r .,* FINAL REPORT ON THE OEOLOGY OF MASSACHUSETTS: VOL. I. CONTAINING I. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. II. SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. BY EDWARD HITCHCOCK, LL. D. PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND NATORAL HISTORY IN AMHERST COLLEGE : GEOLOGIST TO Till STATE OF MASSACHUSETTS, feTC. 'It y ^ sx* $\ X" *l-< fUocA NORTHAMPTON: PUBLISHED BY J. H. BUTLER 1841. L^U.-w, v * 1*41' To His Excellency Edward Everett, Governor of Massachusetts: Sir, I am happy to be able at length to present you with my final Report on the Geology of Mas- sachusetts. I have divided it into four Parts: 1. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY : 2. SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY: 3. SCIENTIFIC GEOLOGY: 4. ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. The Economical Geology contains a description of all the minerals and rocks in the State hitherto discovered, that have been applied to useful purposes. To this part of the subject I have devoted more attention since my re-appointment as State Geologist, than to any other. The difficult yet important subject of soils ; their chemical composition, geological character, and means of improvement, were scarcely alluded to in my former general report; but in the present one, it occupies a conspicuous place. By the liberal assistance of a distinguished chemi- cal friend, I have brought forward on this subject many new views, which I trust will prove valuable. In applying these views, numerous analyses have been requisite. I have performed many others, also, upon other substances, to ascertain their value: so that the whole number whicli 1 have given, amounts to about 400. In fact, my former reports exhibit but a meagre account of our economical geology, compared with the present; however imperfect even this may be. The Scenographical Geology embraces a description of the most remarkable natural scenery of the State, accompanied by drawings of the most interesting spots. These drawings I have succeeded in obtaining through the liberality of several artists ,who have gratuitously accompa- nied me in my tours ; and though they should be engraved in plain style, they may aid in call- ing the attention of our citizens to striking features in our scenery, that are now generally pass- ed unnoticed. This is the chief object of this part of my Report: and if I succeed in it, I shall feel as if an important point were gained. The Scientific Geology considers the bearings of the subject upon the principles of the sci- ence, without direct reference to practical utility : although the theoretical principles of this sci- ence have an important relation to practical utility. On this part of the subject a great number of new and curious facts have come to my knowledge since the publication of my formcr^Re- ports. I have spent a great deal of time also, in tracing out more accurately the boundaries of the different rock formations upon the accompanying corrected geological map. I have also ad- ded to the State Collection of rocks, minerals, and soils, 1303specimens ; so that the whole num- ber now amounts to 2857. Under Elementary Geology, I have given a condensed view of the terms, principles and theo- ries of the science of geology in general. I have done this in the hope of aiding those persons who may wish to read this Report, who have not the leisure or the means of consulting the larger works that have been published on the subject. My chief fear is, that I have been oblig- ed, for want of room, to condense it so much as to make it obscure. I cannot close this protracted labor, without expressing my obligations to your Excellency, and to your predecessors in office since the commencement of the Geological Survey, for the IV Introduction, kind and liberal manner with which my efforts have been encouraged and my deficiences over looked ; for the judicious counsels and instructions which I have received ; and for the personal favor and attention with which I have been treated- Nor would 1 forget my indebtedness to the other branches of the Government for the liberal patronage and support which they have bestowed upon this enterprise. Let me here, also, testify to the universal disposition which I have found manifested in every part of the Commonwealth, to forward the objects of the survey. For ten years,—I might in truth say twenty,—I have spent a principal portion of my time in wandering over the State. I have climbed all her mountains. I have penetrated her most sequestered valleys and glens. In short, I have traveled within her boundaries not less than 10.000 miles; not with rail road speed, but rather with a geological, which is nearly synonomous with a pedestrian pace : yet have I everywhere met with a hospitality that has supplied alt my wants, and with intelligence enough to understand and appreciate, and a disposition to forward, the objects of my commission. These circumstances have given a deep interest to my geological excursions, and make the retrospect of them among the happiest recollections of my life ; while they have greatly exalted my opin- ion of the kindness, intelligence, and happy condition of our population, and increased my attach- ment to my native State. It may not be irrelavent to state, that since Massachusetts begun this geological exploration, no less than eighteen other States of the Union have commenced, and are now actively prosecut- ing, or have completed, similar surveys : while the Government of the United States, as well as some European Governments, especially that of Great Britain, have followed the same example. Finally, and above all, I desire to acknowledge and feel my supreme obligations to that kind Providence, which has followed me in all my wanderings, defended me from all serious accident and danger, and enabled me to bring to a conclusion one of the most laborious enterprises of my life. To Him, therefore, I desire to consecrate the fruits of this labor, and the little remnant of strength and of life that remain to me; in the humble hope that they may be accepted; and that upon a retrospect of my days, I may feel that I have not lived entirely in vain. Respectfully submitted, Amherst College, Dec 1, 1839. EDWARD HITCHCOCK. Note. It may be proper to say, that the great length of time which has been necessarily consumed in printing the following Report, has enabled me to discover many facts since it was first presented to the Government. These I have not hesitated to incorporate into the work, as the reader will see, without consulting the Government. This statement may, indeed, show that the work is even yet imperfect. But this fact I have no disposition to conceal. If I can flatter myself that I have done something towards developing our subterranean resources, and made the work easier for those who succeed me, I ought not to lay claim to more. E. H. Amherst College, April 1, 1841. < Introduction, v HISTORY OF THE SURVEY. On the third of March 1830, the Legislature of Massachusetts passed a Resolve, authorizing and requesting the Governor with the advice of the Council, ' to appoint a Surveyor well skilled in astronomy and in the art of surveying upon trigonometrical principles,—to make a general sur- vey of the Commonwealth, and from such astronomical observations and calculations as may be made, to project an accurate skeleton plan of the State, which shall exhibit the external lines thereof and the most prominent objects within those lines and their locations.* In Governor Lincoln's Message to the Legislature May 29th, 1830, we find the following recommendation. ' I beg leave to suggest to your consideration the utility of connecting with the Geographical Surveys, an examination of the geological features of the State, with a view to the exhibition of them on the map. Much knowledge of the natural history of the country would thus be gained, and especially the presence of valuable ores, with the localities and extent of quarries, and of coal and lime formations, objects of enquiry so essential to internal improvements, and the ad- vancement of domestic prosperity, would be discovered, and the possession and advantages of them given to the public. I am assured that much has already been gratuitously done, by some eminent professors in our colleges, towards the accomplishment of such a work, and that, at a little expense, it might be completed, and the fruits of their generous labors thus far, be secured to the State. This, however, will require the interposition of your authority in increasing the present appropriation, and permitting an application of it, so far as may be necessary, in the ex- ercise of a sound discretion to the end proposed.' In conformity with these suggestions, the Legislature, on the 5th of June, 1830, ' Resolved, That his Excellency the Governor, by and with the advice of the Council, be, and he is hereby authorized to appoint some suitable person, to make a geological examination of the Common- wealth, in connection with the general survey, in order that the same may be inserted on the map which may be published, &c On the 26th of June 1830, Governor Lincoln issued a Commission toYi.* author of the fol- lowing Report, directing him ' to make the geological examination of this Commonwealth, in the manner contemplated by said Resolve, performing such duties relating thereto, as are or may be enjoined upon you; and obeying such instructions as, from time to time, you may receive from the proper authority.' , February 2d. 1831, the Legislature still further authorized His Excellency the Governor,' to direct the person who is appointed to make a Geological Survey of the Commonwealth, to cause to be annexed to his report on that §ubject, a list of the native Mineralogical, Botanical and Zoo- logical productions of the Commonwealth, so far as it may be practicable to ascertain the same within the limits of the appropriation already made for this Survey. A Report on the Economical Geology of the State, with a Geological Map, having been pre- sented to the Government in the beginning of the yearlS32, it was ordered to be printed : and on the 24th of March 1832, the Legislature ' Resolved, that the 600 copies of the first part of the Report on the Geological Survey of the Commonwealth, provided in pursuance of an ar- rangement made by his Excellency the Governor with the advice of Council, for the use of Government, be delivered to the Secretary of the Commonwealth, and by him be distributed, as follows, viz. ' Four copies to the Governor ; two copies to the Lieutenant Governor ; One copy to each member of the Council; One copy to each member of the Senate and House of Representa- vi Introduction. tives; five copies to be deposited in the Library of the State: and that the remaining copies be distributed as His Excellency the Governor may direct.' In the early part of 1S33, a full Report was presented, and the Legislature on the 25th of February adopted the following very liberal Resolves : ' Resolved, that His Excellency the Governor, be, and hereby is authorized to cause twelve hundred copies of the Report on the Geological Survey of the Commonwealth ; including that part of the Report already made, as well as the part hereafter to be made, with the drawings which shall accompany said Report, to be published in such way and manner as he shall deem proper and expedient; and he is authorized with the advice and consent of Council, to draw his warrant upon the Treasurer of the Commonwealth for such sum, or sums, as may be necessary to carry this resolve into full effect.' ' Resolved, that the said twelve hundred copies, when published, shall be delivered to the Sec- retary of the Commonwealth, to be distributed in the following manner, viz: twelve copies to the Governor ; six copies to the Lieut Governor; one copy to each member of the Council, Senate and House of Representatives ; one copy each to the Secretary, Treasurer, and to each of the Clerks and Chaplains of the two Houses ; one copy to each town in the Commonwealth ; five copies to be deposited in the Library of the State ; two copies each to Harvard, Amherst and Williams Colleges ; one copy each to the Theological Seminaries at Andover and Newton ; one copy to each incorporated Academy in the Commonwealth ; one copy each to the Boston and Salem Atheneums ; one copy to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences: one copy to the Antiquarian Society at Worcester ; one copy to the Massachusetts Historical Society ; one copy to the Boston Society of Nataral History; twenty copies to the Geological Surveyor; and one copy to each person who shall have aided him in preparing the Catalogues appended to the Report; two copies to the Library of the United States; one copy to the Executive of each State in the Union, and the remaining copies to be disposed of in such a manner as His Excel- lency the Governor shall direct.' On the 19th of February 1834, the following Resolve was adopted by the Legislature: ' Resolved, that his Excellency the Governor with the advice of the Council, be authorized to cause to be printed, under the superintendence of the Geological Surveyor, a new edition of Professor Hitchcock's Report on the Geology of this Commonwealth, and the Atlas accompa- nying it, with such alterations and additions as may be proposed by the Professor, and approved by the Executive ; and that a warrant be drawn on the Treasurer for such sum as may be neces- sary to defray the expense thereof: provided that the whole expenditure shall not exceed the sum of two dollars and sixty cents for each copy.' ' Resolved, that the said five hundred copies, when published, shall be delivered to the Secre- tary of the Commonwealth, and be distributed in the following manner, viz. Twelve copies to the Governor; ten copies to the Surveyor ; one copy to each of the Chap- lains of the Senate and House of Reoresentatives ; one copy to each incorporated Lyceum and Atheneum in this Commonwealth ; two copies each to the Berkshire Medical Institution, and the Massachusetts Medical College; one copy to each member of the Council, Senate, and House of Representatives, who was not a member of either of those branches of the government for the last year; one copy to each of the permaneht Clerks in the office of the Secretary of State Treasurer, and Adjutant General, two copies to the Pilgrim Society at Plymouth ; and the re- maining copies to be disposed of in such a manner as the Legislature may direct.' On the 12ih of April 1837, the Governor and Council were authorized and requested to ap- point some suitable person or persons to make a further and thorough geological, mineralogical botanical and zoological survey of this Commonwealth, under his direction, particularly in refer- ence to the discovery of coal, marl, and ores, and an analysis of the various soils of the State relative to an agricultural benefit. Introduction. vii A Report of 139 pages on the Economical part of the Re-survey was made in the winter of 1838, and printed without any special order. In December 1839 the Final Report was present- ed, and the Governor was authorized to procure the publication of 1500 copies by a Resolve passed April 9th 1839, which were to be distributed as follows. Resolved, That the said copies, when published, be delivered to the Secretary of the Com- monwealth, to be distributed in the following manner : twelve copies to the Governor ; six cop- ies to the Lieut. Governor; one copy to each member of the Council, Senate, and House of Representatives; one copy each to the Secretary, Treasurer, and to each Clerk and Chaplain of the two Houses ; one copy to the Secretary and one to each member of the board of Education ; twenty copies to the Geological Surveyor, and ten to each Commissioner appointed under the resolve of April 12th, 1837 ; five copies to be deposited in the library of the State ; one copy to each town in the Commonwealth ; two copies each, to Harvard, Amherst, and Williams colleges ; one copy each to the theological seminaries of Andover and Newton; one copy to each incorpo- rated Atheneum, Lyceum, and Academy, in the Commonwealth ; one copy to the American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences ; one copy to the Antiquarian Society at Worcester, and one to the Pilgrim Society at Plymouth ; one copy to the Massachusetts Historical Society, and to every other incorporated historical Society in the Commonwealth; one copy to the State Lunatic Hos- pital at Worcester ; one copy to the Boston Society of Natural History; one copy to the Essex County Natural History Society; one copy each to the Massachusetts and Salem Charitable Mechanic Associations ; one copy to the library of the East India Marine Society, in Salem ; two copies to the library of the United States ; one copy to the Executive of each State in the Union ; one hundred copies to be placed at the disposal of the Governor, and the remainder to be subject to the further order of the Legislature. CONTENTS. PART I.—ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY. Ohjects of the survey. * * - * age- 13 Geology and Chemistry of Soils. ___..■«- 14 Classification of Soils. - - • - - - - - 16 Analysis of Soils by Davy's Method. - - - • - 21 Insufficiency of this Method. - ■■ - * * 26 Analysis by Alkalies. - - 28 Inference respecting analysis. - - - - - - - - 30 Dr. Dana's New Method of Analysing Soils. 35 Phosphates in most Soils. - - - - - - 45 and 48 Effects of Lime upon Soils. - - - - 51 Power of Soils to Absorb and Retain Water. .... 58 Calcareous Matter in Massachusetts Marls. - - * - - 67 Marly Clay. - - - - - - - - 75 Calcareous Diluvium. - - - - - - -77 Limestone. - - - - - - - -79 Substances operating like Lime :—Green Sand. - - - - - 91 Clay. - - * - - - » - - 95 Decomposing Rocks. - - - - * - - -98 Siliceous Marl, (Fossil Infusoria.) - - - - - - 99 Natural Sources of Geine in Massachusetts. - 100 Peat and Mud Swamps. ....... jqi Geic Compound. - ...... 104 Substances yielding Geine and Salts :—Marsh Mud. - 105 Muck Sand. ........ 1Q7 Deposits from Rivers. - - « - - - - 112 Amendment of Soils. - - - - * - - -116 Note on the Nature of Geine. - - - - - - 120 Fossil Fuel. __--_. _ ^2G Anthracite of Worcester, Mansfield, &c. - - - . -127 Bituminous Coal. ----... 133 Peat. ------... 144 Rocks for Architectural and Ornamental Purposes. - 146 Marbles of Berkshire. -----.. jgrj Burning of Lime. ----... jg3 Hydraulic Lime. - - " - - - 170 Roman Cement. ----... 175 Precious Stones. -----.. jg4 Useful Metals and their Ores. ------- igg Misguided Efforts after Gold and Silver. - orjg Substances Useful for various Purposes : Materials for Roads : Firestones. - -211 Whetstones and Grindstones. - - - - . . 213 Flagstones: Fluxes. - - - - - * - 2M Contents. Clay for Bricks : Moulding Sand. Ochres and Stone Paints. .... Arenaceous and Granular Quartz. Millstones : Polishing Materials. Alum Rock. ..... Plumbago or Black Lead. .... Glazing for Porcelain, Substances for the Dentist, &c. Mineral Springs, Source of Lithia, &c. PART II.—SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. Connection between Geology and Scenery. - Mountains of Berkshire County Mountains and Hills of the Connecticut Valley. do do of the Eastern Part of the State Valleys of Berkshire. - Valley of the Connecticut. .... do of Worcester and the Merrimack. Coast Scenery. ---___. Water Falls. -----.. Caverns and Fissures. ------ Purgatories. »-.... Autumnal Scenery. - PART III—SCIENTIFIC GEOLOGY. Tabularr View of Rocks in Massachusettss. STRATIFIED ROCKS:—Alluvium. - Deposits of Infusoria. - . Action of the Sea upon the Coast. ... Valleys. ...... Anomalous Effects of Water. .... Diluvium or Drift. ------ Diluvial Elevations and Depressions. Bowlders. ...... Diluvial Denudation, Scratches, Furrows, &c. Inferences. ...... Theories of Diluvial Action. .... Concretions in diluvial Clay. - Claystones. ...... Ferruginous Concretions. .... Jointed Structure in Diluvial Clay. Eocene or Older Tertiary Strata. - Gay Head described. ..... New Red Sandstone. - - - Compared with European Formations. Its Organic Remains. ..... Fossil Fishes. ..... Fossil Footmarks. ..... General Description. ..... Description of Species. .... Impressions of Rain-Drops. .... Fossil Bones in New Red Sandstone. • - Tracks of Living Animals. .... Conclusions respecting the Footmarks. Artesian Well in New Red Sandstone. ... 2 x Contents General Theoretical Considerations. Graywacke. - Coal Formation. Old Red Sandstone. Organic Remains. Metamorphic Slates. - Argillaceous or Clay Slate. Limestone. - Berkshire Limestone, its age and position- Folded Axes and inverted Strata. Impregnation of Slate Rocks with Carbon. Dolomitisation. Quartz Rock. - Mica Slate. - Talcose Slate. -- _ - - - - -- 608 Serpentine. - - - . - - - - -614 Hornblende Slate. -..... 620 Gneiss. --_-.,---- 625 Contortions of the Gneiss. ...-.- 629 UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS: Greenstone. - - - - 640 Greenstone Columns. ....-.- 641 Dikes of Greenstone. ... - 655 Chemical Effects of Greenstone. - 657 Porphyry. __..------ 663 Sienite. ---------- 668 Veins and Dikes in Sienite. ...... 671 Granite. - - - - - - - - --679 Veins &c. of Granite. ....... 683 Miscellaneous Subjects: Metallic Veins, &c. ----- 706 Geological Maps. ....... 707 Axes of Elevation and Depression. ..,,.. 708 Systems of Strata. ...,.,..- 709 IV__ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. Section I.—A General Account of the Constitution and Structure of the Earth and of the principles on which Rocks are Classified. - - -715 Section II—The Chemistry and Mineralogy of Geology. - - - - 725 Section III.—The Lithological Characters of the Stratified Rocks. - - 729 Section IV.—Lithological Characters of the Unstratified Rocks. - - _ 735 Section V.—Palaeontology or the History of Organic Remains. - - 741 Section VI.—Operation of Aqueous and Atmospheric Agencies in producing Geological Changes. _-___. 774 Section VII.—Operation of Organic Agencies in producing geological changes. - 783 Section VIII.—Operation of Igneous Agencies in producing Geological Changes. - 786 Appendix.—Containing a Catalogue of the specimens in the State Collection. - 801 531 532 533 541 546 560 - 573 - 577 587 593 Explanation of Plates. XI Explanation of the Plates. Plate i. Pulpit Rock, Monument Mountain. ii. View from Mount Holyoke. iii. View in North Adams. iv Gorge between Holyoke and Tom. v. View in Hadley. vi. Valleys of Erosion on Holyoke. vii. Stockbridge Pond. viii. View towards Haverhill. ix. View from Saugus towards Lynn. x. Turner's Falls. xi. Holyoke's Falls in Montague. xii. Great Falls on Westfield River in Rus- sell. xiii. Gorge and Falls in Royalston, N. W part. xiv. Baskapish Lower Falls. xv, xvi, xvii, Claystones from Diluvial Clay. xviii. Concretions. Figs. 1 to 9 Ferruginous Concretions in Diluvial Clay. 10 and 11 Calcareous do. from a Cavern. xix. Fossils of the Eocene Tertiary, Figs. 1 to 5, Leaves and fruit of dicotyle- donous vegetables. 6 and 7 Vertebra;. 8 to 12 and 14, Teeth of Sharks. 13 Tooth of Crocodile ? 15 Concretions, perhaps an organic relic. 16 to 19, Fossil Shells. xx. Fossil Infusoria of Massachusetts. xxi. Fossil Plants from Mansfield. Fig. 1. Neuropteris and Sphenopteris. 2. Equisetum or Asterophyllites. xxii. Fossil Plants from Mansfield. Fig. 1. Equisetum or Asterophyllites. 2. Spscnophyllum emarginatum. 3. Annularia. 4. Neuropteris. 5. Pachypteris ? xxiii. Fossil Plants from Mansfield, xxiv. Fossil Plants from Mansfield and Wrentham. Fig. 1. Stigmaria : Wrentham. 2. do. Mansfield- 3. Calamites : do xxv. Fossil Plants from Mansfield. Figs. 1 2, 3, Leaves of a Monoctyledonous Plant. xxvi. Sketch of Veins and Dikes in Sienite. xxvii. Fossil Plants from Wrentham and Mansfield. Fig. 1. Sphenopteris; Mansfield. 2, 3. Calamites : Wrentham. 4. Neuropteris. do 5. Pecopteris : Mansfield. xxviii. Fossil Plants from the New Red Sandstone. xxix. Fossil Fishes from the New Red Sand- stone. Figs. 1,2. Eurynotus tenuiceps Jlgas. 3. Catopterus parvulus. IV. C. Redfield. M S. Not described in the body of this Report. xxx. Fossil Footmarks in New Red Sand- stone. Plate xxx. Fig. 1. Sauroidichnites Barrattii. 2. do heteroclitua. 3. do Jacksoni. 4. do Emmonsii, left foot. xxxi. Pig. 5. Sauroidichnites Emmonsii right foot, 6 do deeper in the rock. 7 do ? xxxii. Fig. 8. Sauroidichnites Baileyi. Fig. 9. do Fig. 10. Double track probably of the same. xxxiii. Fig. 11. Sauroidichnites minitans. Fig. 12, S. longipes. xxxiv. Fig. 13. Sauroidichnites tenuissimua. Fig. 14. S. heteroclitus ? Fig. 15, S. pal- matus Fig. 16. do xxxv. Fig. 17. Sauroidichnites polemarchius. xxxvi. Fig. I*. Ornithoidichnites giganteua, Fig. 19. Impressions of the Skin of the foot of do xxxvii. Fig. 20. Ornithoidichnites tuberosus. Fig. 21. do. xxxviii. Fig. 22. Ornithoidichnites tuberosus, Fig. 23. O. expansus. xxxxix. O. expansus. Fig. 25. O. cuneatua. Fig. 26. O. parvulus. xl. Fig. 27. Ornithoidichnites ingens. xli. Figs. 28, 29. Ornithoidichnites elegans. xlii. Fig. 30. Ornithoidichnites elegantior. xliii. Figs. 33, 34. Ornithoidichnites tenuis. Fig. 35. O. macrodactylus. xliv. Figs. 36, 37. Ornithoidichnites divari- catus. xlv. Fig. 38, 39. Ornithoidichnites isodac- tylus. Fig. 40, O. delicatulus. Fig. 41, O. minimus. xlvi. Fig. 42. Ornithoidichnites tetradactylua. Fig. 43. O. gracilior. Figs. 69, 70, 71, 7:2, 73. Fossil Rones in N. Red Sand- stone. xlvii. Fig. 49. Tracks ofO. giganteus in suc- cession. xlviii. Figs. 44 to 64. Examples of tracks in succession. xlxix. Fig. 56. Tracks in succession. Fig. 65, Impressions of Rain Drops. Figs. 66, 67, 68. Fossil Bones in Sandstone. Fig. 74. Tracks of a Snipe on mud. 1. and li. Tracks and Feet of Living Ani- mals. Hi. Geological Map of Massachusetts. liii. Map of the Strike and Dip of the Stra- ta, Axes of Elevation and Depression, Systems of Strata, Diluvial Furrows, Ac. in Massachusetts. liv. Sections. A, Section across the N. part of Mass. B, across the central parts; C, of Gayhead ; D, across Mt. Toby. Iv. Sections : E, across the S. part of Mass: F, across E. part: G, across Mt. Tom : H, across the central part of W. Stock- bridge : L. junction of M. Slate and Limestone : M, Wall of Hematite Bed ■. N, veins of Granite in M. Slate : O, Hummock of Dolomite. xii Wood Cuts. List of Wood Cuts. Page. 165 233 237 244 245, 246 247 1 to 7. Kilns for burning Lime, 8 Saddle Mt. across Pontoosac Lake, 9 View from Monument Mt. 10 Titan's Pier, 12, 13. Titan's Piazza, 14 Sugar Loaf, 15 Diluvial Hillocks, Adams, 2">4 16 and 17 Views in Tyringhain and Lenox, 255 IS Scott's Pond, Lenox, 256 Diluvial Hillocks, Monument Mt. do View in Sunderland, 258 do from Wolcott Hill, Springfield, 259 (wrongly numbered 21.) View of Zoar Bridge, 262 View near the mouth of D'fd. and Ct. rivers, 263 do of Bradford, 264 Extremity of Cape Ann, 265 25, 26, Islands in Boston Harbor, 266 27,28, Two Views in Squam, Cape Ann, 270 29 View of Provincetown, 273 30 Gay Head, natural colors, 275 31 Mitineaque Falls, W. Springfield, 278 32 Salmon Falls, Westfield River, 279 33,34 Spicket and Pawtucket Falls, j 280 35,36 Indian Orchard, two views, 282 37 View at Putt s Bridge, 283 38 Cascade, Royalston, 284 39 South Hadley Canal, 285 40 Gorge or Glen, Leyden, 236 41 Cascade in Leverett, 287 42 Natural Bridge, Adams, 288 43 View from Mount Washington, 289 44,45 Bashapish Upper Falls, 291, 292 46 Section of Sunderland Cave, 294 47 Disruption in Deerfield, 320 48 Cliffs at Gay Head, 323 49 Valley of the Connecticut, 328 50 Valley of Green River, 335 51,52, Sections across the Connecticut Valley, 338 53 Ssrpentine Stream, 344 54 Arched Rick, Zoar, 345 55,r>6 Lusus Naturae, 346 57,58 Pseudo-fossil boot and animal, 347 59 Sand Ridges, Russell, 348 60 Pseudo-fossil animals leg, 349 61 to 66 Sections in Diluvium 356 to 358 67,63 Section beneath Ct. river and in diluvium, 359 69 Section, W. Springfield, 360 70, 71, 72 Sections in diluvial Clay, 362 to 364 73, 74 Diluvial Hills and Valleys, 366, 367 75 to 79 Rocking Stones, 375,376 60 Diluvial Scratches, 386 81 Crest of Mt. Holyoke, 390 62 Hummock on Holyoke, 391 Page. 396 419 426 428 431 445 83 Section on the Rail Road, Middlefield, 84 Rhomboidal msss of Clay, 85 Section in Plastic Clay, 86 Concretion of Limonite, 87 Shark's Tooth, 88 Ripple Marks on Sandstone, 89 to 95 Vegetable Relics in New Red Sandstone, 451 to 456, fi6 Stems of Plants in Trap, 457 97 to 99 Doubtful Relics in Sandstone, 460 to 462 100 to 103 Concretions in Sandstone, 463, 464 104 Strata curved by footmarks, 468 105 Footmarks passing downward obliquely, 470 1C6 Outline of Sauroidichnites cuneatus, 489 107 Clay veins in Shale, 511 108 Sketch on Rhode Island, 535 109 do do 550 110 Macles, 557 111 to 114 Disturbances in Clay Slate, 558 to 560 115 Argentine in Granite, 562 116 Granite Vein in Limestone, 567 117,118 Curvatures in do 572 119 Veins in Limestone, 573 120, 121 Inverted Strata of Taconic Mt. 575, 576 122,123 Ideal Sections of Hoosac and Taconic Mts. 578 124 Quartz Veins in Quartz, 592 125 Curvatures in mica slate, 594 126 Section in Chester, 596 127,128 Contortions in mica slate, 600 129 Veins of Segregation in mica slate, 603 130 Insulated Masses in do 604 131 to 134 Curvatures in Gneiss, 630, 631 135 Veins of Segregation in do 639 136,137 Greenstone Columns, 642,643 138 Sienite and Greenstone, 646 139 Greenstone Dike in clay slate, 652 140 Section between Montague and Gill, 654 141,142,143 Trap dikes in Mica Slate and sand- stone, 655, 656 144 Columnar Sandstone, Mt. Holyoke, 659 145,146 Crystals of Lincolnite, 662, 663 147 to 150 Trap dikes, Salem, Cohassett, and Bev- erly, 671 to 673 151 to 153 Veins in Sienite, 674,675 154 Position of Sienite in Whately, 678 155 Fac Simile of Graphic Granite, 681 156 to 200 Veins and protruding masses of gran- ite, 684 to 699 201 Crystal of Tourmaline in Quartz, 702 202 to 275 To illustrate the Elementary Principles of Geology. 716, to 800 Errata. Only the following Errors of much importance have yet been noticed. Many in orthography and punc- tuation will undoubtedly be found ; but it is hardly necessary to notice any here, unless they are such as to mislead the reader. p. 49, line 20 from top, for 241 and 242, read 185 and 187: make the same correction in lines 25 and 28 from top. p. 125, in the caption of the composition of crenic acid, transpose oxygen and carbon. p. 325, line 17 from top, for at read as. p. 358, line 5 from bottom, after abutments add, and piers. p. 423, at top, for Plate 55, read, Plate 54. • p. 425, line 14 from top, for Plate 55, read, Plate 54. p. 807 against No. 2591, for Wrentham, read Mansfield : and against No. 2592 for the right hand do, read Wrentham. POSTSCRIPT. In sciences pursued with so much zeal and ability as Geology and Chem- istry at the present day, the lapse of a year often brings out important dis- coveries. During the longer period in which this Report has been in press, some developments have been made important enough in my opinion to de- mand a Postcript. They are inserted at the beginning of the Report, both because of their importance, and because of the well known fact that this is the last part of a work that is printed. New Work on Organic Chemistry. Professor Liebig of the University of Giessen, has recently published a work on Organic Chemistry in its applications to Agriculture and Physiology, which contains many new views in relation to the nutrition and development of plants. All these views, coming as they do from one of the most distinguished organic chemists living, will be examined by scientific men with great respect, and some of them adopted at once as obvious discoveries and improvements. He seems to have proved that the atmosphere contains ammonia, and justly imputes much to its agency in the growth of plants. Indeed, he makes nitrogen much more im- portant in vegetation than has been supposed. He maintains that the favorable influence of gypsum results from its fixing the ammonia of the atmosphere in the soil by converting it into a sulphate. The important principle suggested and defended by Dr. Dana, and confirmed by all the analyses given in this Report, that phosphates exist naturally in all soils, is also maintained by Liebig, without any knowledge of course that the same view had been taken on this side of the Atlantic. His suggestions respecting the rationale of a rota- tion of crops, and many other points in practical agriculture, are ingenious and important. As to the manner in which plants are nourished, Liebig adopts the opinion of Raspail, that their carbon is derived wholly from the imbibition of carbonic acid, either from the atmosphere or the soil. He denies that they absorb geine, or any of its compounds, as nourishment; and he supposes that the geine Chumus, or humic acid,) acts only as a means of generating carbonic acid by the changes which it undergoes. It is not my intention to go into any argument on these points in this postscript. But it is a little curious, that Lie- big, in attempting to show that there are no means in soils for dissolving more than an infinitessimal quantity of geine, should have overlooked the two most important means of its solution. He supposes that rain water is the only agent in this work. But growing plants have the power of decomposing silicates, and thus of setting free potassa and other bases eminently adapted for the solution of geine. Again, the changes which geine undergoes in the soil produce a great quantity of water, sufficient, according to Nicholson's Journal, to cause an evaporation of 5000 pounds per hour from a well manured acre: quite equal to that resulting from the most copious rains. (See Webster's Liebig, p. 398.) The views of Dr. Dana on these points, I ought perhaps to remark, are those which have most widely prevailed among scientific men in modern times, viz. that plants derive their nourishment partly by ab- sorption from the atmosphere, and partly by taking up soluble matters from the soil. Headmits even, thr.t they may absorb carbonic acid by their roots ; nor does he decide upon the exact proportion in which nour- ishment is derived from these different sources. Indeed, it would not be surprising if it should appear, that plants have such a power of adapting themselves to different circumstances, that they might sometimes sus- tain themselves exclusively from the atmosphere, and sometimes from the soil: sometimes by carbonic acid alone, and sometimes by geine alone. If such be the case, it might reconcile some of the conflicting ex- periments and opinions on this subject. Organic Mattel's in Soils. Although chemists have long been agreed that several distinct compounds exist in the organic matter of soils, they are not agreed as to their exact number. According to Dr. C. T. Jackson, Berzelius, the distin- guished chemist who first proposed the term geine, in a late edition of his Chemistry has dropped that term, and substituted for it that of humic acid. He has also substituted humin for carbonaceous mould. He still em- ploys the terms crenic and apocrenic acid, and extract of humus; and these substances, with humic acid and humin, and occasionally traces of glairin, embrace all yet detected in the organic matter of soils, which lie denominates humus. This humus corresponds to the geine of Dr. Dana, when he uses that term agri- cultural!}'. He then embraces in it crenic and apocrenic acid, humic acid, and humin ; which he regards as forms of geine; divided by him into two classes, the soluble and insoluble. It is in this sense that the term geine is used in Dr. Dana's rules of analysis given in this Report. It is true, when he uses the term chemically, he means the same by it as Berzelius does by humic acid : though as the extract of humus and humin of the same author, do not differ in composition from the humic acid, these also are embraced in geine. Dr. Dana, however, would not have given his views concerning the chemical nature of geine, had ho not been requested : for lie does not regard this essential in treating the subject agriculturally. In a letter to Mr. Colman, the Agricultural Surveyor, he says, " whether we consider geine as a simple sub- stance, or composed of several others called crenic, apocrenic, puteanic, ulmic acids, glairin, apotheme, ex- tract of humus, or mould, agriculture ever has considered it, and probably ever will consider it one and the same thing, requiring always similar treatment to render it soluble when produced ; similar treatment to render it an effectual manure." According to these views, wlnse truth is founded not 0:1 theory but experience, we can see how analyses of soils may be usefully conducted according to Dr. Dana's rules, even though there be a diversity of opinion among learned men as to the chemical nature of the organic matter of soils, and the mode in which plants are nourished. For whether geine e- n •♦.its of one or twenty substances, and whether it be directly im- bibed by plants, or only furnish carbonic acid, the fact still remains equally true, that the fertility of a soil depends in a good degree upon the amount of soluble geine which it contains. These remarks seemed to me important to prevent a misapprehension of the language and principles of Dr. Di'.na in this Report. lfl 2a Postscript. Distribution of Sea Shells. In Dr. Gould's Report on the Mollusca of Massachusetts just published, a fact of no small geological in- terest is given respecting the marine shells found on the opposite sides of Cape Cod. I present it in his own language. " The distribution of the marine shells is well worthy of notice as a geological fact. Cape Cod, the right arm of the Commonwealth, reaches out into the ocean some fifty or sixty miles. It is no where many miles wide, but this narrow point of land has hitherto proved a barrier to the migrations of many species of Mollusca. Several genera and numerous species, which are separated by the intervention of only a few miles of land, are effectually prevented from mingling by the Cape, and do not pass from one side to the other. No specimen of Cochlodesma, Mantacut,° Cumingia, Corbula, Ianthina, Tornutclla, Vcrmetus, Colvmbella, Lerithium, Pyrula or lianella, has as yet been found to the north of Cape Cod ; while Panopea, Glycymeris, Tcrcbratula, Cemoria, Trichotropis, Rostellaria, Cancellaria, and probably Cyprina and Cardita, do not seem to have passed to the south of it. Of the 197 marine species, 83 do not pass to the south shore, and 50 are not found on the north shore of the Cape. The remaining 64 take a wider range, and are found on both sides." Report on the Fossil Footmarks. In my account of the fossil footmarks in the Connecticut valley, I have quoted the opinion of two dis- tinguished European geologists concerning them. I have now the satisfaction of giving the views of several eminent geologists of our own country on the same point. At a meeting of the Association of American Geologists in Philadelphia, in April 1840, a Committee was appointed " to visit the localities and report their conclusions at the next meeting." At that meeting, held in the same city in April 1841, the following Re- port was presented. Report on the Ornithichnites or Footmarks of extinct Birds in the New Red Sandstone of Massachusetts and Connecticut, observedand described by Prof. Hitchcock, of Amherst. The undersigned, forming the Committee to whom the subject of the origin of the Bird tracks of Professor Hitchcock was assigned, beg leave to present the following brief Report. It may be well previously to state, that the object of the meeting in appointing this Committee was founded solely upon the desire to produce if possible unanimity of opinion, there being a few of the members who dissented from the views published by Professor Hitchcock. In our country the subject, as it undoubtedly ought, had attracted considerable at- tention. It had been very favorably received and republished in Europe; and from its great importance to Palaeozoic Geology, an attempt should be made to settle the question : for were the views of our highly re- spected member correct, we were made acquainted with the earliest period in which biped animals existed, whose footmarks were analogous to, if not identical with those of the tread of birds: On the contrary,if wrong, we were presented with another class of facts, which show that certain appearances supposed to belong sole- ly to animal life, were held or presented by the vegetable kingdom likewise. We shall now state in a few words, what we suppose are the general facts upon which Prof. Hitchcock's views were founded, and then the facts of those who assumed the opposite opinion. The first and most obvious impression upon the mind on looking at the indentations or marks, is their tri-partite form, resembling the tread or footmarks of those kinds of Birds, which have three toes, the fourth one being rudimental, and are referrible to no other known kind of animal. The tracks or footmarks in several localities are arranged in a determinate order, like those of a bird or fowl, moving in a straight line : the toes or marks in all such cases being alternate ; that is, if the right foot be presented on the rock, the left would next follow, and thus right and left' in regular suc- cession, sometimes with many repetitions. In other instances the footmarks presented no determinate direction or order, as might naturally be supposed of a bird or any other animal having no particular place or object in view. In all cases where a succession of tracks was observed, there was an uniform correspondence as to size, and considerable regularity as to distance, between the tracks. Whatever deviations were ob- served, they were not greater than might be supposed to take place in animals possessed of voluntary mo- tion. On some surfaces not unfrequently one or more different kinds of tracks were exposed, belonging, as was reasonably conjectured, to different species and genera of Ornithichnites. That the slaty material of the rock showed that the impressing body possessed force or weight, for frequently the thin layers or lam- ina? were bent downwards for an inch or more, and that the mud of which the slate was formed was of a highly adhesive or tenacious character. In all cases the footmarks or part impressed, was the fixed part of the rock ; the part removed when the lower side was turned upwards, showed the cast or what corresponded with the toes or foot. That no trace of any organic matter could be perceived occupying the cavity or mould, the cast or part in relief being in all respects like the material of the rock of which it formed a part. Finally, that the footmarks belonged to a group of rocks which must be considered to have been produced by the same general causes which gave rise to the New Red Sandstone of Europe, and referrible only to that Sandstone. This Sandstone presents footmarks in many localities, though comparatively but a few years have elapsed since attention has been called to them. Some of the specimens have reached this country, and had they not, the information is well given by Dr. Buckland in his Bridgewater Treatise. The most remarkable of these footmarks is that of the Chirotheriumfrom the quarries of Hessberg near Hildburo- hausen in Saxony, and greatly resembles a fleshy human hand. These in the drawing and in the specimen which we have seen, are alternated right and left. Other footmarks have been observed by Mr. Link in the same sandstone, he having made out four species of animals, some of which are conjectured to belong to Gigantic Batrachians. Near Dumfries the footmarks of animals, probably tortoises, were obtained from the same sandstone : but as yet no tracks like those of New England have been discovered. The facts, &c. which led to a different conclusion are these. First, that the forms assumed by fucoidal plants were numerous and imitative; some resembling the tail 8F a rooster, the Cauda Galli. Another which was like unto a large claw or paw, and which may have been a lusus naturae, and the two specimens on the table of the Association which present in relief a distinct tri-partite form. There as they all appertain Postscript. a3 to rocks of great antiquity in comparison with those of New England, it appeared more reasonable to believe that there might be resemblances as perfect as the fossils with a tri-partite character, were but approxima- tions to the forms, in question. That no trace of organic matter could be discovered by the eye, in the greater number of the Fucoides. In some such as the Harlani, they have been seen to be made up of small pebbles, presenting no little difficulty not to the manner only in which the organic matter was replaced, the external form being complete, but the nature of their material which could make so definite an impression and preserve its form entire. There are other facts which showed resemblance such as that the part in re- lief, was the part removed when the fucoide was attached to sandstone at its upper part. It may also be stated that the appendages to the heel of some of the New England tracks, might have been caused by a bird whose legs were feathered, but not to a wader, and they favoured their vegetable origin, for the appen- dages might readily be conceived to be either leaves or radials or both. From a comparative examination of the facts on both sides, your Committee unanimously believe that the evidence entirely favours the views of Prof. Hitchcock, and should regret that a difference had existed, if they did not feel assured it would lead to greater stability of opinion. To liken things to what we know in the nature of mind, the error from this tendency increases with ignorance and diminishes as knowledge increases, so that He that knoweth all things, as is self-evident, can commit no error when following this instinct of his being. The discoveries of Prof. Hitchcock were published at a period when the mind of those who embraced the negative side of the subject was preoccupied with the anomalous vegetation which many of the Silurian rocks of New York abound and to which provisionally the name of fucoid had been given. From their imitative character, and from finding a few specimens presenting a tri-parlate or tri-furcate form, &c. it appeared not only possible, but probable, that the impressions from Massachusetts and Connecticut were with greater propriety referrible to fucoidal bodies, than to those which Prof. Hitchcock had assigned them. We may here remark how es- sential it is that truth, or the facts which make manifest any truth, should first be presented to us, so readily is the mind impressed when not pre-occupied, and when a strong impression is made be it ever so false, it is no easy matter to free ourselves from it. From this circumstance we can readily forsee the advantage which future generations will possess over those of the present and especially those of former times. As the prog- ress of knowledge is certain, each day will lessen error and enlarge the domain of truth, and should man be true to his permanent interests, error will finally cease to have existence. HENRY D. ROGERS, LARDNER VANUXEM, RICHARD C. TAYLOR, EBENEZER EMMONS, T. A. CONRAD. Glacio-aqueous Action between the Tertiary and Historic Periods, denomina- ted in my Report, Diluvial Action. Since the Section in this Report on Diluvium was written, I have been favoured, through the kindness of Professor Silliman of Yale College, with the perusal of a recent work by Professor Agassiz on Glaciers and Glacial action, entitled Etudes sur lea Hinders. I am indebted, also, to Dr. J. Pye Smith of London, for an abstract of three papers on the same subject, read last autumn before the London Geological Society, by Agassiz, Buckland, and Lyell. By the labours of these distinguished men, the whole subject of diluvium has been made to assume an aspect so new and interesting, that I am unwilling my Report should go out of my hands unaccompanied by a brief view of the facts and inferences concerning it. Perhaps I cannot better accomplish this object, than by giving, in the first place, an outline of the glacial theory, and its application to this country, in an extract from an Address recently published, which I gave before the Association of American Geologists at Philadelphia in April 1841. " Beyond such independent inferences as these, (which had just been stated,) I confess, I have been of late years unwilling to go ; and have regarded the numerous theories of diluvial action that have appeared, only as ingenious hypotheses. But it is well known that the Glacier Theory, originally suggested by M. Venetz, and subsequently by M. Charpentier, and more fully developed of late by Agassiz, is now exciting a great interest in Europe. To say nothing of geologists in this country, who have expressed themselves favorably towards it, it is surely enough to recommend it to a careful examination, to learn that such men as Agassiz, Buckland, Lyell, and Murchison, after long examination, have more or less fully adopted it; though on the other hand, it ought to be mentioned, that such geologists as Beaumont, Whewell, Sedgwick, Mantell, and others, still hesitate to receive it." " In a country like ours, where no glaciers exist except in very high latitude:), and with the very in- definite accounts, which have hitherto been given of those in the Alps, it is not strange that this attempt to explain the vast phenomena of diluvial action by such an agency, should appear at first view, fanciful, and even puerile. But the recent work of Agassiz, entitled " Etudes sur les Glaciers," gives a new aspect to the subject. It is the result of observations made during five summers in the Alps, especially upon the Glaciers, about which so much has been said, but concerning which so little of geological importance has been known. Henceforth, however, glacial action must form an important chapter in geology. While reading this work and the abstracts of some papers by Agassiz, Buckland, and Lyell, on the evidence of an- cient glaciers in Scotland and England, I seemed to be acquiring a new geological sense ; and I look upon our smoothed and striated rocks, our accumulations of gravel, and the " tout ensemble," of dilifvial phenome- na, with new eyes. The fact is, that the history of glaciers is the history of diluvial agency in miniature. The object of Agassiz is, first, to describe the miniature, and then to enlarge the picture till it readies around the globe." "The glaciers are vast masses of ice, formed of melting and freezing snow, which are sent out from the summit of the Alps, by the force of expansion into the valleys below, sometimes to the distance of 12 or 15 miles. Those elevated and wide plateaux, called in Switzerland Mirs de Glace, exhibiting only one sheet of ice, through which the crests and summits of the mountains sometimes rise like volcanos, are the grand source, or birth-place, of the glaciers. In their descent they plough their way through the soil, pile up peb- bles and sand along their sides and at their extremities, and even upon their backs, which, upon the retreat or melting of the glaciers, constitute moraines, and correspond exactly in composition and shape to those 4a Postscript. accumulations of gravel and bowlders that have been ascribed to diluvial action : The stones and sand frozen into the lower surface, also, like so many fixed diamonds, smooth and furrow the surface of the rocks in precisely th: e tive in not furnishing an adequate cause for the southerly course of our drift, than in any other point." " I find another difficulty in explaining satisfactorily by this theory, how drift could have been often car- ried from lower to much higher levels; as it has been sometimes, without doubt. Thus, the Silurian rocks of New York and the quartz rock in the western parts of Massachusetts, have been carried over Hoosac and Taconic mountains and the Highlands of New York. It is easy to conceive how an im- mense sheet of ice, by its expansive power, should force portions of its mass to ascend declivities, of a few hundred feet; but not so easy to imagine them thus forced upward 1000 or 2000 feet. " Another difficulty results from the fact, that some of the most remarkable of our moraines are found, not in valleys, but on the sea-coast, some of them 50 and others 100 miles distant from any mountain, much higher than themselves. I refer to those remarkable conical and oblong tumuli of drift, sometimes more than 200 feet high, which occur in Plymouth and Barnstable Counties in Massachusetts. I see nothing in this theory that will explain such astonishing accumulations in such circumstances ; and yet their existence m;>y not militate against its truth. For even the present mighty glaciers of the Alps, may give us but a faint idea of the advance and retreat of a sheet of ice thousands of feet thick." " I do not mention these difficulties, (to which I might add more,) as any strong evidence against this theory. For so remarkably does it solve most of the phenomena of diluvial action, that I am constrained to believe its fundamental principle to be founded in truth. Modifications it may require : for it would be strange indeed, if it had already attained perfection, even in the skilful hands that have thus far formed ami fashioned it. But I can hardly doubt that glacio-aqueous action has been the controlling power in pro- ducing the phenomena of drift. Having hovered so long over the shoreless and troubled ocean of uncertain- ty and doubt, I may be too ready to alight on what looks like terra jirma. But should it prove a Delos, I lift . •■ only to plume my wings again, when it sinks beneath the waves." It may give a more definite idea of the nature of glaciers and of some of the phenomena connected with them, to insert a few cuts, copied on a reduced scale from the splendid drawings accompanying the Etu>'r< sur les Glaciers by Agassiz. Fig. 276, exhibits the glacier of Aletsch, one of the largest in the Alps, where it enters the lake of Aletsch which it has formerly caused to overflow with wide spread havoc. Large block* frequently break offfrom this glacier and float about as icebergs in the lake. Fix. 276. Glacier and Lake of Aletsch. Fie 278 exhibits the lower extremity of the Glacier of Viesch, with a distinct terminal moraine, wh.ch at the sides is connected with lateral moraines. From beneath the Glacier issues a stream of water, as is always the case in summer. This has worn a channel into the rocks below the glacier, and the surface of those same rocks is smoothed and striated by the former action of glaciers ; so that here is exhibited glacial and aqueous action side by side. The conical bodies on the top of the glacier are needles ■of'ice calhsd Aiguilles, formed by the inequality of the surface beneath, and the melting of the ice above They are shown also on Fig. 277. of the mountains in such immense quantities, that (it being midsummer and the snow deKendin> ^n u fkr u »*»';=; le and suddenly melting,) torrents of water came rolling down the remainder of the mountain, and flooded the plain for soim •ides climate distance around its base 2a 6a Postscript. Fig. 277 In Fig. 277, wc have a view of the upper part of the gla- cier, of Viesch, as it proceeds from the distant mer de Glace, and winds through the long valley. At its sides may be seen lateral, and on its top, medial moraines; considerably disturbed, however by the ser- pentine course of the valley. Figs. 279 and 280, repre- sent smoothed and striated masses of schistose serpentine, produced by the expansion of the glacier. Fig. 279, shows two sets of scratches, crossing each other at a considerable angle. Yet the striae belong- ing to each set preserve their parallelism most perfectly. Any one conversant with the smoothed and striated rocks of this country will be struck with their exact resem- blance to the above. It is not unusual also, to meet with surfaces with two sets of striss diverging slightly, as in Fig. 280. This is often the case,ac- cording to Professor Locke, upon the polished limestones of Ohio. Fig 281 is a case of this kind, copied from the crest of Mount Monadnoc in New Hampshire. The two sets of scratches diverge only 10,° and it is not common to see a much greater divergence. Another effect of glaciers has its counterpart among our diluvial phenomena. The ice so rounds off the angles of rocks as to give them an em- bossed form ; and hence such rocks in the Alps were called by Saussure, Roches mou- tonnees. An example of this effect,—though less striking than others exhibited on the plates of Agassiz, (Etudes sur les Glaciers,) is shown on Fig. 277, at its lowrer part, and on Fig. 278 more distinctly. This same appearance is trequent Glacier of Viesch in the Alps. upon the rocks of Massachu- setts • but one of the most distinct examples that I have ever seen, occurs on Mount Monadnoc in New Hampshire. A large part of the crest of that mountain, and its northern and northwestern slo >es, are cov- ered with these protuberant and rounded rocks, whose surfaces often show distinct strise. An attempt is made in Fig. 282, to represent the aspect of one spot about 5 rods square on the crest of the spur of Monad- noc that runs southwest from th# body of the mountain. In taking the sketch the eye was directed south- easterly, which was the course there taken by the glacial agency. Hence the protuberances appear more like spherical domes than they are in reality; because they are generally much longer in a southeast and northwest direction than in any other. This spot is not less than 600 or 700 feet below the summit of the mountain ; but the same appearance is common even almost to the apex. On page 389 of this Report, I have given a brief account of diluvial action on Monadnoc, derived from my assistant, Mr. Abraham Jenkins, Jr. The interest which his description excited, has led me within a few days past to visit that mountain, and I found it prolific in the marks of former glacial action. It consists of a ridge of mica slate, running nearly S. W. and N. E. near whose center rises a vast pile of naked rock, several hundred feet above its northeastern and southwestern wings, which are also in a great measure naked. On almost every part of it, from its base to its summit, it bears the marks of a powerful abrading agency : and the region around the mountain, the hills as well as the valleys in its vicinity, abound with striated rocks, angular blocks of stone, and occasional moraines. The direction of the markings around Monadnoc and upon its southeastern part, is nearly N. W. and S. E.; but near the summit of the mountain they ap- proach more nearly to the meridian, as near sometimes as 10° by the compass. Postscript. 7a Fig. 278 Glacier of Viesch, icith terminal and lateral Moraines. Fig. 279. Hock striated by Glaciers. 8a Postscript. Fig. 280- Rock striated by Glaciers. Fig. 281. ■ Striated Rock : Monadnoc. Fig. 282. Embossed Rccl.s (Roches mcutonnees): Monadnoc. Postscript. 9a There are several peculiarities in what have been called the diluvial phenomena of this mountain, with which I should have been exceedingly perplexed, had I not read the recent Etudes sur les Glaciers by Agas- siz. The striee on the rocks are not as distinct as in many other places, and the difficulty of observing them is increased by the fact that over a considerable portion of the southwest part of the mountain, the strike of the laminae of slate coincides very nearly with that of the scratches. Nevertheless, they may generally be distinguished by the practised eye, and on a large part of the mountain they cross the edges of the slate at a considerable angle. They are frequently visible on the sides of the ledges ; and on the north side of the principal peak, they are sometimes seen on slupes from 20° to 70°. And what is still more unusual, they are seen on the southeast side of the principal summit, where the slope is steep, and several hundred feet below the top. But the rochts moutonnees are the most striking peculiarity of the phenomena under con- sideration. Almost every part of the mountain, except its steep southeasterly side, is covered by these ir- regular rounded protuberances, which have almost every possible form; but their longer axis corresponds al- most invariably with the direction of the grooves and striae. Looking in a southeasterly direction they sometimes have the appearance represented on Fig. 282; but looking at them from other positions, they considerably resemble the swells of the ocean in a calm day after a storm. Frequently too the effects of ice in recent times, is seen in breaking up the surface of the rock more or less into fragments. If we face the northwest, even when among these rounded rocks, we see but little of the moutonnees appearance, because their southeastern extremities are not rounded : and there, indeed, (as at a spot few rods east of the summit of the mountain,) we see where large masses of the rock have been forced out of their places and carried away. Few loose transported blocks now remain upon the mountain. The facts stated above relative to the occurrence of striae on the north and south slopes of Monadnoc, might lead to the conclusion that they were the result of glaciers sliding down each way from the summit. But the fact that the roclies moutonnees are rounded only upon their northwestern side, shows that the force which has produced these effects had a southeasterly direction. Indeed, I see no way to avoid the conclu- sion that the ice, which probably was the agent, must have been forced upward over the top of this moun- tain. I descended on the north side only a few hundred feet, but could see downward nearly to the bottom, and the same appearances presented themselves as near the top. Were the whole of the surrounding region covered with a vast sheet ofice, I can easily conceive how its expansion might have accomplished such a work. Indeed, so nearly irresistible-must such a force have been, that either the mountain must have been crowded out of its place, or the ice have been swelled upward and forced over it. Such an operation must have broken the ice considerably, and this may explain the irregularity of its action towards the summit of the mountain, which is greater than I have witnessed in any other place. If these views are correct, we cannot probably infer that the sheet of ice which covered New England was quite as thick as the height of Monadnoc ; because it might have been swelled up considerably at this place. But the marks of its action at the top of the mountain are too striking to suppose the swell to have been very much above the general surface : otherwise the ice would have been tilted over and left no trace of its action. The downward force at the top must have been nearly as great as in any other part, and therefore a great thickness ofice must have been forced over it. The important bearing of these details upon the theory of glacial action, is the reason I have given them ; although Monadnoc lies a few miles out of the limits of the state. But whatever glacial action has taken place there, we may be quite sure has ex'ended into Massachusetts. And indeed, I have pointed out similar phenomena there in the following Report. Moraines. After reading the work of Agassiz on Glaciers, and an abstract of the papers of Agassiz, Buckland, and Lyell, on the evidence of former glacial action in Scotland and the north of England, I cannot doubt but ancient moraines are scattered all over New England. The most remarkable of these I have described and figured in this Report. (See Wood Cuts, figs. 15, 19, 73 and 74, and Plate 3.) In the work of Agassiz I do not indeed find a description of any of those singular insulated or grouped tumuli of sand and gravel, which are so common in this country, and some of which are shown in the drawings above referred to. But it cannot be doubted that Dr. Buckland describes the same phenomenon in Scotland, when he says that " thirty or forty round-topped moraines, from 30 to 60 feet high, are crowded together like sepulchral tumuli," and he adds, that " they exactly resemble some of the moraines in the valley of the Rhone, be- tween Martigny and Loek." Similar accumulations are common, according to him, in Scotland. I regret that he has not described under what peculiar circumstances such singular moraines are formed : for I own myself perplexed to conceive how : especially as the largest examples occur with us faraway from any elevated land. I refer to those in Plymouth and Barnstable Counties. And yet, I shall be likely to regard the fact, that without any definite knowledge of the action of glaciers, I have in this Report called in the aid ofice to explain these mounds of gravel and sand, as some presumption in favor of their glacial origin. But how came such enormous moraines to be found in the low and comparatively level country where they fxist ? Is it possible that the whole of Cape Cod is nothing but a vast terminal moraine, produced by a glacier ad- vancing through Massachusetts Bay, and scooping out the materials that now foim the Cape ? In this case the moraines at Plymouth and Truro would forma part of the lateral moraines, and probably most of Nan- tucket and Martha's Vineyard might be regarded as moraines of the same glacier, when it extended farther south. But the fact that laminated clay occurs so often upon the Cape, is a strong objection to such an hypothesis. The occurrence of so many ponds in connection with the moraines of Plymouth, Sandwich, and especially Falmouth, is readily explained by the glacier theory ; since such effects are often thus produced in the Alps. My attention was called to the new views of this subject, in season to mark on the proof sheet of Plate 53, which exhibits some of the phenomena of drift in M issachusctts, the most remarkable examples ofmrrainea occurring in the State. These have, indeed, been described under another name in the following Report. It will be seen that many of the most remarkable of these occur far away from mountains and valleys, in the eastern part of tho State, as at Truro, Sandwich, Falmouth, Plymouth, Wrentham, and Groton Interest- ing examples exist, also, in Andover; but here the country is more uneven. As we proceed to the mote hil- 10a Postscript. ly parts of the State, it must be confessed that the moraines are the largest and mt0Bt »tr J"?r^e .^.f the mountains, and especially near gorges in the valleys. The more elevated parts of country are indeed often thickly strewed over with loose blocks ; but generally they are not much rounded, and appear as if they resulted from medial moraines, very much scattered. Essex county abounds with such examples particu- larly on Cape Ann. (See Figs! 27, 28.) They abound also over the greater part of Worcester county, par- ticularly as we ascend the western slope of Worcester valley. l„„,ij0,0 ;„ *ua So far as I have been able, I have recently re-examined the accumulations of S™™l™d*ow™™ " f£ State, to see whether they could be explained by glacial action. 1 find ,t often very difficult to recognise the different sorts of moraines; but think the lateral moraines most common and distinct Thus, along the whole extent of the great valleys of Connecticut and of Berkshire county, we find lateral moraines evident- ly considerably modified and enlarged by those at the debouche of the smaller lateral valleys. The mo- raine on the western side of these great valleys is far less striking than on their eastern side. I cannot explain this fact, except by saying that the force which formed these moraines, acted in a southeasterly direction, so as to cross the principal valleys (as a glance at Plate 53 will show,) at a considerable angle. But it is not so easy to see how this is consistent with the idea that the moraines were formed by glaciers passing longitudinally through these valleys. , In the south part of Montague and northwest part of Leverett, is an interesting group of moraines. A narrow valley intervenes here between Mount Toby on the west, and the primary hills on the east; and it is at the entrance of this valley on the north, that we find both terminal and lateral moraines The most southerly of these are pushed a considerable distance into the valley, the detritus (mostly grayel,) showing a northern orio-in. But the largest accumulations are a little north of the opening of the valley : as if the detritus had been pushed thus far, but could not be forced into the narrow valley. As we follow the valley southerly, we find remnants of lateral moraines wherever a recess exists protected by the salient sides of the valley. Towards its southern part, a wide field of many hundred acres, entirely level, is strewed oveT with rounded stones, 4 or 5 inches in diameter, either by glacial or aqueous action : an occurrence which I have scarcely met any where else. Large quantities of sand and some gravel are pushed southerly a little beyond the opening of this valley, into Sunderland and Amherst; but whether by glacial or aqueou« agency I am uncertain : probably by both. Between the eastern extremity of Holyoke and the primary ranges in Belchertown, is a narrow gorge where we witness moraines similar to those in Montague. In my report I have described three ponds situ- ated in this gorge, in such a manner as to empty at both extremities. I am now satisfied that the different ponds resulted from several terminal moraines, produced by a retreating mass of ice. North of the gorge for several miles, we find extensive moraines, which might perhaps be regarded as vast lateral moraines , though I apprehend here was a blending of terminal and lateral moraines. In this group occur the singular tumuli and tortuous ridges of gravel, exhibited imperfectly in Fig. 73 of this Report. On the east side of the gorge above described, we find moraines at a much higher level than those just de- scribed ; and from this case, as well as others, I infer that the glacial action must have taken place at differ- ent levels. In other words, one mass of ice must have advanced southeasterly and have produced the mora elevated moraines, while yet the lower part of the valleys were filled with ice, which adhered to the surface. If such were the case we see why it is that the moraines are so blended and irregular. I acknowledge, however, that the upper moraines may have been pushed to their present height by the expansive force of the ice, even from the bottom of the valleys ; and the lowest ones have been produced by its retreat. The remarkable denudation of Mount Holyoke, however, described on page 389, of the following Report, I can- not explain without supposing the surrounding valleys filled at first with ice nearly to the top of that mountain, and then that another mass of ice, loaded with detritus, was slid over this surface, and commenced the work of furrowing out the remarkable valleys existing on its top. This would account for the parallelism preserved by those valleys; (called in Switzerland Lapiaz or Lapiz.) but the work must have been afterwards carried on partly by water, loaded probably by ice and detritus, as the ice gradually melted away. For such troughs (Lapiaz) in the Alps are found due in a measure to water. And yet, the denuding effects ofice must have continued even to the bottom of these valleys : for their side* show those peculiar striae that can be the result only of the advance of masses of ice. In short, it seems to me that the striated and polished rocks, the lapiaz, or valleys of erosion, and the moraines of New England, show, that almost to the commencement of the historic period, there was a conjoint action ofice and water: And if the ice must have been 2000 or 3C00 feet thick, it could not have melted away without the production of immense currents. Indeed, the term diluvial would probably be scarcely a misnomer, as applied to the last part of what seems to me now more appropriately termed the glacial period. Through the middle of Amherst, from Mount Toby to Mount Holyoke, not less than eight miles, there extends a high and broad ridge of gravel and bowlders, interrupted, however, by two small streams and other depressions. On the west side of this ridge, lies the valley of Connecticut river : and on the east a narrow valley separates it from the high hills of Pelham. Rocks in place sometimes rise through the gravel of this ridge and I am inclined to believe that the drift ought to be regarded as the union of two lateral moraines, (which, if I understand it, forms a medial moraine,) produced by glaciers in the two valleys above named. But this ridge is a good deal broken, and several minor ridges appear as if they might have been parts of terminal moraines. Of this description is the hill on which stands the College. But here, as in other parts of the state, it is impossible, I apprehend, so far as I can judge from the accurate description of Agassiz to trace out such distinct moraines as exist in the Alps. Indeed, this writer says, that when he advanced beyond the valleys of the Alps, he could not find terminal moraines : and that " in open valleys and broad plains the phenomena of the moraines is completely changed from what it is in the narrow valleys of the Alps " One of the changes to which the moraines have in some places been subject in this country, is that pro- duced by the subsequent action of currents of water. In this way the detritus has been removed from the moraine where it was originally left, and redeposited by water; and hence the examples which I have given In this Report of a stratified and laminar arrangement of the sand and gravel of our drift. In this wav also, tumuli may have been formed out of lateral moraines by streams of water descending from the •neighbouring hills : as perhaps may have been done in the formation of the tumuli in North Adams sketch- ed on Plate 3, and those on Figs. 15 and 19 : though I doubt whether the last example was thus produced I suspect it to be rather a part of a terminal moraine. Postscript. 11a Moraines are abundant in the west part of Northampton, commencing at Round Hill, and in the east part of Granby, at the foot of Belchertown hills. But 1 have not found time to examine them with sufficient care to go into details. Upon the whole, I think that the most striking examples of moraines in the mountainous parts of Massa- chusetts, occur where smaller lateral valleys intersect larger ones. 1 have mentioned one case of this kind in Amherst. Another good example is in Athol, a little north of the middle of the town, where the two branches of Miller's river unite. If I mistake not, several terminal moraines may be seen there, cut through by the river. The principal part of the drift appears to have been brought down the valley running north and south. Other examples occur on the east side of the principal valley in Berkshire, as we ascend Hoosac mountain through the lateral valleys that debouch in Lee and Dalton. Similar phenomena may be seen all along the Western Slope of Hoosac mountain, where the moraines and the detritus of moraines and the erratic blocks are exceedingly abundant. Dr. Buckland regards the " parallel terraces" of Scotland, as " the effects of lakes produced by glaciers." In regard to similar phenomena in Massachusetts, described in this Report under the name of terraced valleys, I do not feel prepared to give a decided opinion. I will only refer to the terraces seen in the basin of ])(•< rfield meadows. The most elevated of these are certainly composed almost wholly of horizontal lay- ers of clay, deposited above the drift, which clay was subsequently carried away from the central parts of the valley, so as to leave a margin of clay. In this case no glacial agency could have been concerned, except perhaps to form the lake in which the clay was deposited. I think the terraced valleys in Wcstfield will be found similar to those in Deerfield. But others may have been produced by ice, whose moraines were subsequently modified by water. To conclude : the theory of glacial action has imparted a fresh and a lively interest to the diluvial phe- nomena of this country. It certainly explains most of those phenomena in a satisfactory manner. It seems to me, however, that the term Glacio-aqueous action more accurately express this agency than the term glacial action : for the effects referrible to water are scarcely less than those produced by ice. I could wish that the theory gave a more satisfactory explanation of the southerly direction taken by the drift. Perhaps this is a point which can be only hypothetically solved. It may have been connected with the cause which introduced the glacial epoch. Whether this came in suddenly, as Agassiz supposes, or slowly, as Lyell maintains, we know of no cause now in operation that could have produced the change from a tropical to more than an arctic climate, and then back again to a temperate climate. Is it possible that the earth, after havinc assumed its present spheroidal form, and nourished successive races of animals and plants in some geniaf sphere, was suddenly deprived of external light and heat, and of its motion on its axis, and exposed to the severe cold of the celestial spaces (—od" Fahr.) Its waters would retreat towards the poles and be- come ice. Let it next be placed in its present orbit and commence its present motions : and would not the ice, as it melted, both from its expansive and centrifugal force, take a southerly direction ? But 1 forbear : for enough of dreamy hypotheses on this subject have already had an ephemeral existence, and passed on- ward into the caves of oblivion. Additional Errata. p. 356, line 6 from top, for most read not. p. 475, line 4 from top, for rarely read marly. PART I. ECONOMICAL GEOLOGY OF MASSACHUSETTS. The commissions with which I have been honored by the Government, for a Survey of the Geology and Natural History of Massachusetts, have directed my attention to the following leading objects. First, to collect, examine, and analyze, all the varieties of our soils; and to suggest means for their amendment. Secondly, to search after, and to describe, all those varieties of marl, coal, ores, rocks, and other minerals, that are of pecuniary value. Thirdly, to describe the most interesting features of our natural Scenery. Fourthly, to describe the rocks of the state scientifically. Fifthly, to collect specimens of all our soils, rocks, and minerals, for a State Collection. Sixthly, to construct a Geological Map of the State. Seventhly, to prepare Catalogues of the Plants and Animals found natur- ally within the limits of the State. In the Reports which I have heretofore made, I have embraced all these objects to a greater or less extent. But as the facts which I have given are scattered in different reports, I propose in this report to bring them together in systematic order ; and to incorporate with them other facts, which have been brought to light since my last communication to the Government; that they may have a connected view of the geological resources and the related interesting phenomena in the State. I have thought this a better course than to present a mere supplement to my former reports ; which must either presuppose so much acquaintance with former reports as to make it obscure, or refer so often to facts detailed elsewhere, as to make it equally voluminous ; while it would be less satisfactory than an entirely new report. But since a new Commission has recently been constituted for Botany and Zoology, com- 3 14 Economical Geology. posed in many cases of the very gentlemen to whom I formerly resorted for help, I may now pass by these subjects, and confine my attention to our Min- eralogy and Geology. THE GEOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY OF SOILS. The Economical Geology of the State will first receive attention. This will embrace the two first objects of my commission as stated above. The subject of Soils—their origin and nature—analysis and amelioration—some- times called Agricultural Geology—will first come under consideration. Origin and Nature of Soils. All geologists and chemists agree in regarding soils as the result of the abrasion, disintegration, and decomposition of rocks, with the addition of certain saline, vegetable, and animal substances. Ever since the deposition of rocks, various agents have been operating upon them to wear them down, to cause them to crumble or disintegrate, and often to decompose them into their proximate or ultimate principles, while they have been constantly receiving vegetable and animal substances with soluble salts. The earthy portions, however, always constitute by far the largest part; and hence, if we know the composition of the rocks whence they were derived, we shall know the earthy and metallic constituents of the soil. Now we find that nearly all the rocks which exist in large quantity, are composed chiefly of silica, alumina, lime, and oxide of iron: and these are the ingredients that are found almost invariably in soils. Magnesia is also usually present in small quantity ; as is also manganese in some soils. Silica is in the largest quantity, both in the rocks and the soils ; alumina next; while the other ingredients are in much smaller proportion. I ought, also, to add potassa and soda ; which are very widely diffused, though not usually in large quantity. To give a numerical statement, derived from numerous analyses, such rocks as most of those in New England contain 66 per cent, of silica, 16 per cent, of alumina, 6 or 7 per cent, of potassa, 5 per cent, of oxide of iron, and of lime and magnesia a less quantity : and the composition of our soils will probably be found to cor- respond very nearly with these numbers, with the exception, perhaps, of the potassa which may have in a good measure disappeared by the operation of vegetation. A large part of most soils being merely rocks reduced to minute fragments without being decomposed, will as remarked above, be of the same chemical composition as those rocks. Now in almost all cases rocks are composed mainly of silicates; viz. the silicates of alumina, lime, magnesia, iron, potassa, Soils Classified. lo soda, &c. In a region where limestone predominates, we might expect, and do sometimes find, that a considerable proportion of the soil is made up of carbonate of lime. Yet this substance is more liable to decomposition than the silicates, and often a large part of it is converted by the action of living and dead vegetable and animal matter into other combinations. Thus decomposed manures form what is called geine or rather geic acid; and this unites with lime forming a geate of lime. Geates of alumina and magnesia are formed in the same manner. Living vegetables also contain generally sulphate and phosphate of lime; and by the decomposition of these vegeta- bles, these salts will be widely disseminated through the soils. But this sub- ject will be better understood when I have given further details. Classification of Soils. The above ingredients are combined in different proportions in the differ- ent rocks, so as to constitute several sorts. Hence we should expect, and in fact we find, a corresponding difference in the soils resulting from their de- composition. Indeed, with some exceptions, the geologist is able to ascer- tain the nature of the rock from the character of the soil that covers it. And I apprehend that it will not be difficult to point out the characteristics of the soils derived from the different rock formations of Massachusetts, so that they can be distinguished by those not familiar with practical geology. This Geological Classification is the only one which I shall attempt to give of our soils ; and this seems to me all that is necessary, or useful, in addition to the common division into sandy, clayey, loamy, calcareous, &c. The following list embraces, it appears to me, all the important varieties of soil in Massa- chusetts. 1. Alluvium, from rivers. Do. peaty. 2. Diluvium, sandy and gravelly. Do. argillaceous. 3. Tertiarj- soil, argillaceous. Do. sandy. 4. Sandstone soil, red. Do. gray- 5. Gravwacke soil, conglomerate. Do. slat}', gray. Do. slaty, red. 6. Clay slate soil. 7. Limestone soil, magnesian. Do. common. 16 Economical Geology. 8. Mica slate soil. 9. Talcose slate soil. 10. Gneiss soil, common. Do. ferruginous. 11. Granite soil. 12. Sienite soil. 13. Porphyry soil. 14. Greenstone soil. A few paragraphs of explanation will, I trust, render these varieties of soil recognizable. In general, if any one wishes to know where to find them, let him look at the Geological Map that accompanies this report, and he may conclude that the different soils cover those portions of the surface that are rep- resented as occupied by the rocks' from which they are derived. There is one circumstance, however, that prevents us from considering the boundaries of the rock formations as perfectly coincident with those of the soils. Dilu- vial action has removed nearly all the loose covering of our rocks in a south- erly direction ; often several miles ; and more or less mingled the soils from different formations. Hence, where one formation lies north or south of an- other on the map, we may conclude that the detritus of the most northerly one has been swept southerly, or southeasterly, for several miles beyond the boundaries of the rock ; and in few cases does the dividing line between two formations so exactly coincide with the direction of the diluvial current, that there is no overlapping and intermingling of the soils. With common alluvial soils—the result of deposition from rivers,—every intelligent man is familiar. They are of course formed by the comminu- tion of every kind of rock over which the stream that produces them hap- pens to pass. These soils, I apprehend, owe their value chiefly to the fine state to which their component parts are reduced. In Massachusetts our al- luvia are frequently coarse and quite siliceous. Peat alluvium is composed principally of vegetable matter, and ought rather to be regarded as a manure than a soil. I include in it all those swamps that abound in decomposing vegetable matter, whether actually con- verted into peat or not. Diluvial Soil is the most heterogeneous and wide spread of all soils, and strictly speaking it embraces nearly all our soils except alluvium: for nearly all of them have been moved and comminuted by diluvial action. But where a formation is so extensive that this diluvial agency has not trans- ported the detritus derived from it beyond its boundaries, the soil may be regarded as belonging to that formation; and this is the case over a large part of the state : so that it will not be necessary to regard very extensive districts Varieties of Soil. 17 of our soils as diluvium. I have not done it when it is possible to refer them to any other formation. The most common variety of diluvial soil, and the poorest of the soils, con- sists of rounded pebbles and coarse sand, accumulated in situations where no existing streams could have carried them. I now also regard all those beds of clay and sand which occur in the state, except the plastic clay of the south- eastern part, as the result of the retiring diluvial waters; so that there will be an argillaceous and a sandy diluvial soil; such as occur extensively in the valley of Connecticut river, and which I formerly denominated the Newest Tertiary. The tertiary soils are almost exactly like the two last described varieties of the diluvial, viz. argillaceous and sandy. Indeed, it is doubtful whether any character except position can distinguish them: nor is the distinction of any importance in a practical point of view. The tertiary soils occur only in a few limited districts, in Dukes, Barnstable and Plymouth counties: viz. wherever the plastic clay exists so near the surface, as to modify the superincumbent diluvial sand. The sandstone soil is confined exclusively to the vicinity of Connecticut river. Most of the sandstone there is of a red color; some of it even a blood red; and its disintegration has produced a soil of the same aspect; so that even at a great distance, the redness is quite manifest. There is no soil that can easily be confounded with this, except some limited tracts of ferruginous gneiss soil in Worcester county, and of chocolate colored gray wacke, and red compact feldspar, in the eastern part of the State. In a few towns, as in Granby, the sandstone soil is of a gray color, because the rock is gray be- neath it. The graywacke soil is confined to the eastern part of the State. Its color is mostly a deep brown ; and it is capable of being made some of the best land in the State; as will be evident when I refer to Dorchester, Roxbury, Brookline, Newton, Cambridge, the Bridgewaters, Taunton, Middleborough, Dighton, Somerset, &c. for examples of its most perfect development. In some of these towns the rock is chiefly a coarse conglomerate or plum pud- ing stone ; and as this contains more calcareous matter than the slaty varie- ties, and decomposes more readily, probably it furnishes the best soil found over this formation. The slaty varieties occur in Quincy, Newton, Charles- town, &c. In the southwest part of Attleborough, the slate is of a choco- late color, and this peculiar hue is imparted to the soil. The same color pre- vails in some other places; but not extensively enough to produce any striking patches of this variety of soil. The group of rocks underlying this variety of soil is denominated gray- wacke,not because it has been proved to be identical with the graywacke of Eu- 18 Economical Geology. rope; but because it seems analogous in composition and structure with the European rocks of that formation : and there is nothing yet discovered in re- gard to its position that proves its age to be different. The tract*, are very limited in Massachusetts, where well characterized argillaceous or roofing slate is fully developed : and hence we have but little genuine clay slate soil. Where it does occur, as in a few towns in Worcester and Middlesex counties, also in Bernardston, in Franklin county, it has the dark color of the slate ; and is easily distiguished. It is capable of being made an excellent soil. The limestone soil is confined to the county of Berkshire. I give it this name because it lies above limestone ; not because it contains more of the salts of lime than other soils in the State. For to my surprise, I find that in general it does not. Much of it probably resulted from the disintegration of the mica and talcose slates that occur in large quantities along with the lime- stone in that county ; and probably, also, the calcareous matter, which it did once contain, has been exhausted by cultivation. The magnesian limestone and the soil thence resulting, appeared to me more extensive in New Marl- borough than in any other part of the county. The mica slate soil, which occupies extensive regions in Massachusetts, as the Geological Map will show, is distinguished in appearance from the clay slate soil, chiefly by being of a lighter color. Yet since the two rocks pass into each other imperceptibly, so do these soils. And in the western part of Berkshire county, as well as in the mica slate region extending from Wor- cester to the mouth of Merrimack river, the mica slate approaches so near to argillaceous slate, that the soil above it might, without much error, be re- ferred to the latter rock. Most of our mica slate soils are of a superior quality. The talcose slate soil is rather limited, and not of the best quality ; though it should be recollected that it occupies some of the highest parts of the State, and might at a lower level be more productive. The argillo-talcose slate soils of the Taconic range in Berkshire, are of a better quality. In appearance the mica slate and talcose slate soils can hardly be distinguished from each other ; though in general the latter is of a lighter color and more sandy. Gneiss soil occupies more surface than any other in the State : and were we to judge from its appearance, we should conclude it the poorest soil with- in our limits. In general, it is of a pale yellow color, and very sandy or gravelly. And, indeed, in many places it is very meagre and unproductive. But over a great part of Worcester county, for instance, it is of a very differ- ent character, being enriched probably by the potassa of the feldspar and mica in gneiss. The ferruginous gneiss soil contains so much peroxide of Collection of Soils. 19 iron, that in some towns, as West Brookfield, Sturbridge, Brimfield, Oakham, &c, it is of a perceptible red color when seen at a distance. Since granite and gneiss are composed of the same ingredients, the soils which they produce will not differ. And in fact they do not in Massachu- setts : so that probably there is little advantage in separating them. Sienite differs from granite in taking hornblende into its composition, as well as being in general of a finer texture. The soil resulting from its de- composition is certainly more favorable to cultivation than that derived from common granite : as an example of which I may refer to nearly the whole of Essex countj. » The compact feldspar, that forms the basis of porphyry, frequently con- tains an unusually large proportion of alumina, from 15 to 30 per cent. And although this is the hardest of the rocks around Boston, in many places it decomposes rapidly, and the resulting soil admits of high cultivation, as may be seen in Medford and Lynn. The greenstone in the eastern part of the State is so intimately connect- ed with sienite and porphyry, that the attempt to separate the soils resulting from them, is almost useless. Yet the structure of the greenstone is finer, and where it predominates, we find a good soil; as in Ipswich and Woburn. The greenstone associated with sandstone, near Connecticut river, has a more earthy aspect, and produces by decomposition a peculiar yet valuable soil, of a deep brown color, and abounding in iron. It is, however, but of limited extent. Sir Humphrey Davy divides soils into Clayey, Loamy, Chalky, Gravelly, Sandy, Peaty or Mossy, Boggy and Heathy, and Moory : Chaptal makes a more simple division into Argillaceous, Calcareous, Siliceous and Sandy. These divisions are very convenient, and it is only for the sake of refer- ence that I have adopted in their stead the geological classification described above. System pursued in collecting Soils. In executing that part of my commission which relates to the analysis of soils, I found it very difficult to decide upon the best plan for collecting them. My object was not to examine the soils of particular farms, or towns; but rather to point out the composition and character of the different classes of soils in the State. I therefore concluded to visit the different rock forma- tions ; and where I found the soils above them well characterized, to select specimens, in sufficient numbers, and over a sufficiently wide extent, to afford a fair representation of the different sorts of soils. Whatever might be found to be the characters of these selected specimens, from any particular 20 Economical Geology. formation, I thought might be regarded as the characters of the soil in gen- eral over that formation ; and to determine its extent, it would be necessary only to consult the Geological Map, with the statements in mind that have been made respecting diluvial action. And it is chiefly this consideration that led me to prefer the geological classification of soils. On this plan it seemed to me unnecessary to designate the particular farms from which the specimens were obtained.—I took care, however, in all cases, except those hereafter mentioned, to select my specimens from a cultivated ploughed field; about half way between the subsoil and the surface; and in a spot where the vegetable fibres had nearly disappeared by decomposition. I avoided, also, in general, the vicinity of buildings; especially barns: as I did" also those fields where the soil had become very factitious by high cultivation; or where it was very sterile through neglect of culture. I endeavored to select spots where a medium state of cultivation existed; because I conceived that these would present the fairest average examples of the capabilities of our soils. And as most of the specimens were collected towards the close of summer, I could judge from the crops growing upon the fields, where the soil was in a medium state of cultivation. In a few cases I have purposely or accident- ally taken specimens either from very poor or very rich spots; but such ex- amples will be pointed out, when I come to give details. Roots, undecom- posed manure, and large pebbles, were as much as possible avoided : and be- fore proceeding to an analysis, I separated all the roots and pebbles larger than a quarter of an inch, with a course sieve. For although such matters gen- erally exert some, and often a great influence upon the cultivation, yet it seems to me that their chemical examination can add little or nothing to what experience has already taught on this subject. The soils were collected in tin canisters, which were labeled on the spot. Afterwards the specimens were spread out and exposed for several days to a warm sun and dry air, so as to expel all the moisture which could be driven off by natural evaporation. They were then returned to the canisters, and a portion taken for the various analytical processes which were adopted. After this, the residue was put into white glass bottles, which were sealed, numbered, and deposited in the State collection, along with other substan- ces, such as marls, clay, quick much marsh mud, ochre, &c. This arrange- ment makes the specimens easy to be examined by the eye, without the danger of waste by uncorking the bottles. Leading Objects of the Analysis of Soils. The views that have been given as to the origin and nature of soils will enable us to make a threefold classification of their constituents. First, their Economical Geology. 2\ earthy and hietallic ingredients, which are chiefly silicates: Secondly, the acids, alkalies, and salts, which exist originally in them, or are introduced by cultivation: and thirdly, the water and organic matter which they contain. The latter constitutes the principal nourishment of plants, derived from the soil; while the salts are necessary to prepare that nourishment to be taken up and assimilated by their delicate vessels. The earth serves as a basis of support for the plant, as a receptacle for the nourishment, and probably also, in connection with the roots, as a galvanic combination, for the develop- ment of those electrical agencies by which the food of plants is taken up and converted into vegetable matter. By almost any method of analysis that can be adopted, the three leading objects above specified will be more or less combined. But as some of these methods have a chief reference to one of these points, and others to other points, it will be practicable, in the first place, to confine our attention most- ly to the earthy constituents of soils; and in the second place, to examine more particularly their salts and organic matter. Analysis of Soils by Sir Humphrey Davy's Method. The method of analyzing soils proposed by the distinguished English chemist, Sir Humphrey Davy, in his Agricultural Chemistry, has been al- most universally regarded as the best that has been invented. It consists in first driving off the water of absorption by a heat of 300°: Secondly, in boil- ing the soil in water, and suffering the coarser parts to settle, which are re- garded as silica; while the finer, or aluminous portion, is suspended in the water, and is poured off: Thirdly, in determining by muriatic acid, the amount of carbonate of lime, if any be present: Fourthly, in burning off the organic matter of the finer part of the soil: Fifthly, in boiling the remainder in sul- phuric acid, in order to dissolve the alumina and oxide of iron : Sixthly, in ascertaining the amount of soluble salts in the water employed for lixivation. The French Chemist, Chaptal, proposes essentially the same plan, though he renders it much more simple, by omitting the most difficult part; that is, the solution of the alumina and iron by sulphuric acid. The high reputation of Davy's rules led me to attempt their application to nearly half the soils which I had collected in Massachusetts : and the results are contained in the Table which follows. Before presenting any analytical results, however, I wish to state the cir- cumstances under which this part of the survey has been conducted. In some of the larger States of the Union, where geological surveys have been commenced, one or more chemists are constantly employed in the laboratory. 4 00 Mode of Analysis. No such course was adopted in Massachusetts : but the surveyor was direct- ed, in general terms, to make an analysis of the soils, in his commission for a re-examination of the State. The question then arose in my mind, whether it would be possible, while carrying forward the other parts of the survey, to make a sufficient number of analytical investigations to be of much use. It was obvious that the time which I could devote to the subject, would not permit me to perform very numerous analyses with the extreme care and multiplied repetitions which the precision of modern science demands, in order to employ the results in settling the atomic constitution of bodies. Yet it occurred to me, that the objects of the Government might be in a good measure accomplished, if the results were not of the extremely accurate character above described. By a variety of means, some of which are des- cribed in the subjoined note,* and by the most laborious and devoted atten- tion to the subject, I have been able to present a great number of results, which I trust will be found sufficiently accurate for the purposes I had in view. I do not mean that the processes were not conducted with care ; and that I did not repeat them. Very many of them have been repeated again and again; especially whenever there was reason to suspect any material error in the results. Nor do I mean to say, that none of these results are sufficiently accurate to form the basis of scientific reasoning. As to that point, scientific men can judge when they examine my analyses: But I do not offer my conclusions for such a purpose : and wish, as an act of justice to mj self, to have it understood, that the standard by which my analyses ought to be tried, is that of their practical value in an economical, not in a scientific point of view. The following Table exhibits the results of the analysis of 61 soils, selected from the different formations in the State. For convenience, they are all * The arrangement by which I was enabled most successfully to facilitate the process of analysis, con- sisted in providing means for carrying on ten similiar processes together. I made ten compartments upon a table, each provided with apparatus for filtering and precipitation. Ten flasks and ten evaporating dishes were also numbered, as well as ten common crucibles, with a circular piece of sheet iron, pierced with ten holes, and numbered to receive the crucibles. An oven of sheet zinc, with double sides, was likewise fitted up so as to receive ten filters, and to admit a thermometer. The sand bath was also made large enough to admit the ten flasks. By this arrangement, all the important processes in the analysis of soils, by the methods of Sir H. Davy and Dr. Dana, except weighing, could be conducted together, and almost as rapidly as if only one had been carried on. Even the weighing was in this way much facilitated, as any one can easily conceive. I applied also, so far as it was possible, the same method in conducting analyses in a more accurate manner. I supplied myself with four or five platinum and silver crucibles, which being charged, -tjieir contents were either fused together in a charcoal fire, or in succession over a spirit lamp. This pro- cess was repeated until ten substances were obtained in a state of fusion. Afterwards the processes were conducted as above described; except that the ignition of the results was performed over the spirit lamp. It is easy to see how by this arrangement a great saving of time was made. I would not forget to mention also, my indebtedness to the faithfulness and perseverance of my chemical assistant, Mr. Abraham Jenkins, Jr. of Barre. Economical Geology. 23 reduced to the same standard, viz: 100 grains ; and the small loss, which inevitably attends this mode of analysis, has been apportioned among the several ingredients. B ., = = i .5 Compos tion of tile 3 ~\i: xC 1 Aluminous Deposite. No. NAME AND LOCALITY OF SOIL. fe p- .H sj c.— *-» C 1 3 ■5 'Z Ox- B ° 5 O < ~' 7- j* ■J6 Silica. Alu-mina. ide of Iron 1 Alluvial Soil; Deerfield...... 3.0 5.5 29.8 617 55 2 3.5 3.0 2 do Northampton. . . ' . 3.4 5.1 32.8 58.5 0.20 51.7 3.4 3.4 3 do Deerfield...... 2.0 4.5 43.2 50.3 44] 3.7 25 4 do Northampton. .... 3.0 3.0 74.8 19.0 0.15 16.2 1.3 1.5 5 do Northfield. .... 27 4.2 43.9 49.2 44.0 2.4 2.8 6 do Northampton. .... 21 3.2 40.0 54.7 51.0 1.7 2.0 7 do West Springfield. 1.3 5.0 67.9 25.4 0.20 21.6 1.2 2.6 8 do Stock bridge. .... 1.9 4.9 83.5 9.7 7.4 1-3 1.0 9 do Hadley. ..... 4 4 6.6 45.6 43.0 0.20 39.4 1.6 2.0 10 do Sheffield...... 2.2 5.5 6-^.1 30-0 0.20 23.9 3.0 3 1 13 Tertiary Soil, Argillaceous ; Springfield. . 3.3 10.0 47.8 38.7 0.16 32.7 3.5 2.5 1(5 do do Barnstable. 2.6 9.4 47.2 40.8 0.05 29.8 6.7 4.3 lc do Sandy; Wareham. 1.2 0.4 98.4 0.0 19 do do Springfield. 1.7 2.7 92.8 4-8 2.4 1.3 1.1 20 do do Barnstable. 1.0 0.2 98.3 0.5 21 do do Gloucester, (Squam.) 0.15 0.0 99.6 0-0 0.20 23 Sandstone Soil, red ; Longmeadow. . 2.4 4.4 79.0 14-0 0.20 10.6 1.3 2.1 25 do do West Springfield. . 2.6 6.1 50.5 40-4 0.38 32.6 4.2 3.6 26 do grey; Granby. 2.8 3.9 37.3 55.9 0.13 48.6 2.6 4.7 27 Graywacke Soil, Conglomerate; Dorchester. . 3.0 7.8 61-7 27-5 19.3 4.7 3.5 30 do do Walpole. 22 7.6 56.0 34-1 0.10 28.5 3.1 2.5 31 do do Dighton. 1.6 5.2 59.3 33-8 0.10 32 do Slaty ; Middleborough. 1.7 6.0 69.2 230 0.10 17.0 2.2 3.8 3o do do Watertown. 4 1 9.1 45.6 41-0 0.20 31.9 4.1 5.0 36 do do Halifax. . 1.5 5.5 82.6 10.3 0.14 6.9 2.3 1.1 38 do do Taunton 2.0 6.0 76.4 15.5 0.10 11.1 2.8 1.6 40 do do, red ; Attleboro,' S. W. part 3.2 9.7 43.0 44-0 0.12 27.5 8.0 8.5 41 Argillaceous Slate Soil ; Lancaster. . 3.0 9.5 59.3 2j?.1 0.09 231 3.1 1.9 43 do do Townsend. . 3.5 11.5 70.5 14.2 0.32 7.2 4.5 2.5 44 Limestone Soil, Magnesian; New Marlborough. 1.9 5.8 67.6 24-6 0.12 16.6 4.0 4.0 45 do common; Lanesborough. 2.5 7.5 613 28.5 0.20 17.0 4.5 7.0 47 do do North Adams. 1.4 5.1 73.9 19.5 0.14 13.5 3.5 2.5 50 do do Pitsfield. 4.0 9.0 63.7 232 0.10 162 4.0 3.0 51 do do Sheffield. 3.9 7.2 67.7 20-9 0.32 11.9 5.0 4.0 54 Mica Slate Soil; Webster. 2.8 10.4 51.2 355 0.14 27.9 5.4 2.2 56 do Stockbridge mountain. 3.1 7.4 59.7 29.7 0.10 19.7 4.7 5.3 58 do Bradford. 3.0 10.4 44.0 42,3 0.25 32.3 5.8 4.2 59 do West Newbury. 3.0 7.6 65.2 24.1 0.10 16.2 5,1 2.8 60 do Methuen. 1.4 4.0 83.0 116 6.4 1.0 4.2 63 do Conway. 1.4 6.3 67.7 24-5 0.10 18.3 4.3 1.9 6o Talcose Slate; Charlemont. 2.5 6.0 72.0 19-4 0.08 12.7 1.9 4.8 67 Talco-micaceous Slate Soil; Hancock. 2.8 9.7 44.8 42-7 30.4 7.6 4.7 70 Gneiss Soil; Bolton. .... 2.8 7.3 63.5 26-2 0,25 22.2 2.3 17 71 TJo Uxbridge. 2.5 7.0 37.8 525 0.19 44,8 4.3 3.4 77 do Rutland. 3.8 10.2 58.7 27.0 0.26 21.0 3.5 2 5 79 do Royalston. 4.0 9.0 676 19.3 0.14 14.9 3.2 1.2 89 do Grafton. 3.0 7.7 40.1 49.0 0.20 38.9 6.7 34 90 do Brimfield 2.1 6.9 709 20.0 0,10 15.9 2.9 1.2 93 do Becket. . 4.0 9.0 64,6 22.0 0.40 16.6 3.4 2.0 96 do Sturbridge. 1.8 5.7 77 1 15.2 0.22 11.3 2.3 1.6 104 Granite Soil; Andover. 3.3 9.5 54,4 32.6 0.20 26.9 3.9 1.8 106 Sienite Soil; Marblehead. . 3.7 8.9 61-5 25.8 0.10 20.0 2.3 3.5 108 do Gloucester. 1.7 4.8 80-0 13.4 0.13 9.6 2.1 17 109 do Lexington. 3.7 10.0 46-7 39.4 0.16 34.0 3.0 2.4 111 do Newbury. 3.5 7.5 60.1 28.8 0.12 22.2 4.4 2.2 112 do Dedham. 4.3 9.9 463 39.3 0.17 31'4 5.1 2.8 117 do Marshfield. 2.0 5.3 68-7 24.0 0.11 19.2 2.7 2.1 120 Porphyry Soil; Medford. . 4.1 10.6 51.9 33.2 0.15 27.7 3.5 2.0 122 do Lynn. .... 4.0 8.5 464 40.8 0.30 34.6 3.7 25 124 Greenstone Soil; Woburn. 4.0 10.3 46-7 38.9 0.15 33.7 2.3 2.9 125 do Deerfield. 2.0 7.0 32.7 58.2 0.10 30.5 3.3 4.4 &4 Remits of Analyses. Explanation of the preceding Table with remarks. The numbers in the first column of the preceding table, denote the speci- mens of the soils deposited in the State collection : and the second column points out the name and locality. However thoroughly soils are dried in the sun, a quantity of water still adheres to them, which cannot be entirely driven off, until they are heated to nearly 300° of Fahrenheit's thermometer ; or to the point where paper be- gins to" turn brown. This was the way in which the numbers in the third column were obtained, by heating 100 grains to that point and noting the loss of weight. Highly siliceous soils retain but very little of this water of absorption, while from highly aluminous ones, it is not all driven off by heat- ing to 300°. The power of soils to retain water, however, depends much more upon the quantity and character of the organic matter which they con- tain, than upon their mineral composition, as I shall endeavor to show here- after. After driving off the water of absorption, the soil was heated to redness, and continued in that state until every thing combustible was burnt off The loss of weight showed the quantity of organic matter; and thus the fourth column was formed. The fourth column in the above table presents one fact worthy of notice. It seems that our alluvial soils, although deservedly celebrated, contain less of organic matter than almost any other in the State. The principles above suggested explain their fertility in consistency with this fact: but it shows us, if I mistake not, that such soils, if not constantly supplied with manures, either by the overflowing of rivers, or by the farmer, will be sooner exhaust- ed than almost any others. The numbers in the fifth and sixth columns were obtained in the follow- ing manner. One hundred grains of the soil were boiled a short time in a glass flask in water, and after cooling, this was agitated until the soil was all diffused through the water. As soon as the agitation of the water had ceased, it was poured off along with the finer parts of the soil that did not settle at once. The portion that remained usually consisted of siliceous sand, while that which was left suspended in the water, was much more aluminous, and constituted the finest and most important part of the soil. In the present instance, this deposite is in larger proportion than is usual in analysis, be- cause it was poured off immediately after the agitation had ceased, under an impression that by waiting two or three minutes, as is usual, other and more important substances than silica may settle to the bottom of the vessel. In deed, I found this to be the case in some instances when the light matter was Economical Geology. 25 poured off immediately. Thus, the red sandstone soil, No 23, from Long- meadow, gave only 14 grains of aluminous matter, and 79 grains of silice- ous. By digestion in acid, the 14 grains yielded only 1.3 gr. of alumina and 2.1 gr. oxide of iron. But by treating the 79 grains of siliceous matter in the same way, it produced 7.5 grains of alumina and 4 grains peroxide of iron. Such cases teach us that this mechanical separation of the siliceous and aluminous matter is not a little uncertain : although in general it must be confessed, that when the lighter part was poured off immediately, the re- mainder was chiefly siliceous sand. It is not the object of this process however, to show us the quantity of sil- ica and alumina in a soil: but rather the amount of finely divided matter. For the best soils are found, in general, to abound in such matter: although it may become excessive, rendering the soil impervious to air and moisture. This is a principal defect in highly argillaceous soils. But from the preceding table it appears, in my opinion, that the soils in Massachusetts are in general too coarse rather than too fine. Being derived chiefly from primitive rocks, they resist comminution and decomposition more than the secondary rocks. I am satisfied that the principal excellence of our alluvial soils depends more upon their finely divided state than any thing else : for, as I have already in part shown, and shall show farther in the sequel, they must yield in value in some important respects, to our upland soils. And even as to their fineness, they are much coarser than many of the rich alluvia of the Western States; though it may be doubted whether for most crops they are on this account the less valuable. The term salt, in chemistry, has a much more extended meaning than in popular language. Thus common limestone (carbonate of lime) and gypsum (sulphate of lime) are properly denominated salts, as is also phosphate of lime and chloride of calcium (muriate of lime). All compounds of any acid with lime, magnesia, alumina, potassa, soda, &c. or of chlorine with their metallie bases are salts: and some of these are soluble and some insoluble in water. If any of the former exist in soils therefore, they will be dissolved, if the soil be boiled in water. And if afterwards this water be evaporated, the salt can be obtained in a dry state and weighed. This is the way in which column seventh was filled. Tests were also applied to the solutions, in order to ascer- tain the nature of these salts. Hydrocyanate of potassa, infusion of nutgalls, the chlorides of calcium and magnesium, and the carbonate of ammonia and phosphote of soda gave no precipitate in any instance. Hence I infer the absence of iron and the salts of magnesia. But nitrate of silver, baryta water, nitrate and acetate of baryta, and oxalate of ammonia, gave precipi- tates more or less abundant in every instance in which I tried them. I hence infer the presence of a sulphate, probably the sulphate of lime, in all 26 Rules of Analysis deficient. the soils of Massachusetts that I have examined, and I have no doubt but it exists in every one of our soils. The quantity given in the table, is probably much less than the truth, for the sulphate of lime is but slightly soluble in water, and the quantity of water which I employed, was too small to dissolve all that exists in 100 grains ; or rather 200 grains, which was the quantity usually boiled. It was chiefly to ascertain the fact of its existence that the experiments were performed ; since I had adopted a better method for as- certaining its quantity. This salt exists, also, probably in nearly all the springs, rivers, and ponds in the State. The great importance of gypsum, in the process of vegetation, furnishes a reason for its universal diffusion. The remaining columns of the Table exhibit the composition of the alu- minous deposite in the sixth column. That deposite was boiled two or three hours in sulphuric, or hydrochloric acid, and the alumina and iron were pre- cipitated together by carbonate of ammonia, and afterwards separated by hy- drate of potassa. The portion remaining undissolved by the acid, was considered as silica. Insufficiency of this mode of Analysis. I might easily have proceeded farther with these analyses : but had I at the commencement the same opinion of the insufficiency of Davy's method, as I now have, I should not have proceeded even so far. So far as this method is mechanical, it is of value ; since it enables any one, not skilled in the man- ipulations of the laboratory, to ascertain whether a soil is coarse, or in a finely divided state. But the chemistry of this method is very bad. In the first place, it does not profess to determine the amount of silica, alumina, iron, &c. in the entire soil, but only in its finely divided portion. Now I have already mentioned a case, in which the siliceous residuum (of No. 23.) yielded almost as large a per cent, of alumina and oxide of iron as the aluminous portion. And I shall soon mention numerous examples, in which accurate analysis of the whole soil shows a much larger per cent, of these ingredients than this method discovers. In the second place, this method does by no means give the relative proportion of the ingredients in a soil, especially of the silica and alumina ; because the latter is soluble with difficulty in sulphuric acid. Being desirous of ascertaining what proportion of the alumina could be ex- tracted by the direct action of acids, I selected seven of the soils given in the preceding table, and subjected the aluminous deposite, obtained in the , manner that has been described, to thorough analysis by fusion with soda, in platinum crucibles. The results may be seen in the following Table. Economical Geology. 27 No. Aluminous Deposite. Alumina by Acids. Alumina by Alkali. Silica by Acids. Silica by Alkali. Alumina per cent. 2 58.5 3.4 17.6 51.0 37.5 30.1 >, 40 44.0 8.0 11.8 27.5 23.7 268 41 28.1 3.1 9.4 23 1 16.8 33.6 47 19.5 3.5 63 13.5 10.7 32.3 j>30.9 Mean. 58 42.3 5.8 12.2 32.3 259 28.8 8!) 49.0 67 14.9 38.9 30.7 30.4 112 39.3 5.1 13.0 31.3 23.0 34.3 ^ The number of the soil in the state collection* is given in the first col- umn of the above table : the amount of the aluminous deposite in the sec- ond ; the alumina by boiling in acid, as given in the first table, in the third column; the alumina by fusion with carbonate of soda in the fourth column: the silica, after the action of acids, in the fifth: the silica by alkali in the sixth: and the per cent, of alumina by the same process in the last. A mere glance at these results, if they are not very erroneous, shows us how extremely deficient are Davy's rules in this particular. It is true that a repetition of his process, with fresh sulphuric acid, would dissolve more alumina; and in this way a gradual approximation might be obtained to- wards the truth: but such repetitions would prove more laborious than the process by fusion with alkali, and thus defeat the very object this distin-. guished chemist had in view, viz. so to simplify the analysis of soils, that it might be performed by intelligent farmers, though not familiar with chemi- cal manipulation. But in the third place, I have been brought to the conclusion, that even if these rules should give accurately the proportion of the ingredients, they would be of little importance; because the fertility of soils depends but very little upon the proportion of their earthy ingredients: in other words, these may vary greatly, without affecting the fertility. Partly to ascertain how far this principle is true, and partly to determine more accurately what are the earthy constituents of the soils of Massachusetts, I have made several analyses of the different geological varieties by fusion with an alkali; the on- ly method which can at all satisfy the chemist. In the first example no at- tempt was made to determine the presence or amount of lime and magne- sia. 100 grains of a diluvial argillaceous soil from Plymouth contain, * There are two series of numbers in the State Collection both commencing with unity. One series is confined entirely to those specimens that are contained in glass bottles, which amount to 227. The othet series extends to more than 2500. To distinguish between the two series, whenever they are referred to, I shall annex the letter b, to those of the first series, except the soils, which amount to 152, and the marls, clays, marly clays, and muck sands, where it seems unnecessary. 28 Analyses by Fusion. Water of Absorption. 2.7 Organic Matter. 6.0 Oxide of Iron. 6.5 Salts .Soluble in Water. 0.4 Alumina. 19.2 Silica. 65.2 100.0 In the following examples, I directed my attention to a determination of the amount of silica, alumina, lime, and magnesia, in the entire soil; having previously driven off the water and organic matter by heat. The salts of lime were obtained by another process, which will be explained farther on ; and are added here for the sake of giving a complete view of the composition of the soils. It will be seen that I have added, for the sake of comparison, four examples of some of the richest soils in Illinois and Ohio. For con- venience, the results are reduced to a centessimal standard : although only 15 grains were usually employed in the analysis. *o. LOCAI.1TT. Organic Mutter. o m a E 3 < o x -O •"" V a. rt a! 5 E O o <*-o 72 "3 aJ S >-i 2.18 2.32 0.74 0.59 1.14 1.09 0.11 0 81 0.63 .2 en c s .3 2.00 1.23 0.25 0.44 0.48 0 12 0.44 0 04 0 760.73 1.08 0.57 2.821.20 1.14 022 0.07.0.28 0.52 0 37 0.800.09 0.910.07 0.68 0.560.33 1.08(0.58 trace'0.48 1 18 23 28 41 46 59 64 81 103 109 120 125 198 199 200 SOI Alluvial Soil, Deerfie d. Diluvial Sand, Ware'iam. Red Sandstone Soil, L Meadow Graywacke Soil, Roxbury. Argil. Slate Soil, Lincaster. Limestone Soil, G. Barrington. Mica Slate Soil, W. Newbury. Talcose Slate Soil, Chester. Gneiss Soil, Petersham. Granite Soil, Duxbury. Sienite Soil, Lexington. Porphyry Soil, Medford. Greenstone Soil, Deerfield. Rushville, Illinois. Sangamon Co. do. Lazelle Co. do. Sciota Valley, Ohio. 2.0 1.4 4.2 26 7.4 2.0 3.8 26 5.6 24 4.0 2 8 20 63 63 9 5 5.3 7.0 1.2 3.6 8.4 7.4 6.0 5.8 4.6 7.4 5.2 9.8 12.4 62 9.9 10.5 21.4 11.2 55.50 84.68 65.45 63 68 57.87 69.92 67.49 68.01 60 85 74 77 65.00 59.78 65.39 63.35 66 71 47.09 62.64 22.06 776 16.45 17.37 16.C6 12 22 11 87 14.10 18 77 1257 13.11 16.38 16 35 15.00 8.28 9.87 9.1ft 5.11 1.89 5.07 3.65 4.70 5.03 3.80 2.57 3.22 3.10 4 00 3.54 605 5.57 4.42 5.38 5.40 2.00 1.50 1.30 3.30 2.80 2.00 0 40 3.20 230 460 1.70 3 50 3.10 2.40 0 80 2.60 2.60 0.10 3.40 1.20 1.40 2.10 0.90 0.40 0.60 1.46 0.90 0.50 1.00 1.00 0.40 0.70 0.60 0.80 0.30 0.60 0.40 0.40 0 90 The preceding Table hardly needs explanation : except to remark, that the column headed Lime, contains the excess of that substance, found by the process with alkali in some specimens, above the amount contained in the carbonate, sulphate, and phosphate. This excess probably existed in the soil either as a silicate or a geate. For the sake of a more extensive comparison, I shall here quote a few analyses of soils that have been distinguished for their fertility. Most of them are European. Analysis of Soils. 29 In the Second Report of Mr. Colman on the Agriculture of Massachusetts, Dr. S. L. Dana has given the analysis of a soil from Chelmsford, on the Mer- rimack River, which has produced a large crop of wheat for 20 years with only one failure. 100 parts contain Soluble Geine, 3.9228 Insoluble Geine, 2.6142 Sulphate of Lime, .7060 Phosphate of Lime, .9082 Silicates (Silica, alumina, iron, &c.) 91.8485 No trace of carbonate of lime or of alkaline salts could be discovered. In his third annual report on the geology of Maine, Dr. C. T. Jackson has given the following analysis of a soil from that State, which has produced 48 bushels of wheat per acre. Water, 5.0 Vegetable Matter, 17.5 Silica, 54.2 Alumina, 10.6 Sub Phosphate of Alumina, 3.0 Peroxide of Iron, 7.0 Oxide of Manganese; 1.0 Carbonate of Lime, 1.5 99^8 An excellent wheat soil from the County of Middlesex in England, was analyzed by Sir Humphry Davy, and gave in 100 parts, Siliceous Sand, 60 Finely divided matter, 40 100 parts of the latter gave Carbonate of Lime, 28 Silica, 32 Alumina, 29 Organic Matter and Water, 11 A very productive soil from the County of Somerset, gave Siliceous Sand, 89 Finely divided Matter, 11 432 parts of the latter gave Carbonate of Lime, 360 Alumina, 25 Silica, 20 Oxide of Iron, 8 Organic and Saline Matter, 19 '5 30 Economical Geology. Bergman found one of the most fertile soils in Sweden to contain Coarse Silica (sand,) 30 Silica, 26 Alumina, 14 Carbonate of Lime, 30 Giobert found the following to be the composition of one of the most fer- tile soils in the neighborhood of Turin. Silica, 77 to 79 Alumina, 9 to 14 Carbonate of Lime, 5 to 12 A very fertile soil in France gave, according to the analysis of Chaptal, Siliceous Gravel, 32 Calcareous Gravel, 11 Silica, , 10 Alumina, 21 Carbonate of Lime, 19 Organic Matter, 7 The most fertile mixture obtained by Tillet, in numerous experiments made at Paris, contained the following ingredients. Coarse Silica (Sand,) 25.0 Silica, 21.0 Alumina, 16.5 Carbonate of Lime. 37.5 (ChaptaVs Chemistry applied to Agriculture, p. 25. first Boston Edition.) Inferences. Though the analyses quoted above are referred to different standards, yet it is easy to see that the earthy ingredients are exceedingly various, if we look only to the most fertile soils. In one, that from Somerset in England, siliceous sand and carbonate of lime constitute 98 per cent, of the soil; while alumina is less than one per cent. In most of those from Massachusetts, there is no carbonate of lime, and only one or two per cent, of lime in any combination. The prairie soils of the Western States, confessedly among the most fertile on the globe, appear to contain a larger proportion of silica and a less proportion of alumina, than almost any variety of soil from Massachusetts. Upon the whole, the facts stated above, taken in connection with settled principles in Agricultural Chemistry, will warrant the following inferences. 1. A soil composed wholly or chiefly of one kind of earth will not pro- duce any healthy vegetation. If nineteen twentieths be silica, or alum- ina , lime, or magnesia, it is said that it will be barren. On this account Inferences. 31 the numerous sand hills or dunes in the southeastern part of Massachusetts, are almost entirely barren; and it appears from the first table of analysis which I have given, that these sands contain less than one twentieth of fine- ly divided matter. In England however, a writer on this subject (Rees Cy- clopedia, Article, Soil,) say sthat he has seen a tolerable crop of turnips on a soil containing eleven out of twelve parts of sand. Any one may also see in Plymouth and Barnstable counties in the summer, very good crops of wheat on land similar to that analysed from Wareham, which contains 85 per cent, of silica. 2. Though plants may be made to grow in soils composed of only two sorts of earths, yet in order to render them very fertile, it is necessary that they should contain at least silica, alumina, and lime ; and probably also iron and magnesia are important. That these ingredients are wanted by most plants is evident from their analysis : although we are not perhaps warranted in saying that they are all indispensable to a tolerably healthy development of the plant. 100 parts of the ashes of the following plants were found to con- tain as follows: Ashes of wheat, 48 Silica, 37 Lime. 15 Alumina. " of oats, 68 " 26 " 6 " of barley, 69 " 16 " 15 " " of rye, 63 " 21 " 16 " of potatoes, 4 " 66 " 30 " of red clover, 37 " 33 " 30 Most plants also contain several salts soluble in water: also earthy phos- phates, and carbonates and metallic oxides: as may be seen by consulting ChaptaPs Chemistry applied to Agriculture, p. 176. Now if those ingredi- ents be not furnished by the soil, from whence can the plants obtain them ? 3. Only a small quantity of earthy ingredients is required for plants ; and hence the proportions in which they exist in the soils may vary exceedingly without affecting their fertility, so far as the food of the plant is concerned. 4. The degree of comminution or fineness in a soil, is of far more impor- tance in its bearing upon fertility, than its chemical composition, so far as the earthy ingredients are concerned. The power of a soil to absorb and re- tain moisture, as well as the power of the rootlets of plants, to take up nour- ishment from the soil, depend in a great measure upon its fineness. If the particles be too coarse to accomplish these objects, it can be of little conse- quence whether those particles are pure silica, or alumina, or lime, or iron, or a mixture of the whole. And if they be fine enough, I do not see why one kind may not answer nearly as well as another, provided enough of them all be present to enter into the composition of the plants : though doubtless al- 32 Economical Geology. umina of the same fineness would be of a closer texture and absorb more moisture, than the others. The soils of New England are usually regarded as too siliceous: and yet, from the preceding table it seems they are less so than the rich prairie soils of the western states. But these western soils are reduced almost to an impalpable powder, more fine than even any of the al- luvium of Massachusetts that I have seen: and I apprehend that this is a principal cause of their fertility. 5. Hence we infer, that in some instances, one earthy ingredient may be substituted for another. In a letter from A. A. Hayes Esq. of Roxbury, whose opinion on this subject cannot but be highly appreciated, he says, " The process of absorption and retention may be so much modified by com- minution, that I think a silico-ferruginous soil may assume the characters of an alumnious soil to a certain extent; and that the existence of a due pro- portion of finely divided matter is of more consequence than is its composi- tion." In this view of the subject, the mechanical part of Davy's rules for the analysis of soils, becomes of more importance than the chemical part. And the mechanical part, that is, the determination of the quantity of finely divided matter, can be performed by every farmer of tolerable ingenuity with a very few articles of apparatus. 6. It appears that to spend much time in an accurate chemical determi- nation of the earthy constituents of soils, is of little importance. If there was any one definite compound of the earths which would always give the maximum of fertility, such analyses would be important: but I have shown, if I mistake not, that great diversity in this respect is consistent with the highest amount of fertility. Or if it should prove true, as I confidently think it will not, that there is a particular proportion of earthy ingredients most favorable to fertility, as Tillet undertook to show in respect to Paris, I apprehend that the same proportion will not produce the maximum of fer- tility in countries where the temperature and the amount of rain are differ- ent. There is one respect, however, in which this kind of analysis may be of service in a region like New England, where lime exists in the soil in such small proportion; and that is, to determine whether it exists at all. There is another method, however, of ascertaining the presence of the most impor- tant salts of lime in a soil, which I shall explain shortly, and which is more easy than analysis in the dry way by alkali. The fact is, every farmer is acquainted with the difference between sandy, clayey, and loamy soils; and it is doubtful whether the most delicate analy- sis will afford him much assistance of much practical value in respect to these distinctions. I could easily have analyzed all the soils which I have collected in the Salts and Organic Matter. 33 manner that has been described. But for the reasons above given, and be- cause a new mode of analysis of greater value was unexpectedly brought to my notice, I have judged it inexpedient to proceed. I wish however to say, that in thus giving my opinion of the entire inadequacy of most of the steps in Davy's rules for the analysis of soils, I do not mean to intimate that it is owing to any want of skill in that distinguished chemist: but simply because he attempted an impossibility, viz. to frame popular rules for such analyses as can be performed only by the experienced chemist and with the best apparatus and ingredients. 7. Finally, if these positions be correct, then it follows that almost every variety of soil may by cultivation be rendered fertile. If we can only be certain that silica, alumina, and lime, are present, we need not fear, but by those modes of cultivation which every enlightened farmer knows how to employ, it may be made very productive. In nearly all the soils in Massa- chusetts, for instance, the only question will be respecting the presence of lime ; since he may be sure the other constituents are present. It is not necessary, therefore, for our young men to go to distant regions in search of fertile soils. Patient industry will ensure them such soils within their own borders: and the same may be said of nearly every country: a fact which strikingly exhibits the Divine Beneficence. Analysis for determining the salts and organic matter of Soils. With the exception of carbonate of lime, which I have regarded as one of the earthy ingredients of soils,.although it is properly a salt, the amount of organic matter in a soil cannot be greatly diminished, nor that of salts great- ly increased, without rendering it sterile. And yet, the existence of both salts and organic matter seems essential to successful cultivation. It hence becomes a matter of no little importance, to ascertain the existence and amount of these substances in soils. This it is true, can be done by the modes of analysis already described: But in respect to some important salts, especially the phosphates, it is well known that their detection by the ordi- nary modes of analysis is very difficult. And in respect to the organic mat- ter, the method hitherto proposed by Davy, Chaptal, and others, simply as- certains its amount by burning it off. Now it is well known that a field may abound in organic matter, as for instance a peaty soil, and yet be en- tirely barren. Another field may contain but little organic matter, and yet be very productive; though soon exhausted. The same quantity of ma- nure on one field, will render it productive much longer than another field. On one field it is rapidly dissipated : on another, it is fixed, or so combined as to be permanent. Hence it is of greater importance to determine what 34 Economical Geology. is the condition of organic matter in a soil, than its amount. It seems to be well ascertained, that in order to its being taken up by the rootlets of plants, it must be in a state of solution ; and in order to prevent its being dissipa- ted, it must be chemically combined with some of the earthy ingredients of the soil. But these matters have hitherto been scarcely touched in the rules given for analysis. This desideratum, however, has in my opinion been in a good measure supplied by a chemical friend, and will be described in the sequel. Examination for Carbonate of Lime. Many of the analyses of European soils, represent them as containing a rather large per centage of carbonate of lime : and hence it was natural to expect a similar constitution in the soils of this country. But the result is different from the anticipation. In order to determine this point, I adopted the following method. A small quantity of the soil was introduced into a watch glass, so placed that the light from a window would fall upon it. This soil was coverd with water to a considerble depth. The soil was then stirred until the light matter and every bubble of air had risen to the top. The impurity that floated on the surface was then removed by drawing over it a piece of bibulous paper, so that the water stood perfectly clear above the soil. Then a few drops of muriatic acid were added by a dropping tube and the water was carefully watched to see if any bubbles rose through it, as they would have done if any carbonate were present. The minutest quantity of gas escaping, could in this manner be perceived. I am confident that if in 100 grains of the soil, (the quantity usually em- ployed) the fiftieth part of a grain had existed, it might in this manner have been detected. The result disclosed the remarkable fact, that out of 145 soils examined from all parts of the state, and some of them underlaid by lime- stone, only 14 exhibited any effervescence; and even these, when analyzed, yielded but a small per centage of carbonate of lime : viz. Alluvial Soil, Westfield, 6.2 per cent. Sandy Soil, Truro, 21.3 Graywacke Soil, Watertown, 1.30 Limestone Soil, Sheffield, 0.80 do West Stockbridge, 3.20 do Saddle Mountain Adams, 1.50 do Richmond, 0.80 Argillaceous Slate Soil, Boston Corner, 2.98 Talcose Slate Soil, Mount Washington, 2.77 Gneiss Soil, Westminster, 3.00 No. 176 u 180 (( 35 l< 51 M 52 (( 192 U 189 (( 183 « 196 (< 78 Carbonate of Lime in Soils. 35 " 80 Gneiss Soil Fitchburg, 2.10 per cent. " 186 do Sandisfield, 2.80 " 113 Sienite Soil, Wrentham, 0.40 " 125 Greenstone Soil, Deerfield, 2.00 Even in several of the above instances I am convinced that the calcareous matter was not natural to the soil. Thus, I afterwards learnt that the field in Westfield, (about a mile west of the village,) from which the above spec- imen was taken, had been highly manured; and having collected another specimen in an adjoining field, I could detect no carbonate in it. Nos. 31, 78, 80, and 125 also, contrary to my usual custom, were obtained in small patches of cultivated ground near villages; and most probably these had been highly manured if not with lime yet with substances that might pro- duce a carbonate of some sort. And No. 180 was fidl of fragments of sea shells. Setting aside these specimens, we find that only one in 10 of our soils contains any carbonate of lime; and if we leave out of the account, the soils from the limestone region of Berkshire, we may con- sider nearly every other soil in the state as destitute of that substance. Even in Berkshire, it is rare to meet with soils that effervesce ; and I have found none there, that contained but a very small proportion of the carbon- ate of lime. From the able work of Edmund Ruffin Esq. of Virginia, on calcareous manures, it appears that the same is true of the soils of that state: and also of some of the western states ; even where limestone is the prevailing rock. The analyses of western soils, also, which I have given, show but a small proportion of this ingredient. Upon the whole, I think we may fairly infer that the soils in general in this country are less charged with carbonate of lime than those of Europe. In the primitive parts of our country, such as New England, this is easily explained, from the great dearth of limestone. In other parts, perhaps the fact may be explained by the powerful effects of diluvial action, and the more compact nature of our limestone in our vast secondary deposites, whereby they are less liable to disintegration, than main- of those in Europe. Or not improbably, the great amount of vegetation, that has for thousands of years spread over our countrv, while it has added to the organic matter of the soil, may have used up much of the carbonate of lime: For that the growth of vegetables will gradually consume the calcareous matter of the soil, seems now pretty well established. New Method of analyzing Soils. Without stopping to suggest any means for supplying the deficiencies which the preceding analyses have shown in our soils, I proceed to the de- 36 Economical Geology. velopment of a new method of analysis, which I very unexpectedly received from a distinguished chemical friend, and which he has allowed me to present in this Report, with its application to our soils. It is the invention of Dr. Samuel L. Dana of Lowell, to whom, as will appear in the sequel, I am in- debted for other important assistance in the way of analysis. In order to its being fully understood and appreciated, a few preliminary statements from myself, in addition to those by Dr. Dana, will be necessary. Till within a few years past, the state in which vegetable and animal mat- ter exists in the soil, and the changes through which it passes, before being taken up by the roots of the plant, were almost entirely unknown to chemists. Long ago, however, Klaproth had discovered a peculiar substance in the elm tree, which he denominated ulmin. More recently it was found by Bracon- not in starch, saw-dust, and sugar; and by the distinguished Swedish chemist, Berzelius, in all kinds of barks. Sprengel, and Polydore Boullay have as- certained, also, that it constitutes a leading principle in manures and soils. Hence they call it Humin ; but Berzelius adopts the name of Geine. When wet, it is a gelatinous mass, which, on drying, becomes of a deep brown or almost black color, without taste or smell, and insoluble in water; and, there- fore, in this state incapable of being absorbed by the roots of plants. Yet af- ter the action of alkalies upon it, it assumes the character of an acid, and unites with ammonia, potassa, lime, alumina, &c, and forms a class of bodies called Geates, most of which are soluble in water, and therefore capable of being ta- ken up by plants. And it is in the state of geates, that this substance for the most part exists in the soil. I have thought it might at least gratify curiosity, and perhaps be of some practical use, to add specimens of these forms of geine to the collection of soils. No. 227 is pure geine: No. 226 geate of potassa: No. 225 geate of lime: No. 224 geate of alumina. It is but justice to say, that Dr. Dana derived his knowledge of geine chiefly from his own researches, miule with a view to improve the coloring processes in the Calico Printing Establishment, at Lowell: and his method of analyzing soils is altogether original. The statements of Berzelius, in- deed, though interesting in a theoretical point of view, afford very little light to the practical agriculturalist. Those of Dr. Dana appear to me to be far more important; although essentially coinciding with those of European chemists. His method of analysis, derived from his researches, I must say, after having made extensive application of it to our soils, is simple and elegant, and taken in connection with his preliminary remarks, it appears to me to be a most important contribution to agricultural chemistry, and promises much for the advancement of practical agriculture. I trust it will be favorably received by the government, and by all intelligent men, who take an interest in the subject. His preliminary remarks and rules I shall now present in his own language. Geine. 37 " By geine," says he, " I mean all the decomposed organic matter of the soil. It results chiefly from vegetable decomposition; animal substances produce a similar compound containing azote. There may be undecom- posed vegetable fibre so minutely divided as to pass through the sieve; (see first step in the rules for analysis) but as one object of this operation is to free the soil from vegetable fibre, the portion will be quite inconsiderable It can affect only the amount of insoluble geine. When so minutely di- vided, it will probably pass into geine in a season's cultivation. Geine ex- ists in two states : soluble and insoluble : soluble both in water and in alkali, in alcohol and acids. The immediate result of recent decomposition of vegetable fibre is abundantly soluble in water. It is what is called Solution of Vegetable Extract. Air converts this soluble into solid geine, still par- tially soluble in water, wholly soluble in alkali. Insoluble geine is the result of the decomposition of solid geine: but this insoluble geine, by the long continued action of air and moisture, is again so altered as to become soluble. It is speedily converted by the action of lime into soluble geine. Soluble geine acts neither as acid nor alkali, It is converted into a substance having acid properties by the action of alkali; and in this state combines with earths, alkalies, and oxides, forming neutral salts, which may be termed geates. These all are more soluble in water than solid geine; especially when they are first formed. Their solubility in cold water is as follows: beginning with the easiest: magnesia—lime—manganese—peroxide of iron—(it does not unite with the protoxide of iron) alumina—baryta. The geates of the alkaline earths are decomposed by carbonated alkali. The geates of alumi- na and of metallic oxides are soluble in caustic or carbonated alkali without decomposition. The geates of the alkaline earths, by the action of the car- bonic acid of the air, become super-geates, always more soluble than neutral salts. Soluble geine, therefore, includes the watery solution—the solid ex- tract caused by the action of air on the solution, and the combinations of this with alkalies, earths, and oxides. Insoluble geine includes all the other forms of this substance." " Soluble geine is the food of plants. Insoluble geine becomes food by air and moisture. Hence the reason and result of tillage. Hence the rea- son of employing pearlash to separate soluble and insoluble geine in analy- sis." " These are the facts. Will they not lead us to a rational account of the use of lime, clay, ashes and spent ley ? Will they not account for the su- periority of unfermented over fermented dung in some cases ?" Dr. Dana's remarks in answer to these inquiries I shall omit for the pre- sent, and quote the remainder of his remarks preliminary to his rules for analysis. If any sentences seem to be somewhat repetitious of those alrea- 6 38 Economical Geology. dy quoted, it is sufficient to say, that they were communicated at different times, in private letters, in answer to inquiries which I had made, that I might be sure not to mistake his meaning. On a subject so new, some repe- titions are not undesirable. " Geine forms the basis of all the nourishing part of all vegetable manures. The relations of soils to heat and moisture depend chiefly on geine. It is in fact, under its three states of < vegetable extract, geine, and carbonaceous mould,' the principle which ogives fertility to soils long after the action of common manures has ceased. In these three states it is essentially the same. The experiments of Saussure have long ago proved that air and moisture convert insoluble into soluble geine. Of all the problems to be solved by agricultural chemistry, none is of so great practical importance as the determination of the quantity of the soluble and insoluble geine in soils. This is a question of much higher importance than the nature and proportions of the earthy constituents and soluble salts of soils. It lies at the foundation of all successful cultivation. Its importance has been not so much overlooked as undervalued. Hence, on this point the least light has been reflected from the labors of Davy and Chaptal. It needs but a glance at any analysis of soils, published in the books, to see that fertility depends not on the propor- tion of the earthy ingredients. Among the few facts, best established in chemical agriculture, are these: that a soil, whose earthy part is composed wholly or chiefly, of one earth; or any soil, with excess of salt, is always barren; and that plants grow equally well in all soils, destitute of geine, up to the period of fructification :—failing of geine, the fruit fails, the plants die. Earths, and salts, and geine, constitute, then, all that is essential; and soils will be fertile, in proportion as the last is mixed with the first. The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, the geine the food of plants. The salts can be varied but very little in their proportions, without injury. The earths admit of wide variety in their nature and proportions. I would resolve all into "silicates;" by which I mean the finely divided, almost im- palpable mixture of the detritus of granite, gneiss, mica slate, sienite, and argillite; the last, giving by analysis, a compound very similar to the for- mer. When we look at the analysis of vegetables, we find these inorganic principles constant constituents—silica, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, pot- ash, soda, and sulphuric and phosphoric acids. Hence these will be found constituents of all soils. The phosphates have been overlooked from the known difficulty of detecting phosphoric acid. Phosphate of lime is so ea- sily soluble when combined with mucilage or gelatine, that it is among the first principles of soils exhausted. Doubtless the good effects, the lasting effects, of bone manure, depend more on the phosphate of lime, than on its animal portion. Though the same plants growing in different soils are New Rules of Analysis of Soils. 39 found to yield variable quantities of the salts and earthy compounds, yet 1 believe, that accurate analysis will show, that similar parts of the same spe- cies, at the same age, always contain the inorganic principles above named, when grown in soils arising from the natural decomposition of granitic rocks. These inorganic substances will be found not only in constant quantity, but always in definite proportion to the vegetable portion of each plant. The effect of cultivation may depend, therefore, much more on the introduction of salts than has been generally supposed. The salts introduce new breeds. So long as the salts and earths exist in the soil, so long will they form vol- taic batteries with the roots of growing plants; by which, the silicates are decomposed and the nascent earths, in this state readily soluble, are taken up by the absorbents of the roots, always a living, never a mechanical operation. Hence so long as the soil is chiefly silicates, using the term as above defined, so long is it as good as on the day of its deposition ; salts and geine may vary, and must be modified by cultivation. The universal diffusion of granitic diluvium will always afford enough of the earthy ingredients. The fertile character of soils, I presume, will not be found dependent on any particular rock formation on which it reposes. Modified they may be, to a certain extent, by peculiar formations; but all our granitic rocks afford, when decomposed, all those inorganic principles which plants demand. This is so true, that on this point the farmer already knows all that chemistry can teach him. Clay and sand, every one knows: a soil too sandy, or too clayey, may be modified by mixture ; but the best possible mixture does not give fertility. That depends on salts and geine. If these views are correct, the few prop- erties of geine which I have mentioned, will lead us at once to a simple and accurate mode of analyzing soils,—a mode, which determines at once the value of a soil, from its quantity of soluble and insoluble vegetable nutri- ment,—a mode, requiring no array of apparatus, nor delicate experimental tact,—one, which the country gentleman may apply with very great accura- cy ; and, with a little modification, perfectly within the reach of any man who can drive a team or hold a plough." Rules of Analysis. 1. " Sift the soil through a fine sieve. Take the fine part; bake it just up to browning paper." 2. "Boil 100 grains of the baked soil, with 50 grains of pearl ashes, sale- ratus, or carbonate of soda, in 4 ounces of water, for half an hour; let it set- tle ; decant the clear: wash the grounds with 4 ounces boiling water: throw all on a double weighed filter, previously dried at the same temperature as was the soil (1) ; wash till colorless water returns. Mix all these liquors. It is a 40 Economical Geology. brown colored solution of all the soluble geine. All sulphates have been con- verted into carbonates, and with any phosphates, are on the filter. Dry there- fore, that, with its contents, at the same heat as before. Weigh—the loss is soluble geine." 3. " If you wish to examine the geine; precipitate the alkaline solution with excess of lime-water. The geate of lime will rapidly subside, and if. lime-water enough has been added, the natant liquor will be colorless. Col- lect the geate of lime on a filter: wash with a little acetic or very dilute muriatic acid, and you have geine quite pure. Dry and weigh. Deduct the weight from the soluble geine, (rule 1.) the remainder is the amount of alumina, oxide of iron, magnesia, sulphuric and phosphoric acids contained in the alkaline solution." 4. " Replace on a funnel the filter (2) and its earthy contents: wash with 2 drams muriatic acid, diluted with three times its bulk of cold water. Wash till tasteless. The carbonate and phosphate of lime will be dissolved with a little iron, which has resulted from the decomposition of any salts of iron, beside a little oxide of iron. The alumina will be scarcely touched. We may estimate all as salts of lime. Evaporate the muriatic solution to dryness, weigh and dissolve in boiling water. The insoluble will be phos- phate of lime. Weigh—the loss is the sulphate of lime ; (I make no allow- ance here for the difference in atomic weights of the acids, as the result is of no consequence in this analysis.)" 5. " The earthy residuum, if of a greyish white color, contains no insolu- ble geine—test it by burning a weighed small quantity on a hot shovel—if the odor of burning peat is given off, the presence of insoluble geine is indi- cated. If so, calcine the earthy residuum and its filter—the loss of weight will give the insoluble geine ; that part which air and moisture, time and lime, will convert into soluble vegetable food. Any error here will be due to the loss of water in a hydrate, if one be present: but hydrates exist in too small quantities in soils to affect the result. The actual weight of the residuary mass shows the amount of Silicates in the soil. " The clay, mica, quartz, &c. are easily distinguished. If your soil is cal- careous, which may be easily tested by acids; then before proceeding to this analysis, boil 100 grains in a pint of water, filter and dry as before: the loss of weight is due to the sulphate of lime: even the sulphate of iron may be so considered : for the ultimate result in cultivation is to convert this into sul- phate of lime." " Treat the soil with muriatic acid, and having thus removed the lime, pro- ceed as before, to determine the geine and insoluble vegetable matter." As soon as made acquainted with this mode of analysis, it appeared to me so much more important and accurate than any other with which I was conver- Results of Analysis of Soils. 4l sant, that I felt determined, if possible, to apply it to the soils of Massa- chusetts ; and by extra efforts, I have the pleasure of presenting in the fol- lowing table the results of its application to all our soils which I have col- lected, viz. 146 : and I shall show hereafter, similar results with our marls, clays, and other substances, to which this method can be applied. No. NAME AND LOCALITY OF THE SOIL. 6 V 6 B B o.2 J -1 £ .o - '5 O O <*-o o o .a Q. O .C "<5 .5 ■* o . 3 "o m 3 O c Q. 3 02 3 O .a <3 V o W 2 = °* £ e xi -S 25 < 1 Alluvium— -Deerfield, . 2 do Northampton, - . 3 do Deerfield, . 4 do Northampton, - . 5 do Northfield, . 6 do Northampton, - - 7 do W. Springfield, - 176 Alluvium- -Westfield, - 177 do do (an adjoinin g field,) - 8 do Stockbridge, - 9 do Hadley, - 10 do Sheffield, - 11 do Deerfield, - 12 do W. Springfield, - 13 Diluvial Argillaceous—Springfield, - 14 do do ' Northampton, - 15 do do Plymouth, - 16 do do Barnstable, - 17 do do Sandwich, - 18 do Sandy—Wareham, - 19 do do Springfield, - 168 do do uncultivated, Northampton, 179 do Loamy—Amherst, - 178 do Sandy—Sheffield, - 180 do do Truro,* - 20 do do Barnstable, • - - 21 do do Gloucester, - 22 Sandstone, (Red,)—Deerfield. - 23 Sandstone, (Red,)—Longmeadow, - 24 do do Wilbraham, - - 25 do do W. Springfield, - 26 ' do (Gray.) — Granby, - 27 Graywacke Soil—Dorchester, - 28 do Roxbury, - 20 do Brookline, - 30 do Walpole, - 31 do Dighton, - 32 do Middleborough, - 33 do Quincy, - 34 do W. Bridgewater, - 35 do Watertown, -' 36 do Halifax, - 37 do Cambridge, - 38 do Taunton, - 39 do Attleborough, east part, 40 do do west part, 41 Argillaceous Slate—Lancaster, - 42 do Sterling, - 43 do Townsend, - 184 Argillaceous Slate Soil, uncultivated- -Lancaster, 183 do Boston Corner, - 44 Limestone, (Magnesian,)—Marlborough, - 45 do Lanesborough, - 46 do Great Barrington i 47 do Adams, - 3.5 12 2.0 0.9 92.4 3.3 2.8 4.2 2.4 1.0 89.6 2.0 2.3 11 1.6 0.9 94.1 2.1 1.2 2.4 0.9 1.1 94.4 1.2 2.8 2.8 1.5 0.6 92.3 2.9 2.4 0.8 2.8 0.8 93.2 1.4 3.2 1-2 1.3 0.7 93.6 3.0 2.4 2.7 2.6 6.2 1.0 85.1 1.5 1-2 0.9 0.3 96.1 3.3 0.8 2.9 05 92.5 1 9 2.5 2.3 2.7 1.0 91.5 5.0 1.3 5.2 1.7 0.5 91.3 3.5 2.5 2.4 0.8 08 93.5 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 95.5 1.5 4.8 5.8 2.4 1.2 85.8 6.3 4.8 4.6 1.6 0.8 88.2 6.1 2.9 4.9 1.8 0.9 89.5 4.9 4.4 5.9 0.9 0.6 88.2 4.9 2.8 4.9 3.0 1.1 88.2 4.2 0.5 0.0 0.4 0.4 98.7 0.5 3.2 0.0 16 0.6 94.6 17 3.6 4.4 0.5 0.5 91.0 3.5 2.3 2.5 0.9 90.8 0.0 0.8 03.2 0.08 98.8 3.7 1.6 21.3 0.35 73.1 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 99.6 100. 0.8 0.7 0.3 2.6 0.8 0.7 95.6 3.4 3.2 0.5 32 0.6 92.5 3.2 6.1 2.0 1.0 0.8 90.1 2.5 4.1 3.8 4.3 0.7 88.1 2.7 2.7 18 0.6 0.8 94.1 3.0 7.6 2.1 1.8 1.0 87.5 4.5 4.4 3.8 2.3 1.4 88.1 3.9 6.0 5.3 3.1 1.4 84.2 5.8 2.6 5.5 1.9 0.8 89.2 3.1 2.1 34 1.9 0.5 92.1 1.5 1.2 3-7 2.1 0.9 92.1 1.6 2.1 5.0 2.4 1.5 90.0 3.5 3.4 2.3 1.2 0.6 92.5 2.5 5.6 55 1.9 1.3 1.1 84.6 4.6 3.3 2.7 0.3 0.8 92.9 1.0 2.8 3.5 1.8 0.2 91.7 2.6 4.7 2.4 1.8 0.8 90.3 1.8 2.0 4.1 0.5 0.6 92.8 2.8 2.5 6.6 19 2.0 87.0 3.7 5.0 4.5 4.6 09 85.0 5.6 6.1 4.6 1.8 0.5 87.0 2.6 6.2 5.0 1.0 1.0 86.8 3.5 7.9 3.9 2.0 1.0 85.2 4,0 7.3 2.5 3.0 1.0 82.2 4.4 0.5 1.4 2.0 91.7 3.0 3.0 0.8 1.1 4.2 90.9 3.6 3.6 0.5 1.7 5.0 89.2 3.5 2.21 0.4 1.5 3.3 92.6 2.8 * Tfjis remarkable soil will receive further notice on a subsequent page. 42 Economical Geology. !-- C c 3 E ■c x< S | . d x ™ k c o.2 a, r: c . 1 a No. NAME AND LOCALITY OF THE SOIL- o o V 0} 01 99 . o .5£x V 3 3 "o •n XI 3 "3 c (8 XI o. "3 m c o XI IS o n. o o •2 £ o - 3 j§.£* < 5 '3 192 189 190 191 48 49 50 ' 61 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 181 182 64 65 195 194 196 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 186 185 187 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 Limestone Soil, Saddle Mt. Adams, do Richmond, do South Lee, uncultivated, do Egremont, do Williamstown, - do Stockbridge, do Pittsfield, do Sheffield, do W. Stockbridge, Mica Slate Soil—West Boylston, - do Webster, do Lunenburg, do Stockbridge, Mt. do Chester Village, do Bradford, do West Newbury, do Methuen, do Pepperell, do Norwich, do Conway, do uncultivated Russell, do West Newbury, uncultivated, Talcose Slate Soil—Chester, west part, - do Charlemont, - do uncultivated Becket, - do Rowe, - do Mount Washington, Talco-micaceous Slate—Florida, uncultivated, do Hancock, Gneiss Soil—Tewksbury, - do Stow, - do Bolton, ... do Uxbridge, ... do Mendon, ... do Tyngsborough, do Holden, ... do Dudley, ... do Templeton, - do Rutland, ... do Westminster, do Royalston, ... do Fitchburg, . - - do Petersham, ... do New Braintree, do Palmer, ... do Enfield, do New Salem, - do Leverett, ... do Hardwick, ... do Ware, ... do Grafton, ... do Brimfield, do Leicester, do Otis, --.. do Becket, ... do Sandisfield, ... do Tolland, do Northfield, South Farms, do Buckland, ... do Wareham, ... do Sturbridge, ... do Brimfield, not cultivated, do West Brookfield, not cultivated, do Oakham, do Athol, decomposing Gneiss, 101 Granite Soil—W. Hampton, 0.7 3.3 0.1 i.r 0.6 2.6 2.1 0.8 0.8 0.8 2.1 2.3 0.6 0.7 1.4 1.5 1-8 0.7 3.1 2.0 2.8 0.6 2.3 5.2 3.9 0.7 5,4 5.3 1.0 0.7 2.7 4.2 1.8 0.8 0.5 4.0 5.2 1.0 3.2 1.6 6.0 5.1 0.9 06 5.5 3.1 1.3 1.0 5.0 3.4 0.8 11 3.0 5.5 0.2 1.5 6.0 3.5 1.5 15 6.5 6.8 2.0 12 3.0 5.5 3.5 1.0 2.9 2.2 1.5 06 38 7.0 1.6 0.7 4.1 4.3 1.2 0.6 2.0 4.5 1,7 1.1 3.8 6.0 2.7 0.5 5.9 5.7 3.0 09 1.5 2.1 3.1 1.0 3.8 2.2 1.4 06 8.5 4.7 3.7 1.1 4.1 4.6 2.5 1.6 2.6 4.7 1.7 2.0 1.5 3.2 8.4 2.4 2.0 6.2 5.8 1.5 1.0 4.3 3.9 1.2 0.8 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 4.6 3.4 2.1 0.9 2.6 3.0 2.9 0.9 2.6 2.5 2.4 0.7 4.5 1.8 0.6 06 3.9 4.7 1.4 1.4 4.0 4.6 1.9 0.7 5.2 4.1 2.7 0.5 7.1 5.3 1.9 1.2 5.3 3.8 2.2 3.0 0.7 6.0 3.6 1.9 0.6 5.4 3.3 1.0 2.1 0.7 57 4.8 2.4 0.4 6.0 6.3 1.7 0.8 5.7 2.7 2.1 0.6 7.2 4.9 2.5 1.0 3.2 2.7 1.5 07 3.3 . 3.7 2.8 0.7 6.3 3.3 2.1 0.6 5.3 0.7 1.9 0.6 4.5 3.5 2.1 0.6 5.3 2.1 1.0 0.4 3.9 2.9 2.8 1.3 4.7 5.4 1.8 1.1 8.3 2.4 2.9 1.1 3.2 3.3 2.5 2.8 1.5 5.2 3.8 3.9 1.0 1.3 3.0 1.5 1.0 5.4 2.0 2.1 0.7 2.0 0.6 1.2 0.4 5.1 3.7 2.3 0.4 0.6 3.8 1.1 0.5 1.5 5.1 1.6 0.5 4.8 2.2 1.4 0.3 0.3 5.3 2.0 0.3 1.2 4.0 1.6 0.8 93.8 92.9 94.3 94.6 91.5 87.9 87 6 90.0 85.0 87.4 89.1 89.7 89.8 87.5 83.5 87.0 92.8 86.9 89.8 90.7 87.0 85.5' 92.3 92.0 82.0 87.2' 87.5! 84.0 85.5' 89.8 90.01 89.0 90.6 91.8 92.5 88.6 88.8; 87.5! 84.5 85.0 87.9 87.5 86.7 85.2 88.9 84.4 91.9 89.5 87.7 91.5 89.3 91.2 89.1 87.0 85.3 86.7 86.1 93.2 89.8 95.8 88.5 94.0 91.3 91.3 92.1 92.4 5.5 110 6.0 120 3.0 60 5.1 102 4.5 90 4.2 84 5.5 110 4.3 86 5.3 106 4.7 64 6.5 130 4.8 96 0.9 18 6.2 124 5.3 106 3.2 64 3.1 62 3.5 70 5.8 116 2.3 46 3.5 70 3.8 76 3.8 76 3.5 62 3.4 68 2.6 52 5.0 100 5.3 106 5.1 102 6.5 130 46 92 5.4 108 3.4 68 4.5 90 6.7 134 2.6 52 6.4 124 3.7 74 4.4 88 4.9 98 2.3 46 5.4 108 3.7 74 5.2 104 6.0 120 6.0 120 2.8 56 0.9 18 2.7 54 3.7 74 4.7 94 3.0 60 3.0 60 2.2 I 44 Residts of the Analysis of Soils. 43 6 s E OT3 ** CD T3 X £5 . SJ5E So0* cu a >■ No. NAME AND LOCALITY OF THE SOIL. a '3 a £ 35 s '3 O CD — 3 o Xi o a> a o CD X! a. CD ft. t .. B'" ESC O CD 3 >«x > O cj 3 O a. o £W.E S«£ CI O m s 3 o Xi Oh 55 o < a, 09 102 Granite Soil, Concord, 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 117 do Duxbury, do Andover, - Sienite Soil—Lynnfield, - do Marblehead, - - . . do Manchester, - - - - do Gloucester, . - . . do Lexington, - do Dan vers, - do Newbury, - do Dedham, - . . . do Wrentham, - - . . do N. Bridgewater, - do Weymouth, - - - . do Sharon, - do Marshfield, - do Abington, - Porphyry Soil—Kent's Island, Newbury. do Medford, - do Maiden, . . . . do Lynn, . . . . Greenstone Soil—Ipswich, ... do Woburn, - do Deerfield, .... do New land never manuredBelchertown 7.1 2.0 1.6 0,5 88.8 2.5 50 4.0 2.0 0.8 0.7 92.5 2.4 48 5.1 7.5 1.6 0.6 85.2 4.4 88 5.1 5.2 1.4 0.6 87.7 4.4 88 5.1 5.0 2.7 0.6 86.6 5.8 116 6.5 3.4 0.8 0.6 88.7 4.0 80 2.4 2.2 1.5 0.3 93.6 2.8 56 5.4 3.9 2.6 0.6 87.5 65 130 3.8 6.9 2.7 0.7 85.9 5.0 100 5.0 5.5 1.0 0.5 88.0 5.3 106 7.0 4.7 1.0 1.3 86.0 6.2 124 5.6 5.6 0.8 0.4 1.5 86.1 3.6 72 2.2 5.9 25 0.7 88.7 3.7 74 2.6 5.1 2.2 0.6 89.5 4.0 80 6.9 3.2 1.7 0.5 87.7 3.2 64 1.6 29 1.1 0.8 936 3.7 74 2.7 3.7 1.5 0.8 91.3 2.7 54 5.7 4.6 3.3 0.4 86.0 6.3 126 8.7 4.2 2.6 0.8 83.7 6.6 132 5.2 4.1 3.5 1.6 85.6 6.8 136 4.3 3.5 1.8 0.6 89.8 5.9 118 2.8 9.4 0.7 02 86.9 3.6 72 7.7 4.6 1.3 1.2 85.2 6.0 120 3.2 4.3| 0.1 2.0 0.3 90.1 2.7 54 2.3 4.6 2.4 1.0 89.7 2.50 2.43 2.29 2.29 9.35 2.40 2.25 2.24 2.34 2.36 2.24 2.43 2.36 2.35 2.32 2.45 2.46 2.26 2.17 2.26 2.29 2.22 2.27 2.5L 2.35 Explanation of the preceding Table of Results with Remarks and Inferences. The first and second columns need no explanation : and the character of the third and fourth will be fully understood, after reading the remarks of Dr. Dana that precede the Table. They show us the amount of nutriment in the soils of Masschusetts ; also how much of it is in a fit state to be absorb- ed by plants, and how much of it will need further preparation. • As this is probably the first attempt that has been made to obtain the amount of geine in any considerable number of soils, we cannot compare the results with those obtained in other places. They will be convenient, however, for comparison with future analyses: and we learn from them, that geine, in both its forms, abounds in the soils of the state, and that it most abounds where most atten- tion has been paid to cultivation. It ought to be recollected, that I took care not to select the richest or the poorest portions of our soils ; so that the geine in this table is probably about the average quantity. It is hardly probable that the number of specimens analyzed from the different varieties of our soils is sufficiently large, to enable us to form a very decided opinion as to their comparative fertility, especially when we recollect how much more thorough is the cultivation in some parts of the state than in others. It may be well, however, to state the average quantity of geine in the different geological varieties of our soils, which is as follows. 44 Economical Geology. Alluvium, Diluvial argillaceous soil Do Sandy, Sandstone do Graywacke, do Argillaceous slate do Limestone, do Mica slate do Talcose slate do Gneiss do Granite do Sienite do Porphyry do Greenstone do One fact observable in the above results may throw doubts over the funda- mental principles that have been advanced respecting geine; viz., that it con- stitutes the food of plants, and that they cannot flourish without it. It ap- pears that our best alluvial soils contain less geine, in both its forms, than any other variety, except the very sandy diluvial ones. Ought we hence to infer that alluvium is a poor soil ? I apprehend that we can infer nothing from this fact against alluvial soils, except that they are sooner exhausted than others, without constant supplies of geine. For if a soil contain enough of this substance abundantly to supply a crop that is growing upon it, that crop may be large although there is not enough geine to produce another. Now analysis shows that our alluvial soils contain enough of geine for any one crop : and I ap- prehend that their chief excellence consists in being of such a degree of fine- ness that they allow air, moisture, and lime, rapidly to convert vegetable mat- ter into soluble geine, and yield it up readily to the roots of plants: but I presume that without fresh supplies of manure, they would not continue to produce as long as most of the other soils in the state. A considerable part of our alluvia are yearly recruited by a fresh deposite of mud, which almost always contains a quantity of geine and of the salts of lime, in a fine condi- tion for being absorbed by the rootlets of plants. And on other parts of al- luvial tracts, our farmers, I believe, are in the habit of expecting but a poor crop unless they manure them yearly. Yet so finely constituted are these soils, that even if exhausted, they are more easily restored than most others: so that taking all things into the account, they are among the most valuable of our soils : and yet I doubt whether they produce as much at one crop as many other soils ; though the others perhaps require more labor in cultivation. The amount of soluble and insoluble geine obtained by Dr. Dana's method of analysis, ought to correspond pretty nearly with the amount of organic Soluble Geine. 2.37 3.87 1.52 3.28 3.60 5.S4 2.88 4.10 4.43 4.40 4.05 4.40 5.97 4.00 Insoluble Geine. 213 4.73 130 2.14 4.00 5.06 3.51 5.10 4.64 3.45 3.87 4.50 4.10 5.72 Results of theAnalysis of Soils. 45 matter obtained by the old method ; and by comparing the two tables of results that have been given, it will be seen that such is the fact. Several circumstances, however, besides errors of analysis, will prevent a perfect agreement. In the first place, by the old method of analysis, 100 grains of the soil are weighed before expelling the water of absorption; but by the new method, not until after its expulsion. Again, by the old method only the very coarse parts of the soil are separated by the sieve : but a fine sieve is used by the new mode, and this removes nearly all the vegetable fibre, which by the other method is reckoned a part of the organic matter. Other causes of difference might be named : and hence we ought not to expect a perfect agreement in the results of the two methods. Tne two next columns in the Table contain the sulphate and carbonate of lime, and the third column the phosphates generally : in most cases pro- bably it is the phosphate of lime: but sometimes of alumina and perhaps of other bases. I have already described the infrequency of the carbonate of lime in our soils : but it will be seen that I found the sulphate of lime as well as phosphates in every soil analyzed. In respect to the sulphate of lime, or gypsum, it may not be unexpected that we should find it in all soils, since we know it to occur in all natural waters throughout the state ; and we can- not conceive of any other source from which the water could have derived it, except the soil. But the phosphates have generally been supposed to be much more limited, nay to be scarcely found in soils, except where animal substances have been used for manure. It is not possible that in all the soils which I have analyzed, such was their origin, for 13 of them have never been cultivated. And there is strong reason to believe, that phosphates are a con- stituent of all soils in their natural state. The arguments on this subject are stated so ably by Dr. Dana, that I need only quote from his letter. " When we consider that the bones of all graminivorous animals contain nearly 50 per cent, of phosphate of lime, we might be at liberty to infer the existence of this principle, in the food, and, consequently, in the soil, on which these animals graze. If we look at the actual result of the an- alysis of beets, carrots, beans, peas, potatoes, asparagus, and cabbage, we find phosphate of lime, magnesia, and potash, varying from 0.04 to 1.00 per cent, of the vegetable. Indian corn too, by the analysis of the late Pro- fessor Gorham, of Harvard College, contains 1.5 per cent, phosphate and sul- phate of lime. It may be said that this is all derived from the manure. We shall see by and by. Let us look at the extensive crops often raised, where man has never manured. Rice, wheat, barley, rye, and oats, all contain no- table portions of phosphates of lime, not only in the grain but in the straw, and often in the state of superphosphates. The diseases too, ergot and smut, show free phosphoric acid. Can it be that, owing to certain electrical influ- 7 46 Economical Geology. ences of the air, in particular seasons, lime is not secreted by the plant to neutralize the free acid ? May not this be a cause of smut and ergot ? Does it not point out a remedy ? Take too the cotton crop of our country. What vast quantities of phosphates do we thus annually draw from the soil ? Cotton gives one per cent, ashes, of which 17 per cent, is composed of phos- phate of lime and magnesia. The like is true of tobacco. It contains 0.16 per cent, of phosphate of lime. If we turn to the analysis of forest trees, we find that the pollen of the pinus abies, wafted about in clouds, is composed of 3 per cent, phosphate of lime and potash. May not this too be one of nature's beautiful modes of supplying phosphoric acid to plants and to soils ? If, as the late experiments of Peschier have proved, sulphate of lime, in powder, is de- composed by growing leaves, the lime being liberated, and the sulphuric'acid combining with the potash in the plant, why may not phosphate of lime, ap- plied by pollen, act in the same way? At any rate, the existence of phos- phate of lime in our forest soils is proved not only by its existence in the pol- len, but by its actual detection in the ashes of pines and other trees.—100 parts of the ashes of wood of pinus abies give 3 per cent. phos. iron ; 100 parts of the ashes of the coal of pinus sylvestris give 1.72 phos. lime, 0.25 phos. iron : 100 parts of ashes of oak coal give 7.1 phos. lime, 3.7 phos. iron ; 100 ashes of Bass wood 5.4 phos. lime, 3.3 phos. iron. " Birch 7.3 " 1.25 " " Oak wood 1.8 « " Alder coal 3.45 " 9.00 " " These are the calculated results from Berthier's very accurate analyses : and those very curious crystals—detected in some plants—the " raphides " of De Candolle, are some of them bibasic phosphates of lime and magnesia. Phosphate of iron, we know, is common in turf; and some barren and acid soils owe their acidity to free phosphoric acid. If we allow that our untouched forest soil contains phosphate of lime, it may be said, that this, be- ing in small quantity, will be soon exhausted by cultivation, and that the phos- phates, which we now find in cultivated fields, rescued from the forest, is due to our manure:—I give you the general result of my analysis of cow dung, as the best argument in reply. My situation and duties have led me to this analysis. I give you it, in such terms as the farmer may comprehend: water, 83.60; hay, 14,: biliary matter, (bile resin, bile fat and green resin of hay,) 1.275; geine combined with potash, (vegetable extract,) 0.95 ; albumen, 0.175." " The hay is little more altered than by chewing. The albumen has disap- peared, but its green resin, wax, sulphate and phosphate of lime remain, and when we take 100 parts of dung, among its earthy salts we get about 0.23 parts phosphate, 0.12 carbonate, and 0.12 sulphate of lime. Now, a bushel of Western Soils. 47 green dung as evacuated weighs about 87.5 lbs. Of this only 2.40 per cent, are soluble. Of this portion only 0.95 can be considered as soluble geine." Western Soils. In addition to the preceding arguments respecting the existence of phos- phate of lime in the soils, I would state that I found it in every analysis which* I have made of the Berkshire marls, the results of which I shall soon present. I have also recently analysed five specimens of soils from Ohio and Illinois, pre- sented to me by H. G. Bowers, Esq., formerly of Northampton, in this state, and now resident in Illinois. They were take from some of the most pro- ductive spots in those states, and, in regard to some of them, it is certain, that no animal or any other manure has ever been applied by man, and at least one of them seems not to have been cultivated, so far as I can judge from its appearance. Yet all these soils contain phosphate of lime. The following are the results of their analysis; which I give, partly because of the sub- ject under consideration, and partly because I thought it might be gratifying to compare the composition of some of the best soils at the west with those in Massachusetts.* ■" ■ ^ No. 3 5 02 C3 D SO O 4) * B js a 02 cd . CO Remarks. 198 Rushville, Illinois, 7.4 2.5 3.4 0.6 1.5 84.6 63 199 Sangamon co., do 4.9 5.6 1.2 0.4 1.3 866 63 200 Lazelle county, do 7.6 13 8 1.4 0.4 3.3 73.5 9.5 Apparently never cultivat- Peoria county, do 3.1 4.8 3.5 1.0 87.6 5.7 ed. 201 Scioto Valley, Ohio, 4.5 6.7 2.1 0.9 2.8 83.0 5.3 Cultivated 14 years without manure The above soils are evidently of the very first quality: the geine being in large proportion, and the salts quite abundant enough, while there is still a small supply of carbonate of lime to convert more insoluble into soluble geine, whenever occasion demands. Still, if we compare the preceding analyses with some of those that have been given of the Massachusetts soils, the superiority of the western soils will not appear as great as is generally supposed. And there is one consideration resulting from the facts that have been stated respecting geine, that ought to be well considered by those who are anxious to leave the soil of New England that they may find a more fertile spot in the West. Such soils they can undoubtedly find; for geine has been for ages accumulating from the decomposition of vegetation in regions which have not been culti- * The analysis of four of these soils in the dry way by alkali has been already given with the salts from the above Table. 48 Economical Geology. vated : and for many years, perhaps, those regions will produce spontaneously. But almost as certain as any future event can be, continued cultivation will ex- haust the geine and the salts, and other generations must resort to the same means for keeping their lands in a fertile condition as are now employed in Massachusetts; viz., to provide for the yearly supply of more geine and more salts. Mode of testing the Phosphates obtained by Dr. Dana's Rules. If the results which I have given as to phosphates in soils be admitted as correct, they will settle the question, when taken in connection with Dr. Dana's reasoning, as to the very wide if not universal diffusion of this class of salts. But since Dr. Dana's rules imply that the process for obtaining them may also produce a little iron, and perhaps alumina, the enquiry arises, whether in some instances at least, what I have given as phosphates, may not in fact be only iron and alumina. I determined, therefore, to test some of these results. In doing this, I have followed two methods, appended by Dr. Dana to his rules already given for the analysis of soils ; but which were not inserted in my report of 1838. I give them in his own language. " As to the best mode of detecting phosphates in soils, (I say phosphates, be- cause the third rule of analysis includes all phosphates under phosphate of lime,) there are two modes which I would suggest. " 1. Having reduced the analysis to the point at which the 3d rule esti- mates the phosphate of lime, dissolve that in pure acetic acid. Treat the solution with sulphuretted hydrogen to separate any iron and manganese; warm it to drive off the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, and then treat the clear solution with acetate of lead. Phosphate of lead falls if any phosphoric acid is present—The only source of error is in the presence of sulphate of lime. The rule supposes that to be removed. If you doubt, collect the sup- posed phosphate of lead; dry, fuse on charcoal, in the outer flame of the blowpipe: phosphate of lead crystalizes as it cools, So says Berzelius and he considers this test infallible." " 2. Fuse the phosphate of lime of Rule 3 of analysis, with carbonate of soda. Dissolve in water, saturate the solution with nitric acid. If a precip- itate occur it is subphosphate of alumina. Treat the clear solution with ni- trate of silver; a yellow precipitate occurs if phosphoric acid is present. The lime in both cases may be separated by an oxalate as usual." It is possible that a phosphate may exist in a soil and yet not be detected by either of these rules. Hence in a doubtful case, it may be well to fuse some of the finer part of the soil with alkali, and then treat the resulting so- lution as in the second of the above rules. Tests for Phosphates. 49 I applied the above rules to several of the phosphates obtained from soils, with the following results. No. of the Soil. Amount of the Action of acetate of Lead on the Acetic Action of the Oxalate of Phosphates used. Solution. Ammonia. 192 0.41 Precipitate No trial 1^9 0.40 Do. Do. 183 1.33 Do. Precipitate slight 186 1.13 Do. Do. larger 196 1.03 Do. Do. small 176 130 Do. Do. larger 179 0.90 Do. Do. 178 0.09 Do. Do. 191 0.60 Do. Do. 185 1.50 None Do. 2d. Trial 1.00 Do. Do. 187 1.18 None Do. 2d. Trial 1.04 Do. Do. 203 0.81 Precipitate Do. slight 204 0.12 | Do. Do. Do. Although Nos. 241, and 242 gave no precipitate with acetate of lead, I was led to suspect that the phosphates might exist, but had become nearly insoluble by ignition; as is often the case (Rose's Analytical Chemistry by Griffin, p. 261). Indeed, in nearly all the cases described above, a consider- able residuum remained after digestion in acetic acid. I determined, there- fore, to attack Nos. 241, and 242 with several others, by means of carbonate of soda, and the results are given in the following table ; which it will be seen confirm my suspicions as to the presence of phosphoric acid in Nos. 241, and 242. No. of the Soil. Effect of Saturation with Nitric Acid Action of Nitrate of Silver. 185 187 194 197 179 Slight Cloudiness Do. Do. Do. Do. Yellow Precipitate—abundant. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. only slightly yellow Do. very yellow I cannot see why the above trials do not satisfactorily show the presence of the phosphate of lime in all the 15 soils and marls that were operated upon; and the probable presence of subphosphate of alumina in five of them: yet as to this last point, I do not feel very confident, because the precipitates were very slight. These results were so satisfactory, that I did not think it neces- sary to subject any more soils to a similar process. I will not say that I should have found phosphoric acid in every soil, whose analysis I have given: but I feel justified in inferring from these trials, that it does exist in nearly every one of them. If any one should make use of Dr. Dana's rules for the analysis of soils, and are in doubt as to the phosphates, the rules above given will enable him to settle the question. 50 Economical Geology. It is certain however, that Dr. Dana's method of determining the presence and amount of the phosphates in a soil by muriatic acid, does usually separ- ate some iron, which is mixed with the phosphates; for in most cases, the re- sults are more or less colored by the per oxide of iron. Possibly also a little alumina may thus be separated, yet I think this so minute in quantity that it need not be taken into the account. It becomes, however, an interesting enquiry, how large a proportion of iron is mixed with the phosphates. I made a few trials to determine this point. It has been already stated, that only a part of the phosphates were soluble in acetic acid. The insoluble residuum was digested in muriatic acid, which probably took up all the iron, although a small insoluble portion of matter still remained. The iron was precipitated by ammonia, and the following is the result. The amount of matter left undissolved by acetic acid in the phosphate from Nos. 189, 183, 186, 196, 203, 204, and 176, (amounting to 6 grains) was 3.76 grains; which digested in nitromuriatic acid, left a residum of 0.46 grains ; and ammonia threw down from the solution 2.22 grains. This di- vided by 7, gives 0.31 for the amount of iron in each soil; or about one third part of the supposed phosphates. The phosphates from the following soils were tried separately by muriatic acid and ammonia, with the following results. No. 179 Amount of Phosphates. 0.90 Residuum from Acetic Acid. 0.73 Peroxide of Iron. 0.1 178 0.09 0 04 00 191 0.60 0.43 0.1 185 1.50 0.93 0.1 187 1.18 1.00 0.23 The amount of iron in these last examples is much less than in the first; yet taking all things into consideration, I should be disposed to reduce the amount of the phosphates, given in the general table of analysis, one third; and I think we may safely calculate that the residual numbers will not at least exceed the actual amount of the phosphates in the soils of Massachu- setts. Combinations of Phosphoric Acid in Soils. It is rendered probable by the preceding results, as well as by gener- al considerations, that phosphate of lime is the most usual form assumed by phosphoric acid in soils. But Dr. Dana has come to the conclusion, founded upo nsome analytical trials, that a large portion of the phosphoric acid exists in combination with alumina. He says, " In the few trials I made, I found Calcareous Matter in Soils. 51 subphosphate of alumina in the soils. Phosphate of alumina is so very diffi- cult to separate and distinguish from pure alumina, that I have no doubt the absence of phosphoric acid in soils has been here overlooked. The subject needs further investigation." In a recent analysis of a rich soil from the state of Maine, Dr. C. T. Jackson has discovered 3 per cent, of subphosphate of alumina. (Third Report on the Geology of Maine, p. 150.J The importance of the question whether phosphates exist generally in our soils, must plead my apology for dwelling so long upon it. If the views here advanced should prove true, it will be an important step gained in ag- ricultural chemistry. If they prove false, I shall have the consolation of knowing that I have erred on a very difficult subject: and that I am in good company. I expect and wish that my views should not be received without thorough examination. Nor shall I be offended if the result at which I have arrived should be imputed to errors of analysis ; provided chemists will them- selves respeat these experiments. I would remark however, that in the ap- plication of Dr. Dana's rules for detecting the phosphates, it seems hardly possible for a mere tyro to commit much error, provided he possess pure muriatic acid ;—a point which I endeavored to make sure by distilling it with a Wolfs Apparatus. To cause this acid to pass through a soil upon a filter, so as to get a transparent solution, does not surely require much skill: and then nothing remains but to evaporate this solution to dryness, and treat the residuum with water: so that it seems hardly possible to im- pute the existence of an insoluble residuum to any error in analysis. Importance of Calcareous Matter in Soils. It will be seen from the numerous analyses of Massachusetts soils that have been given, that lime in some form, and generally in several forms, ex- ists in them all. Indeed, since this substance is found at least as a silicate in nearly all the rocks, we might expect it in all soils. Besides, vegetation itself, when it decays, furnishes a supply. The fact of this universal diffu- sion of lime is a presumptive argument, as has been already maintained, in favor of its importance, if not necessity, for the production of healthy vege- tation. And numerous experiments that have been made, especially in Eu- rope, confirm this opinion. For in a vast majority of cases, the addition of lime, either as quicklime ; or as marl, or ground limestone, which are carbon- ates ; or as gypsum, which is a sulphate; or as pulverized bones, which are phosphate ; increases the fertility of land : and after a few years it becomes desirable to add another quantity. From hence it follows, that the lime in a soil is gradually used up, like the geine, by entering into the composition of the plants, growing upon it. And in such soils as those of Massachusetts, 52 Economical Geology. probably all the lime would ere this have been exhausted, did it not exist in a state of such intimate combination, as to be extracted with difficulty. The rootlets of plants probably possess the power of decomposing the geate, and even the silicate of lime; and every other earthy combination most likely, by means of galvanic agency. It seems, however, that only a very small quantity of lime is essential to supply the immediate wants of the plant; and a soil that is half lime does not appear to be more productive than one containing 2 or 3 per cent.; though the former will retain its fertili- ty a greater length of time. Lime also seems in many instances to exert an important influence in bringing geine into a proper state, to be taken up by the plants ; as will be more fully shown farther on. It is difficult to make a man not conversant with chemistry, real- ize that a crop may often fail upon his land from the absence of one or two per cent, of some substance, which, when present, analysis only can detect. Yet the chemist will not hesitate to admit the truth of this position: and the ingredient, whose presence is so important, may sometimes be lime. As this is unperceived by the farmer however, and as the state of the weather and other more common causes of the failure of crops are obvious, it is apt in all cases to be referred to them. The numerous instances in which lime applied to land has seemed to pro- duce no effect, has led some to infer that this substance is of no use upon soils. By such reasoning it would be easy to prove that every kind of ma- nure is useless: for there is not one of them that does not sometimes prove useless, perhaps not as often as lime does, yet the principle of reasoning involved is the same in both cases : and it is a faulty one. For in both cases we can point out reasons why failures should sometimes occur. -In respect to manures, these usually result from the state of the weather, using that term in its most extended sense. But in respect to lime, the failure may re- sult from the fact, that the soil already contains enough of that substance for present use ; or from the fact that there is no acid in the soil to be neutral- ized, and no vegetable matter in a state to be beneficially acted upon. Then again, it ought to be recollected that lime rarely produces any very visible effect for a year or two; and such may be the amount already in the soil, and such the state of the geine, that even 4 or 5 years are not long enough to prove that the lime does no good, for if vegetation does exhaust the lime in soils, the time will come, when that which has been artificially supplied will come into use; although from the nature of the case, it might be impossible to prove when this took place, because we know not when that natural to the soil would become exhausted. To be sure, in such cases the application of lime would be to benefit posterity, rather than ourselves ; and the applica- tion might as well be delayed. Effects of Lime on Soils. 53 There may be other causes why lime seems to produce no effect upon soils—causes, which in the present state of our knowledge on the subject, we may be unable to understand : nor do I believe that the agricultural chem- ist, by the aid of the most accurate analysis, can in all cases certainly pre- dict that lime will, or will not, be beneficial. He may be tolerably confident that a highly calcareous soil does not need it;—as experience proves in Eng- land. And if we adopt the views of Dr. Dana, which I shall shortly intro- duce, as to the mode in which lime acts upon soils, we may go a step farther; and say that it will not produce any striking effects unless there be acid in the soil to be neutralized, or organic matter in such a state as to be converted into a geate, or into soluble geine. Beyond this we can scarcely go: and hence experiment is the only sure mode of determining the effect of lime upon our soils. Some maintain, indeed, that the quantity of lime in a soil remains always the same. But is it not certain that most vegetables contain lime. Now if these are suffered to decay upon the land, or an equivalent supply is furnish- ed by manure, the position is correct. But when crops are removed, as is usually the case, in far greater quantity than the manure returned, whence is the deficiency of lime thus carried off to be supplied ? It cannot come from the atmosphere, nor from rain water ; though the water of springs usually contains a small quantity of sulphate of lime. Or if no lime is abstracted from the soil, how can it need a fresh application of this substance after an inter- val of a few years; as we know to be the case where lime is found to be beneficial once 1 But after all, the grand enquiry is, what upon the whole has been the effect of the application of lime upon soils not already saturated with it ? In Great Britain, where the experiment has been made under the most en- lightened superintendence and on a most extended scale, the result is very decided. " Lime," says one of the writers of that country, " has long been applied by British husbandmen, as a stimulus to the soil; and in consequence of such an application, luxuriant crops have been produced, even upon soils of apparently inferior quality, and which would have yielded crops of trifling value had this auxiliary been withheld. In fact the majority of soils cannot be cultivated with advantage till they are dressed with lime; and whether considered as an alterative, or as a stimulant, or as a manure, it will be found to be the basis of good husbandry, and of more use than all other manures put together. Wherever lime has been properly applied, it has constantly been found to prove as much superior to dung, as dung is to the rakings of the roads or the produce of a peat mire."—Morton on the Nature and Prop- erties of Soils, fyc" London, 1838. p. 182. Now suppose that the comparatively few imperfect experiments on 8 5-1 Economical Geology* the use of lime which have been made in this country had nearly all failed to prove lime beneficial, should we be justified in infering that British agri- culturists have so long been mistaken? Ought we not rather to infer, that we had not yet discovered the proper mode of applying lime, which in our climate may need to be applied in a manner somewhat modified, though this is not very probable. But what in fact is the experience of Ameri- can farmers on this subject ? The same, I answer, as in England, in France, and other European countries; viz, that in a great majority of instances lime is an excellent manure, though sometimes it seems to produce no effect, from causes not always discoverable. Lime, however, has not been as yet very ex- tensively employed in our agriculture; partly from the dearth of the mate- rial in the older settlements, and partly from there being less need of it in a new country, where the land has been growing richer and richer for ages. In many parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, &c. however, lime is extensively employed. But in Massachusetts its use as a manure has been very limited. Even in Berkshire County, where the carbonate is so abun- dant, but few experiments have been made on this subject. In some other parts of the State insulated but successful experiments have been made with lime, which I shall mention more particularly when I come to describe our marls and limestones. The sulphate of lime has been used more ex- tensively, I apprehend, in Massachusetts, and with more marked success, than lime in any other form: and the phosphate, or bones ground into pow- der, is beginning to be used in the vicinity of Boston very successfully. In short, it must be strong prejudice, or a defective philosophy, which leads any one to decry the use of lime upon soil, because his own experiments, or those of his neighbors, have failed. I acknowledge that the few trials which I have made with caustic lime have had little apparent success. But how unphilosophical hence to infer that the long and enlightened experience of Europeans, and much in our own country, is to go for nothing! It is a very prevalent opinion in New England, that lime is especially necessary for the successful cultivation of wheat: that is, more necessary than for most other crops. Now analysis leads to an opposite conclusion: for while only 37 per cent, of lime exists in the ashes of wheat, 66 per cent, is found in potatoes. Nor have I seen any evidence that wheat will not grow as well as potatoes without the application of lime: and since our citizens have turned their attention for several years past to the cultivation of wheat, many facts in support of this opinion have come out. According to the views that have been advanced, the grand point is to bring the geine of the soil into a prop- er state for immediate nourishment; and ashes would probably accomplish this more effectually than lime. The best crop of wheat raised in Amherst, in the year 1838, was grown upon the soil not limed, derived from coarse granite, Nature of Geine. 55 whose feldspar probably yielded potassa, a substance eminently adapted to render the geine soluble. Nature of Geine. irom the statements that have been made, it appears that Sprengel, Boullay, and Berzelius, regard Geine, or Humus, as a distinct and peculiar compound, made up chiefly of oxygen, hydro- gen, carbon and nitrogen. This view of the subject, however, has been strenuously opposed by M. F. V. Raspail, a French chemist of distinction, in his New System of Organic Chemistry, translated and published in London in 1834. He denies the existence in Vegetables and soils of any such proximate principle as geine, and says, " it will be easy to see that all these phenome- na, (described by Berzelius and others,) apparently so varied, which have given room for the discovery of so many substances analogous in their nature to Ulmin, are essentially nothing but a developement of carbon ! He must of course maintain that this carbon is never dissolved, but only suspended in a fluid ! Plants he conceives are nourished almost entirely by carbonic acid; and he says that " possibly by supplying artificially to the plant the carbonic acid which is ne- cessary to its growth, the use of any kind of manure may be dispensed with." These reasonings of Raspail did not lead Berzelius to change his views respecting geine; but rather to maintain more decidedly his previous opinions in a subsequent publication. More recently some chemists have advanced the opinion that soluble geine is composed of at least three vegetable acids ;—the crenic, the apocrenic, and ulmic ; with a black matter called earthy extract; and that insoluble geine is ulmic acid mingled with undecomposed vegetable re- mains. (American Journal of Science, Vol 36. p. 369.,) Dr. Charles T. Jackson has made nu- merous experiments on this subject of late, and, as stated in a letter, he thinks he has " satisfact- orily proved that there is no such thing as geine; but the substances which have been mistaken originally by Berzelius, and subsequently by Dr. Dana, for a simple substance, really consist of a compound of the two new acids (crenic and apocrenic) discovered by Berzelius shortly after the publication of his first account of Geine and Apothem." These exist " with occasionally a small proportion of phosphoric acid and perhaps also of oxalic acid: these acids often being in combination with calcareous, magnesian, manganesian and ferruginous bases." I have not thought it necessary for me to go in this place into a discussion of these various opinions respecting the nature of geine. As to that of Raspail, who supposes it to be mere car- bon diffused not dissolved in water, &c I can hardly believe it will be adopted by any one who has gone through many processes with this substance; and has seen especially how decidedly it is often precipitated by reagents. If its mixture with liquids be not a real solution, I can hardly expect to distinguish a solution in any case. As to those views which suppose geine to be a mere mechanical mixture of crenic and apocrenic acids, (to lay aside all doubts about their dis- tinct existence,) I would merely enquire, whether the occurrence of these acids in the organic matter of soils, proves that geine has no distinct existence ?* Why may it not be a compound of these, and perhaps other acids, and other ingredients ? Does not the fact that these two acids are uniformly present in soluble geine, render it probable that they do enter into chemical com- bination to form such a compound substance ? If I understand Dr. Dana's views of the nature * An excellent paper on the Physical Properties of Soils has lately appeared in the first Volume of the Journal of the English Agricultural Society, by Professor Schuhler of Tubingen. He gives the composition of 28 varieties of soil, analyzed by himself, Prof. Gieger, and Dr. Sprengel, under the terms, Sand: Clay, or Deposite: Humus ; and Volatile Mutter. But for some reason or other, he makes no allusion to crenic or aprocrenic acid, nor to any of the new views respecting geine. Except what this fact would indicate, I confess myself unable to say how far these views have been adopted by scientific men in Europe. 56 Economical Geology. of geine, they are not inconsistent with such a supposition ; though he has said but little in his communications to me on this point. But in a letter to Mr. Colman, given in his Second Agri- cultural Report, p. 165, he has given an analysis of 3.6914 grains of soluble geine, as follows: Geine, 1-9258 Alumina and Oxide of Iron, .7715 Phosphoric Acid, .2315 Magnesia, .3396 Loss, 4230 3.6914 Dr. Dana adds : " I presume that the soluble geine of all soils is similarly constituted. All which I have examined affords these elements." Now if phosphoric acid, alumina, &c may form elements of geine, why may not what is called geine in the above analysis, consist of crenic and apocrenic acids, in perfect consistency with Dr. Dana's views ? But suppose it be admitted that these various acids and oxides do not form chemical but only mechanical mixtures in the soil. Yet most scientific men will allow that they constitute that portion of the food of plants which is derived from the soil; and if Dr. Dana's rules of analysis will show us how much of them the soil contains, and what part is in a soluble state, or in a state in which it can be immediately taken up by the organs of plants ; and what part is in an in- soluble state, unfitted for immediate use ; I really cannot see why those rules are not just as valuable, whether geine be a distinct compound, or whether it be composed of crenic, apocrenic, phosphoric, and oxalic acids, casually mixed together. If Dr. Dana's rules do not point out the best mode of accomplishing these objects, and any chemist will suggest a better one, I am sure no one will more cheerfully substitute the improved methods for those proposed in this report, than the author of them. But even though such improvements should be proposed, the credit will still belong to Dr. Dana, of having first suggested this mode of analysis ; and of having at the very outset proposed rules remarkable for their simplicity and ease of application. They are such rules as could have been furnished only by one who was thoroughly conversant with the theory and manipulations of chemistry, whose life in fact had been devoted to the subject. They are indeed, suggested by Dr. Dana only as rules for the intelligent farmer : although some have un- derstood them as intended for the accomplished analyst. And indeed, I believe them capable of so accurate an application that even such a man may find them of great benefit. There is another point on which I conceive Dr. Dana to have been misunderstood. It has been thought that he would make geine the sole food of plants, and deny the current opinion that they have the power of absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere and perhaps from the soil. But I do not thus understand him. I suppose he means only, that geine is one of the sources— though a most important one—from which vegetables derive their nourishment; but not the only one. Nor would he deny probably—though here I speak without any certain knowledge—that plants may have the power, to a certain extent, of adapting themselves to their condition, so that when they cannot obtain nourishment in one mode, they may get the more in some other mode. Without such a principle I cannot see how all the phenomena of vegetable development can be explained. Dr. C. T. Jackson's Mode of Analysis. It may be desirable to present a mode of analyzing soils, such as one would adopt who believes there is no such compound as geine ; and that crenic and apocrenic acids exist in the soil in an in- sulated state. Dr. Jackson has adopted such a mode in analyzing the soils of Rhode Island • Dr. C. T. Jackson's mode of Analysis. 57 which will appear in his report upon the geology of that state : and he has obligingly furnished me with a brief sketch of his method, which I now present in his own words. " 1. Dry the soil at a temperature a little above 212°; say 240° at the highest. Dry your fil- ters at the same temperature. " 2. Take 100 grains, or if you please, 1000 grains of the soil, in its dry state, for the separ- ation of the organic matters. Put this into a French green glass flask of 6 oz. size, and fill the flask up to the base of the neck, with a saturated solution of the carbonate of ammonia in dis- tilled water. Digest the soil at 240°, or thereabouts, for 36 hours: or you may safely boil the whole. Decant upon a double filter : pour on another charge of carbonate of ammonia, and re- peat the operation until the ammoniacal solution comes off" colorless. Then wash out the whole contents of the flask upon the filter. Wash with hot water, until no trace of the ammonia is left: then dry the filter and its contents at 240Q and weigh : the loss is the soluble vegetable matter. Burn the residue in a plantium crucible in the muffle : the loss is the insoluble vegeta- ble matter. " 3. Take now your solution: acidulate it with pure acetic acid, and drop in a solution of the acetate of copper, or even a solution of pure crystalized verdegris. A brown precipitate will rapidly form, which is the apocrenate of copper. Let the solution stand over night in the dry- ing closet, or some warm place : all the apocrenate will subside. This you may collect on a care- fully counterpoised filter, and weigh when dried; or you may wash it in the jar repeatedly, and mixing it with a little distilled water, you may decompose it by a current of sulphureted hydro- gen ; which will throw down all the copper, and then you may separate the solution of apocrenic acid, evaporate to dryness slowly, (or over sulphuric acid under the air pump,) and weigh it by substitution. Next render your solution highly alcaline, by means of carbonate of ammonia: boil it to drive off the carbonic acid. Drop into it, when cold, acetate of copper in solution. A whitish green precipitate of crenate of copper falls, and will collect abundantly by letting the solution stand in a warm place over night. Collect your crenate and weigh it by the double coun- terpoised filters ; or wash it and decompose it as you did the apocrenate, and you will have a straw colored solution of crenic acid. Evaporate to dryness over concentrated sulphuric acid, and weigh by substitution. The crenic acid looks like a varnish on the inside of the capsule. Dissolve and test it. You will frequently find in it crystals of phosphate of ammonia, also, from the phosphoric acid in the soil: and I have always found this acid in my analysis of peat. When you have obtained a pure crenate or^ apocrenate of copper, you may analyze it by the process of deutoxide of copper; or more simply, you may deflagrate it with nitre and separate the copper n the state of deutoxide and deduct it from the weight of the crenate employed, and you will have the quantity of the crenic acid. Acetate of lead throws down all the crenic and apocrenic acid from a slightly acidulated solution, made by carbonate of ammonia. Muriatic acid throws down apocrenic acid in brown flocks from the ammoniacal solution. Lime water does not throw down all the crenic acid : for the crenate of lime is highly soluble." Silicates. When the geine and the salts that have been described, chiefly those of lime, have been extracted from a soil, the residue is mostly a compound of silica with alumina, iron, lime, magnesia, &c. usually called Silicates, be- cause the silica is regarded as acting the part of an acid ; although its com- pounds are not commonly denominated salts. These silicates occupy the eighth column of the preceding table of analyses; and their amount was 58 Economical Geology. obtained by subtracting the geine and salts from 100. Concerning the na- ture of these silicates, I have nothing farther to add, to the extended remarks already made on this subject. Power of Soils to absorb Water. It is generally known, that soils possess the power of absorbing moisture in different degrees. This power depends more upon the geine, than any other principle. Alumina stands next on the list in its degree of absorb- ing power; next, carbonate of lime ; and least of all, silica. Hence there ought to be a general correspondence between the absorbing power of a soil and its fertility; and, therefore, this property affords some assistance in estimating the value of a soil. On this account I was desirous to get the power of absorption possessed by the soils of Massachusetts. 100 grains were heated to 300° F. and then exposed on a small earthern plate for 24 hours, in a cellar, whose temperature remained nearly the same from day to day. The thermometer stood in it at 37° F.; and the dew point, by DanielPs Hygrometer, was at 33° F. At the end of 24 hours, the soils in the plates were again weighed, and the number of grains which they had gained was put into the ninth column. For the sake of showing at a glance the absorbing power, it is expressed in the tenth column by proportional numbers; 5 grains absorbed, being equal to 100. I find the winter to be a most unfavorable time for experiments of this sort; and I place but little reliance upon the results which I have obtained. As the experiments were performed, however, with a good deal of care, I thought it best to give them, after stating all the circumstances under which they were made. Power of Soils to retain Water. It is well known that some soils will bear a drought better than others. This may be owing to three causes: 1. one soil may have more power to re- tain water than another: 2. one may absorb more water than another during the night: 3. one may have a subsoil less pervious to water than another. When these three causes combine, they may operate powerfully upon the ability of a soil to resist long continued drought. But when one operates differ- ently from the others, they may in a measure neutralize one another. Hence it may be doubted whether direct experiments in the small way upon the power of soils to retain water, will give their real power. Yet since we have reason to believe the retaining power to be in direct proportion to the absorbing power, the forces above mentioned will rarely if ever act in opposi- tion ; and hence, I thought it might be desirable to perform some experiments on the subject. Those which I gave in my Report of 1838, were made in the Power of Soils to retain Water. 59 winter, and on different days, when the temperature and the dew point were different; so that they could not be directly compared. Hence I was led to repeat them with some variation, during the summer of 1839. I confess that I do not see what important results can be derived from them. But as they are the first trials of the kind with which I have met, they may be useful to compare with others that may be hereafter made: and therefore I shall de- tail them. 200 Grains of each soil were spread upon earthern plates of about 3 inches diameter ; and the weight of the whole obtained. By means of a graduated dropping tube, 100 grains of water were added to each plate: when, at 9 o'clock A. M. June 25th. they were all at the same time exposed, in a situation sheltered from the wind, to the direct rays of an almost cloudless sun, for 3 1-2 hours; when all were removed to a dry room and weighed. The loss of weight is given in the second column in the annexed Table: the first col- umn indicating the number of the soil which corresponds to those in the state Collection. During the following night the plates were exposed with- out removing the soils, to a cloudless atmosphere, and weighed in the morn- ing. The gain is given in the third column. Next morning, June 26th, 100 grains of water were added to each plate, and the whole exposed as before, to the sun, from 8h. 30m. till 11 hours, when they were weighed as before, and the loss constitutes the fourth column. Remaining in a dry room till July 1st. they were again exposed without adding water, to the sun, from 11 to 3 o'clock and then weighed, and the loss constitutes the fifth column : al- though in this case, it will be seen, that there were numerous failures. It will be seen from the above statement, that the third column shows the absorbing instead of the retaining power of the soils. The following was the state of the thermometer and of Daniell's Hygroma eter on the days when the experiments were made. June 25th. 1839. Thermometer at 9 hours A. M. 72* Dew Point at that hour 58 Thermometer at 12h. 30m. 79 Dew Point 52 Thermometer at 8 hours P. M. 72 Dew Point 53 June 26th. Thermometer at 8h. 30m. 70° Dew Point 60 Thermometer at llh. A. M. 75 Dew Point 58 July 1st. Thermometer at Uh. A. M. 77° Dew Point 64 p -^^■©ODNWC^^TtOOiOno 73 •- <3 £ 00 00 OOiOCQiO^iOOJOl^tCO^iCt^CO 5>. in -C ^ s 3=? S1 £ D) .* OiOOOOOOOOOOlOOOO 0» 05 o o ->* 00 o o OOOJOOOOoOOOOOOOOi-H si I a -a ioi^«>t*ooioaooo»o»t»t«-t>.oo»oi^i*ow^»«OTjt»o«oT(< at«^ooH(NH^ffi«iNHnco •h <=? O .H in Ci O « 8 0<£WOi-«0 00)030000)OOJ000000000050>00 ©OOOOOOOOiOOOOOOiOOOOiO© o CO n0lTO^iO(0>00aOiHfiM'tiO©t«00OOHWM OH^cj^mtDNooaoH^nfiooNoofflOHWM Experiments on the Retaining Power of Soils. 61 Loss of 200 grs. Gain at Loss in Additic No. in 3 1-2 hours. night. 2 1-2 hours. loss in 4 44 105 17 (?)' 112 45 106 14 111 46 103 13 100 47 100 9 106 48 102 9 100 49 103 11 111 50 102 8 105 51 102 11 105 8 52 102 13 104 9 53 102 12 103 10 54 103 13 103 11 55 103 * 10 101 12 56 101 7 100 9 57 102 9 106 58 104 15 105 59 100 12 103 60 102 8 108 61 102 9 104 62 101 8 100 4 63 103 14 108 5 64 104 108 4 65 105 17 (?) 105 9 66 114 13 107 6 67 104 12 108 4 68 96 5 110 69 107 15 109 1 70 106 12 106 2 71 104 11 106 3 72 104 9 107 0 73 109 13 104 1 74 104 7 91 14 75 99 7 93 12 76 101 9 97 10 77 101 10 101 5 78 102 9 105 1 79 100 9 102 5 80 102 12 111 1 81 101 13 111 10 82 101 5 95 83 104 9 107 84 106 10 104 85 106 8 104 86 103 6 102 87 109 13 104 88 11 105 89 14 106 5 90 12 108 1 9 62 Economical Geology. Loss of 200 grs. Gain at Loss in Additi No. in 3 J-2 hours. night. 2 1-2 hours. Loss in 4 91 108 18 109 3 92 100 8 105 5 93 102 12 108 5 94 100 4 103 3 95 104 7 103 1 96 103 102 1 97 102 11 110 2 98 103 12 109 3 99 102 12 109 3 100 101 11 106 5 101 103 10 110 102 101 8 108 103 101 9 110 104 102 10 105 105 102 8 109 106 101 6 109 107 102 9 110 108 101 10 108 109 103 10 105 110 104 10 105 111 101 4 98 9 112 102 8 101 9 113 100 3 100 6 114 101 5 105 1 115 102 4 99 6 116 101 3 100 14 117 102 4 118 100 0 99 119 102 4 100 120 102 3 101 121 103 2 100 122 103 2 102 123 104 8 124 106 13 104 8 125 101 1 100 0 126 92 3 127 102 8 105 3 128 107 1 129 103 9 106 2 130 103 9 104 2 139 107 3 143 102 4 146 94 2 107 5 148 86 3 89 26 All the numbers in the above table over 125, belong to specimens of clay, muck sand, or marl; all of which will be described in other parts of my Re- Soils absorb Oxygen. 63 port. The results exhibit nothing of importance on which to remark, ex- cept perhaps that the specimen of marl (No. 148) appears to possess the strongest retaining power of all the substances tried : and this fact may sug- gest to us one of the causes that render marls valuable upon land. It will be seen, in the second column, that though only 100 grains of water were added, more than that quantity was usually given off in the course of 3 1-2 hours. This fact led me to expose the soils only 2 1-2 hours the next day; yet even then, more than, 100 grains were usually given off, because of the quantity of moisture absorbed during the night. At the third trial, whose results are given in the last column, I determined not to add any water, and to expose the plates a longer time, and since the last portions of water are al- ways driven off with the most difficulty, I suspect that this last column ex- hibits better than the others, the relative power of the different soils to re- tain water in time of drought. I regret, therefore, that an accident has pre- vented this column from being complete. Power of Soils to absorb Oxygen from the Atmosphere. In the excellent paper by Prof. Schubler on the Physical Properties of Soils, referred to on page 55, I find numerous experiments and remarks, not only upon the power of soils to absorb and retain water, but also oxygen gas and heat; as well as their electrical and other relations of importance. But I have room to notice only a few of the new and interesting views which he has presented. See Journal of the English Agricultural Society, Vol 1 p. 177. hand. 1839. Humboldt first pointed out the power of soils to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere : but his views were contradicted : yet they seem now fully established by Schubler. The following Table shows the amount of oxygen absorbed in 30 days, from fifteen cubic inches of air, by 1000 grains of the different soils named. In a dry state they absorbed none. Siliceous Sand, Calcareous Sand, Gypsum Powder, Sandy Clay, Loamy Clay, Stiff Clay or Brick Earth, Grey pure Clay, Fine Lime, Magnesia, Humus, (Geine,) Garden Mould, Arable Soil, Slaty Marl. It appears from this Table, that Humus or Geine, absorbs more oxygen than any other soil: And Prof. Schubler says, that it enters into chemical combination with the geine, giving it a higher degree of oxygenation; and that some carbonic acid also is produced. Whereas no chemical union is formed between the other soils and the oxygen absorbed. Here then, we see another mode in which that wonderful substance, geine, acts as a fertilizer : viz. by furnishing carbonic acid and oxygen. 1.6 0.24 0.10 5.6 0.84 0.35 2.7 0.40 0.17 9.3 1.39 0.59 11.0 1.65 0.70 13.6 2.04 0.86 15.3 2.29 0.97 10.8 1.92 0.69 17.0 2.66 1.08 20.3 3.04 1.29 18.0 2.60 1.10 16.2 2.43 1.03 11.0 1.65 0.70 64 Economical Geology. Galvanic and Electrical Relations of the Soils. According to the same writer, the pure earths, such as sand, lime, magnesia and gypsum, when dry are non-conductors of electricity : but the clays and compound clayey earths are im- perfect conductors. All the earths, when oblong dry pieces of them are scraped with a knife, develope negative electricity. When solutions of Humus—that is, the salts of geine—are exposed to a current of galvanic electricity, decomposition immediately results. The geine collects around the positive pole, while the earths, or alkalies, collect around the negative pole. Do not these facts tend to con- firm the views of Dr. Dana respecting the mode in which geine is taken up by the roots of plants ; viz. by their forming galvanic combinations with the salts and earths in the soil, whereby the geine and the oxides are decomposed ? Do they not, also, strengthen his opinion that geine is a distinct substance, which acts the part of an acid ? If.it be not a definite chemical compound, how could it be separated and go to the positive pole, by galvanism ? This paper of Prof. Schubler is certainly an important contribution to Agricultural Chemistry ; and I regret that it did not fall under my notice, or rather, that it had not been published, when I was prosecuting experiments upon the soils of Massachusetts. Specific Gravities. The last column in the general Table, contains the specific gravities of a large part of the soils ; that is, their weight as compared with distilled water.. In general it will be seen that the most sandy soils are the heaviest; those con- taining the most geine, the lightest. In the absence of a better method, this character might be employed to determine the amount of organic matter in a soil. But to obtain the specific gravities of soils, cannot be regarded as a mat- ter of much importance; though the results may be of value in the re- searches of the chemist. Theoretical Characteristics of the different geological varieties of Soils. Knowing what simple minerals constitute the different rocks, and what is the composition of those minerals, we can predict what ingredients will ex- ist, and what ones will predominate, in the soils derived from those rocks. Where a soil is derived from quartz rock, or siliceous sandstone, we should expect that silica would greatly predominate, but where argillaceous slate forms the foundation of the soil, alumina will abound. We should expect a large proportion of lime in soils underlaid by limestone: though from causes already explained, analysis does not always verify this anticipation. In soils derived from granite, gneiss, mica slate and those sandstones abounding in fragments of feldspar and mica, we might expect to find potassa, or its salts, because this substance abounds in those minerals. In porphvry soils, for the same reason, soda might be expected : also magnesia in talcose slate soils: Alkalies in Soils. Co l id the single analysis of such a soil by fusion, given on a previous page, cor- responds to this prediction. Since iron abounds in all the rocks, Ave should Hot expect beforehand to find it peculiarly abundant in any variety of soil. As to the existence or predominance of silica, alumina, iron, lime and magnesia, in a soil, analysis, as already pointed out, will enable us to deter- mine this point; and, indeed, in respect to most of these ingredients, mere inspection is sufficient for all practical purposes: and from the tables of analyses that have been given, these characteristics, as they exist in the soils of Massachusetts, can easily be determined. But in respect to the alkalies, potassa and soda, which unquestionably exert an important influence upon vegetation where they exist, the case is quite different. As these ex- ist in the feldspar and mica of soils, they are perfectly insoluble in water, but when set free by decomposition, even though converted into salts, they become easily soluble in water: and the consequence is, that rains soon carry them away. We should hence expect the chemist would rarely find them, even in traces. But as some chemists are of opinion that the salts of the alkalies do exist, widely disseminated in soils, I felt desirous of settling the point in relation to the soils of Massachusetts. I selected specimens of nearly every variety of soil in the Government collection, and having boiled 200 or 300 grains for several hours in snow water, until the quantity was rather small, I filtered ; and to the solution added a small quantity of a solution of nut-galls. Had there been the minutest quantity of alkali present, the solution would have assumed a greenish tinge: but in no instance was this the case. Hence I infer the absence of alkali, and of alkaline salts. The soils thus tested were Nos. 9, 14, 29, 48, 62, 71, 82, 110, 121, and 124. From such facts, however, I do not infer the absence of potassa and soda in every form from our soils; but only in a soluble state. On the other hand, it is almost certain, that in many of our soils they must exist in con- siderable quantity, and I doubt not but they exert an important influence upon cultivation. 1 impute the productiveness of many of our gneiss, granite, and sienite soils, to these substances. But I am inclined to adopt the opinion of Dr. Dana ; who supposes that the rootlets of plants, by means of galvanic agency, have the power to. extract alkali from tjie particles of feldspar and mica in the soil. If these views are correct, it follows that it can be of little importance for the chemist to determine the precise amount of potassa or soda that may ex- ist in the undecomposed feldspar or mica of a soil. For if the soil have resulted from the disintegration of rock that contains feldspar, he may be sure that alkali is present: But whether it will be of any use:—that is, whether it can be extracted from the soil by the plants, will depend upon the degree of comminution in the soil, and probably upon other circum- 66 Economical Geology. stances not yet fully understood. That such salts as the sulphate of potassa may be found in some peculiar soils, is very probable; and their detection by analysis would be important; but with my present views, I anticipate that the search for them in the soils of New England generally will be in vain. Such considerations cannot but lead the chemist to enquire, whether other principles, as important as the alkalies, may not exist in soils in such a state that they escape the notice of the analyst; or which he cannot detect in such a state as to afford much aid to practical agriculture. If so, perhaps it may partly explain why careful analysis has accomplished less for agriculture than had been anticipated ; and that such is the fact, I am compelled to admit. I do not mean that analysis has been of no service to the farmer. In some in- stances it has pointed out to him particular substances in his land, that were beneficial or injurious; of which he would otherwise have been ignorant; and in all cases analyses form important materials for improving the theory of agricultural chemistry: which is certainly yet far from perfect. But pro- bably some have been led to suppose, that the chemist, by analyzing their soil, would be able at once to inform them what ingredient might be added to insure fertility. This would imply a degree of perfection in agricultural chemistry to which I think the science cannot yet lay claim. To be sure, the analyst can often suggest the application of ingredients which will pro- bably be beneficial. But the causes on which the growth of plants depends are too complicated, and as yet too imperfectly understood, to permit his recommendations to be infallible. And this leads me to express the opinion, that were a chemist to be employed in making experiments upon the manner in which geine and the salts in soils are taken up by vegetation; as well as upon the best mode of converting soluble into insoluble geine; and to analyze plants in their different stages of growth; very important results might rea- sonably be expected. The experiments which the farmer makes, that bear upon these points, (and a multitude of such experiments are made every year,) are performed as it were at random, without those fixed principles to guide him, which an accurate knowledge of chemistry would furnish; and hence it is only as it were by chance that any useful results follow. General Conclusions. Having as I hope, by the preceding remarks, prevented the indulgence of unreasonable expectations from the examinations which I have made of the soils of Massachusetts, I proceed to state the most important conclusions to which those investigations have conducted me. Calcareous Matter in Massachusetts. 67 First: there is in general too small a supply of calcareous matter in our soils: that is, of lime. The second great desideratum is an additional supply of geine, or the food of plants. Hence, thirdly, the great object of the agricultural chemist should be, to discover new supplies of both these substances; and to suggest means for their proper and successful application by the farmer. These conclusions early forced themselves upon my attention; and all my subsequent researches have served to confirm them. Hence, therefore, I made it my constant endeavor, to discover and examine the character and extent of every deposite that would yield either geine or calcareous matter. I shall now proceed to give the results of my efforts. I shall begin with lime. For although it cannot perhaps be regarded so important as geine, yet in common manures, the farmer possesses a store of the latter, which he knows how to apply. But with the exception of Berkshire County, Massachusetts is very deficient in calcareous matter: and the few spots where it may be found have as yet scarcely begun to excite any attention, I. CALCAREOUS MATTER IN MASSACHUSETTS. 1. Marls. No form of calcareous matter is so valuable in agriculture as rich marl. This term, however, has been till recently very loosely applied; often mean- ing nothing more than loose clay, entirely destitute of lime. But all accurate writers now understand it to mean a friable mixture of lime and clay ; al- though the term is extended to beds of calcareous shells that are somewhat hard. Till within a few years, this substance has been neglected in our country; but its remarkable effects in some of our middle and southern states, have awakened the public attention ; and it is now sought after with no small avidity. From the nature of our rocks, I had no hope of finding rich marls in any other part of the State, except the County of Berkshire. From that part of the State, many years ago, I had seen a specimen that ap- peared very rich. I prepared therefore to go in search of the bed from which it was taken ; and by the directions of Professor Dewey, I found it in Pitts- field, near the east part of the village, on the borders and in the bottom of a pond covering several acres. It seemed to me very probable that similar beds must occur in other parts of that County where limestone prevails. My search was soon rewarded by the discovery of an extensive bed in the north- west part of Stockbridge on land of Mr. Buck; whose thickness was about 68 Economical Geology. two and a half feet, and probable extent, very great. Also a second bed in the same town, only four miles from the court-house in Lenox. Also a third bed in the northeast part of Lee, at the Mills of Sedgwick and Co., the thick- ness of which, in some places, is about ten feet; though its extent is but a few acres. Also, several beds in West Stockbridge in various parts of the town. The limited time which I gave to these researches did not allow me to make but slight examinations in other towns. But I have little doubt that similar beds of marl will be found in various other places in the County; es- pecially in Sheffield, Great Barrington, Egremont, Alford, Richmond, Lanes- borough, New Ashford, and perhaps in Wiliiamstown, Adams, Cheshire, Dalton, and New Marlborough. I am confirmed in this opinion from the fact that since I visited the County several other beds have been discovered. A second bed has been found in Pittsfield, about a mile south-east of the village. Also a bed in Stockbridge, a little northeast of the village on the road to Lenox. For specimens from both which places, I am indebted to Professor Dewey. A third, bed has been found covering several acres in the north-west part of Lee, near a pond, on land of Messrs. Lemuel and Cornelius Bassett. The thickness of the marl, which commences about a foot below the surface, is in some places from four to seven feet, and in others, from ten to twelve feet; and from 200 to 300 loads have been taken from it by the Messrs. Bassett. Specimens from all the beds that have been described will be found in the collection accompanying this Report. (See Nos. 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 172, 173, 174, 175.) I am informed also, that a small bed exists in Tyringham, and another in Sheffield, and two at least occur in Great Barrington. The purest of these marls when dry, are almost as white as chalk, and much lighter than common soil, as may be seen from the specific gravities of a part of them in the table of their analysis below. When wet they are of a light gray color, especially if they contain much organic and earthy mat- ter : indeed the degree of their whiteness is no bad index of the quantity of lime that they contain. When wet they are quite plastic and adhesive: when dry, they fall into a fine powder. Hence they are in a most favorable state for being spread upon land. They are found almost exclusively in swampy ground, generally in quite wet swamps, and are always covered by a stratum, often several feet thick, of black vegetable matter approaching to peat. Hence, as these swamps are rarely excavated, the marl is not apt to be discovered; or if found, it is supposed to be nothing more than white clay and sand, which, indeed, it does very much resemble. In order to ascertain the presence of marl in a swamp, I prepared an iron rod, several feet long, near the end of which was a grove, in fact it formed a sort of auger. When pressed into the ground and withdrawn, it would always retain in the groove Calcareous Matter in Massachusetts.—Marls. 09 some of the matter from the bottom of the hole, and in this way, in a few minutes, not only the existence of marl might be ascertained, but the thick- ness of the bed. Yet after all, since the swamps where it occurs are usually very wet, and easily penetrated, a rough pole is better for discovering marl and its thickness, than the iron borer which I have described. For some of it will adhere to a pole plunged into it, even though that pole must be drawn through several feet of vegetable mud above it. And if the pole be plunged to the bottom of the bed, the distance along the pole covered with marl, will show the thickness of the bed ; except that the lower extremity of the pole will show beneath the layer of marl the clay or sand as far as they were pene- trated : and this extent must be subtracted from the whole length covered with marl. I have been thus particular in describing the method of search- ing for marls, in the confidence that if gentlemen residing in the towns above mentioned will adopt it, many new beds will be brought to light. There is a substance in the central and eastern parts of the State, in ex- actly the same situation as the marl of Berkshire, which resembles it also very precisely in external characters, and is also like marl very light; and yet it is not marl. It does not contain carbonate of lime, but is composed chiefly of silica. Specimens of it will be found in the collection from several places. (See No. 157, which is from Spencer; No. 169, from Barre, and No. 170, from Andover.) It is easy, notwithstanding its general resemb'ance, to distinguish it from marl by a few drops of vinegar, oil of vitriol, aqua fortis, or any other acid. If a substance be marl, the acid will produce in it small bubbles occasioned by the escape of gas—if not marl, no effervescence will be produced. And this is a universal test, which is almost infallible, for distinguishing marl in all circumstances. One other circumstance respecting the Berkshire marl, which will aid in distinguishing it. It abounds every where with small fresh water shells, such as now occur in the ponds of that region, and therefore it is unquestion- ably true fresh water marl, usually called shell marl. The epidermis of the shell is usually gone. Such shells are rarely found in much quantity where lime does not exist, although I have seen them in mud that did not effervesce. But their presence should lead us to search carefully for calcareous matter : for how can these animals form their shells without lime 1 Thex Berkshire marls, above described, appear to me to be some of the richest and best that ever occur. Marls are usually valued only for the cal- careous matter which they contain. But by adopting Dr. Dana's method of analysis, we find that they also contain no small quantity of soluble and in- soluble geine, derived from the vegetable matter that covers them. This must make them still more valuable when applied to the soil. They contain likewise a small portion of phosphate of lime, increasing their value still 10 70 Economical Geology. more: while the silicates in them, the only part that is of no value, are in most cases extremely small. The following are the results of the analysis of the specimens in the Government collection. I have added the analysis of a specimen of similar marl from Farmington in Connecticut, for which I am indebted to Professor Silliman. For the geological character of Farmington and the surrounding region is very much like that of Springfield and West Springfield; and therefore I cannot but hope that some of the swamps in the latter places may contain it. The bed in Farmington is said to be extensive. Marl of this description is usually supposed to result wholly from the de- composition of minute fresh water shells: But since it is not unusual for water in limestone to contain a small quantity of carbonate of lime in solu- tion, by means of free carbonic acid, it seems to me that the deposition of this carbonate of lime in a pulverulent state, in consequence of the escape of the acid, is the probable origin of a large part of the marl. No. LOCALITY. a li 0 " '7. 5<- 5 C = 0) p» 0 >, u > REMARKS. -=j •i ° %■ a; a G .» 02 ^ .= - £"= c ° 5 J; s H D. >-COCJ 148 Stockbridge,(Mr. Buck's Farm,) 4.3 4.6 0.7 73.4 0.15 13 5 3.3 1.82 2 1-2 feet thick. 151 do northeast of the village, 5.0 8.9 06 46.0 trace. 36 6 29 . 20:3 do do 0.6 38 0.8 31.8 59.8 1.7 1.5 Sulphate of Lime : Specimen from another part of the bed. 14!) Pittsfield, east of the village, 3.1 3.5 0.7 864 0.46 3.1 3.0 1.82 4 feet thick at least. 152 doS. W of village (Mr.Strong's lot,) .... 3.1 3.2 0.4 64.8 trace. 252 1.9 150 West Stockbridge, Mr. Reed's land,) .... 17 5.0 0 5 74-8 0.53 14.7 2.8 1.61 153 Lee, Sedgwick & Co's mills,) 1.2 2.1 1.0 93.2 no trial 0.9 16 1.89 Exposed to the ac-tion of running water. 172 do (L. Basset's bed, near the surface,) ... 1.8 22 1.4 93.0 do 2.2 0.4 9 to 12 feet thick. 173 do do 10 feet below the surface, - 1.6 2.8 1.0 88.8 do 4.4 1.4 1.75 174 do (C. Bassett's bed,) 2.6 3.4 1.2 86.2 do 5.0 1.6 Nos. 172, 173 and 174 are from the same bed. 175 do (Sedgwick's mills,) 0.8 4.4 1.0 83 6 do 9.2 1.0 Not Exposed to the action of running water. 204 Farmington, Ct. ... 3.0 95 04 64.4 do 17.8 2.9 2.0 Sulphate "of lime. No trial for the sulphate in the other specimens. The amount of calcareous matter in these marls is unusually large, with the exception of one of the specimens from Pittsfield, and another from the east part of Stockbridge. And these specimens were not taken directly from the beds, but as they had been thrown out in making excavations ; and the marl was obviously mixed with loam and sand; so that the quantity of carbonate of lime by the analysis is doubtless too small. Analysis of Different Marls. 71 Again, most marls are only in part pulverulent, or easily crumbled down, and they require a long time after being mixed with the soil, before they will exert a favorable action upon it. But these are all in a state best adapts ed for immediate use ; and when we add to these considerations those al^ ready made concerning the other ingredients of these marls, I cannot but feel that Berkshire possesses in them a very great treasure. I doubt not but an inexhaustable supply may be found there, not only for the county but for ex- portation. And since the most numerous beds yet discovered occur very near the point (West Stockbridge) Avhere two great rail roads are soon to in- tersect, I cannot doubt that this marl will be among the articles of export at least a considerable distance. The marls of New Jersey and Virginia, it is well known, are already beginnings to be transported a great distance. And if any marls are rich enough to be thus conveyed by land or water, surely those of Berkshire must be of the number. It will doubtless require a long time to satisfy many of our farmers of the value of marl: and espe- cially as we may expect many failures from applying this marl in improper quantity, or in the neglect of collateral circumstances essential to success. B ut unless a vast amount of experience in the use of marl in Europe and in this country is to be set aside as a ground of judgment, these marls must sjoner or later work an important improvement in a portion of the agricul- ture of this State. There is an important fact derived from the analysis of soils that have been given, relative to the character of those in Berkshire county. It had formerly been supposed, that the soils of that county contain so much lime that marls would be of no sen ice there. But it appears that they contain scarcely any more of this substance, either in the form of carbonate, sul- phate, or phosphate, than the other soils of the state. At least, the speci- mens analyzed do not; and these were taken at random from fields under- laid by limestone; so that probably they show about the average quantity of lime in the soils of the county; though I doubt not that soils may be found there containing more of this substance. I think this may be a safe rule to follow by the farmers of that county. If a soil effervesces with vinegar, or other acids, they may infer that marl will be of little service. If it do not effervesce, they may safely apply marl. And judged of by this rule, I doubt not that four out of five of the Berkshire soils will be found to need it. It ought to be expected, however, that this rule will sometimes fail; because a soil may contain lime in some other form than the carbonates, so that for several years the marl may do no good. 72 Economical Geology. In what Quantity and Mode shall Marl be applied ? I do not conceive that it falls within the sphere of duties assigned me by the government, to go into details respecting the mode and the quantity in which marl shall be applied, except so far as these questions can be answered by agricultural chemistry. It is well known that, in many instances, lands have been injured by over marling ; and hence one is met everywhere with the questions above suggested. And certain it is, that no general rules have thus far been followed or proposed. Nor can we get any general rules on the subject until the manner in which lime acts upon soils and vegetation is understood. Here, it must be confessed, great con- fusion and a variety of opinions have" prevailed. The action of lime is undoubtedly quite com- plex, and considerably different on different soils ; which renders any general theory more diffi- cult. The doctrines respecting geine, which have been explained, appear to throw more light on this subject than has ever before shone upon it; though some points still remain obscure ; and as Dr. Dana has obligingly furnished me with his views on the subject, I shall present them without hazarding any opinion of my own ; except to say, that his theory is manifestly in ad- vance of any that has hitherto appeared. Theory of the action of Lime on Soils, Manure, and Vegetation. " The action of lime is threefold ; each distinct. 1. It is a Neutralizer :2a Decomposer : 3. a Converter. 1. I have already alluded to some acid soils : free phosphoric acid, geic, acetic, and malic acids, also occasionally exist in a free state in soils. Here lime acts as a neutralizer. 2. Soils may contain abundant geates ; particularly geate of alumina, the least of all demand- ed by plants. Long formed and sun-baked, they are scarcely acted on by rain or dew, and are almost useless. Here lime, by decomposing these metallic and earthy geates, forms a combina- tion, which, in its nascent state, is readily dissolved. If the carbonate of lime acts better than the hydrate, it is because, following a well known law, double decomposition is easier than single. If any acid geine exists in the soil, or any free acids, carbonic acid is then liberated ; it acts on the geate of lime, supergeates result, and these are easily soluble." " 3. The great use of lime is as a converter; turning solid and insoluble geine, nay, I go fur- ther, solid vegetable fibre, into soluble vegetable food. Here is the great puzzle, the point where our philosophy seems to leave us : giving us our choice, to refer this action to one of the numerous cases of mysterious ' catalytic ' change, with which we are becoming every day more and more familiar, or to explain the process by referring the whole to saponification. I use this word as conveying to you at once what I mean ;—but I do not mean to say that the product of lime and vegetable matter is soap; but I cannot make myself more intelligible to a farmer than by saying, this lime makes compounds of vegetable matter, just as it makes soapy compounds of oil and fat. The action of lime on geine I take to be of the same nature, as its action on oils and fat. It is well established that animal and vegetable oils and fats are converted into acids by the action of alkalies, earths, oxides, and even by vegetable fibre itself. The general law is that whenever a substance, capable of uniting with the acid of fat or oil, is placed in contact with fat or oil, it determines the production of acid. Now we have seen that alkali produces a similar change on geine; it developes acid properties. I go further, if alkali has converted vegetable oil and grine into acids, I see no reason why a similar action may not be pro- duced by all those substances which act thus on oil. Hence lime, earths, and metallic oxides, convert geine into acid: as fast as this takes place, so fast it becomes soluble. Then too the long action of air on insoluble geine, rendering it soluble, is it not analogous Application of the Theory of the Action of Lime. 73 to the action of air on oils. Both evolve in this case, vast volumes of carbonic acid, the oil becomes gelatinous and soluble in alkali ; does not a similar change occur in geine ? It is possible that during the action of lime on geine, a soluble substance may be produced, bearing the same relation to this process that glycerine does to saponification. These views you will see need to be followed out experimentally. If found tenable, the most signal benefit will result. We place manures on a new foundation, on which great practical results may be erected." Practical application of the Theory of the action of Lime. Taking the preceeding principles by Dr. Dana as our guide, we may lay down a few general rules for the application of marls. 1. Enough ought to be applied to neutralize all the free acids in a soil; which may be known by its ceasing to produce acid plants, such as sorrel and pine. Generally, however, the amount required for this purpose is small. 2. It will be serviceable to add enough to convert the earthy geates of a soil into geate of lime. The richer a soil is, the greater we may conclude is the quantity of geates which it contains. 3. It will be serviceable to add enough to convert all the insoluble geine and vegetable fibre in a soil into soluble geine. Hence the richer a soil is, and the more manure is added, the more marl will it bear with benefit. In- deed, there appears to be no danger of adding too much marl, provided a sufficient quantity of manure be also added. Ignorance of this principle, I apprehend, is the source of most of the failures that have occured in the use of lime upon soils. Farmers have supposed that its action was like that of common manure, viz., to serve as direct nourishment to the plant; whereas it only cooks the food, if I may be allowed the expression, which exists in the soil, or is added along with the lime. In nearly all cases of over marling which I have read of, a fresh supply of manure has been found to be the remedy; which shows the truth of the above principle. Agriculturalists have spread marl alone, or with very little manure, upon land that has been worn out, that is, whose geine has been exhausted ; and because such soils have not thereby been recruited, they have inferred that lime was injurious. With- out acids, or geine, or geates, or vegetable fibre, to act upon, much excess of lime appears to operate injuriously, so as to diminish, instead of increasing the crop. They have also expected a sudden and surprising increase of fer- tility : whereas in some cases the chief benefit seems to consist in causing the land to produce for a greater number of years, by preventing the ulti- mate decomposition and escape of the organic matter. In general, howev- er, it will add also to the yearly product: but those who employ marl or lime in any form, ought to moderate their expectations, that they may not be dis- appointed, and to be satisfied if they can slowly and surely improve their 74 Economical Geology. lands as they most assuredly can do, by this substance, provided they do not expect to accomplish it by the use of lime alone. These general rules can afford only a general guidance as to the quantity of marl proper to be used. Both marls and soils vary so much in their composition, that probably direct experiments will always be necessary to ascertain the quantity of any new variety of marl that will be most serviceable. And should any be disposed, as I doubt not they will be, to try the marls above described, I beg leave to recommend to them, as the best practical treatise that has been pub- lished in this country, on this subject, " An Essay on Calcareous Manures," by Edward Ruilin, Esq. of Virginia, Shellbanks, 1835. This gentleman has tried a vast number of experiments on the subject, and the perusal of his work is almost indispensable to any one who would successful- ly prosecute it. He says, "if the nature of the soil, its condition and treatment, and the strength of the marl were all known, it would be easy to direct the amount of a suitable dress- ing : but without knowing these circumstances, it would be safest to give 250 or 300 bushels to the acre of worn acid soils, and at least twice as much to newly cleared, or well manured land." (Essay pp. 54.) As to the best mode of applying marl, theory would lead us in general to prefer the method usually adopted, viz: to mix it with compost before spreading it on the soil. And I would here express a hope, that if experiments are made on the Berkshire marls, a portion of the black vegetable matter that lies above them, may sometimes be mi\ed with thim, to see whether it may not become converted into a geate, and thus increase the value of the marl. It would in- deed be an important discovery, if from the same swamp both the geine and the lime could be obtained, in a state proper to sustain vegetation. In a few instances the Berkshire marl has been tried upon cultivated land. In the North part of Stockbridge, several years ago, Mr. Hadsel Buck spread 40 loads from the bed on his farm upon a field of grass, and he describes the effect as excellent. A mile or two cast of this spot Capt. Enos Smith, many years ago, took a quantity from another bed and spread it upon grass ground with very marked benefit. It has also been tried in Pittsfield, by Samuel A. Danforth Esq with encouraging success.* The agricultural surveyor of Massachusetts, in his Second annual report, has mentioned a* few recent trials with these marls that have not proved so successful. In one instance that in Sheffield, it was spread alone upon a wheat field, and no apparent effect was produced- I should not expect any effect from such an experiment, especiall} the first year : for probably this mode of applying it is one of the poorest : and secondly, in Europe " it is well known that lime pro- duces scarcely any sensible effect as a mauure at the beginning. Even the first vear after it is applied to the soil its effects are inconsiderable, ii comparison of what it produces in the second and succeeding years " (Morton on Soils p. 177) And finally for aught that appears, the soil may already contain all the lime immediately necessary: for it is based upon limestone. In the other case, a shovel full of marl was put into each hill of potatoes, and although the crop ap- peared better early in the season, it was not so superior at the time of harvest. In this case the quantity of marl used was much too large; according to any rules that I have ever seen hid down. Now in my report of 1838 I predicted such results as these: and I shall expect more of them before the best mode of applying the Berkshire marl shall be discovered. Nor would it be * I feel under great obligations to Hon. Judge Walker, and H. W. Bishop, Esq. of Lenox, for their at- tention and assistance in searching for beds of marl in that vicinity. Also to Charles B. Boy'nton Esq of West Stockbridge. To Sedgwick & Co. and Mr. Lemuel Basset, I an indebted for the specimens from their marl beds in the government collection. I might name several other gentlemen in that county who have given me much assistance. Marly Clay. 75 strange if many should hence become entirely sceptical as to the value of this substance, and give up further experiments with it. But how unphilosophical to set a few unsuccessful but im- perfect experiments, continued only a year or two, against thousands of successful experiments made in Europe and in our own country for a great number of years! I am not, however, com- missioned to try experiments with these marls, but to point them out to others. And I pledge myself, that they are precisely of the same nature, and as rich in calcareous matter, as those which in other parts of the world have produced most valuable effects upon agriculture. And I have little doubt, but if the present generation do not derive similar benefit from them, posterity will. I have supposed that the discovery of earthy substances containing a much less quantity of calcareous matter than the marl that has just been described, might be of great benefit to agricul- ture in a region so destitute of lime as Massachusetts in general. Accordingly, I have examin- ed our clays and diluvial deposites with reference to this point and shall now give the result of my researches. 2. Marly Clay. The clays of Massachusetts are in general destitute of carbonate of lime, except that they sometimes contain remarkable concretions called clay stones, which usually consist of about 50 per cent, of this substance. In a few in- stances, however, I have discovered beds that contain a few per cent, of car- bonate of lime ; not enough to bring them under the denomination of marl; yet in sufficient quantity to make them objects of interest in agriculture. For as will be shown in another place, clay alone often exerts a very favora- ble influence upon land ; much more probably, when it is united with cal- careous matter. The following table exhibits the composition of all the beds of marly clay which I have discovered; analyzed by fusion with carbonate of soda in the usual way : after extracting the carbonate of lime by an acid. No. Locality. Silica. Alumina. Protoxide of Iron. Carbonate of Lime. Lime. Magne-sia. Water of Absorption. Loss. 146 Williatnstown 60.24 15.53 7.57 11.7 0.12 1.86 2.3 0.68 147 North Adams, 59.07 5.49 4.28 28.0 trace 1.59 0.7 0.87 219 South Lee, 51.79 21.47 7.89 12.2 do 2.02 2.8 1.83 206 Springfield, 64.81 14.40 5.30 7.6 do 2.36 3.8 1.73 The specimen from North Adams, where it occurs a little east of the vil- lage, in an excavation for making brick, ought rather to be called calcareous sand, than marly clay : as will be obvious by inspecting it.—That from Springfield was obtained in boring beneath Connecticut river under the di- rection of Major Whistler, the engineer on the Western Rail Road: to whom, and to Capt. Swift, I am indebted for specimens and a Section which will be more fully described in the scientific part of my report. The 76 Economical Geology. clay on the banks of the river, so far as I have examined, does not effervesce : yet this point, which is one of great importance, needs farther examination. The specimen from South Lee was obtained from a clay bed on land of Mr. Merrill, a mile and a half east of the village, on the Housatonic river. Research, I have no doubt, will bring to light other beds, especially in Berk- shire county : and I should not think it strange if this substance should prove more immediately beneficial upon the soil, than the rich marls that have been described. .3. Peculiar Calcareous Soil. In passing from South Lee to Stockbridge, a very peculiar limestone rock may be seen, although from its dark color it is not usually supposed to be lime- stone. It is indeed very impure, and will never be used either for burning into quicklime or for marble. Yet by decomposition it produces a peculiar red- dish soil, which appears not only to be very fertile, but I apprehend may be employed advantageously to spread upon other soils. My attention was drawn to it, by the fact that it has been so employed to some extent upon gardens in Stockbridge. And as this rock may probably be found more or less abund- antly, nearly all the way from Stockbridge to the north line of the state, I thought the soil resulting from it deserved an anal} sis. The specimen made use of, (No. 139,) was obtained near a ledge of this limestone, a little east of the village of Stockbridge, and yielded the following results. Water of Absorption, 3.80 Soluble Geine, 0.93 Insoluble Geine, 1.99 Carbonate of Lime, 30.57 Sulphate of lime, 1.40 Phosphate of Lime, 1.63 Lime, 0.09 Silica, 46.43 Alumina 6.82 Peroxide of Iron, 4.01 Magnesia, 1.03 Loss, 1.30 100.00 A glance at the preceding analysis lets us at once into the secret of the fertilizing properties of this peculiar soil. For to say nothing of the geine, whose quantity is small, the salts of lime, which it contains, must make it valuble as a manure. And as to the iron, I am inclined to believe that it exists in the rock originally as a carbonate : though I have not ascertained this experimentally. But if such be the case, the carbonic acid which es- capes, as the oxide of iron is evolved, will probably be seized by the organs Calcareous Diluvium. 11 of growing plants. Does not this substance demand the attention of Berk- shire farmers ? If it can be found of the character of that analyzed in con- siderable quantity, it can hardly fail of being a valuable means of improving much of their land. In addition to the good effects of this calcareous substance upon soil, which I have mentioned, as shown in Stockbridge, I would refer to a district in Adams, where the soil is highly impregnated with it. The eastern part of Saddle Mountain has a valley running nearly north and south, and rising very high at its southern extremity, called the Tunnel. I was surprized to find in this valley some of the best dairy farms in the county; and even at its southern extremity, which cannot be less than 1200 feet above the villages in Adams, the luxuriance of the grass I have hardly seen excelled any where in the state. On examining the soil, I found it to be highly charged with the peculiar compound under consideration, derived from the bastard lime- stone which runs through the valley, and whose gradual decomposition not unlikely may have formed the valley. An analysis of this soil is given on a preceding page : (No. 192, p. 42.) from which it seems that the carbonate of lime is almost exhausted, and that it possesses no other remarkable characters. But in the facts above developed, I doubt not we have the secret of its unu- sual fertility. 4. Calcareous Diluvium. In the red sandstone of the valley of Connecticut river, beds of fetid lime- stone occasionally occur: and besides, in the towns of Springfield, West Springfield, and South Hadley, the red slaty rock contains a few per cent, of carbonate of lime. In early times this rock has been extensively worn away, and the small fragments and fine sand or clay, thence resulting, have been piled up over the greater part of those towns. This accumulation of detri- tal matter, I call diluvium ; and on applying acids to it, in very many places in the towns above named, I found it strongly to effervesce, especially when dug from a little depth. The lime serves as a cement, so that in most places jt is almost as hard as a solid rock, and requires a good deal of labor to get it up. But exposed to wet, heat, and cold, it at length crumbles down, and becomes fit to spread upon land ; although the size of the pebbles often might injure grass fields, unless they were separated by means of a riddle. Since this dilu- vium Avas deposited, a thick layer, first of clay, and above this, of sand, has been brought over most of the region, so that the diluvium appears only in those places where the sand and clay have been worn away. But it occurs so often that it is accessible in a multitude of places. I will mention the banks of Agawam river, a little west, and also south, of the village of West Spring- 11 78 Economical Geology. field ; also at the south end of the village of Springfield, in several places along the banks of the small river on which stand the lower "Water Shops." In one spot on the north bank, is an elevation belonging to the United States' Government, which ten years ago was nothing, but a barren sand hill. A large quantity of this diluvium, and of the disintegrating slaty rock beneath it, was carted upon this spot, and not only has it fixed the sand, but produced a coating of clover, grass, and young locust bushes. I was there informed, that near the same spot, six or eight years ago, some of this diluvium was put upon a small sandy ploughed field, and ihat the good effects are still visible. In another case eight years ago, some of it was mixed with a small quantity of hog manure, and the land still produces better crops. The testimony here, and also at Chicopee Factory Village, as well as in West Springfield, was, that wherever this diluvium is spread, clover soon makes its appearance; a result almost uniformly attending the judicious application of marl. In the banks of Chicopee river, in numerous places from its mouth nearly to Putt's Bridge, thick deposites of this diluvium appear. An enormous bed of it exists on the east bank of Connecticut river, a little south of the village at South Hadley Canal. It occurs, also, in abundance, a little south of the village of South Hadley. I have searched in vain for it in other parts of the valley of the Connecticut. No where else in Massachusetts does the red sandstone appear to contain enough of carbonate of lime to make its detritus sensibly calcareous. And although I have been told, on good authority, that in the vicinity of Hartford and Middletown, Ct, the diluvium does effervesce with acids, yet after repeated trials in various places from Massachusetts to Middletown, I have not found any that was sensibly calcareous. At pre- sent, therefore, I must consider this variety confined to the three towns above named : though I doubt not that I might safely add Longmeadow and Wilbra- ham. I have analysed only three specimens; but these probably will give us about the average amount of carbonate of lime. The specimens analyzed will be found in the state collection. Carbonate Silica Carbonate Peroxide Water No. of and of of of Locality. Lime. Alumina. Magnesia. Iron. Absorption. 154 6.3 80.0 slight precip. 12.4 23 Chicopee Factory, Springfield. 155 4.8 83.2 slight precip. 11.0 1.0 Springfield, Lower Water Shops. 156 8.0 71.6 0.4 19.0 1.0 West Springfield. The amount of calcareous matter in this diluvium appears small, when compared with that in the Berkshire marls. And I presume it will not be found valuable enough as a manure to be transported a great distance. But Limestone. 70 it oug'it to be recollected, that it needs only a small quantity of lime in a soil to work wonders upon vegetation. And further, it happens that in the im- mediate vicinity of nearly every bed of this substance, is a great deal of that sterile sandy land, which most needs a coating of marly clay, which is in fact the character of the calcareous diluvium. The large quantity of peroxide of iron which it contains, will probably also be useful on such a soil. And where this substance can be carted directly upon such fields, I cannot doubt, but they might be made permanently fertile without great expense. I trust that some of the farmers in the vicinity of this diluvium, will at least be tempted to try a few square rods of sandy land in this manner ; and then they can judge whether its more extensive application may not be profitable. W'ho knows, but this substance, which has hitherto been regarded as a sign of utter barrenness, and employed only for mending roads, may at some future day spread fertility over many a field now scarcely worth cultivation! I ought to remark, that in many places, beds of this diluvium occur which contain little or no calcareous matter, because the rocks from which they w ere derived, contain none. Hence in using this substance upon soils, none ought to be employed which does not effervesce with vinegar, or other acids. By omitting this precaution, an experiment may fail, which would otherwise succeed. 5. Limestone, Upon the whole no rock is so important in an economical point of view as limestone ; and no part of the world is better supplied with this material than the western part of Massachusetts. Enough exists to furnish the whole state, and I might say probably with truth, the whole of New England, through all future generations with marble and quicklime, were it spread through the country. But in other parts of the state limestone is comparatively rare ; and I have searched for it with more diligence than for almost any other substance. The numerous small beds which I have discovered, lead me to hope that I have not labored altogether in vain. I shall now present a table of the anal- ysis of nearly every deposite which I have found out of Berkshire county ; and of several of the most important localities in that county. The more common limestones there I have neglected; because they will never proba- bly be used. But inferior varieties will be valuable in other parts of the state; and therefore, I have analyzed all which I have discovered. I have reduced all the following analyses to a centesimal standard: and although there wras always a small loss in the process, I have neglected it; because in a practical point of view it can be of no importance, and would somewhat embarrass any one not conversant w ith chemical processes, who w ishes at a glance to determine the composition of our limestones. 80 Economical Geology. The numbers in the first column refer to those in the State Collection. I have added also a column of specific gravities; although this item can be of no great importance. I am inclined to believe that in most of the limestones of Massachusetts, the iron exists in the state of a carbonate: And such a supposition accords rather better with my analyses than to suppose it in the state of peroxide. But as the quantity of iron is in most cases very small, and the difference as to amount between the carbonate and peroxide is slight, it is not easy to de- termine whether a loss so small as that difference is to be imputed to errors of analysis, or to the escape of carbonic acid : and as in the analytical process the iron must be estimated in the state of peroxide, I have put it down in the table as such. If any one wishes to reduce this to the state of carbonate, he can do it by this formula; 978: 878:: Peroxide: Protoxide. Then 61.44: 100:: Protoxide : Protocarbonate. Or Protocarbonate-: 1.46 = Peroxide. No. LOCALITY. a >. c B > o **# o a Crystalline Magnesian, 5 Tyringham, N. W. Part, Magnesian, Becket, S. E. Part, Magnesian, Pittsfield, gray, fine granular, - VVilliamstown, foot of Saddle Mt. do Grey, near the College, - Great Barrington, clouded Marble, - Compact Limestone, Agawam, do 2d Specimen, - Argillaceous Limestone, Agawam, - Micaceous do Ashfield, do do do 2d Specimen, }• 99.60 99.40 98.10 98.67 96.11 87.32 93.38 99.85 98.38 66.00 64.66 38.40 70.30 94.60 53.80 97.80 92.80 58.04 54.87 93.60 .81.80 54.24 55.45 54.34 61.88 58.31 54.60 55.79 52.31 60.30 30.81 26.04 55.16 46.85 45,13 1.16 0.47 2.28 1.20 3.56 5.01 1.20 40.40 40.61 5.50 16.20 44.28 42.76 44.24 33.56 28.61 43.92 42.96 32.79 38.09 18.33 13.45 22.21 1.60 3.50 trace. do 0.14 0.08 0.22 0.23 0.57 0.15 0.62 1.54 0.38 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.86 0.67 0.46 1.24 0.55 0.47 0.74 0.65 5.53 6.51 7.07 1.55 2.70 0.78 1.39 11.25 2.49 1.00 34.00 28.79 61.60 29.70 5.40 46.20 2.20 6.00 1.20 4.14 0.30 1.40 0.89 0.93 0.75 4.10 11.84 0.93 0.78 14.16 0.96 45.33 54.00 15.56 50.00 48,07 2.71 2.74 2.69 2.67 2.72 2.72 2.93 2.80 2.71 2.79 2.75 2.69 2.84 2.83 2.76 2.68 2.81 2.88 2.77 2.82 2.84 2.86 2.79 2.82 2.84 55.78 55.66 54.94 55.25 53.82 48.90 52.29 55.92 55.09 36.97 36.21 21.50 39.37 52.98 30.13 54.77 51.97 32.70 30.73 52.42 45.81 30.37 31.05 30.43 34.65 32.65 30.57 31,14 29.29 33.77 17.25 14.58 30.89 26.24 25.37 Analysis of Limestone. 81 No. LOCALITY. 6 B 3 o V a a o .a a U a 3 O cd s a c c o a a O Peroxide of Iron. 1 s .1 3 • cd" u s a CJ V a. U h o -. a B 3 o V CL. * Newbury,...... 80.72 2.97 0.72 8.00 45.20 1934 Lanesboro' East Part, burnt for lime, 56.82 38.50 0.67 4.01 2.81 31.82 1937 Lee, 1 mile east of village, burnt for lime, 54.80 44.98 0.22 2.77 32.88 1938 Dalton, near the village,..... 56.58 43.07 0.35 2.66 31.68 485 Bolton, quarry, crystalline, .... 61.80 27.00 1.20 2.80 34.61 491 Chelmsford Quarry, do .... 56.52 39.38 0.90 3.20 2.85 31.65 496 Stoneham, white compact, - 59.28 15.71 1.21 23.80 2.84 33.19 211 W. Springfield gray, fetid. Paine's Quarry, 93.48 0.90 5.60 2.73 52.35 1764 Springfield, Chicopee Compact Septaria, 46.06 27.35 5.62 20.97 2.74 25.79 1757 do do fetid, gray, .... 86.80 13.20 2.73 48.61 1763 do Cabotville, Septaria, .... 43.69 39.35 3.39 t3.57 24.47 1941 Middlefield, Cole's Brook, white, ... 56.25 31.56 1.12 11.07 2.78 31.50 1939 do a mile east of do do ' - 88.02 9.91 0.15 1.92 2.71 49 29 478 Blai»ford, white,...... 51.66 39.43 0.91 7.95 2.77 28 93 490 Littleton, white crystalline, .... 54 70 43.35 0.51 1.46 2.87 30.63 1944 Sherburne, bowlders, white, .... 60 43 29.84 2.36 7.37 33 84 1918 Concord, S. W. Part, gray, .... 77 33 1.65 1.19 19.83 43 30 1946 West Natick, gray, crystalline, ... 72 10 7.50 20.40 2.75 40 38 1948 56 81 39.08 1.37 274 31 81 1951 do compact, yellowish, Rail Road cut, 54 20 0.60 45.20 2.68 30 35 1950 do do do purer specimen, ... 61 18 12.30 1.27 25.25 34 26 1592 56 60 43.4 3170 1651 53 60 1.20 45.2 2.60 30 02 1617 48 40 516 2.68 2710 I consider the practical inferences w^hich I shall make from the preceding table to be more important than from any other analyses which I have execu- ted. But in this place I shall confine myself to the agricultural value of our limestones, and defer a consideration of their use as marble and cement to more appropriate places. Is Magnesian Limestone useful in Agriculture ? It has long passed for a settled principle that limestone abounding in mag- nesia is decidedly unfavorable to vegetation. But more accurate observa- tions have led able writers to call this principle in question. Morton declares that in England, " although the soil is in general very thin on the'magnesian lime, yet it is a good light soil for arable culture, and with manure produces good crops." (Morton on Soils, p. 80.) And Mr. Bakewell says, " I do not agree in opinion with those who regard the magnesian limestone districts as unfertile.—On the summit of Breedon Hill, in Leicestershire, I have seen a luxuriant crop of barley growing on land, that had borne a succession of twen- ty preceding crops without manuring. This is more deserving notice, being in an exposed and elevated situation, and upon the very hill of magnesian limestone which has been so frequently referred to by chemical writers, as * I have reason to suppose that most of the limestone from this town is more magnesian than this specimen. 82 Economical Geology. peculiarly unfavorable to vegetation. The limestone of this hill contains above 20 per cent, of magnesia.—The magnesian lime acts more powerfully in destroyingundecomposed vegetable matter than common lime and its effects on land are more durable: hence it is in reality of greater value in agricul- ture, as a much smaller quantity will answer the same purpose." (BakewelVs Geology, p. 170, and 325.) That a small proportion of magnesia is not injurious has always been ad- mitted : a fact for which there is strong presumptive evidence in the existence of a small quantity of magnesia in nearly all soils. I strongly anticipate that the final conclusion on this subject will be, that land will bear less of magnesian than of common limestone : but that both are usually salutary. It is thought that generally lime is apt to injure until it has imbibed carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and is converted back into a carbonate, and it is also known that magnesia imbibes this gas more slowly than lime does; and this may be the reason why the former is more apt to do injury. I have but one fact to state that has any bearing upon this question. It will be seen by the preceding Table, that the limestone burnt by Mr. Had- sell in New Marlboro,' is genuine dolomite; containing over 40 per cent, of magnesia. Now he informed me that some years since, he applied a large quantity of the quicklime derived from it, directly upon a piece of land with decided injury. But by subsequently applying a coat of manure, its produc- tiveness was restored ; and ever since it has been one of his best pieces of land. Such a fact seems to teach us, that a good deal of caution is necessary in the use of magnesian limestone: but it shows also, that with a proper amount of manure, it may prove a very valuable fertilizer. Pulverized Limestone. If it be a fact that quicklime mixed with the soil very soon returns to the State of a carbonate; that is, to its condition before burning, then it may be successfully applied without burning. Except in those cases where it is desirable that the lime should act energetically upon undecomposed organic matter, to convert it into geine, it would be better to apply it unburnt; pro- vided it be reduced to fine powder. The chief value of burning seems in most cases to be, to bring it into that state. But this can be done mechani- cally ; that is, by grinding; just as gypsum is universally prepared. Now much of the magnesian limestone of Berkshire county is more easily reduc- ed to powder than that which is pure; and that would undoubtedly be the best mode of preparing that kind of limestone for agricultural purposes. But since it may be doubted whether magnesian limestone is as good for vegetation as that which is pure, probably the inhabitants of Berkshire will Pulverized Limestone. 83 not think it best to use the former; since they have enough that is pure. Yet these suggestions respecting the grinding of limestone, are not inappli- cable to that part of the state. For those immense accumulations of the fragments of pure limestone, that exist at some of the marble quarries there, as at West Stockbridge and Lanesborough, may probably be best converted into powder in this manner. Or if fuel is so abundant in the vicinity that it is cheaper to burn the stone, the time is not far distant when this cannot be the case. Besides, when the contemplated rail roads are completed in that part of the State, and the value of lime in agriculture is better appre- ciated than it now is, I hazard the prediction, that pure limestone will be an article of transportation to those parts of the state now deficient in that ma- terial. In the eastern parts of the state, however, where fuel is much more ex- pensive than in Berkshire, the grinding of limestone may be an object of more importance. Several quarries there, have indeed been abandoned from the high price of fuel. But in most instances water power for pulver- ization is accessible. The greatest difficulty in the way that I can think of, is the great hardness of several varieties of these eastern limestones. Per- haps, however, a description of the different localities will form the basis of a better judgment on this point. I shall now give such a description; more with reference to the economical value of our limestones, than to their scientific relations; although there is usually an intimate connection be- tween the two things. I have sought for limestone in Massachusetts with far more care and effort than for the precious metals, because I believed it to be of far more value. The following statements will show that I have not la- bored wholly in vain ; though I could have wished for better success. Berkshire Limestones. In an economical point of view Berkshire county must be regarded as the principal mineral district of Massachusetts: and her limestone and iron form the principal mineral riches. Nothing can at all compete with these in any other part of the state, except perhaps the granites at Quincy and on Cape Ann.. The vast amount of limestone in Berkshire may be seen by consulting the geological map. Nearly all the vallies abound with it, al- though it usually alternates with mica slate, or quartz rock. In many in- stances one travels for several miles across uninterrupted strata of limestone of good quality, either for agriculture, mortar, or marble. In short, the more familiar one becomes with the geology of the county, the more im- pressed he is with the inexhaustable amount of good limestone: and when we consider that these deposites lie upon the borders of a vast extent of 84 Economical Geology. primitive country, stretching to the ocean on the east, where only a few scattered beds of limestone occur, we cannot doubt that those of Berkshire must prove an unfailing and increasing source of wealth as long as New England is inhabited. It will be seen by the preceding analyses of our limestones that very many of those in Berkshire are magnesian. As a general fact I think the magnesian variety most abundant along the eastern part of the county, at the foot of Hoosac mountain ; and the pure variety most abundant at the foot of the Taconic range. The mountains themselves w ith only a few excep- tions, are composed of quartz rock or mica or talcose slates. In general, these limestones contain only a very small proportion of silica. In two ex- amples of the magnesian variety, from Lee and Dalton, the rock perfectly dissolved in nitric acid : showing that it contained no silica. Onl) one other case of the kind have I met in the state ; and that was a loose block found in Worthington, which was derived from Berkshire county by diluvial ac- tion. (See Table of Analyses.) How to distinguish Magnesian Limestone. It would be very desirable to have some test of easy application for dis- tinguishing the magnesian from pure limestone: for sometimes in Berk- shire they constitute different layers of the same bed. Unfortunately, how- ever, none but chemical tests furnish an infallible criterion. But there are some characteristics that will enable an intelligent man to detect the most perfect varieties of magnesian limestone, called dolomite, without the trouble of analysis. One is, that the texture of this rock is less firm than that of pure limestone; so much so, indeed, that it frequently crumbles dow^n into sand, as may be seen in some places in Sheffield, and particularly in Canaan, the town in Conneticut next south of Sheffield. Another charac- ter of the dolomite is, that it is less distinctly stratified than pure carbonate of lime. This is strikingly exhibited in the limestone of Lee, which is mostly dolomite. A third and a better character is, that when pure lime- stone in the state of powder is thrown into diluted nitric acid (aqua fortis) it dissolves rapidly, and with powerful effervesence; so that in a few mo- ments, if enough acid has been added, nothing remains undissolved but the earthy residuum. Whereas dolomite dissolves slowly, and hours are often required for its complete solution. Sometimes, however, when a limestone contains only a few per cent, of magnesia, it will dissolve very rapidly at first, but it will require a long time to complete the process : from whence it is inferred that pure carbonate of lime in such cases is mixed with do- lomite ; which is a double salt of lime and magnesia. Middlefield and Becket Limestone. 85 In some cases, it must be confessed, that the presence of magnesia in lime- stone cannot be detected but by going through with a careful analysis, which requires the apparatus and ingredients of a laboratory, and which the practi- cal chemist alone can manage. Middlefield and Becket Limestone. In ascending easterly the broad range of Hoosac Mountain from the valleys of Berkshire, the first beds of limestone which we meet lie in the east part of Middlefield, on the Pontoosuc turn- pike ; and on the line of the great Western Rail Road. The most westerly bed appears at the point where Cole's Brook empties from the north into a branch of Westfield river, on land of Gen. Mack. It is 5 or 6 rods thick, and is interposed between strata of gneiss, having a westerly dip of nearly 70°. One mile farther east, on the same branch of Westfield river, is another thick bed of limestone, of the same quality, lying between strata of gneiss, which lean a few de- grees to the west. This stone often contains delicate serpentine, so intermixed as to form a beautiful verd antique marble when polished ; as may be seen in Nos. 1954 and 1955. It is doubtful whether large blocks of this could be obtained: Yet as one of the sources whence a beautiful ornamental stone can be procured it ought not to be forgotten. Both these beds of limestone extend southerly across the river into Becket, and one of them, probably the most easterly one, appears in the southeast part of that town, on what is called the Billy Messenger Farm, now owned by the State of Connecticut. Here formerly the stone was burnt into quicklime, as it has been more recently at the most easterly bed in Middlefield: but the kilns are not now in operation at either place: probably because the lime hence obtained can- not compete with the purer lime from the valleys of Berkshire. The limestone from the three localities above named, (and I might add a fourth which I recently noticed two miles further south on the old Becket turnpike,) is very much alike in its general character; as may be seen in the table of analyses that has been given. The specimen from the most easterly bed in Middlefield is the most free from magnesia and earthy impurities: But there is great inequality in different parts of the bed as to purity, and much of it is rejected as too impure for burning. The fact is, the stone at these localities has been subjected to power- ful heat at some former period, and is thereby injured for economical purposes. At present per- haps, it cannot be profitably burnt for the market. But as it exists in a region likely for a long time to abound in fuel, the time may come when this stone may be in demand. The beautiful dolomitic limestone, a mile south of the meeting house in Tyringham, (No. 1924) which is extensively converted into quicklime, appears to be situated between strata of gneiss, just like the beds in Middlefield and Becket. The same is true in respect to some of the beds in New Marlborough, which are employed for a similar purpose : as at Hadsell's and Smith's quarries. (No. 1927, 1933.) In the Table of Analyses a specimen is given (No. 2497) whose locality is Worthington, which was received from Dr. Brown of that place. Being informed that extensive ledges of it existed there, I analyzed the specimen ; and found it to be the purest limestone which I had met with in Massachusetts. It will be seen that it contains no earthy matter, and no magnesia ; and only an extremely small quantity of iron. I have since learnt that only bowlders are found in Worthington ; and the probability is strong, that they were brought from Berkshire county. I ought here to remark, that though in several instances no iron is given in the analysis, it is only because no attempt was made to separate it from the other ingredients, and I have reason to think it always exists in our limestones. 12 86 Economical Geology. Blanford Limestone. A small bed of limestone shows itself in the northwest part of Blanford, one mile south of a bed of serpentine, which, as well as the limestone, occurs near the junction of mica slate and hornblende slate; which last is narrow and succeeded by granitic gneiss. The character and com- position of this limestone are very similar to that of Middlefield and Becket; and therefore addi- tional description will be unnecessary. Micaceous Limestone of Franklin and Hampshire Counties. In the mica slate region of Franklin and Hampshire counties, especially near its eastern border, a gray highly siliceous limestone occurs, which usually abounds also in mica. Indeed, it passes insensibly into mica slate, and is not generally distinguished from that rock. The table of anal- yses exhibits the composition of six specimens of this limestone; viz. two from Whately, two from Ashfield, one from Norwich, and one from Southampton, all of which contain a large propor- tion of earthy impurities ; and one of them a little magnesia. I also ascertained the existence of magnesia in a specimen which I analyzed from Williamsburgh ; which contained 63 per cent. of carbonate of lime. This limestone is most abundant in the towns of Whately, Conway, Colrain, Buckland, and Ashfield: and in my former reports I suggested that some of it was pure enough to be burnt, es- pecially for agricultural purposes. A company has since been formed, belonging to Hadley and Northampton, who have for several years burnt more or less of that in Whately, where occurs the largest and probably the purest bed of it that I know of. They have erected a perpetual kiln, and use the lime principally upon their land : and as they inform me, with good success. This is the first systematic and persevering effort, so far as I know, that has been made in Massachu- setts to burn limestone for agricultural purposes: and hence deserves warm approbation and en- couragement. This same stone, however, has been burnt in Buckland and applied successfully to land. But I believe its preparation is now abandoned. I have been told also, that it was formerly burnt on a small scale in Colrain. Some of it is obviously too impure to be profitably burnt. For in England a stone that does not contain more than 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime, is re- garded as too impure for being profitably converted into quicklime. Hence if any are about to engage in burning this micaceous limestone, they should first resort to a chemist to ascertain the amount of lime which it contains. I shall have occasion to speak of the Whately lime in anoth- er place, as a valuable article for a particular kind of mortar. I have conversed with most of the gentlemen concerned in the preparation of lime at Whate- ly, who are all respectable farmers, and they assure me that the experiments which they have made with that lime upon their land, afford in most cases decided evidence of its o-ood effects. Mr. Linus Green says he has tried it in a variety of ways, both upon grass and ploughed ground ; and in such a way as to be able to judge of its effects ; and in most cases it proves of marked benefit. Sometimes he has sowed it, after it had been slacked for some time, directly upon grass • or upon hills of corn, or potatoes; or has mixed it with loam, or with manure; and he rather prefers the latter mode- Mr. Nash and Son, have made numerous trials within a few years past with this lime, and the latter has been so good as to put down the facts upon paper : and as the experiments detailed seem to me to have been very well conducted, and the results important, I give his letter entire. Sir,—You wish me to communicate to you any facts respecting the use of lime on my Father's farm which we may have observed- Facts respecting the Use of Lime. 87 We have had but little experience on this subject, having commenced using lime in the spring of 1837. The fall previous we had plowed a piece of low, clayey, pasture ground, which had, probably, never been plowed before. As we had intended to make some trial of the effects of lime on this piece, we had, in plowing, divided it into lands, the furrows of which ran east and west. As the land was soft we could not well do any thing with it till the fore part of June. At that time we carted upon the south land, ten loads of manure to the acre, of about 30 square feet each. On the next land we put fifty bushels of lime to the acre; which, at twenty cents a bushel, (about its actual cost,) would amount to the same as the manure. On the north land we put no manure or lime. On the 11th. and 12th. of June, the whole was sowed with oats, seeded, and harrowed in. In harvesting it was not convenient to keep the oats which grew on these several lands separ- ate, so they were all mixed together,—our object being not so much to get the exact yield of each, as to satify ourselves by inspection and harvesting whether lime had an effect on land of this de- scription. Of this we felt satisfied, for the oats on the land which had been limed were heavier and yielded a third more sheaves, than the land which had been manured,—though the yield there was considerably better than on land on which nothing had been put. We have mowed these lands in 1838—9, and get as much in quantity and better in quality from the limed land than from both the others. In thesping of the same year (1837) we planted two pieces of potatoes on land of equal rich- ness or as near as we could judge. One piece was manured in the hole with common barn-yard manure, at the rate of ten loads to the acre. The other was manured from a heap of compost which had been thrown together about ten days before using. Its composition would not, proba- bly vary much from two thirds manure and one third loam with two bushels of lime added to a load. When it was used it was was all in a state of fermentation, though this had not proceeded so far as to destroy any of the manure. The same quantity was applied to the acre as before. This Last piece yielded 250 bushels to the acre, while the former did not exceed 150. Perhaps this difference may appear to be great, but the land and potatoes were carefully measured. In 1838, lime was mixed with all the manure which we intended to use on potatoe land, except a part of one piece, which was left further to test its effects. We did not measure the potatoes, but it was the opinion of my father, expressed at the time, that the same quantity of land limed yielded 1-3 more than the unlimed. The potatoe crop of 1838, you will recollect, was almost universally poor, both in quantity and quality. In either respect however, ours did not appear to be much inferior. This was probably owing in part to their being planted on low land, which enabled them better to resist the drought of that season. But the potatoes were evidently better on the limed than on the unlimed parts. In 1839. we made no further experiments, having used lime for all our potatoes. For the three last years we have used lime on mowing by mixing it with compost, and al- though we have never made an exact comparison of limed and unlimed parts by measuring the land and weighing the hay, yet the grass has evidently been better where the lime has been applied. But whatever may have been the effects of lime on oats, grass and potatoes, we cannot see that it has benefited wheat or rye. Indeed we have been disappointed whenever we have appli- ed it to either. In April 1838 we sowed ten bushels on 3-4 of an acre of winter rye. It ap- peared to kill most of the sorrel of which there was considerable among the rye, but the rye did not appear to be better than on land around it which had received no lime. On the 12th. of April, 1838, we sowed half an acre of wheat on a part of the piece which had the previous year yielded 250 bushels of potatoes to the acre. The 4th. of May, 20 bushels of lime were sowed 88 Economical Geology. upon it, the blade being then abdut 3 inches high. We got only six bushels of wheat from the half acre, and that badly shrunk. On the 6th. of Oct. of the same year we sowed one acre of winter wheat on old land, afte^ corn. On this acre we sowed 45 bushels of lime and harrowed it in with the wheat. Part win- ter killed. The remainder grew remarkably well and promised a good yield, until it got into the milk state, when it commenced rusting. The crop was spoiled. So completely was the kernel robbed of its nourishment and- shrivelled up that it was hardly worth thrashing. Only 3 1-2 bushels were thrashed from the whole of it. It may, perhaps, be proper to inform you that this piece after turning under the stuble was sowed with turnips. As they were sow- ed late we did did not expect much of a crop. We gathered something over 150 bushels of first rate roots remarkably free from worms. Last spring we sowed one bushel of Italian-spring wheat on 95 rods of land and seeded it down. About a fortnight after 10 or 11 bushels of lime were sowed upon it. There was a large crop of straw, sufficient to have yielded 25 bushels per acre. But it was affected by the rust and we got only eight bushels from the piece, which would be 13 1-2 bushels per acre, near- ly. The clover and herdsgrass look remarkably well. All the lime we have used was burned at Whately. The cost of fuel for burning in the draw kiln has varied from three to four cents a bushel. Wood, half hard and half soft, 4 feet long has usually cost from 9 to 10 shillings per cord. The Company pay 6 1-2 cents a bushel for quar- rying and burning. Very Respectfully yours. SAMUEL NASH. PROF. E. HITCHCOCK. Hadley, Dec. 3, 1839. Limestone of Whitingham, Vermont. I mention this bed of limestone, first because it is so extensively used in Massachusetts, and secondly because it very probably extends into Massachusetts. It lies in the south part of Whitingham, near the junction of talcose slate and gneiss, and in external character resembles that in Middlefield and Becket, though perhaps rather more pure. I have not analysed it, but cannot doubt that it contains magnesia. Limestone of Bernardston. This limestone is associated with a bed of magnetic iron ore: and some 40 or 50 years ago an attempt was made to smelt the latter, making use of the former for a flux. But not being very successful, very probably from the presence of some oxide of manganese, the enterprise was abandoned; and it was not till a few years ago that any effort has been made to burn the lime- stone. As we might presume from the analysis, it produces a very good lime for cement and doubtless good also for agriculture. A good deal of hydrate of iron is occasionally intermixed with the limestone, which gives the lime a dark color : but this is not probably of any injury when it is employed for mortar. The bed is of considerable extent and obviously of a more recent age than the limestone that has been described: for it contains some organic remains. Fetid and Ferruginous Limestones of Hampden County. These occur in the bed of Chicopee River, at the Chicopee Factory Village, in Springfield and in West Springfield on the banks of Agawam river; and also in the northeastern part Eastern Limestones. 89 of the town. Two quarries have been opened at the latter locality and the fetid limestone burnt to a considerable extent for hydraulic cement, by Mr. Paine. But the ferruginous lime- stone, which often exists in the form of septaria, has never been used at all. Nor have any of these limestones that I can learn, ever been employed in agriculture; although I cannot doubt but they would answer admirably well. I shall have occasion to refer to them again when I treat of the application of our limestones for cements. I would only remark here, that though the beds of these limestones which exist in the red sandstone formation, are thin, yet most of them are extensive, and will last for a long time. Limestone in Belchertoion. About a mile southeast of the village in Belchertown, a bed of limestone occurs in gneiss : which at the surface appears of no great extent: and most of it is impure, though sometimes highly crystalline. It has never however, been explored to any extent: and not unlikely it may hereafter be found of value. Limestone of Bolton, Boxborough, Acton, Littleton, Carlisle, Chelmsford, JYatick and Sherburne. I notice all these beds of limestone together, because they occur in the same rock, and are very much alike in their characters. They are generally white crystalline limestones, highly magne- sian, and almost destitute of stratification ; placed between highly inclined strata of gneiss. The rock is usually very much mixed with foreign minerals ; such as scapolite, serpentine, compact feldspar, &c. although such portions are mostly rejected. None of the beds are of any great ex- tent in the direction of the strata ; nor is their width more than a few yards in any case. Most of them have been opened at different periods, and the stone burnt into quicklime ; but nearly all of them are now abandoned ; probably because the price of fuel has so increased that lime may be obtained at a cheaper rate from a foreign market. At Bolton, however, a good deaLof lime- stone is still burnt. In several of these towns, as Chelmsford, Bolton, and Natick, there are several beds of this rock, more or less remote from one another. In the latter place, the rock was formerly dug and burnt during the revolutionary war, from a bed a mile or two northeast of the meeting house ; and more recently some of it has been ground for use upon land. No. 1946, shows the composition of this rock. A much purer and highly magnesian specimen, was dug out at the rail road excavation near the same spot, of which No. 1948, in the Table of Analyses, shows the composition. In the same cut a yellow compact limestone was discovered, which forms a bed 4 or 5 feet thick, of which Nos. 1950, 1951, give the composition. The specimen analyzed from Sherburne, was found a short distance-southeast of the meeting house ; where it occurs in numerous blocks in the stone wall: but I did not discover it in place. And as this spot is nearly south from West Natick, where the limestone above described is found, it is possible that the Sherburne stone may have been brought from that place by diluvial action. More probably, the Natick bed extends to that place beneath the soil, and not improbably a little research might discover it. And really, I re- gard the discovery in any place in New England, of a good bed of limestone, a3 of more impor- tance then a mine of gold : for though at present in the eastern part of Massachusetts most of the lime used is brought from Maine, yet the time must come when the price of this foreign supply will be so high, that the inhabitants will be obliged to re-explore the now deserted bed* of this rock 90 Economical Geology. Concord Limestone. In the southeast part of Concord, on the bank of a branch of Concord river, where it is cross- ed by the great road leading from Boston to Bolton, I recently found gray limestome in horn- blendic gneiss, forming beds from a few inches to several feet in width. It is impossible to de- termine without excavation, whether enough of good limestone could be found here to make it an object of economical interest. This limestone so much resembles the including rock, that they are apt to be confounded, especially when obscured by disintegration and lichens. It will be seen by the analysis, that this limestone is almost free from magnesia : and that it does not contain so much of siliceous impurity as to make it unprofitable for burning. Limestone of Stoneham and Newbury. I put these beds together because they both occur in sienite or perhaps in a rock in- termediate between hornblendic gneiss and sienite. The Newbury limestone, of which there are several beds not far from one another, resembles that already described in Bolton, Natick, &c. But that at Stoneham is a beautiful white compact stone, well adapted, were it free from fissures, for statuary marble. It contains, however, more than its appearance^would indicate, of silica ; and is considerably magnesian. The limestone both of Newbury and Stoneham has been ex- tensively excavated in past time, but is now neglected. Yet let it not hence be inferred that it will never come into use. Limestone of Walpole and Attleborough. In both these towns 1 suppose the limestone to be associated with the rock usually denomina- ted graywacke. That in Attleborough is certainly thus situated : forming a bed, perhaps only a few inches, but probably a few feet wide, in the red slate, in the southwest part of the town, on land of Thomas Arnold. As I noticed blocks in the vicinity quite frequently, I suspect that it may occur there in large quantity: and the analysis shows it to be a very pure limestone. The bed in Walpole lies in the southwest part of the town, and was formerly explored and burnt. It is of a gray color and contains a good deal of siliceous impurity. The greater part of the quicklime used in the eastern part of Massachusetts, is brought from Thomaston in Maine; and from Smithfield in Rhode Island. The quarries in the latter place are only a short distance from Massachusetts; and the stone being of a good quality, it is ex- tensively wrought. A few years since 20.000 casks of lime, containing from 38 to 40 gallons each and selling at $2 per cask,—was put up in Smithfield. There are two beds of the rock, about 2 miles apart, in hornblende slate. The color is white and the texture crystalline. Perhaps I ought to mention, that among the slate of the stone walls in the west part of West Newbury, I noticed blocks of white limestone (No. 1945). Probably they are derived from a bed at no great distance ; as they were not rounded ; and careful examination might bring it to light. I doubt not but many of the above localities of limestone will be new to most of our inhabi- tants, as they were to me a few years since. I have felt it to be important to describe them all in the belief, that though now in a great measure neglected, they will ultimately be regarded as of no small value. The three last specimens, whose analysis is given in the Table, are those singular concretion* Green Sand. 91 called claystones, which are common in our clays; and which appear to contain about 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime. They occur in too small quantity to be of much economical value ; and I shall, therefore, reserve a description of them to the more exclusively scientific part of my report. II. SUBSTANCES CONTAINING LITTLE OR NO CALCAREOUS MATTER, BUT OPERATING UPON SOILS VERY MUCH LIKE LIME. 1. Green Sand. This substance constitutes a large part of what in New Jersey goes by the name of marl; and which, within a few years past, has wrought such won- ders in some parts of that State. It is found also in Virginia, and probably exists in all the Southern States, that extend to the Atlantic. In my report of 1834, I described this substance as forming a bed of considerable thickness at Gay Head, being a part of the tertiary formation there. I also intimated in the same place, that probably it existed on the continent at Duxbury. This point I determined if possible to settle, and proceeded to Duxbury accordingly. And in the extreme north-westerly part of the town, or rather for the most part within the bounds of Marshfield, about two miles southwest from the seat of Hon. Daniel Webster, I found the spot described by Rev. Mr. Kent, as given in my report. I was surprised- to find the region abound in low hills of granite, with occasionally a swamp or small stream; being in fact, as unpromising a spot for green sand as I had seen in the State. Yet here I found that the green sand had been thrown up from at least three wells; one of which (on widow Sprague's place,) is in Duxbury, and the other two in Marshfield, near a small stream called South River. In the well on Mr. Kent's farm, (that described in my report as in Duxbury,) the green sand was struck at the depth of 13 feet from the surface. In the other, that on the farm of John Chandler, Jr., it was struck at the depth of 21 feet; and the bed was five feet thick. This spot was nearly 20 feet above South River; and it occurred to me that perhaps on the margin of the stream the sand might be found, just beneath the surface. I caused an excavation to be made there, and after passing through one foot and a half of black mud, and the same distance through yellow sand and gravel very much consolidated, I had the pleasure of reaching the green sand. This spot is perhaps 15 or 20 feet above tide water. An extensive swamp extends from this place through the west part of Duxbury several miles, and I have reason to suppose the green sand may be found along its whole extent. Indeed, I strongly sus- pect that it occurs abundantly along the coast from Marshfield to Plym- outh, and not improbably also on Cape Cod. The general aspect of a large part of Plymouth and Barnstable counties is very much like the region where this substance occurs. 92 Economical Geology. The coloring matter of this sand forms but a small proportion of the whole mass wherever it has yet been found ; yet it imparts a decided green tinge to the whole. The specimens which I obtained at Marshfield, however, contained probably much less than the average quantity of the green matter. For some of it had been exposed to the action of rain, &c, for several years; having been formerly thrown out of a well; and that from the excavation which I made, was obtained only a few inches below the upper part of the bed. The specimen in the State collection, (No. 158,) bears a stronger resemblance to the green sand found on the continent of Europe, than to that from New Jersey. It became a point of much importance to identify this with other green sands. This could be done only by chemistry: and I am happy to be able to present here the very accurate results of analysis, which Dr. S. L. Dana, at my request has obtained, whereby the identity of this green sand with that of Europe, is completely established. " The green sand from Marshfield," says he, " was treated as follows to separate the green particles. Washed in a large volume of water, the black brown, and green particles subside, mixed with many quartzy grains. The grains form about one half the whole bulk. These grains were then washed in a smaller quantity of water, and the attrition caused the water at each suc- cessive washing, to become ochrey, and I began to think that I should wash nearly all away.* I then treated the grains with dilute muriatic acid— washed them anew, dried and passed them through a sieve. The whole looked like mustard seed, with a few light green particles here and there among the black, green, and brown particles and quartzy grains. Pulverized, the whole becomes ochre brown. It was dried at 212°, and the analysis con- ducted as usual, gave— Water, 6.50 Black Oxide Iron, (ferroso-ferrique of Berzelius,) 64.944 Alumina, 4.372 Silex, 23.0 Lime, 0.536 Magnesia, 0.648 Too. " The earths, if silicates, will require 4.721 silex ; and on no supposition will the remaining silex and water convert the iron into a hydrated silicate. Hence the iron is not combined with the silex, but exists as a hydrated oxide of iron. The composition will then be ; free silex, 18.289; hydrated oxides of iron, 71.444; silicates alumina, 4.372 lime, .535 magnesia, .648 of---------------pof----------\---------------= 10.277. silex, 3.886 silex, .316 silex, .519 * Tbe specimen which I sent Dr. Dana, had probably Iain upon the surface of the ground for several years, and the iron had most likely become somewhat peroxidized." Analysis of Green Sand. 03 If we allow the hydrated iron to be mixed, a portion with the above silicates, except the lime, which Berthier and Turner did not find essential in their analyses of the coloring matter of green sand, we have a small portion of this coloring matter mixed with a large portion of hydrated oxide of iron. Only about 5 per cent, of the whole is green sand, similar in its composition to that examined by the late Professor Turner, as stated in Dr. Fitton's " Remarks on the Strata below the chalk, &c, in the south east of England;" p. 108. In a subsequent letter, Dr. Dana gives the result of his anal} sis of the green sand from Gay Head, of which No. 72 in the State collection, in the rooms of the Boston Natural History Society, is an example. This gives a better idea of the ordinary appearance of this substance than the specimen from Marshfield. " I have finished the Vineyard green sand. It is very near the results of Turner. I washed the whole in water, poured off the light part, washed the remainder repeatedly, reserving the washing, which let fall a fine powder of a decided green tinge, feeling, when dry, under the pestle, like soapstone powder. The residuary quartzy grains were rejected, a few fine green parti- cles among therm The second portion alone, was taken as the best sample of coloring matter, and gave— Water, 7.000 Silica, 56.700 Alumina, 13.320 Oxide of Iron, 20.100 Lime, 1-624 Magnesia, 1.176 Manganese, traces, and loss. 0.080 "Too " The water and iron are nearly the same, the alumina the mean, and the silica about 6 per cent, more, than the analysis of Turner and Berthier. No doubt therefore it is a true green sand." The above analyses do not give the actual per cent, of this green substance in the soil where it is found, though it evidently cannot form a large propor- tion. But this is not necessary in order that very decidedly good effects should result from its use in Agriculture. The following extract from the report of Professor Henry D. Rogers, on the Geology of New Jersey, bears on this point as well as upon the general value of green sand in the cultiva- tion of the soil. " When we behold," says he, " a luxuriant harvest gathered from fields where the soil origin- ally was nothing but sand, and find it all due to the use of a mineral sparsely disseminated in the sandy beach of the ocean, we must look with exulting admiration upon the benefits upon veg- etation, conferred by a few scattered granules of this unique and peculiar substance. The small amount of green sand dispersed through the common sand, is able, asw e behold, to effect immeas- 13 94 Economical Geology. urable benefits in spite of a great predominance of the other material which we are taught to regard as by itself so generally prejudicial to fertility. This ought to exhibit an encouraging picture to those districts not directly within the limits of the marl tract, where some of the strata possess the green substance in sensible proportion. It expands most materially the limits of the territory where marling may be introduced and points to many beds as fertilizing, which otherwise would be deemed wholly inefficacious." In another place of his most valuable Report, Prof. Rogers says, that " Mr. Woolley manur- ed a piece of land in the proportion of two hundred loads of good stable manure to the acre, ap- plying upon an adjacent tract of the same soil his marl in the ratio of about twenty loads per acre. The crops, which were timothy and clover, were much the heaviest upon the section which had received the marl, and there was this additional fact greatly in favor of the fossil man- ure over the putrescent one, that the soil enriched by it was also entirely free of weeds, while the stable manure had rendered its own crop very foul." Placing the home value of the farm yard manure at one hundred cents for each two horse load, and that of the marl at twenty-five cents per load, we have the expense of manuring one acre 200 dollars, of marling the same 5 dollars." " Land which had been sold at 2 1-2 dollars per acre, in consequence of the perman- ent increase in its fertility from the marl, is now worth 37 dollars the acre." There is one fact, however, that will throw a doubt over the probable utility of this substance in Massachusetts. By taking the average of eight very accurate analyses of the New Jersey green sand, as given by Prof. Rogers, we find that it contains 10 per cent, of potassa. Mr. Seybert's analysis gave nearly the same amount, and Mr. A. A. Hayes informs me that in two varieties analyzed by himself, he found 7 per cent, of dry oxide of potassium. But only a trace of potassa was found by Dr. Dana in the Massachusetts green sand, which, in this respect, com- pares with the English green sand analyzed by Prof. Turner. Now Prof. H. D. Rogers imputes the value of this substance in agriculture almost exclusively to the potassa which it contains ; and no chemist will doubt but that this ingredient will exert a very salutary influence upon soil. Yet there are other ingredients in the green sand, which some will suppose may increase its fer- tilizing power. One of theso is the protoxide of iron, whose quantity is large, and which Prof. William B. Rogers, of Virginia, supposes may be of service, by its alkaline character, upon veg- etation. This view will receive confirmation by some facts and reasonings that will be present- ed when I come shortly to speak of the application of clay in agriculture. It is probable, also, that the lime and magnesia in the Massachusetts green sand, may aid in a similar way. That all the good effects of this substance upon soil in New Jersey cannot be imputed to the potassa, seems probable, from the fact that granite and gneiss contain quite as large a proportion of potas- sa, and when spread in a powdered or decomposing state upon the soil, ought, therefore, to fertil- ize as much as the green sand ; especially as Mr. Hayes informs me that the New Jersey green sand "decomposes in nitric acid slowly, being less soluble than some feldspar." But there is no evidence that the good effects of the granite and gneiss are as great as those of the green sand; and hence we must call in the aid of some other ingredient to explain its fertilizing power. I do not, therefore, despair of our green sand in agriculture. It certainly deserves a fair trial when we consider what a change this substance is producing in much of the poorest land in New Jersey and Virginia. It would be very easy to obtain an abundance of it at Gay Head, where it occurs in great quantities, towards the north end of the cliff. Or I doubt not but it may be found in many places along the coast in Barnstable and Plymouth counties, a few feet beneath the surface, in the lowest places. Very likely a little research may bring to light varieties that contain potassa ; and should this be the case, the change that might thereby be produced in the agriculture of the south-east part of Massachusetts, can hardly be calculated. Clay in Agricidture. 95 After Dr. Dana had favored me with the analysis of the Green Sand of Massachusetts above given, it occurred to me, that as I took the specimens from near the surface, it was possible they might have lost their potassa by the action of atmospheric agents, and I accordingly visited Gay Head again, and obtained specimens at some depth from the surface. These I subjected to analysis, by the method recommended by Prof. Henry D. Rogers, in his Report on the Geology of New Jersey, p. 93. A portion of this sand (No. 208) was washed three or four times, and the lighter part poured off. The residue consisted of grains of quartz and green sand: 30 grains of which yielded as follows: Water, 2.70 Silica, 19.80 Protoxide of Iron, 5.80 Alumina, 1-20 Lime, 0.17 Loss, 0.33 30.00 30 Grains of the washings, treated in the same manner, yielded, as follows: Water, 4.10 Silica, 18.90 Alumina, 220 Protoxide of Iron, 4.25 Lime, 0.11 Loss, 0.44 30.00 I could not discover a trace of potassa or magnesia. By visiting Gay Head, I ascertained that the stratum of green sand there has a northeasterly dip of about 40°; and that measured horizontally on the beach, its thickness is about 50 feet; so that the quantity is very great should it ever prove of any service. 2. Clay. There is abundant evidence that our common clays are of great value when spread upon land. I find that they have been used to a considerable extent in the state; so commonly, indeed, that I abandoned the idea I had formed of giving a detailed account of particular instances. So far as my inquiries have extended, the testimony is decided that our blue clays exert a very fa- vorable effect upon the soil. When spread upon sandy ground we might ex- pect that they would render it a better reservoir for salts and geine. But thoroughly to ameliorate our sandy soils in this way, requires far more clay 96 Economical Geology. than is usually employed, and I am perfectly convinced that they exert other than a mechanical influence; that in fact, their effect is analogous to that of lime. I refer here to the blue clays which are far the most common. As to the white clay I have not learnt its effect upon the soil; but from-the fertility of some of the soils in Kingston, Plymouth, and Barnstable, where white clay is mixed naturally with sand, I presume this sort is equally valuable with the blue. In view of the wide extent of our beds of clay, and the use that might be made of it upon land, I felt desirous to ascertain to what principle it owes its fertilizing powers; and therefore subjected a few specimens to analysis in the ordinary way by fusion with alkali. The following are the results. I omit however certain white clays, which I found destitute of iron, and there- fore probably not very likely to be of much value upon land. But for other purposes, of which I shall speak shortly, they are of a good deal of importance. Analysis in the Dry way by Alkali. No. LOCALITY. ■a i. = *i as s S 3 < ■o . go c Vl O V x a o * S c 3 v B be a 3 ■a c ce . u r. as 139 140 142 143 Northfield; blue. Sunderland ; light blue. Kingston ; white. Lowell; white. 10.8 8.2 3.5 4.0 46.93 49.00 71.00 6152 28.97 29.15 16.30 20.50 9.9 13.1 7.3 9.2 0.15 0.30 0.56 slight precip. do 0.56 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.44 2.9 1.3 3.29 I tried some of our blue clays also, for geine; but in general they yielded only very little, and perhaps none. For so strongly do they retain water, that not improbably all the loss, especially of soluble geine, might have been imputed to this substance, which had not been all expelled by a heat of 300° F.; and then the peroxidation of the iron by ignition, renders this method of analysis quite uncertain. I, therefore, omit the results ; only observing, that the amount of sulphate and phosphate of lime obtained, was about the same as in good soils. I therefore suspect that we must impute most of the good effects of clay as a manure to the large quantity of iron which it con- tains. On this point, however, I will present some suggestions of Dr. Dana, with which he has kindly favored me. " If we attempt," says he, " to account for the action of clay, independent of its amending a sandy soil, we should bear in mind that all our common clays contain more or less of sulphuret of iron. The conversion of this into Clay in Agriculture. 97 the persulphate of iron is the natural consequence of exposure: free sulphur- ic acid then results, which acts on any lime in the soil, forming sulphate of lime: (the Gay Head crystals of sulphate of lime are so formed:) so that by spreading clay, we spread plaster. The iron in clay also plays its part thus. It is evident from Chaptal's experiments, that protoxide of iron is not bene- ficial in agriculture. He attributes this to the oxidation of the iron, depriv- ing the plant of its intended oxygen. Nature is no niggard; nor is the rea- son of Chaptal very philosophical. We have seen above that protoxide of iron does not act on geine. Now by exposure, the protoxide becomes per- oxide ; and then, I conceive begins an action similar to that of lime. If the free sulphuric acid, produced as we have supposed, finds not lime enough, it will decompose all earthy geates, and thus a fresh portion of nutriment is set at liberty. Both the effects of clay—the production of plaster and the for- mation of peroxide of iron, are speedily produced by burning the clay, as is often practised."* Still more recently, Dr. Dana adds the following: "Some facts have late- ly come under my eye, and have recalled others to mind, which I have fol- lowed up experimentally; all tending to show, that if iron peroxidates itself in contact with vegetable fibre, the texture of the vegetable fibre is weakened, and geine is produced, and that in a few hours. It is during the passage from protoxide to peroxide, that the ' saponifying' action takes place, geine is pro- duced, and then combines with peroxide." In the few analyses which I have given above of our clays, I have considered all the iron in them as existing in the state of protoxide; although I made no attempt to ascertain whether some of it might not be a peroxide. Very probably this may to some extent be the case: especially where the clay has a yellowish tinge. Yet for the most part, I doubt not it is a protoxide. A slight error here cannot affect the reasoning above presented. I hope our farmers will make more numerous and accurate experiments upon the use of clay as a manure; not merely upon sandy land, but follow- ing the suggestion of Dr. Dana, upon other soils, in the expectation that its action will be analogous to that of lime. Probably, the best clay for this * The agency of geine in the fermentation of manure is thus explained by Dr. Dana with his usual clear- ness and felicity. " By fermenting dung vast volumes of ammonia are liberated. T do not think that it is the action of gases as such, which we want, or which nature intends as food of plants to be derived from the soil. The air is always full of all which the fermenting manure can supply in a gaseous form. The true actions of ammo- nia and carbonic acid resolve into their effects on geine. The ammonia combines as alkali with that, and thus it Decomes very soluble, and the carbonic acid produces sur-salts of the earthy geates of lime and mag- nesia. It is these, liberated the moment the plant demands them, which cause all the geine of the manure to become alcaline soluble geates." " How wide is the influence of geine ! It not only enters by itself into the food of vegetables but be comes the very solvent which nature has prepared to act on the alkalies, earths and oxides, dissolving them as they are liberated from decomposing granitic sand." 98 Economical Geology. purpose occurs in the valley of Connecticut river; but it abounds in al- most every part of the state, and perhaps it may in a good measure supply the deficiency of lime. It will of course require to be laid on in much greater quantity than marl, and probably, as in the case of marl, too much may be used. How much ought to be used is a fair subject for experiment. 3. Decomposing Rocks that contain Feldspar. Feldspar and mica contain quite a large proportion of potassa; a sub- stance well known to be valuable in agriculture. And these minerals con- stitute a large proportion of several of our most common rocks; such as granite, sienite, greenstone, porphyry, gneiss, mica slate, and graywacke. Hence we might predict that these rocks, recently decomposed or reduced to fine powder, would form a good dressing for land ; especially when we rec- collect that the same rocks contain a fair proportion of iron. Now some va- rieties of them are very liable to decomposition: and when partially crum- bled down, if ground in a plaster mill, they will be brought into a proper state for such a use. These suggestions, however, are more the result of theory than of actual experiment: although such a use of powdered rock has sometimes been made and found of value. Indeed, an example of the good effects of decomposing gneiss upon cultivation was pointed out to me in the south part of Athol: and No. 100 presents a specimen of this substance, ob- tained nearly a foot from the surface in a ploughed field, but not below the point to which geine had penetrated ; as appears from the analysis. Yet as this is insoluble it could not affect the vegetation but slightly. The salts of lime also are not in large proportion, and very probably its good effects, which were not represented as great, may have chiefly resulted from the lib- eration of potassa from the mica and feldspar. Now there is a great deal of partially decomposed rock in the formations of this State, which have been named above, and they constitute at present the most barren spots in our soils: because they are not reduced fine enough to form a good soil; or because they are too strongly impreg- nated with stimulating salts. Perhaps if spread over soils already contain- ing geine, they might operate favorably upon crops. At least, it seems to me there is so much plausibility in the theoretical suggestions above made that it would be desirable to make this experiment on a small scale, since it is so easy, even if it be necessary to reduce the crumbling rock to powder in a mill. In England decomposing trap rock is mixed with lime, and forms a. valuable dressing for land. De la Beche's Report on the Geology of Corn- wall and Devon, p. 471. Those who have farms on the trap ranges of the valley of Connecticut river, would do well to try this experiment. Hydrate of Silica. 99 4. Hydrate of Silica. In describing our marls I have already referred to this substance, which is quite common beneath our pet.t bogs. In its purest state, as it exists in No. 157 from Spencer, it exceedingly resembles carbonate of Magnesia, in color, levity, and taste; although easily distinguished by chemical tests. When mixed with some vegetable matter, as in Nos. 162, 170, and 171, from Barre, Andover, and West Bridgewater, its color is darker This is its most usual mode of occurrence : and I doubt not but it exists in considera- ble quantity in every town in the state. In addition to the localities named above, I have specimens from Manchester, Sturbridge, Fitchburg, Wrentham, and Pelham. Usually it is found in layers only a few inches thick: but sometimes its quantity is much greater. Mr. Alonzo Gray of Andover, describes one bed in that place, as 17 feet in thickness, beneath a layer of peat from 2 to 6 feet, extending over an area of sixa acres. For one or two feet immediately beneath the peat at this spot, this peculiar substance is mixed with vegetable matter, and this is considered worth half as much as manure for land. It has been used somewhat extensively in this and other New England States as a fertilizer, and with decided benefit. With a view to ascertain what principle gives it value upon land, I subjected two speci- mens to analysis. The first was the pure white variety from Spencer, No. 157, which afforded the following results in 100 parts, by fusion with 2 parts of carbonate of Soda and 3 parts of carbonate of potassa. Water, ' 12.00 Silica, 81.14 Alumina, 5.61 Peroxide of Iron, 0.59 Lime, 0.12 Magnesia, 0.24 Manganese and loss, 0.30 100.00 A specimen from Barre (No. 169) gave the following results. Water, 12.00 Organic Matter, 3.0 Silica, 66.42 Alumina, 9-40 Peroxide of Iron, 6.11 Lime, 1.01 Magnesia, 1.41 Loss, 0.65 100.00 100 Economical Geology. From these analyses we perceive that this substance is essentially compos- ed of silica and water; and is hence, in scientific language a hydrate of silica. The specimen from Spencer did not change its color when ignited, and therefore contains no organic matter, either vegetable or animal: but that from Barre became black when strongly heated ; showing the presence of such matter. Assuming the water to be the same as in the Spencer specimen, I hence determine the amount of organic matter to be 3 per cent. From these analyses we can discover only two circumstances that can give this substance value as a manure: the first is, the presence of organic matter, probably in a very favorable state for promoting the growth of veg- etables ; the second is its remarkable hygrometric properties, which might make it especially valuable upon dry soil, or in time of drought. The lat- ter of these properties only, can give any value to the Spencer specimen. But since the publication of my report of 1838, I have ascertained the as- tonishing fact, that the siliceous part of this substance is made up entirely of the shields or skeletons of animalculse, that once lived and died in the wa- ters from which it was deposited !* And perhaps in this fact we may see an- other cause for the fertilizing power possessed by it. It may be that some of the soft animal matter, that once covered these skeletons, still remains for the nourishment of plants. At any rate, it must henceforth possess a high degree of scientific interest. But this is not the place to discuss the sub- ject in that light. If it be desirable to give this substance a less technical name, than the chemical one prefixed to this article, it will be very proper to denominate it Siliceous Marl. III. NATURAL SOURCES OF GEINE, OR VEGETABLE NUTRIMENT, IN MASSACHUSETTS. Having now pointed out the situation and value, so far as known, of all the calcareous deposites in the State that can be applied to agriculture, and of other substances whose action on soils is somewhat analogous to that of lime, the next grand inquiry is, whether there are any sources in the earth from which additional quantities of geine can be obtained, or matters con- vertible into geine. I pass by the whole list of common manures, presum- ing that they will be fully discussed by the Agricultural Surveyor. And I * We are indebted to Prof. Bailey of West Point for having first ascertained that the Hydrate of Silica in this country beneath our peat bogs, is constituted of the remains of animalcules : a discovery of very great interest to Geology. See American Journal of Science, Vol. 1. p. 118. Peat and Mud Sivamps. 101 shall merely notice the natural sources of vegetable nutriment within our limits. 1. Peat and Mud Swamps. The peat and muck mud swamps of New England have become a vast repository of organic matter, which is, and has been, for ages increasing. In addition to the larger vegetables, which, as they die, fall and are enveloped in the soft matter on which they grew, there is a thick mat of moss, which —especially the sphagnum—continues to flourish at the upper part while the lower part dies and decays. In favorable circumstances as to wet and temperature, this mass of vegetable matter becomes converted into peat. Only a small part, however, of what is accumulated, becomes peat of such a character that it answers well for fuel. Often it is too much mixed with mud to be easily burnt, and sometimes the vegetable fibre is scarcely chang- ed. Yet the whole of it is capable of being converted into vegetable nu- triment. And I am convinced, from all that I have seen and heard, that Massachusetts contains enough of this geine and vegetable fibre in her swamps, to render all her fields fertile for centuries. In other words, here is an exhaustless source of geine. Some of it is alrea- dy in a soluble state; and therefore the black matter from swamps, is rare- ly spread upon soils without producing some benefit. Yet for the most part the geine is in such a state as to require some chemical change before it will become soluble nutriment, fit to be absorbed by roots. It is an impor- tant inquiry then, what is the best mode of accomplishing this change. This has been attempted, first, by mixing the peaty matter with good ma- nure in alternating layers, and suffering them to ferment for a long time, the peat being in much the greatest quantity: Secondly, by mixing it in a sim- ilar manner with lime; or with lime and manure: and thirdly, by mixing it with alkali, or some compound containing alkali. The principles respect- ing geine which have been advanced in this Report, will probably enable us to decide as to the preference to be given to any one of these methods. And here I have it in my power to give the opinion of Dr. Dana, whose re- marks I am always happy to substitute for my own, on a subject with which he is so familiar, and which he has done so much to elucidate. " The fact," says he, " that peat or turf is very soluble in alkali, seems not to be known among our farmers. The usual practice of mixing lime with peat or turf is decidedly the worst which can be followed. The geine which constitutes a large part of peat bogs, forms with lime a compound lit- tle soluble in water, requiring at least 2000 parts of water to one of geate of lime: and if the compound has been dryed and sun-baked, a still larger por- 14 102 Economical Geology. tion of water is required : it becomes, in truth, almost insoluble. With al- umina, geine forms a compound still more insoluble than with lime; and though the vegetable matter in combination with these earthy bases, is actu- ally absorbed by the roots of growing plants, still the geine is in a state much less favorable than when in combination with alkali. Mix ley of wood ashes with peat, and we form a dark brown vegetable solution: the al- kaline properties are completely neutralized by the geine, and very often ammonia escapes from turf when treated by caustic alkali. When we add, that this geine absorbs and retains nearly its own weight of water without seeming moist, it is evident, that with the use of ley or wood ashes, the val- ue of peat as a manure will be much increased." Dr. Andrew Nichols of Danvers, having had his attention called to the subject by Dr. Dana's remarks in my Report of 1838, performed some interesting experiments with peat mud and al- kali in 1839, according to the preceeding-suggestions of Dr. Dana. He made use of ashes and potassa; mixing them with the mud, and applying the compound, both in a dry and a liquid state, upon Indian corn, barley, and onions. So striking was the effect, most so upon the onions, that the committee of the Agricultural Society of Essex County awarded to Dr. Nichols a pre- mium of 20 dollars. For the details of this case see the Transactions of the Essex County Ag- ricultural Society for 1839, p. 35. In the northeast part of Amherst, Mr. King has a farm underlaid by coarse granite, which has proved as productive as any in the region : and I find that he makes little use of manure: but employs the muck mud from a peat swamp. And he usually spreads it over his land direct- ly from the swamp. But he finds that he must use that which lies two or three feet below the surface, and which has a reddish tinge ; and this is fully equal to the same amount of manure: He says that this, when exposed for some time to the air, becomes covered with an efflorescence some sort of salt. Probably this fact may explain in part why mud is best, which is dug from the depth of a few feet. From these facts may not the farmer derive some valuable hints ? May he not find that gen- erally, the lower portion of the muck in his swamp, is in a fit state to be spread at once upon his land; without the trouble of forming with it a compost ? The two principal ingredients of peat are soluble and insoluble geine. It often contains also undecomposed vegetable fibre, more or less of earthy matter, and various salts; such as sulphate and phosphate of lime, sulphate of iron, and sometimes free acid, empyreumatic oil, and different gases. Klaproth has given the following analysis of peat from Mansfeld in Ger- many. Carbon, 20.0 Siliceous Sand, 12.5 Alumina, 6.5 Lime, 4.0 Sulphate of Lime, 2.5 Peroxide of iron, 1 o Water charged with pj roligneous acid, 12 0 Empyreumatic oil, 30.0 Carbonic Acid, 5.0 Oxide of Carbon, 12.5 Analysis of Peat. 103 See Dumas' Chemie Applique aux Arts. Tome Premier p. 592. " We might be tempted to believe," says Dumas, " from the above analysis, that peat differs little from wood : But the essays of Klaproth do not leave any doubt but that nearly all the combustible parts of peat are genuine ulm- ine; (geine) a result confirmed by the recent experiments of Braconnot on the peat of France." Three specimens of the peat of Massachusetts, analyzed by the rules of Dr. Dana for soils, yielded the following results. S. 2 03 U 134 Cambridge, 13.0 7.4 2.3 0.4 76.9 1.92 135 Newburyport, 1.5 0.1 3.0 0.5 95.1 2.52 136 Medford. 7.5 5.6 2.6 0.3 84.0 1.92 A substance so rich in geine, or salts of lime and soda, or in both, as the above analyses show, cannot but prove a fertilizer of the soil if spread upon it. If a soil be quite poor, those varieties of mud should probably be chosen that contain the most geine ; and this can be judged of by their comparative lightness when dry; the lightest abounding most in organic matter. But if the soil al- ready contain a good deal of inactive vegetable matter, the varieties that abound most in salts will probably be most efficacious ; though an additional quantity of geine can do no harm, and may do much good. If marsh mud be applied at random, it is not strange that varieties of it, almost destitute of geine, should be sometimes put upon exhausted soil, and that no good effects should follow. Hence the necessity of some fixed principles to guide the farmer. And since Massachusetts contains so much sea board, and so much land near the coast that may be benefited by this substance, a correct mode of applying it is of greist importance. "Farmer's Register, July 1834 ; p. 93. Muck Sand. 107 2. Muck Sand. As this substance has never been proposed for use in agriculture, it will be necessary to state the circumstances that have led me to bring it forward in this place. Ten or twelve years ago, Luther Root Esq., had occasion to dig a well in his garden in Sun- derland, where he then resided. This was only eighty rods from Connecticut river, and the land there is alluvial to the depth of more than twenty feet. Near the bottom the excavation passed through a thick stiatum of what is usually called quicksand, and which on being thrown out emitted a strong odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. It not being convenient to remove all this earth, it was spread upon a considerable part of the garden, which was a good soil and always well manured. He was warned against doing this, lest it should ruin his garden, and he thinks the quantity spread was not greater than a good coat of manure. The part thus covered was mostly planted with watermelons and other vines : and, instead of injuring the spot, it produced so great an increase of fertility as to astonish himself and his neighbors, and to lead them to search the banks of the river and low places for a similar substance. The good effects continued for two years, and afterwards declined, so that in a year or two the land thus treated was not better than the other parts of the garden. Seventeen or eighteen years ago, Mr. Rufus Rice had occasion to dig a well on his farm in South Deerfield ; and after passing through six feet from the surface, he struck upon what he describes as quicksand, though dry at the time he dug it, and probably mixed with clay. He represents the substance dug out when wet to be almost as much disposed to flow as water, and that it was very difficult so to wall up a well with stones that this sand would not pass through and fill it. He describes it also as giving out a strong odor, and a small quantity which he show- ed me, that had lain for fifteen years, still retained that odor, and appeared to be identical with the Muck Sands to be described in this Report. Wishing to remove the sand thus thrown from a well twenty-two feet deep, and having understood that the effect of a change of soil was good, he carted five loads, after it had lain exposed for a year, upon a piece of plowing, spreading it about as thick as a good coat of manure. This was in the autumn ; and the next spring the whole piece was planted with Indian corn, after having been manured in the hill. But that part of the field, which had received the muck sand, soon began to show a much more thrifty growth than the other, and yielded a greater crop. From that time to the present, corn, oats and clover, have been the rotation of crops every three years, except that two crops of rye have been raised upon it, and whenever it was manured, all parts were spread over alike. And even up to the present time, the part on which the muck sand was spread, seventeen years ago, continues to show decidedly more fertility than the other part. I saw this difference in the autumn of 1837, in the crop of Indian corn then growing, and it was considerable. A few rods from the spot where the well above noticed was dug, another had been excavated three years previously, to the depth of eighty feet, and a large quantity of the muck sand, with perhaps some clay, lay upon the surface ; although the well itself had been filled by the caving of the sides. Mr. Rice carried from five to ten loads of this upon a spot of dry mowing, which had almost ceased to produce grass. It was spread about as thick as a good coat of manure, but with no mixture of manure, some time in June. On the first crop of grass that year it produc- ed no effect, and there was not enough grass to be worth gathering. But the second crop was a very heavy one, and consisted mainly of clover which had previously disappeared. The next year the first crop was equally good, the second not so large, though better than middling. In subsequent years the good effects became less and less obvious: but they were visible at least ten years. The facts communicated to me by Mr. Root (those respecting Mr. Rice's experiments I did 108 Economical Geotogi/. not learn till somewhat later) seemed to furnish a clue that might lead to results of considerable importance. But the substance that produced such effects upon the soil had all disappeared from the surface, and could not be obtained from the wells. It occurred to me, however, that the same stratum must extend from Sunderland village to Connecticut river; and that its outcrop might be found there, as the banks are more than twenty feet high. A gentleman acquainted with the substance accompanied me thither; and we soon found a stratum of sand several feet thick, which he re- cognized at once as identical with that dug from the well. Having seen it in one place, I was able to trace it in others. I examined the banks of Connecticut river across the whole state; and wherever they are alluvial, I almost uniformly found this stratum from ten to twenty feet below the general surface. I traced it, also, in many places, in the banks of the Housatonic and Merrimac, the Deerfield and Westfield rivers, and indeed on almost every stream large enough to form much alluvial deposition. On the small streams its depth beneath the surface and its thickness are less. But its leading characters are alike, and somewhat peculiar : and as they made it easy for me to find the stratum, I think I can point them out so that others will be able to recognise it. The specimens of this substance in the State Collection (Nos. 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133,) convey but an imperfect idea of its appear- ance in its native situation, where it is almost always very wet, and gener- ally exhibits a slightly greenish tinge, though perhaps this results from its mechanical rather than its chemical characters. In the banks of our streams, this stratum is the first one from the surface that arrests the water in its de- scent into the earth: and hence water is seen oozing out from it in almost every place. It frequently lies immediately above a stratum of gravel. It is also remarkable for its yielding nature when wet: it being easy to run a pole several feet into it, and unless covered with turf, a man in walking over it will sink into it several inches. The cause of its arresting water in its de- scent, and also of the extreme mobility of its particles among themselves, is probably chiefly dependent upon the fineness of its texture, and the form of its particles, rather than upon its chemical composition. When an attempt is made to dig into it with a spade, or trowel, it conducts very much like soft suet And yet its composition is decidedly sandy : and therefore I call it muck sand, although it generally goes by the name of quick sand. Another important character is, that when fresh dug, this substance almost invariably gives out the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen: that is, an odor con- siderably resembling that of a gun barrel which has been fired repeatedly with gunpowder. Very frequently, also, there is seen oozing from it a red- dish matter of the color of iron rust, and which indeed is the oxide of iron, proceeding probably from the decomposition of the sulphuret of iron, whereby the sulphuretted hydrogen is produced. I am inclined to believe that the odor of the sulphuretted hydrogen is so connected with its fertilizing pro- perties, that I doubt whether any sand, not giving it out, will prove effica- cious. Analysis by Alkali. 109 It should also be mentioned, that vegetable matter, even sometimes in the state of fibre, is generally present in the muck sand. Indeed, it seems to be the only stratum, which I have found deep in the earth, that contains much organic matter. In short, it does not differ, so far as I can ascertain, from the rich deposites of mud and vegetable matter, that are now often formed by our streams at high water, except that it has been for a long period in the earth, and thus many important chemical changes have taken place in it, and it has also been the recipient of all the soluble matter, which has percolated from the strata above, but which this stratum has arrested. These remarks will I trust not only enable others to identify this substance, but will form also the groundwork of a theory that will explain its fertilizing power. This, however, will be better understood when I shall have presented analyses of several specimens by both the methods de- scribed in this report. Analysis by Alkali. No. LOCALITY. CO *- Q. o g >< si EPS cs 18 a | < o ° s 32 o E 3 .s u c ho « 2 -"3 Sulphuretted Hydrogen and Loss. 126 130 132 133 Sunderland, Sheffield, Amherst, Leominster, 3.8 2.0 4.0 1.5 ' 3.5 2.0 5.0 0.5 64.01 70.68 64.34 73.31 15.03 11.61 13-.5 14.25 12.04 10.10 12.00 8.14 0.10 0.80 0.06 1.00 1.16 1.63 0.90 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.10 0 26 1.03 12 I have been favored, also, with the following analysis of the muck sand (No. 129) from Hadley, by Dr. Dana.—100 grains, after ignition to drive off the water and organic matters, yielded, Silica, 71.008 Alumina, 16.706 Oxide of iron, 6.202 Lime, with some sulphate of lime, 3.336 Magnesia, 1.552 Traces of manganese and potassa, and loss, 1.196 100. 15 110 Economical Geology. Analysis by Dr. Dana's Method. No. LOCALITY. « c «3 o 4) 3 3 O 02 si 3 6 3 a go 0 4! . Js 3 CO o 4> s 4) ft. •a e a 02 B cd '> 2 o '3 02 .SbS es —J5 A S . — a COO. 1M O.C g-ft. 126 Sunderland, Ct. River, 2.1 3.0 1.0 0.9 93.0 2.57 2.1 42 127 Bradford, Merrimack River, 0.8 3.1 0.6 0.7 94.8 2.48 1.3 36 128 W. Springfield, Ct. River. 4.1 0.2 3.0 92.2 5.68 1.5 129 Hadley, Fort River, 2.9 3.2 1.4 0.3 92.2 2.60 1.9 38 130 Sheffield, Housatonic River, 1.0 2.1 1.9 0.2 94.8 2.63 1.4 28 131 Northfield, Ct. River, 1.9 1.8 1.2 0.2 94.9 2.46 1.0 20 132 Amherst, Fort River, 6.3 0.0 1.2 0.7 91.8 2.39 133 Leominster, 0.4 2.3 1.0 0.5 95.8 2.68 0.4 8 The specific gravities given above show that in general the density of these muck sands is greater than that of most of our soils, as we might expect from the fact that they are very sandy. The two last columns show that their power of absorbing water is small ; which result also we should expect for the same reason. The power of these muck sands to retain water, we should rather expect a priori might be considecable and of some service in agriculture. So far as the trials which I have made enable me to judge, they favor this presumption, though they do not indicate any remarkable retaining power. Thus, on the 20th. of January, 1838, 200 grains of the following soils and muck sands, with 100 grains of water added, were exposed three hours to the sun, from 11 to 2 o'clock, clear, and wind westerly ; and they lost as follows : No. Loss. No. Loss. 3 Alluvial Soil, 69.7 grs. 114 Sienite Soil, 54.4 grs. 4 do 69.4 115 do 66.8 5 do 70.0 116 do 57.6 6 do 68.7 I 118 do 61.0 7 do 71.6 119 do 63.6 15 Diluvial Argil. 66.7 121 Porphyry Soil, 66.) 16 do 69.2 123 Greenstone Soil, 64.4 18 do sandy, 78.8 127 Muck Sand, 50.0 20 do do 67.7 129 do 50.1 23 Sandstone Soil, 68.0 130 do 51.4 24 do 56.6 131 do 56.2 26 do 70.1 132 do 47.1 27 Graywacke Soil, 70.1 134 Marsh Mud, 51.0 30 do 56.3 135 do 52.9 31 do 55.8 136 do 51.9 By referring to the general Table of experiments in June 1839, upon the power of soils to re- tain water, it will be seen that the few muck sands there given (No. 127, 128 129 and 130") show a power rather greater than the average. Why Muck Sand Fertilizes. Ill From the water in which some of the muck sand from Sunderland had been boiled, pure am- monia, as well as carbonate of ammonia and phosphate of soda, threw down slight precipitates. Hence I infer the existence of some soluble salt of magnesia, probably the sulphate. But in no other specimen did any such result follow the application of these tests. The proper tests, how- ever, detected in them all sulphate of lime about in the same quantity as in most of the soils. Its amount may be seen in the table of analysis of the muck sands by alkali. The preceding analyses appear to me to show that there is no single ingredient in these muck sands that will explain their fertilizing power. But there are several circumstances that proba- bly conspire to such a result. Most of them contain a considerable amount of soluble geine, as well as of the sulphate and phosphate of lime ; and I ought to remark in respect to some of them, that they were obtained in places which are exposed to the action of water a considerable part of the time, which may have abstracted a portion of the salts and the geine ; as I took them from a few inches below the surface. This was the case with the specimens from Northfield, Brad- ford, and Sheffield. The others were obtained at a greater depth from the surface. That, for instance, from Amherst, which yielded so large a proportion of soluble geine, was taken from an excavation just made several feet deep. This circumstance should be kept in mind, if any of our farmers should think it best to make any trial of this substance. I hope they will take care to dig to a considerable depth to obtain it, although I should presume that two or three feet would be sufficient where the muck sand shows itself on the banks of streams ; and yet the constant per- colation of water from this stratum may carry off some of the fertilizing matters from I know not how great a horizontal distance. It should not be forgotten that the muck sand is the first water bearing stratum, we meet in descending from the surface. Consequently if any soluble salts of potassa, soda, or other fertil- izing substance, should be carried down by water, percolating through the mere porous layers above, they would be found in this stratum, and very probably this circumstance is important in helping us to explain the salutary effect of muck sand upon vegetation. In addition to the above circumstances, it ought to be borne in mind that this muck sand, on account of the minute division of its parts, is in the best possible state for enabling the roots of plants to act upon and absorb nutriment. Nor should it be forgotten, that in all cases when fresh dug, these sands give off the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen; which probably proceeds from the decomposition of sulphuret of iron, or some alkaline sulphuret, by the free sulphuric acid formed in the manner described by Dr. Dana, in giving a theory of the action of clays in agriculture. Very probably this sulphuret of iron may act an important part in fertilization by these muck sands ; and hence it is desirable not to use any, certainly in early experiments, which does not emit the odor above named. These considerations, with the facts that have been detailed, excite a hope that this muck sand may prove an article of no small value as a manure. The specimen from Leominister, however, given in the preceding table, should be noticed as deficient in some points, which, according to the preceding views, are important. It has little if any soluble geine, and the salts are in small pro- portion. That specimen was received from Mr. Sewall Richardson, who says that it was taken seven feet below the surface, and that it has been dug three years, and exposed to atmospheric agencies. It may, therefore, have lost some of its fertilizing properties. Yet he says, "for the last four years I have applied it as manure on dry land, and find that it produces a good effect. One quart, applied to a hill of potatoes before hoeing, seems to prevent the effects of drought on the driest of our plains, and makes them yield potatoes equal to the best of our land." He says, also, that "it has as much effect on the skin, when first dug and dryed, by handling it, as lime, or ashes." It was in consequence of these statements that I subjected this specimen to analysis ; although it bears but little resemblance to the muck sands in general. Since my attention was first called to this substance by the facts that have been detailed, I 112 Economical Geology. have heard so many statements of the striking effects produced upon vegetation by matters dug out of wells and other excavations, that I feel more and more convinced here is a source of fertilization for soils that has been hitherto overlooked, and which may prove of important ben- efit. I do not give these facts in detail, because I cannot identify the substances used with muck sand. Indeed, I am not without suspicion that my description of muck sand must be considerably enlarged to embrace all the subterranean deposites which act in a similar manner. Perhaps neith- er its mechanical nor chemical constitution is of any great importance, and that any subterranean deposite may be found to possess fertilizing properties, which has become the reservoir of the soluble matters that have penetrated from the surface. When one has proceeded so far towards the extemity of Cape Cod, as to judge from the land- scape around him that he has got almost beyond the region of vegetation, his attention is sud- denly arrested by one or two excellent farms in the northern part of Truro, belonging to the Mr. Small : which having passed, he sees scarcely anything more of cultivation to the end of the Cape. On examination of the cliffs near Mr. Small's on the northeastern or Atlantic shore, he will find strata of blue or greenish clay. This clay appears to me to be only a variety of the muck sand that has been described ; or at least, where it is washed down by the rains, it becomes muck sand : And this fact explains the fertility of this oasis. Nor can there be any doubt, but if this clay bank could be mixed with the sand in the surrounding region, it would form a soil of superi- or character. At present, however, the cliff is of difficult access, having long been exposed to the buffetings of the wide Atlantic. But the clay extends as a subsoil over the whole of the farms above described: and by digging a few feet, it might be obtained. The time will come, I doubt not, when this clay bank will be thus employed. The wide diffusion of this muck sand in the state, makes me more desirous of havingit tested. I have already remarked that it may be found on the banks of all our streams, which have de- posited alluvium. And I doubt not it may be found in most swamps ; especially those that are underlaid by clay. From the banks of rivers it might be carted at a season of the year when the water is low, since the stratum usually lies but little above low water mark: and from other places excavated on purpose, it might be obtained at almost any season. Should only a small part of the fertilizing effect result from its use generally, which the facts detailed would lead us to ex- pect, I should still feel amply repaid for my labor devoted to the subject. Beneath the vegetable matter in most of our swamps, there is a fine sand, quite analagous in appearance to the muck sand that has been described : and from some facts that have come to my knowledge, I suspect that this possesses, in part, at least, the fertilizing character of the muck sand. It probably contains some soluble geine and salts of lime, and sometimes gives off the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen; though perhaps this may result from decayed vegetables as these sometimes emit an odor resembling that gas. I apprehend that this sand may be found often to possess enough of a fertilizing character to be profitably employed upon land. Benjamin Hobart Esq., of Abington, informs me, that in consequence of my remarks upon muck sand in my Report of 1838, he was led to try what he supposed to be that substance, obtained from be- neath a mud swamp. He spread about as much of it as a good dressing of manure upon 10 or 12 acres of grass, and the effect in 1839 was very decided in increasing the amount of hay. lam unable, however, to give further details. 3. Deposits from Rivers. Dr. S. L. Dana has furnished me with an extremely interesting com- munication on this subject, which I shall give in his own words: and which needs no recommendation of mine to engage the attention of the man of science, as well as the practical agriculturist. Deposits from Rivers. 113 Lowell, Dec. 18, 1839. Dear Sir :—I send you my remarks on the matter, suspended, or dissolved, in the waters of Merrimack river. This matter is interesting both to the geologist, and to the agriculturist. To the former as a question in geological dynamics, and to the latter, as the source of the fer- tilizing power of overflowing streams.—I am indebted to the assistance of Mr. James B. Fran- cis, Civil Engineer, attached to the Locks and Canals in this place, for the computation of the quantity of water flowing in Merrimack river. The daily register of the height of the river, kept under his inspection, added to his minute and accurate measurement of the daily volume of water, has enabled us to approximate the actual amount of effect, due to a portion of one of the causes of -geological change, in present operation, with a degree of certainty, which, if not entirely sat- isfactory, is more accurate, than has heretofore been attempted. Ordinarily the Merrimack river is clear and transparent, having a slight yellow brown tinge, by transmuted light. Great rains produce turbidness. The water becomes clay colored. During these peiiods, I have daily taken out 20 gallons of river water, and after 24, to 48 hours repose, in a vessel about 18 inches deep, the water was decanted, the sediment collected on a filter, dried at 300° F. and weighed. From these data, and his own measurement of the quantity of water, Mr. Francis has calculated the following table, showing the amount of matter borne seaward, by Merrimack river in 1838, and during an unusually high fresh in 1839. Date From to No. of Days. Quantity of Water in cubic feet. Grains of sus-pended matter in 1.cubic foot. Total suspended matter in pounds avoirdupois. 1838, May 5. " 26. June 5. Nov. 9. " 13. May 9. " 29. June 9. Nov. 12. " 17. 5 4 5 4 5 9.630.316.800 5738.428.800 5.150.562.400 13.105.843.200 8.690.889.600 3.583 19.531 3.366 25.808 .112 4.929.346. 16.011.036. 2.475.256. 43.319.371. 139.054. Total / 23 42.316.040.800 71.874.063 1839 Jan. 28. " 29. " 30. 31. " Feb. 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 4.685.817.600 3.633.526.400 1.818.115.200 794.966.400 529.977.600 1 30.483 22.815 12.006 4.226 1.481 20.405.397 11.855.023 3.118.327 479.932 112.128 Total. 5 11.466.403.200 35.970.807 Leaving out, adds Mr. Francis, the 23 days given above, I find the average flow of the river for the re- mainder of 1838, about 6000 cubic feet per second—giving a total discharge for 342 days of 177, 282, 800, 000 : cubic feet. The question, whether the year 1838 is an average can only be determined by continued observation. I am still directing my attention to this point. I incline to the opinion 114 Economica Geology. that 1838, is a fair average year. It is seen from the table that during the great freshet of Jan. 7, 1839, nearly one half as much matter was borne downwards in 5 days, as during the whole year of 1838. This was the highest freshet observed for the last 6 years. The table above gives the actual amount only, which would be deposited by a few days repose. This amount is interesting only to the agriculturist, whose lands are fortunately irrigated by these periodical overflows. To estimate the actual geological effects, we must add to the above amount a finer deposite which longer repose precipitates from the waters of a freshet, and the matter chemically solvent both during a freshet and ordinarily, and also the amount of matter ordinarily suspended. This last quantity is 0.100 of a grain per cubic foot of water. After the clay col- ored matter has settled, a finer white deposit occurs in a few days. It is so fine as to pass through filtering paper. It gives to the water a slight milky look viewed in a tube of 3 inches diameter. It is long subsiding, and gradually collects in fine white flakes, which precipitate, forming a skinny lining on the bottom of the vessel. This membraneous lining by some months exposure to air, becomes dark olive green colored. It consists chiefly of silica with an organic acid. It ought not all truly to be called suspended matter—though for the present purpose I so estimate it. The skinny deposit, which occurs, lichen like on all substances long time under the river water seems of similar nature.—I may remark here, that the clay colored deposit occurs in sub- stances in the water, whatever their position, slanting, upright or flat. Its slimy nature causes it to adhere whatever the position, and when collected from the bottom of a tub it may often be rolled off in a continuous sheet, like tough wet paper. The water of the freshet of 1839, decanted from the sediment deposited in 48 hours, was al- lowed to repose one month: it became perfectly clear,—though slightly milky at first, and the amount of the fine white flocculent precipitate, which now formed a skin, was in one pint 0.3857 grain or per cubic foot 23.0015 grains. No more deposit occurring after 7 days repose, the water was evaporated to dryness. During this operation brilliant scales began to form and a filmy white mass, with a brown tinge remained, weighing in one pint of water 0.6172 grain, or per cubic foot, 36.776 grains. This amount is less than that ordinarly in solution ; for by long expo- sure, a portion of the chemically solved matter is decomposed, or forming new combinations was precipitated* The amount of matter ordinarily held in solution in the river water is 0.82 grain per pint, or 48.86 grains per cubic foot. If now we add to the matter suspended in the water in the 23 days by the above table, 71.874.063 pounds. The finer deposite in 23 days, 139-280.225 pounds. The matter chemically solved in 23 days, 221.853.831 pounds. Matter ordinarily suspended in 342 days, 2532611 pounds. Matter chemically solved in 342 days, 1.242.803.080 pounds. We get the total for year 1838, 1.678.343.810 pounds. The mind cannot conceive this amount. We may form a more precise idea of its extent by supposing the whole to be anthracite coal. At the present rate of coal consumption in the Mer- rimack Print works, 5000 tons per annum,—the above would then last 167 years. Chemical Constitution of the Suspended Matter. I collected in 1837 a quantity of this substance, deposited on the rocks at Pawtucket falls in Lowell. This was analyzed by drying at 300° F. then calcining to destroy organic matter, fus- ing with alkali, and separating the constituents in the usual way. I add the analysis of a similar deposit, from Connecticut river, collected in 1837 from the rocks just above the bridge between Greenfield and Montague. In both, traces of mosses, vegetating were evident to the eye. Chemical Constitution oj the Suspended Matter. 11*5 Merrimack River. Connecticut River. Organic matter, geine, 2.500 2.640 Silica, 77.530 77.397 Alumina, 8.650 8325 Oxide of Iron, 9500 8.848 Lime, .535 .767 Magnesia, , .103 Sulph. acid, Phosphoric acid, Traces of potash and loss, 1.182 2.023 100. 100. The finer deposit occurring after a month's repose, gave a cotistitutioa similar to the above: and the watej evaporated, after all mechanically suspended matter had subsided—gave, in one pint, 0.6172 grain, composed as follows :— Organic matter, .3086 Lime, with some Sulphate of Lime, .1928 Silica, .1155 Loss, . 003 0.6172. The organic matter exists chiefly under those forms of geine called crenic and apocrenic acids. It readily solves in water, witha brown color; decomposes some metallic salts, and combines with lime and moist hydrate of alumina. Its acid action is the source of the rapid solution of lead in Merrimack water. Crenate of iron, and alumina, is deposited rapidly on iron tanks and pipes exposed to the constant running of the river water. I have seen this compound deposited 1-2 inch thick in two years in an iron tank, on its upright sides; and mamillary concretions, like large almonds, covering large patches of a cast iron pipe, which had been in use a few years only. These concretions will doubtless in time accumulate, and finally obstruct the passage of water though iron pipes used for its conduit. The constitution of the deposit, collected on the rocks of the river, is analogous to your "muck sand.'''' The organic matter, which is geine, is the source of the vegetating power, which the sand gives to seeds. In many places, where the alluvial deposit forming the basin of Lowell has been cut through, layers of "muck sand," from 2 inches to several feet in thickness have been exposed. They are separated by strata of coarse sand and gravel. When this section has been sometime exposed to air, the " muck sand," can be distinguished at a great distance, by green bands, a color derived from the infinity of small plants vegetating and luxuriantly growing in the stratum. This is certainly a very strong proof of the agency of geine, if not of its actual necessity to growing plants. Whether we believe with Fuchs that geine, which he calls humus, is among the original and earliest formations, or with others, that it is of later origin, arising from organic decomposition, it is evident, that being so abundantly diffused in river deposits, which ultimately become sea deposits, it is the source of the carbon, and also of the ammonia, which late experiments have detected in primitive rocks. In the great series of geological changes, these sedimentary deposits, now taking place, will doubtless arise in new forms, in mica, and clay slate, perhaps of rocks of crystalline character. But let us leave speculation and attend to the Agricultural Value of River Deposits. All experience teaches the fertility of soils periodically overflowed by the turbid waters of rivers. Perhaps from the similarity of chemical constitution of the deposited matter, with " muck 116 Economical Geology. sand," the reason of its fertilizing power will be obvious to the readers of your report on that substance. We can refer the fertility given by the overflowing freshets only to the geine, salts of lime, and beautifully fine state of the silicates which make up the bulk of the deposit. The sil- icates being so exquisitely divided are readily decompcssd by the action of the air, the carbonic acid eliminates potash and soda from the silicates, just es the same action decomposes the silicates of alkali in spent ashes, peat ashes, andgreensand. Indeed I have nodoubt, thatthe green sand, which you sent me, had lost its potash from this very cause- Our granite, particularly, that most abundant in felspar, should, if finely pulverized, act like green sand. The river deposits, containing silicates of alkali finely levigated, and exposed to the carbonic acid of the air, and the electro-chemical agency of growing plants, are rapidly decomposed. The alkali is evolved and solves the geine and geates, which make up no small portion of the deposit. I have sub- jected several portions of these deposits, collected at different times, to Agricultural analysis. The results are shown in the following table. Sol. Geine. Insol. Geine. Sulph. Lime. Phos. Lime Silicates. Connecticut River. off rocks. 2.30 1.70 .64 .46 94.90 Merrimack River, Spring of 1837. off Rocks. 2.50 1.10 .90 .60 94.90 All give up to water Sulphate and geate of > Lime. " Fall of 1837. off Rocks. 2.06 1.86 .74 .90 94.44 Deposit from Freshet of January, 1839. 5.40 6.50 2.34 1.20 64.56 Oxide Iron, Alumina, Mag-nesia,Sulph. and Phos.acide in the soluble geine are 2.34 Deposit, July, 1839. 8.80 6.30 3.10 .60 81.20 Oxide Iron, Alumina, Mag-nesia, Sulph. and Pho*. acids in insoluble Geine, 1.50. The true agricultural value is shown by the deposit from the freshets of January and July, the others being coarser sediments, that is more sandy. With great respect, SAMUEL L. DANA. V. AMENDMENT OF SOILS. It may perhaps be expected that I should, before I close the subject of soils, endeavor to show how the defects of the different geological varieties of soil in Massachusetts may be remedied, in addition to the more general views, that have been presented on the subject. But in most cases I doubt whether chemistry or geology can add much to what the farmer has already^earnt from experience; and therefore the subject, as I conceive, hardly falls within my department. I shall, however, add a few remarks respecting the amend- ment of a sandy soil; since a large part of four counties in the state, viz. Plymouth, Barnstable, Dukes, and Nantucket, are on this account at present regarded as sterile beyond reclamation. It is indeed true, that lands so barren as those above referred to, can be brought into a fertile condition only with great labor and expence. It is however, similar lands on which green sand in New Jersey and other states Amendment of Soils. 117 has exerted a remarkable transforming influence; and should any of the green sand of Massachusetts prove serviceable, its use would probably be the most economical mode of commencing the work of fertilization. But a surer plan is to follow the methods adopted with so great success in such a country as Netherlands; where the most barren sands have been extensively con- verted into fruitful fields. Where such a soil is underlaid by clay, or loam, even if it lie at the depth of several feet, an obvious preliminary is to bring a large quantity of the subsoil to the surface ; and then to introduce into the mixture a sufficiency of geine. But even where no such subsoil exists, the case is not a hopeless one. The first step is to plant the surface thickly with some plant that will grow upon it; and as this decays, it will form geine for future use. Ere many years, enough nutriment will be collected to form a soil, in which useful plants will grow: and when once brought into this state, it is, taking all things into the account, one of the best of soils. The Belgic farmers commence with broom, pines, &c. In Massachusetts beach grass (Arundo arenaria.) is usually employed to fix the sand: but I doubt whether this is very well adapted to form a soil; since it decays so lit- tle. I noticed that in the old fields upon Cape Cod, which had been cul- tivated until the geine was nearly exhausted, that large patches of the Hud- sonia ericoides, or false heath plant, and of H. lomentosa, or poverty grass, were frequent. These form a thick mat upon the soil, and cannot but col- lect some vegetable and animal nutriment. May they not be made service- able in the way that has been described. When I visited Provincetown nine or ten years ago, scarcely a square rod of land was at- tempted to be cultivated in the whole town. But on a recent visit, I perceived several gardens of considerable extent ; containing a good crop of vegetables, and of excellent quality. Mr. La- throp in particular, the enterprising proprietor of the hotel there, has prepared an excellent gar- den, chiefly by manure and the mixture of the salts of lime and magnesia, which are obtained in great abundance from the extensive salt works in that place : and which are just coming into use on the Cape as a manure, and will undoubtedly prove serviceable if used only in small quan- tities. Mr. Lathrop thinks that garden vegetables may be raised there a fortnight earlier than in the region around Boston ; and that hence it may be an object to raise them for Boston market. This hint may be worthy the consideration of the farmers on other parts of the Cape. Mr L. also showed me a swamp of considerable extent, probably a peat swamp, which he proposes to convert into arable land, by bringing over it a quantity of sand from the adjacent hills. I hope this experiment will be tried, not only there, but in other parts of the sandy region of Massachu- setts, where such swamps are common. For although expensive at first, land thus formed must become exceedingly productive and valuable. But the most striking example which I have met with showing how pro- ductive the most barren soil may become, was pointed out to me by James Small Esq. of Truro on Cape Cod. In passing down the Cape, long before 16 118 Economical Geology. one reaches his farm, most of the country appears excessively and hope- lessly barren. His farm, however, is based upon blue clay, and forms a fruit- ful oasis amid the sandy waste. But between that spot and the end of the Cape, little meets the eye, out of the salt marshes, but white drifted sand, save here and there a small patch of beach grass, or pine shrubs, or poverty grass. Yet three miles beyond his house, Mr. Small took me to a field of several acres, where the soil appeared of a dark color and abounded in frag- ments of shells, particularly the round clam, or quohog. So productive was this soil, that 50 bushels of Indian corn had been raised upon an acre with- out manure ! The following analysis shows us at once the secret of this fertility. Reckoning the fragments of shells as carbonate of lime, we have in 100 parts: Carbonate and Sulphate of Lime, 21.30 Phosphate of Lime, 0.35 Soluble Geine, 3.75 Insoluble do 1 50 Silicates, 73.10 100.00 After the salts of lime and the geine were separated, the residue consisted of nothing but the common white sand of Cape Cod. This geine and these salts, therefore, are all that is necessary to convert other sandy fields on this Cape into fertile spots. I find these broken shells to be somewhat frequent on the Cape; and. the general impression is, that they were brought into their present situation by the Indians, that the animals might be extracted for food. But their great extent leads me rather to suspect that such spots were once the resi- dence of these animals, when beneath the sea: or rather, that they were once the shores of the ocean, and that the waves drifted the shells thither. Concluding Remarks upon Soils. I might proceed to discuss numerous other points respecting the chemical and geological character of soils and cultivation. But really, I do not feel prepared to throw any new light upon them ; and will not therefore occupy space and time with detailing what is already described in various authors such as Davy and Chaptal. The time and labor which I have already devoted to this subject, are more than I should have felt justified in bestow- Concluding Remarks upon Soils. 119 ing, were it not of the first importance. Those only who are practically familiar with analytical investigations, can correctly judge how much time and labor it has cost me to obtain even the imperfect results that have been given. In analysis a result which is expressed by a single figure, often costs days of careful labor to obtain. It will be seen that a considerable part of what I have presented on this subject (and the same remark will apply to much that follows on economical geology,) consists of suggestions. The many new views, which through the aid of Dr. Dana I have brought forward, and the new substances to which I have directed the attention, rendered such a course necessary: since it was impossible for me to prosecute the requisite experiments for testing the truth of my convictions. Of course, others who have an opportunity to make such experiments, will place so much confidence in my suggestions as the reasons offered to sustain them, will in their opinion justify. Should any of these suggestions be carried out into practice and produce valuable results, my object will be at- tained, even though they should require such modification, that the original author shall be for- gotten and unnoticed. I confess myself influenced in these researches by an ambition to point out some of the means, whereby two or more blades of grass, or ears of corn, may be made to grow where one grows now in Massachusetts. And this I sincerely believe to be an attainable object. More and more thoroughly am I convinced, that it needs only patient industry—such as has ever been the glory of New England—and an intelligent and judicious application of our internal resources, to convert five sixths of the surface in Massachusetts into fertile fields. The idea that a large part of our soil is absolutely unfit for cultivation, and in- capable of improvement, which has discouraged so many of our young men, and driven them away from their paternal homes, is contradicted at every step of a fair investigation of the subject. As I have approached one of our beauti- ful villages, and seen all around it such prolific crops, I have frequently en- quired why such a difference exists between the fertility there, and the wide region over which I have been passing since I left the last village ? For in the natural character of the soil I could perceive no essential difference. The conclusion would be, that cultivation has made all the difference. And yet, in that village are probably many young men who feel as if all the valuable land around them were taken up, and that they must seek their fortunes in some distant and more fertile region. It is true that our soil will yield to nothing but persevering industry and skill. But the habits of diligence and endurance which will be acquired in subduing it, are of far more value to the possessor, both for the promotion of his fortune and his happiness, than the richest manor that yields almost spontaneously. The very object of Provi- dence apparently in giving us a soil by nature comparatively sterile, yet ca- pable by cultivation of yielding an abundance, was to call into exercise that 120 Economical Geology. industry and energy, without which man becomes a mere drone, or the mis- erable slave of indolence and the low appetites. I do not doubt but the Government and every intelligent reflecting citizen will feel the vast importance of energetic efforts to improve our soils so that they may sustain a larger population. This is the only way to check the tide of emigration that sets so strongly to the great West. For if our sons can be made to see the soil of New England doubling its increase, as I verily believe they might in one or two decades of years, the rich alluvia and prai- ries of the West will not be able to draw them away from the graves of their fathers; especially if they learn that those fertile regions will at length become exhausted of their geine and salts, and then will probably require as much labor to cultivate them as the soils of Massachusetts. Some, however, may contend, that it is more important to transfer the New England character to the unsettled West, than to multiply our numbers and wealth at home. But the history of the world leads us to fear, that New England character cannot long be preserved except upon New England soil; or upon a soil that requires equal industry for its cultivation. Place New England men where the earth yields spontaneously, and the locks of their strength will soon be shorn. If we look over the map of the world, and the history of the past, we shall find as a general fact, that the brightest exhibi- tions of human character have been made, in regions where nature has done less, but art and industry more. If, therefore, we wish to increase the moral power of New England, it must be done by improving her soil, and increas- ing her resources and her population. If these views are correct, which I acknowledge do not fall in with the prevailing notions, they furnish a new stimulus for vigorous effort in the improvement of our soils.* Note on the Nature of Geine. Having transmitted a proof sheet to Dr. Dana, of my remarks on the nature of geine, with Dr. Jackson's method of analysis, he has been led to send me his views on these subjects more fully than ever before. His letter contains so fair and masterly a defence of his views concerning the nature of geine, that I am unwilling to withhold it; especially as it seems I have misappre- hended some of his opinions on that subject. And since Dr. Jackson seeks only truth, like every man of genuine science, he will not, I trust, object to so candid an examination of his opinions. * This may be the best place to mention, that the first column of the Table showing the power of soils to absorb oxygen on page 63, should have placed over it the words, Per Cent: the second column, the words, Cubic Inches: and the third column, the word, Grains. Note on the Nature of Geine. 121 Lowell, June 22. 1S40. Dear Sir:—You know I have for some time meditated a new analysis of geine. My en- gagements have prevented my undertaking this point, in season for your report, and I very much doubt whether such an analysis as I can ever execute, would throw any new light on its consti- tution. Perhaps in the present state of the opinions respecting its nature, my analysis would be considered ex parte evidence. I am satisfied with the results already obtained by.others. From the days of Vauquelin, who first noticed ulmin, to the present time, this substance has been in- vestigated by the most distinguished chemists, under the name of ulmin, or humus, or geine. These are convertible terms, they mean one and the same thing. Its atomic constitution was partially settled by Sprengel, and more fully by Boullay Jr. The discrepencies in the results, led Berzelius to remark, that the whole subject required a new investigation, though Dumas ex- presses his confidence in the results of Boullay. His statements have since been verified by Malagutti. Thompson, in his Organic chemistry, refers to Malagutti's paper, as published in Journ de Pharm. xxi. 455. and Dumas, in his 5th. Vol. refers to Malaguti's observations in- edites. Malagutti has obtained ulmic acid in distinct crystals. By boiling these in weak acids, a black substance is deposited, which he calls ulmin, identical in its composition with the acid. Once and for all, I consider, ulmin, humus, geine, ulmic, humic and geic acid, one identical substance ; whether neutral or acid its constitution, ever one and the same, subject to the great law of organic chemistry, that proximate compounds act as simple elements. Boullay's analysis of geate of copper, on which he placed most reliance, is the following:— Geine, 89.5 Oxide of Copper, 10.5 100. Malagutti's result agrees with this, more nearly than is usual in minute analysis, and is as fol- lows :— Geine, 89.2 Oxide of Copper, . 10.8 100. Deducing from these analyses the atomic weight, we get from Boullay, 42.61 from Malagutti, 41.29 83.90 the mean 41.95. The result of the analysis of geic acid, by oxide of copper is by Boullay, Malagutti, Oxygen, 56-7 57.48 Hydrogen, 4.81 4.76 Carbon 38.49 37.36 Deducing from these the atomic constitution of geine, we get from Boullay, with whose ratios Malagutti agrees, Oxygen, 16. atoms =16. Hydrogen, 16. " — 3 Carbon, 32. " =24. 64. 42. atomic weight Now the mean of the result, 41.95, from the analysis of geate of copper given above, differs 00.05 from the theoretical result. We may safely take, therefore, 42. as the atomic number of geine. 122 Economical Geology. A substance found by different observers so identical in composition, by actual analysis, whose theoretical confirms its analytical constitution, which forms definite compounds, and whose histo- ry and properties are better understood than a large proportion of the objects inorganic chemisty, may well be considered a definite chemical compound. That it is so, is believed by all chemists, except Raspail, whose principles would equally reduce the larger portion of organic substances, to carbon and water ; and Dr. C. T Jackson, who reduces geine into a mixture of crenic and apocrenic acids- Others have admitted these acids in combination with geine, in soils. Berze- lius their discoverer, and to whom we are indebted for all that is known of their history, years ago said, that crenic and apocrenic acids existed in soils, in small quantity ; and moreover states, that these acids are among the general products of putrefaction. The doctrine then, that they are found in soils, is not the doctrine of yesterday nor of to day—it is no new thing; but the doc- trine that geine is a mixture of these acids, that geine has no independent existence, is new ; and coming from a source, commanding our respect, requires a careful consideration. The various opinions which have been formed on the subject of geine, owe their existence in part, to the varied means which produce this substance. It comes from organic matter, by putrefac- tion, by the action of acids and of alkalies, caustic or carbonated, by the action of alkaline earths, by alumina, by metallic oxides, acting on organic matter, especially when assisted by heat, and as a general law, we may say that all substances, oxidating, and gently acting on organic matter, produce geine. It is produced by fire, by heating or roasting organic matter, and hence its abund- ance in soot, in crude pyroligenous acid, in charcoal, and baked wood. It is found in carburet of iron ; and cast iron, treated with acids, leaves an insoluble residue, having the properties of geine. Of all the agents, which thus change organic matter into geine, the action of the alkalies and of the alkaline earths is most powerful: next to them ranks alumina, which is little, if at all in- ferior to lime, when assisted by growing plants. It is the decomposition of the aluminous silicate, by living plants, which lets loose the alumina, to convert insoluble into soluble geine. But to return, the mode of acting here is in many cases purely "catalytic," the action of presence,^ the same elements re-arranged, a new order takes place,—while in other cases, a part of the origin- al compound is removed—new substances are produced. In whatever way we may produce the proximate principle geine, whose definite constitution we see has been so well determined, it is not at all probable, that it proceeds, per saltum, from organization to its atomic constitution. There exist, doubtless, intermediate states, other compounds, which chemistry has already, or will hereafter detect; forms of geine so to speak.—In this class, I include crenic and apocrenic acid. Nor can we determine whether these arise from a catalytic change in geine, or whether they are formed first, and then unite to produce that definite compound. But the properties and actions are so very distinct from those of geine, that the last cannot be owing to a mere mixture of thetwo first. From the small quantity in which they accompany geine in soils, it is probable that they derive their origin from a change in the elements of that substance; and if ever geine, has been wholly reduced to crenic and apocrenic acid, I think it is no difficult matter, to show how this result has been produced by the agent employed, and by the manipulation. Cases analagous are fa- miliar to all chemists, and the very ease with which crenic passes into apocrenic acid, may help our conceptions of the possibility of a mere new arrangement of the elements of geine__an ar- rangement producing two well defined acids, being considered as the separation of those which previously were only mechanically mixed.—As evidence of the evanescent nature of crenic acid it is well established, that its solution in water, by simple exposure to air, becomes apocrenic acid : hence it name : its existence, as Berzelius says, depends on crenic acid, just as aoo-theme depends for its existence on a solution of organic extract in water. Without crenic there can be no apocrenic acid. These acids have been separated. Their insulation is one of the most difficult of chemical operations, requiring not one, but several solutions and separations by sulphuret- ed hydrogen before we can estimate their quantity, or be assured if their purity. Separated their characters are as follows :—Both resemble vegetable extract: Note on the Nature of Geine. 123 Crenic acid- Color yellow, Transparent, Amorphous, Taste acid, then astringent Excessively soluble in water and " " alcohol Apocrenic Acid- Brown, Amorphous, Astringent, Slightly soluble in water. Slowly soluble in pure alcohol Solution in water, precipitates by Sal. ammoniac in flocks. Crenates. Apocrenates. Of alkalies, like yellow extracts, and very soluble in water, Of alkalies, black friable masses ; and weak alcohol. Of lime, neutral, soluble in water, subsalt, insoluble Of magnesia, easily soluble in water. in water a dark soluble brown color. Of alumina, neutral insoluble in water: supersalt, soluble Of iron, soluble in water. Of alkaline earths, solve in water, yellow colour. The subsalts quite insoluble. Of alumina, neutral, insoluble: super- saft, soluble in water. Of iron, protoxide, soluble in water: peroxide, insoluble in water. From the statement I have already made of the elements which enter into soluble geine, it will be seen that a small part only of soils exist, as a geic salt. The phosphoric acid I have ennumer- ated among these elements, confining the term " soluble geine" in that case to all which an alkali dissolved. The phosphoric acids proceeds from a partial decomposition of phosphate of lime, or subphosphate of alumina. It is not an element of geine. The iron and alumina are dissolved as salts of geine. We conclude that the greater part of the geine of soils exists un- combined. If this substance, as it exists in soils, is only a mixture of crenic and apocrenic acids, then, from the established properties of these acids and their salts, this result must follow. The soluble organic matter of soils ought to be completely solved by water and alcohol. No other agents are required to detect not only the existence, but the total amount of these acids, to de- termine in fact the amount of soluble geine. Simply boiling the soil in water should extract all the crenic acid. " It is excessively soluble in water," says Berzelius—so soluble, that the wa- ter of the Porla well, the source whence this acid was first obtained, is colored brown by it. Pure alcohol, will then dissolve all the apocrenic acid; and we may thus at once ascertain the amount of these acids. Admitting the properties of crenic and apocrenic acid, I do not see, how we can escape this conclusion. Nor will it alter the case, if it be said that the acids are com- bined with the bases of earths and oxides. We still are driven to the same conclusion. Now this is a result, which I presume the propounder of this doctrine of the mixed nature of geine, will not admit. He knows how very trifling is the proportion of organic matter, or its salts which yield to alcohol, or to water. I do not mean to deny that this little is crenic or apocrenic acids or their salts. Nor will the advocates of the doctrine, deny, that all the crenic acid, will, by exposure to air, pass into apocrenic acid. If then, geine be a mixture of acids, and is insoluble in the agents which act easily on these acids while separate, we may reasonably con-r elude that the elements of these acids, have arranged themselves anew, entered into a true chem* ical combination, to form geine, a definite proximate principle, whose separate, independent exis- tence, whose properties, combinations, and uses, are as well established as any facts in chem- istry. 124 Economical Geology. Finding then, that the action of water and alcohol on the geine of soils is wholly different from that which ought to ensue, if it is a mixture of crenic and apocrenic acids, other agents have been employed to effect their separation. Now these agents, are precisely those, which we have enumerated above, as having the power to alter the arrangement of the elements of or- ganic matter, or of geine; developing either acid properties, without altering its constitution, or re-arranging its elements, without addition, or subtraction. The long and repeated digestion in carbonate of ammonia, has produced not educed crenic and apocrenic acids.—We are not inform- ed of any other result, of any other product: no evolution of gas, indicating that any decompo- sition has occurred. From the acknowledged chemical tact of Dr. C T. Jackson, we infer, that geine has afforded him only crenic and apocrenic acids. That these are the products of his process can then be easily understood. The atomic weight of geine we have shown is 42. This number differs but little from the sum of the weight of two atoms of crenic acid, and one atom of apocrenic acid. Berzelius de- termined the atomic weight of crenic acid to be, 13.50 of apocrenic acid, 16.50 then 2 atoms crenic = 13.50 X 2 = 27. 1 atom apocrenic 16.50 43.50 Which differs only 0.89 from Boullay's number for geine, deduced from his analysis of ulmate of copper. But allowing the crenic acid, to be 12.75 we have then 2 atoms = 25.50 1 atom apocrenic = 16.50 42.00 And that 12.75 is probably the true number, will appear from re-arranging the atoms of geine, so as to constitute two atoms of crenic and one of apocrenic acid.—1 have met with no analysis of the atomic constitution of these acids,* but taking their atomic weights, as above, and the re- sult of Dr. C. T. Jackson, that geine is wholly separated into these acids, then the number of the atoms constituting their weight, is as follows :— Crenic acid. Apocrenic acid, Carbon, 11. = 8.25 10=7.50 Hydrogen, 4. = .50 8 = 1. Oxygen, 4. = 4. 8 = 8. 12.75 x 2 —|— 16.50 = 42 The number of atoms in 42 geine is 64. as above : and we have 1 atom geine = C.32 H16 O.16 •(Note.)—-Hermann has given the following as the constitution of the crenic, apocrenic, and ulmic acids. (American Journal of Science, fyc. Vol. 36, p. 369). Crenic. Apocrenic. Ulmic. Carbon, 535.0 (= 7 atoms.) 1070.1 ( = 14 atoms.; 6190 Hydrogen, 99.8 (=■ 16 « ) 87.2 ( = 14 " ) 43! Nitrogen, 88.5 (== 1 « ) 265.5 (= 3 " ) H05 Oxygen, 600.0 (=6 " ) 300.0 (= 3 « ) 2274 1323.3 (combining weight) 1722.9 (combining weight) 10000 It is hardly necessary to observe, that these results confirm the suggestion of Dr. Dana in the text that crenic and apocrenic acids were not probably so constituted, as to be entirely converted into geine with- out an excess of any of the ingredients. * • EH Note 0:1 the Nature of Geine. 125 Which resolved, into 2 atoms crenic acid, = C22 H.8 O.8 1 atom apocrenic acid = C.10 H.8 O.8 form one atom of geine = C.32 H.16 O.16 It may be said, that it may be proved, that my statement of the atomic constitution of these acids is not confirmed by analysis. So much the better. That will prove, that geine cannot be a mixture of them. Though these elements theoretically admit of this arrangement, it is not at all probable, that nature forms crenic and apocrenic acids, out of which to form geine, by their complete chemical union ; still less is it probable, that she merely mixes these acids. The constitution of geine is too firmly settled, to allow us to believe, that it is a haphazard mixture. The evidence of the existence of a simple proximate principle, geine, is rather strengthened, than weakened, by the above view of its probable theoretical changes. And as Dr. Jackson states that he has actually separated geine into two acids, he has furnished new and unquestioned proof of the existence of that principle. If the sum of the weights of his crenic and apocrenic acids equals the weight of the organic part of his soluble geine, he furnishes the highest evidence we can have, of the separate, independent existence of that element. I believe he has seen all that he states, and I must ask him to believe that the conclusions to which we have arrived, respect- ing the nature, constitution and properties of geine, are equally founded on experiment. While I thus freely admit the results he states, I express my conviction, that what he has seen, he has produced, that he has merely re-arranged the elements of a well known, definite compound, by the long continued action of ammonia. Such changes may not be readily comprehended by the majority, into whose hands your report may fall—all however now a days understand that there is such a thing as carbon, such elements as oxygen and hydrogen, which last by their union produce water. Now it is evident, by a glance at the above arrangement of the elements of geine, and crenic and apocrenic acids, that these are each and all, resolvable into carbon and water. We may as well deny the existence of crenic and apocrenic acids because resolvable into carbon and water, as to deny the existence of geine, because resolvable into crenic and apocrenic acids. A glance too at the above arrangement, will show us how crenic becomes apocrenic acid by simple exposure; for by absorbing oxygen, each atom parts with 6 atoms carbon, and then 2 atoms crenic form one of apocrenic acid ; for, Oxygen. Hydrogen. Carbon. 2 atoms crenic acid, .. . . 22 8 8 Deducting 12 Carbon, 12 form 1 atom apocrenic, 10 8 8 It is this change, which may account for the great evolution of carbonic acid, which attends the exposure of geine to air. The alkaline, earthy and metallic bases of the silicates of soils, as they are eliminated by the decomposing action of growing plants, all effect catalytic changes in geine. But without these, geine itself is decomposed by air and moisture, evolving volumes of carbonic acid. It becomes in every, and the widest sense, the food of plants, whether we consider it taken up as a simple solution of geine, or geates, or as a prolific source of carbonic acid. I do not however consider carbonic acid as vegetable food, or as playing a very impor- tant part in the nutrition of plants. Jablonski tried to verify the idea of Raspail, and to deter- mine how much is due to the action of carbonic acid. The whole series of his most carefully conducted experiments, feeding plants only on carbonic acid and water, lead to this conclusioni 17 126 Economical Geology. that carbonic acid and water do not sustain plants, after the vegetable nutriment deposited in al- bumen or the cotyledons has been exhausted. I did never suppose, till 1 learnt it from you, that any one could have believed that I denied that plants absorb nourishment from air. Speak- ing wholly of soils, and that by letter, I confined my remarks strictly to the nourishment derived from the earth. But extending the remark to air, geine is the great source of carbonic acid even then, and as far as carbonic acid is absorbed by the roots of plants, is perhaps its only source. I go farther. I believe that geine was, before organic matter, an original formation, dating its birth from the dawning of time, when oxygen and hydrogen and carbon were created. I believe it to have been an original formation, the source whence were nourished the gigantic plants of coal formations, and of itself, forming a large part of such deposits. Hence we find little or no alkalies in our analysis of coal—a little silica, iron, lime and alumina only having been formed as geates, in this early age. I have not thought it worth while, to go into an examination of the practical value, to agricul- ture, of the doctrine of the mixed nature of geine. If it has any value, it depends entirely on showing that crenic and aprocrenic acids require different treatment from geine, and on determin- ing the proportion in which these acids exist in soils. The first has not been done, the last never will be effected. It cannot be. We see these acids passing from one to the other state even during our manipulations ; how then can we determine in what proportions they existed in the original soil ? It may be said, that we can estimate them all, as crenic acid, as Berzelins has, in his analysis of the water of the Porla well. In this case, so far as agriculture is concerned, we may call them geine. With the highest regard, I am Your Friend and Servant. Prop. Hitchcock. SAMUEL L. DANA. Amherst. P. S. I do not ordinarily use the oxygen scale. The statement above being chiefly derived . from Dr. Thompson, I hare employed his numbers for your convenient reference. VI. FOSSIL FUEL. Next in importance to the means of improving our soils, I have regarded the discovery of fossil fuel; that is, fuel dug out of the earth, and resulting from vegetables which have been buried there in former times; and therefore, I have examined with no small care, every spot where such discovery seemed likely to be made. When I prepared my first Report, I confess my xe- pectations were not sanguine that Massachusetts contained within her bosom any extensive de- posits of coal; though aware that not a little peat might be found. But since that time, the enterprise and industry of some of our citizens have put quite a different aspect upon the subject so far as coal is concerned; and I have made such extensive inquiries respecting peat, a3 leads me to suppose its quantity in the state has been much underrated. I will now proceed to o-ive such details as will enable the Government to form an opinion on the subject. Of fossil coal there exists three well marked species. The first is anthra- cite, or stone coal, sometimes called anasphaltic, because destitute of bitu- men, and therefore burning without flame : though the anthracite of this coun- try gives off a feeble flame, resulting from the combustion of hydrogen, which is evolved from its combination with the carbon ; or more probably from water. The second variety is bituminous coal; so called because it contains bitumen. This burns with a white or yellow flame, and is the kind of coal Anthracite of Worcester. 127 most commonly used; except in this country, where anthracite is most ex- tensively employed. The third variety is lignite; which is a more recent kind, not yet entirely carbonized or bituminized. Hence it is sometimes called brown coal. As fuel it is of little value ; but has been used in some parts of Europe. We have all these varieties of coal in Massachusetts ; and I shall now pro- ceed to describe all their known localities. Anthracite of Worcester. Only two large deposits of this species coal have yet been discovered in Massachusetts, one in Worcester, and the other in Mansfield. Several impor- tant localities, however, occur on the borders of the state within the limits of Rhode Island, which I shall notice more particularly farther on. But I shall begin with the Worcester deposit, because this is obviously older than those of Mansfield and Rhode Island. By some of our earlier geological writers it was asserted that the Rhode Island coal deposit was connected with that in Worcester. But a reference to the geological map will show, if I have not been grossly mistaken, that no such connection exits : that in fact the different deposits are in very dif- ferent formations. While those of Mansfield, and Rhode Island are in rock certainly not older than the graywacke, that in Worcester is in a bastard kind of mica slate ; passing sometimes into quartz rock, and at others into argil- laceous slate. No trace of organic remains has been found in this rock, while the other abounds in vegetable impressions and petrifactions. The character of the coal corresponds to these differences in the rocks. That from Mansfield and Rhode Island resembles very much the anthracite of Pennsylvania ; except that occasionally it is more glazed with plumbago ; while that from Worcester is often converted into plumbago. In fact, a good deal of it is ground up and employed for some of the same purposes as black lead. Its aspect is much more stoney than that of Mansfield, and its specific gravity is 2.12; while that of Mansfield and Rhode Island, is 1.75: and that of Pennsylvania, is 1.55. In short, I consider it established beyond all doubt, that the Worcester coal belongs to an older formation, and is in fact almost converted into graphite. The two formations have no connection whatever; and are separated by a wide district of gneiss. The Worcester anthracite forms a bed in a carbonaceous mica slate, ap- proaching closely to argillaceous slate, running nearly N. W. and S. E. and hav- ing a moderate dip to the northeast. It has not been explored but a few feet in depth. Before the work was abandoned by its enterprizing proprietor, Col- onel Binney of Boston, an attempt was made, by going down the hill on 128 Economical Geology. which the bed is situated, and taking off the soil, to reach the lateral out- crop of the coal; which could probably have been easily accomplished, and would greatly facilitate the operations. I have been informed by Dr. Amos Binney of Boston, the present proprietor, that he intends resuming the work. As might be expected from a coal so mineralized, the Worcester anthra- cite ignites with much more difficulty than that from Penesylvania, or Rhode Island. But gentlemen who have tried it, for warming their houses during the winter, among whom may be mentioned Mr. Thomas for many years the keeper of a hotel in Worcester, have assured me that it may be used com- fortably and successfully for fuel. And in some manufacturing establish- ments it is preferred to most kinds of coal. Its analysis, however, indicates more earthy impurity than exists in most good coals. An ordinary specimen yielded as follows in 100 parts. Water, 3 Carbon, 77 Earths and oxides, 20 100 Specific Gravity 2.12. A second specimen, almost converted into plumbago, yielded as fol- lows. Water, 2.4 Earthy Residuum, 26.6 Carbon, 71.0 100.0 According to the experiments of Mr. Bull of Philadelphia, a pound of the best Pennsylvania anthracite maintained ten degrees of heat in a room, 13 hours and 40 minutes, a pound of the Rhode Island anthracite maintained the same heat in the same room, 9 hours 30 minutes ; and a pound of the Worcester anthracite, 7 hours 50 minutes. Theory and experience, there- fore, concur in bringing us to the conclusion, that the Worcester coal is of an inferior quality. Yet in a country so wanting in coal as New England, a de- posit of inferior coal is not to be regarded as useless. The time will pro- bably come when it will be regarded as very valuable. By looking at the Geological Map of the State, it will be seen that the rock formation which embraces the Worcester coal, extends to the mouth of the Merrimack river ; and of course coal may be found in other parts of the formation besides Worcester. In Bradford, where the general aspect of the country, the character of the soil and of the rocks, correspond almost exactly to the region around Worcester, an exploration is going on for coal by means of borino-, which has been continued to the depth of nearly one hundred feet. I saw, however, no peculiar encouragement Anthracite of Bristol and Plymouth Counties, and Rhode Island. 129 at this place, more than at almost any other in the town. Should coal be found there, it will un- doubtedly be of the same character as that in Worcester. Anthracite of Bristol and Plymouth Counties and of Rhode Island. In my Report of 1835, I stated that we might reasonably look for anthra- cite coal in any part of the graywacke formation exhibited on the Geological Map. This exists in several patches in the eastern part of the state: viz. a small deposit on Parker river in Newbury; a much larger one around Bos- ton ; and the principal one, in Bristol and Plymouth Counties; extending also into Rhode Island. The latter covers an area of nearly 400 square miles: and upon this I marked on the map one locality of coal in West Bridgwater, one in Middleborough, and one in Wrentham; as also in Cum- berland and Portsmouth in Rhode Island. In the autumn of 1835, a bed was discovered in Mansfield, which has since been considerally explored, and with others in that place, has proved more important than any other, and excited sanguine expectations that the region may prove an extensive and valuable coal field. Coal had, indeed, been discovered in that place 25 years before: but it was not till 1835, that any systematic efforts were made to explore the beds. Three mining companies have since been formed: viz. " The Massachusetts Mining Company," " The Mansfield Mining Com- pany," and the Mansfield Coal Company;" each of which has opened a pit at different places; and in spite of the stagnation of business and enterprise, and the general incredulity in respect to the existence of valuable coal, they have been so far successful as to satisfy any reasonable men acquainted with coal formations, that a great deal of that mineral may exist beneath the deep diluvial coat of that region. I shall describe the principal excavations made by these companies, with the results to the close of 1838: when the opera- tions were suspended, with the hope of obtaining aid from the Government of the State, to resume them on a larger scale. I have been informed that in the commencement of their efforts, they derived much assistance from the suggestions and advice of Dr. C. T. Jackson, the Geological Surveyor of Maine and Rhode Island. The Massachusetts Mining Company commenced their explorations in 1835, on the farm of Mr. Alfred Harden, where a shaft sunk only 25 feet, struck a bed of coal 5 feet wide, and an- other only 1 foot thick, separated from the first by 10 inches of rock. The shaft has since been carried to the depth of 64 feet; and from the bottom of it, in opposite directions and following the bed of coal, drifts have been exfended 150 feet, and rail-ways laid for bringing the coal to the bottom of the pit, from whence it was, until recently, raised to the surface by a windlass and hand power; but steam power is now used, which greatly increases the daily amount of coal raised. About 1,500 tons had already been raised from this mine, when I visited it in October, 130 Economical Geology* 1838 ; and adrift had been carried from the bottom of the shaft, in a south-east direction, sever- al feet across the rock strata, in search of new beds. Only one about a foot thick had been reached. The explorations at this spot have been carried forward under the direction of Gen. Samuel Chandler, of Lexington, who seemed to me to have managed the whole concern with remarka- bly good judgment, and to have brought the principles of science to bear upon practice with singular success. In his printed Report to the Company, he says, that " although the region has been but very imperfectly explored, even where the strongest external evidence appears, yet four separate veins are known to occur on land leased to the Massachusetts Mining Company,situated at no great distance apart, and parallel in their line of bearing: two of which have been opened sufficiently to ascertain their thickness to be over five feet,n&c The clerk of the company, William B. Dorr, Esq., makes the following statement in respect to these explorations, which must be regarded as very encouraging. " The Massachusetts Min- ing Company," says he, " at an expense of less than $15,000, with all the discouragements of a novel undertaking, the almost entire want of practical knowledge of the subject, and the cost of experiments which experience would have rendered unnecessary, have been able to raise from 1200 to 1500 tons of coal, worth from $5000 to $6000, at the lowest estimate both of the quan- tity mined and of its true value." " The directors have unhesitating confidence in the eventual success of the mining operations at Mansfield ; and nothing but the universal prostration of en- terprise and business, has prevented their pursuing these operations on a scale commensurate with their confidence and the public importance of the subject." There are two methods of ascertaining the value of this coal for fuel: both of which it is desir- able should be applied. One is chemical analysis: by which we learn how much carbon, or com- bustible matter, it contains, and how much earthy residuum that is useless : and the other is ex- perience in using it. In 1835 Dr. C. T. Jackson analysed two specimens taken from the depth of about 25 feet, and the results were as follows : 1st. Specimen. 2d. Specimen. Carbon, 98 Carbon, 96 Peroxide of iron and alumina, 2 Peroxide of iron and alumina, 4 100 100 I have made but two trials with specimens obtained at the mine in 1838, and the result is as follows: 1st. Specimen. 2d. Specimen. Carbon, 94 Water, 5 g Residuum, 6 Carbon, gg 8 ---- Residuum, 5^ 100____ Specific Gravity, 1.70. «00 The amount of carbon in these specimens is a little greater than Prof. Vanuxem obtained from two specimens of anthracite from Rhode Island. In one he found an earthy residue of 5.07 per cent, and in the other of 15.60 per cent. He also found about the same per cent, of water as I obtained in the second trial; this item having been neglected by me in the first trial as well as by Dr. Jackson, as our chief object was to ascertain the amount of earthy residuum. The amount of carbon in the Mansfield coal is nearly equal to that in « the purest anthracite of Lehigh," in which Prof. Vanuxem found 3.3 per cent, of earthy residue, and the mean of the Anthracite of Mansfield. 131 four analyses given above is only 4.4 per cent, of residuum. The composition, then, indicates the very best kind of anthracite. Its specific gravity, however, is 1.70; while a specimen of Peach Mountain coal in Pennsylvania, was only 1.49 ; and hence, perhaps, we might expect some more difficulty in producing perfect combustion in the former than in the latter. As to the testimony which experience gives to the value of this coal, so far as that testimony is within my reach, it corresponds to what chemical analysis would indicate. It ought to be recollected, however, that beds of coal near the surface of the earth, are always more less affected by the action of water, which insinuates itself into their crevices. I have understood, that from this cause the coals of Pennsylvania have improved since the beds were first opened. It ought also to be recollected, that coal from a new locality may be expected to require a little different mode of management to make it burn well; and also that when men do not find such new arti- cle to conduct precisely like that which they have been accustomed to use, they are apt to infer at once that it must be of an inferior quality ; and they are not willing to be at the trouble of making experiments to get over the difficulty. " The quality of this coal," says Gen. Chandler, " has given very good satisfaction generally to the purchasers, notwithstanding it was taken by many under unfavorable circumstances."— " Many competent judges who have had opportunties of testing its qualities thoroughly, represent it equal, in their opinion, to the Pennsylvania Anthracite in all its essential properties."—" The fine coal has been taken in considerable quantities and used as fuel for steam power, and proves to be a very superior article for that purpose, &c." Foster Bryant, Esq., of Mansfield, who appears to be very familarly acquainted with all the mining operations in that region, states, that as the beds have been explored to greater depth the quality of the coal has improved, which he imputes to the action of the water upon the upper portion of the beds. This often prevents the thorough combustion of the coal, although it ig- nites without difficulty and burns well for four or five hours. He adds, that " the coal of Mans- field, even in its present impure state, is capable of being converted to all economical purposes, and contaminated as it now is by adventitious substances, it is a better, far better article, than the coals from the Little Schuylkill were in 1831, and altogether better than the first year's produce from the Lackawana mines." "The quality of the coal," says Mr. Dorr, "has afforded entire satisfaction to those who have taken the pains to give it a thorough trial, and to investigate its distinctive properties. Several of the directors use it exclusively for fuel, in open grates, cylinder stoves, and cooking ranges. It is found to ignite and burn best with a very moderate draught: and broken to about the size of a butternut. Uniformity in size is of course desirable. Under favorable circumstances, little difference is found in comparison with the best Pennsylvania anthracite, whether in relation to facility of ignition or intensity and durability of heat." " The community generally, from feeling less interest in its success than the proprietors, will naturally take less pains in its use ; and like every new discovery, its general introduction will doubtless be gradual." In my Report of 1838,1 adduced the testimony of Capt. Bunker and 35 passangers, of the steam boat President, on board of which the Mansfield coal was used during a trip from Provi- dence to New York. They regarded this coal " fully equal to the Pennsylvania coal in all es- sential properties." In a Report on the Coal Mines of the state, made to the Legislature of Massachusetts in 1839, we have a similar certificate from 16 of the inhabitants of Mansfield who had used the coal in their stores and families. They state that " the coal taken from 26 to 50 feet in depth was poor, and much of it scarcely capable of combustion," but " that taken from the depth of 60 feet and upwards, is equal to the Pennsylvania coal in all respects excepting a larger portion of waste," (p. 34.) A short account which I shall give in the sequel, of the coal mines of Rhode Island, will tend to confirm this testimony still farther. 132 Economical Geology. Explorations of the Mansfield Coal Company, and the Mansfield Mining Company. The Mansfield Coal Company have simply sunk a shaft of 64 feet near the center of Mansfield, but have met with only a little coal: another shaft was sunk, half a mile north-west of the Har- den farm, by the Mansfield Mining Company, to the depth of 84 feet, in which a bed only a lew inches thick was crossed. A drift was then commenced at the bottom of this shaft, horizontally, towards the southeast so as to cross the strata. This had not been pushed far, when a bed of coal was struck, which, at the place, was about 10 feet thick ; though on exploring it laterally for a few feet, it was found to be somewhat irregular ; as indeed most of the beds are in the region, and as they are in fact in all coal fields. In crossing this vein, 25 tons of coal were thrown out, some of which is of a very superior quality ; as may be seen in the collection (No. 207.) For specimens I am indebted to Mr. Joseph D. Clapp, the agent, who informs me that this vein has received the name of the " Wading Vein." When I visited it in October it had recently been discovered, and I have not since learned whether it has been pursued farther. I subjected 100 grains of it to analysis with the following result. Carbon, 96 Alumina, Iron, &c, 4 100 Specific Gravity, 1.79 We have seen, from the testimony of Gen. Chandler, that four distinct beds of coal are already known upon land leased to the Massachusetts Mining Company. Mr. Foster Bryant states, that " seven distinct veins of coal have been struck in Mansfield, and the strongest indications are found of five more, one of which, from its great breadth is probably a continuation of the great vein at Cumberland." This is a great number to be discovered so early. For it ought to be stated that the whole of that region is covered by a coating of diluvial earth nearly 20 feet thick ; so that it is only when in digging a well, or other excavation, that much chance exists for dis- covering the coal: for I could not learn that any streams in the vicinity have cut through this diluvium. The fact that with such peculiar difficulties in the way, so large a number of beds have been discovered in the space of a little more than two years, is to my mind a very strong proof that the region of Mansfield is likely to prove a very rich and valuable coal field. By looking at the Geological Map of the State it will be seen that the greywacke formation embraces a large part of Bristol and part of Plymouth counties, as well as a part of Rhode Island. All this space which Mr. Bryant estimates at more than 400 square miles, is to be regarded as a coal field • and indeed, on the northern side, which is nearly 30 miles long, coal has been found in various places through the whole distance. A very large part of this extensive region is covered by a thick coat of diluvium, as in Mansfield; and where rocks appear in place above the surface they are those varieties of the greywacke which are least likely to contain coal, being coarse and hard. The coal usually occurs in fine dark colored slate, alternating with gray sandstone: and these are very liable to be disintegrated and worn away. Hence, the best prospect of finding coal is where the rock is most worn away, and the soil deepest. Such is the rock every where found in Mansfield, and since an almost perfectly level plain exists there, over many square miles I infer that the rock is very similar over its whole extent; and hence that probably we may hope for more success in explorations there, than in almost any other part of the coal region above de- scribed. Explorations for the Mansfield Coal. 133 It is a fortunate circumstance that the great Rail-Road from Boston to Providence passes across the center of the plain of Mansfield, and within 20 rods of the Harden farm, where the most extensive exploration has been made. From this spot it is 15 miles to Providence, 11 to Taunton, and 26 to Boston. A more favorable situation could hardly have been chosen for the location of this coal, had the proprietors themselves selected the site. Coal rarely Occurs in veins, properly so called : that is, occupying fissures which run across the lay- ers of the rock. But it is uniformly found lying between the layers of the rock ; that is,in what are cal- led seams, or beds. If the layers of the rocks are horizontal, the beds will be horizontal. But gen- erally, and especially in the graywacke formation, the strata dip more or less beneath the horizon, and of course the coal beds dip at the same angle. Being thus inclined, they will also run in the same direction as the upturned edges of the rock in which they are contained. Hence every coal bed will have a certain dip and direction. The extent to which the bed on the Harden farm in Mansfield has been opened, viz, 150 feet each way from the shaft, affords a good opportunity to determine these points in "respect to that mine. I applied the clinometer and pocket compass at the bottom of this mine, and found the dip to be 53Q north-westerly, and the direction nearly N. E. and S. W., though exhibiting minor deviations. And such are the dip and direction, with- in a few degrees, of all the rocks and coal beds that have been explored in the graywacke of Bris- tol County, and in Rhode Island ; except that on the Island it is said the dip is nearly 90Q south- easterly. Now it is evident, that if a trench could be cut through the loose soil across the edges of the strata, it would bring into view all the beds of coal that exist in them. But several gentlemen who are practically acquainted with such operations, assure me, that such a trench would be far more expensive than it would be to sink a shaft several hundred feet into the rock; and then to push horizontal drifts through the rocks at right angles to the strata. And besides, were this done, and a rail-way laid at the bottom of the drift, as soon as a bed of coal was discovered, the mining and raising of it might immediately commence, without, preventing the further prosecu- tion of the drift. This, then, appears to me, the thing that is wanted in the region under consideration. Suppose such a shaft, for instance, to be sunk 300 or 400 feet in the vicinity of the mine on the Harden farm, and a drift extended in opposite directions across the strata. We might be almost certain that these drifts would cross several valuable beds, since they are already known to exist in the vicinity. And thus the proprietors might have a fair prospect of remuneration, even if no new beds should be discovered : since this would probably, in the end, be the most economical way of opening the beds now known. But it is hardly to be conceived that no new and valuable beds would be discovered by extending the drift farther. Yet if they should not be found after car- rying it forward a reasonable distance, it might be abandoned with little loss. How far it might be thought advisable to prosecute such a drift, it is difficult to say, until the work be begun: but perhaps it would be desirable to extend it several miles ; which might be done, I understand, for less than $25,000 per mile, exclusive of the cost of the shaft. I should not be surprised if in tunneling towards the north-west, from the center of Mansfield, at the depth of 300 or 400 feet, the level should, ere many miles, be arrested by unstiatified rocks, which rise to the sur- face within a few miles in that direction, and the graywacke may be thinner near the edges of the formation than in its more central parts. In the opposite direction, I should not expect any such obstruction, till the drift had been carried to the eastern part of Middleborough. I have been told that the three companies above named, aj engaged in mining for coal in Mans- field, have thought of uniting their resources for examining the vicinity of that place, by a plan es- sentially the same as that mentioned above. This resolution is certainly deserving of high com- mendation. For should these companies succeed in laying open a sufficient number of beds of coal to supply the wants of the eastern half of Massachusetts, (and I am not without strong 18 r34 Economical Geology. hopes that they may succeed,) so as to render our citizens independent of foreign importation, and reduce the price of fuel at least one half, hardly anything can be thought of that would give such a spur to industry and enterprise, and tend more to permanent prosperity. And allow me to inquire, whether the object is not of sufficient importance, and the prospect of success encourag- ing enough, to induce the Government of the State, by loan or otherwise, to encourage this undertaking. In general, it is probably best to leave such enterprises to private efforts ; but in this case the investments must be so heavy that private companies may not feel justified in ap- propriating sufficient money to have the work done thoroughly : and if the Government, proba- bly without any pecuniary loss, can lend its aid, it will give a powerful stimulus to private exer- tions. I make this suggestion, however, without any request on the part of these companies, and even with scarcely a personal acquaintance with any of their number. It will probably surprise most of the citizens of Massachusetts to be informed, (as we are by the able report on our Coal Mines above referred to,) that about two and a half millions of dol- lars are annually sent out of the state for fuel ! Not less surprising is the fact that Pennsyl- vania realizes from her coal mines an annual income of four and a half millions ; and Great Brit- ian, of 192 millions of dollars. Diluvial Drift of Coal. General Chandler mentioned to me a mode of exploring for coal, which he had successfully adopted, and which may be of use to others, depending on a knowledge of the direction which tvas taken by the diluvial waters that deposited the deep accumulation of sand and gravel lying over the coal region. It is an ingenious practical application, and at the same time a beautiful illustration and confirmation of the general doctrine advanced in my former Report, that a power- ful diluvial current has swept over this state from the north. Whenever in digging into the soil he found fragments of coal, guided by this principle, he dug in a northerly direction; and never failed to find the number and size of the fragments to increase until he arrived at the bed from which they were broken. Following the fragments in the opposite direction, they continued to decrease in size and number until at the distance of several rods from the bed they disappeared. Hence, if in digging through the soil no fragments of coal should occur, it might pretty safely be inferred that no bed of much size exists for several rods in a northerly direction ; and if they are found, the explorer need be at no loss in what direction he will find the bed. Coal Bed in Foxborough. I ought perhaps to have described the coal bed in Foxborough earlier. For it is only about two miles from the excavations in Mansfield, and belongs to the same coal field. Good coal was obtained there, formerly, in two places a few rods apart: but the shafts are now filled up. A specimen of this coal gave the following results upon analysis: Water, 5 Carbon, 77 Earths, oxides, &c., 18 100 Specific gravity, 186. The quantity of earthy matter here is much larger than in the specimens from Mansfield ; yet it is not much larger than some of the coals contain that are extensively used ; and very proba- bly the specimen which I analyzed was comparatively poor. It is not probable, however that this bed will be re-opened at present. Anthracite of Rhode Island. 135 Anthracite in Wrentham. Several excavations have been made in the southerly part of Wrentham for coal: but only in one place has any been found : although some interesting vegetable relics have been brought to light at nearly all the pits. At the place where some anthracite has been discovered, an explora- tion 180 feet deep has been made ; all except 10 feet, in a dark carbonaceous slate, running near- ly east and west, and dipping north about 45°. The specimens of coal were a good deal mixed with earthy impurities and iron pyrites. Nevertheless I analyzed one of them with the follow- ing results. Water, 6.6 Carbon, 50.4 Earths, oxides &c 43.0 Unless a purer variety than this can be found, it will hardly be worth exploration ; and in fact the exploration has been abandoned; as beds, even of a variety so poor, have been yet found only a few inches thick. Anthracite of Rhode Island. I notice in this place the coal of Rhode Island, first, because it is found in the same coal forma- tion which occupies the southern part of Massachusetts: secondly, because the beds lie so near to Massachusetts as to be as important to her inhabitants as to those of Rhode Island: and thirdly, because some of these beds have long been wrought and experiments were made to determine the value of the coal for fuel: and therefore will help us in forming an opinion respecting the coal of Massachusetts. The coal bed in Cumberland, which is only a mile or two from the Massachusetts line, was discovered and opened somewhat earlier than those in Mansfield. The dip and direction of the beds are the same in both places. The bed in Cumberland was 9 feet thick at its outcrop, beneath 20 feet of diluvium : but at the depth of 40 feet, it had increased to 14 feet. It was explored 70 feet deep, or 300 feet laterally, when the work was suspended by the destruction of the machinery by fire. The testimony of Mr. John Alexander, the agent of the N. England Coal Mining Company, by whom the mine has been opened, and of several other gentleman who seem to have given the coal a fair trial, is very decided that this coal is of a good quality, not inferior to that in Mansfield, and scarcely inferior to that from Pennsylvania. It is also the uniform testimony, that it increases in value as the depth increases from which it was obtained. {Report on the Coal Mines of Mas- sachusetts p. 29.,) It is greatly to be desired, that the application of this Company to the Gov- ernment of Rhode Island for aid in reopening this mine, may be successful. In the south part of Newport, on the island of Rhode Island, beds of anthracite occur a few inches in thickness. During the revolutionary war, the British army, after consuming nearly all the wood upon the island, attempted to find coal at this place ; and the marks of their explora- tions yet remain. But near the beginning of the present century, more extensive excavations were made at Portsmouth, in the north part of the island, and with no little success. Dr. Meade says, that the vein then wrought was 14 feet wide ; and * with only fifteen work men, they can raise at present from 10 to 20 chaldrons of coal per day, besides keeping the mine free from water; from which they suffer little inconvenience.'* He speaks of the bed of coa! as ' not horizontal or vertical, but forming an angle of about 75.° > * Bruce'i Mineralogica) Journal, January, 1820, p. 84. 136 Economical Geology. A great variety of causes led to the abandonment of these explorations ; but a few years since they were again resumed ; and through the kindness of Dr. Thomas H. Webb, of Providence, I have before me a letter addressed to that gentleman, from J. Clowes, the intelligent agent em- ployed to superintend this second exploration ; from which I derive the following facts respecting the anthracite of Portsmouth. The letter is dated February 18th, 1828 ; which appears to have been about the time when the work was the stcond time abandoned. The quantity of anthracite raised at these mines in 1827, by 20 men and 5 boys, was 2200 tons, and an equal quantity of slack : that is, very small coal and dust. The former sold at the mine for $4.50 per ton, of 2240 pounds ; and the slack for $1 per ton. The slack was used for burning lime and bricks. The best coal was mostly employed for fires in families, except in New York, where it was used for making glass ; for generating steam under the common circu- lar or round boiler ; for blacksmiths ; and in general for any purpose where anthracites are employed. The agent regards these mines as capable of furnishing an inexhaustible supply. He represents the coal as occurring in veins ; but his descriptions apply rather to beds; and I am almost cer- tain that it occurs in beds. Six of these have been exposed ; and more than 30 are said to exist in that part of Rhode Island. Their direction is southwest and northeast, and they dip southeast from 40° to 90.° The following are the strata that were penetrated in sinking a water shaft, or engine pit, 87 feet; and in fifteen other places they were found to be very similar. Sand and Gravel, 9 feet. Dark Colored Slate, 12 Hard Compact Graywacke, 23 Soft Black Slate, 4 Hard Brown Slate, 5 Soft Fine Gray Slate, 1 Very Hard Brown Slate, 17 Gray Freestone, • 12 Coal, 4 Vegetable remains were found only in one of these excavations, about nineteen feet below the surface. The failure of the mining operations in Portsmouth, between the years 1809 and 1816, result- ed, according to Mr. Clowes, from two general causes : 1. A want of practical skill in those who conducted the operations. This prevented as much system in the works as was necessary, and also the introduction of proper and economical machinery. And h; says, that * amono-st the many losses, which contributed to work their ruin, that was not the least, of allowing or permitting the workmen to have from half a pint to a pint of spirituous liquors during the workino- hours. We neither allow nor permit any thing of the sort, nor is it allowed or permitted in any mining es- tablishment in Europe. Instead of benefitting a man it actually incapacitates him : and exclusive of the immoral effects on the passions of the workmen, 1 consider it a loss to the owners of at least one sixth of the whole manual labor.' The second cause of failure, he says, lay in sending the coal from the mines in an improper state ; that is, unsorted, and in too large lumps. He says that the Rhode Island coal does not break easily when ignited, like the Lehigh coal, and that this fact and the amount of impurities which it contained, injured its reputation in the market. He thinks that if mixed in equal quantity with the Pennsylvania or bituminous coal, it answers best for fuel: and he says he has abundant evidence, that one ton of the Rhode Island coal, mixed with a ton of that from Pennsyl- vania, is equal to two tons of the anthracite from the latter state. Bristol County and Rhode Island Coal. 137 Numerous experiments were made a few years ago, and are detailed in the eleventh volume of the American Journal of Science, by Mr. Bull of Philadelphia, and Professor Silliman of Yale College, to determine the comparative value of the Rhode Island and Pennsylvania anthracite : and the fair conclusion from all their experiments is, that the former is not much inferior to the latter. Now as the Mansfield anthracite belongs to the same continuous formation, and can hardly be distinguished from that of Portsmouth, by its external characters, the same conclusions will apply to both. But even though we should admit that the New England anthracite is a good deal inferior to that from Pennsylvania, it may still be very valuable. The fact is, anthracite has to struggle with prejudices wherever it is first introduced, arising chiefly from the comparative difficulty with which it is ignited ; and it happens in regard to this substance, as with most things new and untried, that the community generally feel, as if their business was to find as many objections to it as possible ; and the man who would bring any new substance into general use, needs no small share of patience, and perseverance. Dr. Meade states, that an experiment made several years ago at Smithfield, upon the burning of limestone, with the Rhode Island coal, and another upon the burning of brick, in the vicinity of Boston, were thought to be complete failures, because the heat was so intense, that the surface of the lime and of the bricks was vitrified; whereas the fact ought to have taught the experimenters, that a more careful regulation of the heat would ensure success. Indeed, I predict, that ere long, in nearly every case where a strong and steady heat is required, anthracite will be found su- perior to all other kinds of fuel; and that the anthracites of Rhode Island, Mansfield, and even that of Worcester, will be considered by posterity, if not by the present generation, as a treasure of great value. The Pennsylvania coal may indeed, for many years, command the market; but I apprehend, that the time will come, when the expenses of its transportation to the Eastern States, and the increasing demand for it, will lead to the re-opening of the pits, that are now abandoned in New England. In the sandstone in the vicinity of Connecticut river, anthracite has been found in very small quantities, at Turner's Falls in Gill, at the Southampton lead mine, whose adit penetrates this rock, and at Enfield in Connecticut. But this is probably bituminous coal, rendered anasphaltic by local causes. The geological character of the rocks containing the workable anthracite of Bristol County and of Rhode Island, is a point of no small importance. In my former reports I have regarded this rock as graywacke and graywacke slate; and have considered them older than those containing anthracite in Pennsylvania; while the rock embracing the Worcester anthracite is older than either. The characters of these rocks, as well as of the coal, form the basis of this opinion : and although it seems probable from the researches of Prof. H. D. Rogers, that the Pennsylvania anthracite is in secondary rocks, yet I am still disposed to think that the coal region of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, must be referred to the transition series; that is to the gray- wacke. I did suspect that it might be of the same age as the anthracitous rocks of Pennsylvania: but upon re-examination, the arguments appear to me rather to preponderate against that opinion. I shall consider the subject in detail in the scientific part of my Report: but wish here to say, that even if the New England anthracitous formation be graywacke, it can militate but slightly against the probable value and extent of the coal which it contains. 138 Economical Geology. Formerly I confess I had not great confidence that its value or extent was great. But more thorough examination and the development of new facts, have produced a sincere and strong conviction that both Massachusetts and Rhode Island possess in this formation a treasure, as yet mostly hidden, but which will be more appreciated as it is more developed. Bituminous Coal. The sandstone formation in the valley of Connecticut River is the only region in Massachusetts where bituminous coal has been, or probably ever will be found. As yet it has been discovered there only in thin beds of little importance ; and it becomes an interesting question whether the prospect of finding larger beds is great enough to justify an extensive exploration. The first point to be determined is, to what part of the series of rocks is this sandstone formation to be referred ? From the fact of its containing coal some have referred it at once to the coal formation. But from arguments which I shall present in the scientific part of my Report, I am forced to the conclusion that it belongs rather to the new red sandstone series ; or that it is the equivalent of that formation in Europe. Yet if this be admiited, shall we infer that there is no hope that it may contain coal in such quantity, and of such quality as to be useful for fuel ? A few years ago, geologists would have peremptorily decided this question in the affirmative: but in the present state of their science, it seems to me we may at least reasonably hesitate, and perhaps draw a contrary inference. It is now generally admitted that all coal has a vegetable origin; and that simply by the long continued action of water, under certain circumstances, vegeta- ble matters pass into the state of peat, next into lignite, then into bitumin- ous coal, and finally into anthracite : though this last substance more com- monly, perhaps, results from the action of heat on bituminous coal: and if the heat be powerful enough, even plumbago may be produced: 'as wood has been, thus changed,' says Dr. Macculloch,* ' in my experiments, and as coal is daily in the iron furnaces.' Such a change he found, in one case at least, produced upon common coal, in the vicinity of a trap dyke: hence he reasonably infers, < that even the plumbago of the primary strata, no less than the anthracite, might as well have originated in vegetables, as that each of these should owe an independent origin to elementary mineral carbon.' According to this theory, why may we not hope to find large quantities of workable coal in any formation where we find it in small quantities ? For, the same causes that could produce it in thin beds, might reasonably be sup- posed adequate to the production of large masses. Anthracite is found in almost every rock from lias to gneiss; and bituminous coal occurs in the oo- * System of Geology, &c. Vol. 1. p. 298. Bituminous Coal. 139 litic and new red sandstone series, as well as in the proper coal measures.* True, so far as we yet know, the coal measures contain the principal depos- its of the latter species in Europe; and perhaps in this country: But who knows whether the circumstances under which our new red sandstone was deposited, might not have been such as to produce extensive masses of coal 1 This would not constitute so great a difference between our new red sand- stone and most of that in Europe, as the almost entire absence in the former of gypsum and rock salt; minerals which, on the eastern continent, are re- garded as eminently characteristic of this formation. In Yorkshire, Eng- land, coal has been found in the new red sandstone : and on the European continent, as in Poland, f occasionally in thin seams: and it has been recent- ly ascertained, that the Brora coal field in Scotland, which is probably the equivalent of that of Tecklenberg—Lingen, in Prussia, is contained in the lias ;J a formation which lies above the new red sandstone; and, therefore, every presumption is in favor of finding coal in the new red sandstone ; since this lies between the lias and the real coal measures. This conclusion is still farther strengthened by the fact, that Humboldt, Daubuission, and other able geologists, consider the red sandstone group, and the coal measures, as be- longing to the same formation.^ All these facts prove, it seems to me, that it was a hasty generalization which limited workable coal to the coal meas- ures ; and that, therefore, we should not be prevented from searching for coal in the new red sandstone of the Connecticut valley. And besides, it may be that the true coal formation lies beneath the red sandstone. The coal in this rock occurs in the form of thin beds and irregular nodules, which are rarely but a few inches in diameter. In almost every instance, it appears to be the result of the car- bonization of a single plant, whose form can be distinctly traced ; though it is always broken into fragments, whose length rarely exceeds two feet. At Whitmore's ferry in Sunderland; in the north part of South Hadley, and on the north bank of Westfield river in West Springfield, the coal is highly bituminous : though least so at the last named locality. But at Turner's falls, in Gill; at the Southampton lead mine, and at Enfield falls, (Connecticut,) it is anthracite. At the junction of this same formation with the greenstone at Berlin, in Connecticut, Dr. Percival has described a vein of bituminous coal penetrating the greenstone. He says, however, that * it more usually has the appearance of cinders so mixed up with siliceous matter as to be hardly combustible.' It becomes an interesting inquiry, whether local circumstances will enable us to explain why * See Brongniart's Tableau de la Succession et de la Disposition des Terrains et Roches, &c. Paris, 1829, Also Conybeare and Phillip's Geology of England and Wales, Vol. ] p. 329. Al. Brongniart also de» scribes, as occurring in the Plastic Clay formation of Mount Meissner in Hesse, ' a true anthracite—that is to say, a dense carbon without bitumen, sometimes with a dull, sometimes with a shining fracture. We here find a thicker bed of compact, solid, bituminous carbon, having a nearly straight fracture, burning witfj facility, and presenting many of the characters of true Coal.' Phil. Mag. Vol. II. N. Series, p. 108, t Conybeare's Report on Geology, (1832) p. 390. t Philosophical Magazine, Vol.11. N. Series, p. 101. § De la Beche's Geological Manual, 2d. Edition, (London, 1832.) p. 405. 140 Economical Geology. the coal at some of these localities is bituminous, and at others anthracite. ' We know,' says Prof. Al. Brongniart,* «that the coal which is in contact with the veins or dykes of La^anite, or trap, that traverse it, and that which approaches masses of porphyry, is less bituminous than other portions of the bed, and that it even loses all its bitumen, and in passing to the state of an- thracite, exhibits, as it were, a kind of vitreous texture, &c' Few geologists will now doubt but the proximity of granite produces a similar effect. Now at Turner's falls we know that a large mass of trap is not far from the coal; and at Southampton, that granite is still nearer ; and hence we should expect the coal at these places to have lost its bitumen. I am not aware, how- ever, of the proximity of either of these rocks to the coal at Enfield falls; though ignorant of its particular location. At Sunderland and South Hadley the trap is so far distant, that we are not surprised to find bitumen. The existence of bituminous coal, however, in the trap at Berlin, Ct. is quite remarkable ; and the fact that a portion of it is converted into pseudo cinders, proves that heat does not necessarily drive out the bitumen. The contorted condition of the strata at the locality of coal in West Springfield, renders it quite probable that trap rock exists a short distance beneath the surface. The pretty uniform dip of the strata, where they are laid bare in that town several miles in width, by Westfield river, is from 15° to 20° east. But at the spot just referred to, we find the anomaly which is here sketched. It is a satisfactory explanation of this case to suppose that greenstone, or some other igneous rock, has pressed upwards with such force between A and E, as to give to the strata a saddle shaped appearance for a few rods. (Four rods from A. to E.) Bituminous Coal, West Springfield. Within a few years past, the banks and the bed of the river at the place above sketched, which is called Midneag Falls, have been somewhat extensively excavated for building factories. The consequence was, the bringing of coal of the most beautiful variety, that I have ever seen; a specimen of which is in the State Collection. It appears to exist here in the form of small and irregular veins, the coal also being filled with numerous thin veins and crystalizations of calcareous spar. This is a most remarkable mode of occurrence, and very interesting in a scientific point of view: and perhaps, also, of consequence in a practical point of view: otherwise I should not here describe it. Coal is, indeed, described in geolo- gical books as sometimes occupying fissures in rocks, along with fragments of those rocks: but in this case the coal is broken by mechanical violence. Yet at West Springfield, it has evidently been filled into the fissures, just as the associated calcareous spar was, by a chemical agency. The latter may have been deposited from water: but I can conceive of no way in which the coal could have been formed, but by sublimation and consequent solidifica- tion, as the temperature was reduced. * Tableau des Terrains &c. p. 283. Bituminous Coal of West Springfield. 14l In short, my supposition is, that coal may exist beneath this spot, and that by the agency of trap rocks, a part of it was melted, the superincumbent sandstone forced up, and into its fissures the sublimated coal ascending, but not being able to esc ape, was reconsolidated into coal. I am aware of but one analogous fact having been noticed elsewhere,* and this makes me less confident in this hypothesis. Yet every fact respecting the situation of this coal corresponds to it, as does also its chemical composition. For if it were the result of sublimation, we might expect it to be free from those earthy and metallic matters, that I believe have always been found in coal upon analysis. And such it will be seen, is the fact with the West Springfield coal: or rather it is free from impurity as most crystals are. It is, indeed, difficult to separate mechanically from this coal all the thin layers of calca- reous spar with which it abounds, and hence there will often be a small re- siduum after burning in a platinum bowl: but diluted cold nitric acid dis- solved this almost entirely, with effervescence in three trials which I made ; and hence I conclude it to be carbonate of lime, which ought not to be reck- oned as an impurity, because existing only in the fissures of the coal, and subsequently introduced. A pure specimen of this coal yielded, upon analysis, as follows: Volatile matter, (water and bitumen,) 22.00 Carbon, 77.97 Earthy residuum, 0.03 100. The method which I adopted to ascertain the amount of volatile matter was simply to heat the triturated coal in a broad platinum bowl, nearly to redness, until all the bituminous odor had disappeared. This, I am aware, is not a very satisfactory mode of determining the amount of bitumen ; but it is sufficient for my present purpose to show, that a large proportion of bitumen exists in this coal. And every one must see, that its composition is such as would make it one of the finest coals ever discovered, could it be found in sufficient quantity. If the hypothesis above advanced bo true, there would result as an infer- ence, a probability, that, by boring into the sandstone in the bed of the river at the highest part of the arch, a bed of coal might be discovered. And since the span of that arch is so limited, it seems hardly possible, that the * Richard E. Taylor Esq. has recently described a genuine vein of bituminous coal of considerabL extent, uear Ilavanna, in the island of Cuba. His analysis of this coal is as follows, Volatile Matter, (gas &c.) 63.00 Carbon, 34.97 Ashes and cinder, 2.03 100.00 Philosophical Magazine, 3d series Vol. 10, p. 160. 19 142 Economical Geology. upheaving power can be situated more than 100 or 200 feet below the river: that is, the trap rock, the supposed disturbing cause, would probably be struck before that depth were reached ; and since the coal, if it exist, must lie above the trap rock, this would be reached. Whether the probability of finding a bed of workable coal is strong enough to justify the expenditure of a few hundred dollars in such an exploration, others concerned can now judge as well as myself. Useless Search for Coal. When wte consider the great economical value of coal, it is no wonder that it should be sought after with great avidity. But it is to be regretted that so many unreasonable expectations of finding this substance prevail in many parts of the State, where a slight knowledge of the geology would enable any one to decide with absolute certainty that no coal exists. It may be stated with a good deal of confidence, that the graywacke formation in the eastern part of the state, and the sandstone on Connecticut river, with the range of im- perfect mica slate extending from the mouth of Merrimack river to the south part of Worcester county, are the only portions of the state where coal will ever be found; and even in respect to the last named rock, it would be un- reasonable to expect in it coal of much economical value. It is possible, I grant, that some of the dark colored slates of Berkshire County may con- tain anthracite, allied to plumbago; but very probably all their carbonaceous matter will be found to consist of plumbago: and it would be extremely inju- dicious to make any expensive researches in that county for coal. Indeed, the same may be said in respect to every part of the state except the valley of the Connecticut and the graywacke region of the eastern part of the state. Yet in almost every part of the commonwealth, besides those just named, I have found respectable men so confident that coal exists in their vicinity, that every effort of mine to convince them to the contrary, seemed only to increase their confidence in their opinion. In some cases it is easy to see how a person unacquainted with rocks is deceived. In Dedhani, for instance, I noticed that in digging wells, it was common to strike upon a disintegrat- ing trap rock, which considerably resembles the bituminous shale that en- closes coal; and I found that the proprietor of one of these wells, which was originally commenced only for getting water, had been carrying it deeper in search of coal: and he appeared to be perfectly confident of finding it, by pushing the excavation deeper; which he intended to do ere long; and it seemed to me that all my endeavors to convince him that his labor and mon- ey would be lost, only strengthened his opinion. And yet granite and trap Useless Search for Coal. 143 were the only rocks visible in that vicinity! Coal was to be found in rocks which have most assuredly been once in a melted state! A tradition has long existed that the Indians were acquainted with a local- ity of coal near Monument mountain in Great Barrington: and a few years since, a descendant of these natives, from the western part of the country, was induced to return thither in order to point out the spot where this trea- sure was concealed. He professed, however, to take offence at something and departed without making the disclosure. I think that I have been more for- tunate, and have discovered the spot, without either an Indian or a mineral rod. At the eastern foot of Monument mountain, in an open pasture, lie, one or two large fragments of rock, containing schorl: a mineral exactly re- sembling coal in appearance : but which is not only notcoal, but a certain in- dication that the rock in which it occurs does not contain coal. For it is a crys- talized mineral, found only in the older rocks, and never in the coal forma- tion. Yet this is the substance, which being discovered a few years ago at the mouth of Kennebeck river, led to the announcement in the newspapers that a rich mine of coal had been found there: and I doubt not but it formed the foundation of the tradition respecting coal at Monument mountain. Surely I cannot conceive what other appearance there could have given rise to such a story. For the mountain itself is composed of granular quartz, and all the region around is as unlike a coal region as it well can be: nearly as much so as a region of trap and granite. It ought to be remarked, however, that anxious as our citizens are to find coal within our borders, and confident as many of them are that it exists around them, scarcely no expense has been incurred in useless excavations. And it is sincerely hoped that enough of geological knowledge is now diffused through the community, to prevent any of those extravagant enterprises of this kind, which have proved ruinous and ridiculous in other parts of the United States. A year or two since it was stated in the public papers, that a rich deposit of coal had been found in Montague nearly opposite the mouth of Deerfield river. Appearances are indeed as promising at that spot, as almost any where in the valley of the Connecticut, the rock being shale resembling that which accompanies coal. And some of it is glazed with carbonaceous mat- ter : and this is in fact the supposed coal. But having subjected some of it in an open platinum vessel to the heat of a strong furnace for 2 1-2 hours, it lost only 6.7 per cent, leaving 93.3 per cent, of matter absolutely incom- bustible ! It is by no means impossible that a good bed of coal may be found at this place: but the preceding statement shows that it has not yet been discovered. 144 Economical Geology. Peat. Taking the state as a whole, peat is but little used, either as fuel or ma- nure ; though most employed for the latter purpose. Yet for both purposes its use is rapidly increasing, especially in the eastern part of the state, where fuel is more expensive. In view of its importance, I have made some efforts to ascertain its probable amount in our swamps. But this is very difficult; both because our swamps, where it occurs, have been but slightly explored, and because much is called merely mud, that deserves the name of peat. Several gentlemen, however, to whom I addressed inquiries on this subject, in different towns, have ventured to give an opinion as to the thickness of the beds, and the number of acres of peat found there. The following state- ment embraces nearly 50 towns; though by no means all in which I know peat to exist. But my object at this time is to give data for forming an ap- proximate estimate of the amount of this deposit in the state. Besides the towns mentioned in the table, appended, I am sure of its existence in the following places : and I doubt not but I might add nearly every town in the State. It exists in Seekonk? Uxbridge, Co! assett, Medfield, Walpole, Wrentham, Dovers, Framingham, Sudbury, Topsfield, Ipswich, Pittsfield, Leverett, Hadley, Sunderland, Shutesbury, Lancaster, Hopkinton, Medway, Stoughton, Boylston, Reading, Milton, Needham, Billerica, Bedford, Waltham, Watertown, Action, Danvers, Chelmsford, Hamilton, Tisbury, Chilmark, Yarmouth, Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, Provincetown, Falmouth and Barnstable. TOWNS. Thickness of the Beds. Acres covered by Peat Swamps. Use. Authority. Andover, 1 to 8 feet. More than 2000. Fuel & manure. Alonzo Gray. Athol, 2 to 3 feet. Swamp 2 miles long, 80 rods wide, (300.) Scarcely used. Alden Spooner. Abington, Abundant. Thorn. H Perry. Amesbury, 10 feet, sometimes. 100 acres at least. Little used. Patten Sargent. Barnstable, 15 feet, sometimes. 200 acres. For fuel only. Buckland, 1 swamp 30 ft. deep of mud. 50 acres swamp. Silas Smith. Bellingham, 3 to 8 feet. " Probably 5 or 6 acres." John Cook, 2d. Bernardston, 30 to 40 acres, much peat. Manure only. H. W. Cushman. Bridgewater, Extensive beds. Fuel & manure. P. Leach. Concord, 2 to 8 feet. 500 to 700 acres. do do. Cyrus-Stow. Carver, 8 to 10 feet of mud in swamps. 500 to 800 acres bog swamps. Not used. John Savary. Chilmark, Various. Perhaps 100 acres Dennis, 1 to 4 feet. 100 to 200 acres. Fuel. L. Nickerson. Dighton, Plenty. i Not much used. Duxbury, 2 to 20 feet more. Abundant. Fuel & manure. G. Bradford. Eastham, 2 feet to unk. depth. do. George Collins. Falmouth, 10 to 15 feet. 20 to 30 acres. Manure. Wm. Parker. Groton, 5 to 20 feet. Hundreds of acres. Manure chiefly. J. Green Hingham, 2 to 6 feet. 50 to 100 acres. Henry Cushing, J P. Thompson. F. P. Howland. Halifax, 2 to 10 feet. 100 to 200 acres. Begin, to be used. Hanson, 1 to 10 feet. 1000 acres. Fuel & manure. Hanover, Rather abuundant. Lately used. A. G. Duncan. - Lolden, Not abundaut. Manure only. John Chaffin. Kingston, 2 to 10 feet. Many Swamps. Manure. Asaph Holmes. Peat Sivamps. 145 . TOWNS • Thickness ofthe Beds. Acres covered by Peat Swamps. Use. Authority. Lunenburg, Inexhaustible. 100 acres. Not used. Longmeadow, Perhaps 10 acres. Ludlow, 12 to 15 feet. 50 acres. Manure. H. W B. Alden. Lynnfield, 10 to 12 ft. sometimes. 100 to 200 acres. William Perkins. Methuen, 3 to 6 feet. More than 50 acres. Fuel. Stephen Parker. Millbury. 3 to 10 feet. Extensive beds. Fuel. Asa H. Waters. Natick. 3 to 6 feet. 500 acres tested,300to400 more do. Chester Adams. Oxford. 4 to 12 feet. Several hundreds. Stephen Davis. Nantucket. 1 to 14 feet. 985 acres. Jared Coffin. Randolph, 1 foot to a great depth. Fuel chiefly. Zenas Frnch, Jr. Rowley, 3 to 6 inches. More than 500 acres. Roxbury, 30 inches average. Manure chiefly. A. A. Hayes. Spencer, 2 to 30 inches. 1000 to 2003 acres. Fuel. Jonas Guilford. Southborough, Thick. 500 acres. Fuel and manure. Joel Burnet. S. Reading, 3 feet aVerage. 200 acres. Lilley Eaton. Weston, 10 feet and less. Numerous Swamps. Manure. A. Bigelow, Jr. Wales &Holl'd 4 to 10 feet. 200 acres. do. E. G. Fuller. Wilmington, " Two cuttings deep." " Some hundreds." Fuel. Silas Brown. Wesiford, Abundant. Julian Abbott. It will be seen, that scarcely any towns, in the four western counties of the state, are mentioned above. This is partly explained by the fact, that fuel is more plenty there than in the eastern counties, so that public atten- tion has never been directed so much to our fossil resources. But I think it undeniable, that the amount of good peat in the western counties is much less than in the eastern. Although perhaps the swamps abound as much in veg- etable matter, that would be useful in agriculture, yet it does not seem to be converted into genuine peat, though I doubt not that it will be easy to find a large amount of it when there is a demand for it. Excluding these west- ern counties, and taking the amount of peat given in the above statement as a fair average of its quantity in all the towns of the other counties, (ex- cluding the large towns,) it would follow, that 80,000 acres, or 125 square miles, are covered with peat in that portion of the state, having an average thickness of 6 feet 4 inches. This area and depth would yield not far from 121 millions of cords. If this should be thought by any to exceed the quan- tity of good peat existing in that section, I presume no one will consider it too high an estimate of the amount of swamps filled with vegetable matter. I presume it falls far short of the true amount. And we hence get an enlarg- ed view of the quantity of matter in the state that may be employed as fuel, or in agriculture, that has hitherto, except in some limited districts, remained almost untouched. It is true, that peat is not so convenient and agreeable a kind of fuel as good wood or coal; yet it certainly answers a very good pur- pose, and the facts in the case tend to allay the apprehension, which must some- times rise in the mind of one who sees, in the gradual diminution of our forests, a future check to our prosperity and population. It is gratifying to learn, from so many towns, that the inhabitants are awaking so much to the 146 Economical Geology. use of peat and peaty matter. Some gentlemen have even spoken of it as a " peat fever." I hope it has not yet reached its crisis. VII. ROCKS AND MINERALS FOR ARCHITECTURAL AND ORNAMENTAL PURPOSES. I bring under one head the two objects of architecture and ornament, be- cause they are so intimately connected that it is not easy to separate them. Very little use, however, has yet been made of our mineral resources for mere ornament: but for the purposes of construction, they have been very extensively employed. 1. Granite and Sienite. Much confusion has arisen in the application of these terms. They were originally applied to designate rocks very different, if not in composition, yet in their geological relations. But most of the rock that is generally de- scribed as sienite, is a variety of granite. This is certainly the case in Mas- sachusetts. Wherever the granite admits hornblende into its composition, I have considered it as a sienite; and not unfrequently the hornblende con- stitutes the principal ingredient; taking the place, more or less, of the quartz and mica, so as to form a compound of hornblende and feldspar. This com- pound forms some of the most beautiful varieties of sienite, though extremely hard to work, for architectural purposes. But not a little granite that contains no hornblende goes by the name of sienite. Thus, much of the Quincy granite is wanting in hornblende; but being almost destitute of mica, and having the close aspect of sienite, it is called indifferently by either name. The variety in the composition, color, and hardness of these rocks in Massachusetts, is almost endless. The quartz and feldspar are commonly white, yellowish and gray: the latter not unfrequently flesh colored: the mica is very often black, but sometimes of a silver color. When the quartz prevails, the rock is easily broken, but hornblende renders it tough. The predominance of feldspar generally gives the rock a more lively white color and renders it rather easier to work. But I shall not attempt to describe particularly all the varieties of these rocks that occur in the State. An in- spection of the specimens which I have collected, will at once give an idea of the kinds obtained at the principle quarries, and of numerous other varie- ties which I have met with in different localities. (Nos. 1271 to 1348, and 1410 to 1458, also 2395 to 2477.) Granite and Sienite. 147 The very coarse varieties of granite, which are found in some parts of the State, do by no means furnish a good building stone : indeed, some of them hardly serve for common walls. Much of granite in the vicinity of Connec- ticut river, is of this description; as also a considerable portion of that forming beds in gneiss, which extends from Southboro'to Andover. But most of the granite in the eastern part of the State, is of so fine a texture, as to answer admirably for architecture and other economical purposes. Along with sien- ite, it extends around Boston, running in a curvilinear direction, at the dis- tance of fifteen or twenty miles. From Cohasset to Quincy, at the southern extremity of the curve, and from the end of Cape Ann to Salem, on the north, the formation is most fully developed, and is there quarried extensively. The Quincy quarries are probably the best and most generally known; and few citizens of the State are unacquainted with the rock thence obtained, now so extensively used in Boston and elsewhere. " The quantities which those quarries (or rather mountains) will furnish, are incalculably great. One railroad, as is well known, has been used for several years to convey the granite from the quarry to Neponset river, a distance of three miles. It is thought, however, that the granite has not reached its minimum price. Yet even now, Boston is almost as much distinguished for its granite structures, as the metropolis of the Russian Empire. Some of the granite obtained on the north of Boston, cannot be distinguish- ed from that of Quincy. I observed the resemblance most strongly in Dan- vers and Lynnfield. At the former place it is quarried, and fine blocks are obtained. Extensive quarries are also opened in the north side of Cape Ann, in Gloucester, as well as at the Harbor. The rock here resembles that of Quincy ; but it is generally harder and of a lighter color. At these quarries no railroad (except one of a few rods in length) is necessary to transport the rock to the sea-side : since vessels can approach very near the spot. And, since the demand for this rock must increase, in our country, for many years to come, and Cape Ann is little else than a vast block of it, it seems to me that it must be regarded as a substantial treasure to that part of the State,— far more valuable than a mine of the precious metals. At Squam, in Glou- cester, I was informed that blocks of granite had sometimes been split out sixty feet in length ; indeed, I saw the face of a ledge from which they had been detached. At Pigeons Cove a mass was detached 100 feet long and 4 feet thick. At Fall River, in Troy, which lies upon Taunton river, are other exten- sive and interesting granite quarries. This granite, as the Map will show, is connected with the Quincy range above described. Yet the greater part of the granite in Plymouth and Bristol is coarser than that of Quincy and Gloucester, and more liable to decomposition. But no rock can be finer for 148 Economical Geology. architectural purposes than the granite of Troy ; and immense quantities have been obtained from this locality. The large manufactories at Fall River are built of it, as is also Fort Adams at Newport, Rhode Island. The feldspar of this rock is a mixture of the flesh red and light green varieties; the former predominating: the quartz is light gray, and the mica, usually black. It works easily, and has a lighter and more lively appearance than Quincy granite. Blocks of this granite have been split out from fifty to sixty feet long, as a sign-post at one of the former public houses at Fall River, will attest: it consists of a single block. The contiguity of this granite to water transportation, will always render it peculiarly valuable. The granite range extending from Cohasset and Quincy, through Ran- dolph, Stoughton, Foxborough, &c. nearly to Rhode Island, affords much val- uable stone for architectural purposes: and it is wrought more or less in every town through which it passes. The branch of this extensive deposit of granite, which is fully developed a little south-west of Dedham, furnishes some beautiful varieties of stone. No better example can be referred to, than the elegant pillars of the Court House in Dedham. This granite is very fine grained, and so white, that at a short distance it cannot be distinguished from white marble. The pillars just named were obtained near the dividing line between Dover and Med- field, where vast ledges of excellent stone occur. The stone used in Boston under the name of Chelmsford granite, is found in a range of this rock, not connected with the deposit that has been describ- ed above. Nor does it come from Chelmsford; but from Westford and Tyngsborough. In the latter place, it is obtained chiefly from bowlder stones; but ledges are quarried in Westford. I do not know why it has been called Chemlsford granite, unless from the fact that large quantities are carried to Lowell, (formerly a part of Chelmsford,) to be wrought. This rock is pure granite, with no hornblende ; and being homogeneous and compact in its texture, it furnishes an elegant stone. Good examples of it may be seen in the pillars of the United States Bank, and in the Market House in Boston. These were from Westford. Four miles north of LoAvell, a quarry of this granite has been opened in Pelham, N. H. Blocks may be obtained from this place of any length under thirty feet. It is a very fine variety, is much used, and appears superior to the Chelmsford granite. The Westford and Pelham granite is connected with an imperfect kind of mica slate, in which it seems to form beds, or large protruding masses. At Fitchburg, a little south of the village, is a large hill of the same kind of granite. This is quarried though not extensively, on account of the little demand for the stone. This single hill 300 feet high, and nearly a mile in Sienite and Granite. 149 circumference at its base, might furnish enough to supply the whole State for centuries. And there is needed only better means of transportation to bring it into extensive use. The manner in which the granite is usually split out at the quarries is this. A number of holes of a quadrangular form, a little more than an inch wide, and two or three inches deep, are drilled into the rock, id intervals of a few inches, in the direction in which it is wished to separate the mass. Iron wedges, having cases of sheet iron, are then driven at the same time, and with equal force, into those cavities; and so prodigious is the power thus exerted, that masses of ten, twenty, thirty, and even fifty and sixty feet long, and sometimes half as many wide, are separated. These may be subdivided in any direction desired; and it is common to see masses thus split, till their sides are less than a foot wide, and their length from ten to twenty feet. In this state they are often employed as posts for fences. Respecting the price of the granite from the quarries that have been de- scribed, I have not been able to obtain much information. At Fitchburg, I was told that it was sold at the quarries, well dressed, at forty cents the superficial foot; and at Squam at forty-five cents. The cost of hammering and fine dressing granite in Boston, in the style of the Tremont House, I have been credibly informed, is about thirty cents the superficial foot. Ordinary work, however, is from twenty-five to thirty cents ; and not unfrequently, even as low as twenty cents. Posts for store-fronts cost about thirty-four cents per foot in Boston. The columns of the Hospital were obtained for about one dollar per foot. To show how rapidly the price of granite has fallen, I would state on the authority of a respectable architect in Boston, that the cost of the blocks of the Quincy granite for the Bunker Hill monument, delivered at Charlestown, in a rough state, was thirteen cents, three mills, per foot; and the cost of the unhewn stone for the church built in the year 1831, in Bowdoin street, Boston, was fifteen cents: but six years before, the rough Quincy granite, for the United States Branch Bank, cost two dollars per foot. I have now given an account of the most extensive and important quarries of granite and sienite in the eastern part of the State. Granite is wrought more or less, however, not merely in all the towns through which its ranges pass, but also in other places, in their vicinity; large blocks of it having been removed thither by diluvial action in former times. Although the granite in general, in the vicinity of Connecticut river, is too coarse for architectural uses; yet in Hampshire county are several beds of a superior quality. Perhaps the best is found in Williamsburgh, a few miles from Northampton. This rock, (some of which may be seen in the front of a few buildings in Northampton,) and in the mansion of the Hon. James 20 150 Economical Geology. Fowler in Westfield, very much resembles the granite found in the vicinity of Dedham, and yields in beauty and value to none in the State. It exists in abundance in Northampton, Whately, and Williamsburgh; but nas yet been quarried only on a very limited scale. On the east side of the Connecticut, a very beautiful sienitic granite exists in Belchertown; in which the mica, when the hornblende is wanting, is very black. It is not surpassed in elegance by any rock in the State ; but it has not as yet, to my knowledge, been quarried at all. Indeed, very little real granite is employed in the middle or western parts of the State, except in a rough condition. This sketch of the granite of Massachusetts, although brief, is sufficient to show that we have a great number of varieties, and an exhaustless quantity of this most valuable material for durable and elegant architecture. Numer- ous varieties not mentioned above, which have fallen under my consideration, either in ledges or loose blocks, will be found in the collection of specimens ; and some of these are peculiarly beautiful. Numerous other varieties have doubtless escaped my observation. Indeed, we may safely assert, that no part of the world is better furnished with this useful and indestructible rock. 2. Porphyry. This term, as it is employed in the arts, embraces several varieties of rock not designated by its strict geological sense. Although upon the Map, I have included in the term, only the porphyry of geologists, yet in this place, I shall describe all those compounds occurring among us, which have been denominated porphyry in the arts. The first and most extensive of these, is the genuine feldspar porphyry, represented on the Map in large quantities in the towns of Medford, Maiden, Chelsea and Lynn, on the north of Boston; and in Needham, Milton and Braintree, on the south. This is the oldest and most enduring of the por- phyries, and, indeed, the hardest of rocks. Its basis is generally compact feldspar, reduced to a homogeneous paste, and of various colors; as light purple, red of various shades, brownish black, and greenish gray. The im- bedded crystals are either feldspar, or quartz alone, or existing together in the same rock; and their colors are very various, though more usually white or gray. By these mixtures porphyries are produced, rivalling in beauty the best antique porphyry. This rock is polished with so great difficulty, that it is rarely used in our country, either for ornamental or useful purposes. But it would be strange if an increase of wealth and refinement should not create some demand for so elegant and enduring a rock. Whenever this shall happen, the vicinity of Boston will furnish every variety that can be desired, and in blocks large enough for any purpose. Quite a number of Porphyry. 151 smoothed or polished specimens may be seen in the collection. (Nos. 12.31 to 1269.) The porphyry range on the north of Boston, is most perfect in its charac- ters, and in the greatest abundance at any one place ; although the southern range spreads over a greater extent of surface. In Lynn, and some other towns, I have observed blocks of porphyry that were brecciated—that is, they were composed of angular fragments of porphyry reunited. This fur- nishes a beautiful variety for polishing, (Nos. 1264 to 1269.) On many of the beaches south of Boston large quantities of porphyry, sienite, and granite pebbles, are accumulated, so that a fine collection may there be obtained. The places which I can refer to with most confidence; are the head of Nantasket Beach, the northeastern extremity of Cohasset, and the beach at the foot of Manomet hill in Plymouth. In a few places, as at Hingham, I noticed that these beautiful pebbles had been collected and used for paving the alleys in front of the houses: those of different colors being arranged in a beautiful manner so as to present an elegant Mosaic. It seems to me that if some of these pebbles were polished, or only varnish- ed, so as to exhibit their true character, they might even be employed along with sea shells for parlor ornaments. At any rate, they would ornament a geological cabinet. And I have been surprised that no lapidary has made a collection of the many elegant varieties of our granites, porphyries, and other beautiful rocks, for the purpose of selling them. If they were only cut into small specimens and polished, and arranged into a sort of mosaic, set in marble, as is done so beautifnlly in Italy, can there be a doubt but they would meet with a ready sale ? Even if no other varieties were intro- duced than I have placed in the Government collection, such a table must be an elegant parlor ornament, and the directions which I have given, will enable an artist early to find the localities of these. But many more varie- ties would no doubt be easily discovered. The beach at Manomet hill in Plymouth, is almost entirely covered with bowlders and pebbles for one or two miles in length. I passed over its whole length one summer morning in 1839, so early that the sun had not dried off the rain of the preceding night: and the colors of the specimens were brought out as perfectly as by polishing. It was equal to passing through a fine geological cabinet. It was more: for this cabinet of nature was on so grand a scale as to throw into the shade all the works of man. Were I a resident of Plymouth, I am sure I should often anticipate the morning sun in an excursion to this spot. Sienitic Porphyry. When sienite contains crystals of feldspar imbedded in the mass, it is 152 Economical Geology. said to be porphyritic; and some varieties of this rock in the eastern part of the State are very elegant. Essex county produces some of the finest specimens, particularly Cape Ann. Sometimes the imbedded crystals of feldspar, are white, sometimes flesh colored; and in Gloucester, I found a rock in which they were of a rich bronze color. These sienitic porphyries are extremely elegant when polished; but I am not aware that they are em- ployed at all for ornamental purposes, in this country. (Nos. 1341 to 1346.) Porphyritic Greenstone. The ingredients of greenstone are often not easily distinguished from each other by the naked eye; and when, in such a case the rock contains disseminated crystals of feldspar, it becomes porphyritic. If these crystals are greenish white, and the base blackish green, the rock is the green por- phyry of the ancients. In Dorchester, Brooklyn, and Roxbury, according to the Messrs. Danas, it occurs in rounded masses ; and in small quantity, in veins, at Marblehead. But I have found it in large veins, traversing sienite at Sandy bay, on the northeast side of Cape Ann. Large blocks might be hence obtained: and if polished, it would constitute a truly splendid orna- ment for the interior of a church, or a private dwelling. If the feldspar crystals be black, or grayish black, the rock is the superb black porphyry of the ancients. This occurs in siaall beds and rolled mass- es in Charlestown, and in veins of greenstone, at Marblehead, according to the Messrs. Danas: but I have not met with it. The hornblende slate in various parts of the State, but particularly in the region of Connecticut river, is frequently porphyritic : and exceedingly re- sembles porphyritic greenstone; being, in fact, composed of the same ingre- dients ; and differing only in its slaty structure, and in the more distinctly crystaline character of the hornblende. The disseminated crystals of feld- spar are usually white. In Canton and Easton, they are sometimes the com- pact variety, yet retaining their form perfectly. A fine variety and in large quantity occurs in Heath, a specimen of which may be seen in the collection. (No. 944.) In Ipswich I found a bowlder of greenstone in which are imbedded nu- merous distinct crystaline masses of jet black Karinthin. (No. 1159.) The same rock occurs in Durham N. H, and on the western slope of the Green Mountains in Vt. But I apprehend that the color of the rock is too dark to be employed much for ornament, 3. Trap Rocks. All the trap rock of Massachusetts, that is of any importance in an architectural point of vi is greenstone. Greenstone and Gneiss. 153 Greenstone. This is one of the most enduring of rocks ; but it is usually so much di- vided by irregular seams, into small and shapeless blocks, that it is but little employed, either in the construction of houses, or walls. Its dark color, also, renders it less acceptable than granite or limestone. Still it is beginning to be used for building houses, in its unaltered state. The irregular blocks may be so laid with white mortar, especially in the Gothic style of building, as to form a picturesque and pleasing structure. The Episcopal Church in the city of New Haven, Conn, presents a good example of this kind of archi- tecture. In the valley of Connecticut river, much of the greenstone is vesicular, and not well fitted for buildings. But those numerous beds of this rock that are shown upon the geological map in Worcester county, are very compact and well adapted for architecture. This rock as it exists in bowlders has such an unpromising aspect that it is usually overlooked or disregarded; as it was by me till recently. But I suspect that it may be found in some towns where no other good rock exists for building: and where it would be em- ployed if its good qualities were known. 4. Gneiss. This rock is commonly known under the name of granite; and, indeed, it is composed of the same materials; but in the gneiss, the structure of the rock is slaty, and it splits in one direction better than others ; yet this slaty structure is often hardly perceptible, even in wrought specimens; and hence for all architectural and economical purposes, the distinction between gran- ite and gneiss is of small importance; though of much consequence in re- spect to the science of Geology. The quarries of gneiss in Massachusetts are perhaps even more numer- ous than those of granite, though not in general so extensively wrought. It forms admirable building stone; and is in no respect, that I know of, inferi- or to granite ; while the facility with which it cleaves in one direction, ren- ders it easier to get out and dress ; so that it can be afforded at a less price. Accordingly we find that a large proportion of the better class of buildings in the extensive portion of the central part of the State where this rock pre- vails, are underpinned by wrought blocks of it. Its fissile character also, renders it an excellent material for common stone walls and flagging stones. The same property enables the quarryman to split out layers of it of almost any size, and only a few inches in thickness: and their surface is generally 154 Economical Geology. so even, as to require but little dressing. Hence it is very common to see such large stones of this description in front of very many of our churches and other public buildings. In Europe gneiss seems to have been applied to few useful purposes. A late geological writer in Great Britian, says that ' this schistose (slaty) body serves no particular purpose in the arts of life.'* Dr. Macculloch however mentions that the micaceous varieties are employed in building and some- times for roofing.f This rock appears to be more perfectly developed in our own country than in Europe. The western part of Worcester county, and the eastern parts of Hamp- ^den, Hampshire, and Franklin counties, afford the best quarries of gneiss. That branch of the Worcester range extending into Middlesex county, and the range in Berkshire county, do not furnish so good specimens for archi- tecture, though by no means devoid of interest in this respect. The quarries of gneiss that are most extensively wrought, and furnish the best stone, are situated in the following towns: Wilbraham, Pelham, Monson, Palmer, Montague, Dudley, Millbury, Westborough, Boylston, and Ux- bridge. Much of the stone at these quarries can hardly be distinguished from granite, even by the Geologist. The Millbury gneiss, for instance, is very much used in Worcester, and does not there present any appearance of stratification, and very little of a slaty structure: while the granite, that is quarried in the east part of Worcester, is distinctly divided into parallel masses and would probably be called gneiss by most persons, rather than the Millbury rock. At these gneiss quarries it is easy to obtain blocks from ten to twenty feet long, which are only a few inches thick. At Dudley, I was told that nar- row slabs of this rock, such as would answer for posts or side walks, could be split out, and delivered in the center of the town for four cents per foot. The quarries in Monson and Palmer are distinguished by one peculiarity of some importance. The strata are nearly perpendicular to the horizon, and are divided by a set of parallel seams running horizontally, into blocks of any desired thickness, and of a width varying from one foot to four feet. This is most remarkably the case at a quarry 11-2 mile northwest of the center of Monson, where blocks may be got out 70 feet long. On dressing this rock the surface, from the irregularity of this laminar arrangement, and the diversified colors of the materials, becomes highly variegated, so as at a little distance to appear like clouded marble. This is a very fre- quent appearance in the gneiss of other localities ; as in that of Millbury, Wilbraham and Pel- ham ; and often it is a really elegant rock. Good samples of this variegated gneiss may be seen in many of the houses and stores in Worcester, Springfield, Amherst, and : Monson : in the lat- ter place especially in the dwelling house of Joel Norcross Esq. Upon the whole the quarry in Monson above described, which is only two or three miles from the Springfield and Bos- ton rail road, promises the most of any in the state Beautiful sepulchral monuments are some- * Ure's Geology, p. 100. t Macculloch'6 System of Geology, Vol. 2. p. 155. Mica Slate and Quartz Rock. 155 times made from it- For the sake of variety at least, one of this description ought to be placed at Mount Auburn. 5. Hornblende Slate. This rock is usually associated with gneiss, and is by some regarded as a variety of that form- ation. Nevertheless it is a very different rock, both in composition and aspect. I do not recol- lect to have seen it employed in Massachusetts for any purpose except for common stone walls. It is often, however, very fissile, and presents an even surface. And in the side walks in the city of New Haven, I have noticed good flagging stones of this rock. I presume some of the localities in Massachusetts would furnish slabs for the same use : as for instance in the vicinity of New Bedford, and in the towns of Leyden, Heath, Warwick, &c 6. Mica Slate and Quartz Rock. The first of these rocks has usually a structure too irregular for the purposes of construction: But sometimes it can be split into large slabs of convenient thickness ; as in the range that passes through Goshen, Chesterfield, &c. where it is quarried for hearths and door stones : it being so even and smooth as not to require dressing, and being also tolerably good for bearing moderate degrees of heat. The quarries of Bolton in Connecticut, which probably furnish the best flagging stones in the United States, are in mica slate, and the rock of Goshen, &c might be used for the same purpose, were it near a market. But the principal use of the mica slate of Massachusetts is for firestoneand whetstones : and these will be described in another place. Our quartz rock, which is usually associated with mica slate, or gneiss, is less frequently employed than mica slate for the purposes of construction. From the quartz rock of Washing- ton in Berkshire county, very fine flagging stones are obtained. In the narrow range also, col- ored as mica slate, but which frequently passes into quartz rock, running across the state from Monson to Warwick, I apprehend good flagging stone exists. I would refer particularly to a hill, 100 rods east of Sedgwick's tavern in the south part of Palmer, near the Bostpn and Spring- field rail road. None of this has been dug out: but 1 am disposed to believe that this hill would furnish good stone for this purpose; and not unlikely also some firestone. I shall notice in an- other place other localities of quartz quartose firestone as well as quartz adapted for the manu- facture of glass. 7. Talcose Slate. The greater part of this rock, or those portions of it that usually go by the name of talcose and chlorite slate, are very similar to mica slate in their adaptedness for architectural purposes. But I hardly know of their being employed except for common walls. Soapstone, or Steatite, however, is now regarded as a variety of talcose rock ; and this is one of the most valuable rocks in the state, and therefore its localities deserve special description. I am of opinion that along the Western rail road, in the west part of Chester and Middlefield, good quarries of flagstone and of building rock may be opened in the perpendicular ledges of mica slate, talcose slate, and gneiss, which crowd upon and overhang that road. Other valuable rocks occur in the same region, as 1 shall soon show. Steatite or Soapstone. This is the softest of all the rocks employed in architecture. This prop- erty, rendering it easy to be sawed or cut without injuring an edge tool, and 15€S Economical Geology* its greasy or soapy feel, are such striking characteristics of this rock, that mdst people are acquainted with it. It is sometimes called potstone, and sometimes in this country, freestone. It is composed mostly of talc. Next to the ease with which it may be wrought, its great power in resist- ing heat, is the most valuable property of this rock. Hence it is extensively employed for fire places and furnaces. It is also turned into crucibles and small furnaces for culinary use. Ink- stands are made of it in great numbers, and various other articles. As it hardens in the fire, it is used in Europe for imitating engraved gems. It has been employed in various countries as a substitute for soap and fuller's earth. Spanish and French chalk are varieties of steatite. Savage nations are said to mitigate hunger by eating this soft mineral; as however it contains noth- ing alimentary, it can act only as a palliative of hunger.* Those varieties that are most infusible are employed in England extensively in the manufac- ture of porcelain. Steatite, like serpentine, usually occurs in beds of no great extent. They are numerous in Massachusetts, and very commonly they are associated with serpentine, or in the vicinity of it This is the case in the northeast part of Middlefield, where one of the finest beds of it, in the State, is found : al- though it contains small masses of bitter spar, which renders it less easy to work. But this quarry has been explored more extensively than any other in the State ; and the blocks transported to Northampton, and even to Bos- ton. In Windsor are not less than three beds of this rock, from which the New Lebanon Shakers obtain it, for converting into inkstands. I found a small bed of it in Cheshire, one mile east of the Four Corners in the gneiss formation. Another occurs in Savoy ; one in Hinsdale ; one also in Blanford, which is wrought and produces an excellent stone. Two beds occur also in Granville. Another is opened in Zoar, where are two distinct varieties, one nearly white, another of a deep green. In Rowe is another quarry, where these two varieties are equally distinct. At the two last named localities, however, the rock is distinctly green and white talc; and indeed, the two minerals (talc and steatite) are probably in every case identical. In the west part of Chester, near the Western rail road, and about a mile from where Henry's tavern was formerly kept, is a bed of considerable extent, between talcose and hornblende slate and associated with serpentine. It has been wrought on a small scale, and may probably prove very valuable from its proximity to rail road. I am told that this same bed appears a mile or two farther north, on the east side of the river, towards Middlefield. On the east side of Connecticut river are several beds of this rock, more or less quarried in every instance ; but in general not explored deep enough to develope the rock in its unaltered character ; for the air and moisture generally affect it for several feet deep. In the south part of * See Brongniart's Mineralogy. Steatite or Soapstone. 157 Shutesbury is one bed: in the southwest part of Wendell another ; and two miles east of the center of New Salem, a third. In the west part of Petersham, a fourth. The quality of the rock at these places, is not as good as that west of the river ; though it has scarcely been ex- plored at all, at the localities above mentioned. In Groton is. a bed of soapstone on which considerable labor has been expended. Its width appears to be 10 or 12 feet, and it descends into the earth towards the southeast; dipping about 30°, and lying between layers of mica slate. It is of good quality, and its proximity to Boston, Newburyport, and Salem, will probably render it an object of importance. A bed of soapstone has recently been discovered in Worcester; and the specimens thence ob- tained, (Nos. 403 and 1548,) show it to be more elegant in appearance than any other in the State. The bed has yet been penetrated only about five feet: but should it prove extensive, its situation so near the Blackstone Canal, will render it an object of no little importance. It is not now wrought. In digging a well near the center of Millbury, a year or two since, a mass of soapstone of a rather peculiar character was penetrated : but it is not now accessible. In the same region, several years ago, in digging the Blackstone Canal, a variety was obtained, which, on being thrown upon hot coals, shot out into vermiform masses, which very much resembled living worms. It was for a time called vermiculite : but the name is very properly abandoned. No. 2506 is a specimen of laminated green talc from Fitchburg. I am told that the bed is four feet thick, and most of it of a much finer grain than this specimen. A smaller specimen sent me is nearly compact. If enough of either kind can be obtained, free from foreign minerals, there is no doubt but it may prove valuable. An interesting and important locality of this rock, is in the east part of Andover, four miles from the Theological Seminary. The bed lies in hornblendic gneiss, whose stratification is very irregular and indistinct; but I ascertained its direction to be almost N. E. and S. W. and its dip large, corresponding in both respects with the great deposit of gneiss extending diagonally across the state. The bed is not less than 50 feet thick ; and has been opened by the proprietors, Flint, Jenkins & Co., several rods in length. They have wrought it for a variety of purposes, and it admits of being smoothed so as to appear well. Its composition is remarkably uniform, consist- ing essentially of rather hard foliated talc, though occasionally a black mineral is disseminated through it, which appears to be hornblende. Its strength appears to be greater than marble; as the proprietors informed me that a square piece 2 inches thick, laid on two supports IS inches apart, sustained 800 pounds, laid upon a spot in the center only half an inch wide ; 860 pounds broke it. The specimen No. 2507 gives no idea of this rock, except as it is newly broken from the quarry. The proprietors, however, inform me, that one or two monuments made from it, have been placed at Mount Auburn. And for such a purpose it seems well adapted. I cannot but be- lieve that this rock, which is certainly a peculiar one, and quite different from ordinary soapstones, will ere long come into extensive use, and the enterprizing proprietors be rewarded for their ex- pense and perseverance. It seems applicable to nearly every use for which marble is employed. Large bowlders of this rock are scattered over a considerable space around the quarry, in an east and west direction, , and since the diluvial current in this region was from the north, these bowlders render it probable that the bed is far more extensive than the spot which is opened ; or that other beds occur beneath the surface. In the southern parts of New Hampshire and Vermont, as at Francestown in the former, and at Windham and Grafton in the latter, are fine beds of this rock: and I am told that at present the shops in Boston are generally supplied from those places. But as better means of transporta- tion are opened with the interior of the state, it is hoped that some of the extensive beds exist- ing in our mountains will be explored. It is a substance that must always be in demand ; and al- 21 158 Economical Geology. though capitalists may not expect very large returns from such investments, they can hardly fail of being safe, if the beds be carefully explored before thev are opened. 8. Serpentine. In New England serpentine is almost universally associated with steatite, either in talcose slate or gneissoid rock. And although generally regarded in Europe as an unstratified rock, in this country it belongs rather to the metamorphic class. But these points belong to the scientific rather than to the economical part of my report. In richness and variety of colors, serpentine exceeds all other rocks; and is, therefore, eminent- ly suited for ornamental sculpture and architecture. The prevailing color is green, of different shades, spotted or clouded, or veined with other colors; and hence its name, from its spotted and striped appearance, bearing a resemblance to the skins of some serpents. In hardness it va- ries very much; being in some instances very hard, and in others, as easily wrought as marble. This rock exists in Massachusetts in great abundance, particularly in the Alpine part of the State, or in the Hoosac mountain range. The most extensive bed occurs in Middlefield, in the southern part of the town. This bed cannot be less than a quarter of a mile in breadth, and five or six miles long. The colors of the rock are various, and its hardness unequal. If wrought it might supply the whole world. It yields both the precious and the common varieties. There is another bed in the same town, associated with steatite or soapstone. In the west part of Westfield is found another extensive bed of this rock, extending into Russell, of a much darker color, and containing green talc. This has been used in a few instances for ornamental architec- ture, and has a rich appearance when wrought. Three beds of serpentine are found in Blanford, and another in Pelham, in the southwest part of the town. The color of this last is quite dark, and the quantity of the talc is considerably large. A large bed occurs in connection with soap- stone, on the north side of Deerfield river, in Zoar, near the turnpike from Greenfield to Wil- liamstown. Specimens from this place resemble those from the celebrated Idealities of this rock at Zobilitz in Saxony. Serpentine also exists at Windsor in two beds ; and there is an im- mense bed of it in Marlborough, Vermont, and another still larger in Cavendish; as also in several other towns in the southern part of that State. I do not doubt but many more beds of serpentine may be found in the broad mountainous range lying west of Connecticut river : for this rock is by no means apt to arrest the attention, and has indeed a forbidding and desolate aspect where it has been exposed to atmospheric agen- cies. In some of my most recent excursions to that region, I have discovered two new beds, not mentioned above. One is in the gneiss formation that shows itself a mile or two east of Cheshire four corners. A large amount of serpentine evidently exists here: but the extent of the bed is concealed by the diluvial detritus. The other bed is in the west part of Chester, associated with steatite, on' the high mountain west of Westfield river. These two rocks lie be- tween hornblende slate on the west, and talcose slate on the east, and extend southerly at least into the lofty mountain south of the southwest branch of Westfield river, and probably in a northerly direction quite as far. But as the serpentine is an object of no interest t j any but the geologist, its extent has never been traced out. I have every reason to think, however, that both the steatite and the serpentine are associated, perhaps as a continuous'bed, with the talcose slate nearly across the whole of Massachusetts. A locality of noble or precious serpentine has long been known to exist in Newbury, two and a half miles south of Newburyport, at an abandoned lime quarry, called the Devil's Den. On- ly small masses can be here obtained : but when polished, they will compare with any in the world for beauty. (Nos. 870 to 873.) When limestone is mixed with serpentine they constitute the famous verd antique marble ; of Serpentine and Verd Antique Marble. 159 which such extensive beds occur near New Haven in Connecticut. Some of the specimens at Newbury are of this description ; and more beautiful than that in Connecticut. Specimens are also common in the serpentine of Westfield; and in the west part of Middlefield. I have lately found a very delicate variety in the most easterly bed of limestone in that town. The limestone is hard and compact, of a white color, and the serpentine is of a delicate green, forming however but a small part of the mass. When polished it presents an agreeable aspect. (Nos 1954. 1955.) It is doubtful whether large blocks could there be obtained. But both there and at Newbury pieces might be got out that would answer for small ornamental articles of great elegance. A remarkably interesting bed of serpentine has been recently discovered in the town of Lynn- field, near the center of the place, where aquarry has been opened. The proprietor, Mr. James C. Nichols, informs me that he has traced the bed in a north-east direction from this spot two or three miles. Where it crosses the county road leading from North Reading to Salem, about a mile and a half from the quarry, a large quantity was blasted out, which was too hard to be wrought without grea't difficulty. The bed has not been traced far to the south-east of the quar- ry, as the rocks are mostly concealed by diluvium. But the great quantity of serpentine blocks scattered in a rather south-west direction for two or three miles, show that it does extend that way a considerable distance : while their great number gives us a striking idea of the extent of the whole bed. There can be no such thing as exhausting it. Its width in some places is not less than nine or ten rods. From the direction of this bed of serpentine, as well as the character of the diluvium, I am satisfied that it is embraced in the great gneiss formation whose strata run from north-east to south-west across the state. Probably the bed is not far from the eastern limits of this formation. When first quarried, " this serpentine is much softer," says the proprietor, " than any marble 1 have seen. It can be cut with a handsaw, or turned in a lathe, nearly as easy as lignum vita ; but while in this soft state it will not receive so high a polish." The specimen No. 2182, which was polished and presented to the state collection by Mr. Nichols, will give an idea of common specimens of this stone. He says that " this serpentine can doubtless be wrought with less ex- pense than common marble. We have made but a small opening, yet we have obtained some sound slabs five feet in length : and we shall doubtless find the stone sufficiently sound to afford slabs large enough for any ordinary purpose. We have not manufactured much of the stone, nor offered any for sale : yet we have full confidence that it would find a ready market." Should it prove that this serpentine could be afforded at a cheaper rate than marble, I cannot see why it must not come into extensive use in all cases where a stone of a dark shade is prefer- red ; though there will doubtless be found on exploration, pieces of various shades. The situa- tion of the quarry so near the sea-board, and in proximity with several of the largest towns of New England, is an additional reason why I look upon this discovery as one of much promise. Considering the extent and variety of serpentine in Massachusetts, it seems not a little surpri- sing that no efforts, or next to none, have been made to use it for ornamental or architectural pur- poses. In Europe, it is employed for trinkets, vases, boxes, chimney pieces, and even columns of large size. In Spain, it is said that churches and palaces abound with columns of this de- scription. If ever the serpentine of Massachusetts shall be extensively wrought, I doubt not that specimens will be obtained, rivaling the finest varieties of Europe. It is not at present easy to obtain hand specimens, that shall give a fair representation of this rock, because it is in- jured to a considerable depth, from the surface by exposure. The composition of serpentine is regarded as an object of some economical importance, be- cause valuable salts may be manufactured from it. I have therefore subjected a few of our ser- pentines to analysis ; and the results are given in the following table. 160 Economical Geology. No. LOCALITY. Magnesia. Silica. Peroxide of Iron Water. Loss. 670 Newbury, precious. 42.18 38.65 2.81 15.46 0.90 674 Chester, common. 44.91 34.91 10.27 9.45 0.46 879 Blanford, do. 40.19 38.09 6.75 14.77 0.20 893 Westfield, do. black. 33.74 43.03 8.88 13.93 0.42 2182 Lynnfield, do.* 42.00 37.00 2.00 15.00 4.00 The magnesia is the ingredient in serpentine that may be, perhaps, made of some economical value: and this seems, according to the above anal- ysis, to be present in large quantity: By means of sulphuric acid this may be converted into sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts ; and these by means of a carbonated alkali, may be changed into carbonate of magnesia; one of the forms in which this substance is sold in the shops. Whether such a manufacture would be profitable, 1 am unable to say. But I am sure that if such a process should be undertaken, Massachusetts can furnish enough of the material for all future generations and the whole world. By comparing the present with my preceding reports, it will be seen that since the first one was published, I have discovered many beds of stea- tite and serpentine: And yet I have taken no special pains to find them: but have fallen upon them as it were accidentally; while pursuing the gen- eral objects of the survey. The announcement of deposits of such rocks, hitherto unknown, will not I am aware excite any interest in the communi- ty. Yet I cannot but regard every such discovery as adding a valuable item to our mineral wealth : for substances of this kind must come gradually into use as a country grows older and more wealthy: and when once brought into the market, the demand for them will never cease. Posterity, therefore, may be benefited by the new facts which I here present, if the present genera- tion are not. 9. Limestone. All rocks must yield in economical value to limestone. Its importance in agriculture I have already considered. But as a common building stone, as marble, and as forming the basis of several kinds of mortar, it still remains to be described. Wherever limestone is abundant enough to be employed for making walls, * Analysis by Dr. Charles T. Jackson. Berkshire Marble. 161 it is one of the cheapest and best of all rocks. It is more easily wrought into proper shape, because softer, is less likely to be too fissile, and its appear- ance is better than most other stones. Hence it is sometimes employed in its undressed state for the walls of dwelling houses and factories : as at North Adams. When, however, limestone is free enough from fissures and compact enough to admit of a good polish, so as to be employed as marble, it becomes still more valuable. A large proportion of the limestone in Berkshire county is of this description : but scarcely any attempt has been made to obtain mar- ble from any other limestone bed in the state. It was formerly hoped that the bed in Stoneham would furnish even the rare variety used in statuary. And indeed, in small specimens it will compare advantageously with the fa- mous Carara marble, so extensively employed for statuary: But it is said that it is so full of fissures that blocks large enough for that use cannot be obtained. Whether the bed has been explored far enough to settle this point, I am not prepared to say. The best of the Berkshire marbles are white; most of them of snowy whiteness. Some of them, however, are clouded ; and very frequently they are gray. The gray and the white are the most esteemed for durability. And it is this property that gives to these marbles, for the most part, their greatest value ; although they admit of a fine polish, and for primary marbles, are very elegant. In regard to the chemical constitution of these marbles, I find from nu- merous analyses, which I have made, that although magnesian limestones are very common in Berkshire, the best marbles are almost wholly free from magnesia. The beautiful clouded marble of Great Barrington is an excep- tion ; containing 38 per cent, of magnesia: and I have seen a few specimens of very fine white dolomite, that admitted of a beautiful polish: and in fact, formed as elegant a marble as I ever saw. (No. 1925.) But in general I do not doubt but magnesia is unfriendly to the firmness and durability of mar- ble ; as indeed chemical principles would lead us to expect. But more of this in another place. The great and increasing demand for the marbles of Berkshire out of the state, and their high character abroad, render it proper to notice all the most important quarries that have yet been opened, and to give all the informa- tion which I am able to communicate respecting them. To begin in the north part of the county, we find in North Adams a marble quarry of snowy whiteness ; and as appears from the analysis that has been given, of great purity. It is indeed a pure highly crystalline carbonate of lime ; free from magnesia, and almost free from iron. Large blocks of it are easily got out. At present, however, it is not so favorably situated in respect to an extensive market as the more southern parts of the county ; and much of it is so highly crys- talline as to mar its beauty ; and probably also its strength: Yet it is a most valuable rock. 162 Economical Geology. In New Ashford are several quarries of excellent marble, of a less highly crystaline character and a finer grain than that in Adams. The excavations have been made chiefly near the center of the town ; and formerly a good deal of stone was sawed. But the business is not now carried on very extensively ; not on account of any deficiency of materials, or defects in the stone, but because the quarries in the more southern parts of the county are nearer to good markets. The western parts of Lanesborough furnish admirable facilities for the marble business. And the quarries there are very extensive. The stone is very much like that in New Ashford; be- ing in fact a continuation of the same beds, which in Lanesborough are more fully developed and expanded. The analysis of three specimens of the best white and gray marble, as given in the general table, shows that they are very pure carbonates ; scarcely exceeded by any others. A specimen of this marble may be seen in the Capitol at Albany; which is constructed of it. Greater facilities of transportation would undoubtedly much increase the demand for this marble. In proceeding southerly, the next large quarry of marble is in the west part of Pittsfield, where inexhaustible quantities and of a good quality may be obtained. To the south of Pittsfield the limestone formation is divided by a mountain range of mica slate. The westerly branch contains most of the stone best fitted for marble. West Stockbridge has long been celebrated for the great quantity and excellent quality which it produces : and from the table of analysis, it may be seen that the best varieties from that place vie in purity with any in the county. The small quantity of magnesia which they contain, does not probably affect their value at all: and the amount of iron, an ingredient which in my estimation is more likely than any other almost to injure marble, is scarcely worth mentioning. The marble of North Adams is perhaps a little nearer to absolute purity as a carbonate of lime, than that of West Stockbridge : but then the latter is more compact and firmer ; qualities of high importance in good marbles : and often the translucency on the edge is as great as in good statuary marble. The quarries are numerous in this town, in almost every part of it. Most of the marble used in building the city Hall in New York, was from Fitch's quarry in the south part of the town. But at some of the other quarries, the stone appeared to me to be of rather a more delicate quality. A part of that in the State House in Boston is from the same town. It is fortunate that such immense quanti- ties of so fine marble should occur at the intersection of two great rail roads : one of which, that to Hudson, is already opened to the west and will be soon easterly to Springfield and Boston : and in a few years to Albany. The same range of limestone extends through Alford, Egremont, and Sheffield ; and in sev- eral places in all these towns quarries are opened ; and the quality is good. In the north part of Sheffield, is the quarry from wrhich the marble is obtained for most of the columns of the Girard College in Philadelphia. This quarry is two miles north of the village. The strata, which are very thick, have an easterly dip of 60 or 70°. Blocks 50 feet long are sometimes blasted out by filling the crevices with gun powder ; and masses of immense size are carried on carts con- structed for the purpose, with large wheels, over the Taconic range, to the Hudson : where they are shipped for Philadelphia. Analysis shows this to be a quite pure carbonate ; and yet I do not think it as delicate a stone as some other varieties in the county. The situation of the quarry however, is very favorable for exploration. A mile or two west of the village of Great Barrington, is a quarry of the most beautiful cloud- ed marble in the State : as may be seen by the specimens (Nos. 439.440.441.1932.) in the State collection. By analysis it appears that this rock contains nearly 40 per cent, of magnesia. This probably renders the stone more liable to break ; still it is a substantial and certainly a beautiful marble, well adapted for mantle pieces and jambs. I find also that it is flexible : and since the flexible marble of New Ashford contains 16 per cent, of magnesia, I suspect this substance has Use of Limestone for Mortars. 163 an agency in imparting this singular property ; and I doubt not that numerous localities of flexible limestone may be found in Berkshire county. In the year 1824 Professor Dewey estimated the value of the marble dug in Berkshire at $40,000. Charles B. Boynton, Esq. who has the principal direction of the marble business in West Stockbridge, has been obliging enough to ascertain the quantity dug in 1839 : and he es- timates it at $200,000. This rapid increase shows the high estimation in which the Berkshire marbles are held abroad. Until 1838 there existed no increased facilities for its transportation : and now a single rail road from the Hudson to the western limits of the county, is the only means of transportation not previously enjoyed. But soon this rail road will be completed to Boston, and the Housatonic rail road will connect the county with Long Island Sound. I regard there- fore, an estimate of Mr. Boynton as very moderate, when he says; that " if general prosperity continues five, years, Berkshire will at that time export marble to the value of half a million. He adds that "the demand for this article is constantly ahead of our means of supply: and this fact is now beginning to be understood abroad, and capital seeks investment among our hills and water powers." When we add to this statement, the great increase that will doubtless take place in the manufacture and export of quicklime, it will give some idea of the great value of the limestone deposits of Berkshire : of which its inhabitants generally seem to me to be little conscious. O Fortunatos nimium sua si bona norint! Mr. Boynton invented several years ago, and has long had in successful operation, an ingenious machine for planing marble. It would be gratifying, were this the proper place, and had I room, to give a description of this instrument. But no one can see it in operation without being satisfi- ed that it must produce a very great saving of time and labor. It not only cuts all plane surfaces so smooth that for ordinary purposes they require no polishing, but also all strait mouldings and grooves with great facility and exactness. I have a few suggestions to make respecting the means of determining the comparative dura- bility of marbles from different localities: but as they will some of :h»m apply to other rocks, I shall reserve them till I have completed the list of our rocks useful for architectural purposes. Use of Limestone for Mortars. The most important use to which limestone is applied is undoubtedly in the preparation of various kinds of mortar. For while marble must be employ- ed only by the most wealthy, there is scarcely an individual in the commu- nity that does not sometimes use lime mortar: and none could be comforta- ble without it. I hope, therefore, that any suggestions which I may make, whose object shall be to reduce the price or improve the quality of the quick- lime generally burnt in Massachusetts, will be received with candor. The burning of lime and its conversion into mortar, have within a few years received much attention: especially in France, by Vicat, John, and Berthier; who have arrived at some important practical results. And as these are not generally accessible in this country, I shall briefly state them, so far as the present state of knowledge in Massachusetts on the subject seems to demand. 164 Economical Geology. Calcination or Burning of Lime. The burning of lime, so as to expel the carbonic acid, is the essential pre- requisite in the formation of mortar: and it is accomplished in three modes: I. Without a kiln: 2. By an intermittent kiln : and 3. By a kiln in constant operation ; or as it is sometimes called, a perpetual kiln. The fuel employed is peat, coal, anthracite, or wood. 1. Without a Kiln. In Wales and Belgium the limestone is sometimes piled up in large conic- al heaps, the fragments being left much larger than when burnt in a kiln, and mixed with wood sufficient to burn it. The pile is then covered with turf exactly like a coal pit, and the process of burning is conducted exactly like that of a coal pit. In Belgium, a pile 16 feet diameter at the base, and 12 feet at the summit, occupies in burning six or seven days; and strange as it may seem, the lime thus produced is constantly preferred, at the same price, to that burnt in a kiln. I am not aware that limestone is ever burnt in this manner in this country : and yet I do not see but it might in some cases be a very desirable mode, especially where fuel is plenty and time and means are not at hand for building a kiln. 2. Intermittent Kiln. This is the most usual mode of burning limestone in this country. The kiln consists usually of a square or circular chimney, sometimes large and high enough to hold 000 bushels, but usually smaller, constructed at least on the inside, of stones that will bear a strong heat. In this chimney the limestone is piled up so as to leave an arched cavity underneath, as a place for the fire ; which is usually continued several days before the calcination is completed. The fire is then allowed to go down, and the whole contents of the kiln are withdrawn to make room for a new charge. It is obvious that by this mode of burning limestone, there is an immense loss of heat, as well as of time, in consequence of allowing the kiln to cool between each charge. Some saving of fuel may be made by constructing the kiln in the form of a cask, or egg, with the extremities cut off. A far more effectual remedy is to substitute the perpetual kiln, which will now be de- scribed. Where it is wished, however, to burn only a few hundred bushels of lime in a year, the common kiln may be cheapest. 3. Perpetual Kiln. This kiln is so constructed that the portion of lime which has become thoroughly burnt, can be removed without discontinuing the fire. And thus by removing the burnt lime from the bottom, and filling in at the top with fresh limestone, the process may be con- tinued until the furnace needs repairs; which, in Belgium, is attended to once a year. Fig. 1. exhibits the elevation, fig. 2. a vertical section, and fig. 3. a ground plan, of one of the most approved perpetual kilns, as it is constructed in Prussia; in which one part of wood and four parts of peat are employed, d, d, d, d, d, are five openings at the bottom, for withdraw- ing the lime as it is burnt: c, c, c, c, c, fire furnaces for the fuel, whose mode of connection with the cavity where the limestone is placed, may be seen at c, in the vertical section : which also shows at d, the manner in which the lime may be withdrawn. At a, a, is shown a lining of fire brick ; back of which, is a cavity, b, 6, filled with cinders, which act as a non-conductor of heat. The outside is built of rough stone. Its size can be learnt from the scale of English feet attach- ed to fig. 2. It produces about 250 bushels of lime daily. See Dumas'' Chimie applique aux Arts, fyc. Tome Deuxieme, p. 489. Kilns for Burning Lime. 160 Fig. l-% Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. is a vertical section of a plain perpetual kiln, which I visited in the north part of Richmond, Berkshire county. It is 25 feet high, and built of alternate layers of fire brick and stone. It is four sided ; consisting of a single strait chimney, 4 feet square on the inside, and 8 feet on the outside ; making the walls 2 feet thick. To the height of 7 feet from the bottom, it is 12 feet in one direction, for the purpose of making room for the furnaces, d, d, in which wood only is burnt, and which are 2 feet high, and 20 inches wide. For the passage of the heat into the limestone in the chimney, the bricks are laid up like a grate, as shown in Fig. 5. But it is ob- vious that an iron grate must be much better; and probably in the end more economical, a, a, are ash pits beneath the fires: b an opening for drawing out the lime from the bottom of the chimney, which is built towards its bottom exactly like the hopper to a grist mill; the opening at the bottom being about 18 inches square. This kiln consumes from 2 to 2 1-2 cords of wood daily, and produces 75 bushels of lime, which is drawn out at intervals of 8 hours. I do not suppose that this kiln is built in the very best manner: yet having been in successful operation for seven years, and being an easy one to construct, I thought a section of it might be desirable. The great quantity of wood consumed in proportion to the daily produce of this kiln, shows that there must be some defect in its construction. The proprietor, however, was about to rebuild it when I visited it in the autumn of 1838. All the parts may be measured by the scale of feet attached to Fig. 4. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. SI 22 166 Economical Geology. Besides the perpetual kiln that has been described in Richmond, another on the same plan exists in Lenox ; and these, so far as I could learn, are the only kilns of this kind tjiat exist in the whole of Berkshire county. Nearly all the lime prepared there, is burnt in the old fashion- ed intermittent kilns. Indeed, I found among some of the lime burners there, a prejudice against the perpetual kilns ; as if they did not accomplish the work thoroughly. These facts have surprised me, when 1 consider what a great and increasing demand there must be upon Berkshire for lime from other parts of New England ; and being confident that it will be quite an easy matter to reduce the present cost of burning lime there, at least one half: and probably a great deal more. Mr. Haddsel of New Marlborough, who has burnt a vast quantity of lime stone for the last 30 or 40 years, (at present he burns about 12000 bushels annually,) and whose lime is considered very good in the Hartford market, told me that the cost of burning and pre- paring it for market would not fall much short of 25 cents per bushel. His kiln holds 700 bushels , and he consumes 40 cords of wood at a charge. Estimating the wood at $1.50 per cord, and this is probably too low, the cost per bushel is 8 1-2 cents. Dr. Jackson, in his second Report on the Geology of Maine, states the cost of fuel per bushel at Thomaston, where the old kilns are used is 8 cents. Now Professor Mather, in his second Report on the Geology of the First Dis- trict of New York, states that lime is burnt in the perpetual kilns at Barnegat on the Hudson, where 720,000 bushels are annually prepared, for less than 2 cents per bushel :—the fuel cost- ing less than one cent; and the labor of tending the kiln about the same; while the expence of raising the stone is trifling. In Connecticut, according to Professor Shepard, in his Geological Report, an intermittent kiln in Reading, that holds 1200 bushels, requires for a charge 40 cords of wood ; another in Brookfield, that holds 700 bushels, requires 35 cords ; and another in Der- by, that holds 270 bushels, requires from 8 to 10 cords. If the wood be put at $2.00 per cord, the average "price per bushel for these three kilns would be about 8 cents. But according to the same report, the perpetual kilns of Pennsylvania burn 700 bushels of lime with 8 cords of wood ; and one and a half tons of anthracite: which, (putting the wood at $2.00 per cord, and the an- thracite at $6.00 per ton,) amounts to 3 1-2 cents per bushel. In New York, Mr. Shepard says, they burn 2000 bushels of lime with 12 cords of wood: which, at the same price, is only a little over 2 cents per bushel. The proprietors of the perpetual kiln in Whately, that has been already described, estimate that their fuel, which is entirely wood, costs them from 3 to 4 cents per bushel ; as stated in Mr. Nash's letter inserted on a former page. It ought to be mentioned that the fuel used at Barnegat is anthracite ; which there costs $6.00 per ton : \ and this is undoubtedly more economical than wood. But the greater part of the difference in the cost of the fuel at that place and in Berkshire, results from the character of the kilns employed as the other facts above mentioned already prove. And if desirable to employ anthracite in Berkshire, it can probably be transported by rail road at so low a rate, as to render it practicable. It is said, also, that coal dust, which costs in New York $1.75 per ton, will an- swer well for burning lime. Does not this fact deserve the attention of the proprietors of those lime quarries in the eastern part of Massachusetts, that have been abandoned on account of the high price of fuel. Dr. C T. Jackson, in his second Report on the Geology of Maine states that it has been estimated, that even at Thomaston in Maine, the use of coal would reduce the price of lime from 8 cents per bushel, to 5, and perhaps 3 cents. And if so, why may not the preparation of lime be extensively resumed in the eastern, part of Massachusetts ? From these facts I cannot but infer that Massachusetts, proud as she just- ly is of her skill in manufactures, is in this art very much behind the times. And I have no doubt that were those concerned to adopt all the improve- ments that have been introduced into the preparation of quicklime, in one Kilns for Burning Lime. 167 year the price of that article might be reduced one third, if not one half, while the manufacturers would realize a greater profit than they now do. This is particularly true of Berkshire county, which possesses an inexhaus- tible amount of this valuable material: but her citizens generally, it seems to me, are but little sensible of the treasure in their hands. Were only the fragments of pure limestone, that now lie useless around the marble quarries in West Stockbridge, Lanesborough, New Ashford, Adams, Sheffield, &c. to be burnt into lime, it would furnish a supply for the whole state for a great number of years. I am not aware that such a use is made of these fragments in a single instance ; although the whole expence of quarrying is here saved. Is it said that there is little or no demand for the lime when prepared ? But why not act on the commercial principle, that by increasing the supply, a demand can be created. Surely there is need enough for ten times more lime than is now burnt in Berkshire, in the region lying east of the county. And since rail roads will soon be in operation that can transport it thither, it becomes the interest of the inhabitants of that county to introduce all the modern improvements possible into its manufacture. Lime is sold at Barne- gat for 6 cents per bushel: why can it not be prepared nearly as cheap in Berkshire ? I confidently expect that the day is not distant when it will be: and then it will be in the power of our farmers, a good deal beyond the lime- stone district, to use it upon their land. At present the burning of lime is a business, so far as I could learn, not very profitable to those engaged in it in Berkshire county. But when its price shall be reduced one half, and ten times more is burnt, I predict that it will become profitable. I have been surprised to find how little limestone is burnt in that part of the state. It is a singular fact, that in most of those towns that have been most distinguished for the burning of lime, such as Washington, Hinsdale, and Peru, no ledges of limestone occur: but dependence has been placed entirely on the loose blocks that diluvial action has driven thither from the neighboring towns. And I have been assured that the inhabitants of some towns, which are based upon good limestone, transport most of the lime that they use from quarries in towns where very little exists in ledges, under an idea that they have no lime- stone where they live that is worth burning! The use of peat in the burning of lime deserves the attention of those who own beds of the stone in the eastern part of Massachusetts. For the best European writers declare that it is de- cidedly more economical, and better in other respects, than wood. Figs. 6 and 7 are a vertical and horizontal section, the latter taken at the height of the grate,—of a kiln adapted for the use of peat. 168 Economical Geology. A. Fig. 7, is an arch, and B, an embrasure, for introducing the peat and withdrawing the lime. The grate C, is composed of straight bars of iron resting upon a circular bar, which lies upon the brick work. The lining should be of fire bricks ; though this is not indispensible. The sides of the kiln are curved ; the radius of curvature being represented by the lines A H, A B, Fig. 6: whose length can be determined by the scale of feet at the bottom : and indeed, the same is true of every other part of the kiln; so that more particular description is unnecessary. Its height above the grate is about 18 feet, and its greatest width about 8 feet. In this kiln according to Dumas, (Traite de Chemie applique aux Arts, Tome Deuxieme, p. 488.) one cubic foot of limestone requires only two cubic feet of peat to burn it. Hence, next to anthracite, this appears to be the cheapest kind of fuel. " When this furnace has been constructed," says Dumas " it should be left several days to dry slowly : when the fire is lighted, it should be done little by little, and gradually increased, lest the sudden contraction of the mortar should cause large fissures. The stone should be piled up in the kiln in the form of a hemisphere, so as to leave spaces of 2 or 3 inches between the frag- ments : the largest of these being collected near the center of the kiln, &c "—" When it is thus filled with stone, a muffled {etouffe) fire should be kept up on the grate for 10 or 12 hours. The smoke will blacken the stone very much to the top of the furnace. This operation, which is called the smoking., is intended to heat the whole mass by little and little. If heated too rapidly, the compact fragments would shiver in pieces by the rapid expansion of the water, and tend to choke the kiln." Varieties of Limestone. Fig. 6. On the continent of Europe three kinds of quicklime are distinguished by the different sorts of mortar which they produce. 1. Fat lime : (chaux Fat and Meagre Lime. 169 grasse) 2. Meagre lime : 3. Hydraulic lime. The fat lime contains at least 90 per cent, of pure lime : But when the magnesia, silica, alumina, iron, and manganese, which it contains, amount to 20 per cent, it becomes meagre : that is, these foreign matters affect very much the mortar that is made from the mixture. When these foreign substances, however, are in considerably large proportion, the lime sometimes becomes hydraulic; that is, it will harden under water. Fat Lime. This being derived from an almost pure carbonate of lime, slacks with great energy and the evolution of heat; forms a fine paste with water ; admits the addition of a great deal of sand ; is more easily laid on by the mason ; and therefore, is the most economical for common purposes. On all these accounts it is regarded as the best kind of lime ; and sought after the most. For it is not generally known in this country, that it does not form so hard and durable a mortar as the next variety. Meagre Lime. Although this kind of lime often slacks slowly and less perfectly than fat lime, and when water is added, forms a less perfect paste, and therefore, does not work so well with the trowel; and as it takes up less water and bears less sand, is therefore more expensive, yet after all, it hard- ens with greater certainty, and to a greater degree, and forms a more enduring and stronger cement. It is especially valuable for the property which much of it possesses, of hardening in damp as well as in dry places ; and where mortar is exposed to the weather, it is by far the best. Never- theless many of the circumstances mentioned above, produce a prejudice against this sort of lime, especially among brick layers. It will be seen from the table of analyses of the Massachusetts limestones, that this variety of lime is very abundant among us, especially if we include under it, as is done by European writers, that which contains a large proportion of magnesia. I have had no opportnnity of try- ing but one variety of the meagre lime, and that is the kind that has lately begun to be burned in Whately. Having occasion to plaster a building upon the outside it seemed to me that this lime would be well adapted for the purpose. I tried it by mixing one part of unslaked lime with one part of sifted ashes, and one part of sand, and found it to produce a cement that spread well and became very hard, and at a few rods distance can hardly be distinguished from granite or sandstone. The outer coat, however, not having been put on in proper season after the first, does not adhere well. And although the Whately lime answers for outside work better than anyl have seen, yet I doubt whether in our climate, it be the best economy to cover the outside of buildings with any kind of calcareous cement. But if it be done, meagre lime is the best; and I doubt not that several other varieties in the State will answer as well as that from Whately. I presume however, that when there is not more than 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime in a rock, it will not produce cement of much value. It will probably surprise the inhabitants of Berkshire county, as it did me, to find that by far the largest part of the limestone burnt there, contains not less than 40 per cent, of the carbonate of magnesia. The fine looking stone burnt in the south part of New Marlborough and Tyring- ham, near the center of Lee, and in the east part of Lanesborough, from which places great quanti- 170 Economical Geology. ties of lime are carried out of the county, and it is in high repute, is all genuine magnesian lime- stone. The same is true of the quarries in the eastern part of the state, at Bolton, Chelmsford, Littleton, &c. Now it is certain that magnesia does not form a paste with water ; and yet, so far as I can ascertain, this kind of lime is preferred to that which is pure ; because it becomes harder and is usually whiter. But I consider that there is yet too much doubt resting upon the use of magnesian lime in agriculture to render it expedient to employ it upon land when other lime can be procured. And from the analyses of our limestones that have been given, our citizens can now judge where the different sorts may be obtained. In respect to magnesian limestone, however, there is another important use to which it has not been applied in this state which I shall suggest in treating of the next variety. Hydraulic Lime. It has long been an important enquiry what ingredients are necessary in limestone to render it hydraulic; that is, to cause it to harden under water. Until recently but little success attended this enquiry: because the manner in which mortar is consolidated, was misunderstood. It was supposed to re- sult from the absorption of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, whereby the lime was reconverted into a carbonate: so that the more completely this pro- cess was effected, the harder would the cement become. And this was thought to explain the reason why the ancient Roman cements, that are found in old ruins, are so hard. But upon analysis it was found that these mor- tars rarely contained much carbonic acid ; and that in general they were harder, the less of this substance entered into their composition. ( Traite de Mineralogie, par Beudant, Tome Premier, p. 690.) That mortars do, how- ever, absorb carbonic acid on their surface, and that this is one of the causes of their induration, can hardly be doubted. But it is not the principal cause. Silica operates as an acid in mortars, and forms silicates of lime, magnesia, alumina, &c. and this probably is the principal cause of their consolidation. In this state silica exists in rocks, and to this fact chiefly they owe their hard- ness : and could the materials of mortar be mixed in such proportions as they exist in rocks, and under as favorable circumstances for induration, they would become as hard as the rocks ; as in fact they do sometimes. This theory shows us the use and even necessity of sand mixed with lime, to form good mortars. It shows us also, why it is better to have this silice- ous matter exist naturally in the rock than to introduce it artificially, because nature mixes it more perfectly than art can do. But why should some mortars become silicates only in the air, and others with more facility under water ? It is the opinion of distinguished chemists that the latter class are converted when under water, into hydrated silicates ; while the former, not undergoing this process, are more or less dissolved when immersed, and become mere an- hydrous silicates in the air. But the analyses that have been made of these dif- Hydraulic Dime. 171 fer*ent varieties of limestome do not afford a satisfactory reason why some of them are hydraulic and some are not. Yet it is hence ascertained that certain ingredients besides the lime, are necessary to make them harden under water. It was formerly thought that this property depended upon the oxide of iron, or manganese, which they contained. But the numerous accurate experi- ment that have been made on the subject, prove that silica is the most im- portant ingredient on which the hydraulic character depends. The results of all these experiments however, I give in the words of Dumas. " It fol- lows," says he, " from all these facts, that silica alone is able to form with lime a combination eminently hydraulic: while magnesia alone, or a mixture of the oxides of iron and manganese, cannot produce a similar combination, but renders the lime meagre, without communicating to it the property of hard- ening under water. Synthetic experiments confirm the results of analysis ; and prove farther. 1. That alumina alone has no more efficacy than magne- sia in rendering lime hydraulic: 2. That silica is an ingredient essential to these varieties of lime : 3. That the oxides of iron and manganese, far from playing a part so important as some attribute to them, are on the contrary very often altogether passive : 4. That the best hydraulic lime results from a mixture of silica, lime, and magnesia, or alumina."—" We must, therefore, consider hydraulic lime as a silicate of lime, or a silicate of alumina and lime, or finally as a silicate of magnesia and lime, with an excess of base. These compounds placed in water produce hydrates; or other combinations of the hydrated silicate with the hydrate of the base in excess." (Chhnie ap- lique aux Arts, Tome Deuxieme, p. 512.) More recently another distinguish- ed chemist, Professor Mitscherlich of Berlin, says in respect to magnesian limestone for hydraulic cement, that " according to experiments in the small way, magnesian limestone merits the preference over the carbonate of lime." (Elemens de Chemie par E. Mitscherlich, Tome Troisieme,p. 120. Brux- elles, 1836.) Vicat also, recently inclines to the same opinion; and in our country,JProfessor William B. Rogers, the able state geologist of Virginia, has made numerous analyses of the hydraulic limestones of this country, from which he not only infers that magnesia operates favorably upon the hydraulic character, but even suggests that this property may depend upon the mag- nesia, rather than upon the silica. He finds that in all the hydraulic lime- stones which he has analysed, the carbonate of magnesia bears to the carbon- ate of lime the proportion of three to five : and he supposes that by this cir- cumstance we may probably determine whether any limestone is hydraulic. Without doubting at all the accuracy of Professor Rogers'analyses and exper- iments, I confess that I do not know how to reconcile the principle, that the hydraulic character always depends upon magnesia, with the numerous analy- ses and experiments that have been made in Europe on the subject. In the 172 Economical Geology. table below I shall give some of the analyses by Berthier of the best hydrau- lic limestones in France; most of which contain but a very small proportion of magnesia: and those which are artificial, and which are in high repute, contain none. Even the septaria of England, from which the famous Roman or Parker's cement, the best hydraulic cement in the world, is obtained, con- tains only one 200th, part of carbonate of magnesia; and a similar rock in France and Russia contains none. On the other hand, in some of the speci- mens analyzed by Prof. Rogers, the silica is less than two per cent.; and yet they form good hydraulic cement. We have then good mortar of this descrip- tion, sometimes almost without silica, but containing magnesia; and some- times without magnesia, but containing silica. Must we not hence infer, that the hydraulic character does not depend entirely upon either of these sub- stances : but rather upon the mode or other circumstances of their combin- ation with the lime : in other words, that they may replace each other. I have annexed to the following table of analyses, the composition of some of those artificial hydraulic cements, which it is well known are frequently prepared in Europe, and with great suc- cess. I have also added the analyses of those limestones in Massachusetts, that so much resem- ble those from which hydraulic cement is prepared in other parts of the world, as to deserve a trial whether they will not also harden under water. It will be seen that the analyses of Prof. Rogers give the composition of 30 parts of the rock : while the others assume 100 parts as the standard. Berthier's analyses are given in the second volume of Dumas' Chimie Applique aux Arts: while those of Prof. Rogers are derived from his Report on thj Geological Survey of Virginia for 1838. Limestone moderately Hydraulic. LOCALITIES. o a o S o s ? 1*1 > n> o p o- 5'= 5" 3 "">o 3 o o 3 Si" 3 5-2 KB C 3 5' trs.g O 0.3 3 » 3 3 P o » ~>P 3 a France (Loire) do (Ain) France (Gard.) do do Senonches very fa- mous. Virginia near Shepherds town. do do do Jefferson county, New York, Much used— Kentucky, Louisville, 90.0 85.8 5.0 0.4 6.2 5.0 5.4 82.5 4.1 79.2 2.5 80.0 15 15.94 6.49 16.76 11.76 | 8.48 6.56 14.46 10.73 16.51 7.25 Eminently Hydraulic. 13.4 6.0 3.8 1.0 6.5 17.0 6.50 0.77 13.20 3.63 4.54 2.0 1.0 0.64 0.12 0.35 0.13 1.20 0.40 0.36 0.82 0.79 0.37 0.31 0.20 0.16 0.54 Hydraulic Lime. 173 Massachusetts Limestones perhaps Hydraulic. LOCALITIES. o ~ -1 rocr 3 io (6 3 P a 2 n p p to 3, 3 ° a S" P P «- So o --o 3 C3 a 5 o * ■goo £ = A pa pS. m o' p > c 3 5' p 3 re s' • o t" -if) 3 O p cr o 3 3 P o o t No. 494. Walpole, 70.30 29.70 1942. Becket, 58.31 28.61 1.24 11.84 448. Williamstown, 52.31 32.79 0.74 14.16 496. Stoneham, 59.28 15.71 1.21 23.80 211. W. Springfield, 93.48 0.90 5.60 1737. Paine's Quary, Springfield Chicopee, 86.80 13.20 1941. Middlefield, Cole's Brook, 56.25 31.56 1.12 11.07 1944. Sherbune, 60.43 29.84 2.36 7.37 1918. Concord, 77.33 1.19 1.65 19.83 1946. West Natick white crystalline, 72.10 7.50 20.40 1950. do yellow, 61.18 12.30 1.27 25.25 1 Except the specimens from Springfield and West Springfield, which have been tried, I infer the hydraulic character of the Massachusetts limestones above given, from their composition alone. I am strongly suspicious that the fact that they are mostly of the primary class, and crystalline, will operate unfavorably. The great importance of finding such limestones in different parts of the state, will, I trust, lead to a fair trial of those that I have pointed out. This may be done at first on a small scale, without much trouble ; and I should myself have tried them all, had my attention been specially called to this subject in season to obtain large enough specimens from the different localities. It would be particularly desirable to find such limestone in the county of Berkshire: And even should none of those prove hydraulic, which I have analyzed from that part of the State, it ought not to discourage search after those, which will prove so : for hy- draulic limestones are usually of a poorer kind, such as in Berkshire would be passed unnoticed, as of no value. I have little doubt but those may be found there, which will set under water. At any rate, probably some varieties of the marl, that have been recently found in Berkshire, will make hydraulic cement, if burnt in a proper manner. For says Professor Mitscherlich, " a marl which contains from 13 to 19 per cent, of clay, makes a good hydraulic mortar; and if the clay contains an excess of silica, this circumstance increases the good qualities of the mortar." (Elemens de Chemie, Tome Troiseme.) Now by referring to the composition of the Berkshire marls, as given on a former page, it will be seen that marls of the description here mentioned occur there ; and probably at almost any of the localities a part of the beds may be found containing the requisite proportion of clay, that is, of silica, alumina, oxide of iron, &c The only limestone in Massachusetts that has hitherto been employed for hydraulic mortar, is that at Paine's quarries in the west part of West Springfield: where large quantities have been manufactured within a few years past; and I understand it to form a good cement; although I 23 174 Economical Geology. infer from analysis, that it is rather too pure a carbonate of lime. But not improbably the speci- men analyzed was above the average in this respect. The specimen given in the general table of analysis from Chicopee, in Springfield, contains more clay and would probably make a good hydraulic cement. It occurs in the bed of the Chicopee river, just below the bridge at the Chicopee Factory village, where I presume is a large quantity. It has never been burnt at all for mortar ; and indeed its existence there is hardly known ; although large quantities of it, with the associated sandstone, have been got out for building factories on the bank. The limestone at this place, as also at Paine's quarries in West Springfield, is mostly fetid, sometimes perhaps bituminous. But there is another variety occuring on the Chicopee, as well as the Agawam, which I suppose will produce an hydraulic cement far superior to any that has yet been made in this New England. But this I shall describe farther on. Artificial Hydraulic Mortar. When lime is not in itself hydraulic, it may be made so by mixing with it, either wet or dry, certain argillaceous matters, which have been burnt with the access of atmospheric air. Some of the clays used for this purpose in Europe resemble in composition the white clay from Mar- tha's Vineyard, that is destitute of iron. Probably, however, the presence of iron will do no injury, and most likely many of our clays will answer. As to the kind of lime to be used, after what has been said there can be but little doubt but the magnesian would be much preferable. The proportion of the ingredients, and the precautions requisite to success, cannot be here given for want of room: but will be found in the works of Vicat, Dumas, and others. In this way, if in no other, can Berkshire and the eastern part of the state supply themselves with this mortar. In Europe, however, ever since the days of Roman glory, it has been very common to em- ploy, instead of clay, a kind of volcanic ashes called Puzzolana; which resembles burnt clay. In Holland great use has been made of a similar substance called Tarras, or Trass, which is de- composing basalt. The vescicular decomposing trap rock, not uncommon on the greenstone ranges in the valley of Connecticut river, appears to me so much like tarras, and puzzolana, that it would make a good substitute. I have accordingly subjected to analysis a specimen, from Mount Holyoke (No. 160.) in the north west part of Belchertown, where great quantities of it may be obtained in a state more or less approaching to powder. I have noticed the same sub- stance along the eastern side of that greenstone range which extends through the eastern part of Deerfield and Greenfield. The following are the results of the analysis. Water, 8.50 Silica, 53.70 Alumina, 13.00 Peroxide of Iron, 21.00 Oxide of Manganese, 0.19 Lime, 0.70 Magnesia, 0.15 Sulphur, (from pyrites) and Loss, 2.76 100. By Bergman's analysis, Puzzolana has the following composition: Silica, 55 to 60 per cent. Alumina, 19 to 20 " Roman Cement. 175 Calcareous Matter, 5 to 6 per cent. Iron, 15 to 20 " The correspondence between this analysis and that which I have given, is near enough to show that in all probability both substances would answer almost equally well for hydraulic cement. If our clays, therefore, will not answer for this cement, here is a substance that can doubtless be employed. Roman Cement. In the year 1796, Messrs. Parker and Wyatts obtained a royal patent in England, for the manufacture of a peculiar kind of cement, which they de- nominated aquatic cement, and which subsequently obtained the name of Roman Cement. They were eminently successful, and others followed their example with the like success. It has become indeed, an important branch of business : and vast quantities are exported to foreign countries, where it bears a high price. It possesses the valuable property, after having been mixed with water, of hardening very rapidly, even in a quarter of an hour; whether in air or under water. Hence it is the most valuable sort of cement that is prepared from lime. In London, it is employed as a substitute for plaster of Paris, in preparing models: also for filling up crevices in walls, luting the joinings of aqueducts, restoring broken cornices, and other archi- tectural ornaments, and for many other uses. Stones united with it become in a few hours as difficult to break through the joining, as in any other direction. The material from which this valuable substance is obtained is a peculiar kind of concretionary limestone, occurring in nodules, of different sizes, which are usually traversed by veins of sparry carbonate of lime. These nodules, on account of being thus traversed, are called Septaria. Now the valley of the Connecticut contains several localities of Septaria which are exceedingly like those of England. I have found them in quanti- ty only in Springfield, on the Chicopee river; in West Springfield, on the Agawam, and at Wethersfield in Connecticut at a place called the Cove. The rock in the bottom of the river at Chicopee Factory village, may be seen spotted with them; and at the quarry a few rods east of Cabot - ville, on the south bank of the same river, great quantities of them may be seen, that have been thrown away. At this place I noticed some as large as a man's head ; but generally they are much smaller. On the Agawam river, a little above Midneag Factories, the quantity of this peculiar argillo-ferru- ginous limestone appears to be greater than in Springfield : for here it forms layers between the strata of shale, of one, two, or three inches in thickness: which appears like clay that has been exposed to the sun, till it has cracked in all directions by desiccation. Upon the whole, I have a strong hope that 176 Economical Geology. there will be no deficiency in the quantit) of the material, should it be found to form the Roman cement, so as to make it an object to manufacture it. On the Continent of Europe this sort of limestone has been sought after with great eagerness. I am not aware that it has been found except at two places in France, and one in Russia. I shall put down an analysis of a specimen from England and another from France, in order to compare these with the specimens which I have described in Springfield, whose composi- tion is subjoined. COMPOSITION. . 2 .a ce!3 .2'C C "3)2 * e a« L£ v >> u OS is V O-ffl fa. o 03 O On — m £ «~-o —< J*