A MANUAL 
OF 
DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY 
FOR THE USE OF 
CLASSES IN PHYSIOLOGY 
IN 
HIGH SCHOOLS, NORMAL SCHOOLS, AND ACADEMIES 
BY 
G. H. FRENCH, A.M. 
m 
PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOLOGY AND CURATOR IN 
THE SOUTHERN ILLINOIS NORMAL UNIVERSITY 
MEMBER OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF FRANCE, OP THE ENTO- 
MOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BELGIUM ; ASSOCIATE MEMBER OF THE 
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF LUBECK, OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL 
SOCIETY OF ONTARIO, OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF 
NEW YORK, OF THE AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 
AND OF THE PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
PHILADELPHIA 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Copyright, 1898, 
BY 
J. B. Lippincott Company. PEEFATOEY NOTE. 
Doubtless other teachers of physiology be- 
sides the writer have felt the need of a brief 
laboratory manual of dissection and histology, 
and it is to supply such a need that this little 
volume is prepared. The plan of the manual 
is for the pupils to prepare their microscopical 
sections before dissecting any, if it is desired to 
make permanent mounts. A good way is to 
have a bird and a cat or a rabbit; divide the 
class into groups of as many as work together, 
and give each division of the class some part of 
the bird or cat or both of which to prepare sec- 
tions. These may be tagged and all put into 
the same jar of hardening fluid, if only one is 
used, and some pupils may be detailed to make 
the daily changes till the time comes for em- 
bedding and cutting. Let each division embed 
the part given it, putting the number of tag on 
the block, the teacher keeping a list of the parts 
3 4 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
given out to the divisions. When ready for 
cutting, let each division make sections of their 
parts ready for mounting, and then each pupil 
mount for himself a section of the prepared 
part. This will give all the pupils sections of 
each organ or part to be studied, and give all a 
chance in preparing the sections. When the 
sections of the different parts are mounted, they 
may be studied with the microscope in connec- 
tion with the dissection of the part. This need 
not prevent the studying of fresh material his- 
tologically if desired by the teacher. 
After pupils have become familiar with a 
simple method of preparing sections, then they 
may be allowed to do the work of some more 
complicated scheme. 
Each teacher must be his own judge of the 
amount of this kind of work for a class to do. 
It will be found better, however, to study an 
organ or a part in the laboratory after the class 
has studied that organ or part in the text-book. 
Birds are always accessible at any season of the 
year, hence I have placed the study of a bird 
first. The bird as a specimen for study may 
be used through the whole series of parts, or a PREFATORY NOTE. 
5 
mammal or amphibian may be used first or 
alternated with the bird. Some benefit may be 
found in comparing the parts of all three. It 
will be a benefit, also, to have the pupils see 
how they all differ in their structure from man. 
I have given throughout the celloidin process 
of embedding and cutting because it is simple 
and managed with but little apparatus. For 
this reason it seems well adapted for high school 
and normal school work. 
The questions and explanations in Part I. are 
not exhaustive, but are such as the average pupil 
who studies physiology should be able to answer 
or understand. The writer has not included all 
the organs, as the limited time devoted to phys- 
iology in high schools or normals will not per- 
mit very extensive laboratory work. 
The writer has figured only two pieces of ap- 
paratus to be used, the microscope and the mi- 
crotome. These are illustrated because it seemed 
best to make some explanation of these. For 
other apparatus the teacher is referred to the 
large and well illustrated catalogues of micro- 
scopic materials, such as is published by the 
Bausch & Lorab Optical Company, of Rochester, 6 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
and others. Much or little apparatus can be 
used in this work according to the means or in- 
clination of the teacher. 
Electrotypes for illustrating this volume have 
been obtained from the following sources: 
From the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, 
Rochester, New York, Figs. 1, 2. 
From P. Blakiston, Son & Co., Philadelphia, 
taken from Stirling’s “ Outlines of Practical 
Histology,” Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26. 
Fig. 19 is new, and was made from a cross- 
section of the glandular stomach of a meadow- 
lark by the St. Louis Engraving and Electro- 
typing Company. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 
Ascinus, a group of cells forming a gland unit, as a lobule 
or a tubule. 
Attachment, end of a muscle whose support moves when 
the muscle contracts. 
Capsule, covering of lens, kidney, spleen, etc. 
Condyle, an articulating surface. 
Decalcified, the lime taken out of a bone. 
Endocardium, membrane lining the heart. 
(H.), high power of the microscope. 
Histological, studied by the aid of the microscope. 
(L.), low power of the microscope. 
L. S., longitudinal section. 
Origin, the end of a muscle whose support is not moved 
when the muscle contracts. 
Pectoral Girdle, the bony ring in a frog to which the 
front limbs are attached. 
Pelvic Girdle, the bony ring in a frog to which the hind 
limbs are attached. 
Periosteum, the membrane round the bone. 
Trabeculae, connective tissue from the capsule of the 
spleen or other similar organ that extends into the 
organ from the inner part of the capsule. 
T. S., transverse section. 
V. S., vertical section. 
7 PART I. 
DISSECTION. 
9 A MANUAL 
OF 
DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
DISSECTION. 
The object of dissection is to separate the 
various parts of an animal in such a manner 
as to show their shape, size, and relation to each 
other. To do this it is necessary to sever the 
connective tissues that bind the parts together; 
but this should be done in a careful and precise 
manner. At the beginning the student should 
learn that promiscuous hacking specimens to 
pieces is not dissection. Credit should not be 
given for such work. 
It is well to have a few general rules that 
should be observed in dissection, such as the 
following : 
1. Fix the specimen in whatever position will 
be the most convenient for work. If a dissect- 
ing-pan be used, it will probably be best to fasten 
the specimen with the head from the operator. 
11 12 
A MANUAL OF 
2. Moisten the tissues occasionally with water 
or normal salt solution to prevent drying. 
3. In dissecting muscles, nerves, and blood- 
vessels, stretch them slightly and work in the 
direction of their length. 
4. Do not allow scraps to accumulate on the 
specimen. Sponge away clots of blood. 
5. Do not try to work with dull instruments, 
as you cannot do good work with them. There- 
fore keep scalpels sharp and clean. 
6. When through with the work for the day, 
thoroughly clean all instruments that have been 
used. Do not wipe at first with the chamois- 
skin, but wipe first with a damp cloth, then 
with a dry one, and last with the chamois-skin. 
Full notes and drawings should be made of 
every dissection and of all the parts studied his- 
tologically. Besides answers to the questions 
given, descriptions may be made of other parts 
observed. Make notes and drawings at the 
time the work is done, and leave them in the 
place assigned by the teacher. 
NOTES AND DRAWINGS. 
A set of Boyer’s “ Blanks for Laboratory 13 
DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
Notes and Drawings” will be the best and 
cheapest good material that can be had for notes 
and drawings. Each set consists of a block of 
writing-paper, a block of drawing-paper, two 
covers for the work after it is done, and a set of 
brass fasteners to bind all together in a neat book. 
All drawings should be made from the objects 
studied and not from some picture, either in the 
manual or found elsewhere. The teacher should 
not give credit for a drawing that is not made 
from the object studied. 
If the drawings are made from the micro- 
scope, they can be made in a circle, two and 
one-half to three inches in diameter, and the 
drawing include what is seen of the object in 
the field without moving the slide. The draw- 
ing should be accompanied by the name of the 
object and the amount of magnification. The 
latter may be expressed as follows: “ X 96” for 
magnified ninety-six diameters. 
DISSECTION OF A BIRD, 
MUSCLES. 
Skin the bird carefully without tearing or 
removing any of the muscles. Great care must 14 
A MANUAL OF 
be taken with the wings, or one muscle will be 
removed with the skin. 
1. Find a double muscle on the anterior side 
of the humerus, united at the shoulder but dis- 
connected at its insertion or attachment, one of 
its long tendons being inserted at the elbow and 
the other at the wrist,—the tensor plicse alaris. 
Pull gently with the forceps. Attachment ? 
Use ? Find below this the brachialis biceps. 
Origin ? Attachment ? Pull with the forceps. 
Use? On the back side of the humerus find 
the brachialis triceps. Origin ? Attachment ? 
Use ? Draw. 
2. Find the pectoralis major, or large breast 
muscle. Its origin ? Attachment ? Pull with 
the forceps. Result? From this what is its 
use ? Separate this muscle from its origin and 
turn it up. Find under this the pectoralis minor, 
or second breast muscle. Origin ? Trace to its 
attachment. Pull with the forceps. Use ? Do 
these two muscles have the same use? Birds 
have a third breast muscle, whose origin is at 
the anterior end of the sternum, and which is at- 
tached in the upper outer end of the humerus, 
which it helps to raise. Find this. We do not DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
15 
have this muscle. It answers in part to our 
subclavius. 
3. On the hack of the shoulder find the trape- 
zius, whose origin is the last cervical and the 
first dorsal vertebrae. Attachment? Pull with 
the forceps. Use ? Find beneath this the rhom- 
boideus. Pull with the forceps. Origin ? At- 
tachment? Use? On the outer part of the 
shoulder find the deltoideus muscle. Pull with 
the forceps. Use ? Besides these there are 
several small muscles on the back part of the 
shoulder of the bird. 
4. On the leg find the sartorius, extending 
from the outer part of the os innominata to the 
inner side of the knee. Pull gently with the 
forceps. Use ? Which end is the origin and 
which the attachment? Remove this and a 
muscle on the outside of the leg, the tensor 
vaginae, and the main muscles that move the leg 
back and forth may be seen. In front find the 
rectus femoris, inside this the vastus internus 
and the crureus, the inner bundle being made 
up of two muscles, and on the outside the vastus 
externus. Find these four. Use ? Draw. 
5. On the back of the limb are the gluteal 16 
A MANUAL OF 
muscles,—the gluteus externus, the gluteus me- 
dius, and the gluteus minimus, in this order 
from the outside. Sometimes the last is absent. 
Find these. Use ? These are the main muscles 
on this part of the leg, and are the same mus- 
cles that are to be found on this part of our 
lower extremities. Below the knee on the back 
side are two muscles, the gastrocnemius and 
the soleus, the latter beneath the first. Find and 
pull with the forceps. Origin? Attachment? 
Use ? The tendon is the tendo Achillis. 
6. (Histological.) (L. and H.) Make a draw- 
ing of as much as you can see of the muscle, 
giving all the markings you can see. What is 
the shape of the fibres? Do you find a sarco- 
lemma ? With a transverse section see the ends 
of the fibres. Shape? Draw. If you have a 
section double-stained with haematoxylin and 
borax-carmine, see if you can find nuclei to the 
fibres and the cross-striae. If you can, draw. 
For explanation of cross-striae, see Fig. 9 in 
Part 11. 
BONES. 
1. Remove the tissues sufficiently to find the 
bones readily. Find the humerus, ulna, and DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
17 
radius. How many of each in one wing ? What 
kind of a joint is the shoulder-joint? What 
kind at the lower end of the humerus ? Which 
is the larger, the ulna or the radius ? Make out 
as many bones of the hand and wrist as you can. 
Draw. 
2. Find the femur and tibia. Is there a 
fibula? If so, how far below the knee does it 
extend ? See if you can find a patella. The 
hone in the scaled portion of the leg is regarded 
as a combination of the tarsal and metatarsal 
bones, and is called the tarso-rnetatarsus. To 
this the toes or phalanges are attached below. 
Draw. 
3. On the head find the occipital bone. By 
how many occipital condyles or joints is this 
articulated to the first cervical vertebra ? Find 
the foramen magnum, or passage for the spinal 
cord. Shape ? On each side of the foramen 
magnum is a ridge, the paroccipital ridge. In 
some birds, as the ostrich, ducks, etc., the occipi- 
tal bone is formed of four bones,—these ridges 
being parts of two of them,—the occipital, the 
supraoccipital, and the two paroccipitals. How 
is it with your bird? See if you can find the 18 
A MANUAL OF 
temporal and frontal bones. How many frontals ? 
Draw. 
4. The upper mandible is a bone encased in 
horn, the premaxillary, and it is joined to the 
cranium by a movable joint. The lower mandi- 
ble is also a bone sheathed in horn, answering in 
part to our inferior maxillary. It is joined to 
the cranium by a separate bone, the quadrate 
bone. There is another slender bone extending 
from about the middle of this to the base of 
the premaxillary, the maxillo-jugular bar. This 
serves to raise the upper mandible when the 
lower mandible is lowered. Find all these and 
draw. How many of these have we ? 
5. How many cervical vertebrae are there? 
How many dorsal? The dorsal are those to 
which the ribs are attached. Are the dorsal 
vertebrae movable or immovable ? Find the os 
innominata. Is it of the same shape as ours? 
To what extent is it attached to the vertebrae ? 
Shape of the sternum ? How many of the ribs 
are attached to the sternum ? How many bones 
form the shoulder ? To what is the wish-bone 
analogous in our skeleton ? 
6. (Histological.) Draw and locate all the DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
19 
canals and openings yon can find in your section. 
Find the periosteum. If you have a section from 
the end of a bone, find the interarticular carti- 
lage. Are there any cells in this ? Are there any 
nuclei? For explanation of these, see Fig. 10 in 
Part 11. 
DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
1. Has the bird teeth ? How do the mandi- 
bles differ from our jaws? Use of the mandi- 
bles? Trace the oesophagus to the crop. Use 
of the crop ? Have we anything analogous to 
the crop ? What is in it ? 
2. Trace from the crop to the glandular 
stomach, the enlarged part just before the giz- 
zard. This supplies the gastric juice. How 
does it differ from the gizzard? How does it 
differ from the oesophagus ? 
3. What is the shape of the gizzard ? Cut it 
open. What is in the inside ? Find three coats. 
What are they ? Use of each ? Draw the crop 
and gizzard and the included part. 
4. Find below the gizzard the small intes- 
tine. Trace to two branches that are given off. 
These are the caeca.* Below or beyond the 
* The caeca are not present in all birds, as woodpeckers. 20 
A MANUAL OF 
caeca is the large intestine. How does it differ 
from the small intestine ? Is there any opening 
to the outer end of the caica ? 
5. Find the pancreas. Where is it? Where 
does its duct empty? Shape? Find the liver. 
Is there a gall-bladder ? Where does the biliary 
duct empty ? What holds all these organs in 
place in the abdomen ? 
6. (Histological.) Glandular Stomach.—T. S. 
(L. and H.) Beginning with the outside, locate 
the peritoneum, the transverse and longitudinal 
muscular coats, and a layer of connective tissue 
next to the glands, or the submucous coat. Find 
next a series of plumose glands, and next to 
these a series of straight tubular glands. Where 
does the duct of the plumose gland empty? 
These glands are peptic, or secrete the gastric 
juice. Draw, locating all these parts. See ex- 
planation and Fig. 19 in Part 11. 
7. Gizzard.—Distinguish the outer or serous 
coat, the muscular coat, and the inner or fibrous 
coat. Which is the thickest? Why? Are 
there any glands in the inner coat? (You can 
tell partly by the difference in staining.) Draw 
a section. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
21 
8. Small Intestine.—Find on the outside the 
first three coats, the same as for the glandular 
stomach, the serous, transverse muscular, and 
longitudinal muscular coats. Inside these find 
the glands of Lieberkiihn, and inside these the 
villi. Draw, and in the drawing distinguish 
these. Are there any Peyer’s glands ? 
9. Liver.—Find the little openings, the intra- 
lobular veins. See if you can make out the 
boundaries of the lobules. Find the outer 
serous membrane or the capsule. Draw. How 
does your section compare with Fig. 14 in 
Part 11. ? 
RESPIRATION. 
1. Where are the nostrils located? Pass a 
pm into one of them and see where the inner 
opening is. Find the glottis. What is its 
shape ? Which way do the papillae point ? Use 
of the papillae ? Do we have papillae round the 
glottis ? Is there an epiglottis ? Draw. 
2. Are the rings of the trachea entire or not ? 
How do they differ from ours ? At the bifurca- 
tion of the trachea find the true vocal cords. 
See if you can find a membrane extending 
upward, free at the upper end, inside the tra- 22 
A MANUAL OF 
cliea. This is the “ trilling” organ of the bird. 
Draw. 
3. How many lungs are there? Are they 
lobed like ours ? Color ? Is there a dia- 
phragm ? How far back do the lungs extend ? 
Into what part of the lungs do the bronchi enter ? 
Draw in position. Remove. Does the pleura 
cover both sides of the lungs ? 
4. (Histological.) (L. and H.) Trachea.— 
Distinguish three coats, the inner or mucous, 
the middle or cartilaginous, and the outer or 
fibro-muscular. What kind of epithelium lines 
the inner ? If your section shows the rings, see 
that the rings are continuous. A longitudinal 
section shows the cut ends of the rings. Shape 
of ends ? Draw. 
5. Lungs.—Make out as many of the tissues 
as you can. Are the air-cells smooth, or can 
you see depressions in them ? Find the pleura. 
See if you can find any ciliated epithelium in 
the larger air-passages. Draw. 
1. Find the heart. How far out on each side 
does the pericardium extend? Open the peri- 
CIRCULATION. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
23 
cardium and remove it. On the right side find 
coming from below the inferior vena cava, the 
auricle being slightly enlarged where it empties 
into a sinus venosus that is more prominent in 
frogs. There are two superior venae cavae, the 
right and left, as in frogs. The blood is re- 
turned to the left auricle by two pulmonary 
veins, one from each lung. How does this differ 
from ours ? 
2. The pulmonary artery arises from the right 
ventricle and divides to go to each lung. The 
left ventricle sends out the aorta that divides 
into three arteries. How does this differ from 
ours ? Draw. Open the heart and find the au- 
ricles and ventricles. Note carefully the valves 
between the auricles and ventricles on both 
sides and also the tendinous cords. Are they 
the same on both sides? How do they differ 
from ours ? Draw. 
3. From which branch of the aorta does the 
descending aorta come ? Find the portal vein, 
the hepatic vein, and the two thoracic ducts. In 
birds there are two of these instead of one. In 
the hollows of the pelvis find the dark-red kid- 
neys. Shape ? 24 
A MANUAL OF 
4, (Histological). Heart.—L. S. (L. and H.) 
Of what kind of muscular tissue is the heart 
composed? Is there a sarcolemma? (See a 
double-stained section for this.) Find the peri- 
cardium, the endocardium. Draw. Are there 
any transverse strise ? 
5. Kidney.—Find the tubules and the Mal- 
phigian bodies. Shape of both ? The last are 
the excretory parts of the kidney. With a 
double-stained section see the individual cells. 
In what part are the nuclei ? How do they com- 
pare with Fig. 13 in Part 11. ? Draw from your 
section. 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
1. Carefully cut away the upper or outer cra- 
nial bones. Find the cerebrum and cerebellum. 
Is the cerebrum convoluted ? Is the cerebel- 
lum ? How do they compare in size ? Find the 
olfactory lobes. Find back of the cerebrum on 
each side the optic lobes, a little to one side and 
between the cerebrum and cerebellum. Find 
back of the cerebellum the medulla. Draw 
and locate all these parts before removing the 
brain. 
2. With the point of the scalpel raise the DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
25 
anterior part of the brain and notice fibres con- 
necting the brain with the skull. These are 
the cranial nerves. Make a section into the 
brain through the longitudinal fissure. Notice 
that there are several openings on the inside of 
the brain. These are the ventricles of the brain, 
of which the first is in the olfactory lobes, and 
the fourth is in the cerebellum. Does the longi- 
tudinal sinus extend through the brain ? In 
the cerebellum find the “ tree of life.” How 
many branches do you find ? Are the branches 
simple or branched ? 
3. Is the gray matter of the medulla on the 
outside or the inside? How does the medulla 
compare in size with the spinal cord ? In order 
to see the spinal cord well, cut away the neural 
arches of several of the cervical vertebrae. 
What is the shape of the spinal cord ? Size ? 
Is there a dorsal fissure or sinus ? See if there 
is a ventral sinus. 
4. Remove the kidneys from their cavity in 
the sacrum and find several nerve-threads pass 
out from the spinal cord and unite to form the 
sciatic nerve. See if you can find any other 
spinal nerves. 26 
A MANUAL OF 
5. (Histological.) Spinal Cord.—T. S. (L. and 
H.) Find in the centre the gray matter. Shape? 
In mammals there is a blood-vessel in the cen- 
tre. Is there in the section you have ? See if 
you can distinguish the separate nerves. Draw. 
6. Brain.—Find the coat adherent to the 
brain, the pia mater. How thick is the gray 
matter ? See if you can see the separate nerve- 
cells. Draw. If you have a properly stained 
nerve, distinguish the myelin and the axis-cylin- 
der. Draw. For a nerve-fibre, see Fig. 23 in 
Part 11. 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
1. Tongue.—Are there any papillae on the 
tongue ? If so, where ? To what part of the 
tongue is the hyoid bone attached ? Shape ? 
2. (Histological.) Distinguish, if you can, the 
different kinds of tissues of the tongue. Is the 
tip of it covered with skin ? If not, what is the 
tissue ? Can you find any taste buds or pits ? 
For the shape of taste buds, see Fig. 25, Part 11. 
Draw. 
3. Bye.—How many lids are there ? Cut 
away the upper lid and find the muscles by 
which the eyeball is moved. How many do DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
27 
you find ? Take the eye out. Shape ? Draw. 
Where is the optic nerve ? 
4. With a sharp scalpel or razor cut through 
the equator of the eye. In the posterior half 
you may find a thin lining membrane that you 
can strip away with the forceps, the hyaloid 
membrane. The front part of this forms the 
suspensory ligament that supports the lens. 
Find its attachment round the outer edge of the 
iris. Besides this the lens has its own covering, 
the capsule. Find where the optic nerve enters 
the eye. Before trying to strip out the hyaloid 
membrane, see if you can find a membrane that 
extends from this membrane to or towards the 
lens, the marsupium of the eye. We do not 
have this. Use of the marsupium ? 
5. Take the lens out. Shape ? Lay it on a 
piece of paper having print on it and see that it 
magnifies. The iris lays on the lens. Is it at- 
tached to it ? Color of the iris ? The cavity 
between the cornea and the iris is filled with 
the aqueous humor, the posterior part of the 
eye is filled with the vitreous humor. How 
does the cornea differ from the sclerotica ? 
Draw. 28 
A MANUAL OF 
6. (Histological.) (L. and H.) In a section 
showing the front of the eye find the cornea, 
and outside this a thin membrane, the con- 
junctiva, or mucous membrane of the eye. See 
if you can find also a thinner membrane on the 
inside of the cornea, the endothelium layer. 
Draw. In front of the lens find the iris. See 
that the back part of this is formed of the back 
part of the choroidea. Is the iris thickest at 
the outer or inner part? See that the choroid 
part of the iris at the outer part is laid in folds. 
This is the inner portion of the ciliary process. 
See outside of this the ciliary muscles between 
the ciliary process and the sclerotica. See if 
you can find the two sets of these muscles. 
These are the muscles of accommodation. Draw. 
7. With the section of the back part of the 
eye find the three coats,—sclerotica, chordea, 
and retina. If your section shows the optic 
nerve, which of these coats are absent here ? 
Draw this portion. How many layers or coats 
can you make out in the retina? See if you 
can distinguish the nerve-cells and nerve-fibres. 
Find that the outer layer of the retina is a 
color or pigment layer, but is separate from the DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
29 
choroid coat. This is the color layer for the 
rods and cones. See if you can find the hyaloid 
membrane. If your section has the marsupium. 
Shape ? Draw. 
8. Bar.—How many parts of the external ear 
do you find ? Name them. With the bone-saw 
cut into the cranium so as to see the middle and 
internal ears. Find the membrana tympani and 
the chain of bones. Draw. 
DISSECTION OF A MAMMAL. 
A cat, rat, or rabbit will answer very well for 
this. It is better not to have the animal too 
large nor too small. Skin the specimen without 
tearing the muscles or breaking the bones. 
MUSCLES. 
1. In front of the humerus find the brachialis 
biceps. Pull with the forceps. Which end is 
the attachment ? Which end is the origin ? 
On the back of the humerus find the brachialis 
triceps. Pull. Use? There are other small 
muscles on this part of the arm, but these are 
the main opposing muscles. 
2. On the breast find the pectoralis major, or 
large breast muscle. Pull with the forceps. 30 
A MANUAL OF 
Origin? Attachment? Use? Under this find 
the pectoralis minor, or small breast muscle. 
Origin? Attachment? Use? On the dorsal 
side of the shoulder find, extending from the 
vertebrae to the shoulder, the trapezius. Shape ? 
Beneath this find the rhomboideus. Use of 
these two muscles? These are the four main 
muscles of the shoulder. 
3. On the dorsal side of the forearm are a 
number of small muscles that are extensors of 
the toes or phalanges. On the opposite side are 
the flexors of the toes. Pull each to see its use. 
4. On the middle of the abdomen find two 
long slender muscles, the rectus abdominis, that 
run from the pubic portion of the os innominata 
to the ribs. On each side of these two muscles 
are three muscles that form the abdominal wall, 
—the external oblique, the internal oblique, and 
the transversalis. These lie one over the other 
in the order given, but their fibres run in differ- 
ent directions. Find on one side these four 
muscles. Back of the trapezius, on the dorsum, 
find a large sheet of muscle whose origin is in 
the vertebrae from the fifth dorsal to the fourth 
lumbar, the latissimus dorsi. Attachment? Use? DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
31 
5. On the outside of the hip find, first, a long 
slender muscle that extends from the os innomi- 
nata to the knee, the sartorius, hack of this a 
broader sheet, the tensor vaginse femoris. Back 
of the last are three muscles from the middle of 
the thigh,—biceps femoris, semimembranosus, 
and semitendinosus. These five are the outer 
muscles of this part of the leg. Find them. 
Draw. 
6. Remove the tensor vaginte femoris and the 
biceps femoris. There are four gluteal muscles 
that have their origin mostly in the os innomi- 
nata but are inserted into the great trochanter 
or bend of the femur. Find them. There are 
several other small muscles in this region. On 
the front of the femur find the rectus femoris. 
On the outside of this is another muscle, the 
vastus externus, and on the inside of the rec- 
tus femoris are two muscles, the vastus internus 
and the crureus. Find these four. Attach- 
ment ? Use ? 
7. Below the knee, on the under side, find 
two muscles, one over the other, fixed to one 
tendon below. The outer is the gastrocnemius, 
the inner is the soleus. Origin ? Attachment ? 32 
A MANUAL OF 
Pull with the forceps. Use? The tendon is 
the tendo Achillis, the largest tendon in the 
body. On the anterior side of the tibia are 
several muscles, the first large one being the 
tibialis anticus. Find. Pull these anterior 
muscles. Use ? 
8. (Histological.) (L. and H.) With the low 
power make a drawing of as much of the 
muscle as you can see. If there is any con- 
nective tissue between the fibres indicate it. 
What is the shape of the fibres ? With a trans- 
verse section see the ends of the fibres. Shape ? 
With a double-stained section find a fibre that 
shows the transverse striae and, if possible, 
the nuclei. Draw, using the high power. If 
you find the nuclei, where are they? Shape? 
Transverse striae and nuclei are shown in Fig. 9, 
Part 11, 
BONES. 
1. Eemove the tissues enough to find the 
bones readily. Find the humerus, ulna, radius, 
carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges. How many 
of each in one leg? What kind of a joint is 
the shoulder? To what bones is the clavicle 
attached ? Draw the bones of the fore limb. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
33 
2. Find the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsus, meta- 
tarsus, and phalanges. How many of each in 
one hind leg ? What kind of a joint is the hip ? 
Is there a patella? What kind of a joint is the 
knee ? Shape of the os innominata ? Draw the 
bones of the lower or hind limb. 
3. How many cervical vertebrae are there? 
How many dorsal ? How many lumbar ? (The 
dorsal are the ones to which the ribs are at- 
tached.) How many caudal vertebrae? Have 
we anything that corresponds to the caudal 
vertebrae of a cat or a rat? If so, what? Is 
there a sternum ? 
4. Find the occipital bone. By how many 
condyles or joints is it articulated with the first 
cervical vertebra? Shape? Find the parietal 
bones. Shape? How many frontal bones are 
there ? Find the malar, nasal, vomer, superior 
maxillary, and inferior maxillary bones. In 
front of the superior maxillary bones are two 
small bones, the premaxillaries. We do not 
have these. How many of each kind of teeth 
are there ? Use of the incisors ? Use of the 
molars ? 
5. (Histological.) (L. and H.) With the low A MANUAL OF 
power find the periosteum. What connection 
has this with the bone ? If there is a marrow, 
how does it differ from the bone ? Find with 
(II.) the canals in the bone. Does the bone stain 
differently from the other tissues ? If you have 
a section showing the end of a bone, see if there 
is any interarticular cartilage. Has it cells? 
Draw. For the structure of the end of bone 
see Fig. 10 in Part 11, If you have longi- 
tudinal section of two vertebrae, draw them. 
1. Is the tongue rough or smooth ? If rough, 
which way do the papillae point ? Where are 
they ? How many openings are there into the 
pharynx ? ISTame them. Is there a crop in the 
(esophagus ? 
DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
2. Shape of the stomach ? Draw. On which 
side of the diaphragm is the stomach? Into 
which end is the oesophagus inserted ? Can you 
detect any constriction at the pylorus ? 
3. Where is the liver ? Is there a gall-blad- 
der ? How many lobes to the liver ? Find the 
pancreas. Shape? Trace the pancreatic and 
biliary ducts to the small intestine. How far DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
35 
below the stomach do they join the intestine ? 
Color of the liver ? Color of the pancreas ? 
Where is the spleen ? Draw. 
4. Trace the small intestine to the large intes- 
tine, How are they joined? Difference in size? 
Is there a vermiform appendage ? What holds 
the intestines in place ? 
5. (Histological.) (L. and H.) Stomach.— 
There are four coats to the stomach,—serous, 
muscular, submucous, and mucous. For these 
coats, see Fig. 17, Part 11. Find. Shape of 
the peptic glands, or the glands that secrete the 
gastric juice? If you have a section showing 
the glands of both ends of the stomach, see if 
the glands are of the same shape. See with (H.) 
if you can make out the cells in the glands. 
Draw all these parts. Study the structures of 
Figs. 17 and 18 in Part. 11. 
6. Intestines.—Find the same coats as are to 
be found in the walls of the stomach. The 
glands of Lieberkiihn and the villi seem to be 
continuous, the latter internal. Are there any 
Peyer’s glands ? (For place and shape of these, 
see Fig. 20, Part II.) If so, in what part of the 
intestine ? Shape of villi ? Draw. 36 
A MANUAL OF 
7. Liver.—Make out the serous coat or cap- 
sule of the liver. The small openings are the 
intralobular veins. Find. Can you find the 
boundaries of the lobules ? Draw. 
8. Spleen.—Find the outside layer or capsule. 
See how many layers or coats you can find in 
this. Find where the inner layer sends fibres 
into the interior, or trabeculae, as they are called. 
In the interior, in the spleen pulp, make out the 
blood-vessels and the round Malpighian bodies. 
With (H.) see if you can distinguish the blood- 
corpuscles from the leucosites or the white cor- 
puscles. Distinguish these from the fibre-cells. 
If your section is double-stained, find the nuclei 
of the cells and draw. See if you can see the 
capillaries leading to the Malpighian bodies. 
For explanation of the parts of the spleen, see 
Fig. 16, Part 11. 
RESPIRATION. 
1. At the base of the tongue find the glottis, 
epiglottis, and vocal cords. Shape of each. 
Draw. 
2. Are the rings of the trachea entire? If 
not, on which side is there no cartilage ? How 
do they compare with ours ? Draw. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
37 
3. How many lungs are there ? How many 
lobes to each lung ? Color ? Is there a dia- 
phragm ? What part of the lung is free ? 
4. (Histological.) (L. and H.) Trachea.—Dis- 
tinguish the different coats,—mucous, cartilage, 
and fibro-muscular. Find, if you can, on the 
inner coat the ciliated epithelium. Draw. 
5. Lungs.—Find the pleura. Distinguish, if 
you can, the air-cells, the walls of the larger air- 
passages, if you have a section that shows these, 
and blood-vessels. Can you find ciliated epithe- 
lium in the larger air-passages ? Draw. See Fig. 
22, Part 11. 
CIRCULATION. 
1. Find the pericardium. In the heart make 
out the cavities : the right and left auricles and 
the right and left ventricles. Are the valves in 
the two sides alike? Of what kind of tissue 
are they composed? Find the aorta and pul- 
monary artery. 
2. Trace the pulmonary artery to the lungs. 
Where does it divide ? Find the first artery 
given off from the aorta, the one that goes to 
the heart. It is hack of one of the semilunar 
valves. How far from the valve ? Is there more 38 
A MANUAL OF 
than one ? Find the carotid arteries that go to 
the head. Where are they given off? See 
if you can find the arteries given off to the 
stomach and kidneys and the divisions of the 
aorta in the pelvis. 
3. Find the portal vein, the hepatic vein, in- 
ferior vena cava, the superior vena cava, jugular 
veins, and thoracic duct. Where are these ? 
4. (Histological.) (L. and H.) Heart.—Of 
what kind of muscular tissue is the heart com- 
posed ? Is it striated ? Is there a sarcolemma ? 
(It will take a double-stained section for the last 
two questions.) Find the endocardium. The 
outside layer of connective tissue is a continua- 
tion of the pericardium. Find this. Draw. 
5. Kidney.—ln a cross-section of the kidney 
find the tubules and the Malpighian bodies. 
The last are the real excretory parts of the 
kidney. With a double-stained section find the 
cells of which the tubules are composed and the 
nuclei. Draw. Compare with Fig. 13, Part 11. 
1. Remove the cranial bones that cover the 
outside of the brain. Is the cerebrum convo- 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
39 
luted ? Is the cerebellum ? How do they com- 
pare in size ? Shape of each ? Draw. 
2. Raise the anterior part of the brain care- 
fully to find the olfactory lobes. See, as you 
raise the brain, that there are several fibres 
extending down into the lower part of the 
cranium. These are the cranial nerves. One 
large white one you may recognize as the optic 
nerve. See how many of these nerves you can 
find. 
3. Make a section into the cerebrum. Where 
is the gray matter ? Where is the white ? Hoes 
the central sinus extend through the brain ? If 
not, how far does it extend ? Make a longitudi- 
nal section through the cerebellum. Find the 
“ tree of life.” How many branches do you 
find ? Are the branches simple or branched ? 
Draw. 
4. At the base of the brain find the medulla 
oblongata. Where is the white matter in this ? 
How does it compare with the spinal cord in 
size and in position of the white matter ? 
5. Cut away the posterior part of some of the 
vertebrae in several places and see the spinal 
nerves. How many roots can you find to each 40 
A MANUAL OF 
nerve ? See if yon can find the sciatic nerve in 
the hind limb. 
6. (Histological.) (L. and H.) Spinal Cord.— 
T. S. With (L.) find in the centre the gray 
matter. Shape ? Is there an opening in the 
centre for a blood-vessel ? With (H.) see if you 
can distinguish the separate nerves. Also the 
nerve-cells. Draw. 
7. Brain.—Find the pia mater, the coat ad- 
herent to the brain. How thick is the gray 
matter ? Look for the nerve-cells and nerve- 
fibres. Draw. How do your nerve-cells com- 
pare with those in Fig. 24, Part 11. ? 
8. Nerve.—lf you have a properly stained 
nerve, distinguish the myalin and the axis 
cylinder. Is the fibre of the same diameter 
throughout its length? Draw. Compare with 
Fig. 28, Part 11. 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
1. Tongue.—Are there any papillae on the 
tongue ? If so, where are they ? Are they all 
of the same size? If not, where are they the 
largest? How are they arranged? Draw with 
the aid of the hand lens. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
41 
2. (Histological.) Distinguish, if you can, 
the different tissues of the tongue. What kind 
of epithelium covers it? Which way do the 
papillae point ? Are there any taste buds in any 
of the papillae? If so, on what part of the 
tongue ? Shape of the papillae containing taste 
buds? Draw a papilla with its adjacent tissue. 
For structure and place of taste buds, see Fig. 21, 
Part 11. 
3. Bye.—How many lids are there? Are 
there eyelashes? Cut away the upper lid to 
find the muscles that move the eyeball. How 
many muscles do you find ? Take the eye out. 
Shape ? Where is the optic nerve ? Draw. 
4. With a sharp scalpel or razor cut through 
the equator of the eye. In the posterior half 
you may find a thin lining membrane that you 
can strip away with the forceps, the hyaloid 
membrane. The front part of this forms the 
suspensory ligament that supports the lens. 
Find its attachment round the outer edge of the 
iris. Besides this, the lens has its own cover- 
ing, the capsule. Find where the optic nerve 
enters the eye. Before trying to strip out the 
hyaloid membrane, see if you can find where 42 
A MANUAL OF 
the optic nerve enters the eye. See if yon can 
find the yellow spot. How many coats do you 
find? 
5. Take the lens out. Shape ? Lay it on a 
piece of paper with print on it to see that it 
magnifies. The iris lays on the lens. Is it 
attached to it ? Color of the iris ? Diameter 
of the cornea? The cavity between the cornea 
and the iris is filled with the aqueous humor; 
the posterior part of the eye contains the 
vitreous humor. What difference do you find 
between these two fluids ? How does the cornea 
differ from the sclerotica ? Draw. 
6. (Histological.) (L. and H.) In a section 
showing the front of the eye find the cornea, 
and outside this a thin membrane, the con- 
junctiva, or the mucous membrane of the eye. 
See if you can find also a thinner membrane 
on the inside of the cornea, the endothelium 
layer. Draw. In front of the lens find the iris. 
(This may not he whole.) See that the back 
part of this is formed of the back part of the 
choroidea. Is the iris thickest at the outer or 
inner part? See that the choroid part of the 
iris at the outer part is laid in folds. This is DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
43 
the inner portion of the ciliary process. Draw. 
See outside this the ciliary muscles between the 
ciliary process and the sclerotica. See if you 
can find the two sets of these muscles. These 
are the muscles of accommodation. 
7. With the section of the back part of the 
eye find the three coats,—sclerotica, choroidea, 
and retina. If your section shows the optic 
nerve, which of these coats are absent here? 
Draw this portion. How many layers or coats 
can you make out in the retina? See if you 
can distinguish the nerve-cells and nerve-fibres. 
Find that the outer layer of the retina is a color 
or pigment layer but that it is separate from 
the choroid coat. This is the color layer for 
the rods and cones. See if you can find the 
hyaloid membrane. Fig. 25, Part 11., may aid 
in finding the layers of the retina. 
8. Ear.—How many parts of the external ear 
do you find? Hame them. With the bone-saw 
cut into the cranium so as to see the middle and 
internal ears. Find the membrana tympani and 
the chain of bones. Draw. 44 
A MANUAL OF 
DISSECTION OF A FROG. 
An alcoholic specimen will be better for this 
than one that is fresh. If specimens have been 
kept in alcohol until very hard and stiff, place 
in a liquid made of equal parts of water, alcohol, 
and glycerin for half a day or more before 
dissecting. Dissect alcohol specimens in 50 
per cent, alcohol. Skin the specimen carefully, 
noting the fibres of connective tissue that hold 
the skin to the parts beneath. Wash away any 
coagulated lymph which may be found in the 
depressions between the muscles. 
MUSCLES. 
1. Without dissecting out any muscles, after 
skinning, note on the centre of ventral part of 
abdomen a white line, the linea alba. Note 
also a muscle each side of this, the rectus 
abdominis. Just outside this, see the obliquus 
externus, with the fibres running downward 
and backward. See also the pectoralis major 
running from the sternum to the shoulder. 
Draw these in position. 
2. Turn the dorsal side up. Note the de- 
pressor mandibuli, posterior to the tympanic 45 
DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
membrane. Notice the latissimus dorsi, pos- 
terior to the first. Find the infraspinatus that 
is partly covered by the latissimus. Find on 
the posterior part of body the gluteus running 
from the innominate back on to the limbs. 
Draw these in position. 
3. On the under side of head, extending 
across from side to side, find the mylohyoid. 
Draw. Remove this, and find to one side of 
median line the geniohyoid. On each side, near 
the angle of jaw, find the air-sac or croaking-bag. 
Find four small muscles running from this sac to 
the hyoid bone, the petrohyoids. Draw. 
4. On the side of the head find the three 
muscles of mastication,—the masseter, in front 
of the union of the upper and lower jaws; the 
temporalis, running between the eye and the 
auditory apparatus; the pterygoideus, under the 
temporalis. Draw. 
5. On the foreleg find the brachialis biceps in 
front of the humerus, and the brachialis triceps 
back of this bone. Running from the anterior 
part of sternum to the foreleg, find the sterno- 
radialis. We do not have this muscle. Draw 
these three. 46 
A MANUAL OF 
6. Find in the hind limb, extending from the 
innominata to the patella, the rectus femoris, 
inside this the vastus internus, and running 
from the pubic portion of the innominata to the 
knee the sartorius. On the outside is the vastus 
externus; under the sartorius may be found two 
muscles, the adductor longus, the front one, 
near the vastus internus, and the adductor mag- 
nus, the posterior one. Pull these with forceps. 
Result ? Use ? 
7. On the back or under side of the leg, be- 
yond the knee, find the gastrocnemius, with the 
tendo Achillis attached to the heel. On the an- 
terior side of the limb find the tibialis anticus, 
one of the muscles opposing the gastrocnemius. 
8. (Histological.) Use the paragraph for his- 
tology under the dissection of a bird for this. 
BONES. 
1. Find the humerus. Below or beyond this 
there is only one bone, the radio-ulna. How 
does this compare with our arm? See if you 
can find any indications of two bones. See how 
many bones of the wrist you can find, carpus, 
also metacarpus and phalanges. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
47 
2. On the hind limb find the femur. How 
does it difier from the humerus ? Draw. Find 
beyond this the tibio-fibula or leg-bone. How 
does this compare with the radio-ulna ? Draw. 
Make out all you can of the bones of the foot. 
3. In the vertebral column, how many cervical 
vertebrae are there ? The cervical vertebrae ex- 
tend to the pectoral girdle. By how many con- 
dyles does the first or atlas unite with the skull? 
How many dorsal vertebrae ? These extend from 
the pectoral girdle to the combination of the 
urostyle and innominate bones. Do these ver- 
tebrae have spinous processes and neural arches 
the same as ours ? Draw. 
4. Of what bones is the pectoral or front limb 
girdle composed ? Of what is the pelvic or hip 
girdle composed ? Is the urostyle composed of 
one bone or several ? What part of the innom- 
inate is represented in the two bones beside 
this ? Draw. 
5. What is the shape of the skull as seen 
from above ? Are the eye-sockets large or small 
as compared with ours ? Find back of the 
sockets the auditory capsule. Find, if you can, 
the occipital bone, and on the roof of the skull 48 
A MANUAL OF 
two bones, the fronto-parietals. Examine the 
lower jaw or inferior maxillary bones. How do 
they unite with the cranium ? Are there any 
teeth ? 
6. Examine, in the occipital bone, the foramen 
magnum through which the spinal cord passes. 
Shape ? On each side of the foramen magnum 
find the occipital condyles. In the frog these are 
borne on each a separate bone, the exoccipital 
bone. We do not have these. Find them. On 
the ridge each side find the union of the pro-otic 
and the exoccipital bone. We do not have this. 
Find the squamosal bone on each side, extending 
from the pro-otic down to the posterior end of 
the upper jaw. Shape ? The pro-otic and squa- 
mosal bones answer to our temporal bone. 
7. What is the relation of the squamosal bone 
to the tympanic ring ? Find under the tympanic 
ring the columella auris. Trace this in to its 
inner end, which is closed by a membrane, the 
fenestra ovalis. Is there any external ear ? 
8. In front of the frontoparietal bones are 
sphenethmoid or girdle bones, next the nasal 
bones with cartilage between them, next the 
premaxillse, and last the maxillary bones or DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
49 
maxillse. See if you can find all these. On 
what part of the maxillse are the teeth ? How 
are all these different from our hones of this 
part ? Draw. 
9. Forming the floor of the cranium find the 
parasphenoid bone. Shape ? Find the palatal 
bones, and in front of these the vomers. The 
latter bear the vomerine teeth. Draw. 
10. (Histological.) For this part take the 
directions and questions for the histology of a 
bird. 
DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
1. Has the frog teeth in the lower jaw ? Find 
teeth on the vomers, the vomerine teeth. Do 
you find any other teeth above ? What is the 
shape of the mouth ? 
2. To what part of the mouth is the tongue 
attached? Pull it out of the mouth. Is the 
same surface up when out of the mouth that is 
when the tongue is in the mouth ? Are there 
any salivary glands ? Draw the tongue when in 
the mouth and when out of the mouth. 
8. Is there a crop here as in birds? Find 
the stomach. What holds the stomach in place ? 
Shape ? Draw while in place, including a por- 50 
A MANUAL OF 
tion of the alimentary canal above and below. 
See if you can find the pancreas below the 
stomach. Handle carefully, and find the ducts 
by which the pancreatic juice and bile enter the 
duodenum. How far apart are they ? 
4. Are the intestines long or short ? How 
many times as long as the body? Is there a 
distinction in size between the large and small 
intestines ? The coiled portion is the small in- 
testine. What holds the intestines in place ? 
5. Where is the spleen? Cut open the 
stomach. What is in it ? From what you see 
what is the food of the frog ? Is the inner coat 
of the stomach smooth or in folds ? 
6. (Histological.) Tongue.—What difference 
is there in the tissue of the upper and lower 
surface ? Are there any papillae ? If so, where ? 
Any taste pits ? See if you can find with the 
high power mucous glands. Draw. For struc- 
ture of taste buds or pits, see Fig. 21, Part 11. 
7. Stomach.—How many layers of muscles 
do you find in the muscular coat? Find the 
peritoneum on the outside. Is there any dif- 
ference between the muscular and submucous 
layers, the latter just below the glands ? Shape DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
51 
of the glands ? Draw a section showing these. 
What difference in the glands in the two ends 
of the stomach ? 
8. Intestines.—Find the peritoneum, the lon- 
gitudinal and transverse muscular fibres. The 
villi form the inner layer of gland-like organs, 
and just outside these the glands of Lieherkiihn. 
Find both of these. With the high power find 
the cells of these glands. How do these com- 
pare with Fig. 20, Part 11. ? Draw. 
1. Where are the nostrils ? Into what do they 
open ? Find the trachea. Is there a larynx ? 
If so, shape ? Are there cartilaginous rings in 
the trachea ? If so, are they entire or open on 
one side ? Length of the trachea ? 
RESPIRATION. 
2. How far back do the lungs extend ? Shape ? 
How long are the bronchi ? If the lung is col- 
lapsed, insert a blow-pipe into the bronchus 
and inflate it. Difference in size between the 
inflated and collapsed lung ? Look for the 
pulmonary artery running the length of the 
lung while it is inflated. Are the cells large or 
small ? 52 
A MANUAL OF 
3. Open the glottis and look for the vocal 
cords, two narrow bands. If the frog is a male 
(which may be known by the fourth digit on 
the anterior foot being much enlarged), find 
each side in back part of the mouth the vocal 
sacs or croaking-bags. Size ? Shape ? Draw. 
4. (Histological.) In the trachea find the 
different coats of which it is composed. Name 
them, and draw. See if you can find any 
ciliated epithelium lining the inner coat. Use 
(H.) for this. Hote the size of the lung-cells. 
Find the outer coat or pleura. Draw. 
CIRCULATION. 
1. If a live specimen can be had, make a 
narrow opening in a piece of card-board or 
other thin substance, tie a thread to the two 
longer toes of one hind leg, gently stretch the 
included membrane over the opening in the 
card-board, fastening the threads to the sides of 
the board with the frog on the board, ventral 
side down. Securely fasten the frog to the 
board, but do not fasten the leg too tightly 
whose membrane you are to examine, or it will 
stop the circulation of the blood. Place the DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
53 
board, with the frog on it, under the clamps of 
the microscope stage so that the web comes 
under the objective. If the class is large, so that 
much time will be consumed in the examination, 
put a drop of water on the web, and place over 
this a narrow piece of cover-glass. Focus so as 
to see the capillary circulation. Does it flow in 
waves or as a continuous flow ? Are the vessels 
of the same size or are some larger than others ? 
If the latter, can you distinguish by the flow 
which of the larger are arteries and which 
veins? Draw.* (If the frog becomes dry, a 
moist cloth may be placed on its back to keep 
it moist.) 
2. If the frog is alive, place it in a jar with a 
piece of cotton wet with chloroform. As soon 
as it is dead, place it in a dissecting-pan on its 
back. Carefully open the skin the whole length 
of the body, then along the limbs, and bring 
the flaps of skin back and pin them. Carefully 
* The tail of a large tadpole may be used to show the circu- 
lation. Wrap the tadpole in a wet cloth, leaving the tail out, 
and lay on a plate of glass. Place this under the stage-clamps 
so that the tail comes under the objective. Keep moist, and 
replace, and focus if the tadpole moves. 54 
A MANUAL OF 
cut through the sternum and abdominal wall 
and turn these back. It is probable that the 
heart will still be beating. What is its position 
in regard to the sternum ? What in regard to 
the lungs ? Note the pericardium. Does it fit 
the heart closely or not? Does it contain any- 
thing but the heart ? Color ? 
3. Slit the pericardium and remove it. Shape 
of heart ? Color ? Draw, including the vessels. 
How many auricles ? How many ventricles ? 
On the ventral surface of the heart find a single 
vessel, the truncus arteriosus or aorta, which 
soon divides into two aortic arches. Below find 
a large vessel, the inferior vena cava, extending 
from the liver to a thin-walled sac, the sinus 
venosus. Properly, this should not be called 
the inferior vena cava till after it has united 
with the veins from below, the renal and genital 
veins. Into the same sinus venosus empty also 
the two superior venre cavse. Bind, and desig- 
nate all these on your drawing. 
4. Find the hepatic vein and trace to its 
union with the veins from below. Find the 
portal vein. Of how many lobes is the liver 
composed ? Where is the gall-bladder ? DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
55 
5. (Histological.) With a section of the heart 
find the adherent portion of the pericardium. 
Also the endocardium. Is there any partition 
in the ventricle? Are the valves muscular or 
membranous ? Is there any sarcolemma ? 
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
1. To examine the brain and spinal cord, a 
specimen should he taken that has lain in alcohol 
a few days. Clean away all the skin and muscles 
from the back. Remove carefully the roof on 
the skull without touching the brain, and cut 
the neural arches on each side of the spinal 
column and remove them. To show the sym- 
pathetic system, take the ventral portion of the 
frog and remove the viscera from one side or 
push it to one side. 
2. What is the shape of the brain? Size? 
Are the two sides alike? Is it convoluted? 
Find the cerebral hemispheres. Anterior to 
these find the two olfactory lobes. These give 
off* the olfactory nerves. Shape of both these 
parts? Back of the hemispheres find a dia- 
mond-shaped area, the thalamencephalon. In- 
side this find a cavity, the third ventricle. The 56 
A MANUAL OF 
sides of fhe thalamencephalon form tlie optic 
thalami. Next behind this area are the optic 
lobes. Size ? Shape ? Back of these is the 
cerebellum, a transverse band. The last after 
this is the medulla. Find all these if you can, 
and designate them on your drawing. 
3. Size of the spinal cord as compared with 
the brain? Find the enlargement where the 
nerves of the front limbs are given otf. The 
second and third spinal nerves form the nerves 
for these limbs, or the brachial plexus. The 
seventh, eighth, and ninth form the sciatic 
nerve, or the plexus for the hind limbs. Is 
there a dorsal fissure in the spinal cord ? Draw. 
4. Find the sympathetic system as two cords 
on the sides of the spinal column in the visceral 
cavity. See if you can find the connections of 
this with the viscera by nerve-fibres. 
5. (Histological.) The parts given for the 
histology of the nervous system of a bird may 
be used here. 
SPECIAL SENSES. 
As the organs of special senses are so small 
in the frog, it will be better not to attempt a 
general study of these in this animal. The DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
57 
following may be studied histologically with 
profit, however. The eye may be prepared 
wdiole and sectioned perpendicular to the retina. 
The cells of this coat are large, and form a good 
study with the high power. For the general 
study of the eye, however, the cat’s eye is the 
best. 
The end organs of the olfactory nerve of the 
frog show distinct bristles beyond the supporting 
epithelium cells. A transverse section through 
the nostrils should show these in good shape. 
In mammals these end organs scarcely protrude 
beyond the supporting cells. PART II 
HISTOLOGY SOME PREPARATIONS THAT ARE 
NEEDED. 
Alcohol.—This, as a hardening agent, is used 
in the following strengths: 35 per cent,, 50 per 
cent., 70 per cent., and 95 per cent. In some 
special cases 100 per cent, alcohol is used for 
hardening. The tissues should remain in the 
dilferent strengths of alcohol twenty-four hours 
or more. 
Alcohol as a wash is used in the following 
strengths: 35 per cent., 50 per cent., 70 per 
cent., 95 per cent., and sometimes 100 per cent. 
In treating sections in celloidin the 100 per cent, 
alcohol may be omitted, or if used it should he 
poured on and off as quickly as possible or it 
will dissolve the celloidin. 100 per cent, alcohol 
is absolute alcohol. 
Celloidin.—For the purpose of embedding, 
celloidin is used in two or three strengths. If 
properly prepared, two are all that are needed. 
Thick Celloidin.—Dissolve till syrupy celloidin 
in equal parts of ether and alcohol. 95 per 
61 62 
A MANUAL OF 
cent, alcohol will answer, but 100 per cent, is 
much better. 
Thin Celloidin.—This is one volume of thick 
celloidin in two volumes of ether-alcohol. 
Clearing- Oil.—Usually only one form of clear- 
ing oil is needed, and 90 c.c. of that is made as 
follows: 
Carbolic acid, crystallized. 30 c.c. ; 
Cedar-wood oil, 30 c.c.; 
Oil of bergamot, 30 c.c. 
Melt the carbolic acid and mix. After the 
clearing oil has been used once it may be fil- 
tered off and used again. Some of the aniline 
stains require a special clearing oil, but these 
will be spoken of when required. If the clear- 
ing oil dissolves the stain out of sections, do not 
use this again for any other stain. 
Acid Alcohol.—The usual preparation of this 
is as follows: 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., 100 c.c.; 
Hydrochloric acid, 1 c.c. or 6 drops. 
In some special cases it is made from 95 per 
cent, alcohol, and in others it is made from 100 
per cent, alcohol. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
63 
Fixative.—lf celloidin is used for embedding, 
no fixative is necessary; but if parafiin is used, 
it is necessary to fix the sections on the slide and 
afterwards dissolve the parafiin from the sections. 
A good fixative is made of equal parts of the 
white of an egg and glycerin. Filter the white 
of the egg before mixing. Spread a thin film 
of the fixative over the slide, and carefully place 
the section where it is wanted. Warm gently, 
but not enough to melt the parafiin, and then 
dissolve the parafiin in turpentine or xylol. 
Muller’s Hardening Fluid.—This contains the 
following ingredients : 
Potassium bichromate, 25 grammes; 
Sodium sulphate, 10 grammes ; 
Water, 1000 c.c. 
Pulverize the solids before placing them in 
the water. Place a piece of camphor gum in 
the solution to prevent moulding. 
Picrosulphuric Acid.—This decalcifying fluid 
is made as follows : 
Saturated watery solution of picric acid, 100 c.c. ; 
Sulphuric acid, 2 c.c. 
Mix the ingredients, and after twenty-four 
hours filter and add 300 c.c. of water to the 64 
A MANUAL OF 
filtrate. This may be used for a hardening fluid 
as well as for decalcifying. For this purpose 
the tissues should remain in the fluid only a 
short time, never to exceed six hours. Com- 
plete the hardening in alcohol. 
Chromic and Nitric Acid Fluid.—This is an 
excellent fluid for decalcifying small bones, as 
the jaw and teeth of a cat or a rat, or the verte- 
brae of the same. The hones should remain in 
the fluid from two to four weeks, and the fluid 
should be changed several times in that time. 
Mix; 
Chromic acid, 1 gramme; 
Water, 200 c.c.; 
Nitric acid, 2 c.c. 
Formic Glycerin.—Mix the following: 
Dilute glycerin, 15 c.c.; 
Formic acid, 1 drop. 
Dilute Glycerin.—This is made of equal parts 
of distilled or filtered water and glycerin. 
THE MICROSCOPE. 
Fig. 1 represents what the Bausch & Lomb 
Optical Company, of Rochester, New York, call 
their “ BB8” microscope, one-half the actual The microscope. X DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
65 
size. This instrument as represented in the 
figure has three objectives, a two-thirds, one- 
sixth, and one-twelfth oil immersion, and two 
eye-pieces, a two-inch and a one-inch. Good 
laboratory work can he done by leaving off the 
one-twelfth oil immersion objective. Besides 
these the figure represents under the stage an 
Abbe condenser and iris diaphragm. 
As the figure is not lettered, we will explain 
it without lettering. The lower part that forms 
a support for the instrument is called the base ; 
the upright piece that is attached to this is 
called the standard, and the two make the 
stand. This forms a support for the essential 
parts of the instrument. The flat part at right 
angle to the standard and above the joint is 
called the stage. On the upper side of this are 
the clamps that are used to hold the slide to the 
stage. To the left of the standard and attached 
to it is the tube. The objective is usually in- 
serted into the lower end of the tube. This 
figure shows three objectives fastened to the 
tube by a nose-piece. By this device the ob- 
jectives may be used successively by turning 
the nose-piece without unscrewing the objective 66 
A MANUAL OF 
from the tube and inserting another. The terms 
two-thirds, one-sixth, and one-twelfth, when ap- 
plied to objectives, mean that the focal distance 
of these when used singly is respectively these 
parts of an inch. When the magnification is 
increased by the use of the eye-piece the focal 
distance is shortened. The first two of these 
are used without any medium but air between 
the objective and the cover-glass covering the 
object examined. In using the third a drop of 
cedar-wood oil is placed on the end of the ob- 
jective, and this brought down so as to touch 
the cover-glass, making a liquid medium be- 
tween the objective and the cover-glass. 
The upper end of the tubes has inserted into 
it the eye-piece or ocular. Besides this, it has 
what is known as the draw-tube, that may be 
raised or lowered. This is shown partly raised, 
the scale and figures showing the part that is 
concealed when the tube is lowered. To raise 
this to its full length gives what is called full- 
tube length, or two hundred and sixteen milli- 
metres, when we have the greatest magnification 
the instrument is capable of with a given com- 
bination of eye-piece and objective. When the DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
67 
draw-tube is down, the tube length is one hun- 
dred and sixty millimetres, or what is called 
short-tube length. The Bausch & Lomb cata- 
logues and the back of their microscope-cases 
give a table showing the amount of magnifica- 
tion for full-tube length and also for short-tube 
length for each combination of eye-piece and 
objective. 
The milled heads at the right of the tube are 
for turning the coarse focussing, and are called, 
with the shaft connecting, the rack and pinion. 
By this device the tube is rapidly raised or 
lowered. The milled head at the end of the 
standard is for fine focussing, and is called the 
micrometer screw. 
Below the stage is first the mirror for reflect- 
ing light up through the object. In this instru- 
ment this is a double mirror, one side plane 
and the other concave. This is attached to the 
standard by a swinging bar. Above the mirror 
is the combination of the Abbe condenser and 
iris diaphragm, the diaphragm being the lower 
part of the combination. This is focussed in 
place or turned to one side by the double-milled 
head that shows near the mirror. A round 68 
A MANUAL OF 
frame attached to this is for holding a round 
blue glass that is to be used when using the 
microscope at night by lamp-light. When not 
in need of this, the blue glass should be taken 
out and the frame turned under the diaphragm. 
At times it may be necessary to examine speci- 
mens by direct light. At such times the circle 
with dark centre shown at the bottom of the 
figure may be placed in the frame instead of the 
blue glass. 
USING- THE MICROSCOPE 
1. Before taking the microscope from the 
cabinet, place the piece of chamois-skin on the 
table to place the microscope on to avoid scratch- 
ing the table. Set the instrument so that it is 
square with the operator, with the tube from 
him, and adjust the mirror so that clear light 
from a window is reflected through the tube. 
2. Before putting anything on the stage for 
examination, see that the low-power objective is 
under the tube and high enough, so that the 
objective will not touch the object on the slide. 
When through work, leave the instrument with 
the low-power objective under the tube. This DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
69 
rule implies the use of a nose-piece on the 
microscope. 
3. Temporarily, a substance may be examined 
with the low power without a cover-glass over 
the object, but as a general principle always use 
a cover-glass. In using stains or reagents, do 
not wet the upper side of the cover-glass with 
the fluid, as this would be liable to soil the 
objective. 
4. A drop of fluid placed on the slide by the 
edge of the cover-glass may be drawn under the 
cover-glass by touching the edge of a piece of 
filter-paper to the fluid on the opposite side of 
the cover-glass. Surplus stains or reagents may 
be washed out in this way,—by a drop of water 
added to one edge of the cover-glass and drawing 
it through with the filter-paper. 
5. In handling objectives and eye-pieces, never 
touch the glass part with the fingers. In hand- 
ling slides and cover-glasses, do not touch the 
flat surfaces with the fingers, but hold them by 
their edges. 
6. Examine objects first with the low power, 
and always use the low power as a finder for 
small objects. 70 
A MANUAL OF 
7. Keep both eyes open while looking into 
the microscope. This can be done after a little 
practice, and avoids fatigue to the unused eye. 
Get into the habit of using either eye, as it is 
better for the eyes. 
8. Regulate the amount of light needed by 
the use of the diaphragm. The light and 
focussing should be such that you get a clear 
view of the object examined. Do not be satis- 
fied with anything short of this. 
9. Do not allow fluids to get on the stage of 
the microscope. In mounting objects for the 
microscope, whether for temporary use or to 
preserve, use only as much of the mounting 
media as will just fill the space under the cover- 
glass, not a surplus to run over the slide. 
10. In focussing, use the rack and pinion for 
coarse focussing and the micrometer screw for 
fine focussing. At first adjust the focus of 
the condenser, and afterwards leave it without 
further altering it. 
11. In drawing objects from the microscope, 
note the magnification. If drawn the same size 
as seen, this will be the combined magnification 
of the eye-piece and objective used. If drawn DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
71 
larger than seen, multiply this by the number 
of times larger. Do not make your drawings 
small. 
12. In changing from the lower to the high 
power, if the microscope has a nose-piece, it is 
better to turn the tube up a very little before 
turning the high-power objective round. 
HARDENING-. 
Most tissues should be hardened before at- 
tempting to cut them into sections, and a few, 
as bones and teeth, need to be decalcified as 
well as hardened. For most organs, alcohol in 
its various strengths is the best and the only 
hardening fluid needed. Alcohol may be used 
for all the organs and produce very good results. 
Where any other fluid will give better results it 
will be given in the different schemes. 
Before hardening, tissues should he cut into 
small pieces, from a quarter to half an inch in 
diameter is large enough. Each specimen or 
part of an organ should have a small tag, not 
more than a quarter of an inch square, attached 
to it by a thread. On this tag should be a 
number that corresponds to a number on a list 72 
A MANUAL OF 
that is kept of the different tissues that are 
put into the hardening fluid. This tag should 
remain on the specimen till it is ready to cut 
into sections, and hence should be so placed as 
not to interfere with the sections that are to be 
made. Parts of the stomach and skin should 
he spread out flat, and if necessary pinned to 
sheet cork with thorns. 
Alcohol.—Fresh tissues should be placed first 
in 85 per cent, alcohol for twenty-four hours. 
After this place them successively in 50 per 
cent., 70 per cent., and 95 per cent., twenty-four 
hours in each. They will be benefited by re- 
maining in the last longer than the twenty-four 
hours. 
Chromic Acid.—To 1 gramme of this add 
200 c.c. of distilled or filtered water. This is 
specially useful in hardening such tissues as 
the nerves, eye, etc. After treating tissues with 
chromic acid the hardening should be completed 
in alcohol, beginning with 50 per cent. 
Muller’s Fluid.—The composition of this is 
given in the chapter on preparations needed. 
"Where a long time can be given to the hardening, 
this is an excellent preparation. It hardens tis- DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
73 
sues completely and with scarcely any shrivelling. 
Blood-corpuscles retain their shape and, if not 
stained, their natural color. For its use, see 
Scheme 11. 
Corrosive Sublimate.—Many tissues will be 
benefited by placing in this first and completing 
the hardening in alcohol. A saturated solution 
can be kept in stock by placing more than will 
dissolve of the crystals in a bottle and filling 
the bottle with water. It hardens rapidly. For 
its use, see Scheme 5. 
Chromic acid and all chromine compounds 
used in hardening or decalcifying should be 
kept in the dark while in use, and also the 
specimens partly hardened in these compounds 
should be kept from the light after leaving these 
for the alcohol. Picrocarmin will be the best 
stain for tissues hardened in chromic acid or its 
compounds. 
DECALCIFYING. 
Before they can be cut with the microtome 
bones must be freed from their mineral matters. 
While this is being done, the fluid should be 
such that the tissues will not be destroyed nor 
changed more than in ordinary hardening. Only 74 
A MANUAL OF 
small parts of the tissue to be decalcified should 
be placed in the fluid, and the quantity of the 
fluid should be large in proportion to the speci- 
mens. After decalcifying, all of the decalcifying 
fluid should be washed out of the specimens be- 
fore they are placed in alcohol. The hardening 
should be completed in alcohol, beginning with 
50 per cent, or 70 per cent. 
The following are some of the more com- 
monly used decalcifying fluids: 
Chromic acid. 
Chromic and nitric acid fluid. 
Picric acid, saturated solution. 
Chromic acid and hydrochloric acid fluid. 
The preparation of these will be found in 
the chapter on “ Some Preparations that are 
Needed.” The time that a bone should be left 
in the decalcifying fluid is given in the schemes 
where they are to be used. Generally the time 
given there is sufficient, but the specimen can 
be tested by seeing if a pin will enter it readily. 
THE MICROTOME AND ITS USE. 
Fig. 2 represents the “ student microtome,” 
an inexpensive and yet a very serviceable instru- The student microtome. X Vs 
Fig. 2, DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
75 
ment. At the left is shown the knife in position 
for cutting sections where the material to be 
cut is embedded in celloidin. Where the ma- 
terial for embedding is paraffin, the knife is set 
at right angles to the plane of motion. Below 
the knife is the clamp for holding the embedded 
specimen to he cut, with a milled head for turn- 
ing the screw that moves the clamp. To the 
right is another milled head that turns a screw 
that sets the clamp after it is turned round where 
it is wanted. The dial below is a gauge by which 
the thickness of the sections may be determined, 
A turn of ten degrees to the right on the gauge 
is necessary to cut a section of xoVir °f an 
in thickness, etc. 
In using the microtome, first see that the 
screw attached to the gauge is turned down and 
this carries the clamp with it. Fasten the cork 
or block holding the specimen into the clamp 
at such a height that the top of the embedded 
specimen will just come to the knife. Have 
bearings of the knife-carrier oiled so the motion 
of the knife is easy. With the knife to the left, 
and set obliquely, turn the gauge to the right as 
many degrees as desired, and draw the knife to 76 
A MANUAL OF 
the right. Do not move the gauge till the knife 
is carried back to the left again. Keep the knife 
and specimen wet with 70 per cent, alcohol 
while cutting sections embedded in celloidin. 
When the cutting is completed, the knife should 
be thoroughly cleaned and returned to its case. 
Always strop the knife before using it. In 
honing the knife, always hone it on the con- 
cave side. After the honing is completed, draw 
the knife across the hone once on the flat side. 
Tissues in their fresh condition are too soft 
and flexible to he cut into sections thin enough 
for study with the microscope. Even after they 
have passed through a regular process of hard- 
ening, they are still too flexible. To overcome 
this, tissues are sometimes frozen and cut while 
in this state, hut the usual method is to embed 
the tissue in either paraffin or celloidin and cut 
it while in this condition. It is thought best by 
the writer to give only the celloidin process of 
embedding here, as that is simpler and requires 
less apparatus than the other. 
EMBEDDING-. 
After the specimens are hardened, place them DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
77 
for twenty-four hours in thin celloidin. By this 
time the celloidin will penetrate all parts of the 
tissue, though from its softness it may not seem 
to do so. Next place the specimen in thick cel- 
loidin for twenty-four hours. This replaces the 
thin celloidin in at least the larger open spaces. 
At the end of the second twenty-four hours the 
tisssue is ready for embedding. 
To embed, have a cork or a short block,—an 
inch long is long enough,—whose diameter is a 
little more than that of the specimen. Wet the 
end of the block or cork with the thick celloidin 
and allow it to stand perhaps half a minute. 
Now place the specimen on this in such a way 
that when cutting the sections they will he as 
desired. As, for example, if a cross-section of 
the trachea of a cat is desired, the end of the 
trachea should rest on the cork. After placing 
the specimen on the block in the celloidin, allow 
it to stand about a minute and then pour thick 
celloidin over this. This will make a coat of the 
celloidin over the specimen and down onto the 
top of the cork. After this has stood long 
enough to set a little, pour more celloidin over 
it again, and repeat the operation till there is 78 
A MANUAL OF 
enough on the specimen and the cork to hold 
the specimen in place while cutting, and to hold 
the sections together after they are cut. Now 
let it stand till the celloidin is somewhat thick- 
ened, which will take about five minutes, and 
then place it in 70 per cent, alcohol, where it 
should remain twenty-four hours. This hardens 
the celloidin. 
Before beginning to embed, it is well to add a 
few drops of ether to the celloidin and shake 
the bottle. This will compensate for what may 
have evaporated through the cork. Also, keep 
the celloidin bottle corked when not using it. 
STAINING. 
Without staining, tissues of different kinds 
look very much alike, except the variations of 
the different parts. The hardening materials 
take the coloring out of tissues, so that after 
they have been passed through all the chemicals 
necessary for hardening, embedding, and cutting 
sections are too pale to be seen well. Staining 
does not give them their natural color, but it 
gives them a color so that the parts of the sec- 
tion may he readily seen. The objects of stain- DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
79 
ing, then, are to render the parts of a section 
more easily seen and to show the different kinds 
of tissues of which a section is composed. The 
latter is best done by double- or triple-staining. 
Stains may be divided into nuclear and peri- 
nuclear. If a nuclear stain is used alone, it 
generally stains the section of one color if it be 
a section of an animal. If, after the nuclear 
stain has been used, a perinuclear stain be used, 
the first stain is replaced in the section in all 
parts but the nuclei, and these alone retain 
the first color. This is called double-staining. 
Sometimes the two stains are applied separately 
and at others they are both applied at the same 
time. As staining reagents can be obtained now 
ready prepared, the writer will say nothing here 
about the preparation of the dyes. 
SIMPLE STAINING. 
Boraxcarmin.—This is the best simple stain 
we have for the most of tissues, and it is one of 
the best perinuclear stains. It may be used 
from 70 per cent, alcohol, after which remove the 
surplus stain with acid alcohol. See Scheme 1 
for this. 80 
A MANUAL OF 
Hsematoxylin.—This may be used for a simple 
stain or for a nuclear dye in multiple staining. 
Pass the sections from the 70 per cent, alcohol 
through 50 per cent, alcohol into water, and 
as you pour off the water leave a little in the 
stender dish to dilute the stain. Color the sec- 
tions till they are blue-gray. Wash with water 
and pass through the strengths of alcohol to the 
clearing oil. Do not overstain. 
Safranine.—This is an excellent simple and 
perinuclear stain. Pass the sections from the 
70 per cent, alcohol into water and stain with 
dilute solution. After staining, the sections 
may be passed back to 70 per cent, alcohol and 
washed with acid alcohol, or the acid alcohol 
may be omitted. The washing should be rapid 
or too much of the stain will wash out. 
Bosin.—This color may be had in powder or 
liquid form, the powder being in the end the 
cheapest. It is easily soluble in water, alcohol, or 
clearing oil. For staining blood-corpuscles dis- 
solve enough in a small quantity of water to ob- 
tain the desired depth of color, and use a pipette 
to put the dye on the cover-glass. If sections are 
stained in eosin, they should pass through the DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
81 
washes rapidly, or too much of the dye will wash 
out. Eosin is used more for a perinuclear stain 
than for simple staining, except in case of epithe- 
lium-cells and non-nucleated blood-corpuscles. 
Aniline Dyes.—There are many of these, only 
a few of which may he mentioned here. Among 
the best are gentian violet, aniline blue, methylene 
blue, iodine green, aniline green, methyl green, 
gold-orange, fuchsin, acid fuchsin, and safranine 
and eosin, already spoken of. In general, these 
do not stain tissues in the proper sense of that 
word, but rather the tissues imbibe the dyes, for 
which reason they may be rather easily washed 
out. For this reason, after staining in aniline 
dyes, sections should be rapidly passed through 
the washes to the clearing oil. This will wash 
out some of the dye, hence the clearing oil from 
one of these stains should not be used for any 
other color, but if filtered out should be kept 
for the same color. The aniline dyes are, as a 
rule, perinuclear stains. 
Silver Nitrate.—Nothing need be said of this 
here only that it is used to show the boundaries 
of the cells of endothelium. Its use is explained 
in Scheme 7. 82 
A MANUAL OF 
DOUBLE-STAINING. 
The best method of differentiating tissues is 
by double- or triple-staining. This is done 
sometimes by mixing the dyes in one fluid and 
applying this to the sections, or by staining 
with the dyes successively. In either case the 
different parts of the section take the different 
stains, and this fact shows the composition of 
the section. Multiple staining requires careful 
manipulation, and should not be undertaken till 
the student is thoroughly familiar with simple 
staining. The following are some of the more 
easily managed double stains : 
Picrocarmin.—This stands at the head of 
double stains, and should be used where chromic 
acid or its compounds have been used in harden- 
ing or decalcifying. Stain from 70 per cent, 
alcohol, leaving a very little of the alcohol in 
the stender dish to dilute the stain, but adding a 
very small quantity of picric acid before putting 
in the dye. After staining add a little picric 
acid to each wash, as per Scheme 9. 
Hsematoxylin and Boraxcarmin.—Stain first 
with the hsemotoxylin till the sections are blue- 
gray, wash with water, pass to 70 per cent. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
83 
alcohol, and stain with the boraxcarmin. This 
will give the nuclei blue and the perinuclear 
parts red. 
Hsematoxylin and Gold-Orange.—Stain first 
with the hsematoxylin, wash with water, and 
pass back to 70 per cent, alcohol the same as 
with the preceding. Add the gold-orange after 
pouring off the alcohol and allow to stand five 
minutes. Pour off and wrash rapidly with 70 
per cent, and 95 per cent, alcohols and put on 
the clearing oil. This combination is specially 
useful in showing the nuclei and bands of volun- 
tary muscles, and for showing the nuclei in;such 
tissues as the kidney or spleen. 
Hsematoxylin and Safranine.—Treat the same 
as with the preceding. 
Hsematoxylin and Fuchsin.—Treat this the 
same as hsematoxylin and gold-orange. 
Hsematoxylin and Eosin.—Treat this the 
same as hsematoxylin and gold-orange. 
Eosin-Methylene Blue.—This is a fluid ready 
prepared. Stain from 70 per cent, alcohol, and 
after staining wash rapidly with 70 per cent, 
and 95 per cent, alcohols and add the clearing 
oil. This combination is good for sections of 84 
A MANUAL OF 
the ear of a cat or rat, as the cartilage will be 
stained blue and the skin pink. It is also useful 
for glandular tissues, such as the stomach, 
tongue, etc. This stain easily washes out, hence 
to get good results the sections should be 
mounted as soon as possible after putting into 
the clearing oil. 
Ehrlich-Biondi-Heidenhain. This multiple 
stain is recommended in staining sections of 
the spinal cord in Scheme 14. Unless properly 
done any other stain will be better than this. 
It may be operated as recommended in that 
scheme, or a strong solution of the stain may 
be on the sections for a few hours without 
heating. In that case watch the sections to see 
when sufficiently stained. If the mounting be 
done at once the ordinary clearing oil may be 
used. It makes a good stain for the spleen and 
also for the gizzard of a bird, as it shows in 
the first case the trabeculae of the capsule pink 
while the other parts are differently colored. In 
the gizzard the muscles will show the transverse 
marks with the low power, so characteristic of 
some of the involuntary muscles in wavy red 
lines, while the muscle-fibres will be green. In DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
85 
sections of the liver it stains the capsule and the 
cell boundaries red, while the other parts are 
greenish. Even when the stain is washed out 
so as to be red the boundaries of the cells may 
be seen. The stain is to be had in a powder. 
Dissolve this in water and filter. Stain in di- 
lute solution for twenty-four hours or stain by 
heating. 
Indig-ocarmin.—This is to be had in the 
form of a waxy mass. Dissolve a small amount 
of this in water, and add about one-fourth as 
much horaxcarmin solution. For the rest of 
this follow Scheme 11. 
After sections have been stained, dehydrated, 
and passed into the clearing oil, they should 
remain in this long enough to replace the alcohol 
with the clearing oil and render them trans- 
parent. The slide and cover-glass should be 
thoroughly cleaned. In placing the sections on 
the slide some may he taken with the forceps, 
hut if they fold up in doing this, take them out 
of the clearing oil with the section-lifter. Place 
the section in the centre of the slide, remove 
MOUNTING SECTIONS. 86 
A MANUAL OF 
the excess of clearing oil with a piece of fine 
blotting-paper or filter-paper, put a drop of 
balsam on the section, and over this place the 
cover-glass. If the clearing oil has run out 
over the slide, this should be removed by wiping 
with the clean edge of the filter-paper. It may 
be necessary to press the cover-glass gently after 
putting it on the balsam to force the small 
air-bubbles out from under the section. Just 
enough balsam should be used to fill the space 
under the cover-glass, as too much will make 
an unsightly ring round the glass. A little ex-, 
perience will show any one how much will be 
needed. Endeavor to make clean, nice-looking 
mounts. 
Canada balsam is the best medium for making 
permanent histological mounts. The best way 
to use this is to have it dissolved in xylol, or 
what is known as xylol balsam. This can be 
had in tubes ready prepared, and the most con- 
venient way to use it is to keep it in the tubes 
with the cap on when not using it. If it is not 
desirable to make a permanent mount, a section 
can be examined in water, glycerin, alcohol, or 
normal salt solution, according to the conditions. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
87 
After the section is mounted it should be 
labelled. A convenient way to do this is to 
place a square label across one end of the slide, 
the right-hand end being preferred. The label 
should contain the name of the organ of which 
it is a part, the animal from which taken, and 
the stain used. If the section is double-stained, 
the order in which the dyes are used is suggested. 
As, for example, “ Lung, Rabbit, Haematoxylin, 
Gold-Orange,” with each word on a line, with a 
line between the first and second and second 
and third is a plan used by the writer. 
INJECTING SPECIMENS. 
Very little of the circulation can be studied, 
except the larger veins and arteries and the 
heart, unless some colored matter is introduced 
into the circulatory system. The syringe for 
this purpose the writer has not figured, for the 
reason that a good figure is to be seen in cata- 
logues of microscopic materials. Gelatin col- 
ored with carmin or Berlin blue can be ob- 
tained for this purpose already prepared. Just 
enough of this should be dissolved in water that 
when cold it will be jelly, and when as warm as 88 
A MANUAL OF 
can be borne by the hand will be fluid. It 
should be in this hot condition while in use. 
To inject an animal, kill it with chloroform, 
and as soon as dead begin the injection at once 
before the blood coagulates in the circulation. 
Open the thorax by cutting the ends of the ribs 
on one side; cut into the right auricle to let the 
blood out as it is forced through the system. 
Hext cut otf the end of the heart so as to reach 
the left ventricle, insert the end of the canula 
into this and pass it into the aorta. With a 
threaded needle pass a thread round the aorta 
and tie this tightly to the canula, after which 
pass the thread through the hook or ring on one 
side of the canula and tie it again. This will 
keep the aorta from slipping otf from the canula 
while the injection is going on. The animal 
should now be placed in water about blood tem- 
perature and kept there while it is injected. Fill 
and empty the cylinder of the syringe several 
times with hot water to get it of the temperature 
of the injection medium, after which fill it with 
the gelatin. How insert the nozzle of the syringe 
into the canula and begin the injection. Do 
this with a gentle but steady pressure, keeping DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
89 
the syringe and the animal in the hot water. To 
make a good injection will take from fifteen to 
twenty minutes. 
If the syringe will not hold enough once full 
to complete the injection, place the stop-cock on 
the nozzle of the syringe before inserting it into 
the canula, as when the cylinder is empty this 
may be turned, the syringe taken off and filled 
and placed back, and the injection completed. 
After the injection is completed, place the animal 
in cold water, where it should remain for several 
hours, till the animal is cold, which will set the 
gelatin. Then it may be cut up and the pieces 
put into alcohol for hardening, if injected for 
this purpose, or it is ready for dissection. 
SCHEMES FOR HISTOLOGY. 
SCHEME ONE. 
To Prepare Tissues for Mounting.—Tissues 
of animals should be as fresh as possible, and 
cut into small pieces; from a quarter to half an 
inch is large enough. The scheme for all ordi- 
nary tissues is as follows : 
Alcohol, 35 per cent., 24 hours. 
Alcohol, 50 per cent., 24 hours. 90 
A MANUAL OF 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., 24 hours. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., 24 to 48 hours or more. 
Thin celloidin, 24 hours. 
Thick celloidin, 24 hours. 
Embed in thick celloidin, put in 70 per cent, 
alcohol, 24 hours. 
Cut, putting sections in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
Pour off alcohol and stain for from 1 to 5 
minutes. 
Acid alcohol, 1 to 2 minutes, shake gently. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., shake gently. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., shake gently. 
Clearing oil, shake gently. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
While cutting keep the knife and the speci- 
men wet with 70 per cent, alcohol. Boraxcar- 
min is the best stain for most of the tissues. 
Where a particular stain is more suitable for a 
part, it will be spoken of in treating of that part, 
and to which the student is referred. The stu- 
dent is referred to the chapter on staining for 
the use of particular dyes. If the hardening 
liquid becomes turbid or bloody it should be 
changed, the tissues being put into fresh liquid. 
Before beginning work on this page the student DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
91 
should study carefully the chapters on harden- 
ing, embedding, and staining, as well as the one 
on the microtome. 
SCHEME TWO. 
To Stain Tissues in Bulk.—Harden as di- 
rected in Scheme 1. Then, after hardening, 
place them in— 
Boraxcarmin, diluted with 70 per cent, alco- 
hol, 24 to 48 hours. 
Acid alcohol, 1 to 5 hours, according to size. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., 5 minutes to J hour. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., 5 minutes to | hour. 
Thin celloidin, 24 hours. 
Thick celloidin, 24 hours. 
Embed and put in 70 per cent, alcohol for 24 
hours. 
Cut, putting sections into 70 per cent, alcohol. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent. 
Clearing oil. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
This is a good method of treating small pieces 
of many tissues, especially such as the small in- 
testine of a cat or bird, where the stain can get to 
the interior of the specimen as well as on the out- 92 
A MANUAL OF 
side. If the specimen is large it will not readily 
stain through by this process, and for such it is 
better to use Scheme 1. 
SCHEME THREE. 
Cover-Glass Preparation of Nucleated Blood. 
—The blood of a frog, bird, snake, or of any 
animal with nucleated blood may be used for 
this. Put a drop of the blood on a clean cover- 
glass and put another cover-glass over this. 
After gently pressing the glasses together, sepa- 
rate them and put each in a cover-glass-holder 
with the blood side up. A very thin film of 
blood may be put on the cover-glass without 
putting another over it, but it should be very 
thin. The scheme in detail is as follows: 
Blood on cover-glass. 
Dry. 
Methyl green on blood, 5 minutes. 
Dip in water once. 
Touch edge of cover-glass to filter-paper. 
Dry. 
Eosin, 5 minutes. 
Dip in water once or twice. 
Touch the edge of cover-glass to filter-paper. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
93 
Dry. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
To mount, put a small drop of the balsam on 
a slide and put the cover-glass on this with the 
blood side down. Specimens prepared in this 
way should show the nuclei pale green and the 
perinuclear part of the corpuscle red. If washed 
too much the green will be washed out of the 
corpuscles. 
Fig. 3. 
Blood of a frog: a, red corpuscle seen flat; b, seen in profile; c, seen 
Obliquely; some of the red corpuscles show vacuoles, as v; n, white 
corpuscle at rest; m, one with amoeboid pseudopods; p, a cell probably 
from the blood-vessel. 
Fig. 3 shows the blood of the frog as it would 
be if prepared in this way. Besides the colored 94 
A MANUAL OF 
corpuscles, there will be white corpuscles present 
that are of a different shape and smaller. In 
the figure, n and k shoAV two of these at rest, 
while m shows one with the pseudopods ex- 
tended; h and c show the corpuscles as seen 
edgewise. 
Cover-Glass Preparation of Non-nucleated 
Blood.—The blood of man or of any mammal 
will answer for this. Prepare the cover-glasses 
the same as in Scheme 3. The scheme in detail 
is as follows; 
SCHEME FOUR. 
Fig. 4. 
Human blood: a, red corpuscle seen flat; b, seen in profile; c, a 
rouleau; d, three-quarter face; e,f, crenulated corpuscles; g, spherical; 
to, slightly crenulated; L, large white corpuscle; I, small white cor- 
puscle ;p, granular leucocyte; n, granules. X 1000. 
Blood on cover-glass. 
Dry. 
Eosin, 5 minutes. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
95 
Wash gently in water. 
Touch edge of cover-glass to filter-paper. 
Dry. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
Mount the same as directed in Scheme 8. 
The characters of human blood are seen in 
Fig. 4. Besides being much smaller than the 
corpuscles of the frog, they are round and not 
nucleated. 
SCHEME FIVE. 
To Prepare Sections by the Use of Corrosive 
Sublimate.—Place small pieces of tissue in— 
Corrosive sublimate, 1 to 5 hours. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., 24 hours. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., 24 hours, or longer. 
Thin celloidin, 24 hours. 
Thick celloidin, 24 hours. 
Embed, putting in 70 per cent, alcohol, 24 
hours. 
Cut, putting sections into 70 per cent, alcohol. 
Boraxcarmin, 1 to 3 minutes. 
Acid alcohol, 1 to 3 minutes. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., shake gently. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., shake gently. 
Clearing oil, shake gently. 96 
A MANUAL OF 
Other stains than boraxcarmin may be used, 
as may be seen by referring to the chapter on 
staining, or to the schemes following. If a 
large mass of tissue is to be hardened by cor- 
rosive sublimate, as a brain, it should remain in 
a saturated solution longer than the time here 
given, the time depending on the size of the 
organ. In such a case the fluid should be 
changed as it shows turbidity. Large tissues 
should be in the alcohol for a longer time than 
small ones. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
SCHEMES FOR SOME SPEC!AT. OASES. 
Squamous Epithelium and Salivary Cells.— 
To obtain this, gently scrape the inner surface of 
the lip with the finger-nail or the section-lifter. 
Place the scrapings on a cover-glass, add a drop 
of saliva, and spread over the cover-glass. Skim 
off any air-bubbles with a needle. Dry the 
cover-glass and treat according to Scheme 4. 
Fig. 5 shows something of what may be seen. 
The epithelium-cells will be seen as irregular- 
shaped flakes with the nuclei more deeply col- 
ored than the perinuclear parts. The salivary DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
97 
cells may be seen less numerous than the others, 
as small round bodies, marked S in the figure. 
Fig. 5. 
Cells of squamous epithelium from the mouth: S, salivary cells or 
corpuscles. 
Keep a frog in a small quantity of water for 
two days. Float on a cover-glass one or more 
of the cast flakes from the frog’s mouth that 
may be seen on the surface of the water. Treat 
in the same way, but use htematoxylin instead 
of eosin. With (H.) the nuclei will be seen to 
contain several nucleoli. 
scheme six. 
Columnar Epithelium.—A convenient way to 
see this is to take the small intestine of a rabbit 
or a frog. Open the intestine and wash it out 98 
A MANUAL OF 
with normal salt solution to remove the food 
particles. Then place the piece in— 
Alcohol, 50 per cent., 24 hours. 
Picrocarmin, 24 hours. 
Scrape mucous coat and tease scrapings on 
centre of slide. 
Ring and mount. 
Add drop of formic glycerin. 
It would he best to make the ring before 
putting the scrapings on the slide. Unless it is 
teased out well this will fail to show the separate 
columnar cells. 
Instead of this formula, the fresh scrapings 
may be treated according to Scheme 4. If this 
is done, stain with eosin or safranine. 
Ciliated Epithelium.—This is usually a form 
of columnar epithelium, though any form may 
be ciliated. To obtain this, gently scrape the 
roof of the mouth or the tongue of a frog and 
place the scrapings on a cover-glass. Treat this 
by Scheme 3. Methylene blue and safranine 
may be substituted for methyl green and eosin 
if desired. 
Unless the cells are too much matted together, 
the separate cells should show cilia on one end. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY, 
99 
They may sometimes be seen in the air-passages 
of the lungs. 
The Tongue of a Prog for Ciliated Epithe 
limn.—Fig. 6 shows what may be seen in a sec 
Fig. 6. 
Ciliated epithelium of the tongue of a frog: m, muscular fibres. X 250. 
tion of a frog’s tongue where the epithelium is 
in form columnar and ciliated on the end. To 
prepare such a section, pin out the tongue on a 
thin section of cork, using thorns. Treat by 
Scheme 5. Under the layer of epithelium will 
be found the other tissues of the tongue. 
Endothelium.—This term is generally used to 
designate a thin layer of tissue that lines the 
interior of some organ, as the interior of a 
blood-vessel or the back part of the cornea. 
SCHEME SEVEN. 100 
A MANUAL OF 
In a broader sense it is used as a name for the 
outer layer of cells of the omentum or mesen- 
tery, the pleura, or any other organ that has no 
connection with the exterior part of the body. 
Fig. 7 shows such cells from the omentum of a 
rabbit, with some holes also. The method of 
preparation is as follows: 
Wash to remove blood. 
Pin on cork or fasten between rings, 
Fig. 7. 
Omentum of young rabbit stained with silver nitrate, showing endo- 
thelium on the upper and under surface, the outlines of the latter 
faintly indicated. X 300. 
Place in silver nitrate, \ per cent., till it is gray. 
Place in water, exposed to light, till it is brown. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
101 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., a few hours. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., a few hours. 
Alcohol, 100 per cent. 
Clearing oil. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
After silvering, part of the preparation may 
be stained with hsematoxylin if desired. 
SCHEME EIGHT. 
Submaxillary Gland.—To see the real struc- 
ture of this it should be double-stained by some 
one of the processes. Harden in alcohol by 
Scheme 1, following the scheme till the sections 
are cut. Then proceed as follows : 
Aniline green, 5 minutes. 
Wash rapidly in alcohol, 70 per cent, and 
95 per cent. 
Clear in clove oil in which a little eosin is 
dissolved. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
Methylene blue may be used instead of aniline 
green. The mucous cells and ducts are green 
or blue, while the other parts are pinkish unless 
the washing is prolonged enough to wash out 
the green. Part of the nuclei should also be 102 
A MANUAL OF 
dark. If Scheme 5 is used for the hardening, 
use methylene blue and safranine for stains. 
STRUCTURE OF CELLS AND MITOSIS. 
Physiology, as well as botany and zoology, 
teaches that living organisms are either a single 
cell or are built up of a multitude of cells. We 
cannot study the histology of any tissues without 
having to do more or less with cells. For this 
reason it seems best to present here something 
of the structure of cells. 
The casual appearance of cells is shown to 
some extent in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Ordinarily, 
cells are composed of two coats and fluid con- 
tents within. The outer coat, not always present, 
seems to be the inert part of the cell, the part 
that gives shape and character to some cells. 
The inner is protoplasmic, the active part when 
the cell is motile, or at least the part with which 
the motile filaments are connected. In animals 
it is not easy to see these parts, but they may 
readily be seen in some of the lower plants, as 
Spirogyra. In the centre or some part of the 
cell is the nucleus with one or more nucleoli. 
This is more or less readily detected in all living DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
103 
cells, and seems to be essential to the life of the 
cell. 
Plants and animals grow by a multiplication 
of the cells, and this takes place in the division 
of the cells. In this division it is the nucleus 
that divides first. Before dividing, the nucleus 
undergoes several changes. It is first round 
and of a granular form, then the granulations 
enlarge, gradually changing to a stellate form, 
and this finally dividing into two stars. At this 
stage the wall constricts, and the cell finally 
becomes two complete cells. 
Fig. 8. 
Epidermis of a young salamander. X 300. 
The study of this is called mitosis. It is best 
seen in a young salamander or the tail of a 
tadpole that is growing rapidly, if studied in 
an animal. In plants, it may be seen in the 
developing part of a growing onion or in the 
developing ovary of such a plant as a lily. The 
characters of the cells are fairly shown in Fig. 8. 104 
A MANUAL OF 
To get good results, harden for a week or ten 
days in per cent, solution of chromic acid. 
After this place in 35 per cent, alcohol, changing 
frequently till no color is shown in the alcohol. 
Pass from this up to 95 per cent, alcohol, where 
it should not remain more than a day or two 
before embedding. 
If plant tissues are studied, iodine green is a 
good stain. Good results can be had by using 
any of the combinations of double stains. If 
animal tissues are used, safranine is a good stain. 
If it can be washed out till only the nuclei 
contain the stain, the cell markings will show 
best. To do this use acid alcohol for the first 
wash. Care will be required in the manipulation 
of this. 
Muscles.—To see muscle-fibres, the transverse 
striae, and the nuclei, treat by Scheme 1. Embed 
some so as to get transverse sections and others 
for longitudinal sections. Stain with boraxcar- 
min to show the muscle-fibres, or haematoxylin 
may be used, but should not be overstained. 
For nuclei and transverse striae, double-stain 
with haematoxylin and boraxcarmin or haema- 
toxylin and gold-orange. Picrocarmin may be DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
105 
used for the same purpose. The double stain 
should show the sarcolemma also. 
To separate muscle-fibres into disks, place 
small pieces for several hours in a saturated so- 
lution of ammonium carbonate. Tease out. 
This will show the sarcolemma, and inside this 
the muscle disks. 
To get good results in staining for nuclei, take 
the muscles of a frog or some similar animal. 
Double-stained sections of the glandular stomach 
of a bird will show the nuclei of the involuntary 
muscles. 
Fig. 9. 
Muscle-fibre from rabbit: a. dim disk; b, light disk; c, intermediate 
line; n, nucleus seen in profile. X 300. 
Fig. 9 shows a muscle from a rabbit where 
both muscle disks or strise and nuclei are shown. 106 
A MANUAL OF 
Generally the striae will be seen as fine lines 
across the muscle-fibre with (H.). Sometimes 
wavy transverse marks will be seen with (L.) in 
some of the involuntarj7 muscles, as the gizzard 
of a bird. This kind of marking should not be 
mistaken for the transverse striae of the volun- 
tary muscles, for they cannot be seen with low 
power. 
SCHEME NINE. 
Bones.—Before bones can be cut with the mi- 
crotome they must be decalcified or the lime 
taken out of them. After most of the decalci- 
fying fluids have been used, the tissues need to 
he hardened in alcohol. Picric acid, however, 
is both a hardening and decalcifying fluid. Only 
small bones should be used, and these cut into 
short pieces. Remove the flesh but leave the 
periosteum. The scheme is : 
Picric acid, saturated, 2 weeks or longer if not 
decalcified. 
Wash in 50 per cent, alcohol 
Alcohol, 70 per cent. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent. 
Thin celloidin, 24 hours. 
Thick celloidin, 24 hours. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
107 
Embed and put in 70 per cent, alcohol for 24 
hours. 
Cut, putting sections in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
Picrocarmin, 1 to 3 minutes. 
Acid alcohol + picric acid. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., -J- picric acid. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., -)- picric acid. 
Clearing oil -f- picric acid. 
Mount in xylol balsam or Farrant’s medium. 
But a small amount of the picric acid should 
be used, just enough to be dissolved. If the 
Farrant medium is used it should be ringed 
afterwards, as this does not dry hard. 
Embed in such a way as to get both transverse 
and longitudinal sections from two pieces. This 
way will show the canals in the bones to the 
best advantage. 
If it is desired to get sections of a vertebra, 
Scheme 14 will be preferable to this, as the 
chromic acid is better to fix the nerve-elements 
in the spinal cord. 
If the end of a bone is used, the inter articular 
cartilage will be shown in a longitudinal section. 
Fig. 10 shows this, giving a very good view of 
the two tissues and of a tissue that is part bone 108 
A MANUAL OF 
and part cartilage, the “ calcified cartilage.” 
This is from a section hardened in chromic acid 
and stained with picrocarmin. 
Fig. 10. 
Hyaline 
cartilage. 
Calcified 
cartilage. 
Bone. 
Articular cartilage and Bone. 
Fig. 11 represents a cross-section of a human 
metacarpal bone. It may not be possible to see 
all these parts in a decalcified section, as this cut 
is from a ground section, but most of them can DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
Fig. 11. 
Human metacarpal bone: a, peripheric lamellae; b, perimedullary 
lamellae; c, Haversian canals surrounded by their Haversian lamellae; 
e, lacunae. X 20. 110 
A MANUAL OF 
be seen in a carefully prepared softened section. 
The explanations of the figure give the parts. 
SCHEME TEN. 
Intervertebral Disk.—To prepare this, take 
two connected vertebrae of some small animal, 
as a rat, small cat, or rabbit, cut off as much of 
the flesh as possible and place the piece in— 
Picrosulphuric acid, 24 hours. 
Wash thoroughly in water. 
Harden in alcohol, 50 per cent., 70 per cent., 
and 95 per cent., 24 hours each. After this 
treat by Scheme 9, beginning with “ thin cel- 
loidin.” Instead of using this scheme the speci- 
men may be prepared by Scheme 14, which may, 
perhaps, be the best. In either case picrocar- 
min will be the most appropriate stain. 
Fig. 12 shows the structure of a section of 
such a disk. The upper and lower parts of the 
figure represent the ends of the vertebrae, the 
middle the pulp of the disk that is regarded as 
a remnant of the “ chorda dorsalis.” Hext to D 
is shown the ligament, and between this and the 
central pulp the bundles of fibro-cartilage. The 
little dots are the nuclei in the cartilage. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
Red Marrow of Bones.—lnteresting studies 
may be made of marrow. Especially will this 
be the case if the red marrow be used, for some 
think that some of the cells to be found in red 
Intervertebral disk of a eat: B, bone ; D, disk. Prepared by chromo- 
nitric fluid. X 15. 
marrow are the source of the red corpuscles of 
the blood. Squeeze out the red marrow from 
the cut end of a rib of a rat and diffuse it over 
a cover-glass. Dry, after which, set by passing 
several times through the flame of a spirit 
lamp or a Bunsen burner. Treat after this by 
Scheme 3. For stains, eosin-methylene blue or 112 
A MANUAL OF 
Ehrlich-Biondi-lleidenhain may be used instead 
of those mentioned in the scheme. This form 
of marrow is to be found in the heads of the 
long bones, and a study of it may enable the 
student to better understand what he sees in a 
section of this part of a bone. 
Kidney.—To make sections of the kidney, 
treat portions of this organ by Scheme 1 or 
Scheme 5, the latter being the best. To get the 
most out of the study of the kidney, several 
sections should be differently stained. Borax- 
carmin will give the general structure. For 
seeing the nuclei of the cells, use some of the 
double stains,—hsematoxylin and gold-orange, 
haematoxylin and boraxcarmin, or Ehrlich- 
Biondi. The latter will show the capsule to 
the best advantage. 
The kidney is composed of a series of round 
bodies, the Malpighian bodies, which are the 
real excreting parts of the organ. Outside of 
these and leading from them to the pelvis of 
the kidney are the tubules, not straight but 
variously bent. One of these Malpighian bodies 
is shown in the centre of Fig. 18, with the 
tubules round it. The dots in the cells of the DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
113 
tubules are the nuclei of the cells just as they 
may be seen in a double-stained section. The 
Malpighian bodies are in the outer part of the 
Fig. 18. 
Glomerulus, or tuft of capillaries round a Malpighian body of kidney, 
and sections of convoluted tubules. 
kidney, while the tubules are gathered in the 
interior into bundles or pyramids, not opening 
into the pelvis except at the apices of these 
pyramids. To double-stain, study carefully the 
chapter on double-staining. 
Liver.—To make sections of this organ the 
same directions may be followed as are given 
for the kidney. The pieces may be treated by 114 
A MANUAL OF 
Scheme 1 or Scheme 5. The same directions 
for staining may also be followed. 
The liver is composed of lobules about of 
an inch in diameter. Its outside is covered 
with a serous membrane, the capsule. The lob- 
ules are made up of very small cells, polygonal 
in shape and about Y2VO an m diam- 
eter, each with one or two nuclei. These may 
be seen with (H.) in a double-stained section. 
Fig. 14. 
Liver of a pig, showing lobules: P.C., portal canal containing bile- 
duct, hepatic artery, and portal vein {P. F.); S., septa; S.V., sublobular 
vein; I. V., intralobular vein. 
The lobules are surrounded by a more or less 
distinct layer of connective tissue and the 
interlobular veins, branches of the portal vein. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
115 
These send in a plexus of veins into the interior 
of the lobule, supplying each cell with blood. 
The blood is gathered into another plexus, which 
finally empties into the centre of the lobule, the 
intralobular vein, a branch of the hepatic vein. 
Fig. 14 shows several lobules of the liver of a pig. 
This may be regarded as partly diagrammatic, 
as only the liver of a few animals show the parts 
as well as these are shown. Besides the portal 
vein, the liver is nourished by its own artery, 
the hepatic artery. 
Pancreas.—Scheme 5 is perhaps the best 
method to treat this organ. The real struc- 
ture of the parts will be brought out by using 
picrocarmin or some other double stain, Ehr- 
lich-Biondi stain will bring out the capsule 
and the trabeculae running into the interior 
from this part as well as the structure of the 
tubules. 
The pancreas is a gland that may be said to 
be composed of compound tubules, several of 
these opening into one duct. The structure of 
these tubules is seen in Fig. 15, from the pan- 
creas of a dog. Any of the double stains should 
show the gland-cells. As seen here, these are 116 
A MANUAL OF 
somewhat columnar with the nuclei near the 
base. 
Fig. 15. 
Pancreas of a dog: A, ascinus; C, capsule; D, duct. Prepared by cor- 
rosive sublimate and stained with picrocarmin. X 300. 
Spleen.—Treatment of this organ by Scheme 
5 will produce good results, though Scheme 1 
may be used. Besides boraxcarmin, the double 
stains may be used. To show the trabeculae and 
capsule, use the Ehrlich-Biondi stain. This will 
also differentiate the blood-vessel walls. 
The spleen is a dark-red ductless gland whose 
use is not well understood. It is thought to 
share with the red marrow of the bones in the 
development of the blood-corpuscles, while some 
think that it produces the white corpuscles or DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
117 
leucocytes and destroys the red corpuscles. It 
is composed of a covering outside, or capsule, 
which sends fibres or trabeculae into the interior, 
Fig. 16. 
Capsule, 
Trabeculae. 
Malpighian 
corpuscles. 
Pulp. 
Trabecula, 
Artery. 
T. S. of part of human spleen, x 10. 
and the net-work of blood-vessels. Scattered 
through the organ are round bodies, the Mal- 
pighian bodies of the spleen, and the rest of the 
organ is made up of the spleen pulp. This con- 118 
A MANUAL OF 
sists of a mesh of branched cells with membra- 
nous expansions which anastomose with the 
neighboring cells. This net-work is permeated 
by the blood-corpuscles. Fig. 16 shows a section 
of the human spleen. 
Soft Palate for Mucous Cells.—lf it is de- 
sirable to make a study of mucous cells, take 
the soft palate of a rabbit or a dog, harden and 
prepare for staining by Scheme 5. For stains 
use aniline green and eosin. The last may be 
applied by dissolving in the clearing oil, but 
care should be taken to have a complete solution 
of the eosin. Treated in this way the epithe- 
lium and connective-tissue cells will be red, with 
their nuclei blue, and the mucous glands will be 
bluish. 
Skin.—For a simple study of the skin, the 
ear of a rat or other small animal may be 
hardened and prepared by Scheme 1. This may 
be stained with boraxcarmin or double-stained, 
using eosin-methylene blue or any other of the 
combinations. The first will show the hairs and 
hair-follicles and the two layers of the skin. 
If double-stained, these will be better seen, and 
with (II.) the cells of the parts of the skin and DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
119 
the glands can he studied. The cartilage will 
be seen in the centre as a line of large cells. 
Pieces of the skin of any animal may be taken 
instead of the ear, as suggested above. 
SCHEME ELEVEN. 
Stomach.—Parts should be taken from the 
cardiac and from the pyloric ends of the stomach. 
If necessary, pin these out flat before hardening. 
Prepare by Scheme 1 or Scheme 5 or by the 
following: 
Muller’s fluid, 5 to 7 weeks. 
Thoroughly wash in water. 
Alcohol, 50 per cent., 70 per cent., and 95 per 
cent., 24 hours each, in the dark. 
Thin celloidin, 24 hours. 
Thick celloidin, 24 hours. 
Embed, putting in 70 per cent, alcohol, 24 
hours. 
Cut, putting sections in 70 per cent, alcohol. 
Indigoearmin till bright blue or red-blue. 
Oxalic acid, saturated, hour. 
Alcohol, 50 per cent. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent. 120 
A MANUAL OF 
Clearing oil. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
In the cardiac end of the stomach the glands 
Fig. 17. 
E 
Mucous coat. 
G 
Mm 
Sub- 
mucous 
coat. 
•*> 
a 
o 
o 
u 
3 | 
O 
S 
S 
Serosa. 
V. S. of wall of human stomach: E, epithelium; G, glands; Mm, 
muscularis mucosae. X 15- 
are simple tubes, but in the pyloric end they 
are branched and the opening to the tube is 
larger. Fig. 17 shows a section of the human DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
121 
stomach from the cardiac end. The only ad- 
vantage in using Muller’s fluid for the hardening 
is that the cells of the glands will retain more 
of their original shape. Very good results may 
be had hy using alcohol, or corrosive sublimate 
and alcohol, for hardening. 
As shown in the figure, the stomach has four 
coats or layers. The inner is the mucous coat, 
and contains the glands for secreting the gastric 
juice, or the peptic glands, as they are called. 
In the intervals between digestion the stomach 
secretes mucus, but after food passes into the 
stomach the peptic glands secrete the gastric 
juice. The submucous coat is mostly connective 
tissue, forming a support for the blood-vessels 
and nerves of this organ. The third coat con- 
tains the muscles, usually described as in three 
layers. The outer coat is a thin layer of serous 
membrane that can readily be seen by proper 
staining. 
glandular stomach and the gizzard correspond 
to the stomach in mammals. For sections of 
the glandular stomach take any of the smaller 
birds, as the English sparrow, blue jay, or 
Glandular Stomach of a Bird.—In birds the 122 
A MANUAL OF 
meadow-lark. The chicken has this part so 
large that it is not suitable for good sections, 
and the plumose glands are set more obliquely 
in the organ than in the smaller birds. 
Fig. 18. 
Treat the specimen by Scheme 1 or Scheme 
2. Boraxcarmin is a good stain for showing 
the general structure of this organ. To differ- 
V. S. of mucous membrane of the stomach of a cat. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
123 
entiate the tissues double-stain with picrocar- 
min, hematoxylin and boraxcarmin, or Ehrlich- 
Biondi. 
The glandular stomach of a bird, located in 
front of the gizzard, is the secreting organ for 
the digestion of the food, as but little secreting, 
if any, can be done by the gizzard. The inner 
layer of the mucous coat is a series of straight 
glands. The cells are columnar, the nuclei near 
the base, and the outer end of the cell bends 
a little outward. These glands are tubes, the 
outer end opening into the interior of the organ. 
The walls of these tubes are areolar connective 
tissue, as may be seen by using Ehrlich-Biondi 
or hsematoxylin and boraxcarmin stains. Out- 
side these are a series of large plumose glands 
that are separated from each other by areolar 
connective tissue. The duct of each gland is 
in its centre, and opens into the interior of 
the organ between the tubular glands. These 
glands are evidently peptic. The cells are short 
columnar, the nuclei are about in the centre of 
the cells. Fig. 19 shows these parts as seen by 
low power. 
Outside the plumose glands there is a very 124 
A MANUAL OF 
thin submucous coat, not shown in the figure, 
which is followed by the two layers of the 
muscular coat and the thin serous membrane. 
Fig. 19. 
The glandular stomach of a meadow-lark. The outside shows the 
muscular and serous coats combined, inside this the large plumose 
glands, and near the centre the tubular glands. X 12. 
Gizzard.—The gizzard in a bird is essentially 
a masticating organ. The two outer coats cor- 
respond to the two outer coats of the human DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
125 
stomach, serous and muscular. On account of 
the extra work that is put on this organ the 
muscular coat is unusually thick. Inside this 
is a coat that seems to be wholly fibrous. In 
the grain-eating birds the inner part of this is 
compact, so that it is not injured by the sharp 
points of gravel, etc. In the Eaptores the whole 
of this membrane is fibrous, as the outer part of 
the membrane is in grain-eating birds. Treat 
the same as the glandular stomach and use the 
same stains. 
Small Intestines.—For a study of this take 
small pieces of the duodenum, jejunum, and 
ileum of a cat, rat, or other small animal. Very 
good results may be had by treating these by 
Scheme 1 or Scheme 2. To see the gland-tis- 
sues to the best advantage, the hardening may 
be done by Scheme 11. In this case stain with 
picrocarmin. 
Fig. 20 shows the structure of a section of the 
small intestine of a dog. It consists of four 
coats similar to those of the stomach. The in- 
ner or mucous coat contains first the villi and 
below these the follicles or glands of Lieberkiihn. 
If the section be from a cat or a dog, the Peyer’s 126 
A MANUAL OF 
Fro. 20. 
Villi 
- with epi- 
thelium. 
Lieber- 
kiihn’s 
glands. 
Muscu- 
laris 
mucosas. 
Sub-mucous coat. 
Peyer’s 
patch. 
Circular 
muscle. 
-Longi- 
S tudinal 
muscle. 
L. S. through the Peyer’s patches of the small intestine of a dog. 
patches or glands may be looked for in the outer 
part of the mucous coat, as seen in the figure. DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
127 
These are mostly separated from the follicles of 
Lieherklihn by a thin layer of smooth muscular 
tissue, but some of them will show a pointed 
end protruding through this layer. A double- 
stained section will show the structure of all 
these parts. In the first part of the duodenum 
look for the racemose glands of Bruner in the 
submucous coat. 
The submucous coat is connective tissue. Out- 
side this is the muscular coat in two layers. In 
a cross-section the longitudinal muscles will 
show their cut ends. The outer coat is a thin 
layer of cells, the serous coat. 
The Beyer’s patches are found only on one 
side of the intestine, the side to which the 
omentum is attached. 
Tongue.—Cut the tongue of a cat or a rat in 
such a way that sections can be had of the tip 
and base. The preparation may be by Scheme 
lor by Scheme 5. Make some of the sections 
longitudinal and some transverse. For the 
ordinary structure, stain with boraxcarmin. 
Double stain some with methyl-green and eosin, 
and others with eosin-methylene blue. In the 
first the connective tissue and papillae are red- 128 
A MANUAL OF 
dish, the taste glands or buds reddish, but the 
mucous glands will be bluish. 
The tongue has on its upper surface several 
forms of papillae, a row in the form of a Y 
acrogs the back part being called the circumval- 
Fig. 21. 
■ M HI 
Epithelium. 
Tunica propria. 
Foliate papillae from a rabbit: I, I', primary and secondary septa; g, 
taste buds; n, nerve; d, serous gland; a, its duct; M, muscular fibres. 
X 80. 
late. Each of these is surrounded by a depres- 
sion or fossa, and in this fossa are to be found the 
taste buds in the substance of the papilla. Fig. 
21 shows a section from the tongue of a rabbit DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
129 
where two papillae are seen with taste pits or 
buds in their sides. In this case the two papillae 
are close together, with the fossa or opening be- 
tween them. 
SCHEME TWELVE. 
Trachea and Lungs.—Take two pieces of the 
trachea of a cat or a rat and of a chicken, one 
for transverse and the other for longitudinal 
sections. They may he prepared by Scheme 1 
or by Scheme 5 and stained with boraxcarmin 
or haematoxylin or picrocarmin. The best prep- 
arations may be made as follows : 
Trachea in chromic acid, .2 per cent, solution, 
10 days. 
Wash thoroughly in water. 
Alcohol, 50 per cent., 24 hours. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., 24 hours. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., 24 hours. 
For the rest treat by Scheme 9, beginning at 
“ thin celloidin.” 
Keep from the light during the process of 
hardening. Treat the pieces of the lung in the 
same way as the last, or they may be treated by 
Scheme 1 or Scheme 5. If it is desirable to 
show the structure of the lung, such as the 130 
A MANUAL OF 
nuclei of the cells, etc., double-stain or stain 
with Ehrlich-Biondi. 
Fig. 22. 
V. S. of human lung: p, pleura: a, epithelium of a bronchus; b, 
blood-vessel; c, pulmonary vein; d, cartilage; e, interlobular septum, 
continuous with the inner layer of the pleura. X 25. 
Fig. 22 shows the structure of the human 
lung. The lung of a cat will show the same 131 
DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
general characters, and that of a chicken will 
differ hut little. In the lung of a frog the cells 
are much larger. In the human trachea and 
in the trachea of a cat the carti- 
laginous rings are not entire, hut 
Fm. 23. 
have an opening on the back side 
that is tilled out with other tissue. 
In the trachea of a chicken the 
rings are entire and overlap each 
longitudinally, as a longitudinal 
section will show. 
SCHEME THIRTEEN. 
Nerve, showing Axis Cylinder. 
—For this take any small nerve, 
the smaller the better. Treat as 
follows : 
Bichromate of potash, 2 or 3 
days. (Use a.2 per cent, solution.) 
Thoroughly wash in water. 
Alcohol, 50 per cent., 70 per 
cent., 95 per cent., 12 to 24 hours 
each. 
Boraxcarmin. 
Nerve-fibre: a, 
axis cylinder; b, 
Ranvier’s node; c, 
nucleus. X 200. 
Dehydrate and put in clearing oil. 132 
A MANUAL OF 
Tease out and mount in xylol balsam. 
Fig. 23 shows a nerve that has been treated in 
this way. The axis cylinder should be more 
deeply stained than the myelin. 
SCHEME FOURTEEN, 
Spinal Cord and Brain.—This may be pre- 
pared in several ways, by Scheme 1 or Scheme 5, 
and get very good results, but the best will be 
when some of the chromic acid compounds are 
used. For this purpose treat by Scheme 11 till 
the sections are ready to stain. Then instead 
of the stain given there use the following: 
Ehrlich-Biondi fluid, 4 to 6 hours, or heat till 
vapor begins to rise. 
Wash quickly in 95 per cent, alcohol. 
Alcohol, 100 per cent. 
Clearing oil. 
Mount in xylol balsam. 
While staining watch it that the sections do 
not stain too deeply. Watch the sections also 
while in the clearing oil that too much of the 
stain does not wash out. For the reason that 
this stain is apt to wash out, the sections should 
not remain in the clearing oil. If the stain is DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
133 
just right from the 100 per cent, alcohol, xylol 
may be used for a clearing oil. 
Picroearmin makes a good stain for either of 
the schemes instead of those given. The nuclei 
of the cells may he seen well with this or with a 
double stain of boraxcarmin and hsematoxylin. 
Pig. 24 shows a few nerve-cells from one of 
the sympathetic ganglia. The nerve-cells in the 
Fig. 24. 
Human sympathetic ganglion: A, small artery; C, capillary; V, vein; 
K, capsule; N, nerve-cells. X 300. 
brain and spinal cord will be similar to these, 
but may not all be of the same shape. Por the 
structure of these parts see the physiology. 
The Eye.—Make a single small cut with a 
razor at the equator of the eyeball of a cat or 
a rabbit, and place the eye for 24 hours in a 
.25 per cent, solution of chromic acid. Then 
cut the eye into an anterior and posterior part 134 
A MANUAL OF 
and place them for several days in the same 
fluid. Wash in water and finish the hardening 
in 50 per cent., 70 per cent., and 95 per cent, 
alcohol, 24 hours each. Finish by Scheme 9, 
beginning at thin celloidin. Stain most of the 
sections in picrocarmin and horaxcarmin and 
some with hsematoxylin-boraxcarmin. 
The anterior part of the eye will show the 
cornea, iris, lens, and the three coats of the eye 
back of the lens, though not so well as the 
posterior part. The cornea will show on its 
front the mucous membrane, or conjunctiva, 
and on its back a layer of endothelium cells. 
The lens should show something of its structure 
and of the membrane enclosing it. At the ends 
of the lens as it appears in the section may be 
seen the suspensory ligament, ciliary process, 
the ciliary muscles, and the • parts of the iris. 
The double-stained sections should show the 
cell structure of these parts. 
The posterior part of the eye will show the 
three coats, and should show the layers of the 
retina. Fig. 25 is from the retina of a cat. 
The sections are usually too thick to show the 
individual cells as plainly as seen in this, but DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
135 
the different parts can be made out in a good 
section. 
Fig. 25. 
V. S. of retina of cat: b, rods and cones; le, external limiting mem- 
brane ; U, internal limiting; nb, nuclei of rods; pb, basal plexus; cb, 
bipolar cells; cm, unipolar cells; bi, internal basal cells; pc, cerebral 
plexus; cm, multiple nerve-cells; fo, fibres of optic nerve. The initials 
on the left are those of the usual names,—rods and cones, external 
nuclear, external granular, internal nuclear, internal granular, cellular, 
and fibrous. 
If the eye of a chicken is used, sections 
through the region of the optic nerve should 
show the marsupium. This is a membrane that 
extends from the optic nerve to or towards the 136 
A MANUAL OF 
lens. It stands vertical in the eye, hence if the 
eye is embedded so as to cut sections from the 
bill towards the back of the head, as the eye 
is in the head, the sections will show the mar- 
supinm as a line. Mammals do not have this. 
SCHEME FIFTEEN. 
Tooth.—For sections of this take the lower 
jaw of a cat or a rat, cut it into short pieces, 
and treat as follows : 
Chromic acid, .2 per cent, solution, 2 or 3 days. 
Chromic nitric acid fluid, 2 or 3 weeks. 
Thoroughly wash in water. 
Alcohol, 70 per cent., 24 hours, in the dark. 
Alcohol, 95 per cent., 24 hours, in the dark. 
Embed and cut as per Scheme 1, using picro- 
carmin as a stain. Fig. 26 shows a section of 
a human tooth in the bone. A section of the 
tooth of a cat will show essentially the same 
structure, but whether it shows all these parts 
as here shown will depend upon whether it is 
through the centre of the tooth, A section of 
a cat’s tooth will usually show the alveolar pro- 
cess more distinctly than is shown in the figure, 
the parts of the tooth, the enamel and dentine DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY. 
137 
outside the jaw, and the cement and dentine in 
the jaw. There will be some muscular tissue 
adherent to the jaw that may be seen and 
recognized, 
Fig. 26. 
V. S. of human tooth in jaw; E, enamel; D, dentine; P.M., periodental 
membrane: P.C., pulp-cavity; C, cement; B, bone of jaw; V, vein; 
A, artery; N, nerve. 
Any bone-tissue may be treated by this scheme 
and stained with picrocarmin. Keep in the 
acid till a pin can he pushed into the tooth. INDEX. 
Acid alcohol, 62. 
Alcohol, 61, 72. 
Aniline dyes, 81. 
Ear, 29, 43. 
Ehrlich-Biondi-Heidenhain, 84. 
Embedding, 76. 
Blood, 92, 94. 
Endothelium, 99. 
Eosin, 80. 
Bones, 16, 32, 46, 106. 
Boraxcarmin, 79. 
Epithelium, ciliated, 98. 
columnar, 97. 
squamous, 96. 
tongue of frog, on the, 99. 
methylene blue, 83. 
Brain, 26, 40, 132. 
Celloidin, 61. 
thick, 61. 
thin, 62. 
Eye, 26, 41, 133. 
Chromic acid, 72, 74, 
Fixative, 63. 
and hydrochloric acid fluid, 
74. 
Formic glycerin, 64. 
and nitric acid fluid, 64, 74. 
Ciliated epithelium, 98. 
Glandular stomach, 20, 121. 
Gizzard, 20,124. 
Circulation, 22, 37, 62. 
Clearing oil, 62. 
Columnar epithelium, 97. 
Corrosive sublimate, 73. 
Haematoxylin, 80. 
and boraxcarmin, 82. 
and eosin, 83. 
and fuchsin, 83. 
and gold-orange, 83. 
and safranine, 83. 
preparations by, 95. 
Decalcifying, 73. 
Digestive organs, 19, 34, 49. 
Dilute glycerin, 64. 
Hardening, 71. 
Heart, 24, 38. 
Dissection, 11. 
of a bird, 13. 
of a frog, 44. 
of a mammal, 29. 
Honing the knife, 76. 
Indigocarmin, 85. 
Injecting specimens, 87. 
Intervertebral disk, 110. 
Intestines, 21, 35, 51. 
Double-staining, 82. 
Drawings, notes and, 12. 
139 140 
INDEX. 
Kidney, 24, 38, 112. 
Scheme five, 95. 
six, 97. 
seven, 99. 
eight, 101. 
nine, 106. 
Liver, 21, 36, 113. 
Lungs, 22, 37, 129. 
Marrow, red, 111. 
Microscope, the, 64. 
ten, 110. 
use of, 68. 
eleven, 119. 
twelve, 129. 
thirteen, 131. 
fourteen, 132. 
fifteen, 136. 
Microtome, the, and its use, 74. 
Mitosis, 102. 
Mounting sections, 85. 
Miiller’s fluid, 63, 72. 
Schemes for histology, 89. 
Senses, special, 26, 40, 56. 
Silver nitrate, 81. 
Muscles, 13, 29, 44, 104. 
Nerve, 40, 131. 
Nervous system, 24, 38, 55. 
Non-nucleated blood, 94. 
Notes and drawings, 12. 
Nucleated blood, 92. 
Simple staining, 79. 
Skin, 118. 
Soft palate for mucous cells, 
118. 
Special senses, 26, 40, 56. 
Spinal cord, 26, 40. 
Pancreas, 115. 
Picric acid, 74. 
Picrocarmin, 82. 
and brain, 132. 
Spleen, 36, 116. 
Picrosulphuric acid, 63. 
Prefatory note, 3. 
Squamous epithelium and sali- 
vary cells, 96. 
Prepare tissues for mounting, to, 
89. 
Staining, 78. 
double-, 82. 
in bulk, 91. 
simple, 79. 
Red marrow of bones, 111. 
Respiration, 21, 36, 51. 
Stomach, 35, 60, 119. 
Submaxillary gland, 101. 
Structure of cells, 102. 
Safranine, 80. 
Salivary cells, 96. 
Scheme one, 89. 
Tongue, 26, 40, 50, 127. 
two, 91. 
three, 92. 
four, 94. 
of frog for ciliated epithe- 
lium, 99. 
Trachea, 22, 37. 
and lungs, 129. 
THE END.