s -L 
or:J& 
. i \ , fj 
7-; A f ; ' • / V / V 
V. V J J- ' J-J J J'-J J'iS "i . -'V/ c/ J'J -J J -J/: /a «. 
0 y t THE 
Standard Physiology: 
WITH NOTES ON 
ANATOMY AND HYGIENE; AN TO THE 
INJURED; DISINFECTANTS ETC. 
ALSO CONTAINING 
EXPLANATORY INDEX TO THE “STANFORD” 
MANIK N. 
COMPILED IV 
A. GARDFNiZR. 
New York / ago: 
E. L. KEL, .G & CO. 
1890, Copyright, 1890, 
E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 
New York. THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 
What to Study. To thoroughly understand the hu- 
man body so that we may care for it in health, as well as 
sickness, it is necessary to study its construction, the 
functions of the various parts, and the laws which gov- 
ern health. 
The subject for study is divided into three parts, 
which are defined as follows : 
Anatomy treats of the construction and relations of the 
different parts of the body. 
Physiology treats of the functions of the various parts 
of the body. 
Hygiene treats of the preservation of health. 
Uses. The framework of the body is composed of 
about two hundred bones. The number varying at 
BONES. 4 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
different periods of life. 1. They preserve the shape of 
Cue body; 2. Protect the delicate organs, as the bones 
of the skull and chest; and 3. Serve for attachment of 
muscles, so that they may act as levers to produce motion. 
Forms. Bones differ in form according to their uses. 
For the arms and legs, some are long; for strength, some 
are short and thick ; for covering a cavity, some are flat ; 
while for special use, some are irregular. Their general 
form is such as to combine strength and lightness. 
Composition. The bones are made up of animal mat- 
ter to give strength and elasticity, and mineral matter to 
give hardness and rigidness. In youth, the proportions 
are about half and half, while in the adult they consist of 
one-tliird animal and two-thirds mineral. 
Experiment. Soak a bone in a dilute solution of hydro- 
chloric acid for several days. The acid will remove the 
mineral matter, and the bone, while not losing its shape, 
will become flexible, and can be tied into a knot. Take 
another bone and place it in the fire ; the animal part 
will be burned out and the mineral remains. The shape 
will not be changed, but the pure-white remains may be 
crumbled between the fingers. 
Ossification. All bones are at first composed of Carti- 
lage. Mineral matter is deposited in this tissue, and the 
substance is said to have ossified, or turned to bone. The 
greater the proportion of animal matter in a bone, the 
quicker a broken bone will mend. Therefore, children’s 
bones, when broken, will heal more easily than those of 
elderly people. 
Growth of the Bones. The bones are filled with a 
spongy substance filled with canals, which serve as pas- 5 
BONES. 
sages for blood-vessels that nourish the bones. The 
whole structure is constantly changing, old material 
being taken out and new supplied in its place. 
Experiment. Take two rabbits, and feed one of them 
on food mixed with madder for three weeks. Upon 
killing the rabbits, the bones will be different. The 
bones of the one fed on madder will be tinged with red. 
Periosteum. Surrounding the bone is a vascular mem- 
brane called the periosteum. It enables the blood-vessels 
to reach all parts of the bone, and forms a medium of 
attachment for tendons. It also contains many bone- 
forming cells, and will, if not destroyed, cause new bone 
to grow. 
Endosteum. Within the bone are cavities, which are 
lined with a membrane quite similar to the periosteum, 
called the endosteum. This contains numerous bone- 
forming cells, and is very active in case of a broken bone. 
Marrow. Within, all long bones there is a long hollow 
tube which contains a substance called medulla or mar- 
row. This consists of about 95 per cent fat. 
Sesamoid Bones. Small bones are found at the roots 
of the thumbs and great toes. These are absent in 
people who work but little, but are found to be of con- 
siderable size in people who labor. They are sometimes 
present in the hands or in the feet only according to the 
kind of work done. These are called sesamoid bones. 
Fractures. A breaking or solution of continuity in a 
bone is called a fracture. 
Simpie Fracture. When a hone is broken into two 
fragments, but does not extend through the skin, it is 
called a simple f racture. 6 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Compound Fracture. When the bone is exposed to 
ov communicates with the air, by a wound of the soft 
parts, it is called a compound fracture. 
Repair of the. Bone. Nature begins soon after the 
breaking of a bone to repair. Blood slowly flows out of 
the ends of the severed parts, and a substance known as 
callus is formed around and between the ends of the 
broken bone. Although this substance is soft at first, it 
gradually hardens, and at the end of about six weeks 
the bones are quite firmly united. This substance be- 
comes in about one year similar to bone. 
Dislocation. Bones, sometimes by accident are dis- 
placed. The tissues which hold them in position are 
often torn, and inflammation soon supervenes. A dislo- 
cation should be reduced as soon as possible. 
Sprains. When the ligaments which bind the bones 
together are strained, twisted, or torn from their attach- 
ments, it is called a sprain. They are quite as serious 
as a broken bone, and require careful attention. By 
using a sprained limb too soon, it may be permanently 
injured. A long rest should be given a sprained joint. TABLE OF THE BONES. 
7 
TABLE OF THE BONES. 
Frontal Bone (forehead). 
Two Parietal Bones. 
Two Temporal (temple) Bones. 
Sphenoid Bone. 
Ethmoid (sieve-like bone at root of nose). 
Occipital Bone (back and base of skull). 
1. Cranium 
(8 bones.) 
Q 
*6 
K 8 
W o ■ 
H oo 
HH 
Two Superior Maxillary (upper jaw) Bone. 
Inferior Maxillary (lower jaw) Bones. 
Two Malar (cheek) Bones. 
Two Lachrymal Bones. [nose. 
Two Turbinated (scroll-like) Bones, each side of 
Two Nasal Bones (bridge of nose). 
Vomer (the bone between the nostrils). 
Two Palate Bones. 
2 Face 
(14 bones.) 
Hammer. 
Anvil. 
Stirrup. 
3. Ears 
. (6 bones.) 
W 
£5 
& 2 
Qh 3 
E-i S 
o ■ 
H-o 
SS 
1. Spinal Column. 
Cervical Vertebras (seven). 
Dorsal Vertebrae (twelve). 
Lumbar Vertebrae (five). 
I 2. Ribs. .. 
True Ribs. 
False Ribs. 
| 3. Sternum (breast bone). 
4. Os Hyoides (bone at the root of tongue). 
5. Pelvis. 
Two Innominata. 
Sacrum. 
Coccyx. 
f Shoulder. 
Clavicle. 
Scapula. 
■D 
M 
3 I 
r, 3 
-o 
w 
1. Upper Limbs 
(64 bones.) 
Arm .. 
Humerus. 
Ulna and Radius. 
Hand... 
I Wrist or Carpal Bones (eight). 
Metacarpal Bones (five). 
1 Phalanges (14 bones.) 
Leg. 
Femur. 
Patella. 
Tibia and Fibula. 
2. Lower Limbs. 
(BO bones.) 
Foot 
Tarsal Bones (seven). 
Metatarsal Bones (five). 
Phalanges (14 bones). 
For references to Skeleton on Manikin, see Explanatory Index, Plates I. 
o XII. inclusive. 8 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
JOINTS. 
Classification. The meeting of two or more bones at a 
common point or along a common line is called a joint. 
The joints which allow the surfaces of the bones to move 
one upon the other are called movable joints, while those 
which do not, are called immovable joints. 
Sutures. Most of the cranial joints are immovable. 
The ends of the bones are united by ragged edged sur- 
faces, between which are layers of an elastic substance 
called cartilage. These are called sutures. 
Movable Joints. The ends of the bones in these joints 
are covered with a soft, smooth, elastic cartilage and 
fit perfectly one upon the other. This substance is 
thickest where the wear is greatest. In addition, the 
ends of the bones are covered with a thin membrane, 
which is called synovial membrane, because it secretes a 
fluid not unlike the white of an egg. This fluid lubri- 
cates the joints, causes smoothness of motion, and 
prevents the wear of friction. 
Joints of the Vertebrae. Between the vertebrae are 
cushions of cartilage. This not only makes the back- 
bone capable of bending forward, backward, and side- 
ways, but makes the whole column a set of springs, 
which aids in protecting the brain from sudden jars. 
If the spine remains bent for a long time in one posi- 
tion, the cartilage becomes compressed on one side, and, 
soon losing its power to return to its original shape, 
tends to remain wedge-shaped. In a short time we find THE TEETH. 
9 
permanent curvature of the spine. This occurs when 
students are allowed to bend over the desk to bring their 
eyes nearer their books, instead of lifting their books 
nearer the eyes. Book-keepers find their right shoulder 
elevated above the left. Be careful to have pupils keep 
as nearly an erect posture as possible. 
Subdivision of Movable Joints. These joints are classi- 
fied as to the manner of their articulations, as hall and 
socket, hinge, and compound joints. The shoulder and 
hip joints are good examples of the first, the knee and 
elbow of the second, and the wrist of the last. The ball 
and socket joint gives great freedom of motion, as we 
know we can move the arm in nearly every direction. 
The hinge joint allows the bones to open and close as 
the hinges on a door allows the door to open and close. 
The compound joint allows many motions, but few of 
them to any distance. 
THE TEETH. 
Structure and Use. Human teeth are bony structures, 
implanted along the margin of the jaws for the purpose 
of reducing the food to fragments, thus enabling the 
digestive fluids to act to best advantage. 
Classes. Two sets of teeth are developed during life— 
the first the temporary or milk teeth, ten in each jaw, 
viz., four incisors, two canines, and four molars; the 
second, the permanent teeth, sixteen in each jaw, viz., 10 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
four incisors, two canines, four bicuspids, and six molars. 
The permanent set have the incisors with their chisel- 
shaped edges formed for cutting, the canines with their 
sharp edges for cutting and tearing, and the molars for 
grinding. The last permanent molars, or wisdom teeth, 
seldom make their appearance before the eighteenth 
year, and often do not make their appearance till ten 
years later. 
Parts. Each tooth consists of 
1. Crown or body, the part projecting above the gum. 
This is the part exposed to wear, and is protected by a 
sheath of enamel. 
2. Neck, the portion between the crown and fang. 
3. Root or fang, the portion imbedded in the socket. 
Structure. The tooth is composed chiefly of: 
1. Dentine or ivory, which is found in the tooth as 
the second layer in the crown, and within a thin layer of 
true bone in the fang. It is easily eaten away by acids 
formed in the mouth from decaying food. It is covered 
in the crown by a substance called: 
2. Enamel. This is the hardest known substance in 
the body, containing only 3.5 per cent, of animal matter. 
So long as this substance is not cracked, broken, or de- 
stroyed, the teeth will remain healthy. 
3. Pulp. At the centre of the tooth is a soft, reddish, 
vascular tissue filling a cavity. This pulp is very sensi- 
tive to pain, and irritation causes the tooth-ache. 
Causes of Decay. Parts of food are often left imbedded 
between the teeth, and the effect of heat and moisture 
causes decomposition. In this way a substance is formed 
which gradually destroys the enamel. The saliva by THE TEETH. 
11 
evaporation leave a sediment upon the teeth. This is 
called tartar. Matter of various kinds collects in this 
tartar and a fungus springs up. This also aids in de- 
stroying the enamel. 
The enamel is often cracked by placing cold substances 
in the mouth. The enamel suddenly contracts, and the 
excessive strain causes it to part. Too warm substances 
will cause the enamel to expand and tend to fold on the 
surface, which also will cause it to crack. 
Care of the Teeth. Brush the teeth every morning and 
evening to remove the sediments of evaporated saliva. 
Brush the teeth at least twice a week with some reliable 
tooth-powder to remove sediment that has been left be- 
hind. 
Remove particles of food from between the teeth by 
a quill or wooden tooth-pick. Never use a pin or metal 
tooth-pick. 
If necessary to take medicine containing acid, take it 
through a glass tube. 
Have your teeth examined regularly by a reputable 
dentist, and have each small cavity filled. 
Remember that the falling out of the filling from the 
teeth of young people is not always the dentist’s fault. 
The substance of the teeth in young people is softer than 
in older persons, and the filling is more liable to drop 
out. But do not be discouraged; let every cavity be 
filled and refilled if necessary. The time will come 
when the substance of the tooth will be hard enough to 
hold the filling, and a good set of teeth is the result. 
In young people the teeth grow, and oftentimes this 
alone will enlarge the cavity around the hard filling, 12 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
allowing it to drop out. Some plastic filling should be 
used, and the teeth kept filled with it till they stop 
growing and the substance becomes thoroughly hard- 
ened, when it may be removed and gold substituted. 
MUSCLES. 
Structure. Within the body is a tissue connected with 
hones, cartilages, ligaments, or skin, which has the power 
of shortening when irritated mechanically or by nerve 
force. It is made up into bundles, which consist of 
fibres running lengthwise of the bundle. Each fibre is 
made up of small cells arranged like beads on a string. 
The arrangement of many of these fibres in a bundle 
gives great strength, while the peculiar arrangement of 
the cells in each fibre gives great elasticity. 
Attachment. The ends of the muscles are generally 
attached to the bone by a strong, flexible, but inelastic 
substance called tendons. The tendons are attached to 
the periosteum with which it becomes blended, and 
to the tissue under the skin. Some muscles have more 
than one tendon at either one end or the other. The 
biceps have two points of attachment at their upper por- 
tions. The triceps have three. The most fixed point of 
a muscle is called its origin, the point toward which the 
muscular force is directed is called the insertion. 
Ligaments. This is an elastic tissue, often of a yellow- 
ish color. It is useful in joints for holding the bones 
together, and is used in bands at the wrists and ankles 
to keep the tendons in place. MUSCLES. 
13 
Function. Muscles are useful in giving form to the 
body, and to produce movements, which vary according 
to rapidity and power of their contraction. 
Kinds. Muscles are classified according to whether 
their movements are under control of the will-power or 
not, as: voluntary and involuntary. The voluntary are 
entirely under control of the will-power, and are striped 
or striated; while the involuntary are controled solely 
by nerve centres, over which the will-power has no direct 
influence. 
Exception. The heart, although made up of striated 
muscle, beats independently of the will. 
Necessity of Exercise. The effect of exercise upon a 
muscle is very marked. By proper use the muscle will 
become hard' and compact and will gain in strength, 
whiie by disuse the muscle becomes soft, flabby, and 
weak. Violent exercise will tear down faster than it 
can be built up, and is very injurious. Moderate ex- 
ercise is necessary for health. That exercise is best 
which calls into action as many of the muscles of the 
body as possible. A system of movements so arranged 
that they can be used in any school-room is very desir- 
able. Then at certain times of day, after having sat 
upon the benches for a time, these exercises can be used 
and the pupils become rested. Violent exercise, such as 
wrestling, or any other that may cause danger to life or 
limb, should be carefully prohibited. Riding, walking, 
rowing, swimming, and innocent out-door games are ex- 
cellent for exercise. 
A Law of Health. “ Take moderate exercise daily, 
but alway stop short of fatigue.” 14 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Time for Exercise. Do not exercise much immediately 
after a meal, unless the exercise be very light. It is 
sometimes recommended to take a' long walk before 
breakfast. This is suited for strong, healthy people, but 
is detrimental to the delicate or weak. 
Exercise Immediately after Meals. This is injurious, 
because during exercise the blood is taken into the 
muscles for use. In order that the stomach digestion 
may begin, the temperature must be raised to one 
hundred degrees. This is done by an excess of blood 
flowing around the stomach. If it is called to the 
muscles, the quantity needed around the stomach will 
not be supplied and digestion will cease. 
COMPOSITION OF THE BODY AND THE MOST 
IMPORTANT SUBSTANCES USED AS FOOD. 
Chemical Basis of Body. Of the sixty-three elements 
found in nature, only a very small number are found in 
any quantity in the body, although traces of many are 
frequently found. Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and 
nitrogen are found in large quantities in every tissue, 
making up about 97 per cent, of the whole body. Sulphur, 
sodium, calcium, chlorine, flourine, silica, iron, and many 
others are widely distributed, but occur in small quan- 
tities. Since the body is composed of these different ele- 
ments in an established proportion, it is clearly evident 
that the food should contain these elements in much the 
same proportions. 
A Typical Food. Milk and its preparations contain COMPOSITION OF THE BODY. 
15 
all the constituents necessary for life and growth, and. is 
a complete typical food. Milk consists of ten parts of 
proteids, ten parts of fats, and twenty parts of sugar. 
Eggs are next to milk the most typical food. 
Classes of Food Necessary for Maintenance of Health. 
There are five classes of food necessary for maintenance 
of health, as follows,—1st, the starches used for the pur- 
pose of adding fat and heat to the body; 2d, the fats 
used for the purpose of maintaining bodily heat; 3d, 
ablbuminous foods used to add force to the system; 4th, 
water used to carry out the many different processes; 
5th, salts absolutely necessary for the maintenance of 
health. 
Fats are often formed from proteids; this is proved by 
the fact that the cow does not consume as much fat in a 
day as she gives in butter. 
The body is a most wonderful chemical laboratory, 
capable of uniting elements from different substances 
taken into it, forming new substances to be utilized in 
growth and maintaining health. 
Proteids and Carbohydrates. The substances taken 
into the body are classed as Proteids and carbohydrates. 
The Proteids include all compounds that contain the 
elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sul- 
phur. They consist of the albumens, the peptones, the 
globulins, and fibrin. The carbohydrates include the 
starches, sugars, and fats. 
White of egg. 
Casein, the chief part of cheese. 
Lean meat. 
Gluten, the sticky part of dough. 
Proteids. 16 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
More Than one Kind of Food Needed. A person fed 
on one kind of food would die. Starch, as an example, 
would not supply any nitrogen to the body, and the 
person would starve. Some foods contain many elements, 
and life could be supported by them for a long time. 
Few foods contain the elements in the right proportion. 
Lean meat contains most elements, but it would require 
such a large quantity to supply some of the elements in 
sufficient quantities that the digestive apparatus would 
be overtaxed. Nature demands and instinct responds 
to the call for a mixture of foods. Beans are baked with 
pork, cheese is taken with maccaroni, rice is boiled with 
milk, and our bread is spread with' butter. Our teeth 
indicate that a mixed diet should be used, since we have 
the incisors to cut the vegetables, the canines to tear the 
flesh, and molars to grind both, 
METABOLISM, 
The taking of substances derived from the food into 
the tissues, and the making of them an integral part of 
their own bodies, together with the breaking down of 
these tissues and the removal of the results of their 
destruction, is called Metabolism. The first process is 
called assimilation, the second excretion. 
The Body a Storehouse. The body does not merely 
assimilate sufficient food to replace exactly those particles 
destroyed, but it does more than this, and acts as a store- 
house from which on a sudden, requirement nutriment 
or energy may be derived. DIGESTION\ 
17 
DIGESTION. 
Digestion. By this we mean the changes which are 
produced in the food, in order that it may be absorbed 
into the blood and then he capable of performing various 
functions. 
Forms of Digestion. There are three portions of the di- 
gestive apparatus in which changes take place in the food, 
namely; mouth, stomach, and small intestines. The 
change in the food in the mouth is called salivary diges- 
tion, that in the stomach gastric digestion, that in the 
small intestines intestinal digestion. 
Salivary Digestion. Situated within the mouth are 
glands which secrete each day from 7 to GO ounces of a 
liquid known as saliva. Its direct digestive function 
is to convert starch into sugar. It has, however, other 
functions which may be called mechanical. It aids the 
mucous glands situated within the mouth to keep the 
mouth moist, facilitating the mastication of food, the 
movements of the tongue, and speaking. Another im- 
portant office is to dissolve solid substances taken into 
the mouth so that they may be tasted. By mixing with 
the food dry substances become soft, are easily swallowed, 
and more easily digested. 
Salivary Glands. These are six in number, three com- 
pound racemose glands on each side. The parotid, the 
largest, lies below and in front of the ear; the submax- 
illary lies below the jaw on the side; and the sublingual 
in front beneath the membrane of the floor of the mouth. 18 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY 
The Saliva. This is a mixture of the secretions of the 
three pairs of salivary glands. It is chiefly water, but 
contains very small quantities of various substances. It 
contains a peculiar ferment called ptyalin, which has the 
power of acting upon starch, converting it into sugar. 
Sugar Formed by Action of Saliva. The sugar formed 
by the action of saliva upon starch is called maltose. 
It differs from glucose by having one lessll20 in its com- 
position. It finally is further acted upon, and the mal- 
tose is changed into grape sugar proper. 
Experiment. Moisten some starch with saliva and 
place in an air-tight vessel, and let stand over night. 
Upon examination it will be found to have changed. 
What is this change, and what has caused it? 
Object of Cooking Starchy Foods. All starchy foods 
consist of granules of starch having a cellulose covering. 
By boiling, this covering is broken and the ferment is 
thus enabled to act more freely upon the starch. 
Mastication is the process of making the food fine and 
mixing it with saliva. 
The Tongue. The functions of this important organ 
is to keep the food between the teeth, in which it is as- 
sisted by the muscles of the cheeks and lips, to break up 
soft food by pressing it against the roof of the mouth, tc 
aid in modifying sounds, and by its nerves to aid in 
taste. 
Gastric Digestion acts ttpon the proteids, converting 
them into peptones. (See “The Stomach,”page 19). 
Intestinal Digestion prepares the fats for assimilation 
and changes proteids into peptones. (See Small Intes- 
tines.) THE STOMACH. 
THE STOMACH. 
Shape, Position, and Size. The stomach is irregularly 
conical with a round base turned to the left side. It 
lies immediately behind the front wall of the abdomen, 
below the liver and diaphragm, and above the colon. It 
has two openings: one entering near the heart, called the 
cardiac opening, the other, the one through which the 
food passes out after stomach digestion, is called the 
pylorus. This opening is on the right side, and is 
guarded by numerous circular muscular fibres forming 
a thick ring. This is called the pyloric valve. Since 
the contents of the stomach passes out on the right side, 
it is best to recline upon this side, especially if lying 
down soon after a meal. The stomach will hold about 
three pints. 
Gastric Juice. Within the stomach are glands secret- 
ing a fluid called gastric juice. It is tolerably clear, 
straw colored, of acid reaction, sour taste, and has a pe- 
culiar characteristic odor. The quantity secreted in 
twenty-four hours amounts to from ten to fourteen 
pints. The gastric juice contains, first, pepsin, the fer- 
ment which dissolves proteids, second, hydrochloric acid, 
the chief acid found. Lactic acid is also found, but this 
is due to chemical change. Lactic acid acts upon the 
proteids in much the same manner as does hydrochloric 
acid. It is the milk-curdling ferment. 
Pepsin. Most physiologists claim that pepsin does 
not exist in the glands ready formed, but that it is due 20 
THE STANDARD TIIYSIOLOGY. 
to the presence of a compound, which forms pepsin as 
soon as it comes in contact with the acid in the stomach. 
This fact is known that it does not act only in acidu- 
lated liquids. Pepsin during its action does not suffer any 
change, it acts simply by catalysis. A portion of the 
pepsin is destroyed. 
Chyme. The mixture of food and gastric juice is 
known as chyme. As it passes out of the stomach it is 
of a grayish color, and consists of starch partially acted 
upon by the saliva, cane-sugar which has been slowly 
changed by the gastric juice into glucose, the dissolved 
albumens, fats broken up by their albuminous sacs hav- 
ing been dissolved, and a quantity of gastric juice. 
Action and Absorption. After the food enters the 
stomach it is acted upon by the gastric juice, and is kept 
in continual movement by the action of the muscular 
coat. The rotary movement toward the pylorus con- 
tinues as long as any food remains in the stomach. This 
is called the Peristaltic movement. The changes which 
the food undergoes are partly mechanical and partly 
chemical. 
A portion of the food digested in the stomach, to- 
gether with indigestible liquids, are immediately ab- 
sorbed into the blood. It is then carried to the heart 
and sent on its usual course through the lungs. Alcohol 
is absorbed in this way to quite an extent. This accounts 
for its odor being in the breath so soon after drinking. 
Nature tries to throw off in every way this injurious and 
indigestible substance. THE LIVER. 
21 
THE LIFER. 
Description. The liver is the largest gland in the 
body; in an adult man it weighs from three to four 
pounds. It is located on the right side, below the dia- 
phragm. It differs from other glands in its chief supply 
of blood being venous. All the blood from the spleen, 
the stomach, and the intestines passes through the liver 
before it reaches the general circulation. The blood- 
vessels are derived from two sources: first, the venous, 
which enters by means of the vena porta, and the second, 
the arterial, which are branches of the hepatic artery. 
Functions. The functions of the liver are three: the 
secrection of bile, the formation of glycogen, and the 
destruction of worn out blood cells. 
Bile. The bile is a true secretion, being produced by 
the cells of the glands. It is a yellowish-brown or dark 
green transparent fluid with a very bitter taste. The 
secretion consisting of bile acids is carried to a small 
pear-shaped receptacle called the gall-bladder. This 
bladder, some three or four inches long, and capable of 
holding about ten fluid drachms, lies in a fissure on the 
under surface of the liver. The secretion which came 
from the liver is here mixed with a mucus which 
makes it viscid. This mucus is secreted by the wall of 
the gall-bladder. The quantity of bile secreted each 
day is estimated to be about seventeen ounces. The 
bile is emptied into the duodenum where it aids in 
digestion. 22 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Functions of the Bile. The bile lias the power of 
breaking up or emulsifying the fats. It lubricates the 
walls of the intestines, and it increases the osmotic 
power of the wall of the intestines in order that the fats 
may be more easily absorbed. 
Glycogen. The use of this substance in the body is 
not really known. It is an animal starch, and is changed 
into sugar by a ferment. It is probably derived from 
the carbohydrates of the food. It is closely allied to 
starch, and readily convertible by fermentation into 
grape-sugar and alcohol. It is not, however, converted 
into grape-sugar in the healthy human body, although 
it is possible that it is converted into sugar in disease. 
It is probably either converted into fat or oxidized for 
the production of heat or work. 
The liver must be considered as an excretory organ as 
well as an organ secreting a useful product. By secret- 
ing the bile, it removes poisons from the blood. Should 
the liver fail to perform this office, the poison is left in 
the blood, and jaundice is the result. If the liver cannot 
be excited to action, the person dies with symptoms of 
poison. 
PANCREAS AND SPLEEN. 
Back of the stomach lies a large racemose gland known 
as the pancreas. This gland furnishes a thick, trans- 
parent, odorless, saltish juice which is brought into the 
duodenum. This contains at least four ferments, and is 
a powerful and important digestive fluid. A large por- 
tion of the starch of the food is unchanged by the 
saliva; this passes into the duodenum and is dissolved THE INTESTINES AND LYMPHATIC SYS TEAL 
23 
by the pancreatic secretion. The residue of the albu- 
men left undigested in the stomach is also acted upon 
by this digestive secretion as well as the fats of the food 
which are dissolved and changed into fatty acids and 
glycerine. These fatty acids unite with a portion of the 
secretion and form a soapy liquid. The chyme which 
came from the stomach has become emulsified, changing 
into a white, opaque liquid called chyle. 
Spleen. The soft, brittle, very vascular, oblong, duct- 
less organ embracing the cardiac end of the stomach is 
called the spleen. The functions are uncertain. Sir J. 
Paget called the spleen the graveyard of the red, and the 
birthplace of the white, blood corpuscles. It is probable 
that the former undergo disintegration, and the latter 
are developed in the spleen. The spleen becomes con- 
siderably enlarged after the digestion of a full meal, and 
it is probable that the nitrogenous products undergo 
considerable modification in the spleen. 
THE INTESTINES AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 
The Intestines. The length of the intestines is about 
twenty-five feet. They are divided into two classes, the 
small, some twenty feet long, and the large, about five 
feet long. The small intestine has three divisions, the 
duodenum, the jejunum and the illeum. 
The Duodenum, as long as the breadth of twelve fingers, 
i.e., eight to ten inches, is the part which receives the 
food as it passes from the stomach through the pylorus. 
Into this pass obliquely the common bile and pancrea- 
tic ducts. The mucous membrane lining the small 
intestine contains glands which secrete a yellow, strongly 24 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
alkaline fluid called the intestinal fluid. This secretion 
probably assists in the solution of the albumens of the 
food. 
Jejunum, so called because usually empty after death, 
includes about nine feet of the small intestine. 
Illeum includes the remainder of the small intestine. 
This opens into the commencement of the large intes- 
tine, the orifice being guarded by a two-leaved valve. 
Absorption. The function of the small intestine is to 
hold the food for the completion of digestion, and to 
absorb from the digested food, called chyle, the nutri- 
tious part. To carry on the process of absorption the 
wall of the intestine is furnished with small processes 
called villi, containing blood-vessels and lacteals. Each 
villus contains blood-capillaries which absorb sugars and 
proteids, and a lacteal which absorbs the fats. The 
greater part of the absorption is carried on in the upper 
half of the small intestine. 
Portal Circulation. The sugars and proteids which 
have been absorbed into the blood in the capillaries of 
the villi are carried by the veins into the large vein 
called the portal vein. This blood, after passing through 
the liver and having bile taken from it, and changed in 
other respects not well understood, finds its way upward 
by the hepatic vein, and is emptied into the vena cava, 
which in turn pours it into the heart. 
The Lymphatics and Lacteals. That portion of the 
food taken up by the lacteals has a milk-like appear- 
ance, hence the name. The lacteals unite and finally 
form lymphatic network, which end in a sac-like recep- 
tacle, called the receptaculum chyli. At this point is 
met the lymphatics of the lower extremities. The THE INTESTINES AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 
25 
chyle receptacle opens into tlie thoracic duct, which is 
about the size of a goose-quill, and extends upward in 
front of the spinal column and behind the esophagus. 
At the upper end of this duct there is a crook, much 
resembling the bended part of a shepherd’s crook, which 
turns forward and downward, emptying into the junc- 
tion of the left jugular and the left subclavian vein. 
Thus we see that the different classes of nutrition, 
although travelling by different routes, find themselves 
mingling with each other and with the impure blood, 
which, after passing through the right side of the heart, 
then through the lungs, then back to the left side of 
the heart, is sent coursing through the body, where the 
nutrition is deposited, or where some product is separated 
from the blood. 
The Large Intestine receives through the two-leaved 
valves opening into it the remainder of the liquid 
from which the absorbents of the small intestine has 
extracted the nutrition. 
Function. The main function of the large intestine is 
to absorb the liquids from the matter coming from the 
small intestine. 
Divisions. The main divisions of the large intestine 
are the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the 
descending colon, and the rectum. 
Appendix Vermiformis. Springing from the head or 
beginning of the colon is a narrow, blind-ended worm- 
like tube, from three to six inches long. Its function is 
not known. Grape and other seeds occasionally enter the 
opening, cause inflammation and oftentimes death. 
When the waste matter remains too long in the large 
intestine nearly all the moisture, as well as poisonous 2 6 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
matter, is absorbed into the system, giving rise to 
unpleasant conditions. This state should be carefully 
avoided by means of exercise, drinking quantities of 
water on empty stomachs especially early in morning, 
plenty of exercise in open air, and laxative foods. 
Secretion and Excretion. Various glands and mem- 
branes of the body directly or indirectly separate from 
the blood, by a process peculiar to a gland or membrane, 
some product. This product is called an excretion when 
it is passed out of the body as waste, and a secretion 
when it carries on some function in the body. The 
following are examples of each kind. 
Kidney— Urea. 
*Liver—Bile. 
*Sweat glands—Watery liquid. 
Excreting 
Glands. 
Salivary glands—Saliva. 
Stomach— Gastric juice. 
*Liver—Bile. 
Pepsin. 
Hydrochloric acid. 
Pancreas—Pancreatic juice. 
Small Intestine—Intestinal juice. 
Pericardium—Lulrricaiing liquid. 
Lacrymal glands—Tears. 
*Sweat glands— Watery liquid. 
Sebaceous glands—Oily matter. 
Pleura —Lubricating fluid. 
Synovial sac—Egg-like fluid. 
Modified sweat glands—Ear-wax 
Secreting 
Glands. 
Each of these glands and its excretions or secretions 
is described under its appropriate head. 
Secretions differ in character. Some are mere filtra- 
tions of substances already found in the blood, as for 
examples, tears and perspiration, while others are known 
* These glands act both as excreting and secreting glands. TILE BLOOD. 
as true secretions, being produced by the cells of the 
glands, viz.: bile, pancreatine, etc. 
THE BLOOD. 
Function and Description. The blood serves in the 
distribution of nutritious materials, and collects the sub- 
stances, which have resulted from the changes con- 
stantly going on, and carries them to the excretory or- 
gans. It also acts as a regulator of temperature, and 
keeps up a constant intercourse between the tissues and 
the air, supplying them with oxygen and giving off the 
carbonic-dioxide which it carries to the lungs. Blood 
consists of a pale straw-colored fluid, the plasma in 
which float a vast number of red and white disk-like 
bodies known as corjmscles. 
Color of the Blood. As the blood is found in the blood- 
vessels leading from the heart to all parts of the body, 
except to the lungs, it is of a bright scarlet-red, while 
the blood going to the heart, except that from the lungs, 
is of a dark-bluish color. The blood of a bright scarlet- 
red color contains more oxygen and less carbonic-diox- 
ide than the dark-blue blood. The scarlet-red blood 
carries the oxygen to the capillaries, where it is taken 
up by the tissues, and, uniting with the carbon found in 
them, forms a new gas called carbonic-dioxide. This 
chemical union forms heat, hence the blood leaving the 
capillaries is warmer than the blood which enters them. 
The loss of the oxygen and the addition of the new gas, 
together with other waste matter, has caused the color 
to change from its bright scarlet-red to the dark blue. 28 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Red and White Corpuscles. The corpuscles give the 
color to the blood. Because the red ones are greatly in 
excess is the reason for the color of the blood. The red 
corpuscles carry oxygen and nutrition to the various 
parts of the body, but the use of the white ones is not 
clearly understood. 
Quantity of Blood. The blood makes up from one- 
tenth to one-tliirteenth part of the weight of the body. 
Coagulation. When blood is drawn from the body it 
is perfectly fluid, but becomes thick, forming a clot 
having the appearance of a solid mass of gelatine. This 
clotting is due to the presence of a substance called 
fibrin, which becomes solid. This fibrin forms into a net, 
which entangles the corpuscles and forms a blood-clot. 
The fibrin is a part of the plasma, which has separated 
into two parts fibrin and serum. The serum is a 
yellowish transparent fluid. It is of an adhesive nature, 
and when the body is cut, it is given off by the blood 
and aids in holding the severed parts together. 
Blood when coagulated is as follows: 
Blood 
Plasma 
lied and | 
White Corpuscles 
Fibrin 
Serum 
Clot 
This contains tibrin and corpuscles. THE HEART. 
29 
THE HEART. 
The heart of an adult weighs about nine ounces, and is 
about the size of the closed hand. The heart is a hollow 
muscle having four cavities. It is divided so that the 
cavities on the right side have no communication with 
those on the left, but the two cavities on either side 
are connected by valves. The upper cavities are called 
auricles from their supposed resemblance to a dog’s ear. 
The one on the upper right side is called the right 
auricle, the one on the left the left auricle. The cavities at 
the lower part of the heart are called ventricles, tak- 
ing the names right ventricle and left ventricle accord- 
ing to location. The heart is conical in shape, having 
its apex downward and toward the left side. 
Action of Heart. The right side of the heart receives 
the dark blue blood from the vena cava. It is received 
into the right auricle, where it passes through the tri- 
cuspid valve into the right ventricle. It is there forced 
out into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. 
The blood here gives up its carbonic-dioxide, takes on 
oxygen, and returns to the left auricle, through the pul- 
monary vein. The blood, now of a bright scarlet hue, 
passes through the bicuspid valves into the left ventricle, 
from which it is forced out through the aorta into the 
arteries, by which it is distributed over all parts of the 
body. 
Power of Heart. The heart sends out from each ven- 
tricle at each beat from four to six ounces of blood, with 30 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
a force sufficient to lift three pounds one foot. Of this 
work the left ventricle does about three-fourths. The 
heart in a single day exerts enough force to lift one ton 
over one hundred twenty feet. 
Movements of the Heart. When the heart closes to 
force out the blood, the movement is called systole, and 
when expanding, diastole. There is a pause following 
each expansion. Hence the heart takes a rest after 
each beat. This amounts to several hours per day. 
Pericardium. Surrounding the heart is a protecting 
membrane called the pericardium. This consists of 
two layers which secrete a quantity of liquid for lubri- 
cating their surfaces as they move one upon the other. 
Functions of Blood-vessels. The blood-vessels carry 
blood to and from the various parts of the body. They 
are divided into three classes: the arteries and arterioles, 
carrying blood from the heart; the capillaries, bringing 
the blood into close relation with the tissues ; and the 
veins, carrying the blood back to the heart. 
Arteries. These are hollow tubes carrying blood to the 
capillaries, which are situated in all parts of the body. 
The arteries contain no valves, but consist of three layers. 
The inside one forms a smooth surface for the blood to 
pass over, the outside one an elastic layer, while between 
them is a muscular layer which regulates the amount of 
blood received by each part. This coat is necessary, as 
it is manifest that the heart cannot regulate the supply 
of blood sent to each portion of the body. 
Capillaries. The capillaries not only carry blood, but, 
owing to the construction of their walls, they enable the 
blood to come in intimate relations with the tissues. RESPIRA TION. 
By the blood thus coming so intimately connected with 
the tissue, it is enabled to deposit nourishment, give up 
its oxygen, and take in return what lias been chemically 
united. They take from the blood the nourishment, and 
give it off as a fluid known as lymph, whose function is 
to irrigate and nourish. 
Veins. In most veins are valves which flap back against 
the side as the blood flows onward toward the heart. 
Thus the blood cannot be forced backward by any 
cause. The walls of veins are not so thick, strong, or 
elastic as are those of the arteries—the strength and 
elasticity not being needed, as the blood simply flows 
through the veins and is not forced through as it is in 
the arteries. The blood is aided in its course through 
the veins by a contraction of the voluntary muscles, 
indirect action of the valves in the veins, and by suction 
produced by the movements of the thorax in breathing. 
Pulse. At certain portions of the body arteries come 
near the surface. If the finger be placed over these 
blood-vessels a beating can be felt. These beats are 
caused by the heart forcing the blood into the arteries. 
Each'pulse represents a heart beat. 
RESPIRATION. 
The Respiratory Apparatus. This consists of the lungs, 
bronchial tubes, trachea and larynx. The lungs are sur- 
rounded by a double membrane called the Pleura. One 
layer is attached to the lungs, the other to the chest 
wall. This membrane secretes a fluid to lubricate their 
surfaces as they move one upon another. 32 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Lungs. The lungs consist of two parts separated by 
the heart and its openings. They are divided into lobes, 
the right lung having three, the left lung only two. The 
lungs weigh about forty-two ounces, the right one being 
about two ounces heavier than the left. 
Trachea. The membranous, cylindrical air-tube, ex- 
tending downward from the larynx to opposite the fourth 
or fifth dorsal vertebra, is called the Trachea. 
Larynx. (See page 43.) 
Bronchial Tubes. The trachea divides into two parts 
forming the right and the left hronehus. These extend 
into the lungs, dividing and subdividing to form the 
bronchial tubes. At the termination of each tube there is 
found an air cell, in which are small recesses measuring 
from one two-hundredths to one-seventieth of an inch in 
diameter. These are separated from each other by a 
delicate membrane, between the layers of which lies the 
plexus formed by the pulmonary artery. The blood is 
thus exposed to the air on two surfaces. 
Osmose. There is a law of nature, in accordance with 
which gases, if separated by a thin membrane, will 
rapidly pass through and mix with considerable force. 
This phenomenon is called osmose. It is in obedience 
to this law that the carbonic-dioxide of the blood passes 
outward through the membrane into the air, and the 
oxygen of the air passes inward through the membrane 
and mixes with the blood. 
From Blue to Red. The color of the blood is here 
changed. As it loses the carbonic-dioxide and takes on 
oxygen the color changes from the dark blue to the 
bright scarlet. The blood also gives off into the air RESP1RA TIOiV. 
33 
other effete products which have been held in the blood 
in the form of gases. 
Breathing. The taking or drawing in of the air into 
the lungs is called inspiration. The side walls and front, 
of the chest move upward and outward, forming a vacuum 
and the air rushes in to fill the cavity. The sending of 
the air out of the lungs is called expiration. This is 
ordinarily accomplished by the weight of the chest, which 
sinks down, displacing the air. 
Changes in the Air caused by Respiration. 
1. Expired air warmer than inspired air. 
2. Expired air contains more carbonic-dioxide. 
3. Expired air contains more effete matter. 
4. Expired air contains large quantities of watery 
vapor. 
5. Inspired air contains more oxygen than expired air. 
Capacity of the Lungs. The amount of air that can be 
forced out of the lungs after a forced inspiration is called 
the vital capacity. 
Tidal Air. We do not usually breathe into our lungs 
all the air that they will contain. Nor do we usually 
force out all the air we possibly can. The amount of air 
ordinarily taken in at each respiration is about thirty 
cubic inches. This is called tidal air. 
Complemental Air. The amount of air that can be 
taken in after an ordinary inspiration is called compile- 
mental air. 
Reserve Air. The amount of air that can be volunta- 
rily forced out after ordinary expiration is called reserve 
air. It amounts to about one hundred cubic inches. 
Residual Air. There remains within our lungs about 34 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
one hundred twenty cubic inches which cannot be forced 
out. This is known as residual air. 
Amount of Carbonic-Dioxide Exhaled. While this is 
influenced by many conditions the average amount given 
off by a man in an hour equals 1346 cubic inches. 
Amount of Oxygen used. Of the oxygen taken into the 
lungs about per cent is abstracted. 
Experiment. Consider the amount of oxygen in a cubic 
foot of air at 20 per cent. The amount of this used 
in each breath is per cent, of the amount of oxygen 
breathed into the lungs. The number of inspira- 
tions is 16 per minute, and the amount of air breathed 
each inspiration as 30 cubic inches. Take into account 
the size of your school-room, the number of occupants, 
and find how long it will take to use all the oxygen in 
your room. 
Second Experiment. Consider the above, and add to 
your calculation that each person gives off 1346 cubic 
inches of carbonic-dioxide and see how long before the 
air in the room will contain 50 per cent of this gas. 
By use of these examples show the need of ventilation. 
ANIMAL HEAT. 
Temperature of the Body. The temperature at which 
the body of a warm blooded animal is maintained is 
known as animal heat. The normal temperature of man 
is ninety-eight and five-eighths degrees F. 
Change in Temperature. While temperature in health 
varies only a fraction of a degree, yet age, sex, time of THE KIDNEYS. 
35 
day, exercise, climate, food, and drink all have an influ- 
ence upon it. In disease, temperature varies greatly. 
In Asiatic cholera it often falls as low as 80 degrees, 
while in fever it may rise as high as 106, or even 110 
degrees. 
Source of Animal Heat. Heat is obtained from the 
food taken into the body and from the oxygen taken in 
during respiration. The blood, during digestion, becomes 
loaded with more carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, than 
is needed for the repair of the tissues, and these gases 
uniting with the sulphates develop heat by chemical 
means very rapidly. The oxygen in the blood which is 
taken in during respiration is carried to the various 
parts of the body, where in the capillaries it unites with 
the carbon of the tissues forming carbonic-dioxide. This 
is given off into the air from the lungs. Blood which 
leaves the capillaries is much warmer than the blood 
received into them. 
THE KIDNEYS. 
Description. The kidneys are two bean-shaped glands, 
a little more than half the size of the closed fist, and 
weighing about five ounces. The left kidney is usually 
a little heavier than the right. They are located in the 
lumbar region, one on each side of the back bone, each 
kidney reaching from the eleventh rib down to the crest 
of the iliac, but the right a little lower down than the left. 
The kidneys are embedded in a mass of fat behind the 
peritoneum, which with the aid of their blood vessels 
retains them in place. 36 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Function. The work of the kidneys is to separate 
from the blood the substance by which the nitrogen of 
decomposed tissue is given otf. This substance is called 
urea. The quantity of solid excreted by the kidneys in 
the twenty-four hours varies from two to three ounces, 
about half of which consists of urea. Urea is a poison- 
ous matter, and if not removed from the blood will 
necessarily accumulate and cause disease. This secre- 
tion, unlike most others, cannot be utilized either in 
digestion or in any other process, hence must be removed 
from the system. The kidneys are sometimes called the 
“ exclusively excretory organs.” 
Action. The arteries which carry the blood to the 
kidneys are called renal arteries, and the veins which 
carry the blood from the kidneys to the large veins lead- 
ing to the heart are called renal veins. The kidneys do 
not act constantly but alternate in their action. The 
blood passes into the kidneys through the arteries, it 
then reaches the capillaries of the kidneys which have 
the power of removing the watery part of the blood con- 
taining urea. The blood is then taken up by the small 
veins and carried to the renal veins. 
THE SKIN. 
Description. The skin consists of a layer of vascular 
tissue called the dermis, cutis-vera, or true shin, covered 
by a layer of a liorny-like substance which has neither 
nerves nor blood vessels, called the epidermis, or cuticle. 
Underneath and within the true skin are several organs THE SKIN. 
37 
with special functions, as follows: the sweat glands, the 
sebaceous glands and the hair follicles. The surface of 
the true skin is covered with minute papilla which con- 
tain nerves, rendering the surface very sensitive. 
General Functions of the Skin. It acts as a protection 
of the deeper portions of the body, it contains excretory 
and absorbing organs, it affords surface for the spread- 
ing out of the nerves of feeling, and acts an important 
part in regulating the temperature of the body. 
Special Function of the Cuticle. It protects the papillae 
and forms a check upon evaporation from the skin. 
Sweat Glands. These glands pour out the moisture on 
the surface of the body, through spiral tubes which 
become straight as they approach the surface. 
Difference Between Sweat and Perspiration. Sweat is 
the name applied to the liquid which is secreted so fast 
that it gathers in drops on the surface; perspiration, to 
the moisture which is continually and unconsciously 
given off. 
Function of Perspiration and Sweat. They aid in cool- 
ing the body by their evaporation. Water to change 
into vapor absorbs a large amount of heat; thus the 
moisture upon the body in passing off into vapor absorbs 
heat from the body. 
Amount of Perspiration. This varies from one-half to 
two pints in twenty-four hours. If this function is 
interfered with, it causes too great strain upon the 
kidneys, to which the skin acts as a supplementary 
organ. 
Sebaceous Glands. These glands secrete a lubricating 
fluid or oily matter which keeps the skin soft and pli- 38 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
able. They open into the hair follicles, and are most 
abundant on the head. 
The Hairs. These are a modified form of the epidermis. 
They each have a root, springing from a vascular papilla 
at the bottom of an involution of the epidermis, called 
a hair follicle. Into the hair follicle open one or more 
sebaceous glands. 
The Nails. These are flattened, horny structures of 
modified epithelium. They cover the tops of the toes 
and fingers. They are for protection and to aid in pick- 
ing up articles. 
Sensibility of the Skin. The sensations received through 
the skin are obtained through the sense of touch. This 
is subdivided into three divisions. First, tactile sen- 
sibility, by means of which we recognize the slightest 
touch and the exact point of contact. Second, the sense 
of pressure or weight, by which we are able to judge of 
the compression exerted on a given area. Third, the 
sense of temperature, by which we are able to judge 
whether an object is hot or cold. It is from these divi- 
sions of the sense of touch that some authors derive 
more than the usual five senses. 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
Divisions. There are two divisions of the nervous 
system, the cerebrospinal, or that presiding over animal 
life, and the sympathetic, that regulating organic life, NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
39 
Structure. It is composed chiefly of two structures: 
the gray, originating impulses and receiving impressions, 
and the white, conducting impressions. 
Cerebro-spinal System. This consists of the brain, 
spinal ganglia, cranial nerves, and spinal nerves. 
Membranes Surrounding the Brain. The membrane 
which lines the skull constituting an interior periosteum 
is called the clura mater; beneath this is a delicate mem- 
brane called the arachnoid, and still beneath this is an- 
other membrane, which even dips into the convolu- 
tions of the underlying brain. This is called the pia 
mater. 
Divisions of the Brain. The divisions of the brain are 
the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons varolii, and medulla ob- 
longata. 
Functions of the Cerebrum. “ The cerebral hemispheres 
are the organs by which perception is carried on and 
from which motor impulses are given out. They con- 
tain the organ of the will; they possess memory, or the 
means of retaining impressions of sensible influences; 
and they are the medium of all the higher emotions and 
feelings. They carry on intellection as is evidenced by 
imagination, understanding, reflection, and judgment.” 
{Hare.) 
Functions of the Cerebellum. “ It is absolutely insen- 
sible to irritation and may be cut away without any signs 
of pain; its removal from the body or destruction by 
disease is generally unaccompanied by loss or disorder 
of sensibility. Animals from which it is removed can 
see, hear, and feel pain to all appearance as perfectly as 
before. It governs the coordination of movements, and 40 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
while irritation of the cerebellum produces no move- 
ments at all, remarkable results are produced by remov- 
ing part of its substance. As portion after portion of it 
is cut away the animal gradually loses the power of 
springing, walking, standing, or preserving its equilib- 
rium. If laid upon its back it cannot recover its 
normal posture but struggles to get up, and if a blow is 
threatened tries to avoid it, but fails to do so. Accord- 
ing to Gowers, the middle lobe of the cerebellum governs 
equilibrium by means of afferent fibres from the semi- 
circular canals and the ocular muscles and also the 
muscles of the legs.” {Hare.) 
Function of the Pons Varolii. “It contains a large 
number of nerve fibres both transverse and longitudinal, 
and is a conductor of impressions from one part of the 
spinal axis to another. Concerning its functions as a 
nerve centre little or nothing is certainly known.” 
{Hare.) 
Spinal Cord. This occupies the cavity of the back- 
bone. It extends from the brain down to the last ver- 
tebra. It is protected by the same membranes as the 
brain, but in the brain the gray matter is on the outside, 
while in the spinal cord the gray matter is within. It 
is divided into halves and these again subdivided into 
two parts. It contains two nerves of motion and two 
of feeling. The nerves of motion are the ones which 
carry the orders of the mind to the different organs, 
while the nerves of feeling bring back impressions which 
they receive. THE CRANIAL NERVES. 
THE CRANIAL NERNES. 
Plate XC. 1, 2, Cerebrum; 3, Cerebellum; 4, Medulla Ob- 
longata; 5, Spinal Cord; 6, First Spiral Nerve; 7, Second 
Spiral Nerve. 
9. Olfactory, or the first pair of nerves. This is the 
nerve of special sense by which odors are distinguished; 
in other words, it is the nerve of smell. It is distrib- 
uted to the mucous membrane of the nose. 
10. Optic Nerve is the nerve of sight and is distrib- 
uted to the retina of the eye. It conveys no other im- 
pulses than those of sight. 
11. 12, 13. Oculo-motor nerves are three pairs of nerves 
used to move the eyes. One pair seems to be devoted to 
the governing of the accommodation of the eye. 
14. Trifacial or fifth pair of nerves divide each into 
three parts. The first of which supplies the upper part 
of the face, eyes, and nose; the second division supplies 
the lower lid, the cheeks, nose, upper lip, and teeth of 
the upper jaw; the third supplies the muscles of mas- 
tication, teeth in the lower jaw, and the tongue where 
it forms the sense of taste. 
15. Facial or seventh pair of nerves are distributed 
over the face to give it expression. 
16. Auditory or eighth pair of nerves go to the ears 
and to the nerves of hearing. 
17. Glosso-pharyngeal or ninth pair of nerves are dis- 
tributed over the mucous membrane of the pharyiix and 
passes to the root of the tongue, the tonsils, the soft 
palate, and the tympanum. 42 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
18. Pneumogastric or tenth pair of nerves preside 
over the larynx, lungs, liver, stomach, with one branch 
extending to the heart. 
19. Spinal. Accessory or eleventh pair of nerves, rise 
from the spinal cord. They regulate the vocal move- 
ments of the larynx. 
20. Hypoglossal or twelfth pair of nerves give 
motion to the tongue, influences mastication, and artic- 
ulate language. 
THE VOICE AND SPEECH. 
Note.—In nearly all air-breathing vertebrates there is some 
arrangement for the production of sound in some part of the re- 
spiratory apparatus. Various modifications of this sound are pro- 
duced in some animals, while in man its modifications are so great 
as to permit speech. 
Larynx. The voice-organ, formed of cartilages united 
by ligaments at the upper end of the wind-pipe, is called 
the larynx. The lower part of the larynx is bounded on 
each side by thin membranous hands, which, extending 
from side to side, vibrate as the air rushes over them. 
This part of larynx is called the glottis. The sound is 
produced by the forcing of air outward over the bands or 
cords. The larynx acts simply as a cavity in which the 
vocal cords are situated. These are governed by the mus- 
cles of the larynx. Within this small space there are nine 
muscles which are so arranged as to stretch or relax the 
vocal cords. 
How the Voice or Sound is Produced. Within the 
glottis are false and true vocal cords. The false are two 
folds of mucous membrane, one on each side, These THE VOICE AND SPEECH. 
43 
false cords do not produce sound, although they indi- 
rectly influence vocalization. The true cords are two 
strong, yellow elastic, fibrous tissue bands. These cords 
produce sound by their vibrations, caused by the expira- 
tory air being forced through the glottis. 
Protection to the Glottis. At the base of the tongue, 
in front of the upper opening of larynx, is a leaf-shaped 
cartilage called the epiglottis, which shuts like a lid over 
the opening during the act of swallowing. This prevents 
the food or liquid from entering the passage to the 
lungs. Should this be opened by breathing while the 
food is passing, portions will enter the larynx and cause 
violent coughing. 
Differences in Sound. The vocal cords are capable of 
making differences in sound. Those distinguished by 
the ear are loudness, pitch, and quality. Only a few 
different sounds are made by the vocal cords. These 
sounds are modified by the lips, tongue, teeth, and pal- 
ate. 
Male and Female Voices. Including all forms of 
voice, the musical range extends over about three and 
one-half octaves; but a single individual can rarely sing 
more than two octaves. The lowest note of the female 
voice is about an octave higher than the lowest note of 
the male voice. The highest note of the female voice is 
about an octave higher than the highest note of the male. 
Whispering. When sound is not accompanied by the 
action of the vocal cords there is only a whisper. 
Effect of Epiglottis on Sound. When the epiglottis is 
pressed down so as to cover the cavity of the larynx, the 
sounds are rendered deeper in tone and fuller in quality. 44 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
THE SENSE OF TASTE. 
In the mucous membrane of the tongue, soft palate, 
and the upper portion of the pharynx, are found the 
endings of the nerves of taste. The chief sense of taste 
is situated in the tongue. This organ has two nerve 
supplies; the back part, capable of recognizing bitter sub- 
stances, is supplied by the glossopharyngeal nerve, while 
the tips of the tongue, recognizing sweets, is supplied by 
the lingual branch of the tri-facial nerve. 
Aid to the Sense of Taste. The sense of smell aids 
very much in the distinction of articles. If the nose be 
held close and the eyes are bandaged, no difference can 
be determined between a piece of apple, potato, or onion 
on the tongue. 
There are no nerves of taste in the lips. 
THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
Position. The sense of smell is found in the mucous 
membrane lining the upper portions of the nasal fossae, 
where the olfactory nerves are distributed. 
How Excited. The sense of smell is excited by fine 
bodies floating in the atmosphere. The extreme deli- 
cacy of smell can best be understood when we remember 
“ Valentin has estimated that two-millionths of a milli- 
gram of musk is sufficient to excite the olfactory nerves 
of man,” HEARING. 
45 
HEARING. 
The Ear. In man the organ of hearing is divided 
into three parts, of which two, the external ear, and the 
middle ear, are used to carry the waves of sound to the 
third or internal ear, which is designed to receive the 
vibrations. 
The organ of hearing, like the organ of sight, is double; 
but, by reason of the position of the ears, it is possible 
to lose the power of hearing in one ear, and retain that 
of the other. It is a common case to see an eye which is 
injured affect, by sympathy, the other eye. The reason 
for this is that the two ears do not communicate with 
each other, while the eyes do. Although there is no 
communication one with the other, we hear but one 
sound, because of the impression the sounds make on 
those parts which have a point of union in the brain. 
The two impressions mingle and become one. When 
there are several sounds carried to the ear, we have the 
power of selecting the one we wish to hear clearly and 
partially, excluding the other. We close our ear, as it 
were, when there are people on each side of us talking, 
and we hear only one distinctly. 
The organ of hearing is always in action, even when 
we sleep ; while the other senses slumber, the ear alone is 
on the watch to guard us. 
Divisions and Subdivisions. 
External ear, comprising 
Auricle, or pinna, 
External auditory canal. 46 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Membrana tympani, 
Cavity of tympanum, 
Mastoid cells, 
Eustachian tubes. 
Middle ear, or tympanum, 
comprising .... 
Vestibule, 
Semicircular cauals, 
Cochlea, 
Auditory nerve. 
Internal ear, or laby- 
rinth, comprising . . 
External Ear. The external ear is the only portion of 
the organ of hearing which can be seen, and is placed 
on either side of the head. In many animals the auricle 
or pinna, is certainly used to collect the waves of sound, 
and its movements serve to determine the direction from 
which the sounds come. Authorities differ as to its use 
in man; some claim it is simply a rudimentary structure, 
others, that it does collect sound, and the larger it is the 
more capable it is of hearing, because it is a common 
practice to place the hand behind the ear, in order to 
hear better. This fact, however, seems to be determined 
that the folds of the pinna in some way helps to direct 
or gather the waves of sound, because if the folds aTe 
covered with grease or wax, the ability to hear is greatly 
diminished. 
The external auditory canal commences at the concha 
of the pinna, and extends to the membrana tympani. 
The skin of this canal contains in its thickness a large 
number of glands which secrete a thick, greasy, yellow, 
bitter substance called cerumen (wax). The bitterness 
and consistency of the wax serve to prevent insects from 
entering the minor portion, and it being soft and adlie- hearing. 
47 
sive, serves to catch other foreign bodies which might 
otherwise enter. The lining of this canal also contains 
hair follicles. The hairs growing in this canal are stiff, 
and aid the wax in preventing the introduction of foreign 
substances. 
The Middle Ear. The middle ear or tympanum con- 
sists of a cavity, which is filled with air, and which com- 
municates with the pharnyx by the Eustachian tube. It 
is separated from the external ear by the membrana 
tympani, and from the internal ear by a bony partition 
perforated by two windows a round, and an oval one, 
which are closed by thin membranes. In this cavity are 
three bones, malleus or hammer, incus or anvil, and 
stapes or stirrup, which form a movable chain, passing 
between the membrana tympani, and oval window. The 
malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane, while the 
stapes is in contact with the oval window. 
Tympanic Membrane. This is commonly called the 
drum of the ear. It receives the vibrations of the air in 
the auditory canal, transmitting them to the bones of 
the middle ear. It is sloped from the outward inward, 
so that it may more readily respond to sounds of varying 
character, and be of greater dimensions. It is of a pearl- 
gray color, and consists of two layers of membrane, be- 
tween which is found the handle of the malleus. 
Bones of the Middle Ear. The bones of the middle ear 
receive their names from their shape. They are so small 
that they weigh only a few grains, yet these tiny bones 
are covered with a periosteum. They arc connected by 
perfectly developed joints, which have cartilages, liga- 
ments, and synovial membranes. 48 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Muscles of the Tympanum. To the bones in the mid- 
dle car are attached muscles which tend to regulate the 
force of the vibrations carried to the inner ear. To the 
stapes is fastened a muscle which pulls that bone away 
from the membrane covering the oval window, whenever 
a loud sound might jam the bone into the membrane, 
and produce deafness. To the malleus two muscles are 
attached; one, by drawing the handle of the malleus 
inward, changes the tension of drum of the ear, pre- 
venting it from vibrating too much to sounds of great 
intensity ; the other, by drawing the handle outward, 
enables us to hear distinctly sounds which would other- 
wise be scarcely audible. 
Eustachian Tube. This tube is back of the mem- 
brane tympani and opens from the middle ear to the 
pharnyx. It affords vent by which, when the drum is 
driven in, some of the air may escape. It equalizes the 
pressure within and without. When near an exploding 
blast, cannonading, or any other sound of great inten- 
sity, the pressure on the ear may be much relieved by 
opening the mouth. 
Mastoid Cells. Communicating with the cavity of the 
middle ear are a number of cells lined with a mucous 
membrane and filled with air. They serve the part of a 
sounding-board to the organ of hearing, reinforcing the 
sound. They are in their rudimentary condition in 
youth, but develop excessively in old age, thus supple- 
menting by the power of reinforcement the diminuition 
of sensitiveness, which the different organs of hearing 
experience in old age. 
Internal Ear. This part of the ear has been named 
the labyrinth, because it has so many turns in its con- hearing. 
49 
struction. In the labyrinth is found a system of tubes, 
communicating with each other, inclosing a transparent 
liquid in which the terminal cells of the auditory nerve 
are distributed. 
Vestibule. The vestibule consists of two superposed 
sacs, which have no direct communication with each 
other, but with one of which the utricle communicates 
three semicircular canals. The utricle contains in its 
meshes crystals of calcium carbonate bound together by 
delicate tissue, which form the etoliths or egg-stones. 
Semicircular Canals. These are three curved bony 
tubes, each describing the greater part of a circle. They 
are filled with a liquid called endolymph. This liquid 
is in direct contact with the membrane at the oval win- 
dow, and when the vibrations of the stapes are trans- 
mitted to this membrane it is taken up by the liquid 
and communicated to the auditory nerve. 
Auditory Nerve. This nerve ends in cells, having 
minute hair-like processes upon them, and it is believed 
that these are set vibrating by the vibrations of the en- 
dolymph. 
Cochlea. This cavity strongly resembles the snail 
shell, from which it derives its name. The cochlea by 
its spiral turns allows the enclosure in a small space of 
many nerve filaments, but their function is not clearly 
understood. 
How we Hear. Sound is produced by vibrations in 
the air. When we speak the vocal chords are set in vi- 
bration. These are communicated to the air, which 
carries these vibrations to the membrane tympani, then 
they go over the chain of bones, through the oval win- 
dow, into the endolymph, then to the cells of the audi- 50 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
tory nerve, at which point the nerve takes up the im- 
pression, carries it to the brain, where it is interpreted 
by the mind. 
The Limits of Auditory Perception. “ Sound can only 
be perceived when the vibrations which produce it are 
repeated a certain number of times in a given period; 
thus physicists have stated that our sense of hearing 
ceases to appreciate sound from the moment that the 
elastic body when vibrating produces in a second of time 
less than 32 simple oscillations for the low sounds, and 
more than 73,700 for acute sounds. Beyond this limit 
sensation becomes continuous, and it is impossible to 
distinguish one sound from another ; they make the 
same impression on the ear that a red-hot coal at the 
end of a string whirled rapidly round produces on the 
eye; a circle of light only is seen. Even when the vi- 
brations reach the number of 4500 to 5000, the sounds 
produce on the ear a painful effect; thus, in an or- 
chestra the high D of the piccolo corresponds to 4752 
vibrations. The lowest note is the low E of the double 
bass, which corresponds to 41 vibrations. 
We have said that 32 simple vibrations constitute the 
limit of perceptible sounds ; but this limit varies accord- 
ing to the individual. Some people have naturally less 
developed acuteness of hearing, and cannot even distin- 
guish the song of a cricket on the hearth. Among mu- 
sical instruments the pipes of the organ alone are able to 
give out sound corresponding to 32 oscillations in the 
second, but this sound is so faint that it can only be 
compared to a breath or whisper.” 
Care of the Ear. 1. Cold water should not be 
allowed to enter the ear. THE EYE. 
51 
2. It is best to place cotton in the ears when bathing. 
3. Never use sharp or hard instruments to remove 
wax. Use warm water and wipe the ear dry. 
4. Use oil to kill insects in the ear. Then warm 
water to remove insect and oil. 
5. Do not “ box” a child on the ear, as it may rupture 
the membrane tympani. 
THE EYE. 
Shape. The eye is a specially arranged organ, spher- 
ical in shape, in which ends the optic nerve, or nerve 
of sight [Fig. LXXVIII. No. 31.] This nerve ends 
in a portion of the eye called the retina [Fig. LXX VIII. 
Nos. 19 and 27], which receives images gathered from 
objects and reflected upon it by means of various parts 
of the eye. How these parts are arranged so as to reflect 
the pictures of objects upon the retina so that the nerve 
of sight, here spread out, may take cognizance, and 
carry the impression to the brain, will be explained here- 
after. This nerve is impressible only by light. The eye 
must gather the images and focus them upon the retina. 
Should the retina be exposed to the light with no media 
for refracting before it, there could be seen no objects, 
and the only effect would bo the perception of light from 
darkness. 
Position. The eye is lodged in a deep socket of the 
bones of the head [Fig. XI. Nos. 6 and 7]. It is held 
in position by these bones, aided by the ocular muscles 
[Fig. LXXVII Nos. 7 to 12 inclusive], the optic nerve 
[Fig. LXXVIII. No. 31], and the eyelids. 52 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Protection. The eye is protected from blows coming 
from the front, by the bones of the socket in which it is 
placed. Besides these, it is protected by a cushion of fat 
being arranged behind and around the eyeball, which 
would lessen the force should the eye be accidentally 
struck. In the front it is protected by the eyelids, which 
act as curtains, and distribute moisture over the eyeballs 
constantly, thus preventing drying; by the eyebrow pre- 
venting the perspiration running down from the fore- 
head, upon the eyelids; and by the eyelashes preventing 
the entrance of foreign bodies, especially when the lids 
are half closed. The eyelashes differ from ordinary 
hair growths in that they possess tactile sensibility, which 
causes, reflexly, the lids to close tightly when a foreign 
body touches them. 
Lachrymal or Tear Gland. Removing the outer sec- 
tion [Fig. LIV.] which represents the natural open eye, 
an examination can be made of the eye as it would ap- 
pear with the eyelids removed and the various parts 
exposed [Fig. LV.]. In the upper and outer angle of 
the eye, is a gland called the lachrymal or tear gland 
[No. 11] which secretes from the blood a watery fluid, 
which constantly flows out upon the.eyeball to lubricate 
and keep it moist. By the act of winking the moisture 
is continually spread over the eyeball. After it has 
flowed over the eyeball it collects in a little hollow on 
the inner side, and escapes through the puncta lachry- 
malia [No. 4.], two small channels, one of which ex- 
ists in each lid, into the lachrymal sac [No. 6], and from 
this through the nasal duct [No. 7], into the nose. 
Shedding tears is the overflow of this watery fluid, when THE EYE. 
53 
it is secreted in an unusual quantity. The overflow is 
caused by the little ducts not being able at sucb times to 
carry off all of the fluid secreted. The lachrymal gland 
is excited into unusual activity by disease, such as a cold 
or inflammation, or by certain conditions of the mind, 
as madness, great joy, or sorrow. 
Experiment. The fact that these ducts open into the 
nose, may be shown by holding closed the nostrils, and 
trying to force air out through them. The passage being 
closed, the air will be forced up through the nasal ducts 
into the lachrymal sacs and may be felt coming out at 
the inner corners of the eyes. Oftentimes if foreign 
substances get into the eye, they can be forced out by 
this process. 
Tunics or Coats of the Eye. The sclerotic [Fig. 
LXXVII. No. 2] and cornea [No. 1], the most external 
protective tunic. 
Choroid [Fig. LNVIII. No. 9], iris [No. 6], and 
ciliary processes [No. 8], the middle or vascular tunic. 
Retina [No. 19] the innermost nervous tunic. 
Humors of the Eye. The humors of the eye consist of 
the various transparent parts through which the light 
passes to the retina. These transparent parts are called 
refracting media, because they have the power of refract- 
ing or bending the rays of light which pass through 
them. They are three in number, viz.: 
Aqueous humor [Fig. LXXVIIl. No. 3 and 7], filling 
the front chamber. 
Crystalline lens [No. 4], lying immediately behind 
the pupil. 54 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Vitreous humor [No. 24], filling posterior four-fifths 
of the globe of the eye. 
Contractile Tissues. The iris [No. 6], a perforated 
curtain suspended behind the cornea in the aqueous 
humor in front of the crystalline lens. The opening 
a little to the nasal side of the center is called the pupil 
[No. 5]. This curtain has the power of expanding and 
contracting, thereby governing the quantity of light ad- 
mitted. 
The ciliary muscle [No. 17], attaches the choroid to 
the sclerotic coat, and by its contractile power governs 
the diameter and shape of the crystalline lens. 
Sclerotic Tunic. The sclerotic coat [Fig. LXXVIII. 
No. 20], is a firm membrane which covers the posterior 
five-sixths of the globe. It has a smooth white external 
surface, with an inner one brown stained. It is not con- 
tinuous over the front sixth of the eyeball, for at this 
portion is a window-like opening, known as the cornea 
(No. 2], through which the rays of light pass. 
Cornea. The cornea is a transparent membrane, hav- 
ing numerous nerves which arise from the ciliary nerves 
and is set in the sclerotic tunic somewhat as a watch 
crystal in its case. It permits the light to enter the eye 
in much the same manner as a window-pane lets light 
into a room. It also effects very markedly refraction of 
the rays of light. 
Choroid Coat. The choroid coat [Nos. 9 and 18], is a 
thin dark-brown vascular membrane lining the posterior 
five-sixths of the globe, terminating in front at the ciliary 
ligament. Owing to its black, pigmented tissue cells, 
transmission of all light from the exterior is prevented, THE EYE. 
55 
excepting through the cornea, and reflection from side 
to side is also prevented. In albinoes and nocturnal ani- 
mals this coat lacks pigment and its absence prevents 
good vision in the day-time. 
Ciliary Processes. Near the edge of the cornea there 
are sixty to eighty folds, formed by the plaiting and 
folding of the choroid at its anterior margin. They are 
highly vascular, and consist of large and small processes. 
These are called ciliary processes. 
Iris. Suspended behind the cornea in a watery sub- 
stance (aqueous humor) is a thin, circular, perforated, 
contractile curtain, called the iris [Fig. LXXVTII. 
No. 6]. This curtain is in front of the crystalline lens, 
with a central opening, the pupil [No. 5], which regu- 
lates the amount of light entering the eye. It contains 
two sets of muscular fibers, circular and radiating. 
The radiating fibers dilate the pupil, the circular fibers 
contract it. 
When an object is near, the rays of light are so near 
together that they enter through a small opening; when 
the object is quite distant the pupil dilates, in order to 
let all the rays in that it can to make the image more 
distinct. 
Experiment. The contraction of the iris can be shown 
by having some pupil close the eyes and after a short 
time open them in a strong light, and the change in the 
iris can be readily seen. The same can be shown by 
placing the eyes of a cat before a strong light, and after- 
ward removing the same. 
Sudden Light. When a person has been for some 
time in a position which has caused the iris to open to 56 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
admit as much light as possible through the refracting 
media, and the person suddenly comes in a strong light, 
pain is felt. This pain is caused by too much light 
falling on the retina. The circular fibers of the iris 
will soon contract and less light be admitted, and the 
pain ceases. A sudden change of this kind should be 
avoided. 
Retina. The innermost coat of the eye, extending 
over the back and terminating by a ragged margin 
nearly as far forward as the ciliary body, is called the 
retina [Fig. LXXVIII. No. 19]. This is the mem- 
brane which receives the impression of light. It is 
formed by the expansion of the optic nerve, and is a 
delicate, grayish, transparent nervous membrane. 
Blind Spot. The point of entrance of the optic nerve 
into the retina will not receive any impulse when light 
falls upon it. It is called the blind spot [No. 28]. 
All parts of the retina are not equally sensitive to color. 
Each portion receives different colored rays. The red 
rays are seen by the outside portion. 
Images Inverted. The retina receives all images upon 
its surface inverted. The reason why we do not see all 
objects upside down is because the brain interprets the 
inverted image for one in the proper position. 
Aqueous Humor. Between the cornea and the crys- 
talline lens is a chamber filled with a clear alkaline fluid, 
mostly water. This chamber is divided into two parts, 
the anterior and posterior, by the iris. It affords a 
medium in which the iris can move. It also influences 
the refraction of light. 
Vitreous Humor. About four-fifths of the entire globe THE EYE. 
57 
of the eye consists of a thin, transparent jelly. It is 
somewhat circular, but is hollowed out in front, for 
the crystalline lens. It fills out the crystal, keeping 
it terse, and aids very largely in the refraction of the 
rays of light transmitted to it through the crystalline 
lens. 
Crystalline Lens. Enclosed in a capsule and lodged 
in a depression of the vitreous humor, is a transparent 
double convex body, called the crystalline lens [Fig. 
LXXVIII. No. 4]. It acts like a strong magnifying 
glass. It is the most important refracting portion of 
the eye, and, aided by other parts of the eye, directs the 
rays of light so as to fall properly upon the retina. It 
is situated between the aqueous and the vitreous humors. 
Photographing Images on the Eye. There is a certain 
purple substance on the retina which is destroyed by 
contact with light. It can only be seen by opening the 
eye in a dark room and flashing a light upon it. Take 
the eye of an ox and try the experiment. _ If the opera- 
tion be quickly and carefully done, the image which fell 
upon the retina may be made permanent by dipping it 
quickly in a saturated solution of alum. 
Accommodation. The normal eye at rest is so adjusted 
as to need no change in adjustment for objects twenty 
feet or more distant. The power of the ciliary muscle 
to change the curvature of the crystalline lens to adjust 
it for objects at less than twenty feet is called accommo- 
dation. The eye, when adjusted for an object four feet 
away, will see a like object two feet distant indistinctly 
and vice versa. To show this, place two pins in a lath, 
one at the further end, and the other in the center. By 58 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
holding the same so that it is endwise toward the eye, if 
you look at the pin four feet from you the one two feet- 
away becomes indistinct. 
Eyes of the Savage. Savages do not often call into 
use the ciliary muscle, because the eye does not do much 
work with objects less than twenty feet distant, while we 
who live in houses, read our books and newspapers, and 
perform the work of artisans and mechanics, have our 
eyes adjusted most of the time by the use of the ciliary 
muscle. Then is it a wonder that the eyes of the civil- 
ized nations do not remain in their original normal 
condition as long as those of the savages ? 
Effect of Steady Use. It is a conceded fact, that a 
muscle not in a state of rest cannot be held in one 
position for a long time without injury. The arm can- 
not long be held extended, nor the head to one side, 
without pain or loss of power in the muscle called into 
action to produce the effect. From this learn a lesson. 
The ciliary muscle is continually in action if you are 
reading or sewing, so do not keep your eye fastened 
steadily for a longtime upon an object any fixed distance 
from you, but occasionally look up from the fixed object. 
The moment you do so the ciliary muscle changes its 
condition, and even if you immediately return to your 
fixed object the muscle has somewhat rested. 
Defects of the Eye. It is not to be wondered at that 
an absolutely normal eye probably does not exist, when 
we consider the number of conditions necessary to cause 
the images to fall properly upon the retina, so that we 
may have perfect vision. We consider briefly these de- 
fects caused by a malformation or loss of power. THE EYE. 
59 
Astigmatism. An irregularity in the curvature of the 
cornea or lens, which causes an inability to see lines run- 
ning at certain angles, is called astigmatism. Frequently 
the curvature of the cornea is unequal, hence lines 
running in one direction will not be focused upon the 
retina the same as those running in some other direction. 
Some of these lines will be seen distinctly, the others 
indistinctly This defect may be remedied by properly 
adjusted glasses. 
Entopic Images. Should you use the microscope, you 
may notice small, dark images on the surface of every 
object examined. These are caused by the presence of 
some opaque body in the transparent media of the eye 
itself. They occur in all eyes to a greater or less extent. 
Color-blindness. Certain areas of the retina, owing 
to their imperfect development, are unable to perceive 
those rays of light which normally fall upon them. 
Since each portion receives different colored rays, it 
is readily seen that some of the areas being imperfectly 
developed, the rays falling on that portion would not 
be recognized. The common forms of color-blindness 
are for the red, green, and yellow rays. 
Diplopia. In some people the two eyes vary enough in 
construction so that each eye receives the impulse of the 
light wave at a different time, or on not corresponding 
parts in the two eyes, and the person has double vision. 
Hemianopsia. This is blindness in one half of the eye, 
so that of bodies only half is seen. Since the rays of light 
cross in the eye, the part of the retina which is blind is 
always opposite the object, which can not be seen. Thus 
when the eye sees no object to the right of it, it is the 
left side of the eye which is blind. THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
Myopia. This is commonly known as “short-sighted- 
ness.” It is a condition of the eye in which objects are 
focused at a point in front of the retina. This condition 
is brought about by two causes, either excess in length of 
the myopic eye, or an abnormal curvature of the cornea, 
excessive refractive power of the media, or both causes 
may be operative in conjunction. The vast majority is 
undoubtedly due to an increased length of the globe, 
and is called axial myopia. Animals are decidedly “far- 
sighted,” savages less so with a tendency toward a normal 
eye, while the highly civilized man is rapidly becoming 
myopic. Children as a rule are “far-sighted;” the eye 
becomes normal, or even “near-sighted,” while growing 
to maturity. Myopia is hereditary as wrell as acquired, 
and if the children of myopic parents are not always 
“ near-sighted,” the tendency toward such a condition is 
more certain in them. To show the effect of steady, 
continuous application of the eye to near objects, notice 
the following table. Those trades which require steady 
application at a fixed distance have the greater percent- 
age of myopia. Tscherning found the per cent, of 
myopia in males of one age, as follows: 
Day laborers 2.45 
Mechanics 5.24 
Mechanics on near work 11.66 
Artists 13.33 
Book-keepers 15.76 
Professional men 32.38 
Hypermetropia. This is commonly known as “far- 
sightedness.” It is a condition of the eye in which 
images are focused at a point behind the retina. This 
should not be confounded with the state common to old THE EYE. 
61 
age, which will be considered later. The causes for this 
state, like myopia, are twofold, hut of opposite conditions. 
The globe may be shorter in its diameter from the front 
to the back than the normal average, or the length of 
the eye may be normal and the refractive power of the 
media may be less than normal. In old age the lens be- 
comes flatter. 
Presbyopia. This is the state of the eye common to 
old age, due to a loss of accommodation. Accommodative 
power depends upon the contraction of the ciliary mus- 
cle, which lessens the tension of the ligament which 
holds the crystalline lens in suspension in the aqueous 
humor, which allows the front surface of the lens to ad- 
vance by its own elastic power. By this increased 
dimension of the axis of the lens, its refractive power is 
sufficiently increased to overcome divergence of rays, 
etc., as heretofore explained. This elastic power of the 
lens is greatest in youth, and gradually grows less with 
advancing years, so that the range of accommodation 
decreases from childhood to about seventy years of age, 
when it becomes nothing, and the eye is incapable of 
adjustment for objects nearer than “ infinity.” 
In connection with this lack of accommodation, we 
find the eye at about the age of fifty-five becoming “ far- 
sighted,” caused by the lens becoming flatter. 
Glasses. By the use of lenses most of the defects 
spoken of may be remedied. We have two classes of 
lenses, namely: 
1. Those with thin edges and thicker centers, which 
converge the rays, or bring them to a focus, called con- 
vex lenses. 62 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
2. Those with thick edges and thinner centres, which 
scatter the rays, called concave lenses. 
The convex lens is used with a “ far-sighted ” eye, 
because the eye not bringing the rays to a focus soon 
enough to fall upon the retina, a lens of sufficient curva- 
ture to aid the eye is added, and by means of the refrac- 
tion of the glass lens, aided by the refractive media of 
the eye, the image falls in the normal position, and clear 
vision is obtained. 
The concave glass is used in “near-sightedness.” 
Here the image is focused too soon and by means of a 
glass which diverges the rays from their normal condi- 
tion, enough so that the refractive media of the eye in 
overcoming the divergence of the rays, brings the image 
upon the retina, normal sight is given and'the blurred 
objects are no longer an annoyance. 
If glasses are needed, great pains should be taken to 
have the eyes properly examined by a graduated optician 
and the glasses properly adjusted. It is no uncommon 
thing to find that glasses of different curvature are 
needed for the different eyes. In few people do we find 
the two eyes having the same power. 
Cautions. 1. Do not use the eyes with the light com- 
ing from the front. 
2. Do not read in railroad coaches while in motion. 
3. Do not strain the eyes in imperfect light. 
4. Rest the eyes when ever you find them getting weary. 
5. Do not lie upon the back and read. 
G. If reading, occasionally look up from the book or 
paper. 
7. Do not go without glasses if you need them. 
8. Use spectacles in preference to nose-glasses. INTOXICANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
63 
INTOXICANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
Alcohol is a transparent fluid lighter than water, 
having a peculiar odor and a burning taste. It boils at 
a much lower temperature than water and is therefore very 
easily evaporated. Its freezing point is so low that 
alcohol has never been frozen; this property is taken 
advantage of to use it in thermometers to register great 
degrees of cold. Alcohol is very inflammable, burning 
with a hot, smokeless, bluish flame, producing in its 
combustion carbonic dioxide and watery vapor. 
It readily absorbs water from any substance containing 
it. Owing to this property, it acts as a poison to living 
tissues, coagulating their protoplasm as it cogulates the 
albumen of an egg. This renders it valuable for pre- 
serving animal tissues after death. Alcohol is much 
used im the arts and manufactures, its great use being as 
a solvent for substances not soluble in water. 
How Produced. It is produced by the fermentation 
with yeast of matter containing sugar, e.g., cane sugar, 
or a substance capable of transformation into sugar, e.g., 
starch. 
Yeast is a lowly vegetable organism allied to the fungi. 
It has the power of breaking up a solution of sugar into 
alcohol, water, and carbonic acid. From this watery 
solution the alcohol is distilled off, and pure, or, as it is 
called, absolute alcohol, is obtained by distilling again 
with quicklime which retains the water. 
Alcohol is the active agent in all intoxicating bever- 64 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
ages. It is found in from two to eight per cent, in beer 
and ale, in wines from ten to twenty per cent, and in 
spirits up to fifty-five per cent. 
General Effects of Alcohol. In small doses alcohol can 
he completely oxidized in the body just as if it were 
burned in the air, but the amount thus disposable is 
very small. Small doses increase the power of the 
stomach for digesting food, but larger doses stop diges- 
tion. Alcohol causes great dilatation of all the blood- 
vessels of the skin so that much heat is lost, and serious 
cooling of the body may follow. 
When habitually indulged in, it causes disease of the 
stomach, liver, kidneys, brain, lungs, and heart, giving 
rise to fatty degeneration and formation of fibrous con- 
nective tissue. It greatly lessens muscular power, and 
diminishes or suspends the action of the whole nervous 
system, beginning with the highest faculties. 
The habit of alcohol drinking is very easily induced 
but most difficult to check. 
Experiments. 1. Color some (water in a glass tube 
with a few drops of colored fluid, such as ink. Care- 
fully pour on some alcohol to show that it is lighter than 
water. 
2. Mix a gill of alcohol with a gill of water. The 
combined bulk is less than one-half pint, and heat is 
produced. This shows porosity of water and the avidity 
of alcohol for water. 
3. Burn a little in a saucer to show the flame, the 
absence of smoke, etc. 
4. Pour a little white of egg into alcohol. It will be 
at once coagulated, but will re-dissolve if water be INTOXICANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
65 
speedily added. This shows that it is the great avidity 
for the water in the albumen that causes it to coagulate. 
If the desire for water is sufficiently supplied it does not 
take any from the albumen and it no longer coagulates. 
Alcohol in the Stomach. In the general manikin is 
found the lining membranes of the stomach in a healthy 
condition. But Plates L., LI., LII.,and LIII. indicate 
how this organ suffers when it is dosed with alcohol. 
We have already seen the effect of small quantities in 
increasing the digestive power, but in cases of excessive 
and constant drinking the stomach becomes inflamed, 
and what is called “ drunkards’ dyspepsia” is produced. 
Should the cause continue to act, the inflammation goes 
on from bad to worse, in acute cases ending in ulceration 
of the walls, and hence perhaps causing a rapid death. 
In chronic cases it induces fatty degeneration of the 
gland cells, and their destruction by over-growth of con- 
nective tissue, ending in slow starvation from inability 
to digest food. 
On each of these plates we have illustrations showing 
the effect of alcohol on the small intestine. In the 
last plate can be seen the effect of heavy drinking. The 
blood-vessels are widely dilated, their contained blood 
stagnated or coagulated, and with this there is extrava- 
sation of blood in the tissues, death of the tissue, and a 
casting off of the outside layer, and almost total destruc- 
tion of the entire lining membrane. 
Effect of Alcohol on the Liver. The liver is a great 
sufferer from excessive indulgence in alcohol. This we 
can understand when we remember how all the alcohol 66 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
absorbed by the stomach and intestines goes with the 
blood of the portal vein to the liver. 
Two things may happen: the cells of the liver may un- 
dergo fatty degeneration, or it may be invaded by 
fibrous tissue giving rise to the so-called hob-nail liver. 
In the latter case, as the fibrous tissue contracts w’e get 
destruction of the liver cells, destruction of the blood- 
vessels and bile ducts, and consequent dropsy and jaun- 
dice with increased dyspepsia. 
Usually it is an incurable condition, and leads slowdy 
but surely to a fatal termination. 
This condition of the liver is generally due to excess 
in spirits. The name “ hob-nail ” is given on account 
of the peculiar marking of the surface of the organ. 
The Heart. Like other important organs the heart is 
a great sufferer from alcoholism. Habitual drinking 
causes fatty degeneration and weakening of its action. 
Diseased conditions while attributable to alcoholism do 
not always arise directly from that cause. We must re- 
member, however, that many diseases are due indirectly 
to it, arising especially as the result of chilling the body, 
and that most if not all diseases are more severe when 
occurring in habitual alcohol users. 
Effect of Alcohol on the Brain. Plate LXXVI. shows 
us the effects of alcohol on the brain. Here at first 
sight the appearances of disease are trifling: thickening 
of the blood-vessels, and hardening of the brain tissue. 
Very different, however, are the effects on the functions 
of this, the most important organ. The profound 
changes in the action of the brain are due to three 
causes : First, we have the direct poisonous action of INTOXICANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
67 
alcohol on the brain cells, which are the most important 
part of the nervous system. Secondly, there is impaired 
supply of blood owing to arterial disease ; and thirdly, 
the supporting fibrous meshwork becomes so thickened 
that the delicate nerve-cells are destroyed, or their con- 
nections interfered with. 
The whole faculties are gradually degraded till the 
power of will and the ability to work are lost, and the 
moral nature utterly ruined. We need merely mention 
delirium tremens, and the fact that alcoholism is one of 
the greatest causes of insanity in its most incurable 
forms. 
The effects of large amounts taken at one time are un- 
fortunately too familiar to need description here. They 
are, for the most part, due to direct poisoning of the 
nerve-cells by the alcohol. 
Effect of Alcohol on the Kidneys. Excess in alcohol 
causes conditions similar to those which obtain in the 
liver, but less marked, viz., fatty degeneration of the 
kidney cells and fibrous tissue formation. Much oftener, 
however, these are due to inflammation, the alcohol act- 
ing indirectly in predisposing to it. Very grave results 
may follow, death resulting from poisoning by matters 
which should have been excreted by the kidney, but 
have been allowed to accumulate in the body. 
Effect of Alcohol on the Eye. Plate LXVI1. shows the 
eye inflamed by the use of alcohol. 68 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
SUMMARY OF THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON 
THE VARIOUS ORGANS FROM DR. PARKES’ 
" PRACTICAL HYGIENE ” 
On the Stomach. In very small quantities it appears 
to aid digestion; in larger amount checks it, reddens 
the mucous membranes, and produces the “chronic 
catarrhal condition,” viz., increase of the connective 
tissue between the glands, fatty and cystic degeneration 
of the contents of the glands, and finally more or less 
atrophy and disappearance of these parts. 
Taken habitually in large quantities it lessens appe- 
tite. 
On the Liver. Taken in large quantities, it causes 
either enlargement of the organ by producing albumi- 
noid and fatty deposit, or increase of connective tissue, 
and finally, contraction. 
On the Spleen. Its action is not known. 
On the Lungs. It is said to lessen the amount of car- 
bonic acid in the air of expiration. In large quantities, 
habitually taken, it also alters the molecular constitu- 
tion of the lungs, as chronic bronchitis, etc., are certain- 
ly more common in those who take much alcohol. 
On the Heart and Blood-vessels. Alcohol, in healthy 
persons, at first increases the force and quickness of the 
heart’s action. In a healthy man, Dr. Parkes found that 
brandy augmented the rapidity of the pulse thirteen 
per cent, and the force was also increased. The period SUMMARY OF THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. 
69 
of rest of the heart was shortened, and its nutrition 
must, therefore, have been interfered with. Alcohol 
causes evident dilatation of the superficial vessels, as 
shown by the redness and flushing of the skin. It seems 
likely, therefore, that there must be danger in the use 
of alcohol when the arteries become rigid in advancing 
life, if the heart is then susceptible to the action of 
alcohol. 
On the Blood. The amount of fat is either increased, 
or it is more visible. The chemical changes in the 
blood are partially arrested. 
On the Nervous System. In most persons it lessens 
the rapidity of impressions, the power of thought, and 
the perfection of the senses. In other cases it seems to 
cause increased rapidity of thought, and excites imagi- 
nation, but even here the power of control over a train 
of thought is lessened. In no case does it appear to in- 
crease accuracy of sight, nor is their any good evidence 
that it quickens hearing, taste, smell, or touch. 
There can be little doubt that alcohol enters into tem- 
porary combination with the nervous structure ; and 
the evidence from the impairment of special sense and 
muscular power implies that it interferes with the move- 
ments of the nervous currents. 
On the Muscular System. Voluntary muscular power 
seems to be lessened, and this is most marked when a 
large amount of alcohol is taken at once; the finer com- 
bined movements are less perfectly made. In very large 
doses it paralyzes either the respiratory muscles, or the 
nerves supplying them, and death sometimes occurs 
from impairment to respiration. 70 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
On the Eliminating Organs. There is a large increase 
in the insensible cutaneous perspiration, and enlarge- 
ment of the vessels of the skin. 
TOBACCO. 
Like most plants which have active properties, tobacco 
contains an alkaloid (a substance having chemical prop- 
erties like the alkalies, e.g., soda), examples of which 
group of bodies are to be met with in quinine, strych- 
nine, etc. The alkaloid in tobacco is called nicotine. 
Unlike the two others which we have mentioned, nico- 
tine is an uncrystallizable oily liquid which has a strong- 
odor of the plant from which it is extracted. It is 
intensely poiso?ious, causing death by paralyzing the 
nerve centres. 
In non-fatal doses it causes great sickness, prostration, 
and failure of the heart, symptoms which are well seen 
when tobacco is used for the first time in smoking. 
When tobacco is smoked, nicotine, with other prod- 
ucts of combustion, pass with the smoke into the sys- 
tem. In a pipe some nicotine is condensed in the stem 
and does not get inhaled; in cigars and cigarettes, on the 
other hand, all is inhaled. The smoke from these latter, 
therefore, is more saturated with nicotine and the prod- 
ucts of its decomposition, and produces a darker stain 
when blown through a handkerchief. 
In favor of cigar smoking, however, as against the 
pipe, we have the fact that in a cigar most of the nico- ANTISEPTICS, DISINFECTANTS, DEODORIZERS. 
71 
tine is changed into much less active substances than it- 
self, and hence the harm is not so great. 
Over-indulgence in smoking causes irritation of the 
throat, and dyspeptic symptoms; while a still more 
formidable result is a serious impairment of vision. 
On the whole, tobacco must be looked on as a pure 
luxury, and one which does more harm than good. 
Plate LXVI. shows the effect of cigarette smoking 
on the larynx. 
ANTISEPTICS, DISINFECTANTS, AND DE- 
ODORIZERS. 
Antiseptics. In cases of wounds it is often the case to 
find that poisonous germs existing in the air are absorbed, 
and the wound does not heal properly because of the 
germs producing putrefaction in the injured tissue. 
Blood-poisoning may follow the absorption of these 
microscopic organisms. Certain agents have the power 
of destroying these poisonous germs, and are known as 
antiseptics. 
Deadly Poisons. Some of the most valuable antisep- 
tics are among the deadliest poisons, even in very small 
quantities. They should never be used except under 
the direction of a physician. People who are wounded 
should insist on antiseptics being used. If the attend- 
ing physician refuses or neglects his duty in this respect, 
choose another. Among the antiseptics corrosive-sub- 
limate is the most valuable known. It occurs in the 
form of small, white granules, and is very poisonous. It 72 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
is used by dissolving three grains in a pint of hot water. 
A small quantity of glycerine placed upon the corrosive- 
sublimate, before adding the hot water, will hasten the 
solution. This solution is used in washing and cleaning 
the wound. Carbolic acid, salicylic acid, blue vitriol, 
idoform, sugar, and alum are all among the antiseptics. 
Disinfectants are agents which have the power of de- 
stroying or neutralizing infectious matter which is the 
product arising from those suffering from a contagious 
disease, as small-pox, scarlet fever, measles, and a variety 
of other sources, as sewers, cesspools, decaying matter, 
etc. Disinfectants are used in solid forms or in solution 
to destroy the infectious germs contained in the clothing 
or cesspools, and often found in the apartments of 
the sick. 
Fumigation is disinfection by means of a gas instead 
of by the use of solids or solutions. This is very valuable 
in disinfecting air, and articles which would be destroyed 
by wetting. 
Precautions Against Contagious Diseases. While dis- 
infection will destroy the germs left behind by a disease, 
yet it is well to observe all precautions possible to 
prevent contagion. Should a pupil be taken ill of a 
contagious disease in a school-room or in a family, the 
room should be fumigated before those who have not 
been exposed to the contagion should be allowed to 
enter. The patient should be removed to the top of the 
house, or to a distant part of the dwelling. Before doing 
this, remove from the room to be occupied by the patient 
everything not needed for the comfort of the sick. No 
one should be allowed to enter the room except the one ANTISEPTICS, DISINFECTANTS, DEODORIZERS. 
73 
caring for the patient, and that person should communi- 
cate with the family as little as possible. All clothing 
and bed linen should be disinfected before removing 
from the room. Even the dishes should receive proper 
attention. The attendant should never eat or drink 
anything that has been standing in the room. As the 
patient recovers, several warm sponge baths should be 
given, with an antiseptic solution consisting of three 
grains of corrosive-sublimate to a quart of water, before 
leaving the room. Clothing that has not been kept in 
the room should be placed upon the patient immediately 
preceding departure. 
Dead bodies should be wrapped in linen saturated in 
a solution of corrosive-sublimate of fifteen grains to a 
pint of water, or a solution of six teaspoonfuls of carbolic 
acid to a pint of water. The corrosive-sublimate has not 
a disagreeable odor, while carbolic acid is more or less 
unpleasant. 
A Few Disinfectants. In the sick room fresh air and 
cleanliness are always at hand. Besides these we have 
Brimstone (Iioll Sulphur) for fumigation. 
Copperas (Sulphate of Iron), one and one-half pounds 
to a gallon of water is used in cesspools and sewers. 
Common Salt and Sulphate of Zinc, four ounces of 
each to a gallon of water, is valuable to disinfect clothing 
and bed linen. 
Corrosive-sublimate, sixteen grains to a quart of water, 
is used to receive discharges from the body, when the 
patient has cholera, typhoid fever, etc. The quantity 
used should equal the amount of discharge. This is 74 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
very poisonous, and must be used with the greatest 
caution. 
How to Use Disinfectants. All clothing, towels and 
bed linen, before removing from the room, should be 
placed in a tub of boiling salt and zinc solution. All 
discharges should be received in vessels which contain 
either the corrosive-sublimate or the copperas solution. 
Prevention of Diphtheria. Every person in contact 
with a person afflicted with diphtheria should use disin- 
fectant gargles as a preventive. A physician should 
prepare the gargle and give directions for its use. 
How to Fumigate. Every opening, such as doors, 
ventilators and chimneys, should be tightly closed. All 
blankets, bedding and other articles wThich cannot be 
treated to the zinc solution should be hung on lines in 
the room. All colored articles should be thoroughly 
dry, because if moist the fumes will destroy some of the 
colors. Mattresses and upholstered furniture should be 
taken apart. The hair or other filling should be treated 
to the zinc solution, while the other parts should be 
exposed. 
Take a wash-tub or barrel and place in it bricks on 
which to set an iron kettle. Pour water in the tub or 
barrel till it nearly covers the bricks. Place in the iron 
kettle which sets upon the bricks roll-sulphur and set 
it on fire by means of hot coals, or with the aid of a 
little alcohol poured over it and then ignited. About 
three pounds of sulphur should be used to every thou- 
sand cubic feet. Keep the room closed at least twenty- 
four hours, after which thoroughly air. 
Cesspool Disinfection. To every five hundred pounds ANTISEPTICS, DISINFECTANTS, DEODORIZERS. 
75 
of the estimated contents use one pound of corrosive- 
sublimate in solution. Sprinkle chloride of lime daily 
over the contents during epidemics, and at least every 
two weeks at other times. 
Deodorizers are agents which destroy or neutralize 
the offensive odors arising from decaying matter or in 
the sick room. They may or m-ay not have the power of 
destroying contagious matter, their use being simply to 
mask unpleasant odors. Those that have disinfectant 
properties as well as deodorizing are carbolic acid, chloride 
of lime and chloride of zinc. The simple deodorizers 
are burning cotton, paper, or coffee. A portion of 
chloride of lime placed on a plate on the mantel is a 
very good constant deodorizer, 
How to Use Deodorants. Chloride of zinc, an ounce 
to a quart of water, sprayed about the room occasionally 
is an effectual means of destroying offensive odors. 
Chloride of Lime used as above suggested. 
Use the disinfectants as suggested for discharges from 
the body. Burn paper, cotton or coffee, and let the 
smoke pass in the room. 
Chlorine. This is a very powerful disinfectant. It is 
a green gas and attacks chemically nearly all contagious 
matter. It is used in the form of gas, which is gener- 
ated and allowed to pass into the rooms. If this is 
generated in cellars where vegetables and other articles 
mold it will destroy the fungus. It is very penetrating, 
and has bleaching properties. Articles that would be 
injured by this gas should be removed and disinfected 
by other means. Consult any standard work on chemis- 
try as to the generating of chlorine gas. 76 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
TEMPORARY RELIEF TO THE INJURED. 
Accidents are of daily occurrence, and we should be 
ready and qualified to give the injured temporary relief. 
Do not, however, usurp the functions of physician or 
surgeon, but study to give proper relief till one can be 
obtained. Kemember “a little learning is a dangerous 
thing,” so be careful not to interfere with the immediate 
procuring of a proper medical attendant. 
Broken Arms or Legs. If it is necessary to move the 
person who is suspected of having a broken leg or arm, 
great precaution should be taken to prevent what is at 
first only a simple fracture becoming a compound one. 
Splints should be bound to both sides of the limb before 
moving. Fence boards, broom handles, umbrellas, canes 
may be used as temporary splints. Do not move the 
injured till something is done to keep the injured limb 
from bending. Keep the patient quiet till the surgeon 
arrives. 
Dislocations. These are sometimes mistaken for broken 
bones. Unless certain as to the injury, simply keep the 
patient quiet till proper aid arrives. The reduction of a 
dislocation generally requires great skill, and should only 
be performed by surgeons. There are, however, a few 
exceptions where aid may be given in case a surgeon is 
not near at hand—notably those of the shoulder, fingers, 
and jaw. 
Dislocated Shoulder. When the humerus is out of its 
place, it may be placed in the proper position by placing 
in the arm-pit several handkerchiefs or towels rolled into TEMPORARY RELIEF TO THE INJURED. 
77 
a ball; the attendant then placing his heel (boot re- 
moved) against the ball of cloth, and grasping the 
patient’s hand, pnlls downward. If the foot be turned 
outward and the arm of the patient brought toward the 
chest during the pulling, the bone will generally slide 
very easily back into position. After the bones are back 
into position the arm should be bandaged to the chest. 
Lower Jaw. As a result of gaping, laughing, or strain- 
ing, the lower jaw is occasionally dislocated. To reduce, 
place the person in a chair and stand facing; then place 
a thumb upon each side of the lower jaw at the back 
near the last molar, and press the chin upwards with 
the fingers. As this is done, the thumbs should be 
pressed downward and backward. It is best to cover 
the thumbs by wrapping cloths around them to prevent 
their being injured when the jaws suddenly close. 
Burns and Scalds. These are of different degrees, and 
if the burn or scald is serious temporary relief only should 
be attempted and a physician immediately called. 
Remedies which soothe and protect the parts against 
air and cold are the ones to be used. Some of these can 
be easily obtained, as common baking-soda (bicarbonate 
of soda), flour, starch, magnesia and powdered charcoal. 
One of these should be thickly dusted over the burned 
surface. Castor oil, linseed oil, vaseline, mucilage, or 
molasses may be advantageously used. 
Catching Fire. Many persons lose their lives yearly 
from the catching fire of some part of the clothing. A 
person in this condition should be immediately thrown 
upon the floor or ground to prevent the flames from 
rising about the head and face, so that there is no THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
danger of the flames being swallowed. Next roll the 
person on the ground or floor to extinguish the flames, 
at the same time cover with a blanket, coat, rug, or any 
other material that is at hand. Water must be freely 
used to extinguish the fire effectually. 
Scalds should be treated the same as burns. 
Frost Bites are caused by exposure of the body to a 
very low temperature. Still air and snow are favorable 
to the injured. When the wind is blowing, the warm 
air near the body is rapidly changed for cold air and 
the danger is increased. Snow is a bad conductor of 
heat and is of advantage as a protector. A person hav- 
ing some portion of the body frozen should not be taken 
to a warm room. Sudden changes in temperature is 
usually fatal. The person should be so treated that the 
temperature will rise gradually. The patient should be 
placed in a cool room, the clothing removed from the 
frozen part, and the part bathed in cold water or rubbed 
with snow. After the frozen part loses its hardness or 
rigidity rub with the naked hand or flannel. Continu- 
ous rubbing may be soon abandoned and occasional 
rubbing take its place. Be careful not to be harsh, as 
the frozen flesh if roughly handled may have the skin 
destroyed. Nourishment in the form of beef-tea or 
milk may be given as soon as the patient is able to 
take it. 
Fainting. This is caused by a sudden failure of the 
heart to perform its full action. But very little blood 
goes to the brain and unconsciousness follows. It may 
be caused by fear, grief, joy, pain, tight lacing, exhaus- 
tion, hot and vitiated atmosphere, etc. It is usuallv TEMPORARY RELIEF TO THE INJURED. 
79 
attended with a pale face, and cold feet and hands. 
Usually the duration of unconsciousness is short, but 
sometimes lasts for hours, during which time the pulse 
is weak or lost and the respirations oftentimes are not 
discernible. Fainting occurs frequently, but is not 
usually fatal. 
The heart and circulation should be stimulated, and 
the amount of blood in the brain increased. To do this 
the patient should be placed in fresh air, in a position 
so that the head may be a little lower than the body. 
All tight clothing should be removed or loosened and the 
limbs rubbed. Camphor or ammonia may be placed on a 
cloth and held to the nostrils. No attempts should be 
made to administer any liquids till the person is well 
able to swallow. 
Asphyxia. This is a condition of unconsciousness 
caused by the oxygen iu the blood being diminished. It 
is caused by drowning, croup, or by breathing C02, 
sometimes found in caves, wells and mines. Illuminat- 
ing gas and “choke damp” from mines are frequent 
causes of suffocation. Gas from stoves is a frequent 
cause of death. Drafts are closed and the gas formed 
within the stove instead of escaping by means of the 
chimney passes out into the room. People are found 
unconscious as a result of the accumulated gas. There 
are two products from combustion, C02 (Carbonic- 
dioxide) from perfect combustion, and CO (Carbonic- 
monoxide) a result of imperfect combustion. The first 
gas is not poisonous and only shuts out the oxygen 
causing simple asphyxia, and the patient can be restored 
to consciousness provided they are able to breathe. If THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
not able to breathe they may oftentimes be restored by 
artificial respiration as described under drowning. But 
if the front drafts of the stove have been closed and not 
enough oxygen has been supplied for perfect combus- 
tion, and CO has produced asphyxia different results 
may be found. This gas is the blue gas often seen above 
coal before it has received sufficient oxygen to form it 
into CO,. It is very penetrating even passing out 
through the pores of the heated iron of the stove. This 
gas is a poison and asphyxia by means of this gas is very 
dangerous, as the person even though oxygen is sup- 
plied has the symptoms of poison. A physician should 
be immediately called. 
Drowning. “ The asphyxia or suffocation that follows 
submersion is due to the fact that air is prevented from 
reaching the lungs. More or less water is found in the 
air-passages, but not in such quantities as is generally 
supposed. In some cases very little if any water reaches 
these organs, on account of the rapid closure of the 
epiglottis. Water, however, enters the stomach, and 
considerable is found mixed with mucus in the throat. 
Death is usually the result of suffocation, as is made ob- 
vious, after the removal .of the body from the water, by 
the bloated and discolored appearance of the face. How- 
ever, in some cases death may be due to sudden heart- 
failure before the person sinks. When such is the case 
the face of the drowned would be pale and flabby, and 
very little water and mucus would be found in the respi- 
ratory tract. There is a better chance of resuscitating 
one who sinks as the result of syncope than when suffo- TEMPORARY RELIEF TO THE INJURED. 
81 
cated, as the demand for oxygen in the former is less 
than when asphyxiated by submersion. 
“ Persons who are submerged for four or five minutes 
or more are not usually restored to life; although numer- 
ous cases are recorded where resuscitation was effected 
after an interval of twenty minutes. In such cases it is 
supposed that syncope occurred, or, on account of the 
existing excitement, an error was made in calculating 
the actual time of submersion. The action of the heart 
usually continues some little time after respiration ceases. 
“ Treatment. The treatment consists first in re-estab- 
lishing respiration, then stimulating the action of the 
heart and circulation by the use of stimulants and 
warmth, friction, etc. When a person has been under 
water but a few moments, simple means may restore res- 
piration, and should be first tried. 
“The water, sand, and mucus should first be quickly 
removed from the mouth and nose, and the attendant 
should then carry his finger to the back or base of the 
patient’s tongue, which must be pulled forward, thus 
enabling the water and mucus in the throat and respira- 
tory tract to escape, and also to favor the entrance of air 
into the lungs ; while this is being done the patient 
should be turned on his side (left, if possible), face down- 
ward, to favor the escape of water from the stomach 
and air passages. He should then again be turned on 
his back, while the hands of the attendant are placed on 
the belly or abdomen and pressure directed upward and 
inward toward the diaphragm. This movement tends 
to stimulate respiration and should be repeated two or 
three times at intervals of two or three seconds, The 82 
THE STANDARD PHYSIOLOGY. 
mouth in the mean time should he kept open by a cork 
or piece of wood, or a knot tied in a handkerchief, etc., 
in order that the passage of air to the lungs should 
not be interfered with. Smelling-salts, ammonia, or 
two or three drops of nitrite of amyl, may be adminis- 
tered by inhalation, or the nose may be tickled with 
a feather or straw. When breathing commences and 
consciousness returns, the patient should be carefully 
divested of all wet clothing (if necessary, the clothing 
should be cut in order to avoid delay), well rubbed, and 
wrapped in warm covering. 
"If the simple measures just enumerated are produc- 
tive of no good result after a short trial, artificial respi- 
ration should be at once resorted to. 
“ Of the various methods of artificial respiration Syl- 
vester’s method is very efficient, having the advantage of 
being capable of manipulation by one person. 
“ Before artificial respiration is begun, the patient 
should be stripped to the waist, and the clothing around 
the latter part should be loosened so that the necessary 
manipulations of the chest may not be interfered with. 
“Sylvester's Method. The water and mucus are sup- 
posed to have been removed from the interior of the body 
by the means above described. The patient is to be placed 
on his back, with a roll made of a coat or a shawl under 
the shoulders ; the tongue should then be drawn forward 
and retained by a handkerchief which is placed across 
the extended organ and carried under the chin, then 
crossed and tied at the back of the neck. An elastic 
band or small rubber tube or a suspender may be sub- 
stituted for the same purpose. If no other means can TEMPORARY RELIEF TO THE IAJURED. 
83 
be made available, a hat- or scarf-pin may be thrust ver- 
tically through the end of the tongue without injury to 
this organ. The attendant should kneel at the head 
and grasp the elbows of the patient and draw them up- 
ward until the hands are carried above the head and 
kept in this position until one, two, three, can be slowly 
counted. This movement elevates the ribs, expands the 
chest, and creates a vacuum in the lungs into which the 
air rushes, or, in other words, the movement produces 
•inspiration. The elbows are then slowly carried down- 
ward, placed by the side, and pressed inward against the 
chest, thereby diminishing the size of the latter and pro- 
ducing expiration. These movements should be re- 
peated about fifteen times during each minute for at 
least two hours, provided no signs of animation present 
themselves.” {Doty.) EXPLANATORY INDEX 
TO the 
STANDARD MANIKIN. 
Plate I.—Bones of the 
Skull. 
1. Frontal. 
2. Ethmoid. 
3. Lachrymal. 
4. Malar. 
5. Parietal. 
6. Temporal. 
7. Sphenoid. 
8. Superior maxillary. 
9. Inferior “ 
Plate II.—Bones of Trunk. 
10. Fifth Cervical. 
11. Sixth Cervical. 
12. Seventh Cervical. 
13 Sternum. 
14. Clavicle. 
15. First true rib. 
16. Second “ “ 
17. Third “ “ 
18. Fourth “ “ 
19. Fifth “ “ 
20. Sixth “ “ 
21. Seventh" “ 
22. First false rib. 
23. Second “ “ 
24. Third “ “ 
25. First floating rib. 
26. Second “ “ 
27. Tenth dorsal: 
28. Eleventh “ 
29. Twelfth “ 
80. First lumbar. 
31. Second “ 
82. Third “ 
33. Fourth “ 
34. Fifth lumbar. 
35. Ring of cartilage. 
36. 37, 38, 39. Sacrum. 
40. Coccyx. 
44. Ossa innominata. 
Plates III. and IV.—Bones 
of Upper Extremity. 
41. Humerus. 
42. Radius. 
43. Ulna. 
Plates V. and VI.—Bones 
of the Hand. 
45. Pisiform. 
46. Cuneiform. 
47. Semilunar. 
48. Scaphoid. 
51. Trapezoid. 86 
EXPLAN A TOR Y INDEX. 
52. Trapezium. 
53. Metacarpus. 
54. First row phalanges. 
Plate VII. and VIII.—Bones 
of tiie Leg. 
57. Head of Femur. 
58. Femur. 
59. Patella. 
60. Tibia. 
61. Fibula. 
Plate IX. and X.—Bones of 
the Foot 
62. Astragalus. 
63. Os calcis. 
64. Scaphoid. 
65. Internal cuneiform. 
66. Middle 
67. External “ 
68. Cuboid. 
69. Metatarsal. 
70. First row phalanges. 
71. Second row phalanges. 
72. Third “ 
Plate XI. — Bones of the 
Head, Side View. 
1. Frontal. 
2. Parietal. 
3. Occipital. 
4. Temporal—squamous por- 
tion. 
5. Sphenoid. 
6. Temporal -petrous portion. 
7. Lachrymal. 
8. Ethmoid. 
10. Nasal. 
11. Superior maxillary. 
12. Inferior “ 
13. Atlas or first cervical. 
14. Axis or second cervical. 
15. Third cervical 
16. Fourth “ 
17. Fifth 
18. Sixth “ 
19. Seventh “ 
20. Os hyoid. 
49. Vuciform. 
50. Os magnum. 
55. Second row phalanges. 
56. Third “ 
Plate XII.—Muscles of the 
Head. 
1 and 2. Occipiti frontalis. 
3. Temporal fascia. 
4. Attolens aurem. 
5. Occipitalis. 
6. Attrahens aurem. 
7. Retrahens aurem. 
8. Sterno cleido mastoid. 
9. Trapezius. 
10. Zygomatic attachments 
11. Masseter. 
12. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
13. Ciliaris. 
14. Pyramidalis nasi. 
15. Compressor nasi. 
16. Levator labii superioris 
almque nasi. 
17. Depressor also nasi. 
18. Depressor septi. 
19. Levator labii superioris. 
20. Levator anguli oris. EXPLANA TOR Y INDEX. 
21. Zygomatic minor. 
22. “ major. 
22. Risorius. 
24. Orbicularis oris. 
25. Levator labii inferioris. 
26. Depressor labii inferioris. 
27. Depressor anguli oris. 
28 Platysma myoides. 
29. Trachea. 
30. Cartilage. 
Plate XIII.— Internal Mus- 
cles op Trunk. 
1. Platysma nyoides. 
2. Sterno-eleido mastoid. 
3. Trachea. 
4. Thyroid gland. 
23. Subclavius. 
24. 25. 26, 27. Third, Fourth, 
Fifth, and Sixth ribs. 
28. Intercostal muscles. 
29. Pectoralis minor. 
30. Coracoid process. 
31. Subclavian artery. 
44. Abdominis oblique. 
45. Serratus anticus major. 
Plate XIV.—External Mus- 
cles op Trunk. 
5. Scalemus auticus. 
6. Trapezius. 
7. Clavicle. 
8. Pectoralis major. 
9. Deltoid. 
10 Latissimus dorsi. 
22. Rect. abdominus. 
46. Sartorius. 
47. Tensor fascia latse. 
Plate XV.— Internal Mus 
cles op Arm. 
32. Coraco-brachialis. 
33. Biceps. 
34. Pectoralis major. 
35. Deltoid. 
36. Compression over artery 
formed by knot. 
37. Rod used in tightening the 
compression. 
38. Supinator longus. 
39. Insertion of biceps. 
40. Iiadialis iuternus. . 
41. Supinator longus. 
42. Palmaris longus. 
Plate XVI.—External Mus- 
cles op Arm. 
11. Biceps. 
12. Tendon of biceps. 
13. Triceps. 
Plates XYII. and XVIII. 
48. Palmaris brevis. 
49. Pollicis brevis. 
50. M. Lumbric I. 
51. M. Lumbric II. 
52. M. Lumbric III. 
53. M. Lumbric IV. 
Plate XXI.—View op Inte- 
rior op Body. 
5. Vena cava. 
17. Thoracic duct. 
19. Ascending vena cava. 
20. Abdominal aorta. 
21. Kidney. 
22. Renal vein. 
29. Bladder. 88 
EXPLANA TOR Y INDEX. 
Plate XXII.—View of In- 
terior of Body. 
23. Renal vein. 
25. Kidney. 
26. Ureter. 
27. Iliac artery. 
28. Iliac vein. 
Plate XXIII.—The Arm. 
7, 8. Brachial vein. 
9. Brachial artery. 
Plate XXIV.—Ideal View 
of Circulation of Arm. 
Plate XXV. —Venous Cir- 
culation of Hand. 
Plate XXVI.—Ideal View 
of Circulation. 
Plate XXVII.—Venous Cir- 
culation of Leg. 
1. Femoral vein. 
5. Patella. 
Plate XXVIII.—Ideal View 
of Circulation of Leg. 
1. Femoral artery. 
2. Femoral vein. 
3 Femur. 
4. Patella. 
5. Patella fibial artery post. 
6. Fibial artery anterior. 
7. Fibula. 
8. Tibia. 
Plate XXIX.—The Head. 
1. Cerebrum. 
2. Cerebellum. 
3. Medulla oblongata. 
4. Spinal cord. 
5. Branches of the nerves of 
taste. 
6. Olfactory nerves. 
7. Frontal sinus. 
8. 9. Concha. 
10. Opening of Eustachian 
tube. 
11. Tongue. 
12. Soft palate. 
18. Epiglotis. 
14. Trachea. 
Plate XXX.—The Head. 
1. Cerebrums. 
2. Cerebellum. 
3. Pons Yarolii. 
5, 6. Optic nerve. 
7. Globe of eye. 
8. Nerve of taste. 
9. Nerve supply to upper 
teeth. 
10. Facial nerve. 
11. Nerve supply to lower 
teeth. 
12. Spinal cord. 
13. Lower maxillary. 
Plate XXXI. — Exterior 
View of Thorax. 
1, 2. Sternum. 
3, 4. Clavicle. 
5. Rib 
6. Articulation of rib. 
7. Pleura. 
8. Outline of head. 
9. 10. Outline of liver. 
11, 12. Outline of stomach. EXPLANATORY INDEX. 
89 
Plate XXXII. — Interior 
View of Thorax. 
1. Right ventricle. 
2 Left ventricle. 
3. Right auricle. 
4. Pulmonary artery. 
5. Left auricle. 
6. Vena cava. 
7. Axillar vein. 
8. Jugular vein. 
9. Trachea. 
10. Jugular vein. 
11. Axillar vein. 
14, 15, 16. Lobes of the lungs. 
17 Bronchial tube. 
Plate XXXIII.—Intestines. 
1. Tran verse colon. 
2. Ascending colon. 
3. Jejunum. 
4. Bladder. 
Plate XXXIV.-The Dia- 
phragm. 
Plate XXXV. — Exterior 
View of Stomach. 
1. Cardiac opening. 
2, 3. Ducts from liver and 
pancreas. 
4. Blood supply of stomach. 
Plate XXXVI.—Interior of 
Stomach. 
2. Cardiac opening. 
3. Pylorus. 
4. 5. Ducts from liver and 
pancreas. 
6. Small intestines. 
Plate XXXVII.—Exterior 
View of Liver. 
1. Gall bladder. 
Plate XXXVIII.-Interior 
View of Liver. 
1. Gall bladder. 
2. Portal vein. 
Plate XXXIX.—Spleen and 
Pancreas. 
1. Spleenic vein. 
2. Spleenic artery. 
3. Body of pancreas. 
Fig. LIV. 
Exterior view of the eye. 
Fig. LV. 
1. Cornea. 
2. Iris. 
3. Meibomian glands. 
4. Puncta lacrymalia. 
5. Lachrymal canals. 
6. Lachrymal sac. 
7. Nasal duct. 
8. Meibomian glands. 
9. Margo infraorbitalis. 
10. Palpebra superior. 
11. Lachrymal gland. 
13. Margo supraorbitalis. 
Fig. LVI. 
1, 2, 3, 4. Muscles of the eye. 
6. Cornea. 
E to I. Branches of the ciliary 
artery. , 90 
EXPLANATORY INDEX. 
Fig. LVII. 
16. Radiated fibres. 
17. Dolliuger’s ring. 
18. Ciliary arteries. 
19. Ciliary nerves. 
Fig. LVIII. 
10. Retina. 
11. Zonules of Zinn. 
12. Anterior of radiated border 
of zonules of Zinn. 
13. Anterior wall of canal of 
Petil. 
14. Posterior of border of 
zonules of Zinn. 
Fig. LIX. 
1. Posterior aperture of the 
sclerotic for the passage 
of optic nerve. 
2. Openings for passage of 
ciliary nerves and 
branches of the posterior 
ciliary arteries. 
3. 4. Superior choroidal veins. 
5, 6. Inferior choroidal veins. 
Fig. LX.—View of Back of 
the Eye. 
1. Optic nerve. 
2. Sclerotic. 
3. 4. Muscles attached to scle- 
, rotic. 
5, 6. Veins from the tissues of 
the eyes. 
7. Optic nerve. 
Plate LXI.—The Ear. 
1. Concha. 
2. Protective hairs. 
3. Cartilaginous portion of 
external auditory ca- 
nal. 
4. 6. Wax cells. 
5. Partotis. 
7. Tympanum. 
8. Root of zygomatic pro- 
cess. 
9. Yagiual process. 
10. Styloid process. 
11. Glenoid cavity. 
12. Glaserian fissure. 
14. Zygomatic process. 
15. Right temporal bone. 
Fig. LXII.—The Ear. 
3. Malleus. 
4. Long process of malleus. 
5. Manubrium mallei. 
6. Long process of incus. 
7. Ossiculum orbiculare Sy- 
loii. 
8. Incus. 
9. Short process of incus. 
10. Canal, inferior semicircle. 
11. Canal, posterior semicircle. 
12. Canal, superior semicircle. 
13. Vestibule. 
14. Stapes. 
15. Membrane tympani. 
16. Cupula cochlea. 
17. Cochlea. EXP LAN A TOR V INDEX. 
91 
Fig. LX1II. 
55. Hamulus laminae spiralis. 
56. Scyplius. 
57. Zonula ossea laminae spira- 
lis. 
58. Membrane of 57. 
59. First winding of lamina 
spiralis. 
60. Second winding. 
61. Sacculus rotundus. 
62. Sacculus oblongus. 
63. Ampulla. 
64. Ampulla anterior mem- 
brane. 
65. Ampulla inferior mem- 
brane. 
66. Canalis externus semicir- 
cular. 
67. Common termination of 
semicircular canals. 
69. Zonula membrane. 
Fig. LXX. — The Tooth, 
First Right Lower Molar. 
1. Section of gum. 
2. Section of inferior maxilla. 
3. 4, 5. External tubercles or 
cusps. 
6, 7. Grooves in crown in 
wbicb particles of food 
lodge. 
8. Crown, external surface of 
enamel. 
9,10,11. Margin of gum around 
neck of tooth. 
12. Crotch of the roots. 
13. Posterior root. 
14. Anterior root. 
19. Crus anterius, 
20. Ampulla ossea, 
superior, . . 
21. Crus posteri us, 
of superior semi- 
circular canal- 
23. Canal, semicircular, poste- 
rior and inferior. 
22. Crus superius, 
24. Crus inferius, . 
25. Ampulla ossea, 
inferior, . . 
of posterior 
semicircular 
canal. 
26. Fenestra rotunda. 
27. Canal, semicircular ex- 
ternus and horizontalis. 
28. Crus anterius of horizontal 
canal. 
29. Ampulla ossea anterior. 
30. Fenestra ovalis. 
31. Promontorium. 
32. Inferior curve of cochlea. 
34. Third (half) curve of coch 
lea. 
35. Cupula and apex cochlea. 
Fig. LXIY. 
37. Scala tympani and inferior. 
38. Lamina spiralis. 
39. Vestibulum. 
40. Canal, superior semicircu- 
lar. 
41. Canal, externus semicircu- 
lar. 
42. Canal, posterior semicircu- 
lar. 
Fig. LXY. 
53. Third winding of kimina 
spiralis. 
54. Canal, superior semicircle. 92 
EXPLANATORY INDEX. 
Fig. LXXI. 
1, 3, 5. Portion of external 
tubercles which change 
into two internal. 
2, 4. Grooves in crown. 
6. Enamel. 
7. Section of dentine, showing 
ramifications of dentinal 
tubes. 
8. Pulp nerve. 
9. Edge of canal through 
which the vessels and 
nerves of pulp pass. 
10. Dental vessels and nerves. 
Fig. LXXII. — The Kid- 
neys. 
1. Body of kidney. 
2. Renal artery. 
3. Renal vein. 
4. Ureter. 
Fig. LXXIII. 
1. Calices majores. 
3. Pelvis renalis. 
4. Ureter. 
5. Hi] us renus. 
6. Papillae. 
7. Papillae. 
8. Pyramids. 
9. Columns Bertini. 
10, 11. Substrata. 
12. Papillae. 
13, 14. Matphigiau pyramids. 
Fig. LXXIV. 
1. Renal artery. 
2. Renal vein. 
3. Ureter. 
Fig. LXXVII. — Side View 
of Eye. 
1. Cornea (White of the eye). 
2. Tunica sclerotica (Horny 
membrane. 
3. Palpebra superior {Eyelid). 
4. Cilia {Eyelashes). 
5. Trochlea. 
6. Levator palpebra superior. 
7. Obliquus superior. 
8. Rectus superior. 
9. Nervus opticus (Optic nerve). 
10. Rectus externus, origin by 
two beads. 
11. Rectus interims. 
12. Rectus inferior. 
13. Obliquus inferior. 
14. Rectus externus, lower ori- 
gin. 
15. Rectus exteruns, upper ori- 
gin. 
Fig. LXXVIII. — Side Sec- 
tion of Eye. 
1. Epithelium. 
2. Cornea (White of the eye). 
3. Aqueous humor, front 
chamber. 
4. Crystalline lens. 
5. Pupil. 
6. Iris. EXP LANA TOR Y INDEX. 
93 
7. Aqueous humor, rear 
chamber. 
8. Ciliary process. 
9. Ora serrata. 
10. Body of cillaris. 
11. Plica semilunaris. 
12. Conjunctiva. 
13. Membrana descemetii. 
14. Canal of schlemm. 
15. Ligamentum pectinalum 
iridis. 
16. Canalis petiti. 
17. Zonula Zinnii. 
18. Choroid. 
19. Retina. 
20. Sclerotica. 
21. Muscle rectus superior. 
22. Facia tenoni. 
23. Rectus inferior. 
24. Vitreous humor. 
25. Facia tenoni. 
26. Blind spot. 
27. Retina. 
28. Lamina cribrosa. 
29. Opticus vaginalia. 
30. Canal centralis. 
31. Optic nerve. 
Fig. LXXX. — Tile Lar- 
ynx. 
1. Os hyoides. 
2. Cornu major. 
3. Corpus. 
4. Cornu minor. 
5. Ligthyreo hyoid lateral. 
6. Corpuscul tritic. 
7. M. sterno-hyoid. 
8. M. thyreo-hyoid. 
9. Lig. tliyreo liyoid med. 
10. Incis thyr. sup. 
11. Cornu sup. 
12. Cartilage thyreoid. 
18. Lig. crico-thyreoid. 
14. M. crico-thyreoid. 
15. Cartilage cricoidea. ' 
16. Lig. crico-traclieale. 
17. Cartilage. 
Fig. LXXXI. 
1. Epiglottis. 
2. Opening. 
3. Lig. epiglottis. 
4. Cartilage Wrisbergii. 
5. Cart Sautorinii. 
6. M. arytaen transverse. 
7. M. arytaen obliqui. 
8. M. crico-arytsen. post. 
9. Cart, cricoid. 
10. Lig. cerato-cricoid. 
11. Channel. 
12. Cartilage trachea. 
13. Cornu inferior. 
Plate LXXXII.— (From 1 to 5 
same as Plate LXXXI.) 
7. Cart, arytaen. 
8. Process. 
9. Lig. crico arytaen. 
10. Lig. cerato-crico. sup. 
11. Lig. cerato-crico. inf. 
12. Cricoid cartilage. 
13. Channel. 94 
EXPLANATORY INDEX. 
14. Cartilage tracheal. 
15. Cornu superior. 
16. Cornu inferior. 
Plate LXXXIII. — Heart, 
avitii Pericardium Rolled 
Back. 
1. Vena cava. 
2. Aorta. 
Plate LXXXIV. — Heart 
Divided. 
1. Right Ventricle. 
2. Aorta. 
3. Pulmonary artery. 
4. Superior vena-cava. 
5. Right auricle. 
7. Left auricle. 
8. Pulmonary veins. 
10. Longitudinal division