Cuneiform 
'3 
0 
1 
Incus.. . i. • . . 
2 
0 
9, 
Pisiform. 
1 
2 
1 
Stapes 
1 
1 
9, 
Trapezium 
4 
3 
1 
ABRIDGMENT OF OSTEOLOGY. 
NERVES. 
The two great systems are—(l) Cerebro-spinal, (2) 
Sympathetic. 
1. CEREBRO SPINAL SYSTEM. 
1. The system of animal life, (sensation, motion, 
etc). 50 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
2. Occupies cranium and spinal canal. 
3. Consists of (1) brain and cranial nerves, (2) 
spinal cord and spinal nerves. 
2. SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 
1. The system of organic life, (growth, nutri- 
tion, etc). 
Remark:—The distinction “organic” and “animal” 
is by no means complete. 
2. It consists of a double chain of ganglia on 
each side of the spinal column from the base of the 
cranium to the coccyx; also ganglia in thorax, 
abdomen, head, face, etc. 
N. B.—The nerves of either system anastomose 
with the other. 
NERVOUS TISSUE. 
Composed of 2 kinds of matter (1) gray, (2) white. 
The Gray. 
1. It is a fine connective tissue stroma imbedding 
in its meshes the gray vesicles or cells. 
2. The cells. 
1. Gray in color. 
2. Invested in a delicate membrane. 
3. Each contain a soft, albuminous nucleus. 
4. Some have also a nucleolus. 
5. Vary in size and shape. 
6. Smallest in brain, largest in spinal cord. 
7. Found on the surface of the brain, but in the 
interior of the spinal cord. 
8. Their shape is generally oval. 
9. Their shape may be irregular in outline with 
one, two, or more tails (processes) i. e., unipolar, 
bipolar, or multipolar. 
10. Function : To generate nerve force. 
The White. 
1. Where found : The Structure of Nerves. 
51 
1. In the interior of the brain, 
2. On the surface of the spinal cord, 
3. In nearly all nerves of both systems. 
2. It consists of three parts: 
1. The tubular membrane, investing, protecting, 
and keeping the parts from injury. 
2. The white substance (of Schwann), inside of 
the tubular membrane, insulating the band axis, 
and together with the membrane, preventing dif- 
lusion of nerve force. 
3. Band axis (axis cylinder); (1) In the center 
of white substance, transparent and albuminous in 
character; (2) It is the essential conducting agent. 
Remark :—Where the white substance is wanting, 
they are denominated non-medullated. 
1. They are round or flattened cords, 
2. The nerve filaments pursue an uninterrupted 
course from their origin to their termination. 
3. They are surrounded by the neurilemma 
(sheath), which is fibre-elastic, in which the blood- 
vessels ramify, conveying nutrition to the nerve. 
4. They pass into each other’s sheaths. 
5. Motor fibers, (central endings) enter brain and 
spinal cord, retaining axis cylinder only, and blend 
with the gray cells. 
6. The endings)form aplexusfrom 
which ultimate fibers issue and are distributed to the 
tissues, 
7. Thq white substance of the nerve disappears, and 
the axis cylinder spreads out into a minute glanular 
plate—the “ motorial ” end plate, as the motor nerve 
enters the muscular fiber; the tubular membrane 
blends with the myolemma. This is the form of con- 
nection between motor nerves and voluntary muscle. 
8. In involuntary muscle, the motor nerves form 
at their endings, a plexus on the muscular fiber-cells, 
connecting with their nuclei. 
9. The sensitive nerves end in 3 ways,— 
THE STRUCTURE OF NERVES. 52 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
1. In tactile corpuscles, (situated in the papillas 
of the true skin) by approaching the corpuscles 
and winding 2 or 3 times around, the nerves end 
in loops (sense of touch). 
2. In end bulbs, a coiled mass inclosed in very 
fine connecting tissue. 
3. In pacinian corpuscles, the nerve fiber enters 
and ends in a knob in the central bulb, (not well 
understood), 
10. Efferent or centripetal nerves pass outward to 
various organs, transmitting nervous impulses. 
11. Afferent or centripetal, convey impulses to the 
nerve centers. 
12. Sensitive nerves give rise to sensation. 
13. Vasomotor, regulate the caliber of blood-vessels, 
14. Trophic, influence nutrition. 
15. Secretory, influence secretion. 
16. Inhibitory, produce a restraining action. 
17. Motor nerves may be paralyzed without affect- 
ing sensation, (introduce wdofara under the skin), 
18. Sensibility maybe abolished without destroying 
motion (employ anaesthetics). 
19. Motor nerves conduct force at the rate of 120 
feet per second. 
20. Sensory nerves conduct force 190 feet per sec- 
ond. 
21. Nervous stimuli—(1) iliechanical, (2) thermal, 
(3) chemical,'(4) electrical. 
22. A nerve extends from a ganglia or center to 
some part of the body. 
23. A commissure—from ganglia to ganglia. 
GANGLIA. 
1. Congregated, adjoining, communicating cells 
giving off fibers. 
2. They may be regarded as independent centers. Plexus a?id Spinal Nerves. 
53 
3. They consist of fibrous investing membrane con 
taining gray cells and gelatinous fibers. 
4. Situations,—(1) on posterior roots of spinal 
nerves, (2) along sides of vertebral column, (3) on 
the cranial sensory nerves, (4) in the different viscera. 
PLEXUS. 
1. Branches of different nerves interlacing in the 
most intricate manner, in all directions. 
2. Fibers are again given off to pursue an indepen- 
dent course. 
1. 31 in number. 
2. Arising by 2 roots, anterior and posterior, uni- 
ting in the intervertebral foramen, and extending to 
the muscles, viscera, and skin. 
a. Anterior Roots. (Motor). 
1. Transmit impulses from center-to periphery, 
2. Irritation of these roots results in convulsive 
movements of the muscles. 
3. Disease of these roots induces paralysis. 
4. They arise from anterior columns of spinal 
cord. 
h. Posterior Roots. (Sensory). 
1. Transmit impressions from periphery to centers 
in spinal cord or brain promoting in the first instance 
motor impulses, in the second, conscious sensations, 
2. Irritation of these roots causes the sensation 
of pain. 
3. Sensation in a part may be lost by division or 
disease of these roots. 
3. The 31 pairs enumerated thus : (1) cervical, eight; 
(2) dorsal, twelve ; (3) lumbar, five; (4) sacral, five ; 
(5) coccygeal, one. 
1. Cervical Plexus gives off branches to (1) integ- 
uments, (2) parotid gland, (3) ear, (4) back of head. 
SPINAL NERVES. 54 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
2. Brachial Plexus to (1) shoulder joint, (2) pec- 
toral muscles, (3) elbow and wrist, (4) hand and 
fingers, &c. 
3. Dorsal Nerves. Pass to (1) muscles and integu- 
ments of back and loins, (2) lateral and forepart of 
thorax, (3) intercostals, (4) diaphragm, (5) they 
anastomose with the sympathetic. 
4. Sacral Nerves. Pass to (1) pelvis, (2) thigh, (3) 
leg. 'n P ana toes. 
1. They communicate with all the cerebral nerves 
{except 3 of special sense, viz : olfactory, optic and 
auditory), and with all the spinal nerves. 
2. Large plexuses are formed both in chest and 
abdomen in front of the vertebral column. 
3. They ramify on the aorta, heart, venae cavae, 
stomach, pulmonary vessels, subclavian, ribs, phar- 
ynx, vertebral column, pancreas, spleen, etc. 
4. They follow the distribution of blood-vessels. 
5. Characterized by their numerous ganglia, viz; 
(1) superior, (2) middle, (3) inferior cervical, (4) car- 
diac, (5) thoracic, (6) semilunar, (7) solar plexus (be- 
hind stomach), (8) renal, (9) inferior mesenteric, (10) 
lumbar, (11) sacral, (12) ganglion impar. 
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 
THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 
THE BRAIN. 
1. Average weight; male, 494 ozs.; female, 44 ozs. 
2. Weighs more than any of the lower animals 
except whale (5 lbs.) and elephant, (10 lbs.) 
3. Maximum weight reached from 30 to 40 yrs.old. 
4. Contained in the cranial cavity. 
5. Composed of gray cells and white fibers. 
6. The gray for the most part is on the surface; the 
white, within. 
7. It is not only an originator or generator of nerve 
force, but a conductor of nervous impulses. Cerebrum and Cerebellum. 
55 
8. It has 4 divisions,—(1) Cerebrum, (2) Cerebel- 
lum, (3) Medulla oblongata, (4) Pons Yarolii. 
9. Enclosed in 3 distinct membranes,—(1) dura 
mater, (2) arachnoid, (3) pia mater. 
1. Average weight 3 lbs. (5 ozs. less in female). 
2. The carotid and vertebral arteries supply it. 
3. A decrease of blood to, a decrease of functional 
activity. 
4. Consists of right and left hemisphere, divided 
by the longitudinal fissure from before backwards. 
5. Connected with pons Yarolii and medulla ob- 
longata through crura cerebri, and with cerebellum 
through the superior peduncles. 
6. Gyri,—rounded eminences (convolutions). 
1. Sulci,—separates convolutions. 
8. Lobes, five in number,—(1) frontal, separated 
from temporo-sphenoidal by fissure of Sylvius ; (2) 
Island of Reil, in angle of rami of fissure of Sylvius; 
(3) Parietal, separated from frontal by fissure of 
Rolando; (4) Occipital, separated from parietal by 
parieto-occipital fissure; (s)Temporo-Sphenoidal, sep- 
arated from frontal by fissure of Sylvius. 
9. The hemispheres are the centers in which the 
phenomena of mind is manifested. 
10. It is the seat of reason, intelligence, and will, 
registering impressions,and reproducing them as ideas. 
CEREBRUM. 
1. Underneath back lobes of cerebrum. 
2. In proportion to the cerebrum as 1 to B|. 
CEREBELLUM. 56 
Tabulated Alarm a I of Physiology. 
3. Two hemispheres, and a central portion, the 
Vermiform Process. 
4. Insensible and inexcitable. 
5. Connects with cerebum through superficial por- 
tion of pons Varolii, and with spinal cord through 
restiform bodies. 
6. The center for co-ordination and equilibrium of 
muscular movement. 
7. A vertical section gives an appearance called 
the Arbor Vi tee. 
PONS VAROLII. 
1. Unites with (1) cerebrum, (2) cerebellum, (3) 
medulla oblongata. 
2. Its transverse fibers unite the hemispheres of the 
cerebellum. 
3. Its longitudinal fibers, continuous with the 
olivary bodies and anterior pyramids. 
-f. It serves for the transmission of sensory and 
motor impulses to and from the cerebum. 
5. It seems to be the center of instinctive reflex- 
acts, and assists in automatic movements of station 
and progression. (See membranes). 
MEDULLA OBLONGATA. 
1. A bulb formed by expansion of upper part of 
spinal cord. 
2. Divided in halves by anterior and posterior mid- 
dle fissures, continuous with the cord. 
3. Fibers of anterior pyramids cross (decussation) 
each other on their way to opposite sides of the brain. Dura Mater, Arachnoid and Pia Mater. 
57 
4. Each half consists of 4 columns named from be- 
fore backwards thus: (1) anterior pyramid, (2) lateral 
tract and olivary body, (3) restiform body, (4) pos- 
terior pyramid. 
5. The center of mastication, respiration, degluti- 
tion, phonation, expression, and of the cardiac and 
▼aso-motor nerves. 
MEMBRANES OF BRAIN. 
DURA MATER. 
1. A firm, tough, white-fibrous tissue. 
2. Serves as internal periosteum to the skull bones. 
3. Attached to edge of foramen magnum. 
4. It supports the brain. 
5. It forms the following: 
1. The sinuses, by separations in its layers, per 
forming the offices of veins. 
2. Falx cerebri, between lobes of cerebrum. 
3. Tentorium, above cerebellum, below back part 
of cerebrum, separating them. 
4. Falx cerehelli. between lobes of cerebellum. 
ARACHNOID. 
1. Very thin serous membrane. 
2. Spread over surface of brain and spinal cord. 
3. Between dura mater and pia mater. 
4. It does not dip down into the sulci. 
5. It consists of— 
1. Parietal layer, in contact with dura mater 
except where it forms the sub-dural space or cavity 
which contains fluid, 
2. The visceral layer, separated in many places 
from the pia mater, forming the sub arachnoid space 
which contains the cerehro-spinal fluid. 58 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
PI A MATER. 
1. Lines entire surface of brain and cord. 
2. Connected to arachnoid at outer surface, except 
at the base and sulci. 
3. Dips between the covolutions of the brain. 
4. Enters ventricles by the great transverse fissure. 
5. Composed of areolar tissue. 
6. Gives off from its inner surface small blood- 
vessels penetrating the brain and cord. 
1. From 16 to 18 inches long. 
2. Has 3 membranes, same as brain. 
3. Weighs 1-} ounces. 
4. Gray matter inside, white outside. 
5. Extends from atlas to second lumbar, ending in 
thefilum terminale or cauda equina. 
6. Has 8 columns, 4 on each side, continuous with 
those of the medulla oblongata. 
7. The ventrical of the cord, (central canal) some- 
times extends its entire length, being lined by the 
ependyma which also lines the ventricles of the brain 
being a transparent serous membrane. 
SPINAL CORD. 
It controls the processes of organic life; regulates 
nutrition, secretion, and temperature ; governs all 
voluntary and involuntary muscular movement; sen- 
sation, mental and moral manifestations, motion, and 
language, and unites the organs and tissues of the 
body into an organic unit. 
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. NAME. 
appa’t origin. 
PROPERTIES. 
FUNCTION. 
DISTRIBUTION. 
Anterior lobes of 
cerebrum 
convey special impressions 
of odorous substances 
Passes to ethmoid bone expands into 
1st pair, Olfactory 
Governs sense of smell 
olfactory bulb, thence to mucous 
membrane of nose. 
2nd pair, Optic 
Optic ganglion 
Convey special impressions 
of light 
Governs sense of sight 
Passes through optic foramina, and 
distributed to the retina. 
Elevates upper eyelid; move- 
3rd pair. Motor Oculi 
Communis 
Cerebral pedun- 
cles 
Irritation causes contraction 
of pupil, images crossed, ina- 
bility to rotate the eye. drop- 
mentsof iris: accommodation 
for distance; animates all 
muscles of eye but rectus and 
Enters orbit through sphenoid fis- 
sure, thence to eye. 
ping upper evelid, etc. 
superior oblique 
Enters orbit through sphenoidal As- 
sure, thence to muscle. 
From two roots, (the smaller passing 
4th pair, Patheticus 
ditto 
Injury causes one image to 
appear above another, or eye 
Movements of eye by su perior 
oblique muscles 
5th pair, Trigeminal 
or Tri-facial 
Pons varolii 
irritation, neuralgia of head 
and face 
Most acute sense of any to 
head and face 
through foramen ovale), consists of 3 
branches, viz: Opthalmic, superior 
and inferior maxillary. 
(ith pair, Motor Oculi 
Communis: A lain ecru- 
ditto 
Irri. turns eyeball outw’ds, if 
paralyzed, cannot be turned 
outwards 
Irritat’n produces convulsive 
movements of facial muscles 
To turn the eyeball outwards 
Enters orbit Onough sphenoidal fis- 
sure, thence to external rectus. 
7th pair, Facial; 
Portis Dura 
Medulla oblon- 
gata 
To give expression, abo influ- 
encing taste uvula.membrana 
tympaui, etc. 
Exit through stylo-mastoid foramen, 
thence to muscles of face. 
Enter external auditory canal,thence 
8th pair, Auditory; 
Portis Mollis 
ditto 
Convey impressions of sound 
Governs hearing 
to cochlea, vestibule and semi-circu- 
lar canals. 
9th pair, Glosso- 
Cerebral pedun- 
Irritation produces pain or 
Controls reflex movements of 
Passes thro’ jugular foramen, down 
cles and medulla 
contraction of muscles of 
vomiting and swallowing; 
and forwards to tongue and pharynx, 
oblongata 
pharynx and palate 
sensibility of pharynx 
tonsils, uvula, soft palate. 
10th pair, Par Vagum 
Pneumogastric 
Medulla oblongata 
Exhibits both sensory and 
motor properties, at orgin it 
is sensory. 
Influences secretions of stom- 
ach, liver, etc., action of 
heart, respiration, voice, deg- 
lutition. 
Passes through jugular foramen, 
tnence to larynx, heart, stomach, 
lungs, intestines, liver, spleen, kid- 
neys, etc. 
11th pair, Spinal 
Accessory 
ditto and 
spinal cord 
Motor in beginning but from 
a u as tom os’g appears sensory 
Exhibits heart’s action, gov- 
erns phonation by influence 
on glottis,controls respiratory 
Enters cranium through foramen 
magnum, emerges through jugular 
foramen, receives and gives branches 
Motor inside, but sensory out- 
organs in prolonged phonat’h 
to other nerves. 
12th pair, Sublingual: 
Hypo-glossal 
Medullaoblongata 
sidecran’mfrom anastomos’g 
Governs all move’tsof tongue, 
Emerges through condyloid foramen, 
Ini. produces difficult articu- 
influencing articulation,mas- 
sends fllaments to pneumogastric, 
lation and pronunciation 
tication and deglutition 
sympathetic and others. 
CRANIAL NERVES. 60 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
muscles: 
1. They are bundles of reddish fibers. 
2. They are connected with bones, cartilages, liga- 
ments, and skin either by- tendons or aponeuroses. 
3. If connecting with cartilage or bone the fibers 
end bluntly on theperichondri/um of the one and the 
periosteum, of the other. , 
4. If connecting with the skin they lie in a flatten- 
ed layer under it, or connect with its areolar tissue. 
5. The broad flattened muscles inclosing the cavi- 
ties of the trunk are called its parietes. 
6. They are called long, short, broad, &c., orpenui- 
form, bi-penniform,' fusiform, radiated, cf c., owing to 
their shape and position. 
7. Origin, the central attachment; Insertion, the 
point upon which it is directed. 
8. Tendons, are either round or flat white fibrous 
tissue cords, with parallel fibrils, bound firmly to- 
gether, with which the muscular fiber becomes blen- 
ded. 
9. Apomeuroses, white fibrous membranes, in struc- 
ture resembling the tendons. , 
10. Tendons and Aponeuroses are always interme- 
diately situated between the muscles and movable 
structures. ' . 
11. Fasclce (a bandage) invest the softer and more 
delicate organs, and is either superficial or deep. 
1., The. superficial fascia (fibro-areolar) is direc- 
tly under the skin over nearly the entire body con- 
necting it with the deep or aponeurotic fascia, and 
sub adjacent parts, facilitating its movement, and Muscular Tissue and Striated Muscles. 
61 
also retaining the warmth of the body owing to the 
adipose tissue being contained in its areolae which 
is a bad conductor. 
2. The deep fascia (aponeurotic) (1) consists of 
parallel tendinous fibers, connected by reticular 
(interwoven) fibers. (2) It binds down the mus- 
cles collectively and sheathes each one individually, 
and also the vessels and nerves. (3) It serves for 
the' attachment of muscles (aponeurosis of attach- 
ment) and sheaths the entire limb, giving off septa 
departing the muscles and becoming attached to 
the periosteum, (aponeurosis of investment). 
.1.. There are two kinds, viz : 
1. Voluntary (striated), controlled by the will. 
2. Involuntary (non-striated), as a rule, not con- 
trolled by the will. 
MUSCULAR TISSUE. 
1. Consists of'bundles.of fibers surrounded by a 
web of areolar tissue called perimysium P 
2. Each bundle consists of smaller bundles, and 
these again of the primitive fasciculi {fibrils) enclosed 
in a tubular, elastic, transparent sheath called u sar- 
colemma.” 
3. These muscular fibers are,distinguished by dark 
lines (striae) curving transversely (occasionally run 
longitudinally) around the fiber about TFJp °f an 
inch apart. 
4. Each primitive fibril is about °f an inch 
in diameter. 
5. The fibrils are composed of nucleated cells ar- 
ranged in a linear series. 
6. This form constitutes the voluntary muscles. 
STRIATED MUSCLES. 62 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
1. The libers form flattened bands, interlacing in 
all directions, the fibrils being composed of rod-shaped 
nucleated cells, and without striae. 
2. The contraction is slower than in the Striated, 
and involves the entire muscle, i. e., membranes com- 
posed of this tissue contract slowly, then the contract- 
ed part relaxes and is taken up by another part of 
the membrane ; this action is strongly marked in the 
vermicular motion. 
Remark.—As muscles die they become stiff, the 
rigidity so characteristic of recent death is called 
u Rigor Mortis The rigidity (stiffening) is mostly 
due to the solidifying of the contents of the sarcolem- 
ma. As rigidity ceases, putrefactive changes set in. 
NON-STRIATED MUSCLES. 
1. There are about 500 muscles. 
2. They are all in pairs except 12. 
3. Extensors pass over the back of joints. 
4. Flexors pass in front of joints. 
5. Law of contraction: They shall contract to- 
wards the center. 
6. Stimuli. 
1. Mechanical, (touch). 
2. Chemical, (acids and alkalies). 
3. Electrical, (shocks). 
4. Vital, (Through the nervous system). 
7. Blood vessels enter the perimysium and the 
fibers absorb their nutrition through the myolemma, 
(endosmosis). 
8. Use: To give power of locomotion, ability to 
work, to communicate, etc , and by means of their con- 
tractile property the heart beats and circulation and 
respiration are carried on. They fill up cavities, give 
plumpness of appearance, and with the bones give 
support and power of resistance. 
GENERAL POINTS. Miuscles. 
63 
NAME. 
ORIGIN. 
INSERTION. 
FUNCTION. 
Occipito-frontalis 
Outer % sup. curved lineof occiput 
and mastoid process 
Frontal quadrilateral expansion to 
facial muscles 
Chiefly, facial expression. 
Orbicularis 
Palpebrarum 
Sphincter of eve 
To close the eyelids. 
Levator LabiiSu 
perioria Alaeque 
Nasal process sup. maxillary bone 
Cartilage of ala and upper lip 
To elevate upper lip and di- 
late the nostril. 
Orbicularis Oris 
Sphincter of mouth 
To close the mouth. 
Massetcr 
Malar process sup. max. and two- 
thirds inner surface zygoma 
Angle and ramus of the lower 
jaw 
A muscle of mastication. 
Temporal 
Tempera! fossa and fascia 
Coronoid process inferior maxillary 
To bring incisor teeth to- 
gether; the “biting muscle.” 
Sterno-cleido- 
masloid 
Sternum and clavical 
Mastoid process temporal bone 
To depress, and also to 
rotate the head. 
Transverse processes of 3rd. 4th, 
Tuner arch of atlas, transverse pro- 
To flex the cervical verte 
Lougus Colli 
and 6th C. Y., and bodies of first 3 
cesses of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5*h and 
brae and partially rotate 
dorsal, and lower 3 c< rvical 
cervical 
same. 
Ensiform cartilage, bodies of lorn- 
Diaphragm 
bar vertebrae, on right side from 
2nd to 4th and on loft side from 2nd 
Central (cordiform) tendon (con 
needed with deep cervical fascia) 
Respiration and expulsion 
to 3rd and lower ribs 
Biceps 
Long head, upper margin glenoid 
cavity, Short head, apex coracoid 
process 
Outer and inner heads, shaft hum- 
Tuberosity of radius and fascia of 
forearm 
To su pin ate, and flex fore- 
a rm. 
Triceps 
erus. Long head, depression below Olecranon process of ulna 
To extend the forearm. 
glenoid cavity of scapula 
Oastrochuemius 
Two heads; One from each condyle 
Unites with tendo archillis to os 
To raise the body in walking 
of femur 
calcis 
or extend the foot. 
Sartorins 
Anter superior spine of ilium 
Upper inner surface of tibia 
To flex and cross the legs. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
■Suffice it is to say there are over 500 muscles, all 
in pairs one on each side of the body except 12 ; each 
having its antagonist, that is—as one relaxes the 
other contracts, (see flexors and extensors). 
The names of the muscles have been derived (1) 
from their situation, as the Tibialis, (2) from their 
direction, as The Transversalis, (3) from their uses, 
as Flexor, (4) from their shape, as Deltoid, (5) from 
the number of their divisions, as Biceps, (6) from 
their points of attachment, as Sterno-cleido-mastoid. 
OPENINGS OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 
1. Oesophageal, transmitting the oesophagus and 
pueumogastric nerves. 
2. Aortic, transmitting aorta, vena azygos major, 
thoracic duct, and sometimes the left sympathetic 
nerve, 
3. Opening for the Vena Cava is the highest. 
4. The Right Crus, transmits the sympathetic and 
greater and lesser splanchnic nerves of right side. 
5. The Left Crus, transmits the vena azygos minor 
and the greater.,and lesser splanchnic nerves of the 
left side. 
1. Bounded above by the hard and soft palate. 
2. Bounded below by the tongue and reflections of 
mucous membrane from it to the gums. 
3. Bounded at the sides by the cheeks. 
4. Anterior opening corresponds to the lips. 
5. It communicates behind with the pharynx 
through the opening known as the isthmus faudum, 
which is bounded as follows : 
1. Above, by the soft palate and uvula, 
2. Below, by the tongue, 
3. At the sides, by the tonsils and pillars of the 
palate. 
MOUTH. Teeth and Salivary Glands. 
65 
6. The mouth is lined with squamous epithelium. 
1. Number in adults 32, (permament) in child- 
hood, 20. (deciduous), 
2. Their divisions are:— 
1. Incisors, eight, 
2. Canine, four, 
3. Bicuspids, eight, 
4. Molars, twelve, 
3. Wisdom teeth, the two last Molars (appear late). 
4. The division in childhood are:— 
1. Incisors, eight, 
2. Canine, four, 
3. Molars, eight. 
5. Each tooth has— 
1. A crown, seen above the gums, 
2. A neck, between the crown and root, 
3. A root, fitted in the alveolar process, sur- 
rounded by periosteum that lines the alveola. 
6. Deciduous teeth, begin to appear about 7th 
month, entirely appear about 24th month. 
7. Permanent teeth, begin to appear about 7th 
yrear, entirely appear from 17th to 25th year. 
8. The greatest number of teeth in jaws at any one 
time would be from 5 to 7 yrs. of age,—4B in number. 
3. The hard substance is made up of dentine en- 
amel and cement. 
10. The dentine in the interior, inclosing the pulp 
■containing blood-vessels and nerves. 
11. Use : To grind the food. 
12. They are not parts of the skeleton. 
TEETH. 
SALIVARY GLANDS. 
1. Parotid,—in front and below outer ear, opening 
By Steno’s duct opposite 2nd molar, upper jaw. 66 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
2. Sad maxillary,—within and anterior to angle of 
lower jaw, opening by Wharton’s duct at side of fra- 
enum linguae. 
3. Sublingual,—in contact with inner surface lower 
jaw, close to symphysis, opening by 8 to 20 ducts, 
Ravinian, on each side frasnum linguae. 
4. Function : To secrete saliva (See Fluids). 
TONGUE. 
1. Made up of muscles, viz: (1) Extrinsic,, attach- 
ing it to other bones, (2) Intrinsic, found within it; 
also mucous membrane, vessels, and nerves. 
2. Attached to hyoid bone at base. 
3. Papillae of 3 kinds, (1) maxim(B, large forming 
row on back part like letter V inverted, 
(2) Media, at apex and sides, round, deep red, 
(3) Minima}, cover | anterior part, small whitish. 
4. Trcenumlinguce,—(l) a distinct fold of mucous 
membrane, (2) beneath undersurface of tongue. 
5. Sense of taste,—principally in mucous mem- 
brane on upper surface and in the u Taste hudsP 
-jJry- inch long in the papillae. 
1. Glanular; on each side of fauces. 
2. Almond-shaped ; marked by numerous crypts 
with follicles passing into substance of gland. 
3. Corresponds to angle of lower jaw. 
4. They seem to aid in moistening food passed be- 
t ween them. 
TONSILS. 
PHARYNX. 
1. A musculo-membraneous, conical-shaped bag. 
2. Behind mouth, incomplete in front. 
3. Attached above to occipital bone; below to oes- 
ophagus. 
4. Has 7 openings,—two to Eustachian tubes, two 
to posterior nares, one to mouth,(isthmus fauces), one 
to oesophagus and one to larynx. Stomach. 
67 
1. Membraneous muscular tube, 9 in. long. 
2. From pharynx (sth cervical) to stomach (9th, 
dorsal). 
3. 3 layers,—(l) muscular, (2) areolar. (3) raucous. 
4. Narrowest part alimentary canal. 
5. Oesophageal glands in subcutaneous tissue. 
6. Conveys food to stomach. 
(ESOPHAGUS. 
STOMACH. 
1. The principal organ of digestion. 
2. The most dilated part of the alimentary canal, 
3. Serves for reduction and solution of food (chyme- 
Ji cation). 
4. Situated in the left and part of the right hypo- 
chondriac and the epigastric regions. 
5. Below the diaphragm and liver, above the trans- 
verse colon, beneath the ribs, and in contact with the 
pancreas and spleen. 
6. Weighs about 44 ounces. 
7. It has two extremities, the splenic and pyloric, 
8. The cut cle sac is the part 2 or 3 inches to the 
left of the entrance of the oesophagus. 
9. It has 2 openings cardiac (into) and pyloric 
(out of). 
10. Moved slightly downward and upward by 
breathing. 
11. It has 3 coats, viz : 
1. Muscular, immediately beneath the serous and 
having 3 sets of fibers ; (1) longitudinal, (2) circu- 
lar, (3) oblique. 
2. Cellular ( “ vascular ” ) connects mucous and 
muscular layers. 
3. Mucous, smooth, velvety, being in folds when 
the stomach is empty. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
12. Alveoli, small hollows, from to of an 
inch in diameter. 
13. lined with columnar epithelium. 
14. Capacity, about 5 pints. 
15. The true gastric and mucous glands imbedded 
in the mucous coat. 
10. The true peptic glands, mostly in cardiac end, 
jet may be found all over stomach. 
IT. The secretion of gastric juice is a refiex act of 
the nerves in response to the stimulus of food in the 
stomach. 
18. Averages 5 inches deep by 13 inches long. 
19. Kept in place by peritoneum. 
SMALL INTESTINE. 
1. 20 feet long. 
2. Held in place by peritoneum. 
3. Has 3 parts,—(1) duodenum, (2) jejunum, (3) 
ileum.. 
DUODENUM. 
I’. Length, 10 inches. 
2. Shortest, widest, most fixed part of canal. 
3. Lille a horse-shoe around head of pancreas with 
convexity to the right, descends in front of right kid- 
ney, passes transversely across spine, ends in jejunum. 
4. Bile and pancreatic juice poured into it where 
chyllficdtiom takes {dace. 
1. It lies in. coils around the region of the umbilicus. 
2. It is the upper f from the duodenum to the 
Heo-esecal'valve,no definite limit being bet ween them. 
3. The muscular fibers are longitudinal and circular. 
4. Valmdai conniventes, the mucous layer thrown 
into folds. 
5. Villi*,. minute vascular processes, number esti- 
’nated.for entire length of small intestine 4,000,000. 
JEJUNUM. Ileum, Colon and Ccecum. 
6. Brunners glands, small flattened glandular 
bodies imbedded in the submucous areolar tissue. 
7. Crypts’of leiberlmKn, minute tubular depress- 
ions scattered between the villi. 
JLEUM. 
1. Below the umbilical region. 
2. Ending at ileo-ccecal valve (at entrance to colon). 
3. Solitary glands, small, round, whitish,-scattered 
throughout mucous membrane of small intestine, 
mostly in the ileum. 
4. Fryer's glands, regarded as aggregation sad* soli- 
tary glands, in circular and oval patches, from.2o to 
30 in number and from 4 to 4 inches long, on the side 
opposite the messentery. 
5. Structure, same as jejunum. 
1. Forms of the canal. 
2. Divided into (1) caecum, (2) colon, (3) rectum. 
3. Has no valvuhe conniventes or villi. 
4. It is sacculated and has small processes (the 
appendices epipldical) along its entire course. 
5. Fibers of muscular coat longitudinal aaxl circu- 
lar. The longitudinal are collected into threeibands 
which being shorter than the intestine throw .it -into’? 
folds, z'" 
COLON. 
c.ecum. (Caput coli) 
1. At right iliac fossa, behind abdominal wall 
2. The beginning of the colon. 
3. Receives ileum at inner side. 
4. Measures 24 by inches. 
5. Attached to its lower and back part is the «/> 
pefidix vermtformis, a worm shaped tube the size M 
a goose-quill in diameter, 4 to 6 inches long. 
COLON. 
1. Extends from caecum to rectum. 
2. Divided into (1) ascending, (2) transverse, (3-f 
descending, (4) sigmoid flexure. 70 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
1. From descending colon to rectum. 
2. Curves like the letter S. 
3. Held in place by sigmoid meso colon. 
SIGMOID FLEXURE. 
]. From sigmoid flexure to terminus. 
2. Cylindrical, but not sacculated. 
3. From 6 to 8 inches long. 
Notes.—To follow colon, begin on right side (ascend- 
ing) across (transverse) down left side (descending). 
RECTUM. 
Summary.— Alimentary canal, about 30 feet long 
and consists of—(1) Mouth, (2) Pharynx, (3) Oeso- 
phagus, (4) Stomach, (5) Small Intestine (Duodenum, 
Jejunum, Ileum), (0) Large Intestine (Caecum, Co- 
lon, Sigmoid Flexure, Kectum). 
DIGESTION. 
1. Prehension,—conveying food into mouth by 
hands and lips. 
2. Mastication,—grinding same which becomes 
moistened and glued by the saliva. 
3. Deglutition,—conveying it through isthmus 
fauces, and down the oesophagus into stomach. 
4. Gastric Digestion,—changing it into chyme by 
action of gastric juice, &c., in stomach. 
5. Intestinal Digestion,—the pancreatic juice and 
bile being poured into duodenum, changing it into 
chyle, which is absorbed by the lacteals. 
6. Passing on through jejunum, ileum, colon, sig- 
moid flexure, absorption taking place more or less 
the entire length until, 
7. Digestion, which act extrudes the indigestible 
substances from the body. (See Fluids). 
The changes taking place in saccharine,albuminoid, 
and oleaginous principles of blood are,—(1) the con- 
version of starch begins with the saliva, (2) conver- 
sion of cane sugar and albuminoids,with gastric juice, 
(3) emulsifying of fats, wit!) pancreatic juice and bile, 
(4) the intestinal juices harmonizing and completing 
all digestive operations. Absorption. 
ABSORPTION. 
NAME. 
ORIGIN. 
COMPOSITION. 
am’t secre- 
ted IN 21 
HOURS. 
FUNCTI CN 
Lymph. 
Transudes from 
capillary blood- 
Water proteids 
(/. e.) serum, albu- 
men, fibrin, globu- 
sy2 pounds 
Elirnina t’n 
of waste par- 
ticles from 
the sys’m ; on 
the other 
vessels during 
lin) + Extratives 
empty into 
hand the in- 
process of diges- 
(sugar, urea, chol- 
Thorax duct. 
troduction of 
tion. 
Taken up from 
estinepTatty mat- 
ter (a tracei- salts. 
Water -{-albumen 
Enters lym- 
new materi’l 
into theblood 
mostly from 
the alfm’tary 
canal,but al- 
■Chyle. 
thealimentaryca- 
vrtbrin + extract- 
phatics and 
so from cl os- 
nal principally by 
ives fatty mat- 
estimated as 
ed cavities of 
the lacteals. 
ter t- salts. 
lymph. 
the body,re- 
spirat’y sur- 
face and skin 
The agents of absorption are,—(1) veins, (2) lym- 
phatics. 
The veins absorb from the chyme as it passes along, 
(1) water, (2) albuminose, (3) glucose, (4) inorganic 
salts, conveying them directly to the liver. 
Lymphatics; arise (1) in lymph spaces, (2) open- 
ings on surface serous membranes (not well under- 
stood). They originate at periphery and empty at 
base of neck by thoracic duct, which is a tu be the 
size of a goose-quill, 20 inches long, from receptacu- 
lum chyli (2nd lumbar) to junction of internal jugu - 
lar and left subclavian veins. The right lymphatic 
duct, very short, emptying at junction of right sub- 
clavian and jugular. 
Lacteals; (1) originate within the villi, (2) pass 
through mesentery, (3) end in thoracic duct. 
They absorb, (1) chyle, (2) water, (3) albuminose, 
(4) glucose, (5) salts. 72 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
PERITONEUM. 
1. The largest serous membrane in the body,— 
lines walls of abdomen, reflected almost entirely over 
the pelvic and abdominal viscera (excex>t spleen, sup- 
rarenal capsules, and pancreas) and thus consisting 
of two layers, (1) parietal, (2) visceral. 
2. There are some seventeen folds (“ligaments”) 
supporting different organs which to trace is almost, 
if not quite impossible. 
3. The Omenta (Epiploa),—folds connecting stom- 
ach with other organs. 
4. The Mesentaries (Mesos),—folds connecting in- 
testines to the abdominal walls, (parieties of). 
5. There are sacs filled with fat along upper part 
of rectum and particularly the transverse colon. 
G. The hepatic vessel* reach the liver without per- 
forating the membrane. 
7. There is nothing passing through the foramen of 
Wislow connecting the cavities of the general per- 
itoneal cavity and the great omentum. 
8, The divisions generally given are : 
1. Mesentery proper,containing lacteals, lympha- 
tics, mesenteric arteries,veins, and nerves, and attach- 
ed to lumbar vertebrae, and united to small intestines. 
2. Meso-Colon,—connected to the colon. 
3. Meso-Rectum*—connected to the rectum. Membranes. 
MEMBRANES. 
1. MUCOUS. 
1. Continuous with the skin at the orifices of the 
body. 
2. Lines entire gastro intestinal tract. 
3. The epithelium may be,—(1) columnar, (2) 
spheroidal, (3) ciliated. 
4. The epithelium is supported by the corium 
being analogous to the derma of the skin, below 
which is the iihro-vascular layer with basement 
membrane intermediate. 
5. The Jihro-vascular 1 aver contains (1) white and 
yellow fibrous tissue and vessels, (2) muscular fiber 
cells, (3) nerves, (4) lymphatics, (5) many glands 
imbedded in it, (6) villi andpapilhe projecting out 
of it in many places. 
2. SEROUS. 
1. They form shut sacs. 
2. Can be traced continously around whole cir- 
cumference. 
3. Consists for the most part of a layer of epithe- 
lium, beneath which is connective or areolar tissue 
with basement membrane intermediate between 
the two. 
3. SYNOVIAL. 
1. Ail ala go us in structure to the serous. 
2. There are 3 kinds,—(particular, in all freely 
moving joints. (2) hursal, between surfaces moving 
upon each other, (3) sheaths,-.in osseo-fibrous can- 
als through which tendons pass. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
NAME. 
origin. 
composition. 
amount secreted 
IN 24 HOURS. 
FUNCTION. 
Cerebro- 
Spinai 
Pia Mater 
Abater, Animal Matter and 
Sats 
Very small 
Prevents Friction and Con- 
cussion. 
Saliva 
Salivary Glands 
Water, Proteid Matter, Inor- 
ganic Salts, Ptyalin 
3% pounds 
Convei ts starch into grape 
sugar (glucose) and facilitates 
deglutition. 
Gastric 
• f IK’ F 
Gastric Glands 
Water, Pepsin, Inorganic 
Salts and Hydrochloric Acid 
8 to 14 pounds 
Converts Albumen into Al- 
bumiuosc. 
Pancreatic 
Juice 
Pancreas 
Water, Inorganic Salts and 
Albuminoid Substances 
V/2 pounds 
E m n 1 si li es fats, con v ’ ts s t a rc 11 
into glucose, and Albumen 
into Albuminose. 
Intestinal 
Juice 
Follicles of Intestine 
Water, Inorganic Matter and 
Salts 
16 ounces 
Assists digestion of Albumi- 
noids, and converts starch in- 
to giucose. 
Syxovi a 
Synovial Membrane 
Water, Albumen, Sails and 
Mucous 
Undetermined 
Lubricates the joints. 
Serous 
Serous Membrane 
Water and Albumen 
Undetermined 
Prevents concussion and fric- 
tion by moistening. 
Mucous 
Mucous Membrane 
Water, Albumen, Salts and 
debris of Cells secreting it 
Undetermined 
Protects and defends Mucous 
Membrane. 
Endolymph 
Inner layer of Membranous 
Labyrinth 
Limpid and Serous 
Undetermined 
To aid in bearing. 
Tears 
Lachrymal Glands 
Water and Chloride of So- 
dium 
Unknown 
To soothe and cool during ex- 
cited brain. 
Serum 
Sebaceous Glands " il^er’ Salts, Fatty Globules 
and Epithelial Cells 
Undetermined 
To lubricate skin, to soften 
the hair. 
Meibomian 
Meibomian Glands in eye-lids 
Fatty-like 
Varies 
To prevent adhesion of eye- 
lids. 
Cerumen 
Glandulse Coruminosea of 
External Meatus 
“Waxy” 
Varies 
Moistens membrane of tym- 
panum. Fluids. 
Perilymph 
Membrane of inner surface 
of osseous labyrinth 
Thin and limpid 
Undetermined 
To aid in hearing. 
aqueous 
Iris, ciliary processes and in- 
ner surface cornea 
Water and chloride of so- 
dium 
Undetermined 
Refracting medium. 
. 
Milk 
Mammary glands 
Water, lactose, salts, fatty- 
matter, casein and serum al- 
bumen 
Average 3 pints 
In store for nutriti'n,perhaps. | 
M 
Oh 
C 
P 
'A 
td 
Membranous labyrinth 
Thin and limpid 
Undetermined 
To aid in hearing. 
i! 
Liquor 
Sangitinus 
Formal basis of living bodies 
Water, albumen (nutritious 
principle) paraglobin. fatty 
matters, Febrinogen, organic 
matters and mineral salts 
With (ho globules 
forms all the blood 
li 
Nutrition. 
Sweat 
Sudoriparous glands 
Water, urea, lactates, salts 
and fatty matters 
23.62 ounces 
jl 
Removes waste matters from 
the blood and regulates lhe|| 
temperature. 
Urine 
Kidneys 
Water, urea, uric acid, hip- 
nuric acid, mucous, pigment, 
inorganic and organic salts, 
and nitrogen and carbonic 
acid gases 
66.31 ounces 
Eliminated from system. 
* 
Breath 
1 ungs 
Carbonic acid and vapor of 
water 
13.4 ounces 
The diffusion of gasses. 
Bile 
Liver 
Water, fatty acids, cholester- 
ine, Glycogen 
2yz pounds 
Promotes emulsification, and 
absorption of fats, prevents 
putrefactive changes, and 
stimulates paristaltic move- 
ment. 76 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
PANCREAS. 
1. Weighs 34 ozs. 
2. Average length 6 inches, breadth inches, 
thickness inch. 
3. Long and flat extending across the posterior wall 
of the abdomen, behind the stomach. 
4. The right extremity bending from above down- 
wards is called the head, embraced by concavity of 
duodenum. 
5. The left extremity tapering, forms the tail. 
fl. The middle portion is called the body. 
7. A lobular fold is on the anterior aspect which is 
sometimes detached from the rest, and is called the 
lesser pancreas. Its duct (ductus pancreaticus minor) 
opening either into the main duct, or seperately into 
the duodenum an inch or more from the main duct. 
-8. The Pancreatic duct, (canal of Wirsung) extends 
from right to left through the substance of the gland, 
finally opening into the duodenum separately or in 
company with the ductus communis choledochus. 
9. The duets communis choledochus is formed by 
the union of the cystic (gall-bladder) and hepatic 
(liver) ducts; 3 inches long, size of goose-quill, and 
empties into duodenum. See Fluids. 
LIVER. 
1. Largest gland in the body. 
2. Average weight 4 lbs. 
3. At right side below diaphragm, in contact with 
stomach, colon, duodenum, and right kidney. 
4. Dimensions; transverse diameter 10inches; an- 
terio posterior diameter inches. 
5. It has 5 ligaments,—the suspensory, two lateral 
and coronary attaching it to the diaphragm, and the 
round ligament ascending from the umbilicus. 
6. It has J5 .fissures,-—the longitudinal, transverse 
(portal), fissure for the ductus venosus, fissure for 
the gall bladder, fissure for the vena cava. Kidneys. 
77 
7. It has 5 lobes,—the right, the left, lobulus quad- 
ratic, lobulus Spigelii, and lobulus caudatus. 
8. The right and left lobes are to each other as 6:1. 
9. The liver is made up of lobules the inch in 
diameter, which are composed of nucleated cells the 
ToVo inch in diameter which are the true hepatic cells. 
10. The hepatic ducts (bile capillaries) originate in 
the lobules. 
11. The bile channels are 20 0“ inch in diameter and 
empty into the interlobular ducts. 
12. The gall bladder is (1) on under surface of right 
lobe, (2) pear-shaped, (3) length 4 inches, (4) holds 
about 1| fluid ounces of bile. 
13. The liver is appended to the alimentary canal, 
and performs the triple office of (1) excretion of bile, 
(2) elaboration of blood, (3) secretion of glycogen. 
1. Bile, does not per exist in the blood, but is 
formed in the hepatic cells from both venous and 
arterial blood, and stored up during the intervals of 
digestion in the gall-bladder from which it is dis- 
charged as food passes into the alimentary canal 
(See Fluids). 
2. Elaboration of Blood ; It also has the prop- 
erty of changing products of digestion transversing 
its substance, till they readily assimilate with the 
blood and are converted into tissues and solids. 
3. Glycogen : a sugar-forming substance formed? 
it would seem, denovo in the cells from materials 
derived from the food, consisting mostly of glu- 
cose into which it is transformed on being carried 
from the liver, by the agency of a ferment. 
14. The bile empties through the ductus communis 
choledochus, which see, (point 8, Pancreas). 
KIDNEYS. 
1. On each side of spinal column. 
2. Opposite the two upper lumbar vertebrae. 78 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
3. Bean-shaped, and brownish red in color. 
4. Length 4J inches, breadth 2 inches, thickness 1 
inch. 
5. The right a little lower than the left. 
0. Composed of two substances,—(1) medullary, 
(2) cortical. 
(1) Medullary. 
1. The internal portion. 
2. Consists of about 15 pyramids (Malpighian) 
with apices towards pelvis, with the papillw hav 
ing a slight depression, the foveola on the apex. 
3. Infundibulum,-a membraneous cup surround- 
ing each papilhe, 4 or 5 of these uniting to form 
the calyx, 3or 4 calyces uniting to form a common 
trunk the pelvis from which proceeds the excretory 
tube of the kidney. 
7. The Malpighian bodies,—little Jlask-like extre- 
mities of the convoluted tubes of the cortical sub- 
stance, inch in diameter, 
8. The Cortical substance, is the external part about 
inch in diameter containing immense numbers of 
tubules extending in every possible direction consti- 
tuting the secretory tubes, the excretion finally pas- 
sing out by way of the ureters (18 inches long) and 
bladder. 
THE SPLEEN. 
1. It averages 5 by 3 by 2 inches. 
2. Weighs from 8 to 10 ounces. 
3. It is spongy, soft, and vascular. 
4. It is connected to the cardiac end of the stomach 
by the gastro-splenic omentum. 
5. The Suspensory Ligament,—a fold of peritoneum 
attaches it to the diaphragm at its upper extremity. 
6. Hilum, a vertical fissure on concave surface pier- 
ced by vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. Eye and Sclerotic. 
79 
7. It has two coats (1) External serous, (2) Inter- 
nal fibrous elastic. 
1. External,—peritoneum, investing almost the 
entire organ. 
2. Fibrous Elastic,—forms frame-work of spleen 
investing the exterior and reflected in upon the 
vessels in the form of sheaths. 
8. Splenic Pulp or substance,—surrounds the Mal- 
pighian corpuscles in the interspaces of the areolar 
frame-work. 
9. Malplgh lan corpuscles—expansions of outer coat 
of the small arteries being about -gb inch in diameter. 
10. It has no excretory duct. 
11. Its function not well understood. 
EYE. 
1. The Tunics (coverings) are three, viz. 
1. Sclerotica and Cornea, 
2. Choroid, Iris and Ciliary Processes, 
3. Retina. 
2. The Refracting Media are three, viz ; 
1. Aqueous Humor, 
2. Crystalline Lens and capsule, 
3. Vitreus humor. 
1. Dense, hard, forming posterior | of globe, 
2. Maintains form of the globe, 
3. Thicker behind (sb-inch) than in front, (^inch) 
4. Two suffices, 
1. External, smooth, white, partly covered by 
conjunctiva into which Recti and Oblique muscles 
are inserted. 
2. Internal, brown, with grooves for ciliary ner- 
ves, connected with outer surface of choroid by 
tine cellular tissue [lamina fusca) contains orifices 
for the transmission of nerve filaments the most 
SCLEROTIC. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
important being that transmitting the arieria cen~ 
trails retina to interior of eye-ball. 
5. In front, joins with cornea by direct continuity 
of tissue. 
6. Overlaps cornea a little more on outer than in- 
ner surface. 
7. Few vessels, small capillaries, nerves doubtful. 
1. Forms anterior of the globe. 
2. Projecting and transparent, being -2JS inch thick 
at center. 
3. It is set into the sclerotic as a watch crystal into 
its case. 
4. Not quite circular, broadest transversely. 
5. Degree of curvature differs in different persons 
and at different times in the same person. 
6. Posterior surface perfectly circular in outline. 
7. Has 5 layers, viz : 
1. fibrous central structure, “cornea proper,” 
inch thick. 
2. The anterior elastic lamina, covered by the 
conjunctiva. 
3. The posterior elastic lamina, 2uVo hich thick 
covered by lining membrane of anterior chamber. 
4. Conjunctival Epithelium, inch thick cov- 
ering front of the anterior elastic lamina. 
5. Epithelial lining of aqueous chamber. 
8. The elastic laminae preserve the curvature. 
9. Capillaries end in loops. 
10. Nerves, derived from ciliary nerves and ramify 
in the laminated surface. 
CORNEA. 
CHOROID. 
1. Invests posterior | of the globe. 
2. It is from -^-0 to Ti-0- inch thick. 
3. Extends forward a little in front of the equator, 
ending at the ciliary ligament. 
4. Dark brown in color. 
6. Pierced behind by the optic nerve. Ciliary Processes and Iris. 
81 
6. Connected externally with inner surface of scle- 
rotic by cellular web, the membranafusca. 
7. The internal surface is in contact with the retina. 
8. It has 3 layers, viz : 
1. External,—mostly formed of converging 
veins, forming 4 or 5 equidistant trunks, piercing 
sclerotic half way between the entrance of the op- 
tic nerve and edge of cornea. 
2. Middle, fine plexus of short ciliary vessels, 
(tunica Ruyschiana) 
3. Internal, (Pigmentary,) delicate membrane 
of nucleated cells loaded with pigment granules. 
9. it contains no pigment in Albinos. 
1. Behind the iris, around margin of lens. 
2. They are about inch long. 
3. In number from 60 to 80 arranged in a circle. 
4. They lay side by side and are of large and small 
size. 
5. Their direction is longitudinal forming a curtain- 
like expansion behind the iris. 
6. Attached to ciliary ligament, continuotis with 
middle and inner layers of choroid with opposite mar- 
gin free, resting on the circumference of the lens. 
CILIARY PROCESSES. 
IRIS. 
1. A thin, circular, contractile curtain suspended 
in'thb’aqueous humor behind the cornea and in front 
of the lens. 
2. It is about inch in width,' and T|T inch in 
thickness. 
3. Perforated by the pupil which is from to } 
inch in diameter. 
4. The sphincter muscular fibers contract, and the 
radiating fibers expand, the pupil. 
5. The inner edge of iris forms the pupil, the outer 
edge connects with the choroid. 82 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
6. The color varies owing to difference in color of 
the pigment cells. 
1. Images are received upon its surface. 
2. It is about Th inch in thickness. 
3. Ends nearly as far forward as the ciliary liga- 
ment in a jagged margin, the ora serrata. 
4. It is a delicate transparent membrane. 
5. In the posterior part at a point corresponding to- 
the axis of vision, is the yellow spot of Soemmering, 
having a central depression, the fovea centralis. 
6. The optic nerve enters about inch to the in- 
ner side of the yellow spot {limbus luteus) spreading 
out, aiding to form the retina. 
7. The arteria centralis pierces the optic nerve. 
8. The retina consists of 3 layers, viz : 
1. External, or columnar. 
2. Middle, or glanular. 
3. Internal, or nervous. (Gray) 
According to others, 10 layers, viz; (1) membrana 
limitans interna, (2) fibers of optic nerve, (3) layers- 
of ganglionic corpuscles, (4) molecular layer, (5) in- 
ternal glanular layer, (0) molecular layer, (7) exter- 
nal glanular layer, (8) membrana limitans externa, 
(9) layer of rods and cones, (10) layer of pigment 
cells. 
9. The estimated number of optic nerve fibers are 
800,000; and for each fiber there are 7 cones, 7 pig- 
ment cells, and 100 rods. 
10. The points of rods and cones point from the en- 
tering light, dipping into the pigment layer. 
11. The rods, cones and pigment layer intermediate 
the change of ethereal vibrations into nervous force* 
which is fashioned into sensations of light, form and 
color in the occipital lobe. 
RETINA. Humor and Lens. 
83 
AQUEOUS HUMOR. 
1. Fills both anterior and posterior chambers. 
2. Weight 4 or 5 grains. 
3. Anterior Chamber, between the cornea in front, 
and the iris and ciliary ligaments behind. 
4. Posterior Chamber (denied by many authori- 
ties) is between the iris in front, and capsule of lens, 
ciliary ligament and processes behind. 
vitreous humor, (Hyaloid Body). 
1. Fills cavity of retina. 
2. Inclosed in the hyaloid membrane. 
3. Albuminous, transparent, jelly-like. 
4. Hollowed in front receiving the lens and its cap- 
sule. 
CRYSTALLINE LENS AND ITS CAPSULE. 
1. Lens enclosed in its capsule, which is transpa- 
rent, elastic and jio inch in thickness. 
2. Behind pupil, in front of vitreous body. 
3. Surrounded by ciliary processes. 
1. Transparent double-convex lens. 
2. Composed of water, cholesterine, soluble and in- 
soluble albuminous matter. 
3. Weight from 4 to 4|- grains. 
4. Transverse diameter, inch; anterioposterior 
diameter \ inch. 
5. It has no vessels or nerves, receiving its nutri- 
tion by imbibition. 
6. It consists of concentric layers, the outer being 
soft, the next firmer; the inner hard nucleus. 
7. It refracts and concentrates the ray of light at 
a given point posterior to it, and, if accurately focus- 
ed on the retina a correct perception of images of ex- 
ternal objects is the result. 
LENS. 84 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
8. Ifc is held in position between the layers of the 
hyaloid membrane which having separated pass in 
front and behind it, being called the suspensory lig- 
ament', the space formed by its separation is the 
Canal of Petit. 
1. Diameters',—Antero-posterior T9o5o inch,—Trans- 
verse, TVo inch,—Vertical, Vro inch (adult). 
2. Anterior Pole.—center of the cornea, 
3v Posterior Pole,—center of the fundus, 
4. Axis,—imaginary line connecting the poles, 
5. Visual Axis,—imaginary line from the yellow 
spot to the object cutting the axis at an angle of from 
3° to 7°, the Visual Angle-. ■ 
6. Equator, an imaginary line passing round the 
globe dividing it into anterior and posterior hemis- 
pheres. 
7. Meridian Planes,—coincide with the axis. 
8. The eye ball rests on a cushion of fat and con- 
nective tissue, retained by muscles, conjunctiva, &c. 
TlfE EYE BALL. 
1. WHAT IS IT TO SEE ? 
The course a ray of light takes is as follows: It 
passes through (1) cornea, (2) lens, (3) vitreous hu- 
mor, (4) layers of the retina, (5) being arrested by 
the pigment layer of the choroid, here exciting some 
physical or chemical change in the layer rods and 
cones, whence (6) it is transmitted to the fibers of 
the optic nerve, and thence (7) to the occipital lobes 
where (8) it is perceived as a sensation of light, 
2. The eye structures are supplied with blood by 
the ciliary arteries piercing its posterior part around 
the optic nerve. 
3. The conjunctiva is the mucous membrane of the 
eye. 
4. Eue-lids shade the eye and protect it from in- 
jury. 
See Muscles. Nasal Fossae and the Ear. 
85 
5. Lachrymal Glands,—at upper and outer part of 
the orbital cavity opening by 6 or 8 ducts at the out- 
er part of the upper eye lid. 
NASAL FOSSAE. 
1. Two irregular cavities separated by the vomer, 
perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone and the trian- 
gular cartilage. 
2. The cavities open anteriorly (anterior nares) 
and posteriorly, (posterior nares). 
3. Lined by raucous membrane with ciliated epith- 
elium. 
4. The upper of the fossae is the only part capable 
of receiving odorous impressions. 
5. Nerves distributed between the epithelial cells 
of the olfactory mucous membrane. 
6. The olfactory hulhs are the centers perceiving 
the sensations, arid are formed by an expansion oi 
the Ist pair of nerves. 
THE EAR. 
1. The organ of hearing. 
2. Consists of— 
1. External eqr, including the -pinna and exter- 
nal meatus. 
2. Middle ear, including the tympanum and its 
appendages. 
3. Internal ear, including the vestibule, semi-cir- 
cular canals and cochlea. 
PINNA. 
1. A fibro cartilaginous plate covered by integu- 
ment. 
2. Collects the sound waves, transmitting them 
to the membrana tympani. 
3. Helix, forms the semi circular outline or border. 86 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
4. Anti-helix, below the helix inclosing a fossa 
(depression). 
5. Tragus, an eminence anterior and inferior to 
the external meatus. 
6. Lobule, pendulous body underneath the anti- 
tragus. 
7. Concha, the deep, conoidal cavity leading to the 
meatus. 
8. Fossa of the helix, a groove between the helix 
and anti-helix. 
1. A curved canal leading from the concha to the 
membrana tympani. 
2. Outer half cartilaginous, inner half osseous. 
3. Length about If- inches. 
4. Lined by skin underneath which are glands 
called glandules ceruininose, secreting the cerumen, or 
“ ear-wax.-’ 
EXTERNAL MEATUS. 
1. Separates the external and middle ears. 
2. Circular, at an angle of 45° and consists of 3 
layers,—(l) external, (cuticular), (2) internal, (mu- 
cous), (3) middle, (fibrous). 
3. At inner aspect, attached to the handle of the 
malleus. 
4. It receives and transmits the sound-waves to 
the chain of bones. 
5. When relaxed it vibrates farther appreciating a 
lovi tone. 
6. When tense it vibrates less forcibly appreciating 
a high tone. 
MEMBRANA TYMPANI. 
1. Consists of the cavity of the tympanum, and 
small bones and their muscles. 
2. It is an irregular space closed externally by the 
membrana* internally by a second mem- 
brana tymp parating it from tlie labyrinth. 
MIDDLE EAR. The Ear. 
87 
3. Length | inch, 
4. Lined with mucous membrane, 
5. Communicates with the mastoid cells, and by 
the Eustachian tube with the pharynx. 
6. Contains 3 connected bones extending across its 
cavity, viz: 
1. The Malleus (Hammer), having a head, (ar- 
ticulating with Incus) neck and handle (articulat- 
ing with the membrana tympani). 
2. The Incus (anvil), with a cup-like cavity for 
the head of the malleus, a short process lying in 
the mastoid cells, and a long process having at- 
tached to its extremity a small process of bone, the 
os orhiculare by some considered to be a distinct 
bone. 
3. The Stapes (stirrup), attached by its head to 
the orbicular process externally and to the edges 
of the foramen ovale internally. 
7. The chain of bones is surrounded by air, and 
transmit the waves of sound across the tympanum to 
the internal ear (labyrinth). 
EUSTACHIAN TUBE. 
1. Partly bony, partly cartilaginous. 
2. About 1A inches long, lined with mucous mem- 
brane having ciliated epithelium. 
3. Extends from middle ear to pharynx permitting 
the passage of air to the middle ear, equalizing the 
pressure. 
INTERNAL EAR. 
1. In the petrous portion of the temporal bone. 
2. Consists of an osseous and a membranous por- 
tion. 
I. OSSEOUS LABYRINTH. 
Divided into 3 parts,—(l) the vestibule, (2) 
the semi-circular canals, (3) the cochlea. 
1. Behind the cochlea, and in front of the semi- 
circular canals. 
THE VESTIBULE. 88 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
2. Oval cavity, i of an inch in diameter, contain- 
ing watery fluid. 
3. Communicates with middle ear by foramen 
ovale. 
4. Has several openings, among which may be men- 
tioned (1) fenestra ovalis, on outer wall, (2) aqueduc- 
tus vestibuli, on inner wall, (3) the jive openings of 
the semi-circular canals, on posterior walls. 
11. THE SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS. 
1. Three in number, viz : the superior vertical, the 
inferior vertical, and the horizontal, each opening 
into the vestibule by two openings, except the two 
vertical, which open at one extremity by a common 
opening. 
2. Each semi-circular canal is of an inch in di- 
ameter, presenting a dilation at one end called the 
ampulla about j of an inch in diameter. 
111. COCHLEA. 
1. A tapering canal, inches long. 
2. Turns 24 times round a central pillar, the mod- 
iolus. 
3. Divided into two passages, the scala tyrnpani 
and scala vestibule by a thin plate of bone projecting 
f across the canal. 
4. The Perilymph tills the interior of the osseous 
labyrinth, cochlea, semi-circular canals and vestibule. 
I, MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTHS. 
1. Smaller, and corresponds in shape to the osseous 
labyrinth. 
2. The utricle and saccule (little sacs), situated in 
the vestibular part, (1) the utricle communicating 
with the semi-circular canals about the same way 
that the semi-circular canals and vestibule do in the 
osseous labyrinth, and (2) the saccule with the mem- 
branous cochlea, which tapers to a point and situated 
next to the outer wall of the osseous cochlea. ■ Thz Ear'. 
89 
3. Otoliths, or Ear-Stones,—a powder, made up 
of crystals of carbonate of lime, to °f au 
inch in diameter, being held together by a mucoid 
substance, and found in the utricle and saccule, in 
the membranous labyrinth. 
4. The Endolymph fills the interior of the mem- 
branous labyrinth, cochlea, canals, utricle and sac- 
cule. 
rods of corti, (Organ of Corti). 
1. It is situated in the membranous cochlea. 
2. Of cartilaginous consistence. 
3. An inner and an outer set arranged obliquely, 
their ends supporting each other. 
4. The inner hair-cells are internal to the inner 
rods, the outer hair-cells on the outer side of the ex- 
ternal row. 
5. The estimated number of rods in the internal 
row is 3500; in the external row, 5200. 
1. The cochlea is thought to possess the power of 
appreciating pitch and shades of musical tones. 
2. The semi circular canals seem to aid in main- 
taining the equilibrium of the body, as well as to 
assist in hearing, since their loss is attended with a 
loss of power to maintain the equilibrium. 
FUNCTIONS. 
o. WHAT IS IT TO HEAR? 
The pinna and external meatus gather the waves 
of sound, conveying them to the tympani, which, 
aided by its muscles, (tensor and laxator), receives 
the waves of either low or high pitch, sends them by 
its vibrations across the middle ear through the chain 
of bones to the foramen ovale, and by the air of the 
tympanum to the second membrana tympani, which 
closes the foramen rotunda where the labyrinth re- 
ceives the vibrations, which are then transmitted 
through the perilymph, membranous labyrinth and 
endolymph ; it is thence taken up by filaments of the 
auditory nerve, and conveyed to the brain, where it is 
recognized as a sensation of sound. 90 
Tabulated' Manual of Physiology. 
1. Its main divisons are,—(l) Epidermis or Cuti- 
cle, with its sub-divisions the superficial epithelial 
layers, and the retemucosum or pigmentary layers, 
(2) Derma, or Cutis Vera (true skin) with its sub-di- 
visions, the papillary layer below and separated from, 
the rete mucosum by the basement membrane, and 
the corium, the deepest part. 
2. In the sub-cutaneous cellular tissue are found, 
—(1) sebaceous glands, (2) sweat glands, (3) fat cells, 
(4) hair roots. 
3. The derma and epidermis are both perforated 
by hair-follicles, ducts of sweat glands, and some- 
times ducts of sebaceous glands. 
4. Number of sweat glands,—from 417 to 2800 per 
square inch giving a sum total for the whole body of 
about two and a half millions, being equal to about 
8 square inches of evaporating surface. 
5. The skin is from of an inch to rh of an inch 
in thickness. 
6. It is lubricated by sebum from the sebaceous 
glands. 
7. Carbonic Acid is exhaled from the skin in 
amount equal to about the of that from the lungs. 
See Fluids. 
8. Perspiration,—(l) Sensible, when evaporation 
is not rapid enough to carry it away as in vigorous 
exercise, &c. (2) Insensible,—where it takes place 
gradually, passing off by evaporation as fast as formed. 
9. Total amount of perspiration excreted daily, 
about 2 lbs. 
10, Functions of the skin,—(1) A protective cover- 
ing, (2) An eliminating organ, (3) An organ of sen- 
sibility. 
SKIN. 
HAIR. 
1. A modified form of epidermis. 
2. Color, from the deposition of pigment matter. JVai/s and Pleurae. 
91 
3. Softened by the sebum. 
4. Each hair consists of (1) The Root lodged in an 
involution of the epidermis called the Hair follicle, 
in the bottom of which is a papillary projection which 
gives it material for its growth. (2) The Shaft, the 
projecting portion with medulla in the center, next 
to this a fibrous part, and externally a layer of imbri- 
cated cells; or thus: It consists of a fibrous tissue 
with thin flat scales externally and pigmentary cells 
internally. (3) Point, consists of the flat scales ex- 
ternally and the fibrous part without medulla in the 
center. 
5. Functions: (1) Prevents foreign bodies from en- 
tering the ears, nose, lungs, etc., (2) Retains the heat 
of the body, (3) Protects from cold and sun. 
NAILS. 
1. They are flat, horny structures, 
2. Formed from the pavement epithelium, 
3. Each nail is fastened into a fold of the integu- 
ment, 
4. The matrix lies immediately below the nail, 
5. The lunula is that white crescent-shaped part 
next to its root caused by a diminution in the num- 
ber of underlying papillae. 
PLEURAE. 
1. A delicate serous membrane enclosing each 
lung as far as its root (visceral layer) and then reflec- 
ted upon the inner surface of the thorax {parietal 
layer). 
2. The Plural cavity is the interspace between the 
two layers. 
3. Each pleura is a shut sac, occupying one-half of 
the thorax, and are perfectly separate. 
4. Each pleura envelopes a lung, meeting only in 
one point in front. 92 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
5. The interspace between them containing the re- 
maining viscera of the thorax is the mediastinum. 
6. Each pleural cavity contains a serous fluid 
moistening and preventing friction. 
ABRIDGMENT OF THE SKULL BONES. 
The following is merely a reminder to the student 
of Anatomy in his examination of the skull bones : 
1. OCCIPITAL. 
1. Posterior and inferior surface of cranium. 
2. Posterior surface convex with protuberance 
at center. 
3. The crest, trom protuberance to foramen mag- 
num to which is attached the ligamentum nuchea. 
4. The foramen magnum transmits (1) medulla 
oblongata and its membranes, (2) the vertebral 
arteries, (3) the spinal accessory nerves. 
5. locate: Condyles, basilar and jugular pro- 
cesses, pharyngeal spine, anterior and posterior 
condyloid foramina, fossae cerebri et cerebelli, tor- 
cula protuberance; grooves for occipital, lateral,in- 
ferior petrosal, superior longitudinal sinus and me- 
dulla, jugular fossae. 
2. PARIETAL. 
1. Upper and sides of cranium. 
2. On inner surface are (1) convolutions of brain,. 
(2) Pacchionian bodies, (3) meningeal arteries (4) 
superior longitudinal sinus. 
3. Locate: Eminence, foramen, temporal ridge, 
middle meningeal groove, Pacchionian depressions,, 
lateral and longitudinal sinus. 
3. FRONTAL. 
1. Upper and anterior part of skull. 
2. Frontal sinuses separate its two tables on 
either side of the nasal process. Abridgment of the Skull Bones. 
93 
3. Locate: Superciliary ridge, eminence, external 
and internal angular processes, temporal ridges and 
fossa, supra orbital notches and arches, nasal spine 
and eminence, orbital plates, lachrymal fossa, eth- 
moid notch, meningeal grooves, pulley depression, 
anterior ethmoid foramina, frontal and superior 
longitudinal sinus and Pacchionian depressions. 
4. TEMPORAL. 
1. Lateral, middle and interior part of skull. 
2. Divided into (1) squamous, (2) mastoid, (3) 
petrous. 
3. Locate: Zygoma, articular eminence, auditory, 
mastoid, styloid, and vaginal processes, glenoid 
fossa, Glasserian fissure, mastoid foramen, superior 
and inferior petrosal and lateral sinus, aqueductus 
vestibuli, meatus auditorius interims, hiatus Eal- 
lopii, carotid canal, depression Gasserian ganglion, 
opening for smaller petrosal nerve, and Jacobson’s 
and Arnold’s, aqueductus cochlea, auricular fissure, 
stylo-mastoid foramen, jugular fossa, canal for Eus- 
tachian tube, and tensor tympani. 
5. SPHENOID. 
1. In the base of the skull. 
2. Body in center, wings extend out on each side, 
and the pterygoid processes project from it below. 
3. Body hollowed out in interior, presenting a 
mere shell. 
4. Articulates with all bones of the cranium and 
five of the face. 
5. Locate : Sella turcica; anterior, middle and 
posterior clinoid processes, olivary process, optic 
groove, ethmoid spine, cavernous groove; spinous, 
hamular, vaginal, external and internal pterygoid 
processes; the opticum, rotundum, lacerum anter- 
ius,Versalii, spinosum and ovale foramina ; rostrum, 
pterygoid ridge and notch, scaphoid, pterygoid, 
temporal and zygomatic fossae, pterygopalatine and 
Yidian canals. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
6. ETHMOID. 
1. Cubical form, between the orbits, at the root 
of the nose, light and spongy. 
2. Helps form cavities of orbits and nose. 
3. Ethmoid cells, 10 or 12 in number. 
4. Locate: Crista galli, infundibulum, os planum, 
unciform processes, superior meatus, anterior and 
posterior cells and olfactory foramina. 
HYGIENE. 
Surely, if it be an important matter to know how 
to relieve pain, to cure diseases, and to restore health 
when lost, it is vastly more important to be able to 
avoid pain and disease and preserve that bodily health 
without which all other sublunary favors are bestow- 
ed in vain. Many a heedless youth and blooming- 
fair one, for the merest momentary gratifications, are 
urging their way with rapid strides to premature old 
age, or an untimely grave. 
1. Deeply possess your mind with the vast impor- 
tance of a good judgment and the inestimable advan- 
tage of right reasoning. 
2. Consider the weaknesses, frailties and mistakes of 
human nature in general which arise from the very 
constitution of a soul united to an animal body, and 
by this subjected to many inconveniences. 
3. -Watch against the pride of your own reason. 
Those who trust to their own understanding entirely 
are pronounced fools in the word of God. Remem- 
ber the highest degree of human wisdom consists in 
regulating our appetites and passions, so as to avoid 
all extremes. It is that which chiefly entitles us to 
the character of rational beings. The slaves of ap- 
petite will ever be the disgrace of human nature. It is 
in vain to attempt giving precise rules for the quanti- Hygiene. 
95 
ty or quality of food to be eaten by others-. Every 
one knows when he has eaten enough and may avoid 
excess if he will. Simplicity of diet is the perfection 
of the art; arid no animal but man misapprehends its 
rules. He alone feasts on the luxuries of a foreign 
soil, and finds in the dainties of earth the elements 
of his own destruction. 
4. Clothing is too often perverted from its proper 
use, and made an object of pride and show; the fash- 
ions are continually changing without much regard 
to either health, comfort, or convenience. It would 
be a thankless task to point out the hurtful effects of 
the present fashionable mode of dress.- 
5. “ Cleanliness is next to godliness.” Few virtues 
are more important to society than general cleanli- 
ness. The continual discharge from our bodies by 
perspiration renders a frequent change of apparel 
necessary. When this matter which should be car- 
ried off by perspiration is retained in the body or re- 
absorbed by the skin from dirly clothing it must oc- 
casion disease. The clothes of the sick and the sheets 
upon which they lie should be changed as often as 
convenient without too much exposure and fatigue, 
being careful that they are entirely free from damp- 
ness. 
6. Cold water preserves the freshness of the skin, 
preventing wrinkles, etc. A person who bathes in cold 
water freely is much less liable to take cold, lung 
troubles, sore-throat or dyspepsia ; and lassitude, de- 
spondency, and indolence will find no lodging place. 
7. Sleep is as necessary as any of the means to pre- 
serve health. We who will subvert the established 
order of high heaven by changing night into day and 
vice versa, will suffer the penalty of the violation. 
We shall close our introduction to health with a 
few words to the 
studious. 
This being the most intelligent class of mankind, 
we might reasonably expect that they, of all others, 
would be best qualified to understand and obey the 96 
Tabulated \Manual of Physiology. 
Jaws of our physical organization, and that they would 
be the first to adopt a rigid mode of discipline for the 
preservation of body aswTell as the cultivation of the 
mind. 
Our constitutions are no more adapted to continual 
study than they are to continual physical labor and 
that student*whq thinks the necessary time spent in 
exercise and amusement is lost from study has not 
learned the first principles of acquiring knowledge. 
One hour’s efficient study, when the mind is clear 
and untrammeled, and the body invigorated is worth 
three or more spent in dull musing when the mind is 
clouded and the wheels of life “ wading in backed 
water.” Let the student engage immediately after a 
full meal in hard study; the energies of the system 
being diverted from the stomach and concentrated 
upon the brain the food is imperfectly digested, and 
if the imposition is kept up? “ heart-burn,” head-ache, 
languor, shattered nerves, etc., will be the legitimate 
consequences. 
“Never engage in study for at least thirty minutes 
after a full meal.” Pointing you to the fact that 
ignorance and intemperance is the root of all pain, 
and on the other hand, that light, truth and knowl- 
edge is the germ of life and happiness, we implore 
you to know and to improve upon those God-given 
powers placed within you, we point you to other 
pages in this little manual. 
THE BRAIN. 
1. Avoid blows or undue pressure lest the hemis- 
pheres become disorganized causing a disturbance or 
entire suspension of mental activity. 
2. Take time to sleep. During the waking state 
the brain undergoes a certain amount of waste as a 
result of the exercise of its important functions, the 
activity becomes enfeebled at which time there is an 
accumulation of waste and consequently a diminish- 
ed molecular activity which is unsufficient to dominate The Eye. 
97 
the medulla oblongata and spinal cord which act the 
more vigorously and through the action of the vaso- 
motor nerves lessen the caliber of the cerebral blood- 
vessels thus diminishing the quantity of blood to the» 
brain and producing that periodical condition of the 
nervous system we call sleep, the activities of thet 
higher nerve centers ceasing either partially or whol- 
ly. During sleep nutrition and force is restored and 
waste products removed. The loss of sleep is one of 
the great causes of insanity. 
3. Avoid, vigorously, the use of alcohols. (See 
Alcohol.) 
4. Avoid cerebral overwork. 
5. Excessive eating and drinking may produce con- 
gestion. 
6. Exposure to dampness and cold may cause in- 
flammation of the spinal membranes extending to the 
cerebral pia mater and arachnoid. 
7. HAVE A SYSTEMATIC HABIT OF THINKING. 
THE EYE. 
1. Give the eye exercise, then rest it as you would 
any other organ. 
2. Those who read much should often look at dis- 
tant objects. 
3. Avoid facing the light of a lamp or window 
while reading; when possible, let the light fall over 
your shoulder. 
4. Avoid reading by twilight. 
5. Avoid reading immediately on rising in the 
morning before the eye-s are accustomed to the light. 
6. Avoid impure air, dust, smoke, etc. whenever 
possible. I 
7. Close application has a tendency to shorten the 
sight and weaken the eyes. 
8. Remove dust or cinders by turning the lid back; 
over a lead pencil and using silk or soft linen. 
9. Avoid all oblique positions of the eye. 4 98 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
10. Myopia (short-sightedness) corrected by con- 
cave glasses. 
Hyper metropia (long-sightedness) corrected by 
convex glasses. 
12. Presbyopia (loss of power of accommodation) 
remedied by convex glasses. 
13. Always remember the body sympathy existing, 
and be attentive to care for the entire physical being. 
14. Amaurosis (paralysis of the retina) results from 
using the eye too long in very intense light. 
THE EAR. 
1. Should there be an over-accumulation or harden- 
ing of the cerumen, use a few drops of sweet oil, or 
inject tepid soft water with a syringe. 
2. The Eustachian tube may become obstructed in 
consequence of colds, etc. which should be avoided 
by proper clothing, ventilation, &c. 
3. Persons who are recovering from severe throat 
affections or scarlet fever should be extremely careful 
lest a permanent discharge from the ear take place. 
4. In dullness of hearing as long as you can hear 
the ticking of a watch placed against the side of the 
head there is yet hope. 
THE BONES. 
1. Avoid allowing children to sit alone too early 
when the bones are softer the result may be a crook- 
ed spine. 
2. Avoid allowing children to walk too early or the 
result may be knock-kneed or bandy-legged. 
3. Regular exercise should be taken. 
4. Avoid compressing the chest. 
5. Maintain as far as possible an upright position 
in standing, walking or sitting. 
6. Give special attention to diseases of the bones, 
particulary fractures and sprained ligaments. Rest 
is absolutely essential. Felons, as they originate be- 
neath the periosteum, may be cured by making an 
incision through the periosteum. Teeth and Nerves. 
99 
7. The aged bone is brittle and breaks easily and 
is two or three times longer in “knitting” than the 
young bone. 
8. Good, wholesome nutritious food. 
1. Remove all teeth past tilling and avoid neuralgic 
pains and maxillary abscess. 
2. Avoid picking the teeth with hard substances. , 
3. The breaking of the enamel results in rapid ,de- 
cay unless the teeth be tilled by a competent dentist. 
4. Remove the loose teeth of children at once that 
they may not interfere with the torm and position of 
the new permanent teeth. 
5. Cleanse the teeth with brush and soft water. 
6. Occasionally'draw a thread between them. 
7. Avoid the fruits that “ set the teeth on edge.” 
8. Avoid acids, or if taken at once rinse out the 
mouth with some weak alkaline solution. 
9. The Fersalts of iron injure the teeth, and should 
be administered through a glass tube. 
10. Vigorously reject most “ patent ” articles for the 
teeth. 
THE TEETH. 
1. The prime necessity for the highest welfare of 
the nerves is to preserve the general health of the 
body. 
2. Don’t do heavy brain-work awhile and then be 
idle, 
3. Have a systematic habit of thinking. 
4. Employment is indispensable. 
5. A variety of subjects upon which to think is 
healthful. 
6. Avoid excessive use of alcohol, opium and to- 
bacco. 
7. Avoid losing sleep for vain amusements. 
8. Keep cheerful: despondency is health-destroy- 
ing. 
THE NERVES. 100 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
9. Avoid overworking the nervous tissue of child- 
ren; try to judge of the quality of different brains. 
10. Best the brain and nerves by changing from 
one study to that of another for awhile. 
11. Anxiety, mental emotion, or exposure to damp 
and cold may bring on neuralgia or sciatica. 
12. Pure food, pure air, and good habits are abso- 
lutely essential to the preservation of a healthful 
state of the nerves. 
ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 
1. Those having weak lungs should avoid exposure 
to certain kinds of dust arising from metals, stones, 
confined air, etc. 
2. Avoid all things that suddenly check the pers- 
piration, such as exposure to cold when heated, or 
changing from heavy to light clothing. 
3. Avoid compression of the chest, lest it reduce the 
capacity of the lungs. 
4. The air should be pure; therefore look to the 
location of dwelling houses, away from cesspools, 
slaughter houses, swamps, etc., and to keeping the 
cellars in proper condition. 
5. Allow fresh air to enter the rooms, avoiding a 
draft across the sleeper. 
6. Never allow many persons in the sick room for 
any length of time without thorough ventilation. 
7. Avoid sitting in crowded halls or churches real- 
izing that you are becoming stupefied by foul air. 
Suggest some method of ventilation and quietly leave 
unless ventilation is secured. 
8. Indolence, or the want of due exercise in the open 
air, next to taking cold, is the most common cause of 
lung trouble. 
MUSCLES. 
1. Use them frequently and regularly. 
2. Rest them gradually. 
3. Don’t bend over too long at a time. Throwback 
the shoulders, expand the chest. Heart, Arteries—Food. 
101 
4. Avoid leaning on the hip-joints; stand erect. 
5. Give all the muscles their share of exercise ac- 
cording to the age and health. 
6. Avoid exercising vigorously just before and af- 
ter meals. 
7. The morning hoi n are better for exercise than 
the evening. The same is true of the intellectual 
powers. 
8. Train and educate your muscles and in this way 
attain skillfulness in all your work. 
1. Frequent bathing in the morning hours. 
2. Zealously avoid compression on any parts. 
3. Avoid wearing anything tight around the neck, 
lest the brain be deprived of its arterial blood and a 
return of the venous blood. 
4. Exercise and temperance. 
5. Preserve as far as possible an equal temperature. 
6. If an artery be wounded compress it on that 
side of the wound towards the heart. 
7. If a vein is wounded, compress it on that side 
towards the capilliaries. 
8. Avoid alcohol since it is a powerful motor-de- 
pressant. 
9. Pure air, pure food, pure drink, sound sleep and 
cold bathing. 
THE HEART, ARTERIES, CAPILLARIES AND VEINS. 
1. The supply must equal the waste of the system. 
2. The less exercise the less food; the more exer- 
cise the more food. 
3. Study to know whether the food is suited to the 
present state of the organs of digestion. 
4. It must be properly cooked, suited to the season 
and climate, and of agreeable temperature. 
5. It should be ground by the teeth, not sent down 
to impose upon the functions of the stomach. 
FOOD. 102 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
6. Eat leisurely, and at regular hours. 
7. Cheerfulness and pure air aid wonderfully in di- 
gestion. 
8. Proper exercise of brain and muscle. 
9. It is not best to drink while eating (see Saliva). 
10. Avoid eating heartily just before going to bed 
lest44 colicky pains ”be the result. 
11, Avoid excess. 
DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS' TIME DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS 
TIME 
hr 
m 
hrjm 
Beefsteak, broiled. . . 
3 
00 
Oysters, stewed 
330 
Beans, “ .... 
2 
30 
Potatoes, roasted.... 
230 
Beets, “ .... 
3 
45 
“ boiled .... 
3 
00 
Chicken, boiled 
4 
00 
Parsnips “ 
2 
30 
Ducks, roasted 
4 
00 
Pork, roasted 
5 
15 
Cabbage, boiled... 
4 
30 
Sausage, broiled 
3 
20 
Eggs, boiled hard... 
3 
30 
Soup, chicken, boiled 
3 
00 
“ soft,. . . 
3 
00 
“ mutton “ 
3 
30 
“ whipped 
1 
30 
“ bean “ 
3 
00 
Green corn, boiled. . 
3 
45 
u barley “ 
1 
30 
Liver, (beef) broiled. 
2 
00 
Turnips, boiled 
3 
30 
Lamb, broiled 
2 
30 
Turkey, roasted 
225 
Oysters, raw. ....... 
2 
55 
Veal, broiled 
i 
400 
Water 
Albura’n 
Starch 
Sugar 
Fats 
Salts 
% 
■°ib 
°Jc 
% 
% 
% 
Bread .. . 
37.0 
8.1 
47 4 
3.6 
1.6 
2.3 
Milk .... 
86.0 
4.1 
5'. 2' 
3.9 
.8 
Eggs .... 
74.0 
14.0 
■■■■); y 
10,5 
1.5 
Potatoes. 
75.0 
2 1 
18.8 
3.2 
.2 
,7 
Meat.. .. 
54.0 
27.6 
15.45 
2 95 
Corn .... 
14.0 
11.1 
64.7 
.4 
8 1 
1.7 
Oatmeal. 
15.0 
12,6 
58.4' 
5.4 
5.6 
3.0 
Turnips.. 
91.0 
1.2 
5.1 
2.1 
6.0 
Rice 
13 0 
6.3 
■i 79 1 . 
. .4 
• .7 
,5 
Carrots. . 
83,0 
1.3 
8.4 
6.1 
.2 
1 0 
COMPOSITION. Sense of Smell, Skin and Absorption. 
2. Foods are (1) Nitrogenous, (2) Non-Nitrogenous. 
1. Nitrogenous (albumin and albuminose), make 
blood and give nutrition. 
2. Non-Nitrogenous (fats, sugars, and starch) 
keep up heat by (1) yielding hydrogen (in brain, 
muscles, blood and chyle) and (2) carbon to be ex- 
hibited by the lungs and skin. 
THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
1. Avoid snuff. 
2. Avoid the practice of smelling pungent medi- 
cines. 
3. Inflammation of the mucous membrane may 
take place more or less impairing, if not entirely 
abolishing the sense of smell from the following caus- 
es : (1) Exposure of feet and ankles to cold and damp- 
ness. (2) Exposure of the neck to a draft of cold air. 
(3) Atmospherical changes. (4) Inhalation of irrita- 
ting vapors or dust. 
THE SKIN. 
1. Cold sponging of the body. 
2. Clothing—clean and dry and adapted to the age, 
occupation and health. 
3. Clothing—should be porous and loosely fitting. 
4. For the unpleasant odor sometimes produced by 
exhalations from the skin, wash in a basin of water 
containing 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls of spirits of ammo- 
nia.1 
5. For Corns, etc.—soak them in shine1 alkaline so- 
lution, remove them Avhen softened, and then avoid 
the cause. 
6. Warts may be burnt off with acid, or sometimes 
blue vitriol (I oz.) in pint of rain water frequently 
rubbed on will answer the purpose. 
ABSORPTION. 
1. Moisture increases the activity of the absorbents. 104 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
2. Alcohol and tobacco increase the liability to 
disease by stimulating the absorbent vessels. 
3. Nutritious food deceases the activity o 1 the ab- 
sorbents. 
4. Bed-rooms must be properly ventilated. 
5. Dry apartments and healthy food are absolutely 
necessary in case of infectious disease. 
6. Sick rooms should receive special attention since 
exhalations are greater at night and in sickness. 
POISONS AND ANTIDOTES. 
The figures number the course of treatment. 
Arsenic,—(1) Vomit, (2) milk and raw eggs, (3) 
.oil and lime water. 
- Strychnine,—(l) Emetic, (2) Flax seed tea, (3) 
Laudanum to relieve spasms. 
Mercury,—(l) Albumen instantly, (2) Milk and 
wheat flour, (3) Flax seed tea. 
Alkalies,—(1) Vinegar, (2) Lemon Juice, (3) 
Castor Oil. 
Alcohol,—(1) Emetic by warm water and salt (re- 
peat), (2) Strong coffee, (3) Galvanism. 
Chloroform,—(1) Lower head, (2) Elevate legs, (3) 
Inhalation of ammonia, (4) Electricity. 
Tin,—(1) Flour and water (2) Then Emetic, (3) 
Albumen. 
Copper,—(l) Plenty milk and white of eggs, (2) 
warm water, (3) Then strong tea. 
Opium,—(l) Emetic quickly, (2) Do anything to 
keep him awake, (3) Mustard plaster to calf of each 
leg. . . < 
Prussic Acid,—(1) Hyperdermic of atropia, (2) 
Ammonia, (3) cold to head, chest and spine, (4) 
Mustard to stomach. 
Other Acids,—(l) 1 oz. magnesia in wine glass of 
water, (2) soft soap, (3) Plenty of warm water. A Icohol. 
105 
Lead,—(1) 2 oz. Epsom salts in pint of water, wine- 
glass full every 10 minutes till bowels move freely. 
Bee stings,—(l) Salt and water on part, (2) Oil 
and Ammonia rubbed on. 
Bites of Serpents,—(1) Suck the wound, (2) Drink 
whisky freely. 
ALCOHOL. 
1. A liquid composed of 91% by weight (94% by 
volume) of ethyl alcohol (C 2 H5 HO; 46), and 9% 
by weight (6% by volume) of water. 
2. Specific gravity .820 at 60° Fahrenheit. 
3. Boils at 78° centigrade. 
Remark: To change from degres Fahrenheit to 
centigrade,—Subtract 32 and divide by 1. B—or8—or From 
degrees centigrade to Fahrenheit,—Multiply by 1. 8 
and add 32. 
4. It is transparent, colorless and volatile. 
5. It has a pungent agreeable odor and a burning 
taste. 
6. It is usually obtained from whisky by distilla 
tion, being a derivative of sugar. 
7. The term alcohol should include all carbon com- 
pounds called alcohol or malt and spirituous liquors 
when studying its effects upon the human system. 
8. Whiskey is an alcoholic liquid obtained by the 
d istillatidh of fermented grain. 
9. Fermentation, is decomposition taking place in 
organic bodies when exposed to the action of mois- 
ture, air and a warm atmosphere. 
10. The present theory of frelnentaiion is that it is 
caused by the presence of certain micro organisms 
known as bacteria. 
11. Whiskey is prepared from.grain by 
1. Mashing, by which the starch is changed into 
sugar. 106 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
2. Fermentation, by which the sugar is convert- 
ed into alcohol. 
3. Distillation, by which the alcohol is separa- 
ted as crude spirits. 
12. Cane sugar is decomposed into alcohol on expo- 
sure to the action of aii\ water and a warm tempera- 
ture., and is thought to be caused by a microscopic 
plant bearing the name of Torula cerevisial. 
13. If alcohol and water be mixed a contraction of 
volume takes place; 45 gallons of water added to 55 
gallons of alcohol will make only 964 gallons; i. e. a 
loss in volume of 3f gallons. 
14, Alcohol or acetic acid may be produced by the 
action of dilute acids and ferments on cellulin or 
starch. 
ALCOHOLIC 
THE SOURCE FROM WHICH THEY ARE 
% 
LIQUIDS. 
DERIVED. 
ALC 
Whiskey.. . . 
Hum 
Rye, corn, barley, potatoes or cider. 
Fermented molasses 
50 
53 
Brandy..... 
Red Wine. . . 
Grapes (wine) 
50 
Grapes with skins 
12 
White W ine. 
Port Wine. . 
Grapes without seeds, stems or skins 
Generally made artificially 
12 
40 
Claret 
Alc’l, tannic acid, &c., with coloring 
From any malted grain, flavored 
with hops (yeast falling) 
By rapid fermentation, ( yeast 
floating) 
6 
Beer 
3 
Ale 
6 
Porter 
About the same, with much color- 
ing matter ..! .5".;;...,. 
6 
Champagne. 
Catawba, &c., (sweet, bottled before 
fermentation ceases). . . .... . . 
12 
Common Gin 
Holland Gin. 
Barley, rye or potatoes, and rectified 
from turpentine. . . . . AA ....... 
Matled barley, rye meal with hops, 
and rectified from juniper berries 
50 
51 Effects of Alcohol. 
107 
1. A diffusible stimulant (very small doses). 
2. A motor-depressant;, i. e., lowering the func- 
tional activity of the spinal cord and motor appara- 
tus, and will paralyze them immediately if taken in 
large doses. 
3. A cerebral-excitant, i. e., increasing the activity 
of the cerebrum without depressing or entirely sus- 
pending brain-function (very small doses). 
4. A deliriant, exciting the activity of the higher 
brain until the mental faculties are disordered, giv- 
ing rise to intellectual confusion, loss of will-power, 
convulsions and delirium. 
5. A cerebral depressant, i. <?'., suspending the 
functions of the higher brain after a short period of 
excitement by acting on the cells, first stimulating 
their functions, then producing stupor, or coma and 
insensibility. 
6. A narcotic, i. e., lessening the relationship of a 
person to the external world, first exciting, then 
causing profound sleep by increasing stupor. 
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. 
7. effect ox the cerebellum (Equilebrium). 
1. Specifically affected by alcohol. 
2. Large doses cause a staggering gait and a ten- 
dency to fall. 
3. Different preparations of alcohol affect differ- 
ent parts of the cerebellum. 
4. Intoxication by beer or wine, is said to give a 
tendency to fall sidew'ays. 
5. Intoxication by whiskey, an inclination to 
fall on the fp.ce. 
6. Intoxication by cider, a tendency to fall back- 
wards. * 
N. B.—These disturbances correspond exactly with 
disturbances from injury to different lobes of the 
cerebellum, ascertained by pains-taking investiga- 
tion. 108 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
8. The delirium and hallucinations produced by 
alcohol, are caused in all probability by the action 
exerted on the angular gyrus and occipital lobes of 
the cerebrum. The objects arising being invariably 
snakes, frogs, dogs, etc. 
9. A respiratory depressant, i. c., renders breath- 
ing slow and shallow by action on the respiratory 
nerve centers. 
10. A vascular stimulant; i. c., increases the per- 
ipheral circulation. 
11. A gastric tonic (in small doses) stimulating the 
local circulation. 
12. Alcohol lessens the production of bile by lower- 
ing the functional activity of the liver. 
13. A diaphoretic,—i. e., increasing the action of 
the skin, promoting the secretion of sweat. 
ABRIDGMENT OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF ALCOHOL. 
1. A cerebral excitant, 
2. A cerebral-depressant, 
3. A narcotic poison, 
4. An anesthetic, 
0. A mild counter-irritant, 
6. A motor depressant, 
7. A respiratory-depressant, 
8. Coagulates albumen by abstracting its water. 
9. Partly oxidized by the organism, and partly se- 
creted. 
Taken in small amounts frequent and continued 
the following results : 
1. It congests the stomach and liver. 
2. Over stimulates the gastric glands and hepatic 
cells, causing gastric catarrh, then morning vomiting 
of mucus, greatly impairing digestion. 
3. Depresses the heart and arterial tension. 
4. Produces fatty degeneration of the Mood, walls 
of the arteries and veins. 
By a long continued use, the following results may 
take place: Effects of Alcohol. 
1. Epilepsy,—a loss of consciousness with more or 
less general convulsions. 
2. Paraplegia,—palsy of the upper or lower half 
of the body. 
3. Amaurosis,—a diminution or total loss of sight. 
4. Insanity,—madness, and may be either : 
1. Moral, a perversion of natural feelings and 
affections, 
2. Monomania, understanding partially dis- 
ordered under the influence of some particular 
topic or illusion. 
3. Mania,—the mind in a state of morbid excite- 
ment the individual talking absurdly on every sub- 
ject to which his thoughts are momentarily directed. 
4. Incoherence.—a confounded or destroyed con- 
nection or associations of ideas. 
IN LARGE AMOUNTS, as follows '. 
1. Destroys the activity of pepsin, arresting 
digestion. 
2. Promotes exhilaration, 
3. Intoxication, 
4. Hallucinations, 
5. Delirium, 
6. Inco-ordination of movement, 
1. Depresses the heart. 
In very large amounts. (Toxic doses) it produces : 
1. A brief excitement, 
2. Insensibility, 
3. Stertorous breathing, 
4. Complete muscular resolution, 
5. Death by paralysis of the heart and respiration. 
N. B. In health, alcohol is always decidedly injuri- 
ous. In the hands of the physician, it is a valuable 
argent for appropriate cases.—lt has a strong affinity 
for the nervous system, and thus influences sensation, 
motion, language, mental and moral manifestations. 
Maintain a constant watch, at all times, against the 
use of alcohol in any form, in health. 110 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
A BRIEF OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON THE 
HUMAN BODY. 
For use in short lectures or conversational exercises. 
Explanation of such terms as cell, epithelium, tis- 
sue, organ, system, apparatus, anatomy, physiology, 
hygiene, some of those entering into the composition, 
as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, etc. 
INTRODUCTION. 
1. Tissues.— 
1. Fibrous, white and yellow, where found. 
2. Areolar, where found, uses. 
3. Adipose, where found, uses. 
4. Muscular, 
5. Cartilage, or gristle, etc. 
MOTOR APPARATUS. 
2, I^ONES.— 
1. Number of bones. 
2. Divisions as to size and form. 
3. Composition of bones, (1) animal, (2) miner- 
al matter. 
4. Color of bones, (1) in the body, (2) out'of, 
and removed from. 
5. Liningof bones,(l) periosteum,(2) endosteum. 
6. Divisions as to location : 
A. Bones of the head : (1) skull bones, (2) face 
bones, {3} ear bones. 
B. Bones of trunk: (1) at root of tongue, (2) 
those of spinal column, (3) sternum, (4) ribs, 
(5) of pelvis. 
C. Bones of upper extremities : (1) clavical, 
(2) scapula, (3) humerus, (4) ulna and radius, 
(5) carpus, (6) metacarpus, (7) phalanges. 
D. Bones of lower extremities: (1) femur, 
(2) patella, (3) tibia, (4) fibula, (5) tarsus, (6) 
meta-tarsus, (7) phalanges. Nutritive Apparatus. 
7. Functions: (1) to serve as attachment for 
muscles, (2) to protect important organs, (3) to 
preserve the shape of the body, (4) to prevent the 
body from sinking by its own weight. 
8. Hygiene of bones: (1) consider exercise, (2) 
position, (3) compression, (4) fracture or diseased 
bones, (5) compare old and young as to strength,, 
(6) food, etc. 
3. Articulations.— 
1. Immovable, as sutures of skull. 
2. Mixed, as between bodies of vertebrae. 
3. Movable, as hip and shoulder-joints, etc. 
4. Muscles.— 
1. Their number, 
2. Origin and insertion or attachment, 
3. Arrangement—in pairs, except 12. 
4. Color—derived from blood-vessels. 
5. Divisions as related to the will: (1) voluntary, 
(2) involuntary. 
6. Divisions as to motion: (4) flexors, (2) ex- 
tensors. 
7. Functions :—(1) to invest and move bones, (2) 
to protect joints, (3) to form walls (parietes), (4) 
to give form, (5) to enclose cavities, (6) to move 
different parts of the body. Their uses are mani- 
fold. 
8. Hygine;—(l) Consider the necessity of pure 
air, (2) frequent, regular, and appropriate exercise, 
(3) Mention healthful exercises, etc. 
NUTRITIVE APPARATUS. 
1. Membranes.— 
1. Serous, form closed sacs. 
2. Mucous, never form closed sacs. 
3. Synovial, line joints. 
2. Digestive organs. 
1. The Mouth and tongue, 112 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
2. The Teeth, 
3. The Salivary glands;—(l) Parotid, (2) sub- 
maxillary, (3) sub-lingual. 
4. The pharynx, 
5. The oesophagus, 
6. The stomach and intestines—secretions and 
uses; describe process of digestion. 
7. The liver, 
8. The pancreas, 
9. The spleen. 
10. Hygiene ;—(1) Consider preservation of teeth, 
{'2) use of tobacco and alcohol, (3) quality of food 
(4) relative value, etc. 
ABSORPTION. 
1. Absorbent vessels. 
1. Certain blood vessels, and lymphatics. 
2. Functions,—(1) To build up the system by the 
.absorption of food, as along alimentary canal, (2) 
to carry away effete matter. 
3. Examples of absorption,—(l) Absorption of 
fat in starvation and aestivation of animals, (2) 
Absorption of poison when the skin is broken, (3) 
sub-cutaneous injections of morphine. 
4. Hygiene :-(l)Call attention to ventilating bed- 
rooms, sick-roms, etc., (2) clothing, (3) moisture, 
(4) nutritious food, etc. 
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
1. Organs of circulation. 
1. The heart,—(1) Its divisions, (2) valves, (3) 
membranes. 
2. The arteries,—(1) Use, (2) origin, (3) termina- 
tion. 
3. The veins,— (l)Use,(2)origin,(3) termination. 
4. The capillaries, connect arteries and veins. 
Explain Composition of blood. Respiratory and Nervous Systems. 
113 
5. Hygine,—(l) Call attention to the effect of 
exercise, (2) of wearing proper apparel, (3) equa- 
ble temperature, etc. 
' RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
1. Organs of respiration. 
1. The larynx, capped by the epiglottis. 
2. The trachea, branching into bronchi, etc. 
3. The lungs, (which see). 
4. Hygiene ;—(1) Call attention to the necessity 
of heathful locations, (2) of vitiated air of school- 
rooms, etc., etc! 1 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
1. Its Divisions. 
1. Cerebro—Spinal System, consisting of (1) 
brain and cranial nerves, (2) spinal cord and spi 
nal nerves. 
2. Sympathetic System, consisting ot nerves and 
ganglia. 
2. Structure. 
1. Gray matter, (1) where found (2) use. 
2. White matter, (1) where found, (2) use. 
Distinguish between the structure of gray and 
white matter, also between the Junctions of motor 
and sensory nerves, velocity, etc. 
3. Functions of the Nervous system. 
4. Hygiene of the Nervous System.—(l) Consider 
the effects of indolence or the want of physical and 
mental exercise, (2) of insufficient sleep, (3) of alco- 
hol, etc., (4) food, (5) air, etc. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
1. The Tongue. 
1. Its muscular character, 
2. Mode of attachment, 
3. Sense of taste,—where located. 
4. Papilla?, 
5. A guide in the selection of food. 
2, The Nose. 
1. Cavities* ' 
2. By what lined. 
3. Supplied with sensitive nerves of smell. 
4. A guide in the selection of food. 
1. Eye-ball; (1) Its diameters, (2)coats, (3) hu- 
mors, (4) muscles, (5) equator, etc. (6) Full struc- 
ture. 
2. Appendages: (1) eyelids, (2) eye brows, (3) 
conjunctiva, (4) lachrymal glands, (5) ducts, etc. 
3. Hygiene of the eye. (which see). 
3. The Eye. 
4, The Ear. 
1. External ear, (1) structure, (2) use. 
2. Middle ear, (1) structure, (2) use. 
3. Internal ear, (1) structure, (2) use. 
4. Hygiene of the ear: (1) avoid inserting hard 
substances into the ear, (2) concussions, etc. 
5. The Skin. 
1. Its layers, (which see) 
2. Glands, (1) sweat, (2) sebaceous. 
3. Appendages of the skin (1) Hair, (2) Nails. 
4. Hygiene of the skin (which see). School Hygiene. 
115 
SCHOOL HYGIENE. 
1. Its IMPORTANCE. 
u There can be no question that our public schools 
propagate contagious diseases to a certain extent 
among the very young, and that their insufficient 
ventilation or bad sanitary condition often deterioa- 
tes the constitution to the point of establishing disea- 
ses which sometimes produce death; sometimes las- 
ting invalidism, making the individuals wretched; 
and sometimes simply enfeebled health, which im- 
parts weakened constitutions to children and child- 
ren.” 
It may be safely said that the edifices for educa- 
tional purposes are exceptional, in which anything 
like the best known methods of thoroughly changing 
the air in the rooms exists. Ninety percent, of the 
churches, also, which are intended for at least occa- 
sion! y large audiences, are constructed with no ade- 
quate means of changing the air. 
Again, children spend at most 1150 hours out of 
the 8766 in the year at school. How many homes 
exhibit any adequate attention to the matters of ven- 
tilation, or exhibit more than one-fifth the capacity 
for changing the air which science dictates? Cold 
drafts; drainage; seasonable clothing; cleanliness in 
clothing, house, yards, streets and alleys; the ref- 
lations of clothing to the free exercise of the body, 
the circulation of the blood, free respiration, etc.; in- 
sufficient attention to matters of unwholesome excite- 
ments, work, rest, light, stimulants, food, narcotics, 
etc. It is not easy to see why all cases of ill-health 
prevailing among the youth of the State should 
be disposed of by classifying and laying them at the 
door of the school room. 
2. The subject concerns not only the physical ro- 
bustness of whole generations, but their intellectual 
stamina, moral dispositions and general happiness. 116 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
VENTILATION. 
1. It is supposed that from 8 to 10 cubic feet of air 
per minute is vitiated by each pupil by respiration, 
perspiration and exhalation from the person and 
clothing, i. e.: it is rendered unfit in that length of 
time to purify or properly oxygenize the blood when 
breathed. 
2. To give to each of 50 pupils 266 cu.ft. of air( which 
would last them from 26 to 33 minutes, if the vitiated 
air be properly distributed) would require a room 
34x28x14. 
Without the admission of pure air it would become 
very unwholesome in 10 or 15 minutes. 
3. The height of the room above 10 feet should not 
be counted in reckoning the araountof space for each 
pupil which space should not be less than 120 cubic 
feet. School rooms are from 13 to 18 feet high, 
owing to their size to give symmetry and proper light- 
ing. 
4. Air saturated with moisture weighs nearly 1% 
less at 70° F. than dry air at the same temperature. 
5. Warm air is lighter than cold air, in the propor- 
tion of to each increase of 1° F. 
6. Carbonic acid gas (CO2) weighs 1.529 (about 
times) as much as air. 
Air containing from Bto 10 parts of C02 to 10,000 
parts of air is unfit for respiration, It is continually 
sent out of the lungs with the breath, the mixture 
being about 20° warmer than the air of the room, and 
is saturated with moisture and consequently rises. 
More carbon is ordinarily found at the top of a room 
than at the bottom as shown by experiments. The 
small amount of CO2 allowable in respirable air is 
diffused and only slightly increases its weight. 
7., The elasticity of air is increased by heat. • The 
hot air at the top presses the air below out of the 
room through any low opening. The hot air will 
make its escape upward if there is any opening in the 
upper part of the room, thus destroying the eflect. Ventilation. 
117 
8. Although gasses of different densities and vol- 
umes of air at different temperatures tend to diffuse 
themselves, yet they are disposed to form in strata, 
moving over and under each other. Warm air moves 
toward upper openings; cold air admitted at the bot- 
tom of a warm room tends to move directlv toward 
the stove draft or flue, without operating to furnish 
air for the occupants and tending only to make their 
feet cold. 
9. Air tends to remain coldest and heaviest near 
cold outside walls (those some distance from the 
source of heat) and tends to sink, which favors a down- 
ward current along those walls and thus the hot air 
may rise to the ceiling, passing along to the surface 
of these cool walls, (cooler air) becoming cooler and 
sinking to the egress. This purest air, without reach- 
ing the pupils at all, may thus leave the room. If 
three or four exits be placed in the floor about half 
way across the room from the inner walls, this ten- 
dency of the warm air to find the colder walls may 
be made to assist the mingling of the fresh air through- 
out all the room. 
10. Air is very rapidly cooled against cold windows 
and in cold days will produce downward currents 
occasioning rheumatic pains in the necks of children 
who may sit near these windows. This is obviated 
by double panes set air-tight with half inch of air be- 
tween them. If the glazing be done in a dry atmos- 
phere the moisture of the confined air is said not to 
form a frosty coatingon the inside of the outer pane 
obscuring the light. 
11. A tube allowing egress or ingress of air is prac- 
tically only as large as its smallest part. 
12. Air will ascend more freely in smooth cylindri- 
cal tubes than square or rough tubes of the same cal- 
iber since the air forced upwards tends like smoke to 
move in ascending rings. 
13. As air ascends tubes it becomes cold and conse- 
quently contracts ; the contraction may be so great 118 
'Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
as to favor downward currents. This is obviated by 
having the upper ends at the top of the house slight- 
ly contracted. 
14. The air in the room will sympathize with the 
direction of the wind, no matter how tight the house 
and windows may be. Hence hot air from the same 
hot air-chambers will not warm both windward and 
leeward rooms. The hot air should be supplied to 
such rooms from different air-chambers. (One for 
each room). It is better to admit the heated air Bor 
10 feet above the floor of the room, because the air 
will then be hotter on reaching the ceiling where its 
elastic force is needed. Tubes leading from the bot- 
tom of the room giving egress to the foul air should 
be twice the size of the tubes admitting heated air. 
15. The provisions for ventilation in any case should 
be such as to secure for each person in a class room 
not less than 30 cubic feet of fresh air per minute, 
which must be introduced and thoroughly distributed 
without creating unpleasant draughts or causing any 
two parts of the room to differ in temperature more 
than2°F., or the maximum temperature to exceed 70° 
F. This means for a class room to contain 56 pupils, 
28 cubic feet of air per second should be continuous- 
ly furnished, distributed and removed during school 
sessions. The velocity of the incom ing air should not 
exceed 2 feet per second at any point, where it is 
liable to strike on the pupil. 
16. The capacity of air for moisture is increased by 
heating it; and air that is moist enough when cold 
may become very dry when heated irritating to the 
lungs and injurious to furniture. This thirst occa- 
sioned by the warm air may be satisfied by vapor 
from a shallow" dish of water. This is quite too com- 
monly neglected. 
17. An open grate with fire in it is an excellent 
means of emitting from a room air supplied from a 
hot air chamber. But as a means of warming a room 
not supplied with warm air, it is nearly all that a Windows in their Relation to Healthy Eyes. 
warming apparatus should not be. It creates cold cur- 
rents from eveiy door and window, becoming thus a 
prolific source of colds, rheumatisms and fevers. 
(Opinions differ as to the importance of fireplaces). 
18. A raised window admits currents of air direct- 
ly on the pupils; if lowered from the top all the warm 
air will go out. Cold currents are often established 
one going out (warm air) the other coming in (cold) 
and thus producing rheumatism in the parts of the 
body they strike. This may be partially obviated at 
least if a board 6 or 8 inches wide be closely fitted 
against the outside of the sash at the bottom so that 
the sash may be raised, then on raising the window 
no current would be admitted helow the sash; while 
up between the upper and lower sash cold air will be 
pressed in to supply what is exhausted from the room 
by the stove. The warm light air will not escape 
down through this channel. 
19, After all it is important to avoid, as much as 
possible, holding pupils too long in crowded rooms. 
It is a great advantage if they are allowed frequent 
changes and allowed to pass through large, well-ven- 
tilated halls. 
Note.—There is not yet entire unanimity concer- 
ning the best methods of heating and ventilating 
school-rooms. 
WINDOWS IN THEIR RELATION TO HEALTHY EYES, 
1. The light should enter the room over the left 
side of the pupil. The glass taken collectively should 
measure from | to | of the area of the floor. 
2. No desk should be at a greater distance from the 
nearest window than 14 times the distance from the 
door to the top of the window. 
o. The light should strike the book as nearly at 
right angles with the page as possible. 
4. The window should start about 4 feet from the 
floor, extending well towards the ceiling. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
5. The ceiling should be white. 
6. The walls are improved by bearing a neutral 
tint. 
7. Light from the front, with plenty of other lightr 
obscures vision by contracting the pupil, while it per- 
manently injures the eye. 
1. In country schools little children are too fre- 
quently obliged to occupy desks that keep the feet 
above the floor, The feet should always have sup- 
port. 
2. The desk should be high enough to enable the 
child or pupil to sit nearly erect while writing, but in 
no case should one shoulder be raised above the line 
of the other shoulder. 
3. If the desk be too flat the pupil is led to throw 
part of his weight on the elbow, the head bowed over 
the book causing an engorgement of the blood ves- 
sels of the eye. 
4. Seats should be shaped and situated so as to al- 
low pupils to relieve themselves by slight changes of 
position and bearing. 
5. The evils of poor seats may be obviated by 
school gymnastics and abundant exercise on the play- 
ground which will tend largely to symmetrical phy- 
sical development. 
SEATS ANT) DESKS. 
Hygiene of the Eye. (see same,.former page). 
1. Comfortable temperature, .anti, feet warm and 
dry. '■ 
2. Good ventilation. 
3. Erect position. • ' •' 
4. Light, in abundance but not dazzling. 
5. Sun must not shine on objects in front of pupil. 
6. The light must come from the left, or left and 
rear. Site of the School House and Closets for. 
7. No study at all in twilight or late at night. 
8. No light from the right of the pupil permitted. 
9. Distance of book from eye about 15 inches. 
10. Frequent rest by looking up. 
SITE OF THE SCHOOL HOUSE. 
In selecting a site for a school house the following 
points should receive attention, 
1. Dampness, from lack of proper drainage, &c. 
2. Malaria, from ponds of water, stagnant in dry 
weather. 
3. Noises. 
4. Nuisances, as glue factories, stable yards, slaugh- 
ter-houses, &c. 
5. An abundant supply of direct sunlight. 
6. Size of play-ground, to secure free air and exer- 
cise, and not have pupils forced into the streets or 
public highways for their sports to acquire rude and 
boisterous manners in their treatment of passers by. 
CLOSETS FOR CLOTHES, 
1. If they open into the school-room, they may be 
the source of much foul air, especially in damp weath- 
er. 
2. They furnish good opportunities for accumula- 
ting any tendency to propagate disease. 
3. The closets for clothes should be so constructed 
as to insure the proper airing of garments. 
The eye, ear, nose, etc., have been treated of in for- 
mer pages of this work. There is room in the teach- 
er’s calling for all the knowledge he can acquire. The 
teacher largely influences the quality and effective- 
ness of the child’s life in all its relations, physical as 
well as mental. Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
He should acquaint himself thoroughly with the 
following: 
GENERAL POINTS. 
1. Drafts of cold air (also drafts of hot air) occasion 
colds, inflammations and catarrhs which may a fleet 
the ears which are not only subject to diseases direct- 
ly incident to their several parts, but also to sympa- 
thetic affections in consequence of the close relation 
existing between them and the teeth, the nose, and 
the throat, and from their connection with the Ijrain 
and spinal cord. 
2. The External ear may swell up as the result of 
blows, of frost, etc. 
3. The External canal of the ear may be injured 
by the introduction of foreign bodies, or tilled by an 
accumulation of wax. 
4. The drum of the ear may be injured by concus- 
sion of the air, occasioned by violent blows, or by the 
continued contact of cold or saltwater while child- 
ren are swimming. 
5. The inner labyrinth may be injured by whatever 
causes inflammation in it, or by diseases of the brain. 
6. Affections of the teeth often affect the hearing 
(See former page for hygiene of teeth). 
7. Deafness maybe the result of a closing up of the 
Eustachian tube from the retention, of mucus which 
it secretes, brought on from colds. 
8. The cavity of the nose, crooked, its bony wall 
rolled in and in on itself, furnishes a very large area, 
covered by mucous membrane, full of blood vessels 
and nerves and quite liable to become inflamed when 
a pupil takes cold. 
9. Myopia (lengthening of eyeball from front to 
rear) is, for the most part a diseased eye, and may be 
caused from the following : General Points. 
1. Holding the eye for a long time without in- 
termissions to distinguish very near objects. 
2. Much confinement in the house, depriving it 
of that broad scope essential to the maintenance of 
the full power and elasticity of the muscles. 
3. Straining the eye in consequence of defective 
light; small type; pale ink; greasy black boards 
(writing on); lead pencil writing, etc. 
4. In short, anything producing engorgement of 
the blood vessels of the eye, as bending over books, 
continued anxious tension of mind, etc. 
5. Impure air, overwork, discouragement or any- 
thing tending to weaken the system or diminish its 
vitality may aggravate or induce myopia. 
(See WINDOWS IN THEIR RELATION TO THE EYES.) 
We have given the opinions of some of our most 
thorough and able educators on these important sub- 
jects to teachers. 
Suffice it to say the quality of common sense is of 
very great use to the teacher in matters of school 
hygiene, which quality he should by all proper means 
encourage in his pupils. “ Wisdom in planning and 
skill in performing ’’ should be his watchword. Tabulated Manual- of Physiology. 
QUIZ DEPARTMENT. 
The numbers at the end of each Question show the page where the 
answers may he,fppnd. 
1. Define general and descriptive anatomy. 5 
2. What is human physiplogy ? 5 
3. What is general and special physiology ? 5 
4. What does physiology in its modern applica- 
tion signify ? 5 
5. What is the meaning of hygiene and of what 
does it consist ? 5 
6. Name the principal divisions of human na- 
ture. 6 
7. Of what does Osteology treat ? Myolo'gy ? Neu- 
rology ? Angiology ? Ichorology ? Splanchnology ? 
Histology ? Pneumonology ? Adenology? Dermatolo- 
gy ? Syndesmology ? 6 
8. What is meant by the functions of a tissue or 
organ ? 6 
9. What is an apparatus ? G 
10. Of what are tissues composed ? 6 
11. AVhat is the type of the earliest form of life ? G 
12. What is meant by growth? 6 
13. Give a good example of a cell ? 5 
14. Name the different ways in which cells mul- 
tiply. 7 
15. Of what size are cells? 7 
16. What is the character of the cell substance? 7 
17. What is bioplasm ? Carcode ? 7 
18. What transformations do cells undergo? 7 
19. What is meant by the Original Structural 
Elements? 7 Quiz Department. 
125 
20. Name the different kinds of epithelium. 7 
21. What is pavement or tassellated epithelium ? 7 
22. Where is it found ? 7 
23. What is its function ? 7 
24. What is columnar epithelium ? 8 
25. Where is it found ? 8 
26. Give its function. 8 
27. Of what is spheroidal epithelium formed ? 8 
Where found ? Function? 8 
28. Of what form is ciliated epithelium? Where 
found ? Function ? 8 
29. What is the basement membrane? Structure ? 
Composition ? Thickness ? 8 
30. What is imbedded in the basement mem- 
brane? 8 
31. Name the connective tissues. 9 
32. How many forms has fibrous tissue ? 9 
33. From what is white fibrous tissue developed, 
and of what does it consist ? 9 
34. What membranes are mostly formed by this 
tissue? 9 
35. What is the chief characteristic of yellow fib- 
rous tissue ? 9 
36. What organs are formed almost entirely of 
this form of tissue? 10 
37. What is the areolar tissue ? 10 
38. What,does its spaces,contain ? 10 
39. Where is it found.? 10 
40. What produces general dropsy ? 10 
41. What is the adipose tissue ? 10 
42. Where is there none of this tissue? 10 
43. Give the chemical composition of the body 
and state where each element is found. 11 
44. State the number of chemical elements, also 
the number of proximate principles. 11 Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
45. What part of the body weight does water 
form? 11 
46. What offices are performed by water in the 
system? 11 
47. How is water eliminated ? 11 
48. By what is animal heat produced ? 11 
49. What is the mean normal temperature? 11 
50. What is oxygen ? When first discovered ? By 
whom ? 11 and 12 
51. Is oxygen necessary to our existence ? 
52. When is oxygen found? 12 
53. How is oxygen absorbed into ’the arterial 
blood ? 12 
54. What is hydrogen ? 12 
55. Where is it found ? 12 
56. What is the effect of its inhalation ? 12 
57. When and by whom was the composition of 
water first discovered ? 12 
58. What is nitrogen ? 12 
59. From what kind of food is it probably de- 
rived ? 13 
60. What is carbon ? Where found pure ? 13 
61. What is carbonic acid? 13 
62. How does the body get rid of its carbon ? 13 
63. The total amount of blood is what part of the 
total body weight ? 13 
64. Give its chief characteristics. 13 
65. What is its specific gravity ? 13 
66. Of what two parts does it naturally consist ? 
Give the composition of each part. 13 
67. Of what two parts does it consist after the 
blood is drawn ? 14 
68. Of what do the corpuscles consist ? Use ? 14 
69. Name the two kinds of corpuscles and state 
how they compare as to number. 14 Quiz Department 
70. How many blood disks in a cubic millimeter 
of blood ? 14 
71. How long after breathing has ceased does 
blood coagulate in the body ? 14 
72. What is the function of the blood ? 14 
73. Of what does the circulatory apparatus con- 
sist ? 14 
74. What is the heart ? 14 
75. What is the pericardium ? 14 
76. What and where is the endocardium ? 15 
77. How is the heart joined to the vertebral col- 
umn? 15 
78. Give the average weight of the heart. 15 
79. Into how many cavities is it divided, and 
what is the capacity and shape of each ? 15 
80. What part of the heart is occupied by the 
auricles ? By the ventricles ? 15 
81. Where are the fibrous zones ? How many ? 15 
82. What difference between the walls of auricles 
and ventricles as to thickness ? 15 
S3. Tell how the valves are formed, give their 
number and locate them. 15 
84. What seems to be the connecting link between 
voluntary and involuntary muscles? Why? 16 
85. How many openings in each ventricle and in 
what part of it are they situated ? 16 
86. Give the average size and capacity of the 
heart. 16 
87. How is the force of the heart ascertained? 16 
88. How is the work done by the entire heart 
estimated ? 16 
89. What causes the contraction and dilation of 
the heart? 17 
90. What time is required for the entire mass of 
blood to pass through the heart ? 17 128 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
91. Give the average number of pulsations in the 
adult male and female per minute. 17 
92. What are the arteries ? 17 
93. What is their function ? 17 
94. At what rate does the blood travel in the 
arteries? 17 
95. How many coats have arteries? Name and 
describe each. 17 
96. With what are they endowed? 17 
97. By what-is the blood pressure influenced? 17 
98. How is the caliber of blood vessels regulated?lB 
99. What is the pulse ? 18 
100. How tell when an artery has been severed ? 18 
101. By what are arteries themselves nourished ? 18 
102. Where are the capillaries? 18 
103. Give the diameters, also the thickness of their 
walls. 18 
104. By what are they lined ? 18 
105. What two important functions take place 
through the agency of the capillaries? 18 
106. At what rate does the blood flow through the 
capillaries ? 18 
107. What is the position of the red and white cor- 
puscles in the capilliaries ? 18 
108. To what parts do they distribute the blood ? 18 
109. What artery arises from the right ventricle of 
the heart ? The left ventricle ? 18-19 
110. Begin with the aorta and name and locate its 
principal divisions. 19 
111. Give the function of veins and name and de- 
scribe their coats. 22 
112. What is the main difference between arteries 
and veins ? 23. 
113. Of what use are valves? How formed? Of what 
do they consist ? 23 Quiz Department. 
129 
114. Where are valves most numerous? 23 
115. Where do all veins finally terminate? 23 
116. To what is the how of the blood in the veins 
mainly due ? 23 
117. From what three sources is the blood returned 
from every part of the body except the lungs ? 24 
118. State how the vena cava superior returns the 
blood to the heart. 24 
119. In what manner does the vena cava inferior 
return the blood to the heart ? 25 
120. Trace minutely the cardiac and pulmonic cir- 
culation. When and by whom discovered ? 27 
121. Name the forces keeping the blood in circula- 
tion. 27 28 
122. Name the organs of respiration. 28 
123. Name the principal cartilages of the larynx 
and describe each. 28 
124. Where are the vocal cords? How many 
kinds ? 29 
125. How are the false vocal cords formed ? 29 
126. Where is the saculus laryngis and what is its 
function? 29 
127. How are the true vocal cords formed? 29 
128. Where is the glottis ? Its dimensions ? 29 
129. What change in length of the vocal cords will 
produce change of note? 30 
130. AVhat is the trachea? Its extent? Diameter?3o 
131. Describe the bronchi. 30 
132. Of what is the trachea composed ? Lined by 
what kind of of epithelium ? 30 
133. Locate the lungs. By what separated? Shape? 
30 
134. Where is the apex? Base? 31 
135. How many borders ? Describe each. 31 
136. How manv surfaces? 31 130 
Tabulated J\fanual oj Physiology. 
137. What is the root of the lung? 31 
138. How do the lungs differ to the size, length, 
and number of lobes? 31 
139. Give the weight arid specific gravity of the 
lungs ? 31 
140. Of what color are the lungs? How do you ac- 
count for this ? 31 
141. Give the structure of the lungs. 32 
142. Give the size and number of air-cells. 32 
143. By what is the air and blood separated in the 
lungs ? 32 
144. From what arteries do the lungs receive their 
nutrition? 32 
145. Give the area of the lung tissue. 32 
146. What is the vital capacity of the lungs of a 
person of average stature ? 32 
147. How are the movements of the lungs called 
forth? 32 
148. How many cubic feet of air passes in and out 
of the lungs in 24 hours ? 32 
149. What is meant by tidal air? Residual air? Re- 
serve air? Oomplemental air ? 32 
150. What amount of oxygen imbibed from the air 
every 24 hours ? 32 
151. Amount of carbonic acid exhaled in 24 hours? 
qq 
OO 
152. Name the principal nerves presiding over the 
lungs. 33 
153. What is the function of the lungs ? 33 
154. Give the composition of bone. 33 
155. How surrounded ? Lined? S3 
156. Of what does an Haversian System consist? 33 
157. What are lacunae ? Lamellae? Canaliculi ? 33 
158. What is medulla, and where found ? 34 
159. Give the manner of development of bones. 34 Quiz Department. 
131 
160. Define epiphysis, apiphysis and diaphysis. 34 
161. What is the skeleton ? Its weight ? 34 
162. Name the different kinds of bones of which 
the skeleton is composed and give the number of 
each. 34 35 
163. Give the name and number of bones in each 
group into which the movable vertebrae is divided. 35 
164. What two bones consist of united vertebrae? 35 
165. Give the general characters of a vertebrae. 35 
166. Describe the atlas and axis. 36 37 
167. Name the peculiar dorsal. 37 
168. What is the average length of the entire 
spine ? 37 
169. How many curves in it viewed sideways ? 38 
170. Give the number and classification of the 
ribs. 38 
171. Locate the sternum and name its three seg- 
ments. 38 
172. Where is the os innominata ? Acetabulum ?38 
173. Where is the sacrum ? Shape ? Texture ? 38 39 
174. Where is the coccyx? Number qf vertebrae? 39 
175. Of what does the upper extremity consist? 39 
176. Where is the scapula ? Humerus ? Glenoid 
cavity? 39 
177. Where is the ulna ? Olecranon process ? Ra- 
dius? 40 
178. Which is the larger, the ulna or radius? 40 
179. Which is the longer, the ulna or radius ? 40 
ISO. Natne the carpal bones in the first row ; in the 
second row. 40 
181. Give the number of the first, second and third 
phalanges. 40 
182. Which is the longest, strongest bone in the 
body ? 41 
183. With what bones does the femur articulate? 41 Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
184:. Describe the patella. 41 
185. Locate and describe the tibia and fibula; which 
is the larger ? 41 
186. Which bone is most slender in proportion to 
its length of all long bones ? 42 
187. Does the fibula aid in the formation of the 
knee-joint ? 42 
188. Name the tarsal bones. 42 
189. To what division of bones do the metatarsus 
belong ? 42 
190. Name and locate the bones of the cranium. 42 
191. Name the bones of the face; give short de- 
scription of each. 43 
192. Name the bones of the ear. 43 
193. Locate and describe the os hyoides. 45 
194. Give the number and classification of joints. 45 
195. Give the varieties of motion allowed. 45 
196. Define sutures, gomphosis, schindylesis and 
lateral ginglymns. 45 46 
197. Name the structures entering into the forma- 
tion of joints. 46 
198. Of what do ligaments consist? Where found? 46 
1,99. Of what does cartilage consist? Kinds? Color? 47 
200. Describe the following joints : shoulder, elbow, 
wrist, hip and knee. 47 48 
201. Give the number of articulations, muscles at- 
tached, and developmental centers of any of the 
bones. 49 
202. Name the two great systems of nerves, 49 
203. Locate the cerebro spinal system. 50 
204. Of what does it consist ? 50 
205. Locate the sympathetic system. 50 
206. Of what does it consist? 50 
207. Name the two kinds of matter composing 
nervous tissue. 50 Quiz Department. 
208. What is the gray matter ? Describe its cells. 50 
209. In what part of the brain and spinal oond k 
the gray matter found ? 50 
210. What are unipolar, bipolar and multipolar 
cells ? 50 
211. What is the function of gray matter ? 50 
212. Of what three parts does the white mailer 
consist? Describe each part. 51 
213. What is the function ot the white matter ? 51 
214. How do nerves receive their nutrition ? 51 
215. Describe the central and peripheral endings 
of the motor nerve libers. 50 
216. Describe the form of connection between the 
motor nerves and voluntary muscle. 50 
217. How do motor nerves end in involuntary 
muscle ? 50 
218. In how many ways do sensitives nerves end ? 
Describe each. 51 52 
219. Distinguish between efferent and afferent 
nerves. 52 
220. What is the function of sensitive nerves ? Mo- 
tor nerves? Vasomotor ? Trophic ? Secretory? Inhibi- 
tory ? 52 
221. Can sensibility be destroyed without destroy- 
ing motion ? 52 
222. Can motor nerves be paralyzed without affect- 
ing sensation ? 52 
223. At what rate do motor nerves conduct force ? 
Sensory nerves ? 52 
224. Give the varieties of nervous stimuli. 52 
225. Distinguish between a nerve and a commis- 
sure. 52 
226. Where are ganglia ? Where situated ? 52 53 
227. What is a plexus ? 53 
228. Distinguish fully between the roots of spinal 
nerves. 53 Tabulated .Manual of Physiology. 
229. How many pairs of spinal nerves? Classify 
them. 53 
230. What communication exists between the 
sympathetic and Cerebro spinal systems ? 54 
231. The nerves of which system follow the distri- 
bution of blood vessels ? 54 
232. What are the distinguishing characteristics of 
the sympathetic nerves ? 54 
233. How does the brain of man compare with that 
of the lower order of animals ? 54 
234. At what age is the maximum weight of the 
brain reached ? 54 
235. Of what is the brain composed ? 54 
236. Is the brain only a generator of nerve force, 
or is it also a conductor of nervous impulses ? 54 
237. Name the 4 principal divisions of the brain. 55 
238. Name the 3 membranes of the brain, 55 
239. Describe the cerebrum, tell how it is supplied 
with blood, and how it is connected with the pons 
Yarolii and medulla oblongata. 55 
240. Where are impressions registered and repro- 
duced as ideas ? 55 
241. Of how many lobes does the cerebrum con- 
sist ? 56. 
242. Locate the cerebellum, and state how it com- 
pares with the cerebrum in respect to size. 55 
243. For what is the cerebellum the center? 56 
244. With what portions of the brain does the pons 
Yarolii unite ? What purpose does it serve ? 56 
245. Of what acts is the pons Yarolii the center ? 56 
246. What is the medulla oblongata ? 56 
247. Name in order the columns of the medulla 
oblongata. 57 
248. Of what is the medulla oblongata center? 57 
249. Describe the dura mater and state how the 
sinuses are formed, 57 £htiz Department. 
135 
250. Where is the Falx cerebri? Falx cerebelli? 
Tentorium ? From what are these formed ? 
Describe the arachnoid. To what class of membranes 
does it belong ? 57 
251. Where is the cerebro-spinal fluid found ? 57 
252. Describe the pia mater; where found? 58 
253. Describe the spinal cord, giving its length, 
membranes and weight. 58. 
254. What are the functions of the nervous sys- 
tem ? 58 
255. Name the cranial nerves giving the origin, 
properties, functions, and distributions of each. 59 
256. What are muscles ? 60 
257. State how muscular fibers end that connect (1) 
with cartilage, (2) with bone, (3) with skin. 60 
258. What is meant by the origin and insertion of 
muscles? 60 
259. What are tendons and aponeuroses, and where 
are they situated ? 60 
260. Name the different classes of fascia and state 
the position and function of each. 60 61 
261. Distinguish between voluntary and involun- 
tary muscles. 61 
262. Define perimysium and sarcolemma, 61 
263. Of what are fibrils composed and what is their 
diameter ? 61 
264. What are striae? Give'their position. 61 
265. What is Rigor Mortis and what seems to be 
the cause ? 62 
266. Distinguish between flexors and extensors. 62 
267. Give the law of contractions and state the stim- 
uli to which muscles re-act. 62. 
268. How are muscles nourished? 62 
269. Give the uses of muscles. 62 
270. Give the origin, insertion and function of the 
diaphragm. 63 Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
271. Name the 6 ways by which the names of the 
muscles originate. 64 
272. Name the openings in the diaphragm and state 
what each transmits. 64 
273. Bound the mouth. 64 
274. Bound the isthmus of the fauces. 64 
275. Give the divisions of the teeth and number in 
each. 65 
276. Name the parts of a tooth and locate each. 65 
277. When do deciduous teeth begin to appear? 
Entirely appear ? 65 
278. When do permanent teeth begin to appear ? 
Entirely appear? 65 
279. What is the greatest number of teeth in the 
jaws at any one time ? When? 65 
280. Of what does the hard substance of the tooth 
consist ? 65 
281. Where is the dentine and what does it en- 
close ? 65 
282. Give the use of the teeth. Are they parts of 
the skeleton ? 65 
283. Name the Salivary glands. 65 66 
284. Where is the Parotid gland ? Name its duct 
and state where it opens into the mouth. 65 
285. Where is the Submaxillary gland ? Name its 
duct and state where it opens into the mouth. 66 
286. W here is the Sublingual gland ? By what ducts 
does it open into the mouth ? 66 
287. Give the function of the salivary glands. 66 
288. Name the muscles of the tongue. 66 
289. To what is the tongue attached ? 66 
290. Name, locate and describe the 3 classes of pa- 
pillae. 66, 
291. Where is the livenum linguae ? How formed ?66 
292. Where is the sense of taste ? 66 
293. Where are the “Taste Buds”? Length? 66 Quiz Department. 
137 
294. Give the structure, shape, location and func- 
tion of the tonsils. 69 
295. What is the pharynx ? 66 
296. Locate the pharynx, giving its attachments 
above and below. 66 
297. Name the 7 openings of the pharynx. 66 
298. What is the oesophagus? 67 
299. How many layers has the oesophagus ? Name 
them. 67 
300. What is the function of the oesophagus ? 67 
301. What is the principal organ of digestion ? 67 
302. What is the function of the stomach ? 67 
303. Locate the stomach ? 67 
304. (rive the weight and openings of the stomach. 67 
305. What part is the cul de sac ? 67 
306. Locate the openings of the stomach. 67 
307. In what way does breathing affect the stom- 
ach? 67 
308. Name and describe the coats of the stomach. 67 
309. What is the average capacity of the stomach 
and how is it lined ? 68 
310. Locate the gastric and mucous gland of the 
stomach. 68 
311. What causes the secretion of gastric juice ? 68 
312. Give the demensions of the stomach and state 
how it is kept in place. 68 
313. Name and give the combined length of the 3 
parts of the small intestine and state how it is held 
in place. 68 
314. Describe the duodenum, 68 
315. What fluids are poured into the duodenum ? 68 
316. Describe the jejunum. 68 
317. Describe and locate the volvube conniven- 
tes. 68 Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
318. Describe, locate, anti give the number of vil- 
li. 68 
319. What and where are Brunner’s glands and 
■Crypts of Leiberkuhn ? 69 
320. Locate ileum. 69, 
321. What and where are the solitary glands? 69 
322. What and where are Beyer’s glands? 69 
323. What fractional part of the alimentary canal 
does the colon form ? 69 
324. (live the divisions of the Colon. 69-70 (note) 
325. In what respect does it differ from the small 
intestine in structure ? 69 
326. Describe, locate and give the dimensions of 
the caecum. 69 
327. Describe the appendix vermiformis. Length? 69 
328. Locate the sigmoid flexure. Shape ? 70 
329. Locate, and describe the rectum. 70 
330. Name the divisions of the alimentary canal 
and give its entire length. 70 
331. Give the six steps of digestion and describe 
each. 70 
332. Name the changes which take place in sac- 
charine, albuminoid and oleaginous principles of 
food. 70 
333. Name the agents of absorption. 71 
334. What do the veins absorb and where is it con- 
veyed? 71 
335. How do the lymphatics originate ? 71 
336. Describe fully the thoracic duct; stating its 
length, diameter, origin and terminus. 71 
337. Where do lacteals originate? End? 71 
338. What substances absorbed by the lacteals ? 71 
339. Give the origin, composition, amount secreted 
and function of lymph and chyle. 71 
340. Describe the peritoneum. 72 Quiz Department. 
341. What is meant by omenta ? Mesenteries ? 72 
342. Do the hepatic vessels reach the liver without 
perforating the membrane ? 72 
343. Locate the foramen of Winslow. 72 
344. Name the ordinary divisions of the perito- 
neum. 72 
345. What membrane is continuous with the 
skin? 73 
346- Give the structure of the mucous membrane. 73 
347. What membranes form shut sacs ? 73 
348. Give structure of serous membrane. 73 
349. Describe the synovial membrane, and 
give its divisions as to situations. 73 
350. Give the origin, composition, amount secreted 
and function of the following lluids : cerebro-spinal, 
saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, intestinal juice, 
synovia, serous, mucous, endolymph, tears, sebum, 
meibomian, cerumen, perilymph, aqueous, milk, en- 
dolymph, liquor sanguinus, sweat, urine, breath, bile. 
74 75. 
351. Describe the pancreas, giving its location, 
length, weight, divisions and function. 76 
352. Locate the canal of Wirsung. 76 
353. How are the ductus communis choledochus 
formed ? 76 
354. Locate the liver and give its dimensions, posi- 
tion and weight. 76 
355. How many ligaments, fissures and lobes has 
the liver? Classify them. 76 
356. What is the proportion between the right and 
left lobes? 77 
357. Describe the structure of the liver. 77 
358. Describe the gallbladder as to position, shape, 
length, and capacity. 77 
359. Show that the liver performs a triple office. 77 
360. Where is bile formed? Function? 77 Pabulated Manual of Physiology. 
361. What is meant by the elaboration of blood? 
Glycogen? 77 
362. Locate, give the shape, size, structure and 
function of the kidneys. 77 78 
363. Describe the spleen as to dimensions, weight, 
texture, structure and function, 78 79 
361. What is the suspensory ligament of the spleen? 
What is the Hilum ? 78 
365. Where is the splenic pulp ? Malpighian corpu- 
scles ? 79 
366. Has the spleen an excretory duct ? 79 
367. Name the tunics of the eye. 79 
368. Name the refracting media. 79 
369. What part of the outer tunic does the sclero- 
tic form ? Function ? 79 
370. How many surfaces has the sclerotic? Des- 
cribe each. 79 
371. How does the sclerotic join with the cornea? 80 
372. What vessels found in sclerotic ? 80 
373. What part of the outer tunic is formed by the 
cornea ? Its thickness ? 80 
371. How does the degree of curvature differ ? 80 
375. How many layers has the cornea ? Describe 
each. 80 
376. (State the function of the elastic laminae. 80 
377. What vessels found in cornea ? 80 
378. What part of the second tunic is formed by 
the choroid ? Thickness ? 80 
379. How many layers has the choroid ? Describe 
each layer. 81 
380. Locate, describe, and give the number of cil- 
iary processess. 81 
381. Of what length are the ciliary processes and 
how are they attached? 81 
382. Locate the iris, give its width and thickness 
and state by what it is perforated. 81 Quiz Department. 
383. How does the pupil contract and expand ? 81 
384. How is the iris attached ? 81 
385. Why does the color of the iris vary ? 82 
386. On what part of the eye are the images re- 
ceived ? 82 
387. Describe the retina as its number of layers, 
thickness, extent and appearance. 82 
388. Locate the yellow spot of Soemmering. 82 
389. Give the estimated number of optic nerve 
fibers, cones, pigment cells and rods, 82 
390. Which way do the points of the rods and 
cones points ? 82 
391. What is the position and function of the rods, 
cones and pigment layers as to ethereal vibrations ? 82 
392. Give the position and quantity of aqueous hu- 
mor. What is its function ? 82 and 74 
393. Locate the anterior and posterior chambers. 83 
394. Locate the vitreous humor, tell how it is en- 
closed and give its function and shape. 74 and S3 
395. Where is the crystalline lens ? What is it? S3 
396. Give the dimensions and weight of the crys- 
talline lens. 83 
397. What is the. function of the crystalline lens 
and how does it receive its nutrition ? 83 
398. How is the crystalline lens held in position? 83-4 
399. Where is the canal of Petit? 84 
400. Describe the eye-ball as to its diameters, poles, 
axis, equator, and meridian planes. 84 
401. What is it to see? 84 
402. What is the conjunctiva ? 84 
403. What is the function of eye-lids ? 84 
404. Where are the lachrymal glands? What do 
they secrete ? 74 and 85 
405. What are the nasal fossae, and what part is 
capable of receiving odorous impressions ? 85 
406. What is the ear and of what does it consist?. 85 142 
Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
407. Describe the pinna and give its function. 85 
408. Locate the helix, anti-helix, tragus, lobule, 
concha, and fossa of the helix. 85-86 
40.9. What is the external meatus ? Length ? 86 
410. Where are the glandube ceruminose, and 
what is their function ? 86 
411. Of what does the middle ear consist ? 86 
412. What is its length? How lined? Communi- 
cates with what ? 87 
418. Name and describe the bones of the middle 
ear. 87 
414. How is sound transmitted across the tympan- 
um ? 87 
415. Describe the Eustachian tube and give its 
function. 87 
416. Where is the internal ear and of what does it 
consist? 87 
417. Where is the vestibule ? 87 
418. Give the shape, communications and openings 
of the vestibule. 88 
419. Give name and number of the semi-circular 
canals. 88 
420. Describe the cochlea. 88 
421. Where is the perilymph ? 74 and 88 
422. Describe the otoliths and state where found. 89 
423. Where is the endolyraph ? 89 
424. Describe the organ of Corti, 89 
425. Give the estimated number of rods in the 
organ of Corti. 89 
426. What is the function of the membraneous 
cochlea and semi-circular canals ? 89 
427. What is it to hear ? 89 
428. Where is the mernbrana tympani ? 86 
429. What is the shape of the mernbrana tympani? 
Angle ? Layers ? 86 Quiz Department. 
430. What is the function ot the membrana tym- 
pani? 86 
431. What is its position in appreciating high and 
low tones ? 86 
432. Describe the skin; give its thickness and num- 
ber of sweat glands and the amount of evaporating 
surface. 00 
433. What glands are found in the skin ? Function ? 
90 and 74 
434. How is the skin lubricated? 90 
435. State the difference between sensible and in- 
sensible perspiration. 90 
436. State the amount of carbonic acid exhaled 
from the skin. 90 
437. What are the functions of the skin ? 90 
438. What is hair? 90 
439. To what is the color of the hair due ? 90 
440. How is the hair softened ? 91 
441. Name and describe the parts of a hair? 91 
442. What are the functions of hair? 91 
443. What are nails ? How formed? How fasten- 
ed ? 91 
444. Where is the matrix ? Lunula? 91 
445. What is the pleura? ? Pleural cavity ? 91 
446. To what class of membrane do the pleura 
belong? 91 
447. Where and what is the mediastinum ? 92 
448. What is contained in each pleural cavity ? 92 
449. Name and locate the skull bones. 92 
450. What can you say of the importance of cloth- 
ing, cleanliness, cold water and sleep ? 95 
451. Give the hygiene of the brain. 96 
452. Give the hygiene of the e3re. 97 
453. How is myopia, hyper metropia and presby- 
opia corrected ? 98 Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
454. What is amaurosis and what causes it ? 98 
455. Give the hygiene of the ear. 98 (See also 
School Hygiene). 
456. Give the hygiene of the bones. 98 
457. Give the hygiene of the teeth. 99 
458. Give the hygiene of the nerves. 99 
459. Give the hygiene of the organs of respiration. 
100 
460. Give the hygiene of the muscles. 100 
461. Give the hygiene of the organs of circulation. 
101 
462. Give the time required for the principal arti- 
cles of food to digest. 102 
463. Give the composition of bread, eggs, meat, 
etc. 102 
464. Name the two general classes of food and 
state the functions of each. 103 
465. Give hygiene of the sense of smell; also of the 
skin. 103 
466. Give hygiene of absorbents. 103 
467. Name several poisons and give their antidotes. 
104 
468. What is alcohol ? 105 What does it include ? 
105 
469. How change from F. to C, and from C. to F. ? 
105 
470. How is alcohol usually obtained ? 105 
471. What is whiskey ? Fermentation? 105 
472. How is whiskey prepared from grain? 105 106 
473. How is cane sugar decomposed into alcohol ? 
106 
474. If alcohol and water be mixed, what change 
takes place in volume ? 106 
475. How may acetic acid and also alcohol be pro 
duced? 106 - . Quiz Department. 
481. Give the source from which the principal al- 
coholic liquids are derived and the (/(J of alcohol they 
contain. 106 \ 
482. Explain what is meant by alcohol being a “mo- 
tor-depressant,” “cerebral-depressant” and “narco- 
tic.” 107 
483. Give the effects of alcohol on the cerebellum. 
107 
484. Account for delirium and hallucinations. 108 
485. Why is alcohol a respiratory depressant ? Yas- 
cular stimulant? Diaphoretic? 108 
486. How does alcohol lessen the production of 
bile? 108 
487. Give an abridged statement of the physiolo- 
gical actions of alcohol. 108 
488. What is. the result if taken in small amounts 
frequent and continued ? 108 
489. What are the results from a long continued 
use ? 108 109 
490. What is meant by epilepsy ? Paraplegia? Am- 
aurosis? Insanity ? 109 
491. Give the divisions of insanity and explain 
each. 109 
492. What is the result if alcohol be taken in large 
amounts? Very large amounts? 109 
493. Is alcohol always injurious in health ? 109 
494. Why does alcohol influence sensation, motion, 
language, mental and moral manifestations? 109 
495. Explain how death is reduced by toxic doses 
of alcohol. 109 Tabulated Manual of Physiology. 
496. Explain what causes inco-ordination of move- 
ment. 107 
497. How does alcohol destroy the activity of the 
digestive organs ? 108 109 
498. Where is alcohol said to be a valuable agent 
sometimes? 109 
499. Give a brief outline for lessons on the human 
body. 110 
There are numerous other questions that might be 
asked, but we leave the teacher or pupil to his own 
tastes in enlarging the list. We omit questions on 
“ School Hygiene ” altogether. Index 
I N D K X. 
ANATOMY,definition 5 
Absorption 71 
hygiene of 104 
Adipose tissue 10 
Alimentary canal 70 
Arteries 17 
Animal heat 11 
Axis cylinder,of nerves 51 
Air 11 
residual,complem’t’l 32 
Air-cells 32 
Alcohol 105 
effects of 107 
Articulations 45 
Arytenoid cartilages. . 28 
Arachnoid 57 
Antrum of Highmore. 43 
Aponeuroses . 60 
Aqueous humor..... 83 
Amaurosis 109 
Appendix vermiformis 69 
Appendices epiploical 69 
Ampulla 88 
Cochlea, osseous 87 
membranous 88 
Ciliary processes.... 81 
Corti, organ of 89 
Circulation of blood . . 27 
Cranial nerves, table.. 63 
Cerebrum 55 
Cerebellum 55 
Carbon 13 
Carbonic acid 33 
Canaliculi 33 
Centers, ossific 34 
Coccyx 39 
Carpus 40 
Cranium 42 
Cerebro spinal system. 49 
Commissure 52 
Crypts of Leiberkuhn. 69 
Colon 69 
Cornea . 80 
Choroid 80 
Canal of Petit 84 
Conjunctiva 84 
Capillaries 18 
Corpuscles, origin of . 14 
composition of 14 
use of 14 
Cartilage, use of 47 
BLOOD 13 
Bronchi 30 
Basement membrane.. 80 
Brain 54 
hygiene of 96 
Bile 77 
Brunner’s glands 69 
Bones 35 
composition of 33 
hygiene'of 98 
DEFINITIONS 5 
Dura mater 57 
Duodenum 68 
Ductus communis chol- 
edochus 76 
Digestion 70 
Diaphragm 63 
openings in 64 
CELLS 6 
Chemical composition 
of body, table.... 11 Index 
EPIGLOTTIS 28 
Epidermis 90 
Ear 85 
hygiene of 98 
Epithelium 7 
Endolymph 89 
function of. 75 
Eye 79 
hygiene of 97 
Ear-stones 89 
Eye-ball 84 
diameters of 84 
Equator 84 
Epilepsy 109 
Eustachian tube 87 
Endocardium 15 
End bulbs 52 
Hyaloid body 83 
Hypermetropia 98 
Hip-joint 48 
Humerus 39 
Hair, structure of ... . 91 
function of. 91 
Haversian canals "... . 33 
spaces 34 
Hydrogen 12 
Hygiene 94 
definition of 5 
Hepatic cells 77 
IRIS 81 
Isthmus fauces 64 
Ileum 69 
Ivory black 13 
Insanity 109 
Intestines 68 
Internal ear 87 
Incoherence 109 
Island of Reil 55 
Inferior maxillary.... 45 
FOOD,nitrogenous and 
non-nitrogenous.. . . 103 
composition of 102 
digestibility of,table 102 
Fermentation, theory. 105 
Fascia 60 
Fingers 40 
Femur 41 
Fibula 41 
Face, bones of 43 
Falx cerebri 57 
cerbelli 57 
JOINTS, number of. . 45 
classes of 45 
formation of 46 
Jejunum 68 
KIDNEYS 77 
Knee-joint 48 
GALLBLADDER. . 77 
Gastric juice 74 
secretion of 68 
function of. 74 
Glycogen 77 
Gasses 12 
Glottis 29 
LUNGS, parts of 31 
weight of 31 
structure of 32 
air cells in 32 
function of. 33 
root of. 31 
Lymph, origin of 71 
composition of. ... . 71 
function of 71 
HEART 14 
force, how ascertai’d 16 
work, demonstration 16 Index 
149 
Liver 76 
ligaments 0f....... 76 
fissure of 76 
lobes of 77 
triple office of 77 
Labyrinth, membran’s 88 
osseous 87 
Lens, crystalline. 83 
Lacteals 71 
Lachrymal glands.... 85 
bone 44 
Lower extremity.... . 40 
Ligaments 46 
description of 46 
Lacunae 33 
Liquor sanguinis 13 
Lunula . 91 
functions of 58 
vaso-motor. 52 
cerebro-spinal 49 
spinal 53 
lymphatic 54 
white & gray matter 50 
spinal cord 58 
anterior and poster- 
ior roots . 53 
cranial, table 63 
Neurilemma 51 
Nitrogen 12 
Nails 91 
Nasal bone 44 
OXYGEN ~ 11 
Os hyoides 44 
Organs of respiration. 28 
hygiene of 100 
Os orbiculare 87 
Organ of hearing 85 
Osteology, abridgem’t 
of, table 49 
Oesophagus 67 
Otoliths 89 
Os innominatum 38 
Olfactory bulbs 85 
MYOPIA 98 
Medulla 34 
Medulla oblongata.... 56 
Metatarsus 42 
Mouth 64 
Mie, normal temper- 
ature 11 
Me nbrana Tympani. . 86 
Me liastinum 92 
Mesenteries. 72 
Mu ries 60 
h giene of 100 
table of, 63 
Mo omania 109 
Membranes 73 
Ma dghian corpuscles 78 
PHYSIOLOGY 5 
definition of 5 
Pons varolii 50 
Prehension 70 
Presbyopia 98 
Proximate principles.. 11 
Pulse 18 
Perspiration 90 
Parenchyma 32 
Patella 41 
Pericardium 14 
Plexus, definition of.. 53 
NK IVES 49 
s ucture of 50 
h Aerie of .. 99 
1 vs, endings 51 
3 e, velocity 52 150 
Index. 
Perilymph 75 
where found 88 
Pia mater 58 
Pancreas 76 
Pharynx 66 
Pleurae 91 
Poisons and antidotes. 104 
Peritoneum 72 
Palate 44 
Pacinian corpuscles.. . 52 
Sense of smell,hygiene 103 
Saculus laryngis 29 
Solitary glands 69 
Sympath’c nerv’s sy’m 54 
TEETH 65 
hygiene of 99 
Thoracic duct 71 
Table of a1c0h015..... 106 
Tongue 66 
papillae of. 66 
Tactile corpuscles.... 52 
Touch, sense of 52 
Tissue, white and yel- 
low fibers 12 
Areolar 13 
Trachea 30 
Tarsus 42 
Turbinated bones 44 
Tubular membrane. . . 51 
Tonsils 66 
Tendons 60 
RETINA 82 
Respiration 28 
Radius 40 
Rods of corti, number. 89 
Ribs 40 
Rigor mortis 62 
SKIN 90 
hygiene of 103 
structure of 90 
functions of 90 
sweat glands in ... . 90 
Semi-circular canals. . 88 
Scala vestibule 88 
Spinal cord 58 
Scala tympani 88 
Spleen 78 
Stomach 67 
Skeleton 31 
Sternum 38 
Sutures 45 
Superior Max, bone.. . 43 
Sinuses 60 
Shoulder-joint 47 
Sarcolemma 61 
Sense of taste.. . 66 
Sclerotic coat of eye. . 79 
Sleep 96 
Skull-bones, abridgm’t 92 
UTRICLE. 88 
Upper extremity 39 
Ulna 4) 
VALVES 23 
Visual angle 84 
axis 84 
Vena cava 24 
Vocal cords, true, false 29 
Vitreous humor 83 
Vomer 44 
Villi . 68 
Valvulm conniventes. 68 
Vertebrae,characters of 35 
deviations 36 
Vascular system 14 
Veins 22 Index 
151 
Yestibule. 87 
Vital capac’y of lungs. 32 
composition ot and 
by whom discov’d 12 
amount ot in body. . 11 
What is it to see ? . . . 84 
What is it to hear ?. .. 89 
Winslow, foramen of.. 72 
Wirsung, canal of ... 76 
Yellow spot of retina. 82 
WHISKY 105 
White substance of.. . 
Schwann 51 
Water, use of 12 
how eleminated. . . 12 
The Golden Chain, 
CONSISTING OF FOUR GOLDEN LINKS, 
PHYSICAL, 2 
INTELLECTUAL, 3 
MORAL, 4 
DEVOTIONAL. 
These are the golden links of man’s nature; they 
are dependent upon each other, if one suffers all the 
o hers suffer with it and man is dwarfed or incom- 
plete in proportion as he is deficient in any of these 
parts. Thus the work will consist of a full descrip- 
tion of man physically, intellectually, morally and 
devotionally. This work was in part (third and fourth 
links) first written and published by S. S. Henderson 
and over 10,000 copies sold. The work is now under- 
going a thorough revision in size and arrangement 
and will again be sent on its mission, teaching that 
the highest object of man’s existence is to obey God, 
to love and serve mankind. 
McKINLEY &. HENDERSON, Pubs., 
VAUGHNSVILLE, O. 
TEACHERS AND STUDENTS, 
THE RECORD STEAM PRINTING HOUSE, 
Makes a specialty of SCHOOL UIORK, such as Diplomas, Commencement 
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ADA, OHIO, A VEST-POCKET MANUAL OF 
CIVIL GOVERNMENT 
GEO. W. HENDERSON. 
Treating of Township, County, State and National 
Government. It is thorough and concise ; may be 
and should be carried in the vest-pocket of every 
American citizen, and diligently studied. He who is 
practically ignorant of the fundamental principles 
that underlie the whole fabric of the Republic has no 
moral right to cast a vote. He who comes into his 
majority without an adequate knowledge of civil gov- 
ernment is poorly equipped for the duties of citizen- 
ship, and his chances are decidedly in favor of his be- 
coming a very dangerous voter. “Ignorance is al- 
ways dangerous.” On the other hand the more thor- 
ough the understanding is informed on the principles 
of government the more stable will everything be- 
come; the more vigorous will be the national devel- 
opment, the more healthful and stronger she general 
growth and the greater the sense of public security 
and the less the danger of plotters against society. 
It is the essential and responsible duty of every citi- 
zen to acquaint himself with the great principles of 
that government which is of the people, for the peo 
pie and by the people, and for teachers and pupils 
it is of incalculable value in teaching and in prepar- 
ing for examinations. 
We publish the only vest pocket manual of civil 
government now before the public. 
Price $l.OO. Now in Press. 
McKtNLEY & HENDERSON, Publishers, 
VAUGHNSVILLE, PUTNAM CO., 0.