m rM\ r cr\ = r > \ \>OX/'J < ■\ ! a ^Ltrr^ \ 'MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY Of MED.C.NE N A T I 0 N A I L I B R A R Y O f M E D I C I N E 11VNOHVN INIH01B JO 11*1111 IVNOIIVN 1 N . 5 I 0 1 * i0 A» V I. II IVNO II V N r f\/ 1 ■* I SS^X \ F ' i \/\i/V ■ 811 IVNOIIVN 3NI3IQ3W JO AHVaSM IVNOIIVN 3NI3IQ3W JO *ivmil IVNOIIV t|||l IVNOIIVN 3NI3I03W JO A II V » 8 II IVNOIIVN 3NI3IQ3W JO UYI1I1 IVNOIIV ■ 811 IVNOIIVN 3NI3IQ3W JO ilVI.II IVNOIIVN 3NI3I03W JO A a V a a I 1 IVNOIIV ■A/ \ ■ ail IVNOIIVN 3NI3IQ3W JO A H V a 8 I 1 IVNOIIVN 3NI3IC-3W JO A II V ■ 8 II IVNOIIV i /\*{ \\ 1 OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY Of MEDICI! -J"\ z r {M/ \ \HjA/ f ■ 8.1 IVNOIIVN 3NI3IQ3W JO A II V a 8 I 1 IVNOIIVN 3NI3IQ3W JO A « V a 8 II IVNOIIV I y>£ i >sC> $ AM'Jlji££L^r ivxvi^J) STODDART 8e ifl-HKRTO.X. ^ it i;y '■■•':itfov AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY VOL. II. PART I.—MASTOLOGY. BY JOHN D.JJODMAN, M.D. Professor of Natural History in the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania; one of the Professors of the Philadelphia Museum; Member of the American Philosophical Society; of the Philadelphia Acad- emy of Natural Sciences, &c. ,.*-'' O.T/r- SECOND EDITION. Pulatrcljmta: KEY AND MIELKIE, No. 181, MARKET STREET. 1831. Eastern District of Pennsylvania, to wit: Be it remembered, that on the third day of July, in the fiftieth year of the independence of the United States of America, A.D. 1826, Robert Wright of the said district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit: American Natural History. Vol. II. Part I. Mastology. By John D. Godman, M.D. Professor of Natural History in the Franklin Insti- tute of Pennsylvania ; one of the Professors of the Philadelphia Mu- seum; Member of the American Philosophical Society; of the Phila- delphia Academy of Natural Sciences, &c. In conformity to the act of the congress of the United States, enti- tled, " an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned ;" and also to the act, en- titled, " an act supplementary to an act, entitled, ' an act for the en- couragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia. Printed by James Kay, Jun. & Co. Piinters to the American Philosophical Society. No. 4, Minor Street. AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. Family V.—Marsupialia ; Pouched or Marsupial Animals. The beings at present considered as members of this family, offer so many peculiarities and striking differences in their construction and economy, as in strictness to constitute a distinct order of animals; or if not, the remarkable differences which exist be- tween the species in relation to their teeth, organs of digestion, food and habits, fully justify the ar- rangement of them under different orders in our ex- isting classification. They are wonderfully unlike all other animals in relation to the production of their offspring, which are brought forth in a condition apparently imperfect or premature. The young, when they are first to be discovered in the external pouch, seem scarcely formed, are incapable of movement, ex- hibit but slight traces of limbs or other external organs, are found attached to the teats of the mo- ther, and are unable to resume their hold if it be broken. They remain thus attached until they acquire size and strength enough to move about 4 GENERAL HISTORY at will, and continue to take refuge in this curious retreat until they attain the size of a common rat, or are even larger. The pouch is formed by a process or elongation of the skin of the belly, and is sup- ported by two peculiar bones which arise from the pubis, and are sustained by the abdominal muscles. What is more singular, the males of these animals also have such bones, although they have no pouch, and similar bones are observed in both sexes of spe- cies which have little or nothing of the pouch itself.* Genus XIX.—Opossum ; Didelphis ; L. Germ. Beutelthier. Fr. Sarigue. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The head is conical, with a pointed muzzle and lateral nostrils; rounded, nearly naked and delicate * " La matrice des animaux de cette famille n'est point ouverte par un seul orifice dans le fond du vagin j mais elle communique avec ce canal par deux tubes lateraux en forme d'anse. II parait que la naissance prematura* des petits tient a cette organisation singuliere. Les males ont le scro- tum pendant en avant de la verge au contraire des autres quadrupedes."—Cuvier; Regne An. i. 170. * We cannot avoid objecting in this place to the inaccuracy of ex- pression occasionally indulged in by the most celebrated men, since the influence of their example under such circumstances, is as injurious as in opposite conditions it is beneficial. The birth of the young is not premature in these animals, but takes place in a perfectly regular and mature manner, according to their peculiar organization and na- ture, though it may be apparently premature when compared with other animals. M. Desmarest gives as the most striking character* OF THE OPOSSUM. 5 ears. The thickness of the body is great when com- pared with the length of the limbs. The digits on the anterior extremities are five in number, armed with hooked claws, and all lying parallel to each other. On the posterior extremities the internal digits are not in the same range with the rest, but are opposable, or constitute proper thumbs. They are rounded at the extremity, without nails, broad and fleshy. The soles of the posterior feet are pro- vided with large fleshy tubercles, which materially aid in grasping small objects. The females of this genus have a fold of the skin of the belly, so arranged as to form a marsupium or pouch capable of receiv- ing the young after birth; the teats, eight in number on each side, are within this pouch, which is sup- ported by two bones of considerable length, articu- lated with the pubis and connected with the muscles of the belly. The males also have similar bones, but no pouch. Dental System. Incisive f 6 Falge Mokr 8 Molar. 6 False Molar 26 Upper/ 2 Canine { g M ^. ( 14 Molar. ! t 8 Incisive o 24 Lower/ 2 Canine I g Mokr *> ^ {14 Molar. ( In the upper jaw the incisors are situated at the extremity of a very elongated ellipsis. The istic of this family, " birth of the young premature," (" naissance des petits prematuree") which is entirely at variance with fact and philosophy. An American translator of Desmarest has advanced still farther, and « cap- ped the climax" of absurdity by rendering the words above quoted, " growth of the young premature /" G GENERAL HISTORY, &c. first is cylindrical, hooked, and longer than the four following, which resemble each other and are tren- chant. To these succeed a very marked depression, and then the canine, which is compressed, terminates in a point and is hooked, but with rounded edges. At its base there is a very small but normal false molar, to which succeeds a vacant space, and then two equally regular false molars, the last of which is a little larger than the preceding. . The three first molars successively and gradually increase in size, and have the same forms. At first the inner base is elevated nearly as high as the prisms ; these are mere- ly distinguished by the points, which are only develop- ed at the three angles presented by a section of them, the anterior being much smaller than the posterior ; its anterior point is very small. Finally, the inner base is carried obliquely forward, in consequence of which there is left between each tooth on the inside of the jaw an angular vacuity, much larger than in the insectivorous animals, where this base is uni- formly developed. The last molar only differs from the others in being truncated at its posterior part, like all the last upper molars in animals of this order. In the lower jaw, we find four incisors, ob- liquely inclined forwards, of a cylindrical form, and nearly equal in size. The canine, which are in no respect peculiar, follow ; then come three false molars, one very small, at the base of the canine, and after a vacant space the two others, somewhat larger than the first, but the middle is the largest, and all three are normal. The four molars are composed, ante- riorly, of three points, disposed in a triangle, and (///».////// . //tf/r,\. ;,„,„/, CW'irnt by KEXnikri with tharYmmtf. ■fci* THE common OPOSSUM. 7 posteriorly of a spur also composed of three tuber- cles, but less regularly disposed and less elevated than those of the anterior part: the external is the largest. There is nothing very peculiar to be observed res- pecting the relative position of these teeth. Species I.—The Common Oposswn. Didelphis Virginiana; Penn. Gmel. &c. Le Manicou: Fettille, Obs. Peru, iii. 206. Tlaquatzin: Hehnand. Mesieo, 330. Opossum: Lawson's Carolina, 120. Catesby's Carolina, App. xxix. Sarigue des Illinois: Buff. Sup. torn. vi. pi. 33. Sarigue a long poil. Ibid. pi. 34. Didelphis Opossum: L. Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 105. Mieoure premier: D'Azzara, Quad du Paragua, Trad. Frau. i. p. 244. Virginian Opossum: Penn. Quad. ii. p. 18, No. 217, Shaw, i. part 2, pi. 107. Didelphis Woapink: Barton, Facts and Conjectures, &c. Centuries have elapsed since this species was first observed by European naturalists, and it has long been a frequent theme of admiration and discussion to those of America, yet it is still considered as a sort of anomaly among animals, and the peculiarities of its sexual intercourse, gestation, and parturition, are to this day involved in profound obscurity. Per- haps nothing can more clearly demonstrate the im- patience of the human mind, and the reluctance with which men yield to the hard necessity of care- fully observing the operations of nature, than the history of this animal. Volumes of facts and conjec- tures have been written on the subject, in which the proportion of conjecture to fact has been as a 8 THE COMMON OPOSSUM thousand to one, and the difficulties still remain to be surmounted. The animal is among the most com- mon within our borders, and is annually killed or captured in large numbers ; faithful investigations into the habits of a few individuals would be suf- ficient to settle all doubts forever, and yet these still remain to be made. Very full and interesting observations have been made at almost every other period 5 but the great question how the helpless off- spring, weighing scarcely a grain, are conveyed into the external pouch and attached to the teat of the mother, has never been properly answered. For obvious reasons we shaJL wave for the present, the consideration of these particulars. In our ap- pendix we hope to give a full description of the sexual peculiarities of this very singular animal, and may then have it in our power to remove all the obscurities from the subject, by the only true method, that of a patient and vigilant observation of nature. The opossum is very remarkable from other pecu- liarities, besides those which relate to the continua- tion of its kind. In the first place, we have already seen that it has a very large number of teeth, and its hind feet are actually rendered hands by short, fleshy and opposable thumbs, which, together with the prominences in the palms of these posterior hands, enable the animal to take firm hold of ob- jects which no one would think could be thus grasp- ed. An opossum can cling by these feet-hands to a smooth silk handkerchief or a silk dress, with great security, and climb up by the same. In like manner he can ascend by a skein of silk, or even a few threads. The slightest projection or doubling THE COMMON OPOSSUM. g of any material, affords him a certain mean of climb- ing to any desired height. Another curious and amusing peculiarity is his prehensile tail; by sim- ply curving this at the extremity, the opossum sustains his weight and depends from a limb of a tree, or other projecting body, and hanging in full security, gathers fruit or seizes any prey within his reach; to regain his position on the limb it is only necessary to make a little stronger effort with the tail and throw his body upward at the same time. In speaking of the more obvious peculiarities of the opossum, we may advert to the thinness and membranous character of the external ears, which may remind us in some degree of what has been heretofore said relative to the perfection of the sense of touch possessed by the bat, in consequence of the delicacy of the extended integument forming the ears and wings. The extremity of the nose of our animal is also covered by a soft, moist and delicate integument, which is no doubt very sensitive. On the sides of the nose, or rather on the upper lip, there are nu- merous long and strong divergent whiskers or bris- tles, projecting to the distance of nearly three inches; over each eye there are two long black bristles, rather softer than the others, somewhat crisped or undulated, and slightly decurved 5 while, on the pos- terior part of the cheek, and about an inch below, and in front of the ear, there is a bunch of long, straight bristles, (very similar to those of a hog) six or eight in number, projecting laterally so as to form a right angle with the head. When the elongated conical form of the opossum's head is recollected, together Vol. II.—B 10 THE COMMON OPOSSUM. with its nocturnal habits, we cannot avoid remarking that all these arrangements appear to have immedi- ate reference to the safety of the animal, furnishing the means of directing its course, and warning it of the presence of bodies which otherwise might not be discovered until too late. The mouth of the opossum is very wide when open, yet the animal does not drink by lapping, but by suction. The wideness of the mouth is rendered very remarkable when the female is approached while in company with her young. She then silently drops the lower jaw to the greatest distance it is ca- pable of moving, retracts the angles of the lips, and shows the whole of her teeth, which thus present a formidable array. She then utters a muttering kind of snarl, but does not snap until the hand or other object be brought very close. If this be a stick or any hard or insensible body, she seldom closes her mouth on it after the first or second time, but main- tains the same gaping and snarling appearance, even when it is thrust into her mouth. At the same time the young, if they have attained any size, either ex- hibit their signs of defiance, take refuge in the pouch of the mother, or, clinging to various parts of her body, hide their faces amidst her long hair. The general colour of the opossum is a whitish gray. From the top of the head along the back and upper part of the sides the gray is darkest, and this colour is produced by the intermixture of coarse white hairs, upwards of three inches long, with a shorter, closer, and softer hair, which is white at base and black for about half an inch at tip. The whole pe- lage is of a woolly softness, and the long white hairs di- verging considerably, allow the black parts to be seen THE COMMON OPOSSUM. I [ so as to give the general gray colour already mention- ed. On the face the wool is short and of a smoky white colour; that on the belly is of the same cha- racter, but longer on the fore and hind legs; the co- lour is nearly black from the body to the digits, which are naked beneath. The tail is thick and black for upwards of three inches at base, and is covered by small hexagonal scales, having short rigid hairs interspersed throughout its length, which are but slightly perceptible at a little distance. The opossum is generally killed for the sake of its flesh and fat. Its wool is of considerable length and fine- ness during the winter season, and we should sup- pose that in manufactures it would be equal to the sheep's wool which is wrought into coarse hats. The opossum is a nocturnal and timid animal, de- pending more on cunning than strength for his safety. His motions are slow, and his walk when on the ground entirely plantigrade, which gives an appearance of clumsiness to his movements. When on the branches of trees he moves with much greater ease, and with perfect security from sudden gusts of wind; even were his weight sufficient to break the limb on which he rests, there is no danger of his falling to tire earth, unless when on the lowest branch, as he can certainly catch and securely cling to the small- est intervening twigs, either with the hands or the extremity of the tail. This organ is always employed by the animal while on the smaller branches of trees, as if to guard against such an occurrence, and it is very useful in aiding the opossum to collect his food, by enabling him to suspend himself from a branch 12 THE COMMON OPOSSUM. above, while rifling a bird's nest of its eggs, or ga- thering fruits. The food of the opossum varies very much accord- ing to circumstances. It preys upon birds, various small quadrupeds, eggs, and no doubt occasionally upon insects. The poultry-yards are sometimes visited, and much havoc committed by the opossum, as, like the weazel, this animal is fonder of cutting the throats and sucking the blood of a number of in- dividuals, than of satisfying his hunger by eating the flesh of one. Among the wild fruits the persimmon {Diospyros Virginiana) is a great favourite, and it is generally after this fruit is in perfection that the opossum is killed by the country people for the mar- ket. At that season it is very fat, and but little difference is to be perceived between this fat and that of a young pig. The flavour of the flesh is compared to that of the roasting pig; we have in several instances seen it refused by dogs and cats, although the opossum was in fine order and but re- cently killed. This may have been owing to some accidental circumstance, but it was uniformly re- jected by these animals, usually not very nice when raw flesh is offered. The hunting of the opossum is a favourite «port with the country people, who frequently go out with their dogs at night, after the autumnal frosts have begun and the persimmon fruit is in its most delici- ous state. The opossum, as soon as he discovers the approach of his enemies, lies perfectly close to the branch, or places himself snugly in the angle where two limbs separate from each other. The dogs, how- THE COMMON OPOSSUM. 13 ever, soon announce the fact of his presence by their baying, and the hunter ascending the tree discovers the branch upon which the animal is seated, and be- gins to shake it with great violence to alarm and cause him to relax his hold. This is soon effect- ed, and the opossum attempting to escape to another limb is pursued immediately, and the shaking is renewed with greater violence, until at length the terrified quadruped allows himself to drop to the ground, where hunters or dogs are prepared to des- patch him. Should the hunter, as frequently happens, be un- accompanied by dogs when the opossum falls to the ground, it does not immediately make its escape, but steals slowly and quietly to a little distance, and then gathering itself into as small a compass as possible, remains as still as if dead. Should there be any quantity of grass or underwood near the tree, this apparently simple artifice is frequently sufficient to secure the animal's escape, as it is difficult by moon- light or in the shadow of the tree to distinguish it, and if the hunter has not carefully observed the spot where it fell, his labour is often in vain. This circumstance, however, it generally attended to, and the opossum derives but little benefit from his in- stinctive artifice. After remaining in this apparently lifeless condi- tion for a considerable time, or so long as any noise indicative of danger can be heard, the opossum slowly unfolds himself, and creeping as closely as possible upon the ground would fain sneak off unper- ceived. Upon a shout or outcry in any tone from his persecutor, he immediately renews his death-like 14 THE COMMON OPOSSUM. attitude and stillness. If then approached, moved or handled, he is still seemingly dead, and might de- ceive any one not accustomed to his actions. This feigning is repeated as frequently as opportunity is allowed him of attempting to escape, and is known so well to the country folks as to have long since passed into a proverb. "He is playing 'possum" is applied with great readiness by them to any one who is thought to act deceitfully, or wishes to ap- pear what he is not. The usual haunts of the opossum are thick forests, and their dens are generally in the hollows of de- cayed trees, where they pass the day asleep, and sally forth mostly after night-fall to seek for food. They are occasionally seen out during day-light, es- pecially when they have young ones of considerable size, too large to be carried in the maternal pouch. The female then offers a very singular appearance, as she toils along with twelve or sixteen cubs nearly of the size of rats, each with a turn of his tail around the root of the mother's, and clinging on her back and sides with paws, hands and mouth. This cir- cumstance was thought distinctive of another species, hence called dorsigera, but is equally true of the common or Virginian opossum. It is exceedingly curious and interesting to see the young, when the mother is at rest, take refuge in the pouch, whence one or two of them may occasionally be seen peep- ing out, with an air of great comfort and satis- faction. The mother in this condition, or at any time in defence of her young, will make battle, biting with much keenness and severity, for which her long ca- nine teeth are well suited. THE COMMON OPOSSUM. 15 If taken young the opossum is readily tamed and becomes very fond of human society, in a great degree relinquishes its nocturnal habits, and grows trouble- some from its familiarity. We have had one thus tamed which would follow the inmates of the house with great assiduity, and complain by a whining noise when left alone. As it grew older it became mis- chievous from its restless curiosity, and there seemed to be no possibility of devising any contrivance effec- tually to secure it. The same circumstance is fre- quently remarked by persons who have attempted to detain them in captivity, and of all the instances which have come to our knowledge, where even a great number were apparently well secured, they have in a short time enlarged themselves and been no more heard of. In some such instances these animals have escaped in the city, and for a long time have taken up their quarters in cellars, where, their pre- sence has never been suspected, as during the day they remain concealed. In this way it is very pro- bable that many are still living in the city of Phila- delphia, obtaining a plentiful food by their nightly labours. In Dr Barton's facts and conjectures on the opos- sum, he mentions as a circumstance worthy of curiosi- ty, the faculty the opossum has of lying on its back. We have observed this action of the animal, but could see nothing in it very different from what is very frequently done by the dog, cat, marmot, squir- rel, and various other animals, which occasionally place themselves sufficiently on the back to expose the inferior surface of the body fully ; but that this action in the opossum is indicative of any peculiarity, 16 THE COMMON OPOSSUM. or is the ordinary position chosen by the animal, is what we cannot state from our own observation. The size of the full grown opossum is about twen- ty inches, and that of the tail twelve ; the weight is about fourteen pounds. The number of young is from twelve to sixteen. There is therefore not much probability of the species becoming very scarce, especially as their nocturnal mode of life renders it by no means necessary that they should fly to very remote distances from the habitations of man.* * It is amusing to read the accounts of the wonderful medical virtues which have been attributed to the tail of this animal, in some of the older writers on the natural history of our continent. The following is a good specimen of the credulity and disposition to deal in the marvellous, which was formerly thought to form an almost essential quality in the natural historian:—" The tail of this animal (says Marc- grave) is a singular and wonderful remedy against inflam- mation of the kidneys; for if it be broken, and the quantity of a drachm of the water in which it is steeped be drunk sometimes, fasting, it wonderfully cleanses the ureters, ex- pels calculi and other obstructions, [excitat venerem, et generat lac, medetur colicis doloribus prodest parientibus et accelerat partum, promovet menses,] and if it be chewed and placed on a part into which thorns have been thrust, it extracts them, loosens the bowels, and I believe in all New Spain there is not to be found another remedy as useful in so many cases."—Hist. Ker. Nat. Brasil, lib. vi. p. 22. The above passage may have served as a hint to the cele- brated Cumberland, who, in one of his amusing works, in- troduces a quack, soliloquising on the virtues of a dried lizard's tail in the following words : " Thou wilt pulverize most featly," quoth he, " when I CHAPTER II. Order IV. Glires ; L. Gnawers. SECTION I.-^CLAVICULATA. Having perfect, and in some, very strong clavicles. The animals belonging to this order have the brain nearly smooth and without convolutions; the orbits of the eyes are not separated from the tem- poral cavities, which are slight; the eyes are directed laterally; the zygomatic arches are delicate and curved downwards, indicating feebleness in the jaws; the fore arm can scarcely be turned, and the two bones have thee under the pestle ; but before I consign thee to the mortar and reduce thee to dust, let me ponder upon thy pro- perties, and do nothing without forecast and circumspection. Poisonous thou can'st not be, for though I have never eaten of thy species myself, I know that others have; and if thy flesh be delicate, thy dust cannot fail to be wholesome; nay, I doubt not but it is medicinal. Thou hast other virtues, if I could but recollect them; there is something more about thee; something I have read in learned authors of the back-bone of a lizard ; and thine, heaven be prais'd, I perceive is per- fect and entire; but whether it is recorded as a provocative to incontinency, or as a preventative, I cannot to a certainty recollect: upon second thoughts, I suspect thou art a stimula- tive ; as I'm a sinner, I suspect thou art of a stirring quality, for thy tail betokeneth it." Vol. II.—C 18 CURES ANIMALS. are often consolidated. Those possessing the strong- est clavicles exhibit some intelligence, and use their fore feet to convey their food to their mouth. They have the posterior extremities generally higher than the anterior, by which they are rendered fit- ter for leaping than running. Their intestines are very long, and the stomach is simple, or but little divided; the ccecum is often larger than the stomach itself. These animals are provided with two large cut- ting teeth in both jaws, separated by a vacant space from the molars, and such teeth are exclusively des- tined to disintegrate solid bodies by repeated efforts, by nibbling or gnawing; the name of the order has been derived from this circumstance in various lan- guages. The cutting teeth are enamelled only on the anterior surface, so that as the posterior surfaces wear away first, they always preserve a bevelled edge. They grow from the root as rapidly as they wear at the edge, and when an opposing tooth is broken or lost, the other grows so rapidly as to become mon- strous. The lower jaw is articulated by a longitudi- nal condyle, and has no other horizontal movement than from behind forwards and the reverse. The mo- lar teeth have flat crowns, with transverse projections of enamel, in opposition to the horizontal motion of the jaw. Those which have simple lines on the crowns in- stead of projections, and the whole surface of the molars very plane, are more exclusively frugivorous. Those whose teeth have these projections divided into blunt tubercles, are omnivorous; the small number which have points to these teeth, attack other ani- GENERAL HISTORY OF THE BEAVER. 19 mals more readily, and slightly approach carnivorous animals.* Genus XX. Beaver; Castor; L. Gr. K*ccg. Ital. Bevero. Fr. Bievre. Pol. Bobr. Ger. Biber. Swed. Bceffwer. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The head is large, with a short and blunt snout, small ears and eyes, and the upper lip divided. The trunk of the body is thick, having four teats, two near the fore limbs, and two at the posterior part of the chest. The limbs are short, the anterior being somewhat larger than the posterior; all the feet have five short, free and flexible toes, which are webbed, and the posterior toes have the membrane longer and broader. The middle toe is always longest in the fore and hind feet; the thumb and little finger, on the external and internal digits, are the shortest, and equal to each other; the intermediate toes are of middling size and equal in length. All the digits are furnished with strong and slightly incurvated nails, which are fit for burrowing; those on the hind feet are rather the largest. The tail is peculiarly flattened, of an oblong, oval shape, broad and covered at base with thick fur ; the remainder has a covering of scales. * See Cuvier, Regne Animal, p. 186. 20 GENERAL HISTORY, &c. Dental System. , 2 Incisive 10 Upper t g Molar> S 21 \ 8 ft „ Incisive 10 Lower { 8 Molar. In the upper jaw the incisors are flat, smooth and of a very great breadth, arising from the inferior and anterior part of the maxillary bone. The mo- lars differ slightly from each other in size, and ap- pear all to be composed of one internal and three external grooves, which being interrupted by the wearing of the teeth,'at length merely present ellip- tical figures. Many of these external grooves are characterized by enlarging at their extremity. The germs of these teeth show the same number of grooves as we have described from partly worn teeth. In the lower jaw the incisors are similar to those of the upper, and not less remarkable for great size ; they rise far beyond and beneath the molars, be- tween the coronoid process and condyle. The molars present absolutely the same characters, that is, the same figures as those in the opposite jaw; excepting that the three grooves are on the inner side of the tooth, and the external has but one. The germs of these teeth have also the strongest resemblance to the figures which are seen when the teeth are partly worn away. THE BEAVER. 21 Species I.—The Beaver. Castor Fiber; L. Erxl. &c. Le Castor ou le bievre: Briss. Regn. An. p. 133. Le Castor: Buff. viii. pi. 36. Castor Fibre : Sabine, App. p. 659. Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. p. 464. Truth, alike the object and reward of all rational inquiry, is too delicate and unobtrusive to be advan- tageously approached or estimated, unless the men- tal vision be entirely free from prejudice, and her votaries, for the sake of her unostentatious though unfading charms, forego the pride of worshipping the fantastic creatures of their own imaginations. Accessible to all who in the proper disposition seek her presence, how many ages have elapsed during which fiction has been pursued in her stead, till at length opinion gains such strength, and prejudice so deep a root, that the semblance passes into general ac- ceptation for the substance, and what was at first the mere breath of speculation, becomes finally re- ceived and accredited as indubitable. Thankless is the office of the individual who ventures to overturn any of these idols of the mind ;* to displace the illu- sions of fancy by cold reality, and disperse into thin air the fairy world which credulity first called into existence, and indolent imagination per- petuates. It must be confessed that occasionally * "Excrevit autem mirium in modum, istud malum ex opinione quadam sive aestimatione inveterata verum tumida et dainnosa; minui nempe mentis humanae majestatem, si ex- 2-2 Tin: BEAVER this is no pleasant task ; yet it is one of the duties especially incumbent on the teacher of natural his- tory, inasmuch as the exercise of imagination is al- ways prejudicial to the study of nature, the sober reality of which, when correctly examined, possesses an interest far transcending that of all the fugitive beauties bestowed by this deluding faculty of the mind. Who has not heard of the wonderful sagacity of the beaver, or listened to the laboured accounts of its social and rational nature ? Who that has read the impassioned eloquence of Buffon, to which no- thing is wanting but truth in order to render it sub- lime, can forget the impression which his views of the economy and character of this species produced? The enchanter waves his wand and converts animals, congregated by instinct alone, and guided by no moral influence, into social, rational, intelligent be- ings, superior to creatures high above them in organi- zation, and even far more exalted than vast tribes of that race which has been justly and emphatically termed "lords of creation." Alas, for all these air-drawn prospects! while we endeavour to gaze upon their beauties they fleet away and leave no trace behind. perimentis et rebus particularibus sensui subjectis et in ma- teria determinatis diu ac multum versetur; praesertim quum hujusmodi res ad inquirendum laboriosse, ad meditandum ignobiles, ad dicendum asperse, ad practicam illiberales; nu- mero infinitse et subtilitate tenues esse soleant. Itaque jam tandem hue res rediit ut via vera non tantum deserta sed etiam interclusa et obstructa sit; fastidita experientia; nedum relicta, aut male admiuistrata.—Bacon ; Nov. Or "an. THE BEAVER. 23 The injury the mind receives from this source is scarcely to be appreciated, and among others, the false notions we form concerning the relative perfec- tion and excellence of the plan of nature, may be considered as of the first magnitude. The beaver, for instance, is endowed with singular instincts, and performs actions worthy of our admiration; yet the beaver is not more sagacious than the ant or the bee, creatures far removed from it in every respect, nei- ther are its moral qualities better than those of the common rat. Each, according to its instinct, provides for the safety and support of itself and offspring, each obeys the impulse of a power beyond its own control, and each remains through countless genera- tions the same in point of intelligence;—untaught, incapable of teaching, and as well qualified to per- form all the singular actions of its predecessors, if removed at the earliest age from its kind, as if it had grown to maturity in their midst, and aided in their operations from the time its strength became sufiicient to the task. After rejecting the exaggerated facts, as well as the numerous fictions relative to this animal, ample scope will still remain for the exercise of our admi- ration ; for although the beaver is in no respect ex- clusively wonderful, yet its character and habits are such as to render it highly interesting. We shall therefore give a plain, unvarnished statement of facts obtained from the most authentic sources, and after- wards present some sketches of what, although fre- quently repeated in books of acknowledged authori- ty, may be termed the fabulous history of the ani- mal. This will prove serviceable as well as amusing, 24 THE BEAVER. as it will lead the inexperienced to receive wonder- ful narrations of the intelligence, &c. of animals, * with enough of scepticism to prevent them from be- ing betrayed into error. The general aspect of the beaver, at first view, would remind one of a very large rat, and seen at a little distance it might be readily mistaken for the common musk-rat. But the greater size of the bea- ver, the thickness and breadth of its head, and its horizontally flattened,- broad and scaly tail, render it impossible to mistake it for any other creature when closely examined. In its movements, both on shore and in the water, it also closely resembles the musk-rat, having the same quick step, and swimming with great vigour and celerity either on the surface, or in the depths of the water. In a state of captivity or insulation, the beaver is a quiet or rather stupid animal, evincing about as much intelligence as a tamed badger, or any other quadruped which can learn to distinguish its feeder, come when called, or grow familiar with the inmates of the house where it is kept. It is only in a state of nature that the beaver displays any of those sin- gular modes of acting which have so long rendered the species celebrated: these may be summed up in a statement of the manner in which they secure a sufiicient depth of water to prevent it from being frozen to the bottom, and their mode of constructing the huts in which they pass the winter. They are not particular in the site they select for the establishment of their dwellings, but if in a lake or pond where a dam is not required, they are careful to build where the water is sufficientlv THE BEAVER. 25 deep. In standing waters, however, they have not the advantage afforded by a current for the trans- portation of their supplies of wood, which, when they build on a running stream, is always cut higher up than the place of their residence, and floated down. The materials used for the construction of their dams are the trunks and branches of small birch, mulberry, willow, poplar, &c. They begin to cut down their timber for building early in the summer, but their edifices are not commenced until about the middle or latter part of August, and are not com- pleted until the beginning of the cold season. The strength of their teeth and their perseverance in this work, may be fairly estimated by the size of the trees they cut down. Dr Best informs us that he has seen a mulberry tree, eight inches in diameter, which had been gnawed down by the beaver. We were shown, while on the- banks of the Little Miami river, several stumps of trees, which had evidently been felled by these animals, of at least five or six inches in diameter. These are cut in such a manner as to fall into the water, and then floated to- wards the site of the dam or dwellings. Small shrubs, &c. cut at a distance from the water, they drag with their teeth to the stream, and then launch and tow them to the place of deposite. At a short distance above a beaver-dam the number of trees which have been cut down appears truly surprising, and the regularity of the stumps which are left might lead persons unacquainted with the habits of our animal to believe that the clearing was the result of hiiman industry. Vol. II.—D 26 THE BEAVER The figure of the dam varies according to circum- stances. Should the current be very gentle, the dam is carried nearly straight across ; but when the stream is swiftly flowing, it is uniformly made with a con- siderable curve, having the convex part opposed to the current. Along with the trunks and branches of trees they intermingle mud and stones, to give greater security, and when dams have been long un- disturbed and frequently repaired, they acquire great solidity, and their power of resisting the pres- sure of water and ice is greatly increased by the willow, birch, &c. occasionally taking root, and even- tually growing up into something of a regular hedge. The materials used in constructing the dams are secured solely by the resting of the branches, &c. against the bottom, and the subsequent accumulation of mud and stones, by the force of the stream or by the industry of the beavers. In various parts of the western country, where beaVer are at present en- tirely unknown, except by tradition, the dams con- structed by their labours are still standing securely, and in many instances serve instead of bridges to the streams they obstruct. There are few states in the Union in which some remembrance of this animal is not preserved by such names as Beaver-Dam, Beaver-Lake, Beaver-Falls, tyc. The dwellings of the beaver are formed of the same materials as their dams, and are very rude, though strong, and adapted in size to the number of their inhabitants. These are seldom more than four old and six or eight young ones. Double that number have been occasionally found in one of the lodges, though this is by no means a very common occurrence. THE BEAVER. 27 When building their houses, they place most of the wood crosswise and nearly horizontally, observ- ing no other order than that of leaving a cavity in the middle. Branches which project inward are cut off with their teeth and thrown among the rest. The houses are by no means built of sticks first and then plastered, but all the materials, sticks, mud and stones, if the latter can be procured, are mixed up to- gether, and this composition is employed from the foundation to the summit. The mud is obtained from the adjacent banks or bottom of the stream or pond near the door of the hut. Mud and stones the bea- ver always carries by holding them between his fore paws and throat. Their work is all performed at night, and with much expedition. When straw or grass is mingled with the mud used by them in building, it is an accidental circumstance, owing to the nature of the spot whence the latter was taken. As soon as any part of the material is placed where it is intended to remain, they turn round and give it a smart blow with the tail. The same sort of blow is struck by them upon the surface of the water when they are in the act of diving. The outside of the hut is covered or plastered with mud late in the autumn, and after frost has be- gun to appear. By freezing it soon beomes almost as hard as stone, effectually excluding their great enemy, the wolverene, during the winter. Their habit of walking over the work frequently during its progress, has led to the absurd idea of their using the tail as a trowel. The habit of flapping with the tail is retained by them in a state of captivity, and, un- 28 THE BEAVER. less it be in the acts already mentioned, appears de- signed to effect no particular purpose. The houses, when they have stood for some time, and been kept in repair, become so firm from the consolidation of all the materials, as to require great exertion and the use of the ice-chisel or other iron instruments to be broken open. The laborious nature of such an un- dertaking may easily be conceived, when it is known that the tops of the houses are generally from four to six feet thick at the apex of the cone. Hearne relates having seen one instance in which the crown or roof of the hut was more than eight feet in thick- ness. The door or hole leading into the beaver hut is always on the side farthest from the land, and is near the foundation of the house, or at a considerable depth under water. This is the only opening into the hut. The large houses are sometimes found to have projections of the main building thrown out, the better to support the roof, and this circumstance has led to all the stories of the different chambers or apartments in beaver-huts. But these larger edifices, so far from having several apartments, are either double or treble houses, each part having no com- munication with the other, except by water. Up- wards of twelve such dwellings have been seen under one roof, and, excepting two or three of them, the whole of the remainder had no commu- nication unless by water, each having its own door into the dam, which is doubtless well known to the inmates, who may have comparatively little in- tercourse with each other. It is a fact that the THE BEAVER. 29 musk-rat is sometimes found to have taken up his abode in the huts of the beaver; the otter also oc- casionally intrudes his company. The latter ani- mal, however, is a dangerous guest, for, if provi- sion grows scarce, it is not uncommon for him to devour his host. The northern Indians believe that the beaver al- ways thicken the northern walls of their houses much more than the others, in order more effectually to resist the cold. In consequence of this belief, these Indians always break into the huts from the south side. All the beavers of a community do not co-operate in the fabrication of houses for the common use of the whole. Those which are to live together in the same hut, labour together in its construction, and the only affair in which all seem to have a joint in- terest, and upon which they labour in concert, is the dam, as this is designed to keep a sufficient depth of water around all the habitations. In situations where the beaver is frequently dis- turbed and pursued, all its singular habits are relin- quished, and its mode of living changed to suit the nature of circumstances, and this occurs even in dif- ferent parts of the same rivers. Instead of building dams and houses, its only residence is then in the banks of the stream, where it is now forced to make a more extensive excavation, £nd be content to adopt the manners of a musk-rat. More sagacity is dis- played by the beaver in thus accommodating itself to circumstances, than in any other action it performs. Such is the caution which it exercises to guard against detection, that were it not for the removal 30 THE BEAVER. of small trees, the stumps of which indicate the sort of animal by which they have been cut down, the pre- sence of the beaver would not be suspected in the vi- cinity. All excursions for the sake of procuring food are made late at night, and if it pass from one hole to another during the day time, it swims so far under water as not to excite the least suspicion of the pre- sence of such a voyager. On many parts of the Missis- sippi and Missouri, where the beaver formerly built houses according to the mode above described, no such works are at present to be found, although beaver are still to be trapped in those localities. The same circumstances have been remarked of the European beaver, which has been thought to belong to another species, because it does not build. This, however, as may readily be inferred from what we have just stated, is no test of difference of species. . These animals also have excavations in the adja- cent banks, at rather regular distances from each other, which have been called washes. These exca- vations are so enlarged within, that the beaver can raise his head above water in order to breathe with- out being seen, and when disturbed at their huts, they immediately make way under water to these washes for greater security, where they are more readily taken by the hunters, as we shall presently discover. The beaver feeds principally upon the bark of the aspen, willow, birch, poplar, and occasionally the alder, but it rarely resorts to the pine tribe, unless from severe necessity. They provide a stock of wood from the trees mentioned, during the summer season, and place it in the water opposite the entrance to THE BEAVER. 31 their houses. They also depend in a great degree upon the large roots (of the nuphar luteum,) which grow at the bottom of the lakes, ponds and rivers, and may be procured at all seasons. It is remarked that these roots, although they fatten the beaver very much, impart a rank and disagreeable taste to their flesh. The number of young produced by the beaver at a litter is from two to five. Females have been killed in which six young were found, but this oc- curred only in two instances out of many hundreds examined at different stages of gestation.* During the season of union, the voice of both sexes resem- bles a groan, the male having a much hoarser note than the female. The young beavers whine in such a manner as closely to imitate the cry of a child. Like the young of most other animals they are very playful, and their movements are peculiarly inter- esting, as may be seen by the following anecdote, related in the narrative of Capt. Franklin's peril- ous journey to the shores of the Arctic Sea.— "One day a gentleman, long resident in the Hud- son's bay country, espied five young beavers sporting in the water, leaping upon the trunk of a tree, pushing one another off, and playing a thousand interesting tricks. He approached softly, under cover of the bushes, and prepared to fire on the unsuspecting creatures, but a nearer approach dis- covered to him such a similitude betwixt their gestures and the infantile caresses of his own chil- ; Ilearne. 32 THE BEAVER. dren, that he threw aside his gun and left them unmolested." The beaver is a cleanly animal, and always leaves the house to attend to the calls of nature; the excre- ment being light, rises to the top of the water and soon separates and disappears. Thus, however great may be the number of individuals occupying the hut, no accumulation of filth of this kind occurs. The beaver swims to considerable distances under water, but cannot remain for a long time without coming to the surface for air. They are therefore caught with greater ease, as they must either take refuge in their vaults or washes in the bank, or seek their huts again for the sake of getting breath. They usually, when disturbed, fly from the huts to these vaults, which, although not so exposed to observa- tion as their houses, are yet discovered with suffi- cient ease, and allow the occupant to be more readily captured than if he had remained in the ordinary habitation. To capture beavers residing on a small river or creek, the Indians find it necessary to stake the stream across to prevent the animals from escaping, and then they try to ascertain where the vaults or washes in the banks are situated. This can only be done by those who are very experienced in such ex- plorations, and is thus performed:—The hunter is furnished with an ice-chisel lashed to a handle four or five feet in length; with this instrument he strikes against the ice as he goes along the edge of the banks. The sound produced by the blow informs him when he is opposite to one of these vaults. When one is discovered, a hole is cut through the THE BEAVER. 33 ice of sufficient size to admit a full-grown beaver, and the search is continued until as many of the places of retreat are discovered as possible. During the time the most expert hunters are thus occupied, the others with the woman are busy in breaking into the beaver-houses, which, as may be supposed from what has been already stated, is a task of some diffi- culty. The beavers, alarmed at the invasion of their dwelling, take to the water and swim with surprising swiftness to their retreats in the banks, but their en- trance is betrayed to the hunters watching the holes in the ice, by the motion and discolouration of the water. The entrance is instantly closed with stakes of wood, and the beaver, instead of finding shelter in his cave, is made prisoner and destroyed. The hunter then pulls the animal out, if within reach, by the in- troduction of his hand and arm, or by a hook de- signed for this use, fastened to a long handle. Beaver- houses found in lakes or other standing waters offer an easier prey to the hunters, as there is no occasion for staking the water across. Among the Hudson's bay Indians every hunter has the exclusive right to all the beavers caught in the washes discovered by him. Each individual on finding one places some mark, as a pole or the branch of a tree stuck up, in order to know his own. Bea- vers caught in any house are also the property of the discoverer, who takes care to mark his claim, as in the case of the washes.* * Lewis and Clark relate an instance which fell under their observation of one beaver being caught in two traps belonging to different owners, it having one paw in each. The Vol. II.—E 34 THE BEAVER. The number of beavers killed in the northern parts of this country is exceedingly great, even at the present time, after the fur trade has been carried on for so many years, and the most indiscriminate warfare waged uninterruptedly against the species. In the year 1820, sixty thousand beaver skins were sold by the Hudson's bay company, which we can by no means suppose to be the whole number killed dur- ing the preceding season. If to these be added the quantities collected by the traders from the Indians of the Missouri country, we may form some idea of the immense number of these animals which exist throughout the vast regions of the north and west. It is a subject of regret that an animal so valuable and prolific should be hunted in a manner tending so evidently to the extermination of the species, when a little care and management on the part of those interested might prevent unnecessary destruction, and increase the sources of their revenue. The old beavers are frequently killed within a short time of their littering season, and with every such death from three to six are destroyed. The young are often killed before they have attained half their growth and value, and of necessity long before they have contributed to the continuance of their species. In a few years, comparatively speaking, the beaver has been exterminated in all the Atlantic and in the proprietors of the traps were engaged in a contest for the beaver, when the above named distinguished travellers ar- rived and settled the dispute between them by an equitable arrangement. THE BEAVER. 35 western states, as far as the middle and upper waters of the Missouri; while in the Hudson's bay pos- sessions they are becoming annually more scarce, and the race will eventually be extinguished throughout the whole continent. A few individuals may, for a time, elude the immediate violence of persecution, and like the degraded descendants of the aboriginals of our soil, be occasionally exhibited as melancholy mementos of tribes long previously whelmed in the fathomless gulf of avarice. The Indians inhabiting the countries watered by the tributaries of the Missouri and Mississippi, take the beavers principally by trapping, and are gene- rally supplied with steel-traps by the traders, who do not sell, but lend or hire them, in order to keep the Indians dependant upon themselves, and also to lay claim to the furs which they may procure. The name of the trader being stamped on the trap, it is equal to a certificate of enlistment, and indicates, when an Indian carries his furs to another trading estab- lishment, that the individual wishes to avoid the payment of his debts. The business of trapping requires great experience and caution, as the senses of the beaver are very keen, and enable him to de- tect the recent presence of the hunter by the slightest traces. It is necessary that the hands should be washed clean before the trap is handled and baited, and that every precaution should be employed to elude the vigilance of the animal. The bait which is used to entice the beavers is prepared from the substance called castor (casto- reum,) obtained from the glandulous pouches of the 36 THE BEAVER. male* animal, which contain sometimes from two to three ounces. This substance is called by the hun- ters bark-stone, and is squeezed gently into an open mouthed phial. The contents of five or six of these castor bags are mixed with a nutmeg, twelve or fifteen cloves, and thirty grains of cinnamon, in fine powder, and then the whole is stirred up with as much whiskey as will give it the consistency of mustard prepared for the table. This mixture must be kept closely corked up, and in four or five days the odour becomes more powerful; with care it may be preserved for months without injury. Various other strong aromatics are sometimes used to increase the pungency of the odour. Some of this preparation, smeared upon the bits of wood with which the traps are baited, will entice the beaver from a great distance. The castor, whose odour is similar to tanner's ooze, gets the name of fozrA-stone from its resem- blance to finely powdered bark. The sacks contain- ing it are about two inches in length. Behind these, and between the skin and root of the tail, are found two other oval cysts, lying together, which contain a pure strong oil of a rancid smell. During the winter season the beaver becomes very fat, and its flesh is esteemed by the hunters to be excellent food. But those occasionally caught in the summer are very thin, and unfit for the table. They lead so wandering a life at this season, and are so much exhausted by the collection of materials * Juxta preputium utroque latere existunt. THE BEAVER. 37 for building, or the winter's stock of provision, as well as by suckling their young, as to be generally at that time in a very poor condition. Their fur during the summer is of little value, and it is only in winter that it is to be obtained in that state which renders it so desirable to the fur-traders. The different appearances of the fur, caused by age, season, disease, or accident, has at times led in- dividuals to state the existence of several species of beaver in this country. No other species, however, has yet been discovered, but that whose habits we have been describing. Beavers are occasionally found nearly of a pure white, which is owing to the same cause that produces albino varieties of various ani- mals. A specimen of the albino beaver may be seen in the Philadelphia Museum; Hearne saw but one such specimen during a residence of twenty years iu the Hudson's bay country. This was considered a great curiosity, and no other was afterwards pro- cured there during the ten ensuing years, notwith- standing he offered a large reward to the Indians for as many of the same colour as they could pro- cure. The traits of character exhibited by the beaver in captivity are not very strikingly peculiar, though sufficiently interesting. It learns to obey the voice of its master, is pleased to be caressed, and cleanly in its habits. Hearne states that he has kept various individuals about his house during his re- sidence at Hudson's bay, and remarks, " they made not the least dirt, though they were kept in my own sitting room, where they were the constant companions of the Indian women and children, being 38 FABULOUS HISTORY so, fond of their company that when the Indians were absent for any considerable time, the beaver disco- vered great signs of uneasiness, and on their return showed equal marks of pleasure by fondling on them, crawling into their laps, laying themselves on their backs, sitting erect like a squirrel, and behaving to them like children that see their parents but seldom. In general during the winter they lived on the same food as the women did, and were remarkably fond of rice and plumb-pudding. They would eat fresh venison and partridges very freely, but I never tried them with fish, though I have heard they will at times prey on them."* Fabulous History of the Beaver. This part of our subject is richer in materials than any other which comes within the scope of our work. We have in the beginning adverted to the grand * " It is well known that our domestic poultry will eat ani- mal food: thousands of geese that come to London market are fattened on tallow craps, and our horses in Hudson's Bay would not only eat all kinds of animal food, but also drink freely of the wash or pot-liquor intended for the hogs. We are assured by the best authorities, that in Iceland not only black cattle, but also the sheep, are almost entirely fed on fish and fish-bones during the winter season. Even in the isles of Orkney, and that in the summer, the sheep attend the ebbing of the tide as regularly as the Eskimaux curlew, and go down to the shore which the tide has left to feed on the sea-weed. This, however, is through necessity, for even the famous island of Pomona will not afford them an ex- OF THE BEAVER. 39 source of error in this and other departments of natural history, but there is one circumstance pecu- liar to the history of the beaver, which has thrown over it more delusion than in the case of almost any other animal. The fur-traders, Indian interpreters, and Indians themselves, have furnished the greater part of the information which we possess of the habits and manners of this animal. To these per- sons the beaver is a most important object, and re- garded with a degree of admiration and superstition exactly proportioned to their ignorance. Hence they have in numerous instances been led to magnify facts actually observed, and to state their own notions of the sagacity of the animal as realities, not intend- ing to deceive, although they have deceived them- selves. To become acquainted with the peculiarities of a species both nocturnal and exceedingly timid and vigilant, requires years of patient and assiduous attention. It is not surprising, therefore, that per- sons seeking information should resort to those who are devoted to the pursuit of the animal, and re- ceive their statements, given with seriousness and minute detail, as worthy of credit. In addition to the errors which spring from the ignorance of these observers, there is a worse evil to which inquirers are exposed. The traders, hunters, and interpre- istence above high-water-mark."—Hearne, 8vo. p. 245. It must always be borne in mind that observations made on the diet of captive animals, will not at all apply to them when they are free to follow the dictates of nature. It is, however, highly interesting to know how far they can accommodate themselves to necessity. 40 FABULOUS HISTORY ters have, for various reasons, considerable jealousy of all those who are too inquisitive about their peculiar concerns, and it is an occurrence of al- most daily repetition, that when they are ques- tioned on these subjects, they take a malicious plea- sure in palming, with truly Indian gravity and pa- tience, the most false and marvellous relations upon their auditor. This is frequently done with so much art as by no means to outrage probability, and the whole is made to appear so consistent, and is to the eager inquirer so highly interesting, as to prevent him for a moment from supposing that the whole is an extempore fable. We have been informed by an ear witness on one such occasion, that he was astonished to hear a trader giving a long account, full of the most extraordinary and interesting particulars, of the habits of the bea- ver, to an ardent inquirer, who was writing it down with great delight. As soon as the collector of notes on natural history had retired, after listening to the whole story with the most unsuspecting confidence! the other inquired of the trader how it happened that he never had before given this information, which he must have known would have been so very acceptable. The answer to this question was a roar of laughter, and an assurance that there was not a word of truth in the whole statement; but that, having been exceedingly annoyed by the inquisitive- ness of the individual, he had chosen to get rid of him at once by appearing to tell him all he knew. As the reader is already in possession of all the well attested facts to be procured in illustration of its habits and character, we may safely present a few OF THE BEAVER. 4 1 of the marvellous relations which have been hereto- fore given of the beaver, leaving him to separate the great mass of fiction from the few truths with which they may be mingled. We therefore begin with the most ancient of these fictions, and come down to the latest writers who have contributed to the perpetuation of such erroneous views. u The castor, or beaver, when in the rivers, feeds upon shell-fish and such other prey as it can catch. This variety of food is the reason why its hinder parts, to the ribs, have the taste of fish, and that they are eaten upon fast days, and all the rest has the taste of flesh, so that it is not used at other times. "It has pretty large teeth, the under standing out beyond their lips about three fingers breadth; the upper about half a finger, being very broad, crooked, strong and sharp, growing double, very deep in their mouths, bending circular, like the edge of an axe, and are of a yellowish red. They take fishes upon them as if they were hooks, being able to break in pieces the hardest bones. When he bites he never loses his hold until his teeth meet together. The bristles about their mouths are as hard as horns; their bones are solid and without marrow; their fore feet are like a dog's, and their hinder like a swan's. Their tail is covered over with scales, being, like a soal, about six inches broad and ten inches long, which he uses as a rudder to steer with when he swims to catch fish; and though his teeth are so ter- rible, yet when men have seized his tail they can govern the animal as they please. " The beavers make themselves houses of square timber, which they gnaw down with their teeth al- Vol. II.— F 42 FABULOUS HISTORY most as even as if they were sawed, and almost as equal as if it were measured. They lay these pieces across, and each is let down by large notches into the other, so that, having dug a hole for their foun- dation, they build several stories, that they may rise higher or lower, according to the fall of water."* " Amongst the beavers some are accounted mas- ters, some servants. They are cleanly in their houses; for the making of which, they draw the timber on the belly of their ancients, they lying on their backs, "f " While some are engaged in cutting down large trees for the dam, others traverse the vicinity of the river and cut smaller trees, some as thick as one's leg, and others as large as the thigh. They trim these and gnaw them in two at a certain height to make stakes: they bring these pieces first by land to the edge of the stream, and there float them to the dam; they then form a sort of close piling, which is still farther strengthened by interlacing the branches between the stakes. This operation sup- poses many difficulties vanquished; for to prepare these stakes, and place them in a nearly perpendicu- lar situation, they must raise the large end of the stake upon the bank of the river, or against a tree thrown across it, while others at the same time plunge into the water and dig a hole with their fore- feet for the purpose of receiving the point of the stake or pile, in order to sustain it erect. In pro- * Pomet, Hist, of Drugs. t Lemery. OF THE BEAVER. 43 portion as some thus plant the piles, others bring earth, which they temper with their fore-feet and beat with their tails ; they carry it in their mouths and with their fore-feet, and convey so large a quan- tity that they fill all the intervals of the piling. This pile work is composed of several ranges of stakes of equal height, all planted against each other, ex- tending from one side of the river to the other: it is piled and plastered throughout. The piles are planted vertically on the side next the water-fall; the whoe work is sloping on the side sustaining the pressure, so that the dam, which is ten or twelve feet wide at base, is only two or three feet thick at the summit. It has therefore not only all the solidity necessary, but the most convenient form for raising the water, preventing it from escaping, sustaining its weight, and breaking its violence. At the top of the dam, that is at the thinnest part, they make two or three sloped openings for the discharge of the superfluous water, and these are enlarged or closed up as the river swells or diminishes, &c. "It would be superfluous after such an exposition of their public works, to give a detail of their pri- vate edifices, if in a history it were not necessary to relate all the facts, and if this first great work were not done with a view to render their little dwellings more commodious. These dwellings are cabins or rather little houses, built in the water on close piles, near the edges of the pond, having two doors or issues, one on the land and the other on the water side. Sometimes they are found to have two or three stories, the walls being as much as two feet thick, elevated perpendicularly upon the piles which 44 FABULOUS HISTORY serve at the same time for the foundation and floor of the house, &c. The walls are covered with a sort of stucco, so well tempered and so properly applied, that it appears as if it had been done by human hands. Their tail serves them as a trowel for applying this mortar, which they temper with their feet, &c. These retreats are not only very secure, but also very neat and commodious ; the floor is strewed with verdure ; boughs of box and fir serve for a carpet, upon which they never leave the least dirt. The window which looks out upon the water serves them for a balcony for the enjoyment of the air, or to bathe during the greater part of the day. They sit with the head and anterior parts of the body elevated and the posterior plunged in water; the opening issufli- ciently elevated never to be closed by the ice, which, in the climates where the beavers reside, is some- times three feet thick ; they then lower the shelf by cutting the piles upon which it rested aslope, and make an opening into the water below the ice! "The habit which they have of continually re- taining the tail and hinder parts in the water, ap- pears to have changed the nature of their flesh. Thus the fore parts, as far as to the loins, has the quality, taste and consistence of land animals; that of the thighs and tail has the odour, savour, and all the qualities of fish; this tail, a foot long, an inch thick, and five or six broad, is really an extremity, a true portion of a fish attached to the body of a quadruped. "However admirable, or marvellous the state- ments we have made on the labours and society of OF THE BEAVER. 45 the beaver may appear, we dare to say that no one w'ill doubt their reality.* All the relations made by different witnesses, at various times, agree to- gether as to the facts we have related; and if our statement differ from some among them, it is only at points where they have swelled the marvellous, sur- passed the truth, and even transcended probability !f " Beavers are most industrious animals ; nothing equals the art with which they construct their dwell- ings. They choose a small piece of ground with a rivulet running through it. This th«y form into a pond by making a dam across, first by driving into the ground stakes five or six feet long, placed in rows, walling each row with pliant twigs, and filling the interstices with clay, ramming it down close."J "They have a chief or superintendant in their works, who directs the whole. The utmost attention is paid to him by the whole community. Every in- dividual has his task allotted, which they undertake with the utmost alacrity. The overseer gives a sig- nal, by a certain number of smart slaps with his tail, expressive of his orders. The moment the artificers hear it they hasten to the place thus pointed out, and perform the allotted labour, whether it is to carry wood, or draw the clay, or repair any acci- * 0 ! magnus posthac inimicis risus!—Uterne Ad casus dubios fidet sibicertius ? Hor. Serm. lib. ii. t Buffon ed. Sonnini, vol. xxvi. p. 102. X Pennant's History of Quadrupeds. The whole of the ob- servations in that work on the habits of the beaver are trans- cribed from Buffon. 46 FABULOUS HISTORY dental breach. They have also their centinels, who, ti by the same kind of signal, give notice of any appre- jj hended danger. They are said to have a sort of P slavish beaver among them (analogous to the drone)l| which they employ in servile works and domestical drudgery."* " In 1792, Capt. G. Cartwright published a jour- J nal of transactions, &c. on the Labrador coast, where I he had resided nearly sixteen years. In this he ap- 1 prises the reader that his account will appear very different fr^toi what Buffon and others have written on the subject, and begs it may be remembered that they wrote chiefly from hearsay, but what he ad- vances is the result of his own actual observation."! Yet, with a very trifling exception, this actual ob- server repeats all the trash of preceding hearsay- writers, nearly in their own words, only expressing doubts about the tail being used as a trowel, or a sledge upon which they haul stones and clay. The following is his version of Buffon's account of the solitary or hermit beaver:—"Sometimes a single beaver lives by itself, and is then called a hermit or terrier. Whatever may have been the cause which has separated these individuals from society, it is certain that they always have a black mark on the inside of the skin upon their backs, which is called a saddle, and distinguishes them from the others. Cartwright supposes this separation from society may arise from their fidelity and constancy to each other, * Pennant's Arctic Zoology, p. I17, vol. i. t Church's Cabinet of Quadrupeds. / i OF THE BEAVER. 47 J* *' and that, having by some accident lost their mate, | they will not readily pair again. He thinks, like- .' wise, that the mark on the back may proceed from ' the want of a companion to keep that part warm."* * " Three beavers were seen cutting down a large if cotton-wood tree : when they had made considerable progress one of them retired to a short distance and took his station in the water, looking steadfastly at the top of the tree. As soon as he perceived the top of the tree begin to move towards its fall, he gave notice of the danger to his companions, who were still at work, gnawing at its base, by slapping his tail upon the surface of the water, and they im- mediately ran from the tree out of harm's way."f " It is difficult for a traveller to publish his tra- vels without speaking of the beaver, although he should have travelled only in Africa, where there are none. I should wish to avoid repetition, but I have no recollection of what those gentlemen indi- vidually, even Buffon from his closet, have written. I will communicate what I have seen and learned on the spot, respecting this surprising animal. If I say the same that others have said, it will serve to con- * Church, Cab. Quad. Bachelors of the human species have good cause to rejoice that their backs are clothed, if Capt. Cartwright's doctrine holds good throughout, otherwise their forlorn condition would be at once indicated by some- thing like the aforesaid saddle. t Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, vol. i. p. 464. It is but just to state that this is given in that work as a "hunter's story" which is too often synonymous with an English word of three letters. 48 FABULOUS HISTORY. firm you the more in what you already know, if 41 there should be any thing new, you will be obliged to me for adding to your stock of information. "On the west side a small stream enters the lake. The beavers have barricaded the mouth of it, by means of a causeway, which a regiment of engineers could not have made better; the water is thrown back and forms a pond, where they have erected their town. It must he observed that they know that this river is never dry; for otherwise, they would not have chosen it. " The stakes planted in the earth, and the trunks of trees which cross them, are of a considerable thickness and length. It is incredible how this little animal could transport such enormous pieces; but what is most astonishing, they never use trees thrown down by the wind or felled by men, but they make their own selection, and cut those which seem to them best adapted for their buildings. " Whilst five or six of them cut or gnaw with their teeth at the foot of the tree, another remains in the middle of the river, and informs them, either by a whistle, or by a blow with his tail on the water, when he observes the top inclining, in order that, continuing not the less their labour, they may be cautious and remain on their guard. Observe, they never gnaw the tree on the land-side, but always on that next the water, in order that it may certainly fall in that direction. "All the tribes then unite their efforts and float it to the place proposed. Then, with their teeth, they sharpen the stake, with their claws they make deep holes in the earth, and with their paws they OF THE BEAVER. 49 plant and drive it in. They place branches of trees crossways against these stakes, they then fill up the interstices with mortar, which some prepare, while others are cutting the trees, or are occupied with other labours,—for the tasks are so distributed that none remain idle. This mortar becomes harder and more solid than the celebrated cement known among the Romans. " When the causeway is completed and they have tried it, in order to know if it answers their pur- poses, they work out at the lower part of it an opening, in the nature of a sluice, which they open and shut at need, in order to let the river flow again; they then begin to build their house in the midst of the ground destined to form the pond. They never build the house before the causeway, lest this last should not succeed according to their wishes, and they should thus lose their time and trouble. "Their house, built likewise of wood, and plaster- ed, is of two stories, and double. It is long in pro- portion to the number of the tribe which are to in- habit it. "The first story serves them in common as a magazine for provisions, and is under the water; the second is above, and serves them for lodging- rooms, where each family has its apartment. "Under the foundation of the house they work out a number of passages, by means of which they enter and go out under ground, without being perceived even by the most vigilant Indian; these open at some distance from the house, and at that part which forms the pond, or at the lakes or rivers, near which they Vol. II.—G 50 FABULOUS HISTORY commonly establish themselves, in order to have the choice of taking that direction which may be most convenient to them, or least dangerous in the differ- ent incidents of their life. The beavers are divided into tribes, and some- times into small bands only, of which each has its chief, and order and discipline reign there, much more, perhaps, than among the Indians, or even among civilized nations. " Their magazines are invariably provisioned in summer, and no one touches them before the scarcity of winter is felt, unless extraordinary circumstances render it absolutely necessary, but never in any case does any one enter except by the authority and in the presence of the chief. Their food consists in gene- ral of the bark of trees, principally that of willow, and of all the trees which belong to the poplarfamily. Sometimes when bark is not found in sufficient quan- tity, they collect the wood, and in this case they cut it into bits with their teeth. il Each tribe has its territory. If any stranger is caught trespassing, he is brought before the chief, who for the first offence punishes him ad correctionem, and for the second deprives him of his tail, which is the greatest misfortune that can happen to a beaver, for their tail is their cart, upon which they transport, wherever it is desired, mortar, stones, pro- visions, &c. and it is also the trowel, which it exactly resembles in shape, used by them in building. This infraction of the laws of nations is considered among them as so great an outrage, that the whole tribe of the mutilated beaver side with him, and set off im- mediately to take vengeance for it. OF THE BEAVER. 51 " In this contest the victorious party, using the rights of war, drives the vanquished from their quarters, takes possession of them, and places a pro- visional garrison, and finally establishes there a co- lony of young beavers. With respect to this point, another particularity of these admirable animals will not appear less astonishing. " The female of the beaver produces her young usually in the month of April, and has as many as four. She nourishes them, and carefully instructs them during a year, that is to say, until the family is about to have another increase, and then these young beavers, obliged to give place, build a new dwelling by the side of the paternal mansion, if they are not very numerous, otherwise they are obli- ged to go with others in order to form elsewhere a new tribe and a new establishment. If then, at this time, the enemy is driven from his quarters, the vic- tors, if their young of that year are arrived at the period of emancipation, (that is to say of governing themselves) instal them there. The Indians have re- lated to me in a positive manner another trait of these animals, but it is so extraordinary that I leave you at liberty to believe or reject it. They assert, and there are some who profess to have been ocular witnesses, that the two chiefs of two belligerent tribes sometimes terminate the quarrel by single combat, in the pre- sence of the two hostile armies, like the people of Medieve, or three against three, like the Horatii and Curiatii of antiquity. Beavers marry, and death alone separates them. They punish infidelity in the females severely, even with death. "When they are sick, they are carefully nursed. 52 FABULOUS HISTORY The sick have also their plaintive cries, like human beings. The Indians hunt them in the same manner in which, as you have seen in our sixth promenade, they hunt the musk-rat. The musk-rat is a beaver of the second degree. He has the same form in miniature, and many of his qualities, although his fur is inferior in beauty and fineness. The Indians, moreover, in winter make holes in the ice which cover the ponds surrounding the houses of the bea- ver, watch for the moment when they put out their heads to take the air, and shoot them. " The Great Hare at Red Lake wished to make me believe that, having come to the spot where two tribes of beaver had just been engaged in battle, he found about fifteen dead or dying on the field ; and other Indians, Sioux and Chippeways, have also assur- ed me that they have obtained valuable booty in simi- lar circumstances. It is a fact that they sometimes take them without tails. I have seen such myself. In fine, these animals are so extraordinary, even in the eyes of the Indians themselves, that they suppose them men, become beavers by transmigration, and they think in killing them to do them a great service, for they say they restore them to their original state."* We may advantageously conclude the fabulous history of the beaver by introducing the judici- ous observations made on the subject by Hearne, whose excellent remarks on this animal have been, hitherto, altogether overlooked. * Beltrami; La Decouverte des Sources du Mississippi, &c. 1825. OF THE BEAVER. 53 " I cannot refrain from smiling when I read the accounts of different authors who have written on the economy of these animals, as there seems to be a contest between them who shall most exceed in fiction. But the compiler of the Wonders of Nature and Art seems in my opinion to have succeeded best in this respect, as he has not only collected all the fictions into which other writers on this subject have run, but has so greatly improved on them, that little remains to be added to his account of the beaver, besides a vocabulary of their language, a code of their laws, and a sketch of their religion, to make it the most complete natural history of that animal which can possibly be offered to the public. " There cannot be a greater imposition, or indeed a grosser insult on common understanding, than the wish to make us believe the stories of some of the works ascribed to the beaver; and though it is not to be supposed that the compiler of a general work can be intimately acquainted with every subject of which it may be necessary to treat, yet a very moderate share of understanding would be sufficient to guard him against giving credit to such marvellous tales, however smoothly they may be told, or however boldly they may be asserted by the romancing tra- veller."* Most of the wonders related of the beaver are to be found in Gesner's work, De Quadrupedibus, which contains a collection of all the statements made an- terior to this time. These extravagances will be found, with slight variations, repeated down to the * Octavo ed. 1796, p. 231. 54 FABULOUS HISTORY, &c. present day, by Buffon and his successors. We sub- join a few of these, which it is unnecessary to trans- late, as specimens of the close repetition indulged in by various writers, who should have drawn more largely upon nature instead of aiding in the diffusion of fictions and error. " Morsu potentissimum adeo ut cum hominem in- vadit, conventum dentium non prius laxet quam con- crepuise persenserit ossafracta: Plin. et Solin. Apud Gesnerum. "Gaudentenim, ripis raagnorum fluvium cum ani- mal sit amphibium, non solum ut reliqua quibus hoc nomen tribuitur quae victus tantum gratia aquas petunt, sed etiam quadam natura affinitate, ut jam in caudae et pedum posteriorum mentione diximus quae ad piscium naturam accedunt. " Castores gregatim ad sylvas lignatum pergunt imponunt autem ligna super ventrem resupinati unius qui pro vehiculo sit et inter crura ejusartificiose com- ponunt: qui ne delabantur compressis ea cruribus ante et retro stringit; hunc sic onustum cseteri cauda ad casas usque pertrahunt. Hanc injuriam fieri ne- gant nisi peregrino castori qui aliunde ad eos con- fugerit aut fortuito pervenerit ad castores loci alicu- jus incolas: ilium enim hoc pacto in servitutem ab eis redigi. Alii non peregrino sed natu grandi et laboribus confecto qui propter dentes obtusos lignis secandis ineptus jam sit, hoc fieri aiunt. Ita tractati castores in dorso glabrescunt, quo signo a venatoribus agniti illsesi interdum dimittuntur. "Falsum est quodagitatus a venatore castret seip- sum dentibus ac testes projici at et postea si ab alio venatore urgeatur erecto corpore, castratum se os- THE BEAVER. 55 tendat, ut saepe in regionibus nostris compertum est."—Alb. Mag* Description of the Beaver. The beaver is about two feet in length, having a thick and heavy body, especially at its hinder part. The head is compressed and somewhat arched at the front, the upper part being rather narrow, and the snout, at the extremity, quite so; the neck is very short and thick. The eyes are situated rather high up on the head, and have rounded pupils; the ears are short, elliptical, and almost entirely concealed by the fur. The whole skin is covered by two sorts of hair; one which is long, rather stiff, elastic, and of a gray colour for two-thirds of its length next the base, and terminated by shining, reddish, brown points, giving the general colour to the pelage; the other is short, very fine, thick, tufted and soft, being of different shades of silver gray or light lead co- lour. On the head and feet the hair is shorter than elsewhere. The tail, which is ten or eleven inches long, is covered with hair similar to that of the back, for about one-third of its length nearest the base, the rest of it is covered by hexagonal scales, which are not imbricated.f * " Imitatus castora, qui se Eunuchum ipse facit, cupiens evadere damno testiculorum. Juvenalis, xii. liv. xxxiv. t When the beaver sits erect upon its hinder limbs, as in the act of conveying his food to the mouth with his fore 56 THE BEAVER. The only species of beaver known is the one we have described; all the others which have been no- ticed are varieties of this species. During the first year of their lives, the beavers are termed pappooses by the hunters; when two years old, small meddlers; at three years of age, large meddlers. In their fourth year they are called beavers, and after that old or great beavers.* paws, like the squirrel, the tail is doubled under, or thrown forwards, lying between the legs. Castoris penis modo profecto singulari ab ano, copulandi gratia protensus est; dehinc inter ista, et monotremata, sive animalia unico communi que foramine prasdita, similitudo. * It was our intention to have concluded the account of the beaver, by presenting a sketch of the history of the Ame- rican fur trade, so intimately connected with this animal. But the difficulty of collecting the necessary data is so great, and our inquiries thus far have been so unproductive of satis- faction, that we are reluctantly obliged to defer our observa- tions on this interesting subject until a future period. CHAPTER III. Genus XXI. Musk-Rat; Fiber; III. Germ. Zibethratze: Bisambiber; u. s. f. Fr. Rat Musque. Swed. Desmansrotta. Eng. Musk-Beaver. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The head is rather long and blunt at the snout,- with eyes of a moderate size arid short ears. The limbs are short, the anterior having four toes, not united, but bordered by a membranous edging some- what fringed. All the toes are furnished with in- curvated nails of moderate size. The tail is long, compressed, or flattened vertically, covered with a naked granulous integument, with a few hairs inter- spersed. The teats, which are six in number, are placed on the belly. A peculiar matter, having a strong musky odour, is secreted by glands situated in the pubic regions. Dental System, 2 Incisive 2 Incisive 6 Molar. The teeth of this genus do not differ from those of the Campagnole Arvicola ; Lacep. hereafter to be described, except in having distinct roots, and in Vol. II.—H 58 THE MUSK-RAT. the lower jaw the first molar having two triangles, one on each side, more than the Arvicolse. Species l.—Musk-Rat. Fiber Zibethicus. Rat Musque du Canada: Briss. Reg. An. p. 136. Castor Zibethicus : L. Erxl. Bod. Mus Zibethieus: Gmel. Ondatra : Buff. x. pi. i. Ondatra Zibethicus: Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains. Fiber Zibethicm: Sab. App. p. 659. Musquash of the Traders and Indians. The musk-rat, which is so closely allied in form and habits to the beaver, does not, like that timid animal, retire from the vicinities inhabited by man, but, relying on its peculiar instinct for concealment, remains secure, notwithstanding the changes induced by cultivation, and multiplies its species in the very midst of its enemies. Thus, while the beaver has long since entirely disappeared and become forgotten in the Atlantic states, the musk-rat is found within a very short distance of our largest and oldest cities,* and bids fair to maintain its place in such situations during an indefinite future period. The musk-rat owes this security to its nocturnal and aquatic mode of life, as well as to the peculiar mode in which its domicile is constructed. Along small streams, mill-races and ponds, where the banks * Within a mile of Philadelphia, on every side, this animal may be found, along the banks of all the streams emptying into the Delaware and Schuylkill. THE MUSK-RAT. 59 are of some elevation and strength, the musk-rats form large and extensive burrows. These have the entrance always in the deep water, so as to be en- tered or left without betraying the presence of the animal. The mouth of the burrow ascends from its commencement near the bottom, and slopes upwards until it is above the level of the high water. The burrow then extends to great distances, according to the numbers or necessities of the occupants. Like most other animals residing in such burrows, they fre- quently excavate them beneath the roots of large trees, where they are perfectly secure from being dis- turbed by having their burrow broken into from above. The injuries done by the musk-rat to the banks thrown up to exclude the tide from meadows and other grounds, are frequently very extensive. The tide encroaches more and more on the burrow as the soil softens and is washed away; the animals extend their excavations in various directions, in order to free themselves from the inconvenience of the water, and at length, from the co-operation of both causes, the bank caves in and the water is allowed free ac- cess, often laying waste the most valuable parts of the farm. To understand the extent to which such mischief may be carried, it is sufiicient to take a walk along the banks thrown up to protect the mea- dows on the Delaware, on both sides of the river. Similar, though not as extensive injury, is produced along the borders of ponds, races and small streams, by the caving in of the burrows formerly tenanted by the musk-rat. Where musk-rats frequent low and marshy situa- 60 THE MUSK-RAT. tions, they build houses, which, in form and general appearance, resemble those made by the beaver. These edifices are round, and covered at top in form of a dome, and are built of reeds, flags, &c. mingled with mud. Instead of one place of entrance and exit there are several subterraneous passages, leading in different directions, and as these are extensive, the musk-rats when disturbed take refuge in them. Numerous individuals, composing several families, live together during the winter season; but, in the warm weather, the house is entirely deserted; and the musk-rats live in pairs and rear their young, of which they have from three to six at a litter. The musk-rat builds in a comparatively dry situa- tion, at least not in a stream or pond of water, but in the marsh or swamp. He requires no dam, and does not, like the beaver, lay up a stock of winter provision, neither does he erect so strong and dura- ble a dwelling, as it is not to be repaired, but desert- ed for a new one the following season. Speaking of the musk-rat, as observed by him in the Hudson's Bay country, Hearne remarks, that "instead of making their houses on the banks of ponds or swamps, like the beaver, they build on the ice, as soon as it is skinned over, and at a considera- ble distance from the shore, always taking care to keep a hole open in the ice to admit them to dive for their food, which consists chiefly of the roots of grass. The materials made use of in building their houses are mud and grass, which they bring up from the bottom. It sometimes happens in very cold win- ters that the holes in their houses freeze over, in spite of all their efforts to keep them open. When THE MUSK-RAT. gj that is the case, and they have no provision left in the house, the strongest prey upon the weakest, till by degrees only one is left in a whole lodge. I have seen several instances sufiicient to confirm the truth of this assertion: for when their houses were broke open, the skeletons of seven or eight have been found and only one entire animal. Though I have before said that they generally build their houses on the ice, it is not always the case: for in the southern parts of the country, particularly about Cumberland House, I have seen, in some of the deep swamps that were over-run with rushes and long grass, many small islands that have been raised by the industry of those animals, on the tops of which they had built their houses like the beaver, some of which were very large. The tops of these houses are fa- vourite breeding places for the geese, which bring forth their young broo.d there without the fear of being molested by foxes, or any other destructive animal, except the eagle." The musk-rat feeds upon the roots, &c. of aquatic plants, and is especially fond of the acorus verus, or calamus aromaticus, which grows abundantly in most of the marshy vicinities inhabited by the musk- rat. It has been imagined that this animal feeds also upon fish, merely from its habit of living much in the water. There is the same reason for believ- ing that the beaver is piscivorous, an opinion which the structure of the teeth, stomach and intestines of both animals, sufficiently contradict. The musk-rat is an excellent swimmer, dives well, and remains for a considerable time under water. It is rare to have an opportunity of seeing the animal 62 THE MUSK-RAT. during the day time, as it lies concealed in its bur- row, but by watching during moonlight nights, in situations not much frequented by human visitors, the musk-rat may be seen swimming in various di- rections, and coming on shore for the sake of seek- ing food, or for recreation. The musk-rat has its nose thick and blunt at the end, and short ears, nearly concealed in fur. Its body and head very much resemble those of the beaver, but differ from it in colour, being a reddish brown. The belly and breast are ash colour, mingled slightly with ferruginous. The feet and tail of the musk-rat are also remarkably different from those of the bea- ver ; all the toes are free and unconnected. On the hinder, instead of a web uniting the toes, there is a stiff fringe of bristly hair, closely set and projecting from the sides of the toes. The tail is thin at the edges, compressed so as to be vertically flattened, covered with small scales, having a slight intermix- ture of hair, and is about nine inches long, being nearly of the length of the body, which measures about twelve inches from the end of. the nose to the root of the tail. The powerful odour of musk renders the flesh of the musk-rat of little value, and few can eat it. The skin is highly valued on account of the fineness of its fur.* * " The musk-rat is never seen in Carolina, Georgia, or Florida, within one hundred miles of the sea coast, and very few in the most northern parts of these regions; which must be considered as a most favourable circumstance by the peo- ple in countries where there is so much banking and drain- ing of the land, they being the most destructive creatures to dykes."—Bartram's Travels, p. 281. CHAPTER IV. Genus XXII. Field-Mouse ; Arvicola; Lacep. Germ. Feldmaus: Heerdenmaus ; u. s. f. Fr. Campagnol: Rat des champs. ltal. Topo Terrajuolo : Campagnuolo. Swed. Molle. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The animals belonging to this genus are in general appearance very similar to the common rat, have a ru- diment of a thumb on the anterior feet, and the toes of these feet armed with slender nails. The posterior feet have five toes, provided with nails, and destitute of connecting membrane, or fringing of hairs on their edges. The teats, which vary in number from eight to twelve, are situated on the chest and belly. The tail is nearly of the length of the body, round, and covered by a yelvet-like tegument. Dental System. •£ ( o it ^2 Incisive | V 8 Upper |6Molars. H J 0 T ^2 Incisive ^8 Lower |6Molarg. This system Of dentition is composed of small tri- angles, surrounded by enamel, and disposed alternate- ly on each side of a common axis, so that there is a 64 THE FIELD-MOUSE. triangular vacancy between each of them, that forms a deep groove on the outside of the tooth. In the upper jaw the incisors are even, and slight- ly rounded on their anterior surface. The first molar is composed of five triangles,—one anterior, two ex- ternal, and two internal, and these correspond to the interval left between the others, so that they are closer than those of the anterior triangle. The se- cond is composed of four triangles, one anterior, two external, and two on the inner side, corresponding to the vacant spaces which separate the two others. The third is composed also of four triangles, one an- terior, one external, one internal, and one posterior; the latter is irregular, being narrow, elongated, and the lines forming it sinuous. These three teeth di- minish gradually in size, from the first to the last. In the lower jaw the forms of the teeth are the same as in the upper: the incisors are even, and slightly rounded on the anterior surface. The first molar has five angles, or rather^ five divisions; the first is in form of a trefoil, then come two small in- ternal triangles, an external and a posterior larger than the middle ones. The second is also composed of five triangles: one small anterior, two internal, one exterior and one posterior. The third appears to have only three or four triangles, placed nearly one behind the other, and joined by their angles. THE MEADOW-MOUSE. 65 Species I.— The Meadow-Mouse. Arvicola Xanthognatus; Leach. Arvicola Xanthognatus: Sabine, App. p. 660. Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. 369. Campagnol aux joues fauves: Desm. Mammal, p. 282. Were we to confine our attention to an individual of this species, its diminutive size, delicacy of limbs and evident feebleness, might lead us to consider it as altogether insignificant, and equally incapable of benefiting or injuring mankind. In this, as in vari- ous analogous instances, nature has compensated for individual feebleness by numerical force, and endow- ed this species with a fecundity which not only pre- serves it amidst numerous vigilant and destructive enemies, but enables it to multiply so extensively as to become a severe tax, and occasionally a scourge to the farmers. The meadow-mouse is found in various degrees of abundance throughout this country, and, as implied by its name, prefers the meadow and grass fields to other situations. The banks of drains, and those thrown up to keep off the tide, or overflow of streams, are the favourite places of their burrows, which are both numerous and extensive, being continued in various directions and to considerable depths. These burrows are frequently causes of injury similar to that resulting from those of the musk-rat, the tide gradually enlarging the cavities, and the bank final- ly falling in, until a fair breach is made, through which the grounds are injuriously inundated. Vol II.—I 66 THE MEADOW-MOUSE. During the temperate and warm seasons of the year, the meadow-mice spend the greater part of their time above ground, travelling about through little lanes and alleys among the grass. These small roads are so frequently travelled, that after the hay- harvest, when they are left exposed, they have some- thing of the appearance of little burrows among the grass-roots. At the season of the first hay-harvest their nests are found in great numbers on the surface of the ground. These are made very similar to a small bird's nest, of soft grass, and generally contain six or eight young ones. Recollecting that this species breeds more than once a year, we shall find no diffi- culty in understanding how the meadow-mice may become very injurious by excessive multiplication, nowithstanding their defenceless condition and nu- merous enemies. Besides being preyed upon by owls, hawks, cats, &c. the country people are very vigilant in putting them to death, and the hay-makers consider mouse-hunting as one of the most enlivening circumstances connected with their labours. Thus far the mischief of which the species is no- toriously guilty, appears not to be compensated by any peculiar good quality ; but although we are una- ble to state the precise degree of service rendered, the fact of its existence is sufiicient evidence of im- portance in the great scale of creation, whatever diffi- culty there may be in discovering or acknowledging it. No doubt this, among other species, was des- tined to limit the undue increase of the vegetable kingdom; various other creatures in an analogous manner subsist by the destruction of meadow-mice, while the great destroyer man seems to be the last THE MARSH CAMPAGNOL. * 67 in the chain of destructiveness, since he is not only in the habit of extinguishing vegetable and brute animal life, but of extending his ravages to his own kind. The general colour of this species is a reddish yellow, mingled with black on the upper part of the body, and a clear cinereous gray beneath. The sides of the head are fulvous; the tail is black above and white beneath; the paws are brownish on their supe- rior surface, and white beneath. Its length, including the tail, is about five inches. Species II.—The Marsh Campagnol. Arvicola Riparius; Ord. Arvicola Riparius: Ord. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, iv. part ii. p. 305. This species, like the preceding, makes its burrows in the meadow banks, and resembles it in various other respects. All that we know of it is derived from the account given by Mr Ord, in the work above quoted. " This species (says he) is fond of the seeds of the wild-oats {zizania aquatica,) and is found in the autumn in those fresh water marshes which are fre- quented by the common rail, (Gallinula Carolina, Lath.). When the tide is high the animal may be observed sitting upon the fallen reeds, patiently waiting for the recession of the water. From its position when at rest it has much the appearance of a lump of mud, and is commonly mistaken for such 68 ' THE COTTON-RAT. by those who are unacquainted with its habits. It swims and dives well." The head of the marsh campagnol is large, with a thick obtuse snout,—having small eyes and short roundish ears, nearly concealed by the hair on the cheeks. The fore legs are very short; the posterior parts of the body are more slender and weaker than the anterior. The tail is thinly covered with hair, and tufted or penciled at tip, and is longest in the male. The upper parts of the body are of a tawny brown colour mixed with black, the lower parts of an ash or gray colour. The female has four pecto- ral and four abdominal teats, and brings forth eight young at a litter. Species III.—The Cotton-Rat, or Hairy Cam- pagnol. Arvicola Hispidus j Ord. SUgmodon Hispidum: Say & Ord, Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, iv. part ii. p. 354. This animal was discovered in East Florida in the year 1818, by Mr Ord, whose description was not published until 1825. He found its burrows in the deserted plantations lying on the river St Johns, East Florida, especially in the gardens, where they are seen in every direction. It is highly probable^ he thinks, that this animal will be found a source of much injury and vexation to the future settlers of that country. THE WOOD-RAT. 69 The head of the hairy campagnol is thick, and the snout elongated, having eyes of considerable size, and large round ears ; the tail is nearly as long as the body. The ears are slightly covered with hairs ; the fore legs are short; the hind feet are large and strong, with short lateral toes and stout claws. The upper parts of the body and head are of a pale, dirty yel- low ochre colour, mixed with black ; the lower parts are cinereous. On the upper parts of the body and sides the hair is long, plentiful and coarse. The animal is six inches long from the tip of the snout to the insertion of the tail, which is four inches long. In the adult animal yellow is the predominant colour; the young are generally black.* The cotton-rat obtains its name from the circum- stance of making its nest with cotton, which it col- lects for the purpose in large quantities; the nest is generally placed within a hollow log, or else in a chamber at the extremity of a burrow. Species IV.—The Wood-Rat. Arvicola Floridanus; Ord. The Wood-Rat: Bartram, Travels in East Florida, p. 124. Mus Floridanus: Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. p. 54. JVeotoma Floridana: Say and Ord, Journ. of the Acad, of Nat. Sciences, iv. part ii. p. 352. This beautiful animal was once thought to be pe- culiar to Florida, and received its scientific name from that circumstance. But it is now highly pro- * See note at the end of the next species. 70 THE WOOD-RA1 bable that it is to be found throughout this country in certain situations; by Say it was obtained on the Missouri. From all that we can learn relative to this ani- mal, it is of a gentle, timid disposition; harmless in its manners and inoffensive in its mode of living. Far from having any of that peculiar cunning and distrustful air that is so remarkable in the common rat, it shows few signs of fear when approached, and allows itself to be made prisoner or killed without difficulty. They burrow under stones and among the ruins of buildings, and feed on vegetable sub- stances. They construct their nests with large quan- tities of brush and rubbish. The wood campagnol is about sixteen inches long, including the tail, which measures seven inches. The head gradually diminishes in size from the ears to the snout, and is of a lead colour intermingled with gray. Its ears are nine-tenths of an inch long, rounded, prominent and open, having but few hairs on their back part and on the margin within. The eyes are of a moderate size and prominent; the whis- kers are arranged in six longitudinal series, the longest of them surpassing the tips of the ears. The tail is hairy and brown above; the legs are stout and of nearly equal length, with white feet, having the toes annulated beneath, and the nails concealed by the hair. The thumb is minute, and the palms of the fore feet have five tuberculous prominences; in the soles of the hind feet there are six tubercles, of which the three posterior are distant from each other. " The wood-rat (says Bartram,) is a very curious THE WOOD-RAT. 71 animal; they are not half the size of the domestic rat, and of a dark brown or black colour ; their tail slender and shorter in proportion, and covered thinly with short hair. They are singular with respect to their ingenuity and great labour in the construction of their habitations, which are conical pyramids about three or four feet high, constructed with dry branches, which they collect with great labour and perseverance, and pile up without any apparent or- der, yet they are so interwoven with one another, that it would take a bear or wild cat some time to pull one of these castles to pieces, and allow the ani- mals sufiicient time to secure a retreat with their young."* The wood-rat has, beyond doubt, been as common throughout this country at a former period, as it is at present in Florida and on the Missouri.f It has very universally given place to the black-rat, and both have disappeared before the Norway rat, as we * Page 125. t "In turning over some of the baggage we caught a rat somewhat larger than the common European rat, and of a lighter colour; the body and outer part of the legs as well as the belly, feet and ears, are white ; the ears are not covered with hair, and' are much larger than those of the common rat; the toes are also longer; their eyes black and prominent; the whiskers very long and full; the tail rather longer than the body, and covered with fine fur and hair, of the same size with that on the back, which is very close, short and silky in its texture. This was the first we had met, although its nests are frequent among the clifts of rocks and hollow trees, where we also found large quantities of the shells and seeds of the prickly pear, on which we conclude they chiefly sub- sist."— Lewis and Clarke, i. p. 289. 72 THE WOOD-RAT. shall soon have occasion to state. The wood-rat soon learns to infest the houses of the settlers, and to do nearly if not quite as much mischief as the common rat. It is highly probable that some of these rats still remain in the remote and barren parts of the Atlantic states, or in situations analogous to those occupied by this species in the southern and western country.* * In the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, (vol. iv. part ii. p. 345, 352,) Messrs Say and Ord propose to establish two new genera for the reception of this and the preceding species, under the names of Sigmodon and Neoto- ma, in consequence of the differences they have observed in the dentition of these animals. These differences are the following:—In the hairy campagnol {arvicola hispidus*) " the different arrangement of the folds of the enamel, and the circumstance of the molars being divided into radicles, cer- tainly exclude it from the genus arvicola." In relation to the wood-rat {arvicola Floridanus}) they remark, " that the grinding surface of the molars differs somewhat from that of the molars of the genus arvicola, but the large roots of the grinders constitute a character essentially different.'' With due deference to the opinion of our respected friends, we are decidedly of an opposite belief. This variation of dental arrangement may be sufficient to indicate modifica- tions or differences in the regimen or feeding, of these ani- mals, but cannot of themselves suffice to establish generic distinctions, when the external characters and habits of the animals are so strikingly similar to the genus arvicola. The wood-rat certainly is closely related to the genus mus, and • Sigmodon Hispidum of Say and Ord. t Neotoma Floridana of Say and Ord. We have, as in all similar in- stances, referred the species to the original proprietors or describes, notwithstanding the changes produced by arranging then under other genera. CHAPTER V. Genus XXIII.—Lemming; Lemmus; Link, Cuv. This genus is closely allied to the preceding, and differs from it principally in the conformation of the fore feet and the shortness of the tail. The fore feet are five toed in some instances, and four toed in others, being provided with nails fit for burrowing; the hind feet are five toed. The tail is not very acute at its extremity, is shorter than the body, and covered by a velvety integument. The dental system is the same as that of the genus Arvicola. Species I.—The Hudson's Bay Lemming. Lemmus Hudsonius. Lemmus Hudsonius: Sabine, App. p. 661. Mus Hudsonius,- Pallas, Glires, p. 208, pi. 26. Rat de Labrador: Encycl. pi. 69, fig. 6. Lemming de la Baie d'Hudson: Desm. Mammal, p. 2S9. The Hair Tailed Mouse: Hearne, 8vo. ed. p. 385. The Hudson's Bay Lemming is covered by a very fine, soft and long hair, which is of an ash colour, might with great propriety be considered as a distinct sub- genus of arvicola, as Say and Ord suggest that some natu- ralists may consider it. The arrangement proposed by them Vol. II.—K 74 THE HUDSON'S BAY LEMMING. with a tinge of tawny on the back, having along its middle a dusky stripe, and on each side a pale tawny line. The limbs are quite short, and the fore feet being formed for burrowing, are very strong. The two middle claws of the male, which are compressed, thick and strong, appear to be bifid or double, be- cause the skin of these toes is callous, and projects from beneath the nail. The mode of life peculiar to this species is but little known; the Lapland lemming is very notori- ous for its extensive migrations, but nothing of the same kind has been observed of the Hudson's Bay species. "The hair-tailed mouse (says Hearne) is the largest in the northern parts of the bay, being little inferior in size to a common rat. They always bur- row under stones on dry ridges, are very inoffensive, and so easily tamed, that, if taken when full grown, some of them will in a day or two be perfectly re- conciled^ and are so fond of being handled that they will creep about your neck or into your bosom. In summer they are gray, and in winter change to white, but are by no means so beautiful as a white ermine. At that season they are infested with multitudes of small lice, not a sixth part so large as the mites in a cheese; in fact, they are so small that at first sight they only appear like reddish brown dust, but; on closer examination are all perceived in motion. In we esteem to be in the highest degree artificial, unnatural, and by consequence unnecessary, and therefore not to be adopted; at least in a work in which nature and useful- ness are the supreme objects of regard. THE HUDSON'S BAY LEMMING. 75 one large and beautiful animal of this kind, caught in the depth of winter, I found those little vermin so numerous about it, that almost every hair was co- vered with them as thick as ropes with onions, and when they approached near the ends of the hair they may be said to change the mouse from white to a faint brown. At that time I had an excellent mi- croscope, and endeavoured to examine them, and to ascertain their form, but the weather was so exceed- ingly cold that the glasses became damp with the moisture of my breath before I could get a single sight. The hind feet of these mice are exactly like those of a bear, and the fore feet are armed with a horny substance,* (that I never saw in any other species of the mouse,) which is wonderfully adapted for scraping away the ground where they wish to take up their abode. They are plentiful on some of the stony ridges near Churchill factory, .but never approach the house or any of the out-offices. From appearances they are very local, and seldom stray far from their habitations, even in summer, and in win- ter they are seldom seen on the surface of the snow__ a great proof of their being provident in summer to lay up a stock for that season.f" * The description given of this " horny substance," which is a mere induration of the cuticle covering the palms, and caused by the act of scraping among the stones, &c. sufficiently indicates the species. t " I observed with astonishment long ridges of mouse- dung, several inches deep, extending for above two miles. By what means this could have arrived here I was at a loss to conceive, as I did not see any mouse-holes or other traces of these animals; besides which they lire in stony dry CHAPTER VI. Genus XXIV. Rat; Mus; L. generic characters. The head is conical, more or less short, having a pointed snout, rather large eyes, and almost naked ears. There are no cheek pouches; the neck is short and the body thick, having from ten to twelve teats, part situated upon the chest, and part upon the belly. The toes are free, or unconnected by membrane, and provided with hooked nails. The anterior feet have four digits and a rudimental thumb, covered by a blunt nail.. The tail is naked, scaly and tapering; the body is covered by long, stiff hairs, intermingled with a close fine fur. Dental System. In the upper jaw the incisors are smooth and flat, and rise from the sides of the anterior part of places, and this was a swamp. It is possible, however, that thi9 accumulation of the excrements of mice may be from the mus {Lemmus) Hudsonius, occasionally migrating in the same wonderful manner as the lemmer of Lapland."—Lyon's Private Journal, p. 432. OF THE RAT. 77 the maxillary bone. The three molars diminish in size from the first to the last; they are very remarka- ble for being inclined from before backwards. The first molar is composed of six tubercles, which, con- sidered in a transverse order, present themselves thus:—two in front, one larger corresponding to the middle of the tooth, and the other at the insides; then three, two small ones on the edges, the largest in the middle ; and finally, one at the posterior part of the tooth, and of the size of the middle tubercle of the three preceding. This arrangement of the great tubercles in the middle, and of the small ones on the edge, gives the form of a trefoil to the undulating line they produce. The second molar is formed of four tubercles, one in front on the inside, two in the middle, arranged obliquely from without inwards, and from before backwards, and the fourth at the posterior part on the outside. The last has also four tubercles arranged like those of the second molar. In the lower jaw the incisors are similar to thos% of the upper jaw; they arise far behind and above the molars, from the middle of the ascending branch of the jaw-bone, where its bulb produces a little projection. The molars diminish in size from the first to the third, and are inclined in a direction op- posite to those of the upper jaw; that is, they lean for- wards and are equally formed of tubercles. The first has five, one small anterior, two middle, and two pos- terior ; the second has four, also arranged in pairs,'two before and two behind. The last has but three, a single one in front, followed by a pair. 78 the brown rat Species 1.—The Common, Brown, or Norway Rat. Mus Decumanus; Pall. Mus Slyvestris: Briss. Reg. An. 170, No 3 ; Mus JVorvegkus: ibid. p. 173. No 8. , , Mus Decumanus: L. Gmel. Schreb. pi. 178, Eocycl. pi. 67, fig. 9. Le Surmulot: Buff. 8, pi. 27. Brown Rat: Penn. Quad. No. 298, Arct. Zool. i. 151, No, 57. It must be confessed that this rat is one of the veriest scoundrels in the brute creation, though it is a misfortune in him rather than a fault, since he acts solely in obedience to the impulses of nature, is guided by no other law than his own will, and sub- mits to no restraints except such as are imposed by force. He is, therefore, by no means as bad as the scoundrels of a higher order of beings, who, endowed with superior powers of intelligence, and enjoying the advantages of education, do still act as if they possessed all the villanous qualities of the rat, with- out being able to offer a similar apology for their conduct. Among quadrupeds this rat may be considered as occupying the same rank as the crow does among birds. He is one of the most impudent, troublesome, mischievous, wicked wretches that ever infested the habitations of man. To the most wily cunning he adds a fierceness and malignancy of disposition that frequently renders him a dangerous enemy, and a destroyer of every living creature he can master. He is a pure thief, stealing not merely articles of food, for which his hunger would be a sufiicient jus- tification, but substances which can be of no possible THE BROWN RAT. 79 utility to him. When he gains access to the library he does not hesitate to translate and appropriate to his own use the works of the most learned authors, and is not so readily detected as some of his brother pirates of the human kind, since he does not carry off his prize entire, but cuts it into pieces before he conveys it to his den. He is, in short, possessed of no one quality to save him from being universally despised, and his character inspires no stronger feel- ing than contempt, even in those who are under the necessity of putting him to death. The common, brown, or Norway rat, now so ex- tensively diffused over this country, is not indigenous to our soil, but was introduced from Europe, which received it from Asia in the eighteenth century, as late as the year 1750. There are few parts of the world now visited by navigators where this animal has not been introduced, and the immediate conse- quence of its introduction has been, that all the na- tive rats have been destroyed, or obliged to withdraw beyond the reach of this subtle and implacable ene- my, w- Prior to the year above mentioned this rat, now so notorious for its ravages, was almost, if not wholly, unknown in Europe.* It was conveyed to England * Specie ob hoc {ratio) diversus, mus decumanus, Persia ut videtur et vicini orientis indigena, vix ante alterum ter- tiumve saeculi praeteriti decennium Europae invasisse fertur* et ubi agmina eorum consedere, doinesticum contra rattum sensim defecisse constat. Norvegicum plures nuperorum zoologicorum vocant quam vero appellationem Zimmerma- ' R. Smith's Rat Catcher, p. 5,1768. 80 THE BROWN RAT. about the period above mentioned, in the timber-ships from Norway, and hence it has received one of its common names. Many years subsequently it was brought to this country in European ships, and has been gradually propagated from the sea-ports over the greater part of the continent. The brown rat takes up its residence about wharves, store-houses, cellars, granaries, &c. and destroys the common black rat and mouse, or en- tirely expels them from the vicinities it frequents. To chickens, rabbits, young pigeons, ducks, and vari- ous other domestic animals, it is equally destructive when urged by hunger and opportunity. Eggs are also a very favourite article of food with this species, and are sought with great avidity; in fact, every thing that is edible falls a prey to their voracity, and can scarcely be secured from their persever- ing and audacious inroads. In the country they take up their abodes according to convenience and the abundance of provision, infesting especially mills, nus id improbli; quod faunae scandinavicae nullam ejus men- tionem faciant. At enim vero hoc sane idoneis testibus evictum est ipsissimum hunc rattum decumanum ante an- num MDCCXXX, Anglis plane ignotum, turn temporis pri- mum et quidem quod expresse asserunt, ex Norvegia navibus onerariis quae lignorum materiam inde advehebant illatum esse.* Cumque turn temporis in universa Germania boreali nullibi adhuc visus fuerat inficetum, corruit asseclarum peti- toris quondam regni Anglici figmentum quo ilium murem ex Hanoverianis terris in Brittanniam translatum esse fabu- labantur.—Jo. Frid. Blumenbach. Com. Soc. Goett. 1283. * Espriella's (Southcy's) Letters,!, p. 285, cd. 3. THE BROWN RAT. 81 barns and out-houses, or residing in holes along the banks of races or other water-courses. The brown rat swims with great facility, and dives with vigor, remaining under water for a considerable time, and swimming thus to some distance. When attacked and not allowed an opportunity of escaping, he becomes a dangerous antagonist, leaping at his enemy and inflicting severe and dangerous wounds with his teeth. The most eager cat becomes imme- diately intimidated in the presence of one of these rats thus penned up, and is very willing to escape the dangers of an encounter. The brown rat is amazingly prolific, and but for its numerous enemies, and its own rapacious disposi- tion, would become an intolerable pest. Happily for the world, in addition to man, to the weazel, cat, some species of dog, &c. rats frequently find de- structive enemies in each other, both in the adult and young state, their numbers thus being prevented from becoming such an intolerable grievance as they other- wise necessarily would. The strongest of the species prey upon the weaker, and are the most merciless destroyers of their own kind.* The weazel and the terrier are the most efficient rat-killers, as the first can pursue the enemy to his most secret retreat, and * " It is a singular fact in the history of these animals that the skins of such of them as have been devoured in their holes have frequently been found curiously turned inside out, every part being completely inverted to the ends of the toes. How the operation is performed it would be difficult to as- certain ; but it appears to be effected in some peculiar mode of eating out the contents.—Bewick, Hist of Quadrupeds. Vol. II.—L 82 THE BROWN RAT. the second derives from his superior strength and activity a very decided advantage in the contest. The cat, though in general a very useful auxiliary in lessening the number of this species, is very lia- ble both to be foiled and worsted in her attempts. Bringing forth from twelve to eighteen at a lit- ter, we have good reason to rejoice that so many animals have an instinctive animosity against so noxi- ous a marauder.* The cunning of these rats is not less than their im- pudence ; it is almost impossible to take them in traps after one or two have been thus caught, as the rest appear perfectly to understand the object of the machine, and afterwards avoid it with scrupulous care, however tempting may be the bait it contains. The surest way to remove them is by poison, which, however, they frequently detect and avoid. The powder of nux vomica, mixed with some Indian corn or oat-meal, and scented with oil of rhodium, is found very effectual in destroying them. Arsenic is very commonly used in the same way for this purpose, but the fatal accidents which frequently occur when this poison is kept about the house, in consequence of I he label being removed or changed, and the arse- nic administered to members of a family instead of some other medicine, render it a very objectionable resource. * The name of this species, decumanus, was given on ac- count of its great size, and is equally applicable to its great mischievousness. The word originally was decimanus, and eventually by custom became synonymous with magnus or great. See Callipoenus, Lyttleton, &c. THE BLACK RAT. 83 The brown rat measures about nine inches, and is of a light brown colour, intermingled with ash and tawny. The colour of the throat and belly is of a dirty white, inclining to gray. It has pale, flesh co- loured, naked feet, with a tail of the same length as the body, and covered with small dusky scales, with short hairs thinly scattered between. Species II.—The Black Rat. Mus Rattus; L. Mus Rattus : Pall. Schreb. &c. Mus Domesticus Major: Ray, Quad. fep. ^17. Le Rat: Buff. 7, pi 36. . Black Rat: Penn. Quad. ii. p. 176. Arct. Zool.i. p. 150. This rat was much more common previous to the introduction of the brown rat than at present. It is now found only in situations to which the brown rat has not extended its emigrations, and is almost as injurious and destructive, resembling it closely in manners and habits. It is of a deep iron gray, and indeed nearly of a black colour above, and of an ash colour on the lower parts of its body. Its legs are nearly naked, and on its fore feet instead of the ru- dimental thumb it has a claw. The length from the nose to the root of the tail is seven inches; the tail itself is almost eight inches long. It has been a matter of dispute, whether this ani- mal was received here from Europe, or was original- ly taken hence to that quarter of the world. Blu- membach, who has devoted much attention to the sub- ject, states it as his opinion that the black rat was 84 THE COMMON MOUSE. carried from Europe to America.* Garcilasso de la Vega states, that it was first introduced into South America by the Europeans, about the year 1544, and Geraldus Cambrensis speaks of them in Europe pre- vious to the discovery of America. Species III.—The Common Mouse. Mus Musculus; L. Mus Musculus : Erxl. Bod. Schreb. Ac. Mus Domesticus Vulgaris : Ray, Quad. Mus Sorex : Briss. p, 169, Sp. 2. La Souri8: Buff. viii. pi. 39, id. suppl. viii. pi. 20. Like the two preceding species the Common Mouse is not an original inhabitant of this country, * De primigenio et patrio Ratti vulgariter domestici habi- taculo, diversimodi disputatum est. Mirum videtur para- doxam Linnei opinionem, qui eum ex Indis occidentalibus in Europam advectum fuisse putarat, vel ipsi Pallasio ideo non improbabilem visam esse quod apud antiquos licet Mus- culi frequens, mentio nulla occurrat Ratti. Etsi enim nul- lus veterum, sive Graecorum sive Romanorum Rattum memo- ret, medii tamen aevi scriptores, iique de historia naturali perbene meriti, diu ante orbem novum detectum de Ratto nostrate agunt, in quibus egregius Silvester Geraldus anno MCLXXXVIII expresse mures majores nominat qui vulga- riter Ratti dicuntur.* Probabile vero videtur huic Rattum primitus Europam mediam incoluisse donee occasione com- merciorum et praesertim navigationem per universum qux Europseis patet orbem adeo propagatus est ut quondam inter prodigia relatum sit nonnullos Germanics urbes eo plane caruisse.—Blumenbach,JLct. Soc. Getting, v. 1823. * Itinerar, Cambiise, THE COMMON MOUSE. 85 but was brought here from Europe, and has long since become perfectly naturalized throughout the continent, having been conveyed in every direction by persons moving their household goods, even to the most remote frontier settlements. The common mouse, from its size and feebleness, is to be regarded rather as a troublesome than a very injurious inmate of our dwellings, but always likely to effect much mischief on account of its fecundity, which is full as remarkable as that of any of its kindred species.* It is a timid and vigilant crea- ture, yet confides to a considerable extent in its swiftness and watchfulness, coming out after various trials, and stealing about a room even when there are several persons present, provided they are silent and do not move. The mouse makes a nest very similar to that of a bird, having the inside lined with some soft material, such as wool, cotton, &c. and brings forth her young several times during a year, generally from six to ten at each litter. At birth her offspring are nak- ed and helpless, but in about fifteen days they are able to shift for themselves, and the mother is soon at liberty to prepare for another family. The mouse is a very beautiful little animal, when seen not alarmed and at perfect liberty. Its long and * "The propagation of mice, {(*vk), in comparison with that of other animals, is very remarkable both for quick- ness and profuseness. A pregnant female was shut up in a chest of grain ; in a short time a hundred and twenty indi- viduals were counted."—Aristotle, Hist, of Animals, Book vi. chap. 37. 86 THE COMMON MOUSE. slender whiskers, which extend in numerous and graceful lines from around the fore part of the head, its bright prominent eyes, delicate ears, and slight limbs, with its peculiar movements in search of food, or while sporting with its companions, are all such as to render it a pleasing and interesting animal. It is generally, however, viewed with great disgust on account of prejudices connected with its mischievous- ness, and the peculiar smell which is more or less prevalent in the places where the species is most nu- merous. The common mouse has frequently been tamed, and exhibits a considerable degree of attachment to its feeder. Instances are on record of prisoners who have amused themselves by feeding one of these lit- tle animals, until it has become quite tame, and ap- peared immediately, whenever called by its master. Among other circumstances connected with the his- tory of the mouse, it is generally rumoured that this animal is peculiarly susceptible to impressions pro- duced by music, and some very wonderful accounts have been published on the subject. The following story may serve as a specimen of the manner in which facts may be stated with perfect accuracy, and yet conclusions entirely unfounded be thence deduced. It is related by a gentleman who heard it from another " of undoubted veracity.7' " One evening, in the month of December, as a few officers on board of a British man of war, in the harbour of Portsmouth, were seated around the fire, one of them began to play a plaintive air on the vio- lin. He had scarcely performed ten minutes when a mouse, apparently frantic, made its appearance in THE COMMON MOUSE. 87 the centre of the floor, near the large table which usually stands in the ward-room, the residence of the lieutenants in ships of the line. The strange ges- tures of the little animal strongly excited the atten- tion of the officers, who, with one consent, resolved to suffer it to continue its singular actions unmolest- ed. Its exertions now appeared to be greater every moment. It shook its head, leaped about the table, and exhibited signs of the most extatic delight. It was observed that in proportion to the gradation of tones to the soft point, the extacy of the animal ap- peared to be increased, and vice versa. After per- forming actions which an animal so diminutive would at first sight seem incapable of, the little creature, to the astonishment of the delighted spectators, sud- denly ceased to move, fell down and expired, without evincing any pain."* Of the truth of this narration we are thoroughly sat- isfied, but we should explain it differently. The mouse, under the influence of disease, and almost in the agonies of death, came out of its hole when the musician was performing, and after struggling for a time, until exhausted by convulsions, died. The infer- ences of its " extacy," &c. are, for any thing to the con- trary contained in the above account, entirely gratui- tous, and we are much mistaken if the filing of a saw, the scraping of a gridiron, or the whetting of a scythe, would not in this instance have been accompanied by a similar degree of " extacy" in proportion as the * Barton's Medical and Physical Journal, i. p. 38. 88 THE RUSTIC MOUSE. "gradation of the tones" approached the "soft point." The common mouse is about three inches and a- half long, and has a long, nearly naked tail. Its co- lour varies considerably, but is generally of an ashy brown. It has four digits 0:1 its anterior feet, and a rudimental thumb, destitute of a claw: the hind feet are five toed. The mouse is preyed on by cats, weazels, owls, rats, &c. &c. Species IV.—The Rustic Mouse. Mus Agrarius; Gmel. Mus Agrarius: Gmel. Pall. p. 341. Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, p. 369. This little mouse is very common throughout this country, and is found in great abundance in places favourable to their multiplication. They are occa- sionally very injurious to the farmers by the destruc- tion of the small grain, the heads of which they cut off and convey to their subterranean hoards, which differ very little, if at all, from those made by the meadow-mouse or campagnol. The rustic mouse is about three inches long, and has a streak of a mixed dusky and ferruginous colour along the back : the spaces between the ears (which are large, open and naked) and sides are of an orange colour, while the whole of the under parts of the bo- dy, legs and feet, are of pute white ; the tail is dus- ky above and whitish beneath. The whiskers are long, and some of the hairs are white, some black. CHAPTER VII. Genus XXV.—Pouched-Rat ; Pseudostoma ; Say. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The head and body are large, giving to the ani- mal a clumsy appearance; the cheek-pouches are very extensive, situated outside of the mouth, separated therefrom by the common integuments, and are pro- foundly concave, opening downwards, towards the mouth. The legs are short, the fore feet large and armed with very long claws; the hind feet are small. Dental System. -c C in tt S 2 Incisive - V 10 Upper J g Mok^ H J ..« T S 2 Incisive g ( 10 Lower j g Mokr In the upper jaw the incisors, always expos- ed to view, are strong and truncated in their en- tire width at tip, marked by a deep longitudinal groove near the middle, and by a smaller one at the inner margin. The molars, eight in number, pene- trate to the base of their alveolae without separating into roots, as in the genera Arvicola, Lepus, fyc. having simply discoidal, transversely oblong, oval crowns, margined by enamel, resembling in general form the molars of the genus Lepus, but without Vol. II.—M 90 THE POUCHED-RAT- the appearance of either a groove at their ends or of a dividing crest of enamel. The posterior tooth is rather more rounded than the others, and that of the upper jaw has a small prominent angle on its posterior face ; the anterior tooth is double, in conse- quence of a profound duplicature in its side, so that its crown presents two oval disks, of which the an- terior one is smaller, and the lower one somewhat angulated. All these teeth incline obliquely back- ward, thus resembling those of the preceding genus. In the lower jaw the teeth are similar to those in the upper, except that the molars are inclined for- wards.* Species I.—Pouched-Rat. Pseudostoma Bursarium; Say. Pseudostoma Bursaria : Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. 406. Canada Rat: Shaw, Gen. Zool. ii. part i. p. 100. Mus Bursarius : Linn. Trans, v. p. 227, pi. 8. Mus Saccatus:. Mitchill, New York Med. Rep. Jan. 1821. Lewis and Clark, u. 180. Cricetus Bursarius: Desm. Mammal. 312 [Vulgarly called Salamander; Pouched-Rat; Sand- Rat, fyc.~\ The pouched-rat, though long since noted by various observers, is still but little known, even in the vicinities where it is most common. Its pecu- liar mode of life, its nocturnal habits and vigilance * This dental system, &c. is from Say. See Long's Ex- pedition to the Rocky Mountains, i. p. 407. THE POUCHED-RAT. 91 unite to secure it from the view of incidental ob- servers, and those who are desirous of becoming ac- quainted with this rat in a state of nature, must be prepared to exercise the most untiring patience as well as the most assiduous attention. In Florida, Georgia, &c, and the plains adjacent to the Missouri, the pouched-rat is to be found in great numbers; their burrows are exceedingly nu- merous in various places, and give an appearance to the plains similar to that produced by ploughing. Over their burrows, hillocks of loose earth are raised, resembling in some respects those thrown up by the shrew-mole. These hillocks consist of about ten or twelve pounds of loose earth, which appears as if it had been emptied out of a flower-pot on the spot; no hole is to be discovered under this mass of loose soil, but if it be carefully removed, it is seen that the earth has been broken in a circle of an inch and a-half in diameter, within which space the ground is loose, but still without any distinct opening. This species is rendered peculiar in its appear- ance by the cheek-pouches exterior to the mouth, its short fore legs and long claws. Ry the aid of the latter the animal is enabled in a light soil to bur- row with great rapidity, and is seldom or never dug out, since it can escape through the ground as fast as one person can dig in pursuit. As the pouched-rat is so entirely subterranean in its mode of life, it is not surprising that very little should have been learned of its history; neither can we hope that our knowledge will be much increased on the subject until some one, who is sufficiently ac- quainted with natural history, will devote himself 92 THE POUCHED-RAT. assiduously to the investigation of the manners of this animal in its native haunts. Except the slight notices given by Rartram, Lewis and Clark, and Say, nothing satisfactory on the habits of the pouched-rat has yet been published.* The pouched-rat is covered by a reddish brown hair, which is lead-coloured at base ; on the under parts of the body the colour is somewhat paler; the feet are white. The eyes are black; the ears scarcely prominent, and the cheek-pouches, which are hairy internally and externally, are very capacious. The whiskers are numerous, slender and whitish. The feet are five-toed, the anterior pair being robust, with large, elongated, somewhat compressed nails, exposing the bone on the inner side; the middle nail is much the longest, then the fourth, then the second, then the fifth, the first being very short. The hind feet are very slender, with nails concave beneath and rounded at tip, the exterior one being very small; the tail is short, hairy at base, and nearly naked at its tip.t * The figures which are given of this animal most com- monly represent it with the cheek-pouches inverted in a most unnatural manner. t Say, as above quoted. CHAPTER VIII. GenusXXVI.—Jumping-Mouse; Gerbillus; Desm. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The head is elongated, and the ears are rounded and of moderate size. The anterior extremities are short, have four digits, furnished with small nails and a rudimental thumb; the posterior limbs are either long or very long, have five digits, each of which is supported by a distinct metatarsal bone, and provided with a nail. The tail is long and covered by hair. Dental System. « 1T C2 Incisive SUpper |6Molar. E-« J r. t ^2 Incisive ^ / 8 Lower - <£ (oljUWW * 6 Molar. In the upper jaw the incisor, which arises from the middle part of the maxillary bone, is divided into equal parts by a longitudinal furrow. The mo- lars diminish in size from the first to the last. The first is composed of three transverse prominences, formed by two intervening furrows, not so deep in the middle as at their extremities; these prominences are slightly depressed in the middle, but the anterior and posterior are narrower than the middle. The second molar is composed of two prominences, form- ed by an intervening depression, the posterior being 94 THK JUMPING-MOUSE. the narrowest. The third molar is similar to the second, but smaller, especially its posterior promi- nence. Hence these teeth differ from those of the hamster {Cricetus) principally in the breadth of their prominences. When worn down these teeth are remarkably like those of the hamster in the same condition. They present an even surface, with de- pressions on the internal and external edges, which are traces of the extremities of the furrows; the dif- ference in the breadth of the prominences may still be recognized. In the lower jaw the incisor is even; the molars diminish in breadth from the first to the last, the reverse of what we find in the hamster. The first molar has three prominences and two furrows, but the first is very narrow and almost circular. The second has two prominences and a furrow, and the third is so small as to be scarcely more than rudi- mental. Species I.—The Jumping-Mouse. Gerbillus Canadensis; Desm. Dipus Canadensis: Davies, Linn. Trans, iv. 155. Dipus Americanus: Barton, An. Philos. Trans, iv. 114. Canadian Jerboa: Shaw, Gen. Zool. pi. 2d, i. 192. Gerbille du Canada: Desm. Mammal, p. 132. This little animal is very remarkable for the great length of its hind legs and its mode of progression, in both of which it bears some resemblance to the kanguroo of Australasia, and the jerboa of the old continent. When not in motion the jumping-mouse THE JUMPING-MOUSE. 95 might be mistaken for the common field-mouse, as its general aspect is very similar. To rectify such an erroneous view, it is sufficient that an attempt be made to capture it, when the force and celerity of its leaps soon remove it from danger, and # the pursuer is astonished at seeing so small a creature, with very slight apparent effort, eluding his most eager speed, by clearing five or six feet of ground at every spring. When the jumping-mouse is pur- sued by one or two persons, and permitted to advance in one direction, its movements resemble those of a bird rather than a quadruped, so high does it leap into the air, so great is the distance it measures at every bound, and so light and quick is its ascent and descent. The jumping-mouse, however, does not exclusively move in this manner, but is capable of running on all its feet with considerable speed; hence it frequently excites the wonder of the country peo- ple, or gives them much labour in vain when they attempt to run it down. The jumping-mouse is found in this country from Canada to Pennsylvania, and no doubt still farther south. It is in size nearly the same as the common mouse. The head, back, and upper parts of the body, generally, are of a reddish brown colour, somewhat approaching to yellow. On the back the brown is darker thau elsewhere. The under parts of the body throughout are cream-colour, as well as the inner parts of all the limbs. Near the lower part of the nostrils there is a band or yellow streak, which runs on each side along the whole length of the head and the superior and inferior side of the fore limbs, whence, passing along the body, it terminates at the 96 THE JUMPING-MOUSE. joint of the thighs. The upper jaw projects considera- bly beyond the lower, and the nostrils are open. The ears are small, rather oval and hairy ; the whiskers are long. The fore limbs are short, and have four digits, provided with long and very sharp nails; there is also a minute tubercle instead of thumb, which is entirely destitute of nail. The posterior extremi- ties are very long, especially from the heel to the ends of the toes, which are five in number, long, slender, and the three middle ones nearly of equal length. The external and internal toes are much shorter; the inner one is shortest of all. The tail considerably exceeds the body in length, and gradu- ally decreases in size from its origin to its extremity, being finely ciliated or clothed with hair throughout, and terminating with a fine pencil of hairs. On the upper side it is of a slate brown colour, beneath it is of a yellowish cream-colour, and composed of very numerous joints. The jumping-mouse is found in the grain and grass fields, like the other little plunderers heretofore described, and feeds on the same substances. It breeds very fast, and may occasionally become injuri- ous to the farmer. It is not usual, however, to find them in great numbers in Pennsylvania, though in some vicinities they are quite common. At the commencement of cool weather, or about the time the frost sets in, the jumping-mice go into their winter-quarters, where they remain in a torpid state until the last of May or first of June. They are dug up sometimes during winter from a depth of twenty inches, being curiously disposed in a ball of clay about an inch thick, and so completely coiled THE LABRADOR JUMPING-MOUSE. 97 into a globular form as to conceal the figure of the animal entirely. Species II.—The Labrador Jumping-Mouse. Gerbillus Labradorius; Sab. Mus Labradorius : Sab. App. to Franklin's Exped. p. 661. Labrador Rat: Penn. Quad. ii. 173, Arct. Zool. Gerbillus Hudsonius: Rafih. Prodr. de Somiol. This species, which closely resembles the preced- ing in its mode of living, is found in the Labrador and Hudson's Ray country. It is about four inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which is two inches and a-half long. The general colour of the superior parts of the body is brown; of the inferior parts white. The front is very much arched or project- ing, so that the nostrils present towards the earth. The mouth, which is far below, is small, with the upper lip bifid, and long black whiskers projecting in two tufts. The ears are rounded and situated far back on the head. The hind legs are an inch and a-half long, covered with short hair, and five- toed, the inner one being the shortest, the others nearly equal. The tail is covered with black hair above and white below. Vol. II.—N CHAPTER IX. Genus XXVII.—Marmot ; Arctomys ; Gmel. Germ. Murmelthier. Fr. Marmotte. Ital. Marmotto. Swed. Mormoldjuret. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The head, which is thick and flattened, has a blunt and somewhat compressed snout, with eyes of a moderate size, and short ears. The trunk of the body is thick, the limbs short, and the feet robust. The fore feet have four digits, not united by mem- brane, and a rudimental thumb. The posterior ex- tremities have five digits, which are also free; all the toes are furnished with strong, hooked, compressed nails. The tail is short, or of moderate length, and covered with hair. Dental System. £ (12 Upper ^Jjfj81™ $ ) FF J 10 Molar. £ / 10 Lower \ J Incisive ^l $ 8 Molar. In the upper jaw the incisive is rounded and smooth in front, and rises from the anterior and infe- rior part of the maxillary bone above the first molar. The first molar is a simple tubercle with one root; ^■e three following, which are of the same size, are THE MARMOT. 99 divided transversely by two depressions, which pro- duce three prominences; the first of these depres- sions traverses the tooth entirely, but the second is obstructed by a spine or internal spur, which unites the two posterior prominences. These teeth have three roots, two external and one internal. The last, or fifth, resembles the others, except in its pos- terior prominence, which is extended posteriorly in a sort of spur, which corresponds to the root analo- gous to the second external root of the preceding molars. In the lower jaw the incisive is similar to that of the upper jaw, and rises below the last molar. The four molars are of equal size and entirely similar in form. They present a groove on their outside, on the inside a depression which comprises the whole width of the tooth, and at their antero-inferior edge a narrow and very salient tubercle, which diminishes in size from the first to the last. The first of these teeth has, besides, at its neck and on its anterior face, a hollow bordered by a small spine. When these teeth are worn to a certain degree, all their projections disappear, and their crowns be- come entirely smooth; but both subsist during the whole life of the animal. Species of this genus are found in various parts of the old continent, and in the Rahama islands. In this country the greater number of species are found far to the north. The habits of the genus are de- tailed at length in describing the following species: 100 THE MARYLAND MARMOT Species I.—The Maryland Marmot. Arctomys Monax; Gmel. Bahama Coney: Catesby, Carolina, ii. 79. Marmota Americana: ibid. App. 28. Monax, or Marmotte of America: Edwards, Nat. Hist. ii. 104. Glis Fuacus; Marmota Bahamensis: Briss. Reg. An. 4to. 163. Marmota Americana: ibid. 164. Maryland Marmot: Penn. Synops. 270. Quad. ii. 398. Arc. Zoo), i. HI. Shaw's Zool. iii. 117. Le Monax ou Marmotte du Canada: Burr. Hist. Nat. xiii. 136. Supp, iii. 175. pi. 28. Ed. Sonnini. xxxii. 22. As the Maryland Marmot is no where more com- mon than in Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and indeed all the temperate parts of this country, we state the fact in commencing the history of this interesting species, to prevent readers from drawing the erroneous conclusion that the name is a correct indication of the place to which the animal exclu- sively belongs. In doing this we cannot refrain from once more expressing our unavailing regret that the importance of bestowing right names is still so little felt or understood, and that in heedless haste an original observer should be allowed permanently to establish designations, which uniformly betray the ignorant into error, and prove sources of vexation to all who feel their inappropriateness. The abuse of terms, however, has long been justly esteemed as one of the most abundant sources of human mistake and suffering, and if with all advantages of know- ledge men persist in occasionally calling brutal rude- ness by the name of candour and bluntness,—swag- gering, courage,—and a destitution of good breed- ing and honesty, imprudence, the student of natural THE MARYLAND MARMOT. 101 history can scarcely expect that much attention will be paid to the evils he endures from the impediments thrown in his way by the same prolific source of mis- chief. The scientific name of the genus to which the Maryland marmot belongs is excellent, if the species now under consideration be taken in illustration, for a first glance at the animal is sure to bring to mind the idea of a bear and a rat, of both of which this creature is a curious miniature resemblance. The thickness of its body, entirely plantigrade walk, posture when engaged in listening, and heavy gait, are such as vividly to excite a recollection of the bear, while the form of the head, teeth, position and appearance of the eye, and general aspect, equally remind the observer of the rat. In some of its ac- tions it more nearly resembles the squirrel, especially when in feeding it employs the fore paws, yet in this it also exhibits a marked similitude to the bear, as it frequently uses one paw at a time with the same awkward facility that appears so singular in bruin. Among the country people it bears the name of wood- chuck and ground-hog, the latter being expressive of its habits of burrowing and peculiar voracity. This marmot is the cause of great injury, especi- ally to the farmers engaged in the cultivation of clo- ver, as their numbers become very considerable, and the quantity of herbage they consume is really sur- prising. They are the more capable of doing mis- chief from the circumstance of their extreme vigi- lance and acute sense of hearing, as well as from the security afforded them by their extensive subter- ranean dwellings. 102 THE MARYLAND MARMOT. When about to make an inroad upon a clover- field, all the marmots resident in the vicinity quietly and cautiously steal towards the spot, being favour- ed in their march by their gray colour, which is not easily distinguished. While the main body are ac- tively engaged in cropping the clover-heads and gorging their ample cheek-pouches, one or more in- dividuals remain at some distance in the rear as sen- tinels. These watchmen sit erect, with their fore paws held close to their breast, and their heads slightly inclined to catch every sound which may move the air. Their extreme sensibility of ear ena- bles them to distinguish the approach of an enemy long before he is sufficiently near to be dangerous, and the instant the sentinel takes alarm he gives a clear shrill whistle, which immediately disperses the troop in every direction, and they speedily take re- fuge in their deepest caves. The time at which such incursions are made is generally about mid-day, when they are less liable to be interrupted than at any other period, either by human or brute enemies. The habitations of this marmot are formed by bur- rowing into banks, the sides of hills, or other similar situations, and are generally inclined slightly up- wards from the mouth, by which the access of water is prevented. In forming the burrow, where the ground is soft, the fore paws are the principal agents; the strength of the animal's fore limbs is very great. Where the soil is hard and compact the long cutting teeth are very freely and efficiently em- ployed, and we have been surprised to see large stones and lumps of hardened clay dug out in this way. As the burrow is deepened the earth is THE MARYLAND MARMOT. 103 brought out in the following manner:—The mar- mot first throws the earth, with his fore paws, un- der his belly, and when it has accumulated to a certain degree, he rests on his fore paws and kicks the dirt forcibly onwards with the hind ones, and thus going backwards to the mouth of his den he finally throws it to a considerable distance from the entrance. It is very easy to determine when one of these animals has been engaged in forming a new burrow, as his whiskers are worn close to the head, in proportion to the hardness of the soil in which he has worked, and his teeth and the edges of his upper lip show evident marks of the hard service they have performed. The paws are admirably adapted for burrowing, both on account of the length of the toes and nails, and the peculiar arrangement of the skin of the palms and soles of the feet, which is extend- ed between the, toes so as to make them distinctly semi-palmated or webbed, especially in the hind feet. This circumstance is not commonly noted by the writers on natural history, but we have repeatedly examined the living animal, and find the character uniformly present. That this structure has reference to burrowing is evident, as the animal shows a great repugnance to water, very seldom drinking, and then in but small quantity; he suffers exceedingly from exposure to rain. The burrows extend to great distances under ground, and terminate in various chambers, according to the number of inhabitants. In these, very com- fortable beds are made by the marmot, of dry leaves, grass, or any soft dry rubbish to be collected. It is really surprising to see the vast quantity of such ma- 104 THE MARYLAND MARMOT. terial an individual will cram into his mouth to carry off for this purpose. He first grasps with the teeth as much as he possibly can; then sitting erect, with both fore paws he stuffs the mass projecting on each side deeper into the mouth, and having arranged it satisfactorily, takes up successive portions, which are treated in like manner ; during the whole time the head is moved up and down to aid in filling the mouth to the very utmost. This is repeated until every fragment at hand is collected, and the whole transferred to the sleeping apartment, into which the marmot retires towards the decline of the day, and remains there until the morning is far ad- vanced. At some seasons of the year this marmot is seen out on moonlight nights at a considerable dis- tance from the burrow, either in search of better pasture or looking for a mate; on such occasions, when attacked by a dog, the marmot makes battle, and when the individual is full grown, his bite is very severe. The teeth of the dog give him vast supe- riority in the combat, as when once he seizes, he is sure of the hold until the parts bitten are torn through, while the marmot can merely pinch his fore- teeth together, and must renew his attempts very frequently. The fight is also soon ended by the dog seizing the marmot by the small of the back, and crushing the spine so as to disable his antagonist ef- fectually. There is no animal so perfectly cleanly in its ha- bits as this marmot; not only the fragments of its food and the litter of its bed are carefully removed, but the loose earth about the mouth of the burrow is carefully scraped away. However numerous they THE MARYLAND MARMOT. 105 may be in any vicinity, their excrement is not seen, nor any offensive odour perceived. Whenever the calls of nature are felt, this animal seeks a spot at some distance from his dwelling, and having dug a hole of two or three inches in depth, and per- formed his evacuations, he covers it up with extreme care, and not content with placing a thick layer of earth over it, he presses it, or rather rams it down with the end of his nose, striking with a force which seems very extraordinary when thus applied. The Maryland marmot, as we have already men- tioned, eats with great greediness and large quantities. To the wild animal red clover is a very favourite food, and, when it can be obtained, lettuce, cabbage, and various other garden vegetables." In captivity it eats of almost every vegetable offered, is exceed- ingly fond of bread and milk, and will display the most violent anger, by erecting its hair, growling and yelping, if it see a cat or other animal fed with this substance. One which we kept for a long time in a state of domestication, would, on such occasions, become almost furious, and never desist from his efforts until he had broken his chain, when he would rush to the spot, drive off the cat by a severe bite, or bite the person who attempted to withhold him from the dish. Yet on other occasions he did not interfere with the cats, even when feeding within his reach, though he would at any time bite them if they came immediately in his way. This marmot would eat the parts about the joints of the legs of fowls, when thrown to him, and occasionally a small piece of salt-fish,—but, as a general rule, refused animal food of every description. Vol. II.—0 106 THE MARYLAND MARMOT. This individual was very tame, playful and cun- ning, having the freedom of the yard, and the privi- lege of performing all his operations unmolested. He was very fond of being handled and petted, and would play with great good humour, though in a clumsy and awkward manner. Every thing fit to make a bed of, that he could get at, was sure to be carried under ground, and when clothes were missed, which had been hung out to dry, it was only neces- sary to fasten a hook to a long stick and draw them out of his burrow. When this was to be effected, it was necessary to tie the marmot up short, as he ap- peared to understand perfectly what was to be done, and was by no means willing that his bed should be rendered less comfortable. Although he would not attempt to bite the person engaged in removing his plunder, he would rush to the entrance and endeavour to make his way in, as if to secure his prize, or re- move it to a still greater distance. On one occasion he carried off and stowed at a distance of six feet from the entrance, eight pairs of stockings, a towel, and a girl's frock, and had he not been discovered in the act, would have made a still larger transfer of materials to form a more luxurious bed. In whatever action engaged, the vigilance of this animal was unceasing, and his ear appeared the sense almost exclusively relied on. Ry observing him closely it was evident that every variation of sound, however slight, or from whatever different sources, was immediately perceived. While earnestly engaged in eating, and making no inconsiderable noise in munching lettuce, or other crisp vegetables, the least noise would be sufficient to suspend his THE MARYLAND MARMOT. 107 hunger and excite all his vigilance, and if it were one to which he was unaccustomed, or loud enough to alarm him, he would run with great precipita- tion until he arrived at the edge of his hole, where he would sit up for an instant in an attitude of the profoundest attention, and either return to his food, or take refuge in his hole, as he might feel satisfied that there was or was not danger to be apprehended. To look at the ear of this marmot without close ex- amination, placed on the side of the head, high up and far back, with very little external cartilaginous pro- jection, and a wide orifice leading to the internal ear, it would seem very inappropriate to the subter- ranean mode of life, since it appears to be so placed as to allow the dirt ready access. Rut no such in- convenience takes place, as the ear is provided with a muscular apparatus, by which the upper portion is brought down, and the sides of the lower portion are so accurately pressed against each other, as effectually to exclude the smallest particles of dirt or dust. At the commencement of the cold weather the marmot goes into winter-quarters; having blocked up the door from within, he there remains until the re- turn of the warm season revives him again to renew his accustomed mode of life. The female produces five or six young at a litter. The body of the Maryland marmot is about the size of that of a rabbit, and covered by long rusty brown hair, generally gray at the tips; the face is of a pale bluish ash-colour. The ears are short, but broad, and as if they had been cropped at their su- perior edges; the tail is about half the length of the body, and covered with dark brown hairs, somewhat 108 THE QUEBEC MARMOT. bushy at its extremity. The feet and claws are black; the claws are long and sharp. All the figures which have been heretofore publish- ed of this animal, (with the exception of one given in the English translation of Cuvier, borrowed from a drawing by Lesueur,) have been copied from Edwards's, which is altogether unlike the animal. Species II.— The Quebec Marmot. Arctomys Empetraj Gm. Schreb. Marmotte du Canada: Encycl. pi. 67, fig. 4. Quebec Marmot: Penn. Synopsis, 270, pi. 24, tig. 2, Quad ii. 397 PJ 412. ed. 3, ii. 129, pi. 741. Arct. Zool. i. Ill, Shaw's Zool. iii. 119.' ' Arctomys Empetra: Schreb. Quad. 743, pi. 210. Gmel. Syst. Nat i 143. Sabine, App. to Franklin, p. 662. ibid. Trans. Lin. Society, xiii 584. ' Marmotte de Quebec: Desm. Nouv. Diet, d'Hist. Nat. six. 314. [Called Siffleur by the Canadians.] The Quebec Marmot is found throughout the north- ern parts of this country, and in its habits closely resembles the preceding species. Its entire length, from the tip of the nose to the extremity of the tail, is about twenty-six inches, of which the tail forms six inches. The general colour of the upper part of the body is grayish, the hairs being thus coloured; at the base they are dark, in the middle yellowish, near their tops black, and white at their tips ; near the tail the white is not so remarkable. On the cheeks and chin the hair is short, and inclines to gray, on the nose dark or blackish, the top of the head is dark brown; FRANKLIN'S MARMOT. |09 the whiskers and long hairs growing over the eyes are black. The throat, legs, and all the under parts of the body areof a dark chesnut-colour. The hair on the tail is dusky throughout, longer than on the back and darker at the end. The toes are covered with short hairs, which are black. The inner toes on the hind feet and the outer on the fore feet, are shorter than the others; there is a rudimental fifth toe on the inside of the fore feet. All the toes are provided with long and sharp claws, those on the fore feet being longest and most arched. Species III.—Franklin's Marmot. Arctomys Franklinii; Sab. Arctomys Franklinii; Gray American Marmot: Sabine, Trans. Linn. Society, xiii. 587, App. to Franklin, p. 662. This interesting animal was found near Fort En- terprize, by the expedition under command of the intrepid and adventurous Capt. Franklin, in honour of whom the scientific designation was bestowed by Sabine, whose own name is invariably associated by scientific readers with profound and philosophical research, illumined and adorned by a mind richly imbued with the most valuable learning. As the trivial name, Gray American Marmot, is equally ap- plicable to other species, we have preferred to trans- late the scientific appellation, which more definitely refers to the species in question. In size this animal equals a large rat, measuring eleven inches from the nose to the insertion of the 110 FRANKLIN'S MARMOT- tail; the latter, to the end of the hair at its extremity, is five inches long. Its face is broad and nearly co- vered with rigid black and white hairs, which give it a gray colour; the nose is very blunt, and the ears are broad and covered with short hairs. The whis- kers on the cheeks are short and black, and similar hairs thinly distributed grow above and below the eyes.* The upper part of the body is covered with short hairs, dark at the base, dingy white in the middle, then first black, next yellowish white, and tipped with black, the whole forming a variegated dark yellowish gray. On the sides the hair is longer, not so black, and destitute of the yellow tinge; on the belly it is dark at the base, and dingy white at tip. The tail is covered with long hairs, banded with black and white, and tipped with white, the whole appearing indistinctly striped with black and white. The feet are rather broad, the toes being thin and covered with gray hairs. On the fore feet the se- cond toe from the inside is longest; the outer shoi|- est and placed far back; the three centre hind toes nearly of an equal length, the extremes shorter and far back. The claws, which are of a horn-colour, are long and sharp on the fore feet, and on the hind feet shorter.f * The upper fore teeth are short and reddish yellow; the lower fore teeth are twice the length of the upper, and paler. t See Sabine's paper as above quoted. THE TAWNY AMERICAN MARMOT. m Species IV.—Tawny American Marmot. » Arctomys Richardsonii; Sab. • Arctomys Richardsonii: Sabine, Linn. Soc. Trans, xiii. 589. This marmot was found by Franklin's expedition near Carl ton-house, in the Hudson's Ray country, and was named in honour of Dr John Richardson, who, on that perilous journey, was so highly distinguished for his scientific zeal, and his intrepid and philan- thropic spirit. The tawny American marmot, or Richardson's marmot, is nearly of the size of the foregoing spe- cies, but more slender. The top of the head is co- vered with short hairs, dark at the base and light at their tips. The nose is tapering, sharp, bare at the end, and covered above with short light brown hairs, joining and mixing with those on the top of the head. The ears are short and oval; the cheeks swol- len and clothed with light brown hairs; the whiskers are short, growing from the cheeks, and there are a few rigid hairs above the eyes. The throat is of a dirty white colour; the upper part of the body is covered with short soft hairs, dark at the base and fulvous at their extremities; in the middle of the back the hairs are like those on the top of the head, but lighter. The hair on the sides is longer, when raised appearing dark at the base, the ends being of a smoky white; the under parts are similar, but dashed with a little rust-colour. The tail is three inches and a-half long to the end of the hair, slender and thinly covered with long hairs, which, at the base, are of 112 HOOD'S MARMOT. the same colour as the body, but above of three dis- tinct hues,—first black, next dark, and lastly light at the upper extremity. The legs are rather long and slender, with narrow feet, furnished with sharp, arched, horn-coloured claws. The fore feet have on the inside a small toe placed far back, with a blunt claw, which gives it a character different from the general character of the genus. The outer toe and claw of the fore feet much shorter than the remain- ing three, the middle one of which is the longest. Of the hind toes the two extremes shorter and placed back, the other three of nearly the same length.* Species V.—Hood's Marmot. Arctomys Tridecemlineatus; Mitchill. Sciurus Tridecemlineatus; Federation Squirrel: Mitchill, Med. Rep. 1821. Ecureuilde la Federation: Desm. Mammal, p. 339. Arctomys Hoodii: Sab. Trans. Linn. Society, xiii. 590. This beautiful marmot is an inhabitant of the northern and western parts of this country, and when first discovered was thought to be a squirrel, and classed near the sciurus striatus, or ground-squirrel, to which it exhibits considerable analogy in the ar- rangement of its stripes. Though now properly re- moved to the genus Arctomys, we retain the specific name first proposed by our distinguished countryman Professor Mitchill, derived from the number of stripes on the back of the animal, being the same as * Sabine, as above quoted. HOOD'S MARMOT. 113 that displayed in the "star spangled banner" of our federation.* For the trivial name we have adopted a translation of the scientific appellation proposed by Sabine, in honour of Lieut. Hood, so truly merito- rious for his exertions on the expedition commanded by Franklin, and remarkable for having been so cruelly murdered by one of his fellow travellers. From the nose to the root of the tail Hood's mar- mot is about seven inches and a-half long, and the tail itself two inches. The top of the head is broad, flat, and obscurely marked with alternate stripes of dark brown and dingy white. The nose is tapering and very sharp, being covered with light brown hairs. The ears are small and very short, the cheeks tumid and clothed with dingy light coloured hairs, the throat being of the same colour; the whiskers are rather long and grow from between the nose and the eyes; some small rigid hairs, similar to the whis- kers, also grow over the eyes. The whole of the upper part of the body is marked on each side lon- gitudinally with three alternate dark brown and dingy white stripes, the dark being twice as broad as the light, and dotted in the centre, at equal dis- tances throughout their whole length, with small spots of dingy white. In the centre of the back there is a dark stripe, rather broader than the others. The lowest stripe on each side is not so well marked or distinctly spotted. All the under parts are of a dingy white or slightly tawny colour. The tail is * To the kindness of Dr J. E. Dekay of New-York, we are indebted for an opportunity of examining a fine specimen of this marmot. Vol. II.—P H4 THE PRAIRIE MARMOT. indistinctly banded with dark brown and dingy white, being of the latter colour at tip. The fore legs, which are short and small, are co- vered with light hairs; the outer toe and claw are small and placed back, the centre toe is the longest of the other three. On the inside there is also a rudimental toe with a small obtuse claw, but this is not so remarkable as in the tawny marmot. The hind legs are longer than the fore legs, and clothed with light hairs; the extreme toes and claws are nearly of equal length and placed far back; the three others are also of equal length with each other. The claws are dark horn-colour, small and light at their ends, the fore ones be^ig the longest.* Species VI.—The Prairie Marmot. Arctomys Ludovicianus; Ord. Petit chien: Lewis and Clare, i. 67. Wistonwish: Pike, Exped. &c. 156. Arctomys Ludovicianus: Ord. in Guthrie, ii. 302. [1815.] Arctomys Missouriensis: Warden, Descr. des EtatsUnis. v. 567. Arctomys Ludovicianus: Say, Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. 451. [Le petit chien des Voyageurs; commonly called Prairie-dog.2 The vast solitudes of our remote territories, where man has not yet established his abode, are generally overshadowed by dense forests, which, during an un- known lapse of ages, have there successively flour- * See Sabine, as above quoted. THE PRAIRIE MARMOT. H5 ished and decayed ; imparting to the landscape a character of grand though sombre uniformity, broken only by the courses of rivers, the ruggedness and sterility of some portions of soil, or where the furi- ous hurricane has swept along, prostrating the giant sons of earth with a destructiveness proportioned to their resistance. The traveller who, impelled by curiosity, advances beyond the "father of western rivers," with delighted admiration finds himself gradually emerging from these apparently intermi- nable shades, and entering upon a new world. Re- fore him, spreading as far as vision can extend, he beholds fields of richest verdure, interspersed with clumps of slight and graceful trees, as if with an ex- clusive view to ornament, and discovers the far dis- tant windings of the river as it steals through the plain, by the cotton-wood and willows fringing its banks. After traversing such scenes, enlivened by numerous herds of browsing animals, that here find a luxurious subsistence, and arriving at the higher and more barren parts of the tract, he is startled by a sudden shrill whistle, which he may fear to be the signal of some ambushed savage ; but on advancing into a clearer space, the innocent cause of alarm is found to be a little quadruped whose dwelling is indicated by a small mound of earth, near which the animal sits erect in an attitude of profound atten* tion. Similar mounds are now seen to be scattered at intervals over many acres of ground, and the whole forms one village or community, containing thousands of inhabitants, whose various actions and gambols awaken the most pleasing associations. 115 THE PRAIRIE MARMOT. In some instances these villages are limited, or at most occupy but a few acres, but still nearer to the Rocky Mountains, where they are entirely undis- turbed, they are found to extend even for miles. We may form some idea of the number of these ani- mals when we learn that each burrow contains seve- ral occupants, and that frequently as many as seven or eight are seen reposing upon one mound. Here in pleasant weather they delight to sport, and enjoy the warmth of the sun. On the approach of danger, while it is yet too distant to be feared, they bark defiance, and flourish their little tails with great in- trepidity. Rut as soon as it appears to be drawing rather nigh, the whole troop precipitately retire into their subterranean cells, where they securely remain until the peril be past. One by one they then peep forth, and vigilantly scrutinize every sound and object before they resume their wonted actions. While thus near to their retreats they almost uni- formly escape the hunter, and if killed they mostly fall into their burrows, which are too deep to allow their bodies to be obtained. The villages found nearest to the mountains have an appearance of greater antiquity than those ob- served elsewhere. Some of the mounds in such situations are several yards in diameter, though of slight elevation. These, except about the entrance, are overgrown by a scanty herbage, which is charac- teristic of the vicinity of these villages. Say has observed on this subject, that it is not easy to assign a reason for the preference shown by the prairie marmot, which lives on grassy and herbaceous plants, THE PRAIRIE MARMOT. 117 in selecting the most barren places for its dwelling, "unless it be that he may enjoy an unobstructed view of the surrounding country, in order to be sea- sonably warned of the approach of wolves or other enemies." This reason may be sufficiently valid of itself, but we would suggest another in the differ- ence of soil, rendering such barren places* fitter for the burrows. It is by no means necessary to sup- pose that this marmot obtains its food exclusively near its own dwelling. We know that this is not the case with the Maryland marmot, which so closely resembles this species in every respect, and goes to considerable distances in search of food, even in the immediate vicinity of man.* The mound thrown up by the prairie marmot consists of the earth excavated in forming the bur- row, and rarely rises higher than eighteen inches, though measuring two or three feet in width at the base. The form of the mound is that of a truncated cone, and the entrance, which is a comparatively large hole, is at the summit or in the side, the whole surface, but especially the top of the mound, being well beaten down like a much used foot-path. From the entrance the hole descends perpendicularly for a foot or two, and then is continued obliquely or some- what spirally downwards, to a depth which has not been determined. This marmot, like his kindred species, passes the winter in a state of torpidity, and to secure himself comfortably against the effects of the cold, he closes * Pike says of the prairie marmot, that" they never extend their excursions more than half a mile from their burrows." 118 THE PRAIRIE MARMOT. accurately the mouth of the burrow, and constructs at the bottom of it a neat globular cell, of fine dry grass, having an aperture at top sufficiently large to admit a finger, and so compactly put together that it might almost be rolled along the ground uninjured. This active and industrious community of quad- rupeds (Hke every other society,) is infested by va- rious depredators who subsist by plunder, or are too ignorant or indolent to labour for themselves. Hence a strange association is frequently observed in their villages, for burrowing-owls {Stryx Hypugea of Ronaparte,*) rattle-snakes, lizards and land tor- toises, are seen to take refuge in their habitations. The burrowing-owl, however, appears to appropriate an excavation to his own use, as is evinced by its decayed and dilapidated condition, while those fre- quented by the marmot are always neat and in good repair. The young of the marmot most pro- bably become the prey of this singular bird. The rattle-snakes also exact their tribute with great cer- tainty, and without exciting any alarm, as they can penetrate the inmost recesses of the burrow, and a slight wound inflicted by their fangs is followed by the immediate extinction of life.f * See his splendid work on American Ornithology, vol. i. t " It is extremely dangerous to pass through their towns, as they abound with rattle-snakes, both of the yellow and black species; and strange as it may appear, I have seen the wiston-wish (prairie marmot,) the horn-frog (orbicular lizard,) and a land-tortoise all take refuge in the same hole. I do not pretend to assert that it was their common place of re- sort, but I have witnessed the above facts in more than one instance."—Pike, p. 156. THE PRAIRIE MARMOT. 119 The prairie marmot is about sixteen inches long from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, which is two inches and three-quarters in length. The head is broad and depressed above with large eyes, having dark brown irides. The ears are short and truncated ; the whiskers black and of moderate length ; there are a few bristles above the eye, and a few also on the side of the cheek ; the nose is rather short and compressed. The general colour is a light dingy reddish brown, intermingled with some gray, and a few black hairs, which are dark or dusky at base, then bluish white, then light reddish, and finally gray at tip. The under parts of the body are of a dirty white colour; the hair on the anterior legs, that on the throat and on the neck, is not dusky at base.* All the feet are five-toed, clothed with very short hair, and armed with rather long black nails; the outer one on the fore feet reaches nearly to the base of the next, and the middle one is nearly half an inch long. The thumb has a conical nail, three-tenths of an inch in length; the tail is banded with brown near the tip, and the hair, except that next the body, is not plumbeous at base. * The description of this species is from Say, who has given the best account of the habits of this animal hitherto published. 120 PARRY'S MARMOT. Species VII.—Parry's Marmot. Arctomys Parryii; Richardson. Arctomys Parryii, Gray Arctic Marmot: Richardson, App. to Frank- lin. Arctomys Alpina: Parry's 2d Voyage, p. 61. This species was brought in by the expedition under Capt. Franklin, and was named by Dr Rich- ardson in honour of Capt. Parry. It is rather larger than the Arctomys Franklinii, and measures to the root of the tail twelve or fourteen inches ; the tail itself is four inches long, and the hair at its extremity five inches and a-half in length. Parry's marmot has a broad and flattened body, with thick legs ; flattish head and blunt nose, cover- ed with a close coat of short brown hairs. The mar- gin of the mouth is hoary; the eyes are large and black coloured. The ear is very short, consisting of a flat semi-oval cartilage, projecting about the sixth of an inch over a large auditory passage. The cheek-pouches, which are very large, open into the mouth anterior to the grinders. The body is covered with a soft fur, consisting of a soft down of a dark smoky gray at the roots, pale clear gray in the middle, and yellowish gray at the tip. This arrangement causes a crowded assemblage of ill defined, irregular, and confluent whitish spots, margined and separated by black. The throat and all the under parts of the body are brownish red and brownish yellow, or rather an intermediate colour, blending with the colours of the back. The tail is flattish and subdistichous, and is at the will of the PARRY'S MARMOT. 12 L animal expanded like a feather; it is then brown along the middle, tipped and margined for two-thirds of its length with black. The feet are furnished with five toes, having short flattened claws, which are large, blackish, slightly arched and grooved un- derneath. On the inside of the fore feet, and high up, there is a small toe or thumb, armed with a small nail; the palms are naked and have callous protu- berances, three of them at the base of the toes, from the largest of which the thumb rises.* * Richardson, as cited above. Vol. II.—Q CHAPTER X. Genus XXVIII.—Squirrel; Sciurus; L. Gr. 2jt/tfgoc. Germ. Eichorn. Fr. Ecureuil. Hal. Scojattolo. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The head is somewhat elongated, with a sharp muzzle, moderately long ears, and large eyes. The upper lip is divided, and the cheeks destitute of pouches, the neck of a middling length, and the body rather slender. The teats are eight in num- ber, two being situated on the chest and six on the belly. The posterior are much longer than the an- terior extremities, which have four digits and a rudimental thumb; the external digit is short, the others are long. The posterior feet are five-toed, with a short internal and external digit: the three intermediate toes are long and slender. The next to the external toe is the longest of all, both in the anterior and posterior feet, the digits of which are furnished with curved acute nails, with the excep- tion of the rudimental thumb, which is blunt and naked. The tail is long and clothed with long and thickly set hairs. THE SQUIRREL 123 Dental System.* ( , r» 1 t $ 2 Incisive anT ..S^Upper |10Molar. 22 Teeth • j < 2 Incisive ( 10 Lower I 8 Molar. In the upper jaw the incisive is smooth and rounded in front, and rises from the sides of the ante- rior part of the maxillary bone. The first molar is a rudimental and cylindrical tooth, which falls out very early, and which is placed against the antero-internal surface of the second; this latter, which is sometimes a little smaller than the following, has, like them, a central depression, and another smaller one at both extremities: from these three depressions results a small spine on the anterior edge of the tooth, then two prominences, separated from each other by the central depression, and, finally, another small crest or spine on its posterior edge. On the outside of these depressions prominences and spines remain distinct, but on the inside they are reunited by a large and circular crest. This crest embraces the second molar rather less than the others, which thus differs in being narrower inter- nally than externally : the same is the case with the last, which differs by the prolongation of its postero- external part. * Frederic Cuvier introduces this dental system by remark- ing that it is evidently similar to that of the marmot and sper- mophili, all forming one and the same family; they differ, how- ever, in some circumstances, which are uniform in their re- currence, and by consequence are characteristic. 124 GENERAL HISTORY In the lower jaw the incisor is like that of the upper jaw, but is narrower, and rises from below and behind the last molar. The third molar is a third smaller than the others, which gradually in- crease in size to the last, but all formed alike, pre- senting in their middle a circular depression, and on their periphery a crest divided by a groove at the internal and at the external edge : from the centre of each of these grooves a small tubercle arises. Age, however, soon effaces these fugitive characters, and then these teeth exhibit a nearly smooth surface. The species comprised in this genus are in differ- ent degrees remarkable for their sprightly agility and graceful movements, as well as for their personal beauty and neatness. The forest is their appropri- ate residence, and nature has provided them not only with the means of rapidly ascending the loftiest trees, but with teeth capable of opening the way to food, which is effectually secured from almost every other creature. The hardest nuts found in the woods afford ample provision to the squirrels, and the number of nuts destroyed by these animals, though small when compared with the whole quan- tity produced, must have some effect in preventing the superabundant increase of forest trees. The muscular strength displayed by these animals is very great, when compared with their size. They make astonishing leaps from branch to branch, and from tree to tree, when engaged in sporting with each other, or endeavouring to escape from pursuit. At such times, when no tree is sufficiently near to OF THE SQUIRREL. 125 be reached by a single spring, the squirrel unhesi- tatingly drops from the greatest height to the ground, and falls with a force apparently sufficient to crush him; but no injury is experienced, and a few se- conds are sufficient for his escape into the top of the nearest tree. The actions of most of these animals are marked by a peculiar vivacity and playfulness. When mov- ing on the ground, squirrels advance by a succession of short leaps, while the long bushy tail, waving in graceful undulations, renders their whole ap- pearance very interesting. When engaged in lis- tening, they sit erect on their hinder limbs, having the tail beautifully raised against the back, and fall- ing in an easy curve at its extremity towards the ground. In eating, the position is much the same; the food is held in the fore paws, principally between the rudimental thumbs and the adjoining part of the • palms. The facility with which they cut through the covering of the hardest nuts is very remarkable ; they first turn the nut about until they get it into the most favourable position, and then examine it by gnawing slightly in different places. If the nut be withered or rotten it is speedily thrown aside and another sought. When a good one is obtained, and the proper place- for opening it is selected, (which is the thinnest part, immediately over the kernel,) a small linear opening is first made, which at length admits the points of the lower front teeth. These are now inserted, and the hole enlarged by break- ing off successive pieces of the shell in the di- rection of the kernel. A hickory-nut is thus fre- quently cut down on four sides from end to end, 126 GENERAL HISTORY leaving the intermediate thick portions untouched. After satisfying his hunger the squirrel generally buries the superfluous food; previous to the approach of winter large hoards of nuts and grain are collected and secured in the ground for future use. Their nests are at no great distance from these store-houses, and are built of small sticks and leaves in the top branches of forest trees, or in hollows of their trunks, except in the case of a few species which inhabit burrows at all times. All the squirrels are pecu- liarly cleanly, and are frequently seen to rub their heads and faces with their fore paws as if for the purpose of washing. When they accidentally step into water they make use of their bushy tail for the purpose of drying themselves, passing it several times through their hands. Like most of the animals belonging to this order, they are very prolific, and multiply until from their numbers large districts of country are injuriously overrun by them. They then invade and literally lay waste the cornfields, consuming vast quantities of grain, and destroy nearly as much as they eat by breaking it down and scattering it on the ground. On such occasions the farmers in thinly settled dis- tricts severely suffer, and are deprived of a large share of the fruits of their industry. The efforts of a whole family are occasionally insufficient to drive off or destroy these busy plunderers, as new crowds appear to be continually arriving to renew the de- predation. While travelling through the state of Ohio, in the autumn of 1822, we had an opportunity of wit- nessing something of this sort. Parts of the country OF THE SQUIRREL. 127 appeared to swarm with squirrels, which were so numerous that, in travelling along the high road, they might be seen scampering in every direction ; the woods and fields might be truly said, in the country phrase, to be " alive with them." A farmer, who had a large field of Indian corn near the road, informed us, that notwithstanding the continued exertions of himself and his two sons, he feared he should lose the greater part of his crop, in ad- dition to his time and the expense of ammunition used in killing and scaring off the little robbers. This man and his sons frequently took stations in different parts of the field, and killed squirrels until their guns became too dirty longer to be used with safety; yet they always found, on returning, that the squirrels had mustered as strongly as before. Dur- ing this journey we frequently met squirrel-shooters heavily laden with this game, which in many in- stances they had only desisted from slaying from want of ammunition or through mere fatigue. Fortunately for the farmers these animals are not at the same time equally numerous in different parte of the country. We found the squirrels in 1822 most numerous throughout the country lying between the Great and Little Miami rivers; they became evidently fewer as we advanced towards Chillicothe, and beyond that place were so rare as to be seldom seen. During some seasons they appear to move in mass, deserting certain districts entirely, and con- centrating upon others, in such migrations vast numbers are drowned^ in crossing the rivers, and numbers are also destroyed by beasts and birds of prey, and various other causes. 128 Till. FOX SQUIRREL. Species I.—The Fox Squirrel. Sciurus Vulpinus; Gmel. Sciurus Vulpinus : Gmel. Turton's L. i. 91. The Fox Squirrel .-.Lawson's Carolina, 124. This fine squirrel is found throughout the south- ern states, where it frequents the pine forests in con- siderable numbers, and derives its principal subsist- ence from the seeds of the pine. In the tops of these lofty trees it is almost out of the reach of danger, except from the pine-marten or other climb- ing beasts of prey, and possibly some large preda- cious birds. The fox squirrel displays a conscious- ness of his security by the fearless manner in which he usually looks down upon those who pass under the tree on which he is placed. When alarmed, like many of his kindred species, he immediately resorts to the artifice of spreading himself out, or lying flat on the upper surface of a branch on the side opposite to the apprehended danger, where he patiently clings until he has no longer cause to fear. Under such circumstances it is very difficult to dis- cover his position, or to distinguish *him from the branch on which he lies. The nest of this species is placed in the top of the high pine trees, and is made of twigs and small sticks, lined with leaves, or the long soft moss which is found so commonly streaming from the branches. The season of their sexual intercourse is the month of January. The young, which are from five to seven in number, are seen abroad as early as the month of March. THE CAT SQUIRREL. 129 The fox squirrel measures about fourteen inches, and the tail is sixteen inches in length. The colour varies from white to pale gray and black ; various shades of red, mottled, (like the cats called " tortoise shell,") and in short, of all the intermediate hues. This is fully shown in the Philadelphia Museum, where nearly all the varieties just mentioned may be seen. It is therefore not surprising that those who deem colour a sufficient indication of specific differ- ence, should make a number of species of this one. Perhaps many, at present considered well establish- ed, will be found to rest on no better foundation, and require to be stricken out of the catalogue.* Species II.—The Cat Squirrel. Sciurus Cinereus; L. Gmel. Cat Squirrel, B Penn. Arct. Zool. i. 137. Scitirus Capistratus : Bosc. An. du Mus. i. p. 205. Ecureuild,Masque : C. Regne Anim. i. 205. Ecureuil Capistrale : Desm. Mammal, p. 332, Sp. 629. The cat squirrel is one of our largest species, and is found in great abundance throughout the oak and chesnut forests of this country. It is generally * We have much pleasure in acknowledging the receipt of a letter on the subject of the squirrels of this country, from Capt. J. Le Conte, U. S. A. The time, we hope, will soon arrive when this accomplished naturalist will find leisure to give the scientific world the full benefit of his valuable re- searches relative to American Natural History. Vol. II.—R 130 THE CAT SQUIRREL. about eleven inches long, having a tail fourteen inches in length. This squirrel is comparatively heavy and slow in its movements, running up the trunks of trees and among the branches with more apparent effort than any of the other species ; its appearance also is by no means as pleasing as that of any of its kindred. It is rarely seen to leap from tree to tree, or even from branch to branch, except when closely pursued or much alarmed. In building its nest, and in gene- ral habits, it is very similar to the other species. The size is the only circumstance which distinguishes it positively from the fox squirrel. As to colour, it is impossible to state all the shades and variegations exhibited by this species. In the Philadelphia Museum a great variety may be seen, of almost every colour, from a light gray to black and spotted, pale reddish brown and nearly white. Three individuals, taken from the same nest, are so differently coloured as to be* entirely unlike, one having all the marks attributed to the capistratus, and the others strongly resembling the common black squirrel. THE COMMON GRAY SQUIRREL. ]3J Species III.—The Common Gray Squirrel. Sciurus Carolinensisj Gmel. Sciurus Carolinensis et Cinereus: Gm. Schreb. tab. 213. Petit Gris: Buff. 10. pi. 25, Encycl. pi. 74, fig. 3. Ecureuilgris de la Carolina: Bosc. ii. p. 96, pi. 29: F. Cuv. Mam. Li- thog. livr. lie. Gray Squirrel: Penn. Arct. Zool. i. 135, Hist. Quad. No. 272. This species, still exceedingly common throughout the United States, was once so excessively multi- plied as to be a scourge to the inhabitants, not only consuming their grain, but exhausting the public treasury by the amount of premiums given for their destruction. (l Pennsylvania (says Pennant,) paid from January 1749 to January 1750, eight thou- sand pounds currency; but on complaint being made by the deputies that their treasuries were exhausted by these rewards, they were reduced to one half;—-■ [from three pence to a penny and a half.] How im- proved must the state of the Americans then be, in thirty-five years to wage an expensive and success- ful war against its parent country, which before could not bear the charges of clearing the provinces from the ravages of these insignificant animals!" The gray squirrel prefers the oak, hickory and chesnut woods, where it finds a copious supply of nuts and mast, of which it provides large hoards for the winter. Their nests are placed chiefly in tall oak-trees at the forks of the branches; these nests are very comfortable, being thickly covered and lined with dried leaves. During cold weather the squir- rels seldom leave these snug retreats, except for the purpose of visiting their store-houses, and obtaining 132 THE COMMON GRAY SQUIRREL. a supply of provisions. It has been observed that the approach of uncommonly cold weather is fore- told when these squirrels are seen out in unusual numbers, gathering a larger stock of provisions, lest their magazines should fail. This, however, is not an infallible sign, at least in vicinities where many hogs are allowed to roam at large, as these keen-nosed brutes are very expert at discovering the winter hoards of the squirrel, which they immedi- ately appropriate to their own use. If the gray squirrels confined themselves to the diet afforded by the forest trees, the farmers would profit considerably thereby. But, having once tasted the sweetness of Indian corn and other cultivated grains, they leave acorns and such coarse fare to the hogs, while they invade the corn-fields, and carry off and destroy a very large quantity. This species is remarkable among all our squirrels for its beauty and activity. It is in captivity re- markably playful and mischievous, and is more fre- quently kept as a pet than any other. It becomes very tame, and may be allowed to spend a great deal of the time entirely at liberty, where there is nothing exposed that can be injured by its teeth, which it is sure to try upon every article of furniture, &c. in its vicinity. This squirrel, when domesticated, drinks frequently, and a considerable quantity of water at each draught. The gray squirrel varies considerably in colour, but is most commonly of a fine bluish gray, mingled with a slight golden hue. This golden colour is es- pecially obvious on the head, along the sides, where the white hair of the belly approaches the gray of i (//( upper i 4 Molar 0 / 4 Lower \ 4 Molar. The incisive teeth, very analogous to those of the elephant, are formed of ivory, which, when trans- versely cut, exhibits curvilinear lozenges, produced by the intersection of lines of a harder bony sub- stance. The molars have rectangular crowns, some- what straighter in the hind than in the fore teeth. They are composed of but two substances, the ex- ternal being a thick enamel, and the internal bony matter, without cement or cortical substance, each tooth weighing about twelve pounds. The crowns of these teeth are divided by very open trenches into transverse eminences, and each eminence is itself divided into two great, obtuse, ir- 1 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 205 regularly formed points, constituting slightly round- ed quadrangular pyramids. When the crown is not worn it is studded with knobs, or points disposed in pairs, from six to ten in number. Species I.—The Gigantic Mastodon. Mastodon Giganteum; C. Animal Incognitum: Remb. Peale, Account of the Skeleton of the Mammoth, 4to. 2d. ed.Lond. 1806. Mastodon Giganteum: C An. du Mus. Recherches Sur les Oss. Foss. ed. 2, i. p. 206. Mastodon Giganteum: Account of the Discovery of the Skeleton of the Mastodon Giganteum. Extracted from the Report made to the Ly- ceum of Natural History, by Messrs Dekay, Van Rensselaer, and Cooper. Annals Lyceum of Nat. Hist, of N. York, v. i. p. 143. [Improperly called Mammoth.] In various parts of North America single bones of extraordinary size had been occasionally disinterred, without exciting more than temporary curiosity, or leading to any thing better than wild and unsatisfac- tory speculation. Some persons regarded them as the relics of a gigantic race of men, of whose existence no other traces remained; others, who appeared willing to surpass all absurdity, suggested that they might have belonged to the angels who were ex- pelled their celestial habitations ; while a third, and more rational party, concluded that they were the bones of an animal still in existence, or belonged to a larger variety of the well known elephant species.— The inquiry generally ceased when the novelty of their discovery passed away; those by whom they were found were in pursuit of other objects, and very 206 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. frequently neglected to preserve the fragments already obtained. But when situations were explored where they were procured in greater abundance, and the curiosity of European naturalists was awakened, these relics were eagerly sought for, until nearly a whole skeleton was obtained, the fact satisfactorily estab- lished, that these bones belonged to a peculiar race never before known, and, what was still more sur- prising, that the whole race was utterly extinct. We find, as early as the year 1712, a letter from Dr Mather to Dr Woodward, published in the Phi- losophical Transactions, announcing that some bones and teeth of a monstrous size had been discovered at Albany, in New York. In the year 1739, some savages belonging to the company of a French officer named Longueil, who was descending the Ohio to the Mississippi, found, at a short distance from the river, at the edge of a marsh, some bones, grinders, and tusks, belonging to this unknown animal. The year after Longueil took to Paris a thigh-bone, the extremity of a tusk, and three grinders, which are still preserved there. Since that time these bones have been discovered in many places; though, in consequence of the notice first at- tracted by the specimens found on the Ohio river, the name of Animal of the Ohio had been bestowed on this creature, yet this name, and that of Mam- moth, have at length been entirely superseded by that proposed by Cuvier. About the year 1740, vast numbers of these bones, which had been washed up by the current of the Ohio, or were purposely digged for, were found in Kentucky. The eagerness to procure them, and the THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 207 haste with which they were sent to Europe, retarded the knowledge of the true character of the animal—as it became impossible to procure or recognize the bones belonging to different skeletons, or to determine their exact numbers and proportions. Over France, Eng- land and Germany, they were in this manner scattered in confusion; and we need not be surprised that natu- ralists were long in forming just ideas of the character of the animal, or indulged so much the disposition to. maintain theories established on such slight founda- tions. The force of prejudice may be clearly seen in the perseverance with which Buffon, and some other scientific men, maintained that these bones belonged to a variety of the elephant race ; for if he admitted that they did not belong to that kind, he must have acknowledged that they were the bones of an extinct genus, which was an idea not then proposed, but has since most amply been proved true, and a vast num- ber of extinct species discovered. In consequence of some large bones having been previously found in Siberia, that were really ele- phantine, the idea readily became prevalent that the great bones of the Ohio and other parts of North America were similar. Hence the name mammoth (said to be a corruption of the Hebrew word Behe- moth) was applied to the American animal, and con- tinued to be generally used, until the extreme dif- ference of its structure induced naturalists to con- sider it properly, raise it to the rank of a distinct genus, and bestow on it a name expressive of its most striking characteristic, the form of the teeth. It was not until the year 1801, a period of eighty- 208 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. nine years from the first discovery of the bones at Albany, that any hopes were entertained of finding an entire skeleton of this wonderful and interesting animal. In the year 1824 a considerable part of a skeleton was raised in New Jersey by some scientific gentle- men of New York; but they have not discovered any thing more than was previously made known by the exertions of Messrs Peale ; the head, which is the only important part wanting, was too much de- composed to enable them to form any idea of its figure. The emotions experienced, when for the first time we behold the giant relics of this great animal, are those of unmingled awe. We cannot avoid reflecting on the time when this huge frame was clothed with its peculiar integuments, and moved by appropriate muscles; when the mighty heart dashed forth its tor- rents of blood through vessels of enormous caliber, and the mastodon strode along in supreme dominion over every other tenant of the wilderness. How- ever we examine what is left to us, we cannot help feeling that this animal must have been endowed with a strength exceeding that of other quadrupeds, as much as it exceeded them in size ; and, looking at its ponderous jaws, armed with teeth peculiarly formed for the most effectual crushing of the firmest substances, we are assured that its life could only t be supported by the destruction of vast quantities of food. Enormous as were these creatures during life, and endowed with faculties proportioned to the bulk of their frames, the whole race has been extinct for THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 209 ages. No tradition nor human record of their ex- istence has been saved, and but for the accidental preservation of a comparatively few bones, we should never have dreamed that a creature of such vast size and strength once existed,—nor could we have be- lieved that such a race had been extinguished for- ever. Such, however, is the fact—ages after ages have rolled away—empires and nations have arisen, flourished, and sunk into irretrievable oblivion, while the bones of the mastodon, which perished long be- fore the periods of their origin, have been discover- ed, scarcely changed in colour, and exhibiting all the marks of perfection and durability. That a race of animals so large, and consisting of so many species, should become entirely and univer- sally extinct, is a circumstance of high interest;— for it is not with the mastodon as with the elephant, which still continues to be a living genus, although many of its species have become extinct:—the entire race of the mastodon has been utterly destroyed, leav- ing nothing but the " mighty wreck" of their skele- tons, to testify that they once were among the living occupants of this land. Into the probable causes of this extinction we shall hereafter make a fuller in- quiry. The situations whence these bones have been most commonly obtained, appear to have greatly con- tributed to their preservation. They have gene- rally been dug from beneath a considerable mass of mud, or marie, where they have long soaked in fluids charged with saline and other impregnations. Thus they have been equally protected against the effects of detrition and vicissitudes of weather, and most Vol. II.—2 B 2J0 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. of the bones found arc in every respect perfect, with the exception of an unimportant change in colour. This circumstance is almost universally observed of the bones contained in the different cabinets of this country; when scraped or cut they exhale an odour remarkably similar to that produced by the same treatment of a recent bone. . There are several circumstances leading us almost to despair of ever procuring the upper part of the skull, which, on account of its comparative thinness and weakness, as well as the fact of its being always found much nearer the surface, must be among the first parts to decay, and be irrecoverably lost. No specimen has yet been obtained more perfect than the one in the Philadelphia Museum, and this has no part of the skull above the level of the zygomatic arches. In this, as in all the individuals discovered, the top of the head was so far decayed and destroyed as to prevent the least idea being formed as to its figure or elevation. Enough of the head has fortunately been preserv- ed to make us fully acquainted with the dentition of this great animal, and enable us to decide on the general nature of its food and habits of living. With- out the aid derived from this source we should still be in doubt, and have nothing to guide us to.a satis- factory conclusion, although the analogy in size and general configuration might have served to produce the inference, that the animal was, in other respects, most nearly allied to the elephant, rhinoceros, or hippopotamus. The circumstances attending the exhumation of the most perfect skeleton ever obtained of this great THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 211 animal, are deeply interesting to every votary of natural science ; and the author believes that he can- not more effectually minister to the- gratification of his readers, than by introducing in this place the account written by his father-in-law, an eye-witness • and enthusiastic co-operator in that enterprise, which has secured to the scientific world one of its most interesting and instructive possessions. In addition to the authenticity of this record, (prepared almost on the spot, by so competent a hand), it is drawn up with a raciness and vigour which imparts to the reader's mind an excitement, not to be awakened by any cause, short .of truth, breathed forth with the vivid energy of enthusiasm. Narrative of the discovery and exhumation of the skeleton of the Mastodon; by Rembrandt Peale. In the spring of 1801, receiving information from a scientific correspondent in the state of New York, that in the autumn of 1799 many bones of the Mam- moth had been found in digging a marle-pit in the vicinity of Newburgh, which is situated on the riifer Hudson, sixty-seven miles from the city of New York, my father, Charles Wilson Peale, immediately pro- ceeded to the spot, and through the politeness of Dr Graham, whose residence on the banks of the Wall-kill enabled him to be present when most of the bones were dug up, received every information with respect to what had been done, and the most probable means of future success. The bones that had ben found were then in the possession of the farmer who discovered them, heaped on the floor of 212 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. his garret or granary, where they were occasionally visited by the curious. These my father was for- tunate to make a purchase of,* together with the right of digging for the remainder, and, immediately . packing them up, sent them on to Philadelphia. But as the farmer's fields were then* in grain, the enter- prise of further investigation was postponed for a short time. The whole of this part of the country abounding with morasses, solid enough for cattle to walk over, containing peat, or turf and shell-marle, it is the custom of the farmers to assist each other, in order to obtain a quantity of the marie for manure. Pits are dug generally twelve feet long and five feet wide at the top, lessening to three feet at the bottom.— The peat or turf is thrown on lands not immediately in use; and the marie, after mellowing through the winter, is in the spring scattered over the cultivated fields; the most luxuriant crops are the consequence. It was in digging one of these, on the farm of John Masten, that one of the men, thrusting his spade deeper than usual, struck what he supposed to be a "1--------------------------------------------- * They consisted of all the neck, most of the vertebrae of the back, and some of the tail; most of the ribs, in greater part broken; both scapulae; both humeri, with the radii and ulnae ; one femur; a tibia of one leg, and a fibula of the other; some large fragments of the head; many of the fore and hind feet bones ; the pelvis, somewhat broken; and a large frag- ment, five feet long, of one tusk, about mid-way. He therefore was in want of some of the back and tail bones, some of the ribs, the under jaw, one whole tusk and part of the other, the breast bone, one thigh, and a tibia and fibula, and many ofthe feet bones. THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 213 log of wood, but on cutting it to ascertain the kind, to his astonishment, he found it was a bone : it was quickly cleared from the surrounding earth, and proved to be that of the thigh, three feet nine inches in length, and eighteen inches in circumference, in the smallest part. The search was continued, and the same evening several other bones were discovered. The fame of it soon spread through the neighbour- hood, and excited a general interest in the pursuit! all were eager, at the expense of some exertions, to gratify their curiosity in seeing the ruins of an ani- mal so gigantic, of wThose bones very few among them had ever heard, and over which they had so often unconsciously trod. For the two succeeding days upwards of an hundred men were actively engaged, encouraged by several gentlemen, chiefly physicians, of the neighbourhood, and success the most sanguine attended their labours: but, unfortunately, the habits of the men requiring the use of spirits, it was af- forded them in too great profusion, and they quickly became so impatient and unruly, that they had nearly destroyed the skeleton; and, in one or two instances, using oxen and chains to drag them from the clay and marie, the head, hips, and tusks were much broken ; some parts being drawn out, and others left behind. So great a quantity of water, frotn copious springs, bursting from the bottom, rose upon the men, that it required several score of hands to lade it out, with all the milk-pails, buckets and bowls they could collect in the neighbourhood. All their ingenuity was exerted to conquer difficulties that every hour increased upon their hands; they even made and sunk a large coffer-dam, and within it found 214 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON many valuable small bones. The fourth day so much water had risen in the pit, that they had not courage to attack it again. In this state we found it in 1801. It was a curious circumstance attending the pur- chase of these bones, that the sum which was paid for them was little more than one-third of what had been offered to the farmer for them by another, and refused, not long before. This anecdote may not be uninteresting to the moralist, and I shall explain it. The farmer, of German extraction,—and like many others in America, speaking the language of his fa- thers better than that of his country—was born on his farm ; he was brought up to it as a business, and it continued to be his pleasure in old age; not be- cause it was likely to free him from labour, but be- cause profit, and the prospect of profit, cheered him in it, until the end was forgotten in the means.— Intent upon manuring his lands to increase its pro- duction (always laudable), he felt no interest in the fossil-shells contained in his morass; and had it not been for the men who dug with him, and those whose casual attention was arrested, or who were drawn by. report to the spot, for him the bones might have rotted in the hole in which he discovered them ; this he confessed to me would have been his conduct, cer- tain that after the surprise of the moment they were good for nothing but to rot as manure. But the learned physician, the reverend divine, to whom he had been accustomed to look upwards, gave impor- tance to the objects which excited the vulgar stare of his more inquisitive neighbours : he therefore join- ed his exertions to theirs, to recover as many of the bones as possible. With him, hope was every thing ; / THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 215 with the men, curiosity did much, but rum did more, and some little was owing to certain prospects which they had of sharing in the future possible profit. It is possible he might have encouraged this idea; his fear of it, however, seems to have given him some uneasiness; for when he was offered a small sum for the bones, it appeared too little to divide: and when a larger sum, he fain would have engrossed the whole of it, or persuade himself that the real value might be something greater. Ignorant of what had been offered him, my father's application was in a critical moment, and the farmer accepted his price, on condition that he should receive a new gun for his son, and new gowns for his wife and daughters, with some other articles of the same class. The farmer was glad they were out of his granary, and that they were in a few days to be two hundred miles distant; and my father was no less pleased with the consciousness, and on which every one complimented him, that they were in the hands of one who would spare no exertions to make the best use of them. The neighbours who had assisted the farmer in this discovery, envious of his good fortune, sued him for a share in the profit; but they gained nothing more than a dividend of the costs; it appearing that they had been satisfied with the gratification of their cu- riosity, and the quality and quantity of the rum; no one could prove that he had given them reason to hope for a share in the price of any thing his land might happen to produce. Not willing to lose the advantage of an uncom- monly dry season, when the springs in the morass were low, wc proceeded on the arduous enterprize. 216 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. In New York everf article was provided which might be necessary in surmounting expected diffi- culties; such as a pump, ropes, pullies, augers, &c; boards and planks were provided in the neighbour- hood, and timber was in sufiicient plenty on the spot. Confident that nothing could be done without hav- ing a perfect command of the water, the first idea was to drain it by a ditch; but the necessary distance of perhaps half a mile, presented a length of labour that appeared immense. It was therefore resolved to throw the water into a natural basin, about sixty feet distant, the upper edge of which was about ten feet above the level of the water. An ingenious mill- wright constructed the machinery, and, after a week of close labour, completed a large scaffolding and a wheel twenty feet diameter, wide enough for three or four men to walk abreast in: a rope round this turned a small spindle, which worked a chain of buckets regulated by a floating cylinder; the water, thus raised, was emptied into a trough, which con- veyed it to the basin ; a ship's pump assisted, and, towards the Tatter part of the operation, a pair of half barrels, in removing the mud. This machine worked so powerfully, that in the second day the water was lowered so much as to enable them to dig, and in a few hours they were rewarded with several small bones. The road which passed through this farm was a highway, and the attention of every traveller was arrested by the coaches, wagons, chaises, and horses which animated the road, or were collected at the entrance of the field: rich and poor, men, women and children, all flocked to see the operation; and a swamp THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 217 always noted as the solitary abode of snakes and frogs, became the active scene of curiosity and bustle: most of the spectators were astonished at the purpose which could prompt such vigorous and expensive exertions, in a manner so unprecedented, and so foreign to the pursuits for which they were noted.—But the amusement was not wholly on their side; and the variety of company not only amused us, but tended to encourage the workmen, each of whom, before so many spectators, was ambitious of signalizing him- self by the number of his discoveries. For several weeks no exertions were spared, and the most unremitting were required to insure suc- cess ; bank after bank fell in; the increase of water was a constant impediment, the extreme coldness of which benumbed the workmen. Each day required some new expedient, and the carpenter was always making additions to the machinery; every day bones and pieces of bones were found between six and seven .feet deep, but none of the most, important ones. But the greatest obstacle to the search was occasioned by the shell marie which formed the lower stratum; this, rendered thin by the springs at the bottom, was, by the weight of the whole morass, al- ways pressed upwards on the workmen to a certain height, which, without an incalculable expense, it was impossible to prevent. Twenty-five hands at high wages were almost constantly employed, at work which was so uncomfortable and severe, that nothing but their anxiety to see the head, and particularly the under jaw, could have kept up their resolution. The patience of employer and workmen was at length exhausted, and the work relinquished without ob- Vol. II.—2 C 218 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. taining those interesting parts, the want of which rendered it impossible to form a complete skeleton. It would not have been a very difficult matter to put these bones together, and they would have pre- sented the general appearance of the skeleton; but the under jaw was broken to pieces in the first at- tempt to get out the bones, and nothing but the teeth and a few fragments of it were now found; the tail was mostly wanting, and some toe-bones. It was, there- fore, a desirable object not only to procure some knowledge of these deficient parts, but if possible to find some other skeleton in such order as to see the position, and correctly to ascertain the number of the bones. In the course of eighteen years there had been found within twelve miles of this spot, a bone or two in several different places; concerning these we made particular inquiries, but found that most of the morasses had been since drained, and consequently either the bones had been exposed to a certain decay, or else so deep, that a fortune might have been spent in the fruitless pursuit. But through the polite attention of Dr Galatan, we were induced to examine a small morass, eleven miles distant from the former, belonging to Capt. J. Barber, where, eight years before, four ribs had been found in dig- ging a pit. From the description which was given of their position, and the appearance of the morass, we began our operations with all the vigour a cer- tainty of success could inspire. Nearly a week was consumed in making a ditch, by which all the water was carried off, except what a hand-pump could oc- casionally empty: the digging, therefore, was less difficult than that at Masteir's, though still tedious THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 219 and unpleasant; particularly as the sun, unclouded as it had been for seven weeks, poured its scorching rays on the morass, so circumscribed by trees, that the western breeze afforded no refreshment; yet no- thing could exceed the ardour of the men, particu- larly of one, a gigantic and athletic negro, who ex- ulted in choosing the most laborious tasks, although he seemed melting with the heat. Almost an entire set of ribs were found, lying nearly together, and very entire; but as none of the back bones were found near them (a sufficient proof of their having been scattered) our latitude for search was extend- ed to very uncertain limits; therefore, after working about two weeks, and finding nothing belonging to the head but two rotten tusks, (part of one of them is with the skeleton here) three or four small grinders, a few vertebrae of the back and tail, a broken scapula, some toe-bones, and the ribs, found between four and seven feet deep, a reluctant ter- minating pause ensued. These bones were kept distinct from those found at Mastcn's, as it would not be proper to incorpo- rate into one skeleton any other than the bones be- longing to it; and nothing more was intended than to collate the corresponding parts. These bones were chiefly valuable as specimens of the individual parts ; but no bones were found among them which were deficient in the former collection, and therefore our chief object was defeated. To have failed in so small a morass was rather discouraging to the idea of making another attempt; and yet the smallness of the morass was, perhaps, the cause of our failure, as it was extremely probable the bones we could not 220 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. find were long since decayed, from being situated on the rising slope at no considerable depth, unprotect- ed by the shell-marle, which lay only in the lower part of the basin forming the morass. When every exertion was given over, we could not but look at the surrounding unexplored parts with some concern, uncertain how near we might have been to the dis- covery of all that we wanted, and regretting the probability that, in consequence of the drain we had made, a few years would wholly destroy the venera- ble objects of our research. Almost in despair at our failure in the last place, where so much was expected, it was with very little spirit we mounted our horses, on another inquiry. Crossing the Wall-kill at the falls, we ascended over a double swelling hill into a rudely cultivated coun- try, about twenty miles west from the Hudson, where, in a thinly settled neighbourhood, lived the honest farmer Peter Millspaw, who, three years be- fore, had discovered several bones: from his log-hut he accompanied us to the morass.—It was impossible to resist the solemnity of the approach to this vene- rable spot, which was surrounded by a fence of safety to the cattle without. Here we fastened our horses, and followed our guide into the centre of the mo- rass, or rather marshy forest, where every step was taken on rotten timber and the spreading roots of tall trees, the luxuriant growth of a few years, half of which were tottering over our heads. Breathless silence had here taken her reign amid unhealthy fogs, and nothing was heard but the fearful crash of some mouldering branch or towering beach. It was almost a dead level, and the holes dug for the purpose THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 221 of obtaining manure, out of which a few bones had been taken six or seven years before, were full of wa- ter, and connected with others containing a vast quan- tity ; so that to empty one was to empty them all; yet a last effort might be crowned with success; and, since so many difficulties had been conquered, it was resolved to embrace the only opportunity that now offered for any farther discovery. Ma- chinery was accordingly erected, pumps and buckets were employed, and a long course of troughs con- ducted the water among the distant roots to a fall of a few inches, by which the men were enabled, unmolested, unless by the caving in of the banks, to dig on every side from the spot where the first dis- covery of the bones had been made. Here alternate success and disappointment amused and fatigued us for a long while ; until, with empty pockets, low spirits, and languid workmen, we were about to quit the morass with but a small collection, though in good preservation, of ribs, toe and leg- bones, &c. In the meanwhile, to leave no means untried, the ground was searched in various direc- tions with long-pointed rods and cross-handles: after some practice we were able to distinguish by feel- ing, whatever substances we touched harder than the soil; and by this means, in a very unexpected direc- tion, though not more than twenty feet from the first bones that were discovered, struck upon a large col- lection of bones, which were dug to and taken up, with every possible care. They proved to be a hu- merus, or large bone of the right leg, with the ra- dius and ulna of the left, the right scapula, the atlas, 222 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. several toe-bones, and the great object of our pur- suit, a complete under jaw! After such a variety of labour and length of fruit- less expectation, this success was extremely grateful to all parties, and the unconscious woods echoed with repeated huzzas, which could not have been more animated if every tree had participated in the joy. "Gracious God, what a jaw! how many animals have been crushed by it!" was the exclamation of all; a fresh supply of grog went round, and the hearty fellows, covered with mud, continued the search with increasing vigour. The upper part of the head was found twelve feet distant, but so ex- tremely rotten that we could only preserve the teeth and a few fragments. In its form it exactly resem- bled the head found at Masten's ; but, as that was much injured by rough usage, this, from its small depth beneath the surface, had the cranium so rotted away as only to show the form around the teeth, and thence extending to the condyles of the neck; the rot- ten bone formed a black and greasy mould above that part which was still entire, yet so tender as to break to pieces on lifting it from its bed. This collection was rendered still more complete by the addition of those formerly taken up and pre- sented to us by Drs Graham and Post. They were a rib, the sternum, a femur, tibia and fibula, and a patella or knee-pan. One of the ribs had found its way into an obscure farm-house, ten miles distant, to which we fortunately traced it. Thus terminated this strange and laborious cam- paign of three months, during which we were won- THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. 223 derfully favoured, although vegetation suffered, by the driest season which had occurred within eight years. Our venerable relics were carefully packed up in distinct cases; and, loading two wagons with them, we bade adieu to the vallies and stupendous mountains of Shawangunk : so called by their former inhabitants, the Indians of the Lenape tribe. The three sets of bones were kept distinct: with the two collections which were most numerous it was intend- ed to form two skeletons, by still keeping them sepa- rate and filling up the deficiencies in each by arti- ficial imitations from the other, and from counter- parts in themselves. For instance, in order to com- plete the first skeleton, which was found at Masten's, the under jaw was to be modelled from this, which is the only entire one that has yet been discovered, although we have seen considerable fragments of at least ten different jaws : while, on the other hand, in the skeleton just discovered at Barber's, the upper jaw, which was found in the extreme of decay, was to be completed, so far as it goes, from the more solid fragment of the head belonging to the skeleton found at Masten's. Several feet-bones in this skele- ton were to be made from that; and a few in that were to be made from this. In this the right hu- merus being real, the imitation for the left one could be made with the utmost certainty; and the radius and ulna of the left leg being real, those on the right side would follow, of course, &c. The collection of ribs in both cases was almost entire ; therefore, hav- ing discovered from a correspondence between the number of vertebrae and ribs in both animals, that there were nineteen pair of the latter, it was neces- 224 THE GIGANTIC MASTODON. sary in only four or five instances to supply the counterparts, by correct models from the real bones. In this manner the two skeletons were formed, and are in both instances composed of the appropriate bones of the animal, or exact imitations from the real bones in the same skeleton, or from those of the same proportion in the other. Nothing in either skeleton is imaginary ; and what we have not unques- tionable authority for, we leave deficient; which hap- pens in only two instances, the summit of the head, and the end of the tail. We now proceed to describe the parts composing the skeleton of the mastodon, and give in detail the measurements we have very carefully made on the excellent specimen in the Philadelphia Museum. To naturalists this will be the more acceptable as it has not heretofore been done throughout; and it will enable the general reader to form more definite con- clusions relative to the animal, by furnishing positive data for the basis of an accurate comparison between the bones of this skeleton and those belonging to other large quadrupeds. The Skull.—The upper parts of the skull are en- tirely lost, as already stated, down to the level of the anterior part of the zygomatic arch, except at the back of the skull, where the occipital bone rises above the level stated, and is eleven inches and a quarter high. The lower halves (or rather more) of the intermaxillary bones, and nearly the whole of the superior maxillary and cheek .bones, are also pre- served. The zygomatic arches are complete, and MASTODON 3.,'Jh(7(////,) 4". r Jfftttl I 6. The head alone weighs four hun- dred and sixty pounds. "The bones were separated and arranged with scrupulous care ; and I had the satisfaction of finding the other shoulder-blade, wrhich lay in a hole. I afterwards caused the skin to be stripped from the side upon which the animal had lain: it was in good preservation. This skin was of such extraordinary weight, that ten persons, who were employed to carry it to the sea side, to stretch it upon floating wood, moved it with great difficulty. After this was ac- complished, I caused the ground to be dug in vari- ous places, in order to see if there were any bones around, but chiefly for the purpose of collecting all the bristles, which the white bears might have trod- den into the wet ground on devouring the flesh. This operation was attended with difficulty, on account of the deficiency of proper tools for digging; however, * These parts were, doubtless, removed by the animals which fed on the carcass. t Four archines. | Seven archines. § Each five poods. THE FOSSIL ELEPHANT. 265 we succeeded in procuring more than forty pounds* of bristles. "The place where I found this animal is sixty paces distant from the sea shore, and about one hun- dred paces distant from the ice, whence it had fallen down. The fracture in the ice is exactly in the mid- dle between the two points of the isthmus, and is three wersts long, and in the place where the body of the animal was situated, the rock of ice has a per- pendicular elevation of one hundred and eighty or one hundred and ninety feet. Its substance is a clear ice, but of a nauseous taste; it slopes towards the sea. Its summit is covered by a bed of moss and friable earth, more than a foot in thickness. During the heat of the month of July a part of this crust melts, but the other remains frozen. Curiosity prompted me to ascend two other hillocks equally distant from the sea; they were of the same composition, and also slightly covered with moss. At intervals I saw pieces of wood of an enormous size and of all the species produced in Siberia; and also mammoth horns (elephant tusks) in great quantities frozen between the fissures of the rocks. They appeared to be of an astonishing freshness."] * More than one pood. Vol. II.—2 I CHAPTER XVII. Order VI.—Pecora; Ruminant Animals. These animals are peculiarly distinguished by having no incisive teeth in the upper jaw, the in- termaxillary bone, covered by a hardened gunj, being opposed to the incisors of the lower jaw, which are almost universally eight in number. Between these and the molar teeth there is a vacant space, except in certain genera having one or two canines. There are very uniformly six molars on each side of both jaws; these have their crowns marked by two dou- ble crescents, the convexity of which in the upper jaw is turned inwards, and in the lower jaw out- wards. The feet are all two-toed, and these toes are co- vered by two hoofs, which approach each other by flat surfaces, whence they have the appearance of a single hoof cleft in the middle, a circumstance which has obtained for these animals, in various languages, the designation of cloven footed, &c. In some ge- nera, there are behind these hoofs two small ones or rudimental hoofs, which are the only traces of late- ral toes. The two bones of the metacarpus and me- tatarsus are consolidated to form one bone, which is called the cannon bone. The most singular faculty possessed by these ani- mals is that of rumination, or of returning the food to the mouth to subject it to a second mastication af- OF THE RUMINANT ANIMALS. 267 ter it has been once swallowed. This process de- pends on the number and peculiar arrangement of their complicated stomachs. The first stomach is called rumen or paunch,* which is divided externally at its extremity into two saccular appendices, and slightly separated into four parts on the inside, having a vast number of flatten- ed papillae over the internal surface. The second is called reticulum or honeycomb,t and is distinguished from the first by its small and globular appearance, and by the beautiful arrange- ment of its internal membrane, which forms poly- gonal acute-angled cells. The third stomach is the smallest of all, and is termed omasum or feck.J Its internal membrane is arranged in longitudinal folds, varying in breadth, in a regular alternate order. The fourth stomach is called abomasum or reed,§ is next in size to the paunch, and is of an elongated pear-shape, having its internal membrane simply wrinkled longitudinally like the human stomach. The three first named stomachs are connected with each other and a groove-like continuation of the oesophagus in the following manner. The groove- like continuation enters where the paunch, reticulum, and omasum, approach each other, and thence it is continued with the groove wrhich ends in the third stomach. The groove is therefore open to the first * Also ingluvies, magnus venter, penula. t Ollula, bonnet, king's hood, &c. % Echinus, conclave, centipellis, manyplies, book, feuillet. § Faliscus, ventriculus intestinalis. 268 GENERAL HISTORY stomachs which lie to its right and left. The thick and prominent margins of this groove allow them to be drawn together, so as to form a complete tube, and then the oesophagus is continued direct into the third stomach.* The most generally received opinion on the act of rumination is, that the food is coarsely broken at the first mastication, and when swallowed passes into the paunch. It is thence gradually passed into the se- cond stomach, where it undergoes a certain degree of maceration in the fluids of the organ, and is formed into little balls, which by a sudden contraction of this stomach are impelled through the oesophagus or gullet to the mouth. It is then subjected to the se- cond more effectual mastication, f is again swallowed, and passes directly into the third stomach, and after remaining in this for a certain time it finally enters the fourth, simple or true digestive stomach. This account of the stages of the act of rumination is adopted by Blumenbach, Cuvier, &c. Toggia,J in part following the doctrine of Brugnone, sustains the opinion that the food, after the first mastication, enters the paunch only, and not the reticulum or se- cond stomach. In the paunch, moreover, by the fluids which are poured out from its internal surface, and by the structure and regular movements of its parietes, the mass is softened, divided and formed into small pellets, which are brought by the contractions * See Blumenbach's Comp. Anat. p. 137. t Vide Cuvier, Regne Animal, 247. % Delia ruminazione e digestione de'Ruminanti; Turino 1819, 8vo. op. cit. per Ranzani. OF THE RUMINANT ANIMALS. 269 of the organ to its cardia, and ascend the oesopha- gus to the mouth for the second mastication. Then the food is returned to the reticulum by means of the groove-like continuation ; there it remains for a certain time, unless the matter be mixed or fluid, in which case it passes at once into the third or fourth stomach. Toggia is pursuaded that it occurs in this and in no other way, because, 1st, when he had attentively examined the structure of the groove, he was convinced that nothing but finely comminuted food could pass through it, and not herbage but once and imperfectly masticated. 2d, When he examin- ed the stomachs of ruminant animals killed either at the commencement of the rumination, during this process, or immediately after it, he found the food which had been only once masticated, in the paunch alone; the food reduced by the second mastication was contained in the reticulum or second stomach; that which was imbued with fluid in the omasum or third; and finally, abundantly mixed with fluids or in a semifluid state, in the abomasum or fourth sto- mach.* The rumen or paunch is comparatively small in the young or suckling animal, and does not acquire its enormous size until it has been for some time the receptacle of food. The intestinal canal is very long in ruminant quadrupeds, but not voluminous in the larger portion ; the ccecum itself is long and rather even. The teats are situated between the thighs. The fat of these animals is remarkable for its * Ranzi Elementi di Zoologia, tomo 2do. parte 3a. 270 GENERAL HISTORY, &c. hardness when cooled; it may then be broken into pieces. It is well known in commerce and the arts under the name of tallow. To this order of animals man is more largely in- debted than to all the rest of animated nature. The mass of his food is obtained from their flesh, and there is no part of their bodies from which he does not derive additions to his cqmforts, and assistance to his arts. Their hides, horns, bones, hair, flesh, fat, milk, and even their blood, are in hourly demand. Many of them during their lives yield him valuable services as beasts of draught and burthen, and con- tribute amply to his sustenance and luxury when they are finally slaughtered. Peaceful and patient in their dispositions, they feed exclusively on the verdure which is scattered over the earth, and pre- pare this vegetable matter most efficiently for the use of man and other creatures, by converting it into their own flesh, which is edible throughout all the members of the order, and in a large proportion is delicious food. CHAPTER XVIII. Genus IV.—Cervus ; L. Deer. Gr. E\*uds and small branches of the willow, birch pop- lar, mosses, aquatic plants, &c. its flesh must be peculiarly flavoured. "The fat of the intestines is hard like suet, but all the external fat is soft, like that of a breast of mutton, and when put into a blad- der is as fine as marrow. In this they differ from all the other species of deer, of which the external Jat is as hard as that of the kidneys."* The female moose never has any horns; they bring forth their A Hearne. Vol. II.—2 L 282 TUE moose. young, //' ../fvy, ( A'///s THE COMMON DEER. 307 to the pioneers of civilization in their advances into the untrodden solitudes of the west. The improvements in agriculture have long since rendered this supply of food of comparatively little value to the white man, yet vast numbers of this species are annually destroy- ed, equally for the sake of their flesh, hides and horns. Judging by the quantity of skins brought to our mar- kets, and calculating the average number of common deer destroyed during the time which has elapsed since the settlement of the country, we may form an imperfect notion of the aggregate number and pro- ductiveness of this species ; which, notwithstanding this extensive consumption, doesnotappear to be very rapidly diminishing, if we except the immediate vi- cinities of very thickly peopled districts. Even in these, where the destruction of deer during the breed- ing season is prevented by law, the increase seems quite equal to the demand, and such humane and ju- dicious provisions will probably preserve this beau- tiful race to adorn the forest long after the species is ex- terminated in situations where it is not thus protected. The common deer is possessed of keen senses, es- pecially of hearing and smelling; the sight, though good, does not appear to equal in power the senses just named, upon which the safety of the animal most immediately depends. It is therefore necessary for the hunter to approach the deer against the wind, otherwise he is discover- ed by the scent, at a great distance, and his objects are entirely frustrated. The slightest noise excites the attention of the deer, and his fears appear to be more readily awakened by this cause than any other; while, on the contrary, the sight of unaccustomed ob- 308 THE COMMON DEER. jects seems rather to arouse curiosity than to pro- duce terror, as the animal will frequently approach, or stand gazing intently, until the hunter steals close enough to fire with fatal aim. The deer, in herds of various numbers, frequent the forests and plains adjacent to the rivers, feed- ing principally upon the buds and twigs of trees and shrubs, though they are fond of grass when their favourite food is not more convenient. The herd is led by one of the largest and strongest bucks, who appears to watch over the general safety, and leads the way on all occasions. When any cause of alarm checks their progress, the leader stamps with his feet, threatens with his horns, and snorts so loud- ly as to be heard for a very considerable distance. So long as he stands fast, or prepares for combat, the rest of the herd appear to feel secure; but when he gives way they all follow with precipitation, and vie with each other in the race. The salines, or licks, as they are commonly called, are eagerly sought for by these deer, as they have an equal fondness for salt with most other animals be- longing to the same order. In licking the soil, through which the saline matter oozes to the surface, they take up very considerable quantities of the earthy matter, and this enables the hunter to discover when the deer have recently visited the' spot, or that one of these places is not far distant, as the excrement of the animal then resembles small balls or pellets of hardened clay. The watchfulness of the leader of the herd, as above mentioned, has led the hunters to form an opinion, to which they pertinaciously adhere, that the deer, when they visit a salt lick, always post THE COMMON DEER. 309 one of their number as a sentinel, who is to give the alarm in case of the approach of an enemy. The common deer, when startled from a resting place without being much alarmed, moves at first in a singular and amusing manner. With an apparent awkwardness, two or three springs are made, from which the animal alights on three feet, drawing up and extending the limbs in a stiff and peculiar man- ner. As the tail is erected this alternate resting upon the feet of opposite sides, causes the tail to de- scribe a semicircle from side to side; a few high bounds are next made forwards, as if with a view to prepare for subsequent exertion, and then, if the cause of alarm be continued, the deer exerts his strength and dashes off in his swiftest career. Although the common deer is generally a very shy and timid animal, the males are very much dis- posed to war with each other during the season of their sexual passion, and they are almost always in- clined to fight when wounded or brought to bay. At this time they fight with their fore feet as well as their horns, and inflict severe wounds by leaping forward arid striking with the edges of their hoofs held together". If a hunter falls on the ground in attempting to close in and despatch a wounded deer with his knife, he is in great danger of being killed by such blows as we have described. This deer is also said by the hunters to evince a very strong de* gree of animosity towards serpents, and especially to the rattlesnake, of which it has an instinctive hor- ror. In order to destroy one of these creatures, the deer makes a bound into the air, and alights upon the snake with all four feet brought together in a 310 THE COMMON DEER. square, and these violent blows are rapidly repeated until the hated reptile is destroyed. The combats in which the males engage with each other are fre- quently destructive of the lives of both, in a way that would not readily be anticipated. In assaulting each other furiously, their horns come into contact, and being elastic, they yield mutually to the shock, so that the horns of one animal pass within those of the other, and thus secure them, front to front, in such a manner that neither can escape, and they torment themselves in fruitless struggles until worn down by hunger, they perish, or become the prey of wolves or other animals. Heads of deer which have thus perished are frequently found, and there is scarcely a museum in this country which has not one or more specimens. The following instance is given by Say in Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains. '' As the party were descending a ridge, their attention was called to an unusual noise proceeding from a copse of low bushes, a few rods from the path. On arriving at the spot they found two buck deer, their horns fast interlocked with each other, and both much spent with fatigue, one in particular being so much exhausted as to be unable to stand. Perceiving that it would be impossible that they should extri- cate themselves, and must either linger in their pre- sent situations or die of hunger, or be destroyed by the wolves, they despatched them with their knives, after having made an unavailing attempt to disen- tangle them. Beyond doubt many of these animals must annually thus perish." The common deer is fattest and in best condition in the months of October and November, when the THE COMMON DEER. 311 rutting season commences, and continues about a month, terminating commonly about the middle of December. While this season continues, the neck of the male is enlarged or dilated. The female commonly has one or two, and some- times three* fawns, which are of a light cinnamon colour, spotted with white. While the fawns are still young, or from May until July, the doe very carefully conceals her offspring while she goes to feed; and this act of maternal fondness is not only done in a state of nature, but even when the com- mon deer have been captive for some time and breed in parks. The hunters, however, turn this fondness to their own account, by imitating the cry of the fawn, either by the voice alone, or by a sort of pipe or reed which closely resembles the bleating of the ani- mal. The parent soon relinquishes all fears for her own safety, in her desire to assist her offspring, and following the sound, approaches the ambush of the hunter, where a deadly shot insures her immediate destruction. When a doe is killed in company with her fawn, or the mother has been removed as above mentioned, the little animal is at once tamed, or ex- hibits no apprehension at the approach of man, but follows his captor with the most confiding simplicity, and soon becomes so attached to his feeder as to attend his steps at all times, and obey his voice.f * " About the middle, of March Mr Peale shot a large doej in the matrix of which were three perfectly formed young, of the size of rabbits.*' Long's Exped. to the Rocky Moun- tains, i. t " From Capt. Parry I learned an interesting anecdote of a doe and her fawn, which he had pursued across a small in- 312 THE COMMON DEER. In the latter part of the summer the fawn loses the white spots, and in winter the hair grows longer and grayish, when the animal is said by the hunters to be in the gray. To this coat one of a reddish colour succeeds about the end of May and beginning of June; the deer is then said to be in the red. To- wards the end of August, the old bucks begin to change to the dark bluish colour; the doe begins this change a week or two later, when they are said to be in the blue. This coat gradually lengthens until it finally returns to the gray. The skin is said to be toughest in the red, thickest in the blue, and thin- nest in the gray; the blue skin is most valuable.* In the month of January the males cast their horns 5 the new horns soon after commence their growth. They continue in the velvet until the end of Sep- tember or beginning of October, so as to be in full condition for battle during their season of love and war. These horns are not very large, but are curv- ed forwards in a peculiar manner. They have an antler placed high up on the inside of each shaft, which presents downwards, and two or three others on the posterior surface turning backwards. In the fifth year, the horns consist of two cylindrical, whit- let. The mother, finding her young one could not swim so fast as herself, was observed to stop repeatedly, so as to al- low the fawn to come up with her, and having landed first, stood watching it with trembling anxiety as the boat chased it to the shore. She was repeatedly fired at, but remained im- movable, until her offspring landed in safety, when they both cantered out of sight."—Lyon's Narrative, p. 80. * See Say, in Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, i. p. 104. THE COMMON DEER. 313 h, and moderately smooth shafts, separating at first lightly outwards and backwards, and then strongly curving forwards and downwards. From the second to the fifth year the variations of the horns consist in their gradual advance from single, slightly curved shoots, to three and four antlers. From what has been already said of the changes occurring at different seasons, it will be perceived that no description of the pelage of any one can be generally applicable. It may be stated that the co- lour of the adults in summer is a fine fawn or yel- lowish brown above, with the under part of the low- er jaw, throat, belly, lower part of the limbs, poste- rior edges of the fore-limbs, anterior part of the thighs, and inferior surface of the tail, white. The front is rather gray, while the end of the muzzle is of a deep brown, with two white spots upon the upper lip 5 on the sides of the lower jaw, at the angles of the mouth, two triangular black spots are very generally found. Two-thirds of the upper surface of the tail is light brown, the outer third is black. The total length of the common deer, exclusive of the hair at the tip of the tail, is five feet four or five inches. The tail, exclusive of the hair, is nine inches and a half long. The hind foot from the tip of the os calcis to the extremity of the toe, is sixteen inches and a quarter. The fore arm eleven inches and seven-eighths. The weight, in the month of February, was 115 lbs.* * Say. Lewis and Clarke state that they saw common deer with tails seventeen inches in length. Vol. II.—2 P 314 THE COMMON DEER. During the stay of Long's Expedition at Engineer Cantonment three specimens of a variety of the com- mon deer were brought in, having all the feet white near the hoofs, and extending to them on the hind part from a little above the spurious hoofs. This white extremity was divided upon the sides of the foot by the general colour of the leg, which extends down near to the hoof, leaving a white triangle in front, of which the point was elevated rather higher than the spurious hoofs. The black mark upon the lower lip, rather behind the middle of the sides, was strongly marked. The flesh of the common deer is justly esteemed as an excellent article of food, when killed in the proper season, which is the autumn. The Indians and hunters, whose necessities do not permit them to choose, feed upon these deer at all seasons. The markets of our large cities are supplied very abun- dantly with venison from this species every winter, and at so cheap a rate as to bring it within the means of almost every housekeeper. The whole of the deer is used by the Indians, and, on pressing occasions, without the previous employ- ment of fire. If a hunter kill a deer after a long and exhausting chase, he applies his mouth to the wound by which the animal was killed, in order to refresh himself by sucking some of the blood. When very hun- gry, they cut a hole in the side of the animal, thrust in their hands and tear out the kidneys, which are in- stantly devoured, though still quivering with life.* * " After the hunters had been gone for about an hour, cap- tain Lewis again mounted with one of the Indians behind him, THE COMMON DEER. 3J5 The stomach of the deer, with its half digested contents, is a very favourite dish with almost all the savages, especially towards the north, where deer and the whole party set out; but just as they passed through the narrows they saw one of the spies coming back at full speed across the plain, &c. The young Indian had scarcely breath to say a few words as he came up, and the whole troop dashed forward as fast as their horses could carry them; and captain Lewis, astonished at this movement, was borne along for nearly a mile, before he learned, with great satisfaction, that it was all caused by the spy's having come to announce that one of the white men had killed a deer. Relieved from his anxiety he now found the jolting very uncomfortable; for the Indian behind him, being afraid of not getting his share of the feast, had lashed the horse at every step since they set off; he therefore reined him in, and ordered the Indian to stop beating him. The fellow had no idea of losing time in dis- puting the point, and jumping off the horse, ran for a mile at full speed. Capt. Lewis slackened his pace, and followed at a sufiicient distance to observe them. When they reached the place where Drewyer had thrown out the intestines, they all dismounted in confusion, and ran tumbling over each other like famished dogs: each tore away whatever part he could, and instantly began to eat it; some had the liver, and some the kidneys ; in short, no part on which we are accustomed to look with disgust escaped them. One of them who had seiz- ed about nine feet of the entrails, was chewing at one end, while with his hand he was diligently clearing his way by discharging the contents at the other. It was indeed impossible to see these wretches ravenously feeding on the filth of animals, and the blood streaming from their mouths, without deploring how nearly the condition of savages approaches that of the brute creation: yet, though suffering with hunger, they did not at- tempt, as they might have done, to take by force the whole deer, but contented themselves with what had been thrown away by the hunter. Capt. Lewis now had the deer skinned, and after reserving a quarter of it, gave the rest of the animal 316 THE COMMON DEER. feed in great degree on mosses and buds.* Euro- pean travellers who have tasted of this substance have not found it disagreeable: the Indians eat it altogeth- er, or with a very slight degree of preparation.^ However shocking it may appear to us, the preju- dice against raw meat is overcome with great ease when hunger pinches severely; and when once the prejudice is removed, a fondness for raw food is very to the chief, to be divided among the Indians, who immediately devoured nearly the whole of it without cooking. They now went forwards towards the creek, where there was some brush- wood to make a fire, and found Drewyer, who had killed a se- cond deer: the same struggle for the entrails was renewed here, and on giving nearly the whole deer to the Indians, they de- voured it, even to the soft parts of the hoofs. A fire being made, captain Lewis had his breakfast, during which Drewyer brought in a third deer; this, too, after reserving one-quarter, was given to the Indians, who now seemed completely satisfied and in good humour."—Lewis and Clarke, i. 375. * " The stomach of no other large animal besides the deer is eaten by any of the Indians that border on Hudson's Bay. In winter, when the deer feed upon fine white moss, the con- tents of the stomachs are so much esteemed by the Indians, that I have often seen them sit round a deer where it was killed, and eat it warm out of the paunch. In summer the deer feed more coarsely, and therefore this dish, if it deserve that appellation, is then not so much in favour."—Hearne, 318. t " Of the nerooka r_the contents of the deer's stomach] I also tasted a small portion, considering that no man who wishes to conciliate or inquire into the manners of savages should scruple to fare as they do while in their company. I found this substance acid and rather pungent, resembling, as near as I could judge, a mixture of sorrel and radish leaves. The smell reminded me of fresh brewer's grains; and the young grasses and delicate white lichens on which the deer feed were very apparent."—Lyon's Narrative, 24-2. THE COMMON DEER. 317 readily acquired, even by those who have previously been fastidious in their tastes.* The skins of the common deer continue to form a very valuable article of commerce, and furnish a ma- terial better suited for the manufacture of gloves and various articles of dress, than the skin of any other animal with which we are acquainted. The Indian fashion of dressing the skins consists in depriving them of the hair and fleshy matter, and rubbing them sedulously with a lather made of the brains of the animal until they become uniformly soft, spongy and flexible. In this condition they impart to the touch a sensation of greater softness than that derived from the finest cloth. Deer skins dressed in this way, however, are very liable to be spoiled by moisture, * " Dunn and myself, as an experiment, made our breakfast on a choice slice cut [raw] from the spine, and found it so good, that at dinner time we preferred the same food to our share of preserved meat, which we had saved from the pre- ceding night. The windpipe is exceedingly good ; and I am confident, that were it not from prejudice, raw venison might be considered a dainty."—Lyon, 242. " The most remarkable dish among them, as well as all the other tribes of Indians in those parts, both northern and southern, is blood, mixed with the half digested food found in the deer's stomach or paunch, and boiled up with a sufficient quantity of water to make it of the consistence of pease pot- tage. Some fat and scraps of tender flesh are also shred small and boiled with it. To render this dish more palatable, they have a method of mixing the blood with the contents of the stomach in the paunch itself, and hanging it up in the heat and smoke of the fire for several days, which puts the whole mass into a state of fermentation, and gives it such an agree- able acid taste, that, were it not for prejudice, it might be eaten by those who have the nicest palates."—Hearne, 317. 318 THE COMMON DEER. and rot with great rapidity if they continue for some time exposed to rain. The buck-skin, as dressed for the use of our glovers, is remarkable for its thickness, softness and pliability, and with these advantages it has the great superiority of not being liable to injury from moisture, as tannin is made use of in its preparation. In relation to its warmth, durability and agreeableness to the wearer, it appears to be much preferred to similar leather made from any other skins, whether of European or American deer. Within a few years past the use of buckskin shirts has very much increased among in- valids, and often with great advantage. But it is generally believed that these shirts render the body extremely susceptible to changes of temperature, and, all things considered, do more injury than shirts made of flannel or other commonly used materials. CHAPTER XIX. Genus V. Antelope ; Antelope. Pall. &c. &c. Fr. Antelope. Get: Antelope. GENERIC CHARACTERS. The body, ears, eyes and lachrymal or subocular sinuses, are very similar to those of the deer, and the limbs bear an equal resemblance thereto, except that some species of antelope have tufts or brushes of long hair pending from the carpus. The outline of the front or face is nearly straight, and terminates in a muzzle, or half muzzle, though in some species this is absent. The teats are four or two in number, being sometimes two in one sex and four in the other. The gall bladder is uniformly present, a circumstance in which this genus differs remarkably from the deer. The horns of both sexes (though in some species the horns are confined to the male) are placed upon a solid bony process of the os frontis. The horns are curved in various directions, being often marked with transverse bands, have a salient spiral line, or are bifurcated. Dental System. r „ „ tt ^0 Incisive C 12 Upper ?12Molar. 32 Teeth: ; r 8 lncisive > 20 Lower } 12 Molar. 320 THE ANTELOPE Species I.— The Prong-Horn Antelope. Antilope Americana; Ord. Antelope: Lewis and Clarke, i, 75, 208, 369 ; ii. 169, Antilope Americana: Ord. Guthrie's Geography, Philad. ed. 1815. Antilocapra Americana : Ibid. Journal, de Physique, 1818. Say. Long's Exped. to the Rocky Mountains, i. 363, IS5. Antilope Furcifer: Smith. Trans, of Linnsean Society, xiii. pi. 2. Prong-Horned Antelope : Sab. App. p. 667. « Our adventurous countrymen who led the first ex- pedition across the Rocky Mountains, were the first to call attention to this beautiful animal, and the first to call it by its true name. Notwithstanding the ob- viousness of all the other characters, the circumstance of its having an offset, or prong to its horns, kept nomenclators for years undecided as to what place it should occupy in their arrangements, and gave them an opportunity, by which they have not failed to pro- fit, of multiplying words and republishing their own names, if they made no addition to our information on the subject. All that has been related concerning this animal which is worth repeating or remembering, was published in Lewis and Clarke's narrative, above quoted, and has since been confirmed by the obser- vations of Dr Richardson, appended to Franklin's Journey to the shores of the Polar Sea. Leaving to the nomenclators their disputations about what Dekay has happily called < the barren honors of a synonyme,' we shall glean the few facts contained in the narrations of the above-mentioned accurate observers of nature. The prong-horn antelope is an animal of wonderful fleetness, and so shy and timorous as but seldom to repose, except on ridges which command a view of the surrounding country. The acuteness of their sight and /Wy " br a.X.£Uis. x ."//,. //,«»/<«■» fr*' ■*■ £&>,,