illlllllli < *;: J !!;f fM^ SCIENTIFIC WORKS, PUBLISHED BY GOULD AND LINCOLN, 59 Washington Street, Boston. FOOT-PRINTS OF THE CREATOR; OR, THE ASTEEOLEPIS OP STROMNESS. BY HUGH MILLER. From the Tliird London Edition. With Illustrations, and a Memoir of the Author. BY LOUIS AGASSIZ. THE OLD RED SANDSTONE; OS, NEW WALKS IN AN OLD FIELD. BY HUGH MILLER. jFront tije jFourtf) ILortoon Edition. Illustrate*!. POETRY OF SCIENCE; OR, STUDIES OF PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF NATURE. BY ROBERT HUNT. LAKE SUPERIOR, ITS PHYSICAL CHARACTEE, VEGETATION AND ANIMALS, COMPAEED WITH OTHER AND SIMILAR REGIONS. BY LOUIS AGASSIZ. UMiVf) a Narratibe of tfje Expedition, anfc Illustrations. BY J. E. CABOT. THE EARTH AND MAN: COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, IX ITS RELATION TO THE HISTORY OF MANKIND. By Arnold Guyon, Prof. Geo. & Hist., Neuchatel. Translated from the French, by Prof. C. C. Felton.—With Illustrations. NEW REVISED EDITION. PRINCIPLES OF ZOOLOGY; TOUCHING THE STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT, AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES OF ANIMALS, OTitij Illustrations. JFor £rf)ooIs anu Colleges. Part I. Comparative Physiology. BY L. AGASSIZ AND A. A. GOULD. ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY; OR, YEAR BOOK OF FACTS IN SCIENCE AND ART. EXHIBITING THE IMPORTANT DISCOVEBJES AND IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES. EDITED BY DAVID A. WELLS, AND GEORGE BLISS, JR. ^ TME - OF THE BUM AH 8PECIKS LIEUT. COL.CHA5 HAMILTON SMITH K.H B OiSTOH GOULD & LINCOLN 59 WASHINGTON STREET 1851. NATURAL HISTORY THE HUIAN SPECIES TYPICAL FORMS, PRIMEVAL DISTRIBUTION, FILIATIONS, AND MIGRATIONS. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. BY LIEUT.-COL. CHAS. HAMILTON SMITH, /// PRESIDENT OF THE DEVON AXD CORNWALL NAT. HIST. SOCIETY, ETC. ETC. WITH A PRELIMINARY ABSTRACT OF THE VIEWS OF BLUMENBACII, rtlCIIARD, BACHMAN, AGASSIZ, AND OTHER AUTHORS "9V OF REPUTE ON THE SUBJECT. 'J •<> VBY S. KNEELAND, Jr., M. D "\ TiOSTON: GOULD" jfop LINCOLN, 69 WASHINfTON STREET. 1851. 851 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1351, By GOULD & LINCOLN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. Stereotyped by HOBAKT & ROBBINS; NEW EXGLAND TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY, liOSTO.N. Printed by George C. Rand & Co., No. 3 Ccrnhil). PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. After the anxious and ardent study of two years, the talented author of the following pages has reduced to a last- ing form the labors, original observations, and pictorial illus- trations, collected during his long and valuable life, upon this important history, in which he has, with such praise- worthy industry, treasured up the interesting facts and reasonings in this volume — very much condensed it is true, but yet exhibiting such a view of the subject as, we trust, cannot fail of being both interesting, instructive and popular. We embrace this opportunity to give an extract of a letter just received from himself respecting a Preface to the volume, not being willing to lose any details which may fall from so valuable a source. " As for a Preface, I see nothing required, unless it was thought proper to state what I had said in the concluding 1* VI ADVERTISEMENT. paragraph respecting my predecessors,'whose details I did not think it my mission to repeat, particularly as the confined space allowed me was not even sufficient to fully explain the statements I had to make and comment upon. This fact is abundantly exemplified in the short abstracts I have been compelled to give of the European Caucasians, whose inter- mixtures, by well known migrations from the north to the south, might have been given, with details full of interest; particularly as, by the means of the Gothic invasions, all the new elements were brought into existence, which, when leavened by Christianity and the antique schools of civiliza- tion, brought forth the present progressive development. Experiment, fact, and inductive fact, are the basis of knowl- edge, and stand in perpetual contradistinction to the author- ity and dicta of antiquity, usually without foundations. In the work before us, it is true that much rests necessarily upon induction; but when we have antecedents and succe- dents, the intermediate cannot be said to be conjecture; it is an approximation to positive fact, from actual necessity. This is the line of arguing which I would take up if a pref- ace be necessary." CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION,.......15 Preliminary Observations, ..... .99 Changes ox the Earth's Surface since the commencement of the tresent Zoological System, .... 104 Asia,........105 South of Asia, ...... 107 The Indus, ....... 107 Ceylon, ....... Ill The Ganges, ••..... 113 Australasia, . . . . . . 113 East Coast of Asia, . . . . . .115 Arctic Asia, . . . . . . .118 Caspian Basin, or Asiatic Mediterranean, . . . 120 Europe,.......124 Arctic Europe, ....... 126 Western Europe, ..... 128 VIII CONTENTS. PAGE The Rhine,.......130 Great Britain, ....•• I33 Southern Europe, ....••• 135 Italy,........137 The Egean, . . . . . . .139 Asia Minor, ....... 141 Basin of the Dead Sea, . . . . . .142 Currents of the Mediterranean, .... 144 Africa, ........ 146 America, ....... 147 West Indies,.......149 North America, . . . . . .150 The Pacific,...... .151 Bones of Man among Organic Remains, . . . 153 Vale of Kostritz, . . . . . . .156 Traditions respecting extinct Species, . . . 161 Human Ossuaries, with Bones of extinct Animals, . . 163 Existence of Man as a Genus, or as a Single Species, 167 Species or Typical Forms of Man, .... 175 Abnormal Races of Man, ..... 182 The Giants, . # igo The Dwarfs, ..... . jqq The Aturian Paltas or Flatheads of South America, . .190 Remains of other Abnormal Tribes, . 193 CONTENTS. IX PAGE The Typical Stocks, ....... 198 Comparison of Physical Powers and Structural Differences of the Typical Stocks, ..... 198 Intellectual and Moral Characters of the Typical Stocks, . 206 Primeval Location of Man, or position of the Typical Stocks, 208 Diagram of primeval Location of Typical and Subtypical Stocks,.......222 THE WOOLLY-HAIRED TROPICAL TYPE, . . .223 The Malay Subtypical Stem, ..... 243 The American Subtypical Stem, ..... 25-5 THE HYPERBOREAN, BEARDLESS, OR MONGOLIC TYPE, 279 The Finnic, Ouralian, or Tschudic Subtypical Stem, . 296 The Basques,.......305 The Ligurians or Llogrians, ..... 307 The Veneti,.......309 The Etruscans, . . . . . . .311 The Finns or Suomi,......320 The Huns,.......323 TheKhazars,.......325 The Hungarians, ....... 325 The Turks,.......327 The Ethiopian or Melanic Stem, .... 330 The Egyptians,......349 X CONTENTS. PAGE The Atlantics or Berbers, . 3^5 The Numidians, ...-•• 355 The Amazigh, .....•• 355 TheSuakim,.......356 The Tuarikhs, . . . . . . .357 THE BEARDED, INTERMEDIATE, OR CAUCASIAN TYPE, 358 The Semitic Races, . . . . . . 371 The Arabs,.......372 The Hebrews, ....... 375 The Babylonians, Chaldees, and Assyrians, . . . 378 The Gaurs and Persians, ..... 381 The Typical Caucasians, ...... 383 The Kaufirs or Mamoges, ..... 384 The Circassian and Georgian Tribes of the Caspian Caucasus, 386 The Pelasgian, Dorian, and Hellenic Tribes, . . 388 The Tirynthians, ...... 391 The Romans, ....... 393 The Celtic Nations, ... ... 396 The Getas or Gothic Nations, .... 410 Appendix, ••••.... 421 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. Beginning with the most aberrant forms, we have the American, whereof the Aturian Palta or Titicaca Flatheads form the type. It is so distinct, that its having a common origin with the forms of the Old Con- tinent is not satisfactorily established, since the oblique-headed Peruvian and the depressed-headed Chinook are mere artificial imitations of the typical head. That this is not itself the result of contrivance, is exempli- fied in the figure of a Titicaca child's head of perhaps the fifth year, which is greatly prolonged, yet less so than another in positive infancy. Both have the orbits more solid than heads of the same age on the eastern continent, and the older of the two presents the additional bone (os incoe) at the back of the head. The oblique-headed Peruvian shows its resemblance to Asiatic figures to be noticed in the sequel. PLATE II. Offers specimens of the woolly-haired type, the vertical view of a Negro's skull, pointing out the small breadth compared to the depth, and the projection of the face approaching the Titicaca. form. Both have the XII EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. frontal bone carried high up the dome, though not in the same degree. There is no very striking difference between the skulls of the west and east coast of Africa. Those of Oriental Negroes, and even of Horafouros, who are not an unmixed race, have the same typical structure, though more debased ; the Tasmanian being the lowest, with perhaps the exception of the Bushman. PLATE HI. Of the beardless type, may be observed the shorter and more quadran- gular cranial form, with still more facial protrusion ; and, in the most northern partially mixed races, the very contracted occiput is remark- able. PLATE IV. Shows the regular oval form of the most intellectual type : more breadth of forehead ; prolonged expansion backwards, and nearly vertical facial angle. The regular dome, as seen in the finest races of mankind — ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, Circassians, and Arabs. In most European, a slight modification from a Finnic source may be traced. PLATE V. Proves the typical identity of the Oriental Negro with those of Mozam- bique and Guinea. PLATE VI. — Figs. 1 and 2. Exhibits profiles of Indo-Chinese, or the sub-type of what we take to be the Malay races, where, in the vertical profile of one, we have a Cau- casian predominance, in the other more Papua blood, both in some decree partaking of the Negro coloring, but with the hard, black straight hair of a Mongolic intermixture. In the Australasian Islands, many customs remain, which attest that a portion of the American people derives its EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. XIII origin from them: for, among their paintings and carved work, represent- ing gods and heroes, we see personages dancing with human heads slung to the waist, like modern Dyaks ; we observe ensigns of feathers, stuck in sheaths at the back, like the Malays of Java ; and masks, tomahawks, shields, sword handles, and spears adorned, in a similar manner, with human hair and tufts of feathers. We refer to the figures in Captain Keppel's voyage, and in the late Dutch publications on their Indian pos- sessions. Figs. 3 and 4. The character of lank hair is universal in the beardless races, and the presence of Caucasian blood scarcely marked by a somewhat more ruddy complexion, and slight beard in the Mongol and Eleuth. PLATE VII. — Fig. 1. Exemplifies an abnormal family of tribes. We figure a Bushman, once a private soldier in the Cape Rifles, like all the Hottentot nations, known by the pale yellow color. From drawings of Captain Nelson, R. E. Fig. 2. Cafuse Brazilian ;' hybrid between Negro and Cayopa tribe of Indian blood. At Cape Gardafui, in Eastern Africa, an Arab intermixture pro- duces the same external aspect in the Jamaule Negroes. It occurs again among the Mekran Ethiops, and among the Malay Papuas of the Indian Ocean. PLATE VIII. — Fig. 1. Te-Kewiti, a New Zealand chief, showing, in conduct, reasoning, and person, high Caucasian development. 2 XIV EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Fig. 2. North American Indian ; from the Travels of Prince Maximilian of Wied. PLATE IX. — Fig. 1. Cluche Indian : a tribe bordering on the Rocky Mountains, strongly marked with Mongolic characters. He was sketched at New York. Fig. 2. Portrait of a- Mongolic race : the Nogai Tahtar bearing the character- istics of his type very strongly. PLATE X. The Black Kalmuck most strongly marked with the Mongolic charac- ter ; and a Japanese prize-fighter, with broad but receding forehead. PLATE XI. — Fig. 1. Portrait of Mohammed II., showing the Turkish Ouralian character, before the race was as yet much intermixed with Circassian and Greek blood. Fig. 2. The forehead of the Sarmatian noble is the maximum instance of exter- nal mental development. It is the same character that distinguishes the portraits of Wallenstein and other Bohemian and Polish heads. VIGNETTE. Blackfoot Indian, taken from Prince Maximilian of Wied's magnificent Atlas of Plates, illustrative of the North American Indian Tribes and Scenery. INTRODUCTION. The subject of the " Natural History of Man" has become one of the most exciting topics of the day, both from its intrinsic interest and importance, and from the various bearings which have been given to it by sectarians, philanthropists, and savans. It is not a question of one side only, as many take for granted, nor has it become two-sided within the last few years. As long ago as the appearance of the work of Lawrence, scientific men maintained conflicting opinions on the original seats and characteristics of the human races; and the great advances now made in zoology, com- parative anatomy, history, geography, philology, &c, have added new arguments to both sides of the question, and rendered a satis- factory decision an exceedingly difficult matter. Dr. Prichard may be considered as the best expounder of the theory of the original unity of the human race. The author to whose work this chapter is introductory, adopts the side of the question to which Prof. Agassiz, Van Amringe, Dr. S. G. Morton, and others, give their sanction, in variously modified forms. The argu- ments of authors on both sides will be given as impartially as we are able to do it, and as fully as space will permit; so that the reader may form his own opinion. A sketch of the views of those who are not committed to either side will also be added, so that informa- tion from all sources may aid in the formation of a just opinion. Lawrence, following the classification of Blumenbach, divides Man intone varieties, viz., the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethi- opian, the American, and the Malay; with the following characters : 1. The Caucasian variety (to which we belong) is so named, from Mt. Caucasus, as in its neighborhood is found the supposed typical race of the Circassians and Georgians. It includes the following nations, ancient and modern—the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Jews, Egyptians, Chaldeans, Georgians, Circassians, Armenians, Turks, Arabs, Syrians, Afghans, Hindoos of high caste, Moors of Northern 16 INTRODUCTION. Africa, Greeks and Romans, the nations of modern Europe, (except the Laplanders,) and their descendants in this hemisphere ; in fine, those races in which intellect, both native and cultivated, has pro- duced the mightiest results ; those races, whose history would be the history of civilization and of Christianity; and, in the opinion of many, the only race referred to in the Mosaic account of creation. The color of the skin, in this variety, is while; to this exclusively belongs the soft-spreading blush, the faithful index of the heart, which a European writer has erroneously made a moral as well as a physi- cal difference between the races; to this race belongs redness of the cheeks. The hair varies in color from black to flaxen, is soft in quality and abundant. The color of the eyes generally follows that of the skin and hair, depending, as it does, on the amount of color- ing matter which is usually distributed equally in these different parts. The face is small, oval, and almost perpendicular ; the features distinct; the forehead lofty and broad; the nose narrow and rather aquiline ; the mouth small; the lips thin and slightly turned out; the front teeth in both jaws perpendicular ; the chin full and rounded. This is the face which agrees best with our ideas of beauty, being the happy mean between the laterally expanded face of the Mongo- lian and the lengthened face of the Negro. Of the facial angle, and the norma verticalis of Blumenbach, we shall defer the description till we give Dr. Prichard's views, that the reader may not be wearied by too much repetition. Though the facial angle is of little value in individual skulls, yet, in comparisons of the races, it may give a very good idea of their intellectual power. Those animals which have the longest snouts are always considered the most stupid and gluttonous. When we descend to reptiles and fishes, the jaws seem to constitute almost all the head, and these are the most voracious of animals ; they appear to live only to eat. On the other hand, a great degree of intelligence is attributed to the ele- phant from his well-marked forehead; and the solemn owl is made the companion of the goddess of wisdom, for a similar appearance ; but these semblances do not depend on any greater development of the brain. Intelligent Man, whose animal propensities are subordi- nate, has a cranium much larger than his face; even among men, we instinctively regard him as stupid and sensual, whose face is very prominent and whose forehead is receding; the advancement of the forehead towards the line of the face is always understood by artists as representing the noble and elevated character. As we descend in the animal scale we find the face increasing at the expense of the cranium. INTRODUCTION. 17 In the Caucasian race the facial angle is from 80° to 85° ; thence it decreases in the other varieties of Man as low as 65°, in the nor- mal condition ; in many of the ancient statues the facial angle is 90°, and in one even 100°, which last never existed in nature except in disease. In children the forehead is more prominent than in the adult, being usually 90° ; thus is explained their almost uniformly pleasing countenances, and also the diminution of their beauty as age advances. The Caucasian race, whether we judge it by the facial angle, the norma verticalis, or the basal view of Mr. Owen, is placed above the other races. Three great divisions are recognized in the Caucasian race. The Celtic division, comprising the present inhabitants of Western Europe, (except the English,) and the ancient Britons, Welch, rish, and Scotch. The Germanic division, comprising Germans, ancient and modern, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Saxons, and English, and the inhabitants of the Netherlands and Iceland. The Sclavonic division, comprising the Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Cos- sacks, the inhabitants of part of Western Asia and Northern Africa. 2. The Mongolian race seems to have originated from the central plains of Asia, whence they are supposed to have wandered in all directions, into the northern parts of Europe and America, and per- haps into the southern parts of Africa. It comprises, according to Lawrence, the Mongols, Kalmucks, Koreans, Chinese, Japanese ; the inhabitants of Thibet, Tonquin, Siam, Cochin China, the Him- alaya Mountains, Hindostan, Ceylon; the Kamschatdales, Asiatic Rus- sians, Finns and Laplanders, and the Esquimaux of Arctic America. The ancient Huns belonged to this variety; these, with Attila at their head, penetrated to the very centre of Europe ; the famous Zenghis Khan and Tamerlane belonged to this race, which has always been nomadic and predatory. The color of the Mongolian skin is olive yellow ; the eyes dark, the hair black, straight, and thin ; with very little if any beard, eye- brows, or eye-lashes ; the face is broad and flattened ; the features not very distinct ; the space between the eyes broad and flat; the orbits large and open; the nose flattened; the cheeks high and prominent; the opening of the eye-lids narrow, linear,oblique, the inner angle the lowest; chin not prominent; the ears and lips large. The forehead of the Mongolian is low and slanting, allowing a con- siderable portion of the face to be seen when the skull is viewed vertically from above ; the facial angle is therefore less than in the Caucasian. The cranium is narrower, and the face broader, so that 2* 18 INTRODUCTION. the head has somewhat of a pyramidal form. The stature is infe- rior to the Caucasian. In intellectual and moral characters it is certainly inferior to the white race. The Chinese and Japanese have made considerable advancement in the arts of civilization, and their institutions date back to a remote period ; but the very fact of their having remained stationary for so many centuries proves an inferior capacity for improvement. 3. The Ethiopian race includes the inhabitants of Africa, (exclu- sive of the northern parts,) and the imported specimens and their descendants in America and elsewhere. The color of the skin varies from tawny to jet-black. The iris is black ; the hair black, crispy, generally called "woolly," though having none of the char- acters of wool. The eyes are prominent, and the orbits large ; the nose thick, flat, and confounded with the prominent cheeks; the lips very thick and everted; the jaws projecting, the chin receding ; the whole face very much developed, and the skull thick and heavy. The front of the head regarded from above the face, as well as the forehead, is compressed laterally, so that the long diameter of the head exceeds that of the other varieties. The low retreating forehead allows all the upper part of the face to be seen; the prom- inence of the upper jaw diminishes the facial angle to 70°, and even 65°. The cavity of the cranium is diminished, while the face is increased; the zygomatic arches are very wide, giving a large space for the elevating muscles of the lower jaw; the opening of the nose is large and transverse ; the foramen for the passage of the spinal marrow, and the articulation of the head with the neck, are relatively posterior to their position in the white races, from the prolongation of the jaws forward. A slight comparison of the Negro with the Caucasian skull suf- fices to show that the intellectual portion in the former is diminished, while the animal portion is increased. The low forehead and the muzzle-like elongation of the jaws give an animal aspect to the head, which cannot fail to strike an unprejudiced observer ; this is increased by the large and powerful lower jaw, the ample provision for muscular insertions, and by the greater size of the cavities destined for the reception of the organs of smell and sight. Lawrence alludes to the opinion, even then prevalent, that the Ethiopian resembles the monkey tribe more nearly than do the pre- ceding varieties. The size and direction of the face, the promi- nence of the jaws, the flatness of the nose, the greater length of the forearm compared with the arm, the narrow and tapering fingers, render the comparison obvious. But even supposing that this race • INTRODUCTION. 19 is the lowest type of man, it is none the less human, and far more separated from the highest monkey than the highest man, by the erect attitude, by the possession of two hands, by a slower develop- ment, by the powers of reason and speech. The anatomical struct- ure of the spine renders it as impossible for a monkey to assume the erect posture, for any length of time, as for a man to go on all fours. That there were men, who were called philosophers, fools enough to maintain that the natural position of man was that of a quadruped, is thus ridiculed in Butler's Hudibras [Part 2nd, Canto 1st] : — " Next it appears I am no horse, That I can argue and discourse, Have but two legs, and ne'er a tail. Quoth she, that nothing will avail, For some philosophers of late here Write men have four legs by nature, And that 'tis custom makes them go Erroneously upon two." A French savant has recently described, before the Academy of Sciences, a tribe of Negroes in Central Africa, as furnishing the long desired connecting link between man and monkeys. According to him, there are men who have not been sufficiently accustomed to the sitting posture to wear off the tail, which he says projects some three or four inches. This report, which as yet is based upon the appearance of a single individual, will doubtless be explained, if there beany foundation for it in truth, by some anatomical peculiar- ity which can in no way be called a caudal appendage. 4. The American race has been traced by theorists to many nations ; to the Polynesians, the Mongolians, Hindoos, Jews, and Egyptians, singly or combined. Lawrence treats of them as a dis- tinct race, differing from the others in physical, moral, and intellect- ual characters. They inhabit the American continent from Cape Horn to the Arctic regions, and, with all their differences, are con- sidered by him as one and the same race over this whole extent. The color of the skin is brown, or cinnamon-hued; the iris dark; the hair long, black and straight; the beard scanty; the eyes are deep-seated ; the nose flat, but prominent; the lips full and rounded. The face is broad, especially across the cheeks, which are promi- nent, but not so angular as in the Mongolian; the features are dis- tinct. The face semewhat resembles the Mongolian, and we shall see that many writers, and among them our author, consider the Americans as transplanted Mongolians. 20 INTRODUCTION. The general shape of the head is square ; the forehead low, but broad; the back of the head flattened ; the top elevated ; the face much developed; the orbitar and nasal cavities large, indicating, according to some, a corresponding acuteness of sight and smell; the jaws are very strong. Their curious modes of deforming the skull will be better described when speaking of Dr. S. G. Morton's " Crania Ameri- cana." He maintains that the ancient skulls from Peru, from the tombs of Mexico, and from the mounds of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, present the same characters as the existing Indian tribes; and that this race is as aboriginal to America, as is the Mongolian to Asia, or the Ethiopian to Africa. 5. The last variety mentioned by Blumenbach and Lawrence is the Malay, inhabiting the Asiatic and Polynesian Islands. The color of the skin in the true Malay is light brown, or tawny ; sometimes, as in the Tahitians, very light. The hair is black, long, soft and abundant, — in the Tahitians almost yellow ; thick beards are not uncommon. The eyes are moderately separated ; the nose prominent, but broad and thickest at the end ; in the words of Law- rence they are "bottle-nosed;" the mouth is large, the lips thick; the face broad and largely developed ; the jaws prominent; the fore- head low and slanting. It is truly an amphibious race, and its home may be said to be on the water ; its extended migrations by sea have been traced, as Dr. Pickering maintains, even to the western coast of North America. Those who believe in the origin of mankind from a single pair must, of course, account for the changes man has undergone since Adam. Climate has been generally brought forward to explain the differ- ences in color, and even the varieties of form. Blumenbach gives three arguments, of which Lawrence,* who quotes them in his work, says, " That so able a writer could find no better proofs in support of his opinion, only shows how completely unfounded that opinion is." After many examples, Lawrence gives the following conclusions : That the differences of the human races are analogous in kind and degree to those of the breeds of the domestic animals, and must be accounted for on the same principles. That they are first produced in both instances as native or congenital varieties, and then trans- mitted to the offspring. That the state of domestication is the most powerful predisposing cause of varieties in the animal kingdom. * Lectures on the Natural History of Man: by William Lawrence, F\ R. S. 12th Edition. London, 1844. INTRODUCTION. 21 That climate, situation, food, mode of life, have considerable effect in altering the constitution of man and animals ; but that this effect is confined to the individual, is not transmitted by generation, and therefore does not affect the race. That the human species, like that of the cow, sheep, horse, and pig, is single ; and that all the differences which it exhibits are to be regarded merely as varieties. Dr. Prichard, the most zealous and learned advocate of the unity of the human race, commences his second section* as follows: '• The Sacred Scriptures, whose testimony is received by all men of unclouded minds with implicit and reverential assent, declare that it pleased the Almighty Creator to make of one blood all the nations of the earth, and that all mankind are the offspring of common par- ents. But there are writers in the present day who maintain that this assertion does not comprehend the uncivilized inhabitants of remote regions ; and that Negroes, Hottentots, Esquimaux, and Australians, are not, in fact, men in the full sense of that term, or beings endowed with like mental faculties as ourselves." These half-brutes, half-men, do not belong to what Bory de Saint Vincent calls the " Race Adamique ;" they were created to be the slaves of the superior races ; and are capable of improvement to an extent comparable to that attained by dogs or horses. Such men think it the extreme of folly for England to have recently emancipated from West Indian slavery a tribe of Negroes, exactly in the situation for which nature designed them. There are not a few in this country who cherish, if they do not express, a similar opinion. But in mat- ters of scientific inquiry, all considerations, not bearing on the im- mediate facts in the case, must be set aside ; the maxim to follow is "fiat justitia, ruat coelum." "In fact, what is actually true it is always most desirable to know, whatever consequences may arise from its admission." As the signification of the word "species" has been variously understood, he defines species as " simply tribes of plants or of ani- mals which-are certainly known, or may be inferred, on satisfactory grounds, to have descended from the same stocks, or from parent- ages precisely similar, and in no way distinguished from each other." The principal object of his work is to point out the most important diversities by which the genus Man is separated into * The Natural History of Man: by James Cowles Prichard, M. D. London, 1848. 22 INTRODUCTION. different races, and to determine if these races are separate species, or merely varieties of one species. Permanent varieties, if we allow the existence of such tribes, come very near species, and may be defined as " races now displaying characteristic peculiarities which are constantly and permanently transmitted ;" differing from species in that the peculiarities are not coeval with the tribe, but have arisen since the commencement of its existence : it is not un- likely that many so called distinct species of animals and plants are in reality only permanent varieties. It has been laid down as a law of nature, that, in order to prevent inextricable confusion in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, the off- spring of different speeies, or hybrids, are incapable of reproducing their kind, thus making hybridity a test of specific character. This has been denied by many naturalists, among others by Dr. S. G. Morton, of Philadelphia, whose views will be given hereafter. Ac- cording to Wagner, hybrid plants are very rarely produced in a state of nature ; they are very seldom fruitful among themselves ; those holding intermediate places between the parent plants are abso- lutely barren, while those which nearly resemble one or the other parent are occasionally propagated ; and plants from different varie- ties of the same species are altogether fertile, while hybrids either return to the original character, or become gradually less capable of reproduction, and in a short time extinct. So, in animals, mules or hybrids are produced among domesticated tribes ; but, except in a few tribes of birds, they are unknown in a state of nature. A new breed cannot be perpetuated from them, and their offspring can only be continued by returning to one of the parent tribes. Wagner believes that nature has established the sterility of hybrid animals by an organic impediment. If these results are true, we are forced to the conclusion that the different races of men must be either incapable of mixing their stock and must ever be separate from each other, or that these races belong to the same species. It is a fact that the most dissimilar varieties of man are capable of propagating prolific offspring with each other. The Mulattoes, from the mixture of the Negroes with Whites, are said to be increas- ing in numbers, as well as the mixed race of the Creoles and the Negroes. The Griqua Hottentots, descended from the Dutch colo- nists of South Africa on one side, and from the aboriginal Hotten- tots on the other, are a numerous and rapidly increasing race. The Cafusos of Brazil, so remarkable for their monstrous heads of hair, are known to have descended from the native Americans, mixed with the imported Africans. The Papuas, with equally remarkable hair, INTRODUCTION. 23 are a mixture of the Malay with the Negro in New Guinea and the neighboring islands; according to Lesson, most of them are a frail and feeble race. We hence derive conclusive proof, unless there be in the human races an exception to this admitted law of nature, that all the tribes of men belong to one species and family. If we could compare our breeds of domestic animals with-their original wild stocks, we could easily ascertain the limits of variation in these breeds ; but the wild originals cannot now be recognized. However, in the animals known to have been imported into America from Europe since the fifteenth century, we have an abundance of materials for interesting observations ; these animals have greatly multiplied, and many, running wild in the forests, have lost all appearances of domestication ; the wild tribes are physically differ- ent from their tame originals, and there is reason to believe that the change is in the direction of the wild stocks from which the tame animals originated. The hogs of the forest very nearly resemble the wild boar; their ears have become erect; their color has changed to black; instead of hair and bristles, their skin is covered with thick, often crisp fur, under which is sometimes a species of wool; their heads become larger; indeed, they are returning gradually to the appearance of the wild boar of Europe. The difference between the skulls of the domestic hog and the wild boar is as great as that between the Euro- pean and the Negro skull. The horse, the ass, the cow, the sheep, the goat, the dog, and gallinaceous fowls, show similar changes, and a tendency to return to the primitive wild type. Even the func- tions of animal life may be greatly changed in a few generations. It is not natural for the cow, any more than for other female animals, to yield milk when she has no young to nourish ; the permanent pro- duction of milk is a modified animal function, produced by an artifi- cial habit for several generations. In Columbia, the practice of milking cows having been laid aside, the natural state of the func- tion has been restored; the secretion of milk continues only during the suckling of the calf, and is only an occasional phenomenon. Says Roulin, " If the calf dies, the milk ceases to flow, and it is only by keeping him with his dam by day that an opportunity of obtaining milk from cows by night can be found." The horses on the table land of the Cordilleras are taught very early a sort of running amble, quite different from their natural gait; these horses become the sires of a race to which the ambling pace is natural, and requires no teaching. The dogs employed in hunting the pec- cary are taught the peculiar way necessary to take this animal ; their offspring inherit as an instinct the lesson of their fathers, and 24 INTRODUCTION. on the first chase knew how to attack the peccary, while an ordinary dog is instantly killed by them. The barking of dogs is an acquired hereditary instinct, supposed to have originated in an attempt to imi- tate the human voice ; wild dogs, and domestic breeds become wild, never bark, but howl. Cats, which so disturb civilized communities by their midnight " caterwaul," in the wild state in South America are quite silent. These well-authenticated facts show to what extent a change of external conditions may modify races of animals. Similar changes may be found among our domesticated breeds. For instance, the breeds of sheep differ greatly in different countries ; but it is main- tained that they all are varieties of one species. New breeds of sheep are frequently formed, (and very much as the breeder wishes,) by crossing well-known races, or individuals having the peculiarities which it is desired should be transmitted to the new breed. In the same manner, he says, the numerous varieties of horses are without doubt members of but one species ; Blumenbach has remarked that there is more difference between the skulls of the Neapolitan and Hungarian breeds of horses, than between the skulls of the most dissimilar forms of mankind. Some naturalists suppose the dog to belong to the same species as the wolf; others derive him from the jackal. With all their varieties, Frederic Cuvier believes the dogs to embrace but one species ; he observes that if we make more than one species we must make at least fifty, all distinguished by perma- nent characters. Restored to the wild state, all these varieties approximate to the type which may be supposed to have belonged to the original species. Dogs differ in stature, in the shape of their ears and tails, in the number of caudal vertebrae ; some have an additional claw on the hind foot, and an additional false molar footh on one side ; the hair differs in color, texture and length, according to the climate in the first instance ; but these differences become per- manent like the corresponding peculiarities of the human races ; the varieties of the dog tribe have become permanent varieties. This tendency to variation he ascribes not to accident, but a " nisus formativus," a vital power " in virtue of which organiza- tion receives a peculiar direction from external circumstances." Varieties in form and structure are found in the offspring of the same parents which are transmissible, and thus lay the foundation for different breeds ; but these variations are within certain limits, and leave unaltered the specific character. It is not always easy to decide what the specific characters are, and what qualities are vari- able. The shape of the head furnishes the most remarkable in- stances of variety and of characters distinguishing races ; the length INTRODUCTION. 25 and thickness of the neck are very characteristic of breeds of horses; Meckel remarks that the length, height, and proportional breadth of the hinder parts, the length and thickness of the tail, the shape of the pelvis, and comparative length of the limbs, are characteristic of different races. The physiological and psychological differences we have seen are equally remarkable. Races of men are subject, more than the races of almost any ani- mals, to the varied agencies of climate ; civilization produces in them greater changes than does domestication in animals; and we ought, therefore, to expect as great diversities among men as among brutes, and indeed far greater, from the powerful influence of mind in the former. To proceed with the variations of the human species, we are at first struck with the differences of color. The difference of color has generally been thought less important in the discrimination of the races than varieties in the form of the skull; but M. Flourens considers it more characteristic of distinct races than any other peculiarity. He displayed before the French Academy of Sciences four distinct layers between the outer cuticle and the cutis, viz., a cellular and reticular tissue lying immediately on the cutis ; then a continuous membrane resembling mucous membrane in general; then a black pigment, hardly coherent enough to be termed a membrane; and, lastly, the interior portion of the epidermis, which he divides into two laminae. The second of these he considers a distinct organized body, existing only in men of dark color, or, at least, he failed to detect it in the white races by the ordinary method of mac- eration. He was unable to find any membrane in the white races, interposed between the cutis and the inner coat of the epidermis; this last being, according to him, the seat of the discoloration of the white skin from exposure to the sun, as well as the seat of the brown color of the areola mammarum. This diversity he regards as a specific distinction, "or as marking out the Negro and Euro- pean as separate species of beings." The supposition of M. Flourens will hardly account for many discolorations of the skin which are frequent in Europeans. Dur- ing pregnancy, the mammae of many females are extensively sur- rounded by a dark tinge, which afterwards mostly disappears ; in some individuals the dark color pervades a great part of the body; so that, independently of the solar heat, certain constitutional condi- tions may impart to the white skin a dark hue similar to that nat- ural to the African race. On the other hand, instances are recorded (in Philos. Trans., vol. 57) of the disappearance of the coloring matter in Negroes, who have become as white as Europeans. 3 26 INTRODUCTION. Microscopical investigation has shown that the skin does not consist of continuous membranes, but is composed of several layers of cells not separated from each other by such definite lines. Henle has found that the apparently membranous parts, which give color to various surfaces, are also of a cellular structure, and not properly mem- branous ; in the skin of the Negro he found numerous irregularly spherical cells containing the black pigment to which the color is due ; they were most numerous on those parts of the rete which pro- ject and correspond to the furrows of the cutis. Dr. Simon, of Berlin, has found that the various discolorations of the white skin depend on the presence of similar cells filled with pigment, and that they are related on the one hand to the normal coloration of the Negro skin, and on the other to the disease termed melanosis, in which " the production of pigment cells keeps pace with a change from the normal or healthy state of organization in the affected parts." He thence concludes that there is no organic difference between the skin of the Negro and the European, which marks them as dis- tinct species. It may also be added that the epidermic tissue, to which the horny tissue of many animals corresponds, and which is the seat of the variations in color and in the hair of man, " is precisely that part of the organic system which undergoes the most striking and even surprising alterations." The complexions of mankind are not permanent characters ; there are many changes from white to black, and vice versa, and both complexions are seen in the undoubted prog- eny of the same stock ; so that no argument, according to Prich- ard, can be drawn from color against the original unity of the human species. The human races have also been distinguished by the color, quality, and quantity of the hair; these national diversities probably do not exceed the measure of variety occurring in different families of the same nation. Some Europeans are said to have hair quite as crisp and curly as that of a Negro ; even among Negroes, we find every variety from a so-called " woolly" hair to curled or even flowing hair; the same is affirmed of the natives of the Southern Ocean, where there is no intermixture of races. The nature of the Negro hair has been the subject of much discussion, as it was supposed to possess characters indicating a distinct species. The Negro hair is called "wool," meaning that it approaches the wool of animals. The fibre of true wool is rough on its surface, and has a feathered or barbed edge ; this is at the same time the cause of its felting prop- erty, and the mark which distinguishes it from hair. Examined microscopically, the fibre of wool generally has serrated edges, resulting " from a structure resembling a series of inverted cones, INTRODUCTION. 27 encircling a central stem, the apex of one cone being received into the base of the superior one." Hair, though sometimes rough and covered with scales, has no serrations, or tooth-like projections; it is an even-sided tube, smooth, and nearly of equal calibre. The hair of the dark races is not wool, but a curled and twisted hair; it has the appearance of a cylinder with a smooth surface; the coloring matter is the most abundant in the Negro hair; the Abyssinian hair, very dark, had a riband-like band running through the middle of the tube, as did also the Mulatto hair; European hair seemed almost entirely transparent, like an empty tube. Even if that of the Negro were " wool," it would not prove him a distinct species, since we know that, in some tribes of animals, some of a spe- cies bear wool, while others of the same species are covered with hair. Since the time of Camper and Blumenbach, anatomists have attempted to classify mankind according to the shape of the skull; but hardly any two writers have agreed as to the number of the divisions and their exact limitation. One of their fundamental principles seems to be wrong, viz., that tribes resembling each other in the shape of their skulls must needs be more nearly related to each other than to tribes having a differently formed head. As sim- ilar causes may have produced similar effects on widely different people, any particular anatomical character so produced can afford no proof of near relationship. If there be any such relation between the physical characters of different tribes and the chief circumstances of their external condition, there may be pointed out three principal varieties, which are prevalent in the savage or hunting tribes, in the nomadic or wandering races, and in the civilized divisions of mankind. Among savages and hunters, among whom are the lowest Africans and Australians, the jaws are prolonged forwards, consti- tuting the prognathous form of the head ; among the wandering Mongolians, we have broad, lozenge-shaped faces, and the pyramidal skull; while the civilized races have the oval or elliptical skull. There are numerous instances of transition from one of these forms to another, when a nation has changed its manner of life; for instance, the nomadic Turks of Central Asia have a strongly marked pyramidal skull, while their civilized brethren of the Ottoman Empire have the European or oval form. The three principal ways of viewing the skull are laterally, vertically, and from below; these three combined enable us to form an idea of all its characters. Camper says, " The basis on which the distinction of nations is founded, may be displayed by two straight lines; one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius, or opening of the ear, to the base of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of the 28 INTRODUCTION. forehead, and falling thence on the most advancing part of the upper jawbone, the head being viewed in profile." This gives the facial angle. For the posterior part of the skull, the occipital angle may be measured in a similar manner. Though these measurements may be sufficient for the physiognomist, they are not for the geome- trician, on account of the varying thickness of the skull, the devel- opment of the cavities in the forehead, frontal sinuses, and the dif- ferent projection of the teeth, even in adults ; and, moreover, they only measure the skull in one part. To obviate this, Cuvier pro- posed to compare the areas of the cranium and face sawed vertically from before backwards ; the section of the face is triangular; that of the cranium an oval. In the Caucasian the area of the cranium is four times that of the face; in the Negro the area of the face is one fifth larger. To measure the breadth of the skull and the projection of the face, Blumenbach proposed the " norma verticalis." Says he, " The best way of obtaining this end is to place a series of skulls, with the cheek-bones on the same horizontal line, resting on the lower jaws; and then, viewing them from behind, and fixing the eye on the vertex of each, to mark all the varieties in the shape of parts that contribute most to the national character, whether they consist in the direction of the maxillary and malar bones, in the breadth or narrowness of the oval figure presented by the vertex, or in the flattened or vaulted form of the frontal bone." Thus compared, he makes three varieties in the vertical view, strongly distinguished from each other; the Caucasian, Mongolian, and Ethiopian. In no view does the human skull contrast more strongly with that of the quadrumana, than when its base is examined, as suggested by Mr. Owen. In the orang the antero-posterior diameter of the base is much longer than in man ; the zygomatic arches are situated also quite differently. In all races of men, even in idiots, the whole zygoma is included in the anterior half of the basis cranii, while in the highest monkey it is placed in the middle region of the skull, and occupies about one third of the entire long diameter. The occipital foramen in all the lower animals is further back than in the human head ; in man this foramen is " immediately behind a transverse line dividing the basis cranii into two equal parts, or bisecting the antero-posterior diameter." It is situated exactly alike in all human races, if due allowance be made for the protuberance of the jaws in the lower types. In well-formed European heads, lines drawn from the zygomatic arches, touching the temples, and meeting over the forehead, are parallel. But in the pyramidal skull, characterized by great lateral INTRODUCTION. 29 projection of these arches, these two lines form with the basis a tri- angular figure. Another characteristic in the face belonging to the pyramidal skull, is the obliquity of the aperture of the eyelids ; this is not due to any want of parallelism in the orbits, but to the struc- ture of the lids; the skin being tightly drawn over the prominent malar bones at the outer angle of the eyes, and smoothly drawn over the low nasal bones, gives to the eye the appearance of having the inner angle directed downwards. The pyramidal and prognathous skulls being adapted to the nomadic and hunter state, if " either of these were the original condition of mankind, then were the first men probably in form like the Esquimaux or the Negro." The stature, relative size of the limbs and trunk, and the propor- tions of different parts of the body, vary much in the different races of men; these differences have been considered by some as amounting to specific distinctions. One of the principal of these dif- ferences is found in the pelvis. Vrolik says it is difficult to sepa- rate from the female Negro pelvis the idea of degradation, so much does it approach the form in the Simiae in the vertieal direction of the ossa ilii and its elongated shape; he considers the Hottentot pel- vis as indicating greater " animality in comparison even with the Negro." Weber has reduced the forms of the human pelvis to four, the oval, most frequent in Europeans; the round, most frequent in the American nations ; the square, in people resembling the Mongo- lians ; and the oblong, or wedge-shaped, most common in the nations of Africa. He thinks these answer to the corresponding form of the skull in the several nations. Prichard thinks that no particular figure is a permanent characteristic of any one race. As to other parts of the skeleton, in some particulars the less civilized races bear some remote resemblance to the lower animals. Uncivilized men, like uncivilized breeds of animals, have lean, slender, and elongated limbs. These he considers as mere variations, as the same causes which produce them in individuals might influence a whole race. In the Negro the bones of the leg are bent outwards and forwards ; the calves of the legs are very high ; the feet are flat, and the os calcis is continued in a straight line with the other bones of the foot, and is more prominent behind ; the length of the fore- arm is also relatively greater; but these differences are said to be no greater than are observed every day in individuals of any race. Prichard divides the human races principally according to the rela- tions of their languages, which of all endowments " seem to be the most permanently retained, and can be shown in many cases to have survived even very considerable changes in physical and moral char- acters." The system adopted by Cuvier referred the original seats 3* 30 INTRODUCTION. of the human race to certain lofty mountain chains. The birth-place of the men who peopled Europe and Western Asia is supposed to have been Mount Caucasus ; hence the term "Caucasian " as applied to them. The nations of Eastern Asia were derived from the neigh- borhood of Mount Altai; and the African Negroes from the southern face of the chain of Mount Atlas. The tradition in the Hebrew Scriptures places the birth-place of mankind on the banks of four great rivers, two of which have been recognized as the Tigris and Euphrates, in a land rich in animal and vegetable productions. Prichard recognizes three great centres of the earliest civilization of the human race, comprising most of the tribes known to antiquity. " In one of these, the Semitic or Syro-Arabian nations exchanged the simple habits of wandering shepherds for the splendor and lux- ury of Nineveh and Babylon. In a second, the Indo-European or Japetic people brought to perfection the most elaborate of human dialects, destined to become, in after times and under different modi- fications, the mother tongue of the nations of Europe. In a third, the land of Ham, watered by the Nile, were invented hieroglyphical literature and the arts, in which Egypt far surpassed all the rest of the world in the earlier ages of history." These three divisions do not correspond to the three departments of mankind as indicated by the form of the skull; the former ■■ added, that many so distinguished, were conspicuous as statesmen and wa. riors, probably all as ambitious men. It were to be wished that portrait painters paid more minute attention to this object— we mean, placing the aperture of the ear in relation to the nostril. It is important to them for the sake of truth, and to the physiologist for the same reason; since, without accuracy, he cannot draw fair conclusions from painted human likenesses. 200 NATURAL HISTORY OF capacity in the offspring, but that the same tendency continues to operate between different tribes; the constant crossing of Celtic with Teutonic blood, upon a Perso-Arabian basis, being perhaps a principal cause of the early progressive civilization of Southern and Western Europe; and the stationary charac- ter, chiefly observed in the Mongolic race, being a result of the want of the same acting cause. Notwithstanding the desire of the beardless type to violate its own prohibitory laws, inter- marriage with Caucasian women is decidedly more sterile than the union of the bearded and woolly-haired sexes. Where human laws prevent intermarriage, nature endeavors to be avenged through the more powerful operation of the passions, by means of interunion with foreign slaves, by abduction, and by child-stealing; whence results a certain restoration of the balance. There are localities in Europe, where the frequent intermarriages of the same families produce constantly indi- viduals defective in constitution, mind, or limbs. Without intermixture of races, the ratiocination of mankind appears inoperative to certain particulars in life. Nomad nations may not wander with their cattle solely from inclina- tion. Necessity is the first cause. But there are tribes, such as we have already named, who are not to be taught by example, or by the advantageous results of undertaking certain things that their inclinations reject. The Jews probably never were a truly agricultural people, working with their own hands. The Veneti, Heneti, Gwyniad, or Ventae, were always the real commercial pedlers of antiquity. The Armenians are nationally merchants, from London to Bokhara. Neither were ever warriors; they traded solely; and the last mentioned con- tinued to act on the same principle. They lived under the shield of the strongest warlike people that would protect them; the first, under Etruscans, Gauls, and Romans, till the fall of the Western Empire; and the second, under still existing gov- ernments. Some nations decline the use of horses; others abhor the plough or a sea life. The Gypsies are always THE HUMAN SPECIES. 201 tinkers. These predilections must therefore depend on modi- fications of the brain. That the volume of brain is in relation to the intellectual faculties, is clearly proved by Dr. Morton's researches, who, having filled, for this purpose, the cerebral chamber of skulls belonging to numerous specimens of the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, American, and Ethiopian (Negro) stock, with seeds of white pepper, found the first the most capacious, and the Ethi- opian the smallest; though there may be some doubt whether the Negro crania that served for his experiment, were not, in part at least, derived from slaves of the Southern States of North America, who, being descended from mixed African tribes, and much more educated, have larger heads than new Negroes from the coast. We have personally witnessed the issue of military chacos (caps) to the 2d West India Regiment, at the time when all the rank and file were bought out of slave ships, and the sergeants alone being in part white, men of color, Negroes from North America, or born Creoles, and it was observed, that scarcely any fitted the heads of the privates excepting the two smallest sizes; in many cases robust men, of the standard height, required padding an inch and a half in thickness, to fit their caps; while those of the non-commis- sioned officers were adjusted without any additional aid. Though, on one hand, it is here stated that the Negroes from the coast of Africa were, in all probability, still less favored than the measurements of Dr. Morton proved; it is, on the other, equally true, that the progress of development, and the elevation of the forehead, in the mixed offspring between the woolly-haired and white races, is often effaced in a second generation. It is so always much sooner than the apparently insignificant characters of the color of the skin, and the crisp- ness of the hair, which are never totally obliterated till after the fourth generation, when the African character may be deemed absorbed. It is advanced as established, that an accidental effect in the external characters of an individual may become 202 NATURAL HISTORY OF permanent in a race. But accidental appearances must have a cause, and terminate when that cause disappears. Men covered with hair, or with a horny skin, may reproduce this character in their offspring; but then it is exceptional and dis- appears in the next generation. Albinism is more evident, and therefore believed to be more frequent in the woolly-haired races of man; but in the sandy plains of the north-west of Europe, the same appearances occur, though not quite with the marks of disease; it is mere absence of coloring matter in the system. Among Mongolic nations it is unknown, or very rare, and it is equally so with the aboriginal tribes of America. The stature of mankind is unquestionably influenced by the adequate supply of wholesome food; and hence the civilized nations of moderate climates are more generally of an equal standard than barbarians and savages, among which the hunter and pastoral nomad tribes arrive at the greatest stature. But, in these cases, a Caucasian element may be expected to be present, whether we take the Miao-tze of China, the Caffres of Eastern Africa, the Patagonian Araucas of South America, or the Creeks and other tribes in the north. For, if some latent cause of this kind did not produce the difference, all other tribes in the same climate, and under similar condi- tions of food and mode of life, would acquire a similar height; yet this is not the case; and it is even known, in both the Americas, that the union of two tribes, differing in this respect, has produced, in one generation, the disappearance of a superior growth. Ancient history likewise represents the northern Gauls (Belgse), and the Teutonic nations, as far superior in stature to the civilized Romans, though they do not appear in jheir barbarous habits to have been better fed than the tall tribes of North America. In gracefulness of propor- tion, the American mixed white races with Negroes, both of French and British, and still more, of Spanish origin, yield to none in any part of the world; and it is a mistaken notion to believe in the assertion that the standard contour of beauty THE HUMAN SPECIES. 203 and form differs materially in any country. Fashion may have the influence of setting up certain deformities for perfec- tions, both at Pekin and at Paris, but they are invariably apol- ogies which national pride offers for its own defects. The youthful beauty of Canton would be handsome in London; and the Tahtar nations, in the days of their conquering career, married the daughters of semi-Caucasian nomad princes, or notoriously selected, for their chiefs, the same class of European or Caucasian forms as they still purchase from Cir- cassia and Persia, Affghanistan, Cashmere, and India* Lud- dee, the young wife of Abba Thule, chief of the Pelew Islands, was handsome on the Caucasian model; so are all the beau- ties of Malay or other blood in the South Sea Islands; the most admired young females among the Arookas and the Caribs. The Chippeways likewise have many beauties ; and so was Harriet, the belle of Lorette Sauvage, a Huron village near Quebec. In all these cases, both Europeans and natives agreed. Human growth, according to Professor Quetelet, is not com- pleted until the twenty-fifth year, at least in Belgium; but this period is supposed to be shorter in other countries; cer- tainly so within the tropics, and in very warm regions, where development and decay are universally allowed to be more rapid. Weight is another element in the consideration of races, as this quality materially influences physical strength, and conse- quently bestows confidence, enterprise and success. An instrument, the dynamometer, has been invented to measure the relative scale, and they have shown savage nations to be * It is from these sources that the energetic innervation was principally derived, which gave birth to the great Toorkee Mongole conquerors, both in the west and in China. Such, for example, was Alancona, wife of Pe- souka Bahander, of the Niron Toorkee tribe of smiths ; Purtan Congine, daughter of Conjorat Khan, the ambitious wife of Genghis, and Toora- kina Catan, wife of Octai. 204 NATURAL HISTORY OF strong in proportion to the abundance and wholesomeness of the food they possess; but in all cases hitherto examined, civilized Europeans surpassed them;* and, it appears, English exceeded French; or perhaps more correctly, the Teutonic stock surpassed the Celtic, both in strength and weight, although the Irish Celts are said to be taller and heavier than the English Saxons. As yet, no great stress can be laid on results obtained from an imperfect instrument, partial inquiries, and questionable nationalities; still, enough is determined to reject an opinion, often prevalent, that the moderns are degenerate when compared with their ancestors. The conclu- sion is further controverted, by an experiment made at Good- rich Court, where the splendid collection of ancient armor is classified, with rigorous attention, both to date and nation, by Sir Samuel R. Meyrick, the enlightened and munificent pos- sessor. Two gentlemen, one of middle stature, with ample chest and shoulders, and the other somewhat taller, but of more slender structure, endeavored to find armor sufficiently large to fit either one or the other, and failed, in a collection where, we believe, they had a choice of upwards of sixty com- plete suits of plate, all defensive armor, which nevertheless had been worn, in preceding centuries, by chivalry, and persons of distinction, in England, France, Germany, and Italy. Hence King John, Petit Jean de Saintre, the Constable of Bourbon, the Prince of Conde, (" ce petit homme tant joli,") and Nicolo Piccinino, were not the only valiant men of small proportions in the feudal ages. At the present period, the British upper classes are probably of higher stature than the aristocracy of any other civilized people ;t but taken nationally, the Prussian * The strongest North American Indians are asserted to fail against the ordinary power of wrist of Europeans ; that is, when each side place the right elbow to elbow, and cross the fingers through each other's hand, striving to bend the opposing wrist back. The fact was established by the 60th Regiment in Canada. t Mr. Laurence, in his work on the Natural History of Man, may have THE HUMAN SPECIES. 205 and all the fair-haired natives of the north-west of Europe, are of greatest height, since the standard size for the military service is above that of any other people in Europe. Northern Chinese, or Highland Tahtars, we have been informed by a general officer who served in the late war, were found to be fully equal, in stature and bulk, to our stoutest grenadiers; but we have since learned, from another officer, that when these men appeared on the field, they were found to be Miao-tze, — that is, a people of Caucasian or Caucaso-Malay origin. Elasticity of frame is, however, a quality very distinct from weight and strength. The Caucasian of Europe is trained to harder manual work than other races; but it may be doubted whether he could ride continuously, like the Turkish Tahtar messengers, or Persian Chuppers; or whether he could sustain the fatigue of such unceasing marches as the aboriginal Ameri- can warriors perform, or run on foot with the speed of Bechuana Hottentots, or even compete with New Hollanders, the most slender-limbed race on earth. When, therefore, comparative trials of strength are made with other nations, the selection of the modes should not be more than one half in favor of those which Europeans are most inured to. Captain Cook found his seamen unequal to a boxing contest with Hapaceans. There have been Negroes able to dispute the sparring championship of the English fancy ring; and beside the porters of Constanti- nople and Smyrna, celebrated for prodigious strength of loins, there are Pehlwans, professed wrestlers, in middle Asia, whose physical powers are certainly equal to any Europe can produce. It is not by comparing French or British seamen, as Peron did, with natives of Van Diemen's Land, New Hollanders, or Timorians of torrid regions, — all notoriously of small bone and light weight, — that a true estimate can be obtained of the easily found Englishmen of six feet and more in height, and Negroes below that standard; but had he visited tropical market-places, and com- pared the stature of our planters and sailors by that of the Negroes, he would most likely have found the white men the smallest. 18 206 NATURAL HISTORY OF relative strength of savages. The experiment should be tried, likewise, with Caffres, Patagonians, Araucanos, and Osages, notwithstanding these nations train their powers more to active exertions of body than to heavy manual, toil; for if the trial were made with women, it may be expected that, in most cases, Europeans would be inferior to savages, excepting those who are particularly destitute of food; or if it were made between populations of the bearded race, such, for example, as French Canadian boatmen and English laborers, there is no doubt that the last mentioned would as greatly surpass the first, in the toil of agricultural labor, as they would be outdone by them in the lasting exertions of poling, — that is, pushing boats up the cur- rent of rapid streams by the help of poles. INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL CHARACTERS OF THE TYPICAL STOCKS. Confining the number to three, because they alone are pos- sessed of the extremes of difference in structure and color, and because they have received, as before stated, centres of exist- ence where the others cannot predominate, we shall find proT ceeding from them sub-typical stems, always interposed at the geographical points of contact between the two nearest types; and, further on, third and fourth branches, or races and nations, consisting of more divergent forms, which have combined the characters of all the three in greater or less proportions ;* while over the whole are spread adventitious distinctions, sprung from changes qf climate, latitude, food, mode of life, and the * The ancients, in several of the trinal combinations which play in their doctrines, seem to have an allusion, perhaps unwittingly, so far as the Greeks were concerned, to the three typical stocks, in the evocation of Hecate, (a Scythian divinity) ; for the ceremony demanded a waxen triform image, whereof one was to be white, the second red, and the third black. These indications are significant on a spot such as Tauris, notwithstanding the usual explanation, which refers them to the triune doctrines of India. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 207 innumerable other influential conditions of existence, — con- ditions that affect, though in a less degree, the typical structure, the external appearance of Man, and that acquire a deep-seated power over his intellectual faculties, in their possible develop- ment, and, consequently, also in their contraction, externally observable. Therefore, in reasoning upon them, we must be guarded against certain prepossessions of self-esteem, which the educated man of the bearded stock, and, indeed, mankind in general, is apt to entertain of strangers; for the same ten- dency is ever at work between nation and nation, and between every sub-division of the human family, however formed. In the description of characters, scientifically taken, we can only point out what they are, without having the power of stating what may be eventually evolved; and though already assured, even with the apparently most degraded nations, that moral rectitude is fully understood, nay, often put in practice, by the savage, to the disgrace of the rapacious Christian who visits his abode; not ashamed to use knowledge for the purpose of deception and illusions for his own gain, though the conse- quences carry destruction to his victims. When bearing in mind what our own remote progenitors were, we must allow that all men, and all races, bear within them the elements of a measured perfectibility, probably as high as the Caucasian; and it would be revolting to believe that the less gifted tribes were predestined to perish beneath the conquering and all- absorbing covetousness of European civilization, without an enormous load of responsibility resting on the perpetrators. Yet their fate appears to be sealed in many quarters, and seems, by a preordained law, to be an effect of more mysterious import than human reason can grasp.* * There is, however, a great distinction to be drawn between conquest that brings amelioration with it to the masses of the vanquished, and extermination, which leaves no remnant of a broken people. It seems the first condition is only awardable to the great typical stocks, effecting incorporations among themselves ; the second almost invariably the lot of the intermediate, which, in most favorable cases only, are absorbed. 208 NATURAL HISTORY OF As, therefore, we cannot attain, in our state of knowledge, satisfactory conclusions on this head, it becomes the duty of ajl to assert, at least, the rights of humanity, in their indisputable plenitude, although to us, in particular, as mere naturalists, it is a bounden duty to confine ourselves to known historical and scientific facts. PREVLEVAL LOCATION OF MAN, OR POSITION OF THE TYPI- CAL STOCKS. As the more detailed characters of the typical stocks, their real or primaeval location, and the diffusion of subsequent races, cannot be readily understood without some retrospect of the geographical conditions of the earth, not only with regard to the convulsions already mentioned, but likewise as they bear upon the position of the great chains of mountains, seas, and deserts, and the direction of leading rivers, it is important not to overlook them, wherever the influence they must have exer- cised in the question under review is clearly ascertainable. Mankind, when first it becomes historically known, is already diffused over the greater part of the eastern hemisphere, and, probably, far beyond it, even to the western; yet it appears to have departed from the vicinity of a common centre, or, at least, to have primaavally formed several stocks, clustered in the vicinity of that high central region of Asia which com- prises the external rampart, and, perhaps, interior of the vales of Thibet, and the so-called Khangai* of the Gobi desert; for this was, approximately, either the seat of Man's first develop- ment, so far as it can be now traced, or the space where a por- tion of human beings found safety, when convulsions and changes of surface, which may have swept away a more ancient zoology, had passed over the earth, and were introduc- tory to a new order of things. * Khangai, or oases, verdant river courses, and lakes, which occur in several places. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 209 The Gobi or Shamoo region is a true Shinar or Djeen, a series of sandy deserts, intersected, at great distances, by moun- tain ridges, and not unfrequently by rivers ending in lakes, which all naturally tend to separate small populations, and to keep them isolated so long as numbers do not compel the inmates to seek for more abundant subsistence. This state of being urges Man equally to a shepherd's life and to a begin- ning of agricultural industry. Around this space can be traced several high mountain systems, bearing the names of God, of Heaven, and of Snow (purity); for these are often expressed by the same words, such as Himaleh, Thianchan, Bog, &c, and mythical traditions, without geographical localities, where Pagan nations, at various times, centred the habitations of their gods, or progenitors, in spaces of eternal snow, such as Mount Meru, Kaf, or the oldest Olympus, find here in Bogtag, Hima- vali, and the peak of Himavahn, real geographical positions. It is there we find the Chumutaru peak of snow; and Somero purbut, created by Mahadeo, for his retreat and throne, when, like another Jupiter, he fled from Ravan ; the Hindoo diluvian Titan is clearly the snowy group at the sources of the Ganges. In this high region are the local sites commemorative of tradi- tions more than once repeated, at successive more distant stages, in proportion as the earliest nations moved further from their original common centre, or mythical tales spread onwards with time. There is Naubundana, — perhaps Dhawalaghiri, — where the patriarch god himself, in the form of Kapila, con- ducted the ark, and secured it to the rock, according to Hindoo lore; and, on the north, where the Tahtar legend places Nataghi, the boatman god of the mountain, with his family, in one of the peaks of Altai; for it is not a fact which always marks a pagan source, as has been remarked, wrhen Man's existence is made to commence after the diluvian cataclysis. There is constantly a record of antecedent existence, though not a history, among early nations. It is variously told, but 18* 210 NATURAL HISTORY OF not the less the same in substance, in both hemispheres, and in the South Sea Islands. Although, in Central Asia, no very distinct evidence of a general diluvian action, so late as to involve the fate of many nations, can be detected, still there cannot be a doubt that, with scarce an opposable circumstance, all Man's historical dogmatic knowledge and traditionary records, all his acquirements, inventions, and domestic possessions, point to that locality, as connected with a great cataclysis, and as the scene where human development took its first most evident distribution. The animals subdued for household purposes, by the earliest nations, are found upon or around it in all directions, — like the Dog, universally spread where Man resides; and the Hog, found radiating from points, where the wild species occur, from south-east to north-west; the Horse, Ass, and Camel, in direc- tions originally commencing from the west side; so, again, the Ox, Sheep, and Goat, still existing wild in the form of more than one species on the same borders; whilst even the Ele- phant walked once through the more southern woods; and the Wild Cat, similar to the European, now haunts the same, and prowls far onwards in the north. Of birds, Gallinacea, all originating in the south-east of Asia; several kinds of poultry are wild in the woods; and one domesticated species, at least, was carried, in Man's earliest migrations, onward to Egypt and the west of Europe, as well as to the furthest islands in the South Seas; perhaps even to Chili, before the arrival of the Spaniards. On the western side, at least, are found the parent plants of many fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, now naturalized in Europe; the walnut, chestnut, filbert; the apple, medlar, cherry, and almost all the wild and cultivated berries, and the vine at no great distance* Wheat and barley, of more than one variety * The vine is now cultivated about Llassa, in Thibet, 29° 40" north latitude, and may also be indigenous. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 211 or species, occur on the skirts of the same central region, some thriving at more than 10,000 feet of elevation in the Himalayas and in China, with buckwheat and oats on the plains of the north-west, and onions, turnips, &c, growing wild in many places; wild flax and hemp on the northern plains; and, in Cashmere, the valleys even possess edible gourds, pumpkins, and melons, whereof one or two species flourish in the arid deserts; even the lotus, celebrated in Egypt, was derived from some part of India. It would be vain to look for so many primitive elements of human subsistence, in a social state, in any other portion of the globe. Nearly all of them were originally wanting in the western Caucasus, and the civilized development of Egypt could not have occurred without the possession of wheat, bar- ley, flax, the leek, garlic, onion, and many other objects, all foreign to Africa.^ These can have been brought westward only by colonies practically acquainted with their value. In the devious course of the nations moving westward, the mul- berry, apricot, and the date palm, may have proved an early resource to the traveller; and, further on, the olive, fig-tree, and plum, were, no doubt, luxuries; but the sorbus, and, more certainly, the citron, were a later importation from beyond the Indus, as well as the orange, which came from China last of all. Rice was, most probably, a substitute for corn, first per- haps cultivated in China, or Indo-China, where the requisite heat and watery soil naturally present themselves.! On the west side of Thibet is the huge table land of Pa mere, * Triticum sativum ; Triticum spelta, still wild near Hamadan; Hor- deum vulgare, in Northern India and Tahtary; Allium cepa, &c, wild in various places. t In Egytian representations of tribute, brought by subjugated nations from "far countries," it is pleasant to remark, among many objects, liv- ing plants and shrubs, carefully transported for replanting, and, by those accompanying them, are evidently from an eastern region. These figures likewise bear the Swasteca, or a similar cross, indicative of a symbolical creed. 212 NATURAL HISTORY OF the back-bone of the world, not yet distinctly marked in maps; a more real umbilicus of the earth than any other of the sacred centres of primaeval society. Here is the mysterious Lake Surikol, at the source of the Oxus, where local belief pretends that the Jaxartes and the Indus have both affluents rising at no great distance, while the Kash-gar, on the east of the summits, flows towards the rising sun. To the west are the mountains of Northern Hindoo-Koosh, the probable seat of the first Celto- Scythae, for in these regions was afterwards established a Macedonian empire, which, without an original consanguinity with the local nations, could not have lasted even for one gen- eration. Most primaeval nations have traditions of a primordial city of the gods, of the progenitor heroes of each stem, — a Babel, Nagara, Pasagardae, or Asgard. It appears that Balkh (Kham- balu*), is, at least, the most prominent, so far as the western and southern nations are concerned, notwithstanding that the present Bamean, with the interminable troglodyte habitations around, may well represent the spot where increased popula- tion, finding insufficient food, would be excited to discord; and an appeal to force would naturally end in the weaker party being driven to exile or dispersion. Though other traditions may be more purely Caucasian, mention may be made of some, perhaps, no less important. Among these is the very ancient name of Neel-ab, Blue River, given to the Indus by the earliest Semitic tribes in the east, and similarly applied to the Nile of Egypt, causing that con- fusion in geographical ideas which believed the river of Africa to come, by some unknown way, from the east, until the expe- dition of Alexander cleared up the error. It is curious that the Sutledge of the Punjab is still the Blue River; pointing to Cashmere (Kaspapyrus) as the first seat of the Perso-Arabian races. * The first Cambalu, or rather Khan-balk, is not Pekin. Samarcand, the first horse-fair, and thence commercial city, is at no great distance. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 213 The oldest form of social existence was parental, or by fam- ilies, which soon expanded into the patriarchal, still retained by nomad pastoral nations. With others it broke up by the sep- aration of the priestly dignity from the head paternity of tribes. As soon as dogmas and political considerations multiplied, the struggle between authority by birth, and the suggestions of expediency, began; for ambition pleaded the claims of valor, justifying them by surrounding dangers and the inefficiency of nonage; the pontificate demanded an undying adequacy of purpose, upheld by sanctity of example : arguments which, being repeated as the social existence spread wider, hierarchies were instituted, and the rights of pleading the cause of jus- tice, or the art of healing the sick, became separated, or clas- sified into learned orders. In religious feeling, a deism, perhaps a form of Budhism, can be traced back to Central Asia as early as the reign of Sesostris. The Vedas, not much, if at all later, show the pos- session of a higher truth than the subsequent philosophizing social dogmas, depending upon dualisms and astronomical fan- cies, could teach; and those in the east have a more reasoned cohesion than the Egyptian, and, still more, than the Greek and Roman poetical physicalities, drawn from eastern sources and misinterpreted. In high Asia we find the legends of Eu- rope extant in their sources. Many of the arts of social life are similarly derived from thence; every wave of invasion westward bringing new ideas ; and, in later ages, the crusad- ers, coming from the east with loss and shame, still returned with the additional information they had acquired. From Madagascar, back to* the Indus, we find a similar connection; and, in the South Seas, there are everywhere evidences of an Asiatic priority. Finally, the western continent of America is redolent of Malay, Mongolic, Ouralian, and even purer Caucas- ian sources, in physical as well as traditional objects. In order to proceed to their various destinations, each typical stock naturally followed the great rivers in their course, for 214 NATURAL HISTORY OF these are the natural directing lines of nations exploring the way to unknown regions; and the necessity of facilitating progression is the cause why all tribes, however rude, are acquainted with some mode of conveyance by water. Other roads were early indicated, by local necessities, differing from the subsequent caravan routes, which took directions from and to points already known to be most favorable for trafficking with distant nations, who had objects of barter to exchange, and, therefore, on both sides, had an interest in the speediest and safest passage. From the well-known proceedings of sub- sequent ages, it is clear that outcasts and scouts, then hunter families, would naturally be the first adventurers, and tribes would follow onwards only as far as immediate necessity or convenience might dictate ; pushing further when more was known of the world before them, and pressure from new colonists urged them from behind. Starting through the gorges of the great river outlets to the plains, and following their course, or ranging along the flanks of mountain chains, to turn deserts, or escape the necessity of attempting elevated ridges, or interminable swamps, which were, or might be, im- passable ; while, at the same time, water, game, and wild fruits would be most abundant. Deserts and plains are never so absolutely impassable as to prevent ulterior progress. Water is found in some localities, and occasionally verdure ; and these oases are soon marked by the wanderer, who then guides his family or moving tribe along them, till they reach a better region. Impediments of this kind are, therefore, incentives to progress, and generally much less obstacles than morasses and dense forests; for it is by the river courses alone that these last are penetrated. In the progressive colonization some leading tribe would find a natural obstacle to retard or prevent its further migration; halting on the spot, other clans would come up; and where no forests near the sea, nor a great stream, would favor the struc- ture of rafts or canoes, intercourse occurring, more or less THE HUMAN SPECIES. 215 knowledge of the acquirements and experience each had gained would be the result, although it might be obtained after col- lision, by much slaughter and suffering, if not by the subjuga- tion of one of the parties. Yet, out of these disasters rose almost all the elements of civilization; and it may be remarked, as a fact of constant occurrence, that human intelligence is per- haps never fully awakened to a progressive social system from suffering alone, but by intermixture, when races are packed together on the ultimate border of a sea, checked or forced to pass close upon or through each other, and to appeal to the sword. Thus, Palestine and Egypt, seated on the bridge that leads into Africa; Ionia and Greece, on the ferry of the Helles- pont ; Tangier and Cadiz (the Bisepharat of antiquity); Bab- el-mandel, the gate of tears, or passage into Africa; even the isthmus of Panama, all attest the fact, together with an addi- tional result, which shows not so much the stationary people, as that which has passed on, to be likewise foremost in civili- zation. Such was Egypt compared with Syria, Greece in re- spect to Asia Minor; Spain with Africa; such was Peru to Mexico; and Western Europe is now, in comparison, to the east. Total civilization is not even produced by the mere compul- sory mixture of nations moving in the same direction; it requires the additional influence of the modes of thinking and acting, from sources coming through other latitudes, to pull down and reconstruct a system that will accept of a progressive march of reasoning, independent of ancestral routine. Had the northern nations, by their own ambitious free will, not crossed upon the older migratory movement that came from east to west, such civilization as Egypt, Greece and Rome had conferred, notwithstanding that marine influences had o-reatly aided in the development, must have continued sta- tionary, then decayed, until they fell to ruin.* A want of * The power of habit, of educational prejudices, is forcibly seen, in Christian Rome continuing wild beast and gladiatorial exhibitions, though 216 NATURAL HISTORY OF such concurrence, as already observed, may be the sole cause why China has remained stationary; for even the slight shock lately given to that empire by Great Britain, has already had an effect, disproving the common opinion that the Mongolic mind cannot advance beyond a certain point. No people of the typical stocks could arrive at a progressive social existence, without intermixture of one or more branches of the homoge- neous nations of the bearded and beardless forms; and through these, such rudiments of advancement as can be traced among the woolly-haired, were likewise engendered. While nations pushed each other forward, and contested the possession of desirable territories, sudden extermination of the vanquished people generally lent but trifling aid to intellectual advancement; there was scarcely a desire to make slaves, where food was often insufficiently abundant for the victors; but when the great roads of colonization had been trodden by many nations to the verge of oceans, the result was different, because by that time Man had learned to subdue the Horse for his convenience, whereas, until that moment, the Ox alone appears to have been used for the saddle.* This conquest over brute power again commenced in high Asia, perhaps about Samarkand, but more certainly on the great plains north and west of the central table land; and with the aid of this valua- ble acquisition, began the era of invasion for dominion's sake; at first, in a more cumbrous manner, by charioteering; but, soon after, riders, on the backs of their horses, passing rapidly over immense distances, and almost entirely from east to west, carrying few or no wives or children, obtained both by the sword, and even spared the vanquished male sex, in order to enslave it.t both had been repeatedly scenes of martyrdom, until they were stopped by a Pagan, held to be a barbarian, because he was a Goth. * This was certainly a practice of Hindoo princes, before the Horse appears, and even long after. It is still in use among the Caffres, who ride their Bakeley Oxen in war ; and by mendicant fakeers in India. t Yet there are examples, down to the ninth century, when Christian THE HUMAN SPECIES. 217 From conquests by military invasion, there thus arose privi- leged families and tribes, a master class, in nearly every nation, marked, even at present, in many instances, by a distinct exterior, notwithstanding that, with scarcely an exception, it is issued from a cognate stem. Only time softened the bonds by gradual interunions, and by new conquerors again subduing both master and slave. In Europe, where the history of foreign subjugation is best preserved, there are instances of three or more having passed over the same people, each in turn crush- ing the former privileged orders. All were originally pastoral tribes, and they continued to conquer so long as agriculture had not yet fostered the other sciences of civilization; and defensive war was unavailing to scattered husbandmen, whose masters' subdivided power thwarted each other, and left the masses little worth defending. The nations who seem to have escaped servitude, it may be remarked, retreated to mountain regions, where cavalry had no advantage. Such are the Nilgherries, the Vindayan system, the western or modern Cau- casus, the Alps, the Pyrenees, &c, all peopled by refugees, not by Autochtones. Mere insular situations did not afford equal security, because boats conferred the same invading facilities which the horse produced on land; and hence even the more remote South Sea Islands are not without a master race, which, in whatever way attention is turned, will ever be found to be directly or indirectly of the Caucasian stock, excepting only in those centres of existence where the two other typical forms of Man reside ; for one of these, sensible of an inferior innervation, is possessed of a well-founded jealousy of the bearded race, and by political precaution endeavors to exclude it, while the other rests secure in the effects of climate; and both abuse their good fortune by, at least, inflicting subjection each upon kindred tribes; but much more restricted in the extent by the increasing progress of the Caucasian. kings (Franks) could direct the slaughter of every male whose height sur- passed the length of the conqueror's sword. 19 218 NATURAL HISTORY OF West of Central Asia, all records agree in pointing to the east for the direction whence nations migrated. Only three exceptions occur, where the course was a return homewards from anterior progression. Such was the Hebrew from Egypt to Palestine, the Ionian from Greece to Asia Minor, and the Nogay Tahtar from Russia to China. If the Egyptians, led by a Sesostris, penetrated to Bactria, a fabulous Bacchus to India, the Gauls to Greece and Galatia, and the Macedonians to the Punjab, beyond the Indus, they were mere conquering inroads, which lasted only for a few generations, sustained in some degree by the aboriginal homogeneousness of the invaders with the races in possession of the land. The pseudo-Greek kingdoms, notwithstanding the great national influx of that people in Western Asia, had no permanent tenure; and the Romans, the Crusaders, and the modern French, have only produced military occupations, not national colonizations. None are historically known to have departed from the inter- Pontine Caucasus, though many came westward, by the route of Armenia, with more or less delay in that high region, because the avenues leading south and west, from both sides of the Caspian, to Asia Minor, Syria, and Africa, mainly pass through it.*- Had the first population of mankind radiated from the Ara- rat of Armenia (for the word is generical),t all the present nations of the west, whose great movements are historically traceable to the high Oxus and Jaxartes (such as the Gomerian Celtae, and the Indo-Germans, Yuchi and Sacae), would have travelled, without being pressed in the rear, across deserts, up great rivers and high mountain ranges, before they multiplied, for no other purpose than to return over the same ground, that * Of course, the dispersion of the Jews eastward, and some more recent forcible transpositions of western Caucasian tribes to high Asia, are not here regarded. t In the Circassian tongue, Ararat, Arak, or Areck, simply denote a peak. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 219 they might thence continue still further west than they had been east, and delay peopling only that portion of the globe which is unquestionably the most important of the whole; or for the sole purpose of fetching the physical elements of social life already mentioned, which western Caucasus never spon- taneously produced, and to learn, at a distance, forms of speech, fundamentally belonging to the oldest Scythic, or a parent Sanscrit — a language found to influence, with very few exceptions, every known grammatical tongue in the world, though, in its present shape, it may be a mixture of various dialects. Asiatic early lore proves this primaeval tongue to have originated in the southern and western Highlands already noticed, and to exist still in many idioms, spreading from their border through India, Indo-China, and, with less evidence, to Australasia, far more than to the west, in Europe, Persia, and Syria; and none of its dialects positively belonging to western Caucasus. The present Imeritians, Circassians, &c, though they may have a just claim to be of the purest bearded typical stock, like the Coords, or Gaurs, were originally riding con- querors, and were driven into their present fastnesses at a com- paratively recent period. If we turn to India, although the woolly-haired stock may have retained, from priority of diffusion, a typical nucleus with- in the tropics, expanding even westward, there is a master race, of a distinct origin, domineering over the oldest discoverable tribes, gradually more and more intermixed, till, from pure white, it becomes positively black, without, therefore, being deprived of a superior aspect, which the Caucasian blood alone confers. It extends, with few exceptions, down to very near the equatorial line, where, indeed, contamination is still observ- able ; but the mastery of a foreign race evidently disappears. These conditions recur, in a south-western direction, along the Persian and Arabian maritime provinces, and eastern Africa; the Caucasian, whether brownish or black, preponderating numerically towards the shores of the Mediterranean, exactly 220 NATURAL HISTORY OF in the ratio structural conformation would prefer, if left at liberty. This intermediate sub-typical race, in all its shades of color, is the Ethiopian of antiquity, and seems to have included those tribes which were held accursed by several of the most ancient white immigrators in Western Asia. The Mongolic nations record, in the same manner, their descent from high mountain ranges, and the early struggles of their heroes in draining marshes, teaching cultivation, letters, and metallurgy; in time, making even regular observations on comets, when the wisdom of Europe was hidden in a howling wilderness, and long before science amongst us assumed a rational shape.* In America, all the tribes that retain tradi- tions of their origin, point to the north-west, with the exception of the extinct Flatheads, whose history is wholly unknown. They have propelled each other east and south, although cer- tain tribes of the most ancient residents in the south-east and Patagonian regions, may form exceptions; and there are tradi- tions, even in Mexico, of marine strangers from the east; for man soon passed from fishing on the lake, or paddling in a stream, to adventure his person beyond the surf of seas; and, when it served his purpose for coasting, trusted to the simplest materials to support his weight. Catamarans of three dry pieces of wood, and a staff, with flattened ends, for oars, have been in use, for uncounted ages, on the rolling seas of Madras, and models like them are often dug out with the bones of ancient Peruvians, where the inhabitants have similar breaking rollers to encounter. Coracles, made upon a frame of twigs, with the skins of seals, oxen, and horses, belonged to most nations of the Old Continent; birch kaicks to the Arctic people of both; and canoes of solid wood, hollowed out, to every por- tion of the globe. When these had attained a certain bulk and adequacy of structure, a family might transport itself from one end of the world to the other, in a few seasons, merely by coasting. Thus did the messenger of Vasco de Gama pass, in * See Biot on Comets. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 221 an open boat,* from Diu, in the East Indies, round the Cape, to Lisbon, in safety. In this manner, opinions, languages, and records, were transmitted, unadulterated, from the Euxine and Asia Minor, as far as Britain, in a single generation ; while the tribes whose fate it was to travel by land, were compelled to fight their way onwards for ages, gradually losing all memory of the pristine fatherland, and unable to recognize their ancient kindred, when they met again in the west, but by broken accents of a once common language, as is sufficiently evident in the meeting of the devious tribes of Gomerian Celtae. In the view here taken, mankind might be primitively arranged somewhat in the form of the diagram on page 222, sup- posing the apex of an equilateral triangle to point to the north. Thus, we have the southern line representing the Himalaya chain, with its great streams ending at the Indian Ocean, the eastern similarly leading to the Pacific, and the western to a sea gradually contracted into the Caspian; and the intermedi- ate, conducted by geographical necessities, reaching the South Seas, the Northern Pacific, and from thence to America, the Polar and Western Regions, and the Erythrean Seas to North- ern Africa. Of these, however, the Caucasian alone bears evidence of commencing development upon the table land, and under the shadows of the western chains; the Mongolic being at first no nearer than the eastern extremity of the Gobi, and the woolly-haired type coming up to, and along the skirts of the southern chain, rather than commencing primaeval diffusion so far to the north of its general centre of existence. The review of typical and sub-typical forms of Man, intended to be submitted here, appears to be best arranged by taking in succession the woolly-haired; the Malay and mixed races of * It is supposed that Iago Botello used a pattemar, or Cutch native boat, in this daring voyage. The vessel was half-decked, but only 16j feet long, 9 broad, and 4i in depth. 19* NORTH. FINNIC. OURALIAN. AMERICAN. fcO to WEST. CAUCASIAN OR BEARDED TYPE. THIBET, GOBI DESERT, AND MOUNTAIN CHAINS AROUND THEM. MONGOLIC OR BEARDLESS TYPE. EAST. N. ATLANTIC. ETHI0PIC. WOOLLY-HAIRED OR TROPICAL TYPE. NEGRO. PAPUA. SOUTH. H0RAF0URA. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 223 the South Seas; the American abnormal nations; the Mon- golic, or beardless; and the Ouralian and Toorkee. From these we arrive at the true Caucasian, whose early history, being best known from the south-east side of the central region, will require that first the mixed semi-woolly-haired tribes of South and Western Asia be examined, in order that the great influence and expansion of the bearded stock may be established; and the records of its principal races will form the remaining subject of consideration. Beginning, therefore, with that form which may likewise, on that account, be considered as the most ancient, we find, — THE WOOLLY-HAIRED TROPICAL TYPE.* The woolly-haired, tropical, dark-colored stock, improperly called Atlantic and Ethiopic, is considered to be most distinctly typical, where the maximum of development is found, in the peculiarities of structure and faculties that distinguish it from the other normal forms. It is that which predominates in Central and Western tropical Africa, — a form of Man of good stature, though seldom attaining six feet in height, and falling * By this denomination is understood, not wool, strictly speaking, but hair so highly frizzled as to appear like the wool of Iceland sheep, and in coarseness so rude, that the wool of a Negro head, struck with the knuckles, frequently cuts the skin to the bone. The pile of the beard, &c, is equally file-like or lacerating. These effects we have repeatedly witnessed. Though within the tropics no microscopes of sufficient power were at hand to test the fact, the general impression was, that this kind of hair is angular, and we doubt that Dr. Prichard's observations on the subject are wholly satisfactory, — the less so since the hair of the head seems to have been exclusively examined, in all the researches we have been able to consult. 224 NATURAL HISTORY OP as rarely beneath five feet six; the facial angle varying from 65 to 70 degrees ; the head being small, laterally compressed ; the dome of the skull arched and dense ; the forehead narrow, depressed, and the posterior part more developed; the nose broad and crushed, with the nostrils round; the lower jaw pro- truding, angular, but more vertical in nonage; the mouth wide, with very thick lips, black to the commissure, which is red; the teeth large, solid, and the incisors placed rather obliquely for- ward. The ears, which are roundish, rather small, standing somewhat high and detached, are said, like the scalp, to be occasionally movable; the eyes always suffused with a bilious tint, and the irides very dark. The hair, in infants, rises from* the skin in small mammillary tufts, disposed in irregular quin- cunx, and is, in all parts, of a crisp woolly texture, except- ing the eyebrows and eyelashes. In men it is scanty on the upper lip, generally confined to the point of the chin, with- out any at the sides of the face, excepting in late manhood. On the head it forms a close, hard frizzle of wool; in the pure races never hanging loose, nor rising into a kind of mop; and the breast sometimes has a few tufts, but the arms and legs are without any. The throat and neck are muscular, and, with the chest, shoulders, abdomen, hips, back, upper arms, and thighs, very symmetrically moulded ;* but, compared with the Caucasian, the humerus is a trifle shorter, and the forearm longer, thereby approximating the form of Simiada?. The wrists and ankles are robust; the hands coarse, with phalanges rather short, particularly the thumb; and the palms are yellow- ish. The legs have the shin-bones slightly bent forwards, and * The late Sir Francis Chantrey's magnificent cast of a Torso, taken from a Negro in London, bore ample testimony to this fact. Our own sketches of the naked figure, drawn during a residence of twelve years within the tropics, gave so much additional proof, that the great sculptor was tempted to copy several for his own use. With regard to the other sex, the tropics alone produce the combination of infantine natural grace jgith the full development of female maturity. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 225 the calves placed high up; the feet broad, heavy, squarish, with the soles flat; the os calcis less prominent; the toes short, more equal in length; and all the nails strong, short, and broad. The skin is soft, silky to the touch; in the new-born infant, dull cherry-red, gradually darkening to the permanent depth of shade ; beneath the epidermis the mucous membrane, loaded with a coloring matter in the bile, causes the melanic appearance of the skin, which varies, however, from deep sal- low to intense sepia black; darkest in health; and that color always distinctly affects the external glands. It is likewise the source of an overpowering offensive odor, spreading through the atmosphere, when many are congregated in the hot sun. The silky texture of the epidermis is more liable to erosion from pressure than that of white men. It is a charac- ter as organic, or more so, than the arched dome of the skull, and the perpendicularity of the vertebral column, which are quoted as the sole cause, why burthens are best borne by Negroes on the head instead of the back; for their general structure is athletic, the gait erect, free, and in young persons not ungraceful. It appears that some tribes in Dongola and Sennaar have one lumbar vertebra more than the Caucasian, and the stomach corrugated.* In general, the female pelvis is wider, the aper- ture round, and both sexes have the hips remarkably well pro- portioned. The bones of the typical nations are heavy, well knit, or with the apophyses fitted to receive broad insertions of the muscles; and the dome of the skull is particularly solid, but the ribs slender and flexible. Hence, Negroes, of all human beings, are distinguished for fighting, by occasionally butting with their heads foremost, like rams, at each other, the collision of their skulls giving a report that may be heard to * "Observations sur les battaillons Negres du Cordofan au service de Mehemet Ali en Egypte et qui servirent en Candie." By a German sur- geon. The same remarks are likewise offered, we believe, by Dr. Mad- den, Travels, &c. 226 NATURAL HISTORY OF some distance. Even women, in their brawls, have the same habit. The dense spherical structure of the head, likewise, enables several tribes to shave their crowns, and in this exposed state to remain, with the lower half of the body immersed in water, under a vertical sun. This very structure may influence the erect gait, which occasions the practice, common also to the Ethiopian or mixed nations, of carrying burthens and light weights, even to a tumbler full of water, upon the head; a feat which they effect with perfect safety and gracefulness.* Most of the black nations are capable of protracted toil, without much injury to their frames; they willingly share labor with the female sex in a state of independence as well as in captivity; they dig, hew wood, carry, walk, or row, for many hours, in a tropical sun, without repining. They mul- tiply on mountain and in morass, in sterile and in rich soil, throughout the tropical region. Though a new locality like South America be not their original centre of existence, they spread, on both sides, beyond the equatorial belt, over the lower degrees of the temperate latitudes; do not decrease in the presence of Caucasians when not overworked by their task- masters ; and flourish under the fiercest solar heat, when other types of man decay or perish. In constitution, they escape or withstand many of the most virulent epidemics, among the rest, small-pox, so fatal to all the American races; and others, incidental to the tropics, or introduced by Europeans, visit them with less violence. In South America, where the indigenous tribes diminish, in regions where white men are but little known, the Maroons * Though the practice is general, pride nevertheless can counteract it j for we have invariably seen the Jamaica Maroons carry their produce to market on the back, and take their rest under distinct trees, apart from slave Negroes, because, as they told us, they would show themselves " free like Buckra man!" A second jar of water, Negroes always carry upon the palm of the hand inverted. 4 THE HUMAN SPECIES. 227 or Negroes, escaped from Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch slavery, increase; they have established independent commu- nities in the swampy regions of Guiana, and, still more, between the rivers Amazon, Iza, and Japura, where, under the name of Jurie Negroes, they occupy an extensive territory, since they expelled the Moruas and Maruquevare Indians. These, however, together with the Haytian, the Jamaica Maroons, and Guadaloupe Quelehs, as well as all the West Indian and North American woolly-haired populations, being the offspring of the greatest intermixture of different African tribes, and not entirely free of European and American Indian admixture, are excited by acquired knowledge, under new cir- cumstances, and therefore capable of a united and reasoned energy. They have mostly lost the peculiar features belong- ing to the different African parent tribes. Their heads are larger, as is seen also in Dr. Morton's measurements, who, we are inclined to believe, was not aware of the rapid change that takes place in the development of the skull; though, even in Europe, the difference of size in heads of the educated and uneducated classes, among civilized nations, is no secret to hatters. In this condition, colonial born Negroes are often ingenious handicrafts. We have known a slave cooper, whose owner refused to grant his emancipation, for less than £600. They make good masons and joiners, and excellent steersmen at the wheel and tiller are not uncommon. The voice of Negroes is feeble 'and hoarse jn the male sex; exceedingly high and shrill in females; the sense of sight is acute ; that of taste sufficiently delicate; hearing sharp; with notions of time, but very little of melody; yet fond of music, and constantly handling instruments of the most imperfect kind, excepting a species of harmonicon, made of slips of bamboo, or of a set of sounding stones, — if it be that these are of their own invention. They have drums and a kind of Cas- tanet; but stringed instruments are derived from a Moorish source. Though the physical qualities are well developed, the 228 NATURAL HISTORY OE intellectual are low, in some tribes quite puerile; yet the moral impulses are not unfrequently of a most noble nature. They offer, therefore, a discordant mixture of qualities, wherein the good predominates, till the European, not mis- guided by personal interests or prejudices, cannot refrain from feelings of affection for them. They all believe in some kind of future state, though religious sensations are with them superstitious and childish mummeries, too often connected with fetiche necromancy, which deals in the crimes of poison- ing and murder. Thought is habitually dormant, and, when roused, it is manifested by loud soliloquy and gesticulations, regardless of circumstances. War is a passion that excites in them a brutal disregard of human feelings; it entails the deliberate murder of prisoners; and victims are slain to serve the manes of departed chiefs. Even cannibalism is frequent among the tribes of the interior. But these habits were once not unknown to the highest endowed Caucasians; human sacrifices belonged to the heroic age of Greece; to the historical of India, Phoenicia, Carthage, Egypt, and Celtica; to nations who must have known better, and were not, like the African savage, in mental nonage, without neighbors to teach a better doctrine or more humane example; for wherever higher moral duties have been promulgated to Negroes, they have been quickly accepted. Notwithstanding the listless torpidity caused by excessive heat, the perceptive faculties of the chil- dren are far from contemptible. They have a quick apprehen- sion of the ridiculous; often surpassing the intelligence of the white, and only drop behind them about the twelfth year, when the reflective powers begin to have the ascendency. Collectively, the untutored Negro mind is confiding, single- hearted, naturally kind and hospitable. We speak not without personal experience. The female sex is affectionate, to abso- lute devotedness, in the character of mother, child, nurse, and attendant upon the sick, though these be strangers, and the often experienced reward scarcely amounting to thanks. As THE HUMAN SPECIES. 229 housewives, they are charitable to the wants of the wayfaring visitants; within doors orderly; and, personally, very clean; they are joyous; noisy; in the night-time indefatigable danc- ers equally with the men, who are in general orderly, trust- worthy, brave and unrepining. Both sexes are easily ruled, and appreciate what is good, under the guidance of common justice and prudence. Yet, where so much that honors human nature remains — in apathy, the typical woolly-haired races have never invented a reasoned theological system, discovered an alphabet, framed a grammatical language, nor made the least step in science or art.* They have scarcely comprehended what they have learned, or retained a civilization taught them by contact with more refined nations, so soon as that contact has ceased. They have at no time formed great political states, nor com- menced a self-evolving civilization. Conquest with them has been confined to kindred tribes, and produced only slaughter. Even Christianity, of more than three centuries' duration, in Congo, has scarcely excited a progressive civilization, because it is unattended by the stimulus of a stranger race (for the small number of Portuguese officials, priests, exiles, criminals, and slave merchants, are inadequate, and of all European nations least capable of stirring the mind to activity, by educa- tion, and the example of exertion); notwithstanding that the nations south of the Zezere have a more intellectual aspect, and have a barter trade across the continent to Mozambique. Thus, the good qualities given to the Negro by the bounty of Nature, have served only to make him a slave, trodden down by every remorseless foot, and to brand him for ages with the * The simple formulae of Negro languages remain, when they are obliged to learn European ; thus, all the Negro slaves of tropical America speak a dialect in form the same as the general African tongue, though the words are Spanish, Portuguese, French, English, Dutch, or Danish. Education and time have no doubt made the present generation more gram- matically correct. 20 230 NATURAL HISTORY OF epithet of outcast; the marked unceasing proof of a curse, as old as the origin of society, not even deserving human forbear- ance ! and true it is, that the worst slavery is his lot, even at home, for he is there exposed to the constant peril of becoming also a victim, slaughtered with the most revolting torments.* Tyrant of his blood, he traffics in slavery as it were mer- chandise ; makes war purposely to capture neighbors, and sells even his own wives and children. A second stem of the typical group is the eastern tropical or Samang, which we shall continue to denominate Papua, notwithstanding recent investigations have endeavored to con- fine this name to a more hybrid population of the Australian islands. It is in general greatly intermixed with Hindoo, Mongolic, and Malay blood; and in comparatively few locali- ties sufficiently pure to retain the close crisp woolly scalp which is the most decisive criterion of the fact; for, so soon as, in any warm climate, there is foreign alliance, the wool becomes bushy, and rises into a huge round mop; and, if there be still greater connection, it droops, and gradually turns into incipient curls. By this token the amount of adulteration may be traced, independent of the color of the skin, with per- haps no exceptions, although it is true that there is in some cases a tendency to variation, in the offspring taking, in one birth, a more decisive maternal character, and perhaps in the next a paternal, even to the extent of modifying the hair, par- ticularly between true Negroes and hard lank-haired South Americans of the Austral-Malay cast of structure. These remarks show that the earlier Egyptians had only a casual knowledge of the true Negro populations; for, when these were first noticed, they occupied, it seems, the high lands behind the east coast of Africa; and the ages they may have nestled in the central regions, without further progress west- * See Bowdich's Mission to Ashantee. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 231 ward, may be surmised, from the Phoenician navigators, who reached that coast by the Atlantic, not mentioning the presence of real human beings to the south of Cape Blanco, since they brought back to Carthage specimens or skins of the Chim- panzee, which at no time could exist to the north of the great rivers, where alone there are trees and food. The abnormal are portrayed on Egyptian temples, often repeated, with great bushy heads; but real Negroes may be alone intended in the figures of black human victims, significantly offered to a Python god. In Asia the circumstances were different; to this time the Hubbashee clans of real Negroes exist in Laristan and Mekran, in Persia, and even on the Helmund; and are evi- dently of the primitive race, to the south of the Himalaya chain as well as Southern Persia * This type forms the primaeval inhabitants of the Australasian and many tropical islands, although they have been rooted out or subdued to form a low cast of slaves in most of them; and notwithstanding that a remote idolatry, of Papuan origin, can still be traced out in parts of India, and sovereign families even claim descent from monkey gods, that is, from primasval Bheels, the worship has changed to Brahmanism, and the ruling dynasties are now of high caste Caucasians, as will be shown in the sequel. Only, in the larger islands, the Papua tribes are in general still found masters of the central mountain forests. Rarely, however, is this branch of the Negro stock equal in stature and vigor to the African. * Professor Wilson, in his notice of the animals, &c., mentioned by Ctesias, gives some account of the Kalestrii; and in my manuscript note upon it, I find, that "there were other tribes, higher up the country, and nearer the sources of the Indus, who were very black, drank no water nor ate corn, but lived on the milk of their flocks." These were, perhaps, the typical Asoors or Azuras of Hindoo mythology. Abulghazi speaks of black people residing between the Hylas (Cabul ?) and the Indus. (vol. i., p. 15.) The present Aghori, by Ctesias named Andropophogoi, and by the Persians Mardikohr, still occasionally feed on putrid human flesh, and reside in caverns about Aboo, among the Jains. They cannot well be Caucasians, nor are they Mongoles. 232 NATURAL HISTORY OF Sometimes varying to yellowish-brown, it is in color sooty- black ; in stature often so diminutive, that the small heads they have appear large, the more in disproportion, because the extremities are feeble and slender. Such at least is the case with many of the tribes still possessed of retreats in the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula; but this form of the woolly-haired stock, unlike the African, diminishes rapidly before the en- croachments of Malays, Arabs, and Europeans. Many of them prefer death to slavery; others vegetate in that condition, their marriages not producing more than one or two children; and some, becoming Mahometans, form mixed populations, where Horafoura and Malay, Hindoo and Arab, Chinese and Euro- pean, have been promiscuously mixed, and their characteristics obliterated. In this way Western Asiatic nations, with more undulating or lank hair, were likewise formed, by intermixture with the low-fronted Dombuks, Nimreks, and Kakasiah, or black brothers. They may have influenced even the black Kalmuks, the Colchians of Herodotus, and the black Bedou- eens. From the geographical position of the purest Papua Negroes, it is evident that they have been the first race expelled the coasts and plains, since they are insulated in the mountains, or driven to the unhealthy equatorial points, where other tribes cannot multiply. Hence, they are the oldest primaeval race, even if it should be denied that they are a population of ante- rior date to a great territorial cataclysis, which submerged a continent beneath or on the south of the line. It is also evident, that around them, and northward, up the Indus, to the. southern foot of the Himalayas, the (Nishada) most ancient nations, with some relation to the distance from their equatorial centre, bear strong marks, in structure, intellectual capacity, habits, color, and hair, of a succession of intermixtures with races coming down by the gorge of the Brahmaputra, and along the eastern secondaries of the great mountain range, causing a Mongolic adulteration; and, on the north-west, by the Cabul THE HUMAN SPECIES. 233 and Indus, another of Caucasian blood, passing to the plains of India in overpowering numbers; and by the Ganges and Jumna; likewise along the western flanks of the range from Cashmere, and indeed from China itself, where, in the earliest ages, the bearded race had numerous colonies. But there is no evidence of the woolly-haired stock: possessing, at any time, the valleys above the secondary ranges, since none are now found shut up in the colder mountains; and the bearded races, tenants of the region, are fair, and not unfrequently marked by gray eyes, and light or red curled hair, showing how remote was the starting-point from whence they first proceeded. Both the earliest known invasions of the Indian peninsula, coming in successive waves, demonstrate how variously crossed and intermixed have been the populations already, before the recorded historical repetitions of the same movement took place. Similar events were equally in active operation to the south-west, through Persia and Syria. While a proportion of the black races may have coasted towards Africa, others no doubt passed through the isthmus of Suez, and by the Arabian shore into their present central region, leaving marks of their progress in the Mekran, and other fish-eating Suakim on the African shore. The Papuan stock, notwithstanding mental and physical deficiencies, has advanced to the pastoral and even agricultural conditions, when not molested by invaders, and favored proba- bly by some foreign innervation; for, in a pure, unmixed state, no eastern Negro tribe has passed beyond the profession of hunter, or is observable on islands at more than a moderate distance from its Australasian centre. The inapprehensive character of their constitutions, or an inipulse which leads them to the sea, induces both African and Papua stems readily to accept a marine mode of life. They are generally excellent swimmers; they dive fearlessly, and will fight the shark in his own element. Yet they have never invented the construction of large canoes, such as the Malay and American make with 20* 234 NATURAL HISTORY OF so much skill. The marine enterprise, however it may have been occasioned, is manifest even among tribes residing far inland;* such, for example, are the brave and honest Menas or Kroomen of Western Africa, who all become in some degree sailors; and colonial Negroes, who are often seamen in the merchant service. In what manner the black Caribs of St. Vincent first reached the Western Hemisphere, is narrated upon questionable evi- dence. Those said to be remains of this adventitious race, are still excellent boatmen ; and if Peter Martyr (Decads) may be credited, there was a Negro population already established on the coast of America t before the arrival of the Spaniards. On the west coast of Africa the most energetic tribes are Coromantees, very black, and marked on the cheeks with tri- bal scars. They are a daring and martial people; when en- slaved, often rebellious. The Eboes, on the contrary, are less vigorous, paler in color, with a more slender form and elon- gated features. They are a gentler race, yet more truly sav- ages ; and, though addicted to despondency and suicide, they were formerly sought for house servants. The Widahs, or Fidahs, are of the stem usually called Papaws and Nagas in Africa; they resemble the Papuas of the Indian Ocean more than any other race; and they assimilate likewise with the Eboes, but are still more submissive as slaves. They have a baboon-like expression, and the peculiarities of the Negro * The fearless propensity to venture on the sea was shown in Jamaica, during our residence on the island, by two very young Negro lads, both natives of the interior of Africa, who could know little more of a water life than perhaps fishing on the Niger ; yet they stole a canoe ; and, unpro- vided with food or water, went to sea from Port Royal harbor, with the resolution of returning to their own country! The poor lads were fortu- nately picked up by a merchant ship, when they had already drifted far out to the south-west, and were nearlv dead from exhaustion. t Peter Martyr, who wrote from the manuscript documents of the first discoverers then living, cites Vasco Nunez meeting with a colony of Negroes at Quariqua, in the Gulf of Darien. This, it should be remarked, is anterior to the introduction df black slaves. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 235 type strongly marked. Among them, in particular, the Naga tribes practise circumcision, and have other eastern indications about them; the Cumbric Negroes may belong to this branch; and the Mocos, who file the teeth in order to resemble the Lion, are still cannibals, and the most savage of the Papaw nations. Like the eastern Papuas, they are of a dirty black color, and have the same Jewish rites as the rest. Hebrew or Semitic words occur in their dialects, as in the Hous- wana tongues. Ideas, and perhaps affinity with the An- gola and Benin tribes, recall to mind the still existing barter trade across the continent to Mozambique, and this may point out the route from the east by which they may have come to their present location; for, had they spread from west to east, no oriental words or institutions would be found in their ancient national dialects or habits. In Eastern Africa, the woolly-haired races, though occupy- ing a vast extent, are likewise of intermixed origin. The whole east coast is possessed by nations tinged with Arabic blood; the extreme south by apparently an outcast Mongolic population; and, from the north, Gomerian tribes have likewise produced commixtures to beyond the Senegal. Among these, ancient Numidians appear to have been propelled by Arabian conquerors, and to have originated the red and black Poulas, so called in proportion as the brown or black color of their skins predominates. These have horses and camels, unknown to all other Negroes, and are now Moslem. The Jaloffs are a branch of this stem; and the Mandingoes, once a nomad people, bear evident tokens of a more northern origin, only in part effaced by intermixture with true Negroes. Beyond the Menas or Kroomen, on the Gambia, there are, however, important nations of true Negroes, such as the Basus and Buyere on each side of them; and in the interior of Africa the mysterious Ba-u-ri. Of the African stock the most conspicuous abnormal stem is the Kafir or Caffre, a race which, having a Semitic innervation, has risen in stature, intelligence and beauty, above all the 236 NATURAL HISTORY OF tribes of nearly pure Negro blood. They have formed states of some extent; they build large towns; possess the art of smelting and working metals; are very considerable graziers; and have some agriculture. The Caffres have trained their war or Bakeley Oxen to be ridden in battle ; * have large, and, in some measure, organized armies, distinguished by decorated spears for ensigns, and shields painted with different cogni- zances for each corps. Among the men there are individuals nearly seven feet in height; and the women frequently possess considerable beauty. Extending on the south-east coast to Port Natal, they have all, it is asserted, formerly migrated from the north-west, or Central Africa; but this is evidently only the expansion of increased population, which, in earlier ages, shrunk from the barren coasts, and, since returning, have directed their march to the south-east. Next, or perhaps superior to them in energy, are the Galla or Sidana nation, constantly encroaching on the Abyssinian states, and containing several mighty tribes; such as the Sooalla, seated from the equator to Mozambique; the Soomal- lees on the north of them, and the pure Gallas in the interior, who are chiefly composed of Carrachi and Boiran tribes — all speaking dialects of one great language. In the east, the propensity to an aquatic life is likewise man- ifest, for true oriental Negroes inhabit the Nicobar islands, and spread through many Australasian, Philippine, and more east- ern groups, though they are often intermixed with Malay, or with Hindoo races, who have modified their characteristic dis- * No doubt, oxen were ridden in India before war-horses were intro- duced by the north-western conquerors. There exist allusions to the prac- tice ; and I have copied an Indian Rajah, seated on his war-ox, from a painting on ivory. Siva on the bull Nundi represents the same fact; and the African Caffres, having the like custom, may indicate the region whence they emigrated, and the date as anterior to the arrival of domes- ticated horses in southern Asia. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 237 tinctions, and there also, in general, constituted a privileged order among them. This occurs even among the Tasmanians, the lowest race of oriental Negroes, and now nearly extinct, yet still familiar with water. The New Holland Papuas, who, for want of trees serviceable for excavation, venture out upon slips of bark but slightly bound together at the extremities, or on pieces of drift-wood, not capable to support them until their bodies are partially immersed; nay, on the central lakes of Africa, Negroes venture out, riding a stick, having two open calabashes, one before, the other behind, which buoy them up sufficiently, to admit in them the fish they catch, and stun or kill with a billet. The Papuan of Australia is, in many respects, the most sunken of human beings, and is partly mixed with Horafoura tribes, whose presence is indicated by the hair being more drooping and matted, the features less debased, and the limbs more masculine. Some tribes towards the north are even fair, and appear to have a tinge of Malay blood, perhaps imported by the Trepang fishers on the coast. If the woolly-haired type, in the oriental portion of its dis- tribution, is often of the smallest and ill-made proportions, there are instances (perhaps, indeed, of races already somewhat mixed) where they rise to six feet high, and possess powerful frames, as was lately discovered in the interior of Australia. But, in all, where any religious sentiments have been observed, they seem to be imported, or sink into the lowest puerilities. This is also the case in Africa, where the divinities are spec- tres; or are reptiles, lizards, insects, birds, or beasts; gods in one season and game in another; or they are wretched little idols they call Fetiche, a word derived from Pet, pataichos, of Phoenician or Egyptian origin; and, as it evidently means father, shows that, in the first acceptation, was implied venera- tion for departed tribal or family ancestors, but became de- graded to a kind of idolatrous worship, which, in the hands of Negroes, is bestowed upon monkey skulls, bits of bone and rag; 238 NATURAL HISTORY OF or is a gross scarecrow, set up under a canopy of straw. The Negro has shown always a great propensity to incantation and sorcery; has recourse to protective amulets, which he calls Grisgris; and positive impostures are both believed in and practised by the male part, without an attempt at reflection; although, in other respects, he can be a mimic — and does not want craft in the mysteries of huckstering, or of small dealing, which all classes are inclined to. These propensities can be traced to the extent of a kind of caravan trade, and the fre- quentation of sacred, or, at least, neutral marts, scalas, or ven- tas, where dealers assemble at stated periods within the precincts of Nigritia, for elsewhere the lawless ferocity of slave-making Caucasians has rendered the practice impossible to the Negro race. All these opinions and customs are, however, perfectly in harmony with the oriental development of the woolly-haired tribes; with their primaeval passage even through Egypt and the desert, which most recent discovery shows to be still, in parts, not entirely barren; although, as Dr. Hoskins has proved, increasingly desolate. The Horafouras, or Alforees of the Australasian islands, are, we believe, the first and most ancient abnormal race of Papuan origin, tinged sufficiently with Malay blood to possess the energy and malignant ferocity of that people ; while they have the color and the great mop-formed hair, which result from an interunion thus formed, and, having greater mental development, their social progress is more advanced. They possessed already, in remote antiquity, the means of marine venture, which causes their descendants to be found singly, or partially mixed with Caucasian blood, on most of the South Sea islands. They appear to have been the leaders of that generally pre- vailing fashion among those tribes, of tattooing the skin not only of the face, but nearly of every part of the body; distinctly marking, by means of raised lines and figures, the family clan of every individual sq adorned. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 239 The Negro or woolly-haired type, independently of diluvian convulsions, appears, as before stated, originally to have extended northward to the lower ranges of the Himalaya chain, if indeed that region was not its original seat; and that it did not extend, in a pure or perhaps somewhat mixed state, eastward to Japan, may be surmised by the present population of Formosa being apparently descended from an expelled people, once resident about the coasts of China. It is confirmed from the existence of a black stock, with Caucaso-Mongoles, and now termed Min-leu, black-haired people; a denomination which implies a distinct race, not genuine Chinese. The same infer- ence may be drawn from the black people mentioned by Abul- ghazi, and even from the melanic Californians on the west coast of America. In this view, the first migrations of the Negro stock, coast- ing westward by catamarans, or in wretched canoes, and skirting South-Western Asia, may synchronize with the earliest appearance of the Negro tribes in Eastern Africa, and just precede the more mixed races, which, like the Ethiopians of Asia, passed the Red Sea at the straits of Bab-el-mandel, ascended the Nile, or crossed that river to the west; for that movements of this kind were long continued, is apparent, from the Nagas or Norages, who visited Spain and the Mediter- ranean islands under Norax, so late as the dawn of authentic history. Taking the whole southern portion of Asia westward to Arabia, this conjecture, which likewise was a conclusion drawn, after patient research, by the late Sir T. Stamford Raffles, accounts, more satisfactorily than any other for the oriental habits, ideas, traditions, and words, which can be traced among several of the present African tribes and in the South Sea islands; it points out the primaeval cities of the woolly- haired people in Nangasaki, or rather, in its ancient form, Nagaraki, according to Pfitzmayer; Nagara, now Cashmere j 240 NATURAL niSTORY OF Nagara, the known capital of a most ancient Naga people* Further, in the plains, are Nagpoor, and a ruined city without name, at the gates of Benares (perhaps the real Kasi of tradi- tion), once adorned with statues of a woolly-haired race; and lower still, on the Indus, Pattala, the ancient empire of the Naga or serpent kings, before it became a mythological legend. These cities existed, and a given social state was advancing to civilization among the typical woolly-haired tribes of higher Asia, but declined and fell, from the moment the Hindoo races invaded Bharata or the peninsula of India. The people, nevertheless, which they subdued, expelled, and vainly endeavored to extirpate, survived, in scattered purer groups, in the more inaccessible parts of the continent, chiefly along the subordinate ramifications of the Himalaya range, from the Indus to Indo-China, and the Malay peninsula; or in the form of hybrid tribes, even at present lurking in the Vindaya chain, and spread through the southern states to Ceylon. Taking the characteristics of some tribes still remaining for the general standard, they were a strong-built under-sized people, with a depressed forehead, frizzled hair, crushed nose, thick lips, and black skin, all to some extent cannibals, and incapable of rising, by their own intellectual powers, much beyond the degrees of social improvement they had attained; yet not so low, but that some of the worst features of their religious and moral notions were adopted by their conquerors. The'names of the nations varied of course. Among the most ancient and general, was that of Nats, Nagas, Nishadas, Kabendas, Bhils, and Puharees.t They are now found under similar denomi- * This Nagara stood on the Indus, between latitude 32 and 33°, and was a Dionysiopolis, according to Ptolemy ; but more probably the fanum of some Naag Sahib, a serpent god with human sacrifices, such as the Naag tribes had upon the upper Nile, and still retain in Cutch. Naag and Naga, if it be a Sanscrit word, is also well known in more than one Afri- can dialect. t Several of these names recur, most significantly, among the Negro tribes of Western and Southern Africa, particularly those of Nagas or THE HUMAN SPECIES. 241 nations, such as Cutchees,- Bheels, Binderwars, Paharias of Bhangulpoor, and Mongheer, who are complete Papuas; there are the Sedies of Canara, Dacoits of Bengal, Ghonds of Ghond- wana, Koolies or Kholes, Lurka Kholes, Cookies or Nagas of Indo-China; Bedas or Vedas of Ceylon, &c. In Persia are the Hubbashie and Mekran fish-eaters ; and the Jamaules, near Aden, and the Ovahs of Madagascar, are partially mixed races. The most aberrant of all are, however, the Houswana nations, the Hottentots, Bushmen, Coranas, &c, all of a lemon peel or dirty yellow color, and often with strange peculiarities of form; speaking dialects inimitably articulated, and possibly forming a hybrid race of Mongolo-Papuan origin; one flung abroad at so remote a period, as to have preceded both the true woolly-haired tribes, the Ethiopian, and the Caucasian nations, since they, together with the Ompizee of Madagascar, a portion of the inhabitants of Fernando Po, and the ancient Guanches of Teneriffe and the islands of the west coast, seem to have belonged to the same origin, and to have been driven off in all directions by the Negroes who succeeded them;* until, at a later period, they effected interunions, which form some of the modifications among the black tribes, and consti- tute the existing populations above named. That certain tribes, of a partially civilized race, preexisted in the present Caffraria, is even proved by the rectangular stone walls of old Leetakoo (Leetakoon, in the Caffre dialects, denoting the old stone buildings), the ruins of which still remain, in a country Nagoes, Puharees, Menas, and, perhaps, Galla ; for in India the Gwalla or grazier profession, is the same as that of the African Gallas, who also bear another Asiatic and their true name of Sidana. Gal, Gail, in Cel- tic, moreover, denotes a stranger or wanderer, therefore radically also a nomad. * To this expelled sallow people may be ascribed also the ruins of houses, which are reported to have been still visible in the Canary Islauds, at the commencement of the ninth century; as related by the Irish Monk Dicuil, in his curious work, "De Mensura Orbis Terra;." He wrote in the year 829, and is better known by the name of the "Anonymous of Ravenna." 21 242 NATURAL HISTORY OF where the Amazula, Bachapin, or Caffre population, never have built a house but of reeds and clay. In north-eastern Africa, an expansion similar to that in the south is taking place : the Cushi, Kopths, Mauritanians, Abys- sinians, and Arabs, gradually diminish or become absorbed; the Negro races press forward, by the Bahar-el-abiad, upon Egypt, and through the desert, upon Morocco, not so much by conquest as by the increase of their numbers; a result which continued slavery only tends to hasten. Such also has been the consequence in Hayti and in Central America; nor can the evil effects impending over Brazil, and even over our own colonies in the west, be avoided, but by timely liberal and humane laws, aiding a true, zealous, and applicable system of education. The really good qualities, and single-heartedness of the Negro, may then be safely expected to evolve that quiet cooperation and patriotic feeling which justice will teach him to appreciate; but the prejudices of colonists have still much to retrace and to unlearn. Fear alone imparts moderation and reason upon masses, who believe they derive an advantage from injustice. Before concluding, we may mention here the gradations through which intermixtures of the typical stocks are distin- guished in the West India Islands. The offspring of a black and a white parent is denominated a Mulatto; a black and a mulatto produce a Sambo; a black and a sambo a Mungroo; and a black and a mungroo is again completely black. But, in this case, the disturbance in the intellectual qualities is not again obliterated; it remains, to a considerable extent, of a more developed character than in a true Negro of unmixed origin. A mulatto, however, and a white generate a Quartroon; a quartroon and a white a Mestie; and a mestie and a white a complete white, having already, before the emancipation of the slaves in all our colonies, the legal rights of a white man of pure blood. Yet this class of persons still, in general, have black and curly hair; the nails on the fingers remain darker THE HUMAN SPECIES. 243 and ill-shaped; the feet are indifferently formed; and in their propensities much of the Negro origin continues to be traced. The Spaniards carry their distinctions to a seventh generation. As the early history of the real Ethiopic nations is better known by means of the connection and hybridal descent they drew from the Caucasian races, we shall enter into more detail respecting their primaeval filiations and migratory movements, when treating of the bearded tribes which first invaded India, and pursued, subdued, and absorbed the Negro population in south-eastern and south-western Asia, and northern Africa; an inquiry that can be followed out by certain geographical necessities, and by a right appreciation of many ancient mythic tales, notwithstanding that historical data were few and scanty.* THE MALAY SUB-TYPICAL STEM. Pursuing our course of investigation onwards towards the east, we find from a commencement somewhere on the gorges of the Brahmaputra, where that mighty stream turns towards the Ganges, an intermediate form of Man; one which, in a most remote period, was perhaps seated further to the north, about the sources of the great rivers which rise to the eastward * Our personal observations on the Negro races, it is proper to mention, commenced in 1797, on the coast of Africa. They were continued, on both portions of the American continent, and in the West Indies, to 1807 ; during which period the slave trade remained in activity, and new Negroes, as they were termed, coming from different nations, could be ex- amined, and their characteristics compared at most of the tropical seaports. The distinctive characters then possessed by them are now confused or obliterated by commixture of the different races, by education, and other changes of circumstances in the western hemisphere, and are no longer accessible on the coast of Africa. Hence, several remarks above made cannot now be entirely verified in any quarter. From what is here stated, it follows that the observations, more or less carefully made, extended over hundreds, belonging to very different tribes of western and central Africa, exclusive of North and South American, and West Indian colonial- born Negroes. 244 NATURAL HISTORY OF of that stream. This stem now extends across the great pen- insula of Indo-China, or has been propelled, by the pressure of genuine Mongolic races and mixed Indo tribes, not only to the extreme south of the peninsula, but driven onwards, beyond sea, to the islands of Australasia, to Madagascar, the archipel- agos of the Pacific; and, it would seem, even to South Amer- ica, before that continent was visited by the great migrations which came down the coast by the west of the Cordilleras. Conquered on the mainland of Asia, tribes of Malays, no doubt, reached the peninsula of Malacca at a remote period, but not before Java and Sumatra, Borneo and Celebes were detached from it; for notwithstanding that the deep channels, extant in their present waters, soundings and shoals, spreading even to the vicinity of Australia and New Guinea,* indicate the com- paratively recent period when a great disruption of the land occurred in those latitudes, or the present conditions of the coasts were completed, still the presence of a more ancient or a more purely typical race, on the centre and on the west coast of the two first-mentioned islands, seems to prove that these were anterior, and the Malays only the second, or more probably the third source of the present population. Preceding the arrival of the Malays, there was already extant, as the scattered fragments of the former population prove, the Oriental Negro stock; both on the continent and in the islands; and coeval with the first-mentioned tribes, the black Hindoo mixed Caucasian stem seems likewise to have been urged to the same coasts. Thus, the adulteration of the woolly-haired stock was effected in two directions,and the Malay stem, apparently resulting from the union of Caucasian with Mongolic tribes, caused that great variety of feature, complexion, and form, which it is known to possess, without therefore oblit- erating the perceptible sub-typical general resemblance which constitutes the characteristic marks of the whole race. If the Malays were a real typical stock, they would likewise possess * Earl's Report in Journal of Geographical Sciences. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 245 a nucleus, or centre of existence, exclusively adapted for their permanent abode, whereas the contrary is clearly shown, by the presence of unadulterated races, and mixed tribes of the other two stocks, in both conditions suited to the same geographical region. This circumstance likewise indicates the probability of a great atmospheric change in relation to man, after a dilu- vian cataclysis, if it be admitted that this equatorial vicinity was once the real Nigritia of the woolly-haired type. Now, as it is evident the centre of development belonging to this type is at present in the tropical regions of Africa, and, as was before shown, that there are indications of a third being in preparation, under the same latitudes in South America, while the Oriental is gradually disappearing, it might be asked, whether there is not here the indication of a submerged conti- nent, and another instance of that progressive migratory move- ment from the east to the west, or expansion and decay, ordained to be the fate of the great human typical stocks, and impelled by laws whose operation may be perceived without affording the means of tracing their causes beyond probable assumptions ? Yet this physical procession over the earth by lono-itudes may not be without ultimate connection with that intellectual march of Man by latitudes, which, while departing from the temperate regions of our northern hemisphere, and arriving at the extremity of the habitable south, appears to repeat, on a greater, the workings of civilization which it com- menced on a less scale in Europe, and thus to be evolving the mysterious problem of human fusion into one great family, led by one religious system, and trained to the sciences and litera- ture of Europe. As the Malays are nowhere expansively homogeneous, and in most places only tenants of coasts or parts of islands, varied marks of national adulteration are constantly perceptible. In general, however, their distinctive characters are marked by a comparatively small head, measuring, in the capacity of the skull, according to Dr. Morton, from sixty-four to eighty-nine 21* 246 NATURAL HISTORY OF cubic inches ; a diversity in itself sufficient to demonstrate the mixed nature of their origin. The dome is high and rounded, with a low forehead; the face is flat and broad; the nose short, expanded at the wings; the mouth wide, with projecting upper jaws, and teeth resembling Negroes; the skin varying in color from clear brown to dark clove ; the auditory aperture elevated, and consequently with a depressed forehead,— nearly as much so as in the woolly-haired type, but commonly distin- guished by prominent ridges of the orbits overhanging the eyes; and we have seen a light brown, so-called, Papua girl, from one of the South Sea cannibal islands,* whose forehead had the lengthened form assumed to be peculiar to the American races. In the more typical tribes, the Malay's hair is coarse, lank and shining, like the Chinese; more aberrant, it becomes undulat- ing and bushy, till, in still more adulterated races, it rises in the high curly mops which attest the intermixture of blood to be not less than half with woolly-hahed families. This condition, however, most frequently advances the physical improvement of the possessors, and even the intellectual, when there is an additional innervation from a Caucasian source. The beard is often plucked out, generally scanty in the purer hybridism of the Malay composition, nor does it increase to the full honors of a well furnished fringe, up to the ears, unless there are again other indications of a Caucasian infusion. In that case, consid- erable stature is likewise not unfrequent; while, without the exciting cause just mentioned, a lank spare structure is the more usual, and the lower extremities are often somewhat defi- cient and short among the tribes addicted to marine lives. In moral capacity, the Malay races are inferior to the Mongolic, yet they exhibit, like them, intellectual vitality, great bodily activity, and considerable manual dexterity, as well as enterprise. The temperament of true Malays is treacherous, the disposi- tion ferocious, implacable, and the nervous system compatible with a kind of insensibility to bodily pain ; hence, fits of * From Tikienitri, a sandal wood island. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 247 ungovernable passion are always breaking forth in acts of indiscriminate murder, brought on by an abuse of ardent spirits, opium, and bang (smoking hemp). These occur so frequently among them, that in most European settlements, where this race is apt to congregate, particular police regulations and pre- cautions are taken to obviate the greatest mischief; and it is not unusual to kill the maniac on the instant, as the only effectual preventive, since instances are recorded, where they have run up the spear that had transfixed them, and thus have sabred the spearman. This frenzy is commonly known by the name of Muck, Mook, Mengamok, in Sumatra, and Wude in India. To the same insensibility may be ascribed their ferocious, unyielding spirit in battle. They fight to the last gasp, never ask, and scarcely will accept quarter, nor profess thanks for mercy and the cure of their wounds. The great affluence of Arab merchants and fanatics has con- verted the more polished Australasian tribes of Malays to Islam; the others are still Pagans of very different creeds, generally not resting upon any reasonable system; but Christianity is now spreading rapidly, through the zeal of missionaries, in the Polynesian islands, where, however, the Caucasian stock is more deeply mixed up in the composition of the nations, than in the great islands nearer the Asiatic shore. All, however, record, in somewhat similar forms, a great diluvian catastrophe, have the same notions about the Makeri, or Dragon Serpent, a dragon-fish god assailing the moon, the crescent boat during eclipses; notions alike remembered in Central Africa, Peru, China and Ceylon, as well as in Borneo and Sumatra. They are essentially the same as the Indian legends of Vishnou, the Tahtar Nataghi, can be traced in the Scandinavian and other heathen mythologies of Europe and North America, being all distorted versions of the scriptural record in Genesis. The languages of Malay nations, influenced by the various causes before noticed, and even by the contact of antique de- 248 NATURAL HISTORY OF tached tribes, whose original affinity cannot now be traced, have produced great differences of opinion among ethnologists, as regards their classification; the learned William von Hum- boldt vainly claiming a unity of origin from the identity of the dialects spoken by a great proportion of the Polynesians, whom he and others regard as Malays. But, although we do not mean to deny a pervading intermixture of Malay blood in the composition of these tribes, still, as they vary, from absolutely Oriental Negroes, to nations having most striking characteris- tics of true Caucasians, the sole test of language, even if it were beyond dispute, is scarcely of sufficient weight to determine the whole question. It should be remembered that all the Malay dialects abound in Sanscrit words, which, be they borrowed from the tongues of the present Indo-China, or from the Te- linga of the peninsula, are still evidence of a prevailing Cauca- sian admixture. Indo-China, the primaeval abode of the Malays, bears Sanscrit names in every locality, whereas the Polyne- sian languages are without these characteristics in the words and grammatical structure. There are, moreover, monuments of Man's presence in many islands, from the Ladrones, in the Chinese seas, and Tinian, to Java, the Marquesas, Easter and Pitcairn Islands, monuments, not the work of the present exist- ing nations, but raised at so remote a period, that all memory of the facts connected with them is departed even from myth- ical tales; yet they are constructed upon principles positively akin to Caucasian reasoning and Caucasian skill. Tribes of this type have left strong evidence of their ancient prevalence in the present mop-headed Figees, the brown curly-haired Marquesans, the dark-haired Hawaiians, and the variously featured New Zealanders, in all of which, though the masses of population indicate mixtures of lower origin, the chiefs point to the true Caucasian descent, in their whole external con- formation, and still more in the intellectual qualities they pos- sess. It is from this high order of ancestors, it appears most probable, that the pyramidal Morais, and other monuments, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 249 have been derived; for in the Malay peninsula, and where that stem has resided the longest, all the religious structures they acknowledge are bell-shaped, notoriously made of straw, rushes, mats, and poles; or, at most, they are of a Mongolic character, built with wood and mortar. Now, if we compare the Egyptian pyramids, the ruins of the supposed temples of Belus or tower of Babylon, and of Baradan in Persia, it will be found that one of them certainly had four towers, and, from the shape of the ruins, it had also a projection or pro pylon, characteristics which mostly occur again, and with the same cardinal aspects, as the great Morai of Suka, in Java, of Temurri, at Poppara; that at Atte Hura, and the base of the Fiatookas, like the Mooau at Tonga, and others in Poly- nesia ; there are occasionally similarly constructed successive terraces, forming pyramidal elevations in the Marquesas and elsewhere, and these are again repeated in America, with exactly the same forms — one of these at Cholula, exceeding in area, and in cubic quantity of artificial accumulation, both the great tower of Belus, and the great pyramid of Cheops, taken together.* The forms of all these structures indicate a common religious system, more ancient than the extant idola- tries ; they may be claimed by a solar theism, distinct from the subsequent elaborate astronomical religions, but containing the basis of what has since been ascribed to Foh and Budha, which both Mongolic and Eastern Caucasians have long revered on the continent, and in the Asiatic Archipelago. The Malay form, whether composed of two normal types, or of three, in various quantities of admixture, can be traced to Ceylon, where the blowpipe, the outrigger canoe, and other peculiar customs and words, give evidence that it visited at least the southern portion of the island. In the same manner, * The base is square, and covers forty-four acres, the upper platform is somewhat more than one acre. The elevation at present is 177 feet ; but this is partially diminished by the ruinous state of the lowest platform,. and is exclusive of the temple which adorns the summit. 250 NATURAL HISTORY OF and by like evidence, they are found to be a component part of the populations in North Australia, Polynesia, and probably in the eastern portions of South America, where the blowpipe is likewise in use, and a variety of practices, customs, opinions, weapons, and industrial arts; feather mantles and caps, tas- selled swards and war-clubs, support the opinion of a commu- nity of origin, which is still further substantiated by legends and traditions. The Malays, as before hinted, do not extend far into the interior of the east coast of Sumatra; the local tribes belong to the Orangulu, extending thence to the Rejang Islands; appar- ently they originate from a mixture of the Negro type with aberrant Caucasians, or Indo-Chinese, having the slender points, pale yellow color, and even the practice of allowing the nails to grow, of a Mongolic character, though they crush the nose and draw out the ears, in order to look more like Papuas. In Java, the Malay stem is still less predominant; for the oldest population was a race of Negro cannibals, termed Gunos, who were assailed and driven into the mountain fast- nesses by a nautical people, the real Javanese, under the com- mand of their legendary hero, Passara. Now this name, as well as Javana, i. e., mixed, a mixed people, are both of San- scrit origin, and show that the invaders were Indo-Caucasians, with perhaps only a mixture of Mongolic, that is, Malay blood; the oldest religious edifices are of Indian character; and from names, such as Pen-y-gawa for a chief; Kralon, a palace; Sasakadom, a hall or temple, might indicate a branch of Pandoo wanderers, Gomerians, allied to the Pelasgian and Celtic tribes of the west,—a conjecture further strengthened by the Morai pyramid of Suka before mentioned. The Java- nese appear to have sent colonists to Madagascar, since known by the name of Jacalvas, who similarly waged war against the cannibal Anachimous, and were for many ages noted marine pirates, distinct from the Joasmees, who are of Arabian origin. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 251 Further east, in the island of Borneo, where true Malays have the ascendency, but only reside on the coasts, there is another people distinct from them, partly sedentary and in part exclusively nautical. These are the Orang Darrah and Orang Laut, men of the soil and men of the sea, one maintaining an unequal struggle against the Malays, and the other pirates from birth, and always residing on board their proas; freeboot- ers in every sense, and ready to aid in the oppression of their kindred race inhabiting the interior. Both are nationally denominated Dyaks, are fairer than the Malays, and most likely allied to the Joasmees before noticed. They are of the Horafoura stem, also marine adventurers, who, having for ages frequented the north coast of New Holland, have certainly caused a further hybridism among the Papuas of that region, and are themselves the most mixed branch of Indo-Caucasians in Australasia, with a language and religious notions originally unconnected with any Malay source. The tribes of Borneo, here enumerated, are evidently older possessors of the soil than the Malays, and the most ancient in these seas excepting the Eastern Negroes, who may be regarded as absorbed by them in this great island, since none of the purely woolly-haired stock are now known to remain in the country. Celebes is principally inhabited by the Boun, Bouginee, Buges, or Bugesses, of which one nation is called the Macas- sar, and the whole appear to be of the same stem as the Hora- fouras. Here they are again fairer than the Malays, with very long black hair, and soft silky beards and whiskers. Their original language, more allied to southern dialects of India, with the admixture of Sanscrit, is now much corrupted by the Malayan. The women of this island are the hand- somest and most polished of the eastern seas, setting the fash- ions which other nations strive to imitate; and a more advanced civilization is shown in several articles of their man- ufacture, which are carried in native vessels as far as Fort Cornwallis. The male population are mercantile resolute sea- 252 NATURAL HISTORY OF men, and the reputation they possess for valor has caused the name of Macassar to be regarded as equivalent to warrior. It may be questioned, whether the possession of some parts of Malacca, near Salengore, and Point Romania, at no great dis- tance from remains of the Samang expelled Oriental Negroes, is not also an indication that the Buges tribe came from this portion of the continent. The same observation is equally applicable to the Magin- danao, who are also Horafouras, that reached the island when the Philippines were still wholly possessed by Papuas or Bangel-bangel savages. Such, again, are the Bissayans of Lucon; the races found onwards to Tywan or Formosa, and the Ladrones, who are all possessed of Hindoo tokens of affinity, mixed with evidence of an original consanguinity with the Japanese, particularly to the eastward ; and, according as either preponderates, adopting a Caucasian or a Mongolic ratiocination : these mental qualifications are evinced in the readiness many have shown to abandon their ancient idolatry; and the preference they give to the law of Mohammed, rather than to the Christian, is in consequence of the former having had merely teachers to spread the new doctrines, while the latter endeavored to make proselytes by means of Portuguese and Spanish conquerors. Of all these tribes, the Pagans were, or still are, cannibals; the others have certain forms of govern- ments established, and often written laws, in alphabets of their own construction, having scarcely any retrospect to Chinese ideas; and they were so little in communication with pure Mongols, that it was not until after the arrival of European navigators, that bodies of colonists, from the celestial empire, made their appearance in Luc,on and Java. Even in Formosa the population was alien, until refugee emigrants, escaping from Mantchou conquest, reached the island in the seventeenth century, when the Dutch were already in possession of it. But notwithstanding this historical fact, Caucasians from Eastern China, Indo-Arabs from Western Asia, and unnamed THE HUMAN SPECIES. 253 tribes from the Malay peninsula, seamen from choice or neces- sity, had long before laid the basis of the resident populations, being in a more or less state of degradation by Oriental Negro interunions. They formed the numerous pirate communities, Orang Laut, Sea Gypsies, Jacalvas in Madagascar, Idaan, Marootzie, Sea Dyaks in Celebes, Biagoos or Bragus in Bor- neo, some partially sedentary, others entirely dwellers on the seas, shifting their stations with the monsoon, so as to be always under the lee of land; and, among other supersti- tions, like western Hindoos, sending a model canoe, cursed and loaded with the sins of the people, far away on the ocean. Their legends and romances, most particularly in Sumatra and Java, are of Hindoo origin; and vast temples of Indian divin- ities, such as that of Boro-budor in Java, point to a Brahmin- ical religious system prevailing there before the Arabian inno- vations of Islam came among them. From families of these tribes, rather than from pure Malays, the majority of the Polynesian islanders are composed; their chiefs still bearing the marks of higher Caucasian castes than the vulgar, who were, from the first, servants and rowers; and both together are the descendants of wanderers, blown off by untoward mon- soons, in like manner as are still frequently witnessed, in a similar condition, on most islands of the South Seas. While the European navigator and conqueror is invariably held to be an enemy, nothing but ancient amicable reminis- cences can account for the peaceful passage of Chinese and Japanese traders through most, if not all, the seas infested by the vast pirate fleets before mentioned. A tacit law of com- mon affinity binds the inhabitants of the South Seas, even to the most remote islands, sufficiently to receive among them the shipwrecked or storm-driven wanderer on equal terms, excepting where the resident population is of purer Papua stock; for these regard all others as conquerors, and usually treat them in the light of victims. The South Sea islanders, beside feature, hair, and personal 22 254 NATURAL HISTORY OF conformation, show their consanguinity with Caucasians most distinctly in the structure of their minds. While other savages and barbarians are incurious, merely satisfied with childish sur- prise, or value only the superior means of destruction possessed by Europeans; they alone, though so near the savage state when first visited by our navigators, were struck with the wonders of civilization in a right spirit. No other tribe of Man was so desirous of learning the useful, the peaceful, and ornamental arts of Europe. Some examples may be quoted of other races listening with respect to the doctrines of religion, and becoming imperfect proselytes; but the Polynesians, even when they were still cannibals, embraced Christianity with ardor, and now hold it with an intelligent sincerity, that enables converts of a late date to become messengers of peace to other tribes, and open the path for more educated teachers. They alone have shown examples of chiefs, quitting the pleas- ures and prejudices of local consideration, who, for the pure love of benefiting their native land, have entered as common sailors on board British ships, that they might visit England, see, learn, and adopt improvements in ship-building, naviga- tion, and agriculture; procure seeds of triticum and legumin- ous plants, and advance civilization. Others used the pleni- tude of power to encourage the same object, to learn the alpha- bet, to read, write and cipher; they set up a printing-press, and had the honor to throw off the first printed words of the native language. They have shown, when at war with the white men of Europe, instances of romantic forbearance and valor, under impressions of unjustly suffering a public wrong. All these seeds of human progress have developed in the first gen- eration, since they have become acquainted with better things, and are going on notwithstanding the evil examples but too commonly held out to them. If, therefore, Frederick Cuvier, when descanting on the trifling external characters of some mammalia, nearly allied in structure, be right to recommend rigorous researches in their relative moral instincts and intelli- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 255 gence, in order, by their aid, to establish a primaeval unity of a genus, how much more important must the same method prove in researches after the aboriginal unity of a sub-typical stem of Man. If there were no such other indications as have already been noticed, by these facts alone we may with confi- dence appeal to the presence of a considerable portion of Cau- casian blood, in the composition of the master race of the Polynesian islands. It is undeniably conspicuous in some of the groups, less so in others, and evident in despite of linguistic considerations, which, to say the least, are still not sufficiently mature to admit the generalizing conclusions of Humboldt. The Maori tongue of New Zealand is an example, which, while it shows the presence of a Semitic element in the com- position, is but feebly tinged with Malay; perhaps, by reason of the great majority of its component words being the offspring of Papua dialects, the basis of the population being originally of Eastern Negro derivation, only by degrees amalgamated or destroyed. Whence these two races came, can now be only conjectured from the reminiscences of the people, that two immigrations originally took place on these islands; they still name the localities, and assert one to have come from the east and the other from the west. To individuals or families of the earliest Polynesian wanderers, the introduction of at least one system of doctrine, in South America, may be ascribed; and to another, of Caucaso-Mongolians, a second, which appears to have reached the north-west coast, and finally to have estab- lished itself on the plateau of Anahuac. These considerations lead us to the New Continent, before the two historical archi- typical stocks of the Old can be traced out without interrup- tion. THE AMERICAN SUB-TYPICAL STEM. Though researches on the primitive population of America may be deemed unphilosophical, because the conclusions are 256 NATURAL HISTORY OF not amenable to positive proofs, yet the inquiry is not without profit; and surely, so long as physiologists continue to admit the maxim, that mankind consists of one species only, it must involve, as a consequence, the necessity of migration, in order to people the earth in all its habitable portions; or it demands a plural creation of the single species, sufficiently diversified to be adapted to the varieties of climate and circumstances wherein they are found to exist; in which case, the term "species" assumes a different acceptation, and confounds the notions hitherto attached to it, notwithstanding that no positive definition has been undeniably established to guide the natu- ralist. Always regarding the flat-headed Paltas, Aturians, or primawal race of South America, as anomalous, though evi- dently mixed with tribes of a more marked origin, and admit- ting that of them some small clans, such as the so-called Frog Indians, with probably others, are still in being about the val- leys on the east side of the Cordilleras, we cannot but remark, considering the antiquity of the deposits and extensive range where their bones are discovered, (from Brazil to the west coast of America,) that the stock is fast passing away. It has been supplanted for ages, by the Guarany and other nations in Brazil, whose Malay aspect countenances the supposition of their original arrival in the New World somewhere about the Californian coast, whither they seem to have transported, along with legends already pointed out, the practices of boring the septum of the nostrils, the lobes of the ears, and even the lips and cheek-bones, for the purpose of inserting therein bits of bone, of shells, wood, feather, or leaves* These, and other fashions before described, they have in common with many islanders of the South Seas and coasts of the Northern Pacific; *Dr. Bnrchell, Prince Maximilian of Wied, and many other travellers, entertain similar ideas with ourselves. The present physiologists who draw other inferences, are not always reconcilable to each other when their arguments are generalized. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 257 and, if they are not of foreign origin, they most assuredly are startling coincidences. But that these, and nearly all other invaders of the west coast, are intermixed with the flat-headed aboriginals, is shown in the artificial means employed by the former to obtain the resemblance of the flat-head conformation; inflicting for this purpose daily torture upon their infants, till the desired effect is produced. Torture, self-imposed, is indeed a part of the education of most American tribes, and the habit is sufficiently indicative of the small irritability of fibre they possess, in common with the Mongolic and Indo-Papua races of Asia. If the typical Flatheads were not a distinct species of Man, they were, at least, the oldest and first wanderers that reached the American continent.* They appear to have possessed in Peru, elements of social progress before strangers came among them, provided always that the Titicaca and other remains of this type represent the Peruvian people before the Incas obtained the sway.t The question would certainly be more doubtful, if the imitation of their cranial form had not been adopted by races of strangers in both Americas, and even by the aquiline-nosed hero tribes, whose portraits still adorn the ruined temples of Yucatan, where they represent giant divini- * Natives of scattered southern islands, such as the Malecolese, and sallow Papua-Malays of some sandal-wood islands, all distinctly marked with very elevated frontal bones, seem to countenance the probability that there were men of this form in Polynesia, but then their frontal does not appear depressed. t There is a statement somewhere, that the Incas permitted one or more villages of Flatheads, taken during a war of conquest to the east of the Andes, to settle near the capital; but this seems to be at variance with Dr. Tschudi's observations. It may be right to repeat here, that writers speak often in very indefinite terms of American flat-headed tribes, there being certainly three very different in form ; the first, those whose crania are naturally depressed ; the second, with the occiput obliquely flattened in a vertical manner (this belongs also to Peru, and is seen on the Yuca- tan images); the third is the North American, where both the frontal and occiput are pressed down, bulging out laterally. See Plate I. #2* 258 NATURAL HISTORY OF ties in the character of conquerors. Such homage was never paid by conquerors to the vanquished, unless these last were in possession of indisputable superiority in arts, or in the forms of their institutions, and then the consequence is natural. We see the proofs of it in the Turkish imitations of the Byzan- tines, and in the Mongolic of the Chinese. The foot of Man has pressed many a soil which later trav- ellers assume was never trodden before them. Navigating antiquity knew many geographical facts that scholastic preju- dice neglected for the sake of grammatical pursuits. From King Alfred's writings we know the voyage of Othere towards the North Pole ; and that even from England navigators vis- ited distant seas in the ninth century. Dicuil's incidental notice of Iceland, in the beginning of the same age, was not observed till of late years. The Scandinavian discovery of Greenland was long doubted; though it is now proved that these hardy seamen pushed their discovery along the coasts of America, beyond the equator, to Brazil. We have discredited, with equal resoluteness, the discovery of Newfoundland by the brothers Zeni, Venetian navigators, seventy years before the voyage of Columbus, according to Cardinal Zurla. Docu- ments published at Copenhagen prove the same coast to have been repeatedly visited by the Northmen from the years 980 and 1000 to 1380; and the Biscayen whalers seem to have equally known this region by an accidental south-easterly storm, which drove them from their fishing station off the Irish shores, in the reign of King Henry VI., that is, about 1450; and all this incredulity and apathy, when the names of Brazil, of Antillia,and the country known as Newfoundland, were already noted, though not correctly laid down, in the chart of Andrea Bianca, bearing date 1436, still in the library of St. Marc at Venice. Columbus himself found the rudder of a ship cast on the beach at Guadaloupe. This would be a natural consequence of any ship being disabled, and driven to the south-west, till it falls in with the trade winds, which, perpetu- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 259 ally blowing in the same direction with the currents westward, drive all floating bodies onwards to the coast of the New World.* What, therefore, the ancients, and more particularly the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, nay, the Celtae may have done, beyond the Atlantic, is not even entirely a conjectural question, since there are still extant elements of a Semitic dia- lect in certain tribes of South America, and of Celtic in the north; and without the arrival of some mariners from the coasts of the Old Continent, the legend of Quelsalcoatle, a Toltecan legislator, with Budhistic, perhaps Christian dogmas, could not have been framed prior to the arrival of the Spaniard ; yet Cortez was told that he returned to the east; and hence arose that general belief, that beings of a superior nature would again visit the west from their abode beyond the broad ocean, which was fully established in Anahuac.t But, stimulated by the discoveries of the Portuguese, the power and commercial vigilance of Spain successfully blinded for a time the scholastic apathy of the rest of Europe, and persuaded political ignorance that it was Columbus who first made the discovery of America. Thus, every probability supports the opinion, that men from Europe or Western Africa had reached the New World long before the assumed discovery of Columbus; yet it does not follow that any who were carried to the west by the trade winds ever returned. The Scandinavians, however, reached the coast at a high latitude, where the north-western winds pre- vail in autumn, and the marine current sets towards Europe. * See Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, No. 75, October, Jan., 1845, where this question is treated more at length, in a notice of the Travels of Prince Maximilian of Wied. t If the painted chronology of the Mexicans could be relied on, the legislator priest came with the Toltecs to the plateau of Anahuac, which would then be in A. D. 648. It was asserted, that he began the pyramid of Cholula. There was another legislator priest, named Votan, who arrived much earlier in Mexico, but then the chronology now admitted must be wrong. See Don Antonio del Rio. Teatro critico Americano, by F. Cabrera. 260 NATURAL HISTORY OF Hence they returned to Iceland or to Norway with little uncertainty. Disregarding for a moment the probabilities already men- tioned of the subsidence of a great extent of land in the Pacific Ocean, it is evident that from the East of Asia and the Poly- nesian Islands, the principal immigrations of mankind have taken place. Of these the Pitcairn and Easter Islands, near- est to the coast of South America, are remarkable for the co- lossal idols of stone, which have been observed in both, though the first was for a time believed never to have been inhabited before the arrival of the mutineers of the Bounty, and the other is now in the possession of a race who do not claim the fabrication of them. It may be observed, in confirmation of the removal of Polynesians by war, by design, or by stress of weather, to the eastward, that to the 20th degree of south latitude, and to more than 200 leagues at sea, a south-west and south cold wind blows, with a current coming from the pole, and, setting towards the south-west coast, drives float- ing bodies on the shores of Chili. Easter Island, the farthest eastward of all the Polynesian groups containing inhabitants, is as remote from them as from the longitude where these winds and currents prevail; hence the casual arrival of Poly- nesian wanderers could scarcely fail to reach the coast of Chili; and subsequently they were, it is obvious, driven eastward, to commix with the Brazilian tribes, and southward, to form the race of Araucas; others, perhaps from the Sandwich Islands, are the progenitors of the tribes on the Sacramento river, on the north-west coast, where the women still wear the Maro, and the men have short undulating hair, with beard and whiskers very soft and silky. That another immigration was continuous for ages from the east of Asia, is sufficiently indicated by the pressure of nations, so far as it is known in America, being always from the north- west coasts, eastward and southward, to the beginning of the thir- teenth century. It appears to have taken place mostly by the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 261 Aleutian Islands, and southward, to the Columbia and Cali- fornia. Here, also, the facilities for this purpose were mostly furnished by nature, and the propelling cause, when landed, is likewise detected, by the country supplying little food between the Rocky Mountains and the sea. The Northern Pacific was navigated by Japanese tribes in ancient times, and is so even now, although, since the appearance of European navigators, the trade has been discontinued, if not absolutely forbidden; yet, within these few years, a British vessel boarded a Japa- nese junk within two days' sail of the California coast, and found that it had drifted, without human care, for many months, and that, of forty of the ship's company, only seven persons survived. This vessel, having lost its course, was car- ried by the prevailing winds and currents of that portion of the Pacific to the eastward, and was in all probability wrecked on the American coast, after the living people had been taken out of her and saved.* Here then, we have likewise, on the east side, instances, not of facilities, but of necessary consequences, of vessels reaching the west coast, so soon as they are placed within the influence of the winds and currents which prevail, either constantly or at certain periods of the year, in the latitudes above indicated; nor is there a want of proof that canoes, with a proportion of Polynesians, have survived the hardships of four months at sea, nor that they have been found at eight hundred leagues' distance from their homes; for both facts are noticed by our navigators in the tropical Pacific; and by the Aleutians, a con- tinuous chain of islands passing from one quarter of the globe to the other, a route is established, as if they were intended for an easy and speedy method of crossing between them. But though timber for canoes and sea-rafts is abundant, both on the north and south points of departure, there is scarcely any near * They were carried to the Sandwich Islands, and thence, by the first opportunity, sent on to their native land. 262 NATURAL HISTORY OF the western coast of America to keep up marine habits, nor are there navigable rivers without bars, nor ports with safe places for landing, but mostly everywhere an open, barren, sandy, or rocky shore, beaten by a heavy surf* Hence, on this side of the Americas, if arrivals were not frequent, departures were impossible, excepting in the more northern latitudes; and that these had been crossed and recrossed may be presumed, even in case the assertion of Chinese scholars, that America was known by the name of Fu-sang, and mentioned in the great annals of the celestial empire, down to the fifth century of our era, was a mistake.! The absence of Chinese forms of speech on the American continent is not absolute, since the Othomi language, spoken on the north of the valley of Mexico, is mon- osyllabic. In Europe,, we know the existing eastern tongues of the Mongolic stock so imperfectly, that the work of Dr. Pfitzmayer on the Japanese, though not directed towards the spoken dialects of the more remote islands of the empire, yet shows that the learned had, until lately, a very slight acquaint- ance with it, and often mistook written Chinese for the Niphon language.t Even the learned Chinese is more a lettered than a nationally spoken vehicle of thought; and in both the em- pires, the written is partly different from the spoken tongues, though the characters, being symbols instead of alphabetical * The surf in many places is as high and violent as at Madras, and there being little wood procurable on the coast, the natives invented great floats of inflated sealskins, which are still in use. They had formerly cat- amarans, like those on the Coromandel coast. Models of these are frequently found, with a double-bladed paddle, in the graves of the aborigi- nal inhabitants ; but, from California to Peru, rafts, balzas, or janjadas, served, capable of carrying great loads with safety, sailing with uncom- mon speed. See Charnock's Marine Architecture, vol. i., p. 13. Balza wood is a very light kind of palm. t See C. Frederick Neumann and De Guines, though Klaproth sup- poses Niphon or Japan is meant; Japan, however, bears a different name or names in the same annals. t A Dictionary in the so-called Tirokana characters, containing 40,000 words, is in preparation by Dr. Pfitzmayer, at Vienna. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 263 signs, can be interpreted by words in several languages, differ- ing in every other respect from each other. Thus, there can- not be a reliance on arguments drawn from the difference of American languages from the Mongolic; they vary among the distinct families of North America, as much as from any Tah- tar tongue; and there exist sufficient coincidences and similar- ities in the sounds of words, as well as in the opinions, man- ners and practices of the natives, resembling those of Eastern Asia, when taken with the other arguments already produced, as to overthrow the whole fabric of ah exclusively American aboriginal species or form of man, constituting the races of that continent, always excepting the Flathead type, which, it must be owned, constitutes an ingredient very generally diffused through the native tribes, but not their principal portion. Even the most determined advocates of the original unity of the races reject the Esquimaux, who are admitted to be of an Asiatic stock, when they should also reflect, that, in the north- ern portion, several tribes of the present Indians, such as the Iroquois, confess that they dwelt themselves in the high north before they migrated to their present habitation; while the Tschutski of Eastern Asia are assumed to be of the American stem; accommodating the conclusion to a reversed order of migra- tion, which, with singular inconsistency, admits the practicabil- ity, on hypothetical grounds, in favor of utter savages, what it refuses to the ancient and middle ages of great and organized nations, who were navigators both on the east and west of the New World, and for times when facilities for that purpose were apparently more at hand than in later ages; for, by strangely re- versing the natural order of human dispersion, another and prob- ably not inconsiderable transition from Asia is disregarded; one which, being taken in connection with the more immediate facility, by an entire, or almost an entire, communication by land, when Behring's Straits had not yet greatly widened, obviated all serious difficulty. At that period not only Esqui- maux, but Finnic, and the north-eastern Caucasian races, here- 264 NATURAL HISTORY OF after to be mentioned, had no doubt inducements which brought the parent families of the high-nosed and other nations of North America to that continent; and the influence of rigor- ous winter seasons must have gradually induced them to seek milder latitudes, where more plentiful means of subsistence were accessible, in the same manner as the nations of northern Asia and Europe have and ever will continue to do when they have a chance of success. It is perhaps here that we must look for the sources of those multiplied evidences of Asiatic origin, shown by most, if not all, the American tribes, both those of the Mongolic or of the beardless stock, and of the true Caucasian ; for, when the former of these had journeyed almost entirely southward, tribes of the latter appear to have occupied their abandoned localities, and, in a pure condition, or blended with such as remained behind, to have passed on across the isthmus, or the straits, to the American shore, whither they, in their turn, were followed by the Esquimaux or Skrelings, who, it is evident, came last, since their descendants have never been able to penetrate more to the south than the shores of Nootka. All these occurrences coincide with the known progress of the Caucasian nations to western Asia and to Europe. They account for the presence of similar inscriptions in Siberia and in America, and for many of the facts of the peopling of the new continent at a later period than the west of the Old World; they admit, without violence, the usual immigrations of dis- tressed marine wanderers, whether they were of Malay or of Phoenician origin, and even of African as well as Oriental Negroes; such as the colony of the former found at Cariquel, near the Isthmus of Darien, or the now exterminated Char- ruans * of the Guarani, or, like the latter, found in a mixed state on the shores of California. This view gives sufficient time for the local intermixture of the races with the flat-headed * These may be the same Sir Walter Raleigh mentions as having lank hair in Guiana, where he observed them. / THE HUMAN SPECIES. 265 aboriginal, whose peaceful phlegmatic habits readily yielded to the turbulent activity of male adventurers, and accounts for the various other phenomena which attend the question under con- sideration. In the successive struggles of nations, which must have ensued, for hunting grounds or for dominion, the more advanced have evidently been obliged to yield to those from the north. Whether both originally came from the same quarter, or one had previously arrived by a marine route, the result was the same. The proofs are seen in the ruins of vast castral cities, and human tumuli, still extant in the United States; in the Maen Stones and Cromlehs of the more eastern regions;* in the pyramids and temples possessed by the successive nations of Mexico ; and, if the singularly squared cone in the middle of a lake of Northern California be wholly or in part the work of Man, it may be a memorial of departure, or a mark of direc- tion for other tribes, perhaps similar to the semi-artificial pile of Chehel Suton — that antique landmark of migration, and directing guide of caravans, situated on the edge of the wrestem Gobi desert, almost midway between Pekin and Constantinople, or Serica and Byzantium. At all events, it would then point out the station which the builders of similar edifices in America once occupied in their earliest day, and confirm the conjecture that the Wapisians of Guiana, at least, are of those tribes, which, at a period long anterior to the march of the Ulmecks and Toltecs, nations of a kindred race, had passed over the pla- teau of Anahuac. Beside the monosyllabic Othomi language, there is a similar mode of connecting sounds into long strung words, pervading the American, Astec and Maya, approach- ing Finnic and Tahtar dialects; the syllables Ac or Ak, Uk and Kuk, often recur in the northern Indian tongues; and Tla and Tie in the Mexican; sounds which are again found in the speech of the Arctic nations of both continents. In addition to * At North Salem, New York ; at Winipignan river, on the Ohio, &c. 23 266 NATURAL HISTORY OF these rude and simple characteristics of a mixed Tahtar and Finnic form of speech, there are Scythic words, that is, words of Sanscrit origin, which can scarcely be coincidences, and rather show that some tribes, perhaps of kindred Yuchi, passed over to the western continent. Again, Semitic words occur rather profusely in the Carib and Makusi dialects,* and strik- ing coincidences of similarity between certain tribes of Aus- tralia and the Fuegians of the Straits of Magellan are pointed out by Captain Stokes, in his voyage of discovery lately pub- lished. One, more, or all the nations of America had, besides, creeds, usages, and traditions, in common with stems of the Old Continent, and particularly with Asiatic tribes. Such, among others, were the diluvian legends and the celestial dragons' attempts to devour the moon during the appearance of an eclipse. Next, there still exists in the northern portion a basis of pure Deism, coinciding with the common belief of all the nations of high and northern Asia. It was ever independent of tribal and subordinate divinities, and admits of various forms, such as Shamanism, with its demonology, and the more moral system of Budhism; one being outwardly remarkable for sorcery, incantation, the magical drum, and rattles; the other for several religious monastic orders, for penances, self- * Thus, in the Dakotah dialects, which convert M to W, the Teutonic Mag, large, becomes Wah and Wak, great, superior, master. Wehrman, warrior, is converted to Werowanie, a war chief, &c. Sachem, a priest chief, may be derived from the same root as segher, a priest, from sagen, to speak, and belong to the series with gesach, schah, &c, authority, right to speak, to command. Hooloo is holy, sacred; min, many, plural; Hogh or Oug, high, superior, &c. In other dialects we find Eloa to denote God; and, in the Carib, Makusi, &c, there are, among many other, Tamoosi, Phoenician, Tammus, for God; Karbet is the same as Grabit, a house ; together with usages and opinions closely allied to those of the ancient nations of Syria. The Mexican words, Atzlan, Tlapallan, Teno- tUslan, without radical meanings in the language, are readily convertible into very appropriate appellations in several Caucasian languages. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 267 mortification, and undying chief-priests, and both recurring in the New World; nay, tokens of what seems a Christian doc- trine are detected in the worship of the cross, repeatedly found carved among the ruins of Palenque. There are, moreover, evidences of Hebrew lore in the metal plates dug out of the same ruins, where the serpent is represented twisted round a. tree; and another, with a naked human figure, kneeling in the attitude of supplication, surrounded by huge monsters, among trees of a tropical forest.* What makes these repre- sentations still more remarkable, is, that though they belong to the high-nosed Toltecs, the mystical figure in distress has neither the features nor flat occiput of that people, nor the posture of prayer which belonged to the idolatrous nations of Anahuac. They had, it is true, a serpent or Naga worship, and believed that tutelary genii appeared to mortals in the animal forms assigned to constellations. But this very fact is again an indication that even the astronomical signs of Asia had passed over to them, for they were figured in astro- logical books which were employed for incantations by an Aste- can order of priests. The medicine men, with their drums, are still perfect counterparts of Siberian Shamans, who per- form their mummeries with a like instrument, similarly painted. The nations of Anahuac were acquainted, like the Tahtars, with a great dragon standard; had, like the Thibetans, huge banner lances, such as are still planted before Lamaite tem- ples and palaces; and there were ensign spears similar to those of ancient Bactria : one of these was the Shiemagun of the Chippeways, the other was the guiding sign of the Choc- taws, during their great migration from the west. The Mexi- cans had some adorned with wings and feathers like the Huns * The priesthood kneaded maize flour with blood, and baked it in the form of the god of war, then broke and gave it in morsels to the people, who partook with signs of humiliation! See Prescott's valuable History. Was this Budhism ? 268 NATURAL HISTORY OF and early Turks. The nations of the plateau of Mexico had all a practice of fixing several ensigns or banners, stuck in ferula, at the back of a warrior, like the earlier Chinese, or they attached them to their shields; which was likewise not unexampled in Asia. Symbolical devices, almost amounting to real heraldry, designating even at this time many tribes of North America, were thoroughly understood in Mexico, and are likewise well known to all the Tahtar nations of Asia. They had, it is asserted, the use of a peculiarly Chinese instru- ment, the well-known gong; but more likely it was a great drum, audible, according to Bernal Diaz, to the distance of two leagues; the same as the Nakara of Southern Asia. In common with Tahtar nations, nuptials were symbolized by the ceremony of tying the garments together of the two contract- ing parties; and, like them, there was only one lawful wife, though there might be a plurality of concubines. In very an- cient graves, not far distant from Niagara, human debris have been detected, having with them a reversed shell of the whilk (Buccinum) exactly similar to the Shonk found in the tumuli of ancient Ceylon.* Peru, with its Palta people, instinctively builders, has left ruins of huge walls, surpassing the Cyclopean and Pelasgian structures of the older continent in bulk, and superior to them in artistic skill. From the institutions, religious, humane and moral, the legislator of the Incas has rarely been considered by the learned to be of indigenous origin, but more generally as a Japanese or a Brahmin philosopher, who, if he were an Asiatic, certainly did not traverse the Pacific alone. Several nations in both parts of the continent, had, like the Oceanians of the South Sea, and of the north-east of Asia, a bone thrust through the cartilage of the nose; they had also swords with tassel handles, like the Malays, feather mantles, and decora- * The fact was communicated to us by Captain Chapman, late Royal Engineers, who had examined both instances on the spot. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 269 tions like natives of the Sandwich and other Polynesian islands. The progressing nations, and, in particular, among those of Anahuac, the Mexicans, were a bearded and hairy race, and, being in a state of greater civilization than other American tribes, they were in a condition of representing more circum- stantially the tenor of their ancestral history. Accordingly, they had traditions, supported by hieroglyphical maps, which marked the stages of their ancient migration from the north to their arrival on the plateau of the Andes, where they founded Mexico in 1325 of our era, according to Clavigero. They had then already resided at Tula and its vicinity for above a century, gradually dislodging other tribes, who had successively pressed upon each other from the same quarter. These were chiefly the Acalhuans, Chichimecas and Toltecs, whose first arrival is referred to so early a time as the year 648; and even these were posterior to the Ulmecs : but the dates may not be safely relied upon ; and the charts themselves, though still existing, at least in copies, cannot be deciphered with trustworthy precision. The point of primaeval departure is, however, designated by the names of Aztlan (the Eden, or land of nourishment), and Huehuetlapallan, which has been interpreted, the bright abode of ancestors, a region which cer- tainly lay in the north; and, when coupled with the departure, includes likewise the west. This region was certainly not the valley of the river Gila, in California, notwithstanding that a cognate language is still spoken there, and that ruins of mag- nitude attest there was anciently a people resident on the spot already in a progressive state of civilization. It is probable that this people were the Astecans, who may have resided on the locality until they had increased to a nation, and were forced to depart by pressure from behind; for sedentary nations do not abandon cities and temples but by force, or by the fear of foreign and unknown invaders, from whom they expect no mercy. It is a curious coincidence of time, that these great 23* 270 NATURAL HISTORY OF recorded migrations in America correspond sufficiently well with the same kind of migratory and invading wars in Asia, which precipitated the Yuchi from Chinese Tahtary west- ward, and brought the Hyatili or White Huns first to conquer Cabul and Bactria; being followed by true Mongolic nations till their hordes established themselves beyond the Danube and the Vistula. These are uncontrovertible signs of the great expansion which the beardless stock then made in north and eastern Asia; and may well account for clans of Caucasians, such as still have possession of sundry mountain chains in China, taking refuge towards America, by a route sufficiently near the Arctic Circle to give the north and west for a true point of their first abode on that continent. Followed, as all fugitive nations are, by their enemies, no doubt real Mongo- lians came after them; and both, in departing from eastern Asia, lost their horses and their nautical habits. Thus, these migrations of distinct types may be a cause of the intermediate character of the present Aleutian Islanders.* With these facts before us, it is vain to assert that all Ameri- can races, excepting the Esquimaux, have originally sprung from one stock ; for many more coincidences could be enumerated ; and while one like the last mentioned is admitted to be of the beardless type, of Ouralian or of Finnic origin, surely others could migrate in a similar direction, at earlier periods, when, in all probability, this passage wras much more practicable; and, according to observations made by Biot, the climate less * See Warden's Antiquites Americaines. Pennant's Arctic Zoology, Introduction ; where many other customs, common to the Scythians, and to the North American nations, are enumerated. There is a Japanese map now in the British Museum, which marks islands in the straits of Behring, and notices the region by the name of Ya-zue (the kingdom of the dwarfs), that is, the diminutive Esquimaux. This map, presented by Kaempfer to Sir Hans Sloane, is, therefore, of comparative antiquity, and shows Behring's Straits to have been known to the Mongolic stock long before Behring made the discovery, or Cook fixed the real position of the two coasts. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 271 severe than at present. More than twenty tribes of Indians, of the present territory of the United States and Canada, record their migration either from the north, or from beyond the Rocky Mountains. Many of these nations have therefore occupied a high northern latitude on the west coast; regions now mostly in the hands of Esquimaux tribes, who, as they have replaced them, have evidently arrived after their depart- ure : the former tribes, not emphatically fish-eaters, but hunt- ers, when, from single families, or from a race mixed with the indigenous Flatheads, they had increased to tribes; and when in that little productive region, where game is rare, they could no longer remain stationary, must have sought subsistence in and beyond the mountain chain; for to the east only, with the exception of the valleys of California, could they find the Bison, the Elk, the white mountain Goat, the Ahzata, Argali, prong--horned Antelope, and the wapiti Stag. In pursuit of game, they must have come upon the sources and feeders of the great rivers that run to the south-east, and fall into the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic. They would naturally follow their course, or crossing the Ohio and Mississippi to richer woody regions beyond the Alleghanies, occupy the eastern prov- inces of the present United States and Canada. Other tribes of the west, probably immigrants of later periods, and pos- sessed of higher attainments, even with a remnant of nautical means, descended between the islands and the coast, till they reached the rivers now significantly denominated de los Mar- tires, and de los Piramides; and thence, crossing the Colorado, rested for some ages in the valley of the Gila.* Here they gradually multiplied, advanced in civilization, and raised those structural monuments which are still to be seen in their ruins; thence, in successive waves, ascending the plateau of the An- des, they made their appearance in Anahuac, to seize new and * Surely these point out two or more of the Astecan halting places. 272 NATURAL HISTORY OF perhaps better settlements; but, from their new position, event- ually forsaking all acquaintance with navigation. Thus are shown those successive proceedings of nations in the New World, which were counterparts of the well-known invasions of the northern tribes in the Old ; both radiating from a common centre ; surmounting obstacles of seas, deserts, swamps, forests, and mountain-chains; surviving mutual slaughters, victories and defeats, till they reach the utmost limits of the habitable earth. If now we inquire whether the nations of America attest, in their structure, the various origin here shown, or have a uniformity of characteristics, which many eminent physiologists, together with Dr. Morton, contend for, we shall find great evidence of a common type very gen- erally, but not unexceptionably, pervading the nations in ques- tion. It is found chiefly in the great vertical prolongation of the frontal bone, though this distinction, we have before noticed, is not exclusively American : it varies in size, probably, according to the degree of intermixture different tribes have received — there being, besides, populations on the coasts of the sea of Okotsk, and even on Saghalin Island, similarly dis- tinguished.* Many Japanese, particularly Bonzes of the lower classes of the nation, have the forehead remarkably depressed. In several portions of the New Continent, the oblique eyes, complexion, and other characters of Mongols occur, as among the Alikhoolis of Terra del Fuego; but the Chilenos have strikingly Hindoo features. * It is externally apparent, in some abnormal tribes of the Polynesian islands, and exclusive of the Flathead Paltas, most conspicuous in peak- headed natives of Kotzebue's Sound, on the north-west coast, who, though they do not belong to the Esquimaux stem, are more like natives of the east coast of Asia; and if these are claimed as a portion of the Tschutski race, then they would show the last mentioned to be originally not American, but Asiatic, nay Finnic ; and, consequently, that the cra- nia] conformation in question is not peculiar to the New World ; but an excessive divergence arising in an abnormal stem, where the sutures close more slowly than in the typical stocks. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 273 In general, however, it is evident that the nations of this portion of the globe possess a marked similarity of physical characters. They have a small skull, varying in the capacity of the cranial chamber from 100 to 60 cubic inches, according to Dr. Morton's measurement. It approaches the Mongolian in shape, but the summit is more rounded, and the sides are less angular. In some tribes there is a somewhat more pointed crown, and the back part is often flattened, in most cases arti- ficially so; the cheek-bones are high, the forehead naturally rather low and depressed; the nose prominent; in a few tribes aquiline; maxillae powerful; the mouth rather large, and the lips full, if not tumid. The eyes of all the nations are black, and the hair rather scarce, lank, and coarse; though, among •the Arauca mountaineers, and also on the west coast, gray eyes and lighter colored hair are sometimes seen. These tribes, also, are as fair as southern Europeans. The South Americans are more yellow than copper-colored; but in the northern portion the skin is reddish, agreeing with the distinct- ive name which the native tribes bestow upon themselves; that color being formed by a peculiar tissue below the epidermis, according to Flourens, but yet not nearly so vivid as we have often observed it to be among French and Spanish fishermen in the West Indies * The Caribs are intermediate: some tribes of Guiana much darker than Mulattoes, and the Cali- fornians almost black, or dark like Samboes. In most respects, the aboriginal population may be divided into the yellow tropical semi-Malay stem of the eastern regions of South America, and the Caucaso-Mongolians of the north, and of the Cordilleras, along the whole west coast of the conti- * We have personally compared and drawn from life many individuals of different tribes: — Fuegians, Brazilians, Arookas, Caribs, Mosquito Indians, Seminoles, &c, of the United States, and others in Canada of different northern tribes. The highly developed reddish color may be a result of the long-continued action of dry, sharp winds in the prairies of Upper North America. 274 NATURAL HISTORY OF nent. The frame is, in general, symmetrical, rather tumid; in the one, below the middle stature; in the other portion, gener- ally above it; and among some tribes, equal to the largest men of the old continent. With regard to mental qualifications, the nations of North America, not having passed beyond the state of hunters, show, for want of the laboring Ox and conquering Horse, the characteristics of others in the same condition. They are active, vigilant, daring, revengeful, restless, cruel, but capable of lofty feelings; full of hospitality, of the love of truth, and of vast earnestness of purpose, when once their attention is roused. Ruins still extant in nearly every region of the conti- nent, and, still more, history, as written by their enemies, attest that they could work out systems of self-development, creating civilizations which were fast advancing to a more reasoned maturity, notwithstanding that the foundations were often stricken down by successive hordes of new invaders, till the whole was finally crushed by European zeal and cupidity; for, notwithstanding our view of a foreign element having worked in the development of the indigenous social institutions, it must be recollected that a few strangers cannot sway a distinct peo- ple unprepared to receive their suggestions. They must be homogeneous, — the result of time and of national engraftings, — before they can take root. Now, the Mexican civilization was a reconstruction of one or more preceding it; and the Ulmec and Toltec, so much older, were, most likely, not the first that pervaded the warmer regions of Western America; therefore, the American mind, resulting, as we claim it to be, from two typical stocks of Man, is only inferior in capacity, so far as the existing races are more or less removed from the means of attainment of social improvement; and the cold philosophy of modern science, which inflicts the accusation, is not totally destitute of cognate participation, in producing the conditions of existence it stigmatizes. Luckily, a host of writers, and among them, lately, Prescott, have fairly summed up what the intellectual powers of the aboriginal races had THE HUMAN SPECIES. 275 already attained, without the intervention of European science. Writers, in general, more dazzled with Mexican splendor, because that empire was more within reach of European curi- osity, have not regarded Peru with sufficient discrimination; perhaps because its splendor and civilization was more suddenly and more universally trodden down by the European monsters who invaded it; and fewer documents of its condition have come down to our time. But the nation which had advanced to the established practice of bloodless sacrifice in its worship, had surely gone far beyond the Mexicans; and although we do not know how much of scientific progress was the property of one or of both the two empires, the bas-relief carving, already mentioned, where the sun is represented in the centre of the system, with other planets in the irradiated circle around it, shows that children of the sun, though they claimed them- selves to be, had a better notion of the planetary disposition than Europeans possessed to a late period; and that the superior men of the nation were not blinded by the solar dog- mas of their religion, is proved by the memorable reply of Inca Tupac Yupan-gui to the monk Valverde, wherein he rejected the belief that the sun was a living body, creating all things ; but thought him to be " like an arrow which perfonns the flight intended by the archer who shot it off." The Peruvians of history appear to have been a partial compound of naturally flat-headed Paltas, and a mixture, probably, of the dominant tribes, with partly artificial-flattened occiputs; but the figures of Incas, preserved in early Spanish documents, offer neither of these deformities. The first were, most likely, the working castes, the second the privileged, and the last appears to have been confined to one sacred family. Cyclopean structures * or walls, fortifications, arid pyramidal elevations, raised with enormous stones, belong, certainly, to the oldest population. * Such as Chulucanas, on a secondary ridge of the Cordilleras, as well as pyramidal instances of tombs. 276 NATURAL HISTORY OF It is likely that others, particularly those evincing greater skill, were constructed during the sway of the second, and that the Inca period only adapted them to the system of solar Budhism, which it can scarcely be denied formed the basis of their insti- tutions. Of the Cromlechs of America appearing to be identi- cal with the Celtic, known all over Europe and Asia, we wish not to say more than that they are, to a certain extent, evi- dence of the early wandering of some Gomerian tribes to the New World; and of the Northmen it is now proved that they reached the east coast by a western course from Iceland, and wandered much further to the south than was suspected in earlier times. Whether any of these survived and amalga- mated with the local races, is a question not likely ever to be settled. The decay, amounting to prospective extinction, observed to be the lot of the American races, is, moreover, a further proof that they are not a typical people, but that they are stems occupying debatable ground, which we have before shown are alone liable to annihilation, or to entire absorption. Yet, in some parts of the tropical latitudes, in Yucatan for instance, so great an amalgamation of the white with indigenous tribes and with Negro imported slaves, has taken place, that this mixed population, becoming sensible of numerical superiority, as well as of the more intense energy they possess in those climates, are now asserting their power; and ultimately this hybrid race may prove a more serious opponent to the white man's insa- tiable cupidity than the descendants of European conquerors have yet had to encounter. We have not space to enter into the geographical details of the distribution of the indigenous tribes, further than has been already done, nor to advert more particularly to their dialects; for hordes, without letters or great national expansion, and which are constantly subdividing, exterminating by mutual slaughter, or perishing from constitutional liability to disease, are therefore by no means able to form durable communities THE HUMAN SPECIES. 277 and persisting dialects. This last observation is already per- ceptible in the catechisms and prayers printed in the Huron and other languages, by French missionaries, not quite a cen- tury ago, and now only understood in consequence of daily repetition and careful explanation. At least, such was the information we received on the spot. One people we must, however, except from the rest, namely, the Carib, or that por- tion of the Carib tribes which still occupies parts of the mari- time border of north-eastern South America, because, as we have before observed, many opinions, institutions, and even words in their language, bespeak an intercourse that once appears to have existed between the ancestors of the present families and a Semitic nation, perhaps Phoenician or Hebrew. That they were once not a sedentary nation is evinced, since they still refrain from travelling in the interior, unless previ- ously prepared for it by peculiar ceremonies, excepting one tribe, which is remarkable for enterprise, and, in a small com- pany, will fearlessly penetrate among hostile nations, much in the character of fighting pedlers. The Caribs were, like their prototypes of the Old World, a nautical people, partly cannibals and conquerors, over all the islands of the West Indian seas; having commenced, some generations before the arrival of Columbus, their career of invasion by those nearest the coast, and gradually extending their enterprise to the north and west, till they had subdued all to the east of Hayti, where, at the time of the Spanish discovery, they had, as yet, only secured dominion for themselves in the vicinity of Samana Bay. It is erroneously asserted that no indigenous people of America had contrived sea-going vessels of any size; for if the information we received while in the country be trustworthy, within a sandy portion of the border of the river Yuna, in this very bay of Samana, a sunken canoe was found buried, which was nearly 100 feet in length, proportionally broad; and what was considered to be sufficient evidence of the period when it had perished, was the discovery of a stone vessel, a stone casse-tete, 24 278 NATURAL HISTORY OF and an axe of flint, all within its hollow. Canoes of great capacity were necessary to nautical invaders of populous islands, and the materials for constructing them abounded on the north coast of South America; and, indeed, in the northern portion, there still remain rude sculptures of very long vessels of this class, manned with numerous rowers, particularly on tide rocks, in Massachusetts and elsewhere. At foot note, page 270, we should have noticed, in confirma- tion of the northern and marine migration of some tribes, that the Chichimecs relate, that after they emerged out of seven "caves" (islands), they travelled to Amassiemecan, or the northernmost portion of America. Perhaps they were Aleu- tians, and the term caves, if not denoting islands, may refer to canoes, which, in many languages, bear names allusive, like caves, to hollowness, Alvei. The legend is exceedingly like that in Strabo, which relates to the original seven Cyclopeans, who first came from Lycia by sea. They evidently designate ships' crews, since they began soon after to build works of huge stones, such as those near their caves at Nauplia, &c. Votan, the third personage in the Mexican Calendar, according to Francisco Nunes, was the leader of seven families, who came from an island to America, and then brought seven more to the same country. But the bishop of Chiapa is questionable authority. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 279 THE HYPERBOREAN, BEARDLESS, OR MONGOLIC TYPE. From what has been stated in the foregoing pages, on the two preceding extensive subtypical stems of the great family of Man, our chief aim has been to produce some of the reasons which, at least, seem to substantiate the conclusion, that both are results of amalgamations of two, or of all the three normal stocks, separated from their original centres of existence, at dif- ferent epochs, part whereof may be of so remote a date that they precede a portion of those great territorial dislocations already pointed out, which affected both the Northern Pacific as well as the equatorial and southern seas. Whether the period in question synchronized with the avulsion of the plane of earth which originally abutted on the western base of the Cordilleras, is not now a question to be discussed in the bear- ing it might have on human existence, since there are sufficient evidences to show that the present tenants of the island groups can mostly be traced to more recent periods; and the traditions of the northern hemisphere, in both continents, tend to prove the arctic nations, of the present time, to be of comparatively late expansion over their now dreary abodes. The question, however, is not without some curious circumstances affecting the beardless type, which we pointed out as first traceable in the north-eastern flanks of the great central table-land of Asia. But more attentive search seems to establish the fact, that, even there, during many ages, it cannot have been the dominant stock; for as on most other occasions we find the older races of Man, that possessed a given country, and were obliged to yield to the power of later invaders, hold to the last in the fastnesses of mountain ranges, so we observe here, from the Chinese annals, whole nations of Caucasians, Kinto-Moey, Yuchi, &c, possessed of vast portions of Thibet and Eastern Tahtary, and 280 NATURAL HISTORY OF maintaining their ground to the times immediately preceding and succeeding the Christian era, when they were first driven westward, whilst others are now found subdued and incorpo- rated with the Celestial Empire, though still retaining their distinctive characters of ample beard, horizontal eyes, and lofty stature. They are spread in population about the river Amour and the hill countries, while others, such as the Miao-tze (cat- people) and the Mou-lao (wood-rats), occupy, in the south, the wildest mountains in Se-tchuen, Koei-tcheou, Houkang, and Quangsi, to the frontiers of Quang-tong. None of these nations and tribes can have penetrated eastward, from Thibet, after the Mongolian races were fully established in the plains. They must, therefore, be of anterior date; and, as we see above, in the case of the Yuchi, the residue of the people driven from the more fertile plains, by the force of invaders. All the way to the Malayan peninsula, every known event tends to prove here, as in America, that a succession of invasions followed upon each other, from the north, and formed vari- ously amalgamated nations, still marked by strong distinctions in Indo-China, Australasia, and the South Sea Islands* The facts here stated, when accepted to the extent they of necessity imply, establish that the Mongolian type was not primsevally predominant in Thibet, and, at most, hung on the north-eastern flanks of the plateau of Tahtary, in the same manner as the woolly-haired appears to have done on the southern. Yet there was assuredly a huge development of this stock, at the most early human period, which, as it could not be concentrated immediately on the high land, was clearly produced in the north-east, most probably from the basin of the * In proof of the departure of the Mongolic nations from the high north, may be shown, that they always look to the south as the object of desire, naming the west by the same denomination as the right hand, and the east as the left; therefore totally distinct from Caucasians, who univer- sally, from a religious motive, look to the east, and call the west the back. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 281 upper Lena to the sea of Okotsk, and bounded on the south by the mountains of the Jablonoi and Tugurek chains, that is, between 55 and 65 degrees of north latitude; for it was through the passes, at the head waters of the river Vitim, that it appears the Mongols first pushed their conquests forward among the Yuchi, then in possession of the southern borders of Lake Baikal, and the Mandshures subjugated the Shagallian terri- tory, washed by the great Shika or river Amour, where the ruins of most ancient cities, captured and abandoned by the beardless stock, are still to be seen. Desolate cities, with standing gateways, in a great degree perfect, and monstrous statues, akin to, but far more elaborate than the more early Scandinavian and Gothic works of art in Europe, indicate no very remote period when they were forsaken, and testify that the religion once predominant had more affinity with the northern Caucasian doctrines of the west, than with the Budhism, Shamanism, or any other superstitions known among the beardless nations * Having before shown the opinion, drawn from high authori- ties, and corroborated by Chinese annals, that while the Polar Sea covered, to within recent ages, several degrees of latitude in northern Asia, the climate must have been considerably milder than at present, and consequently have facilitated migration to the eastward, even if Behring's Straits had then already its present dimensions, and the Aleutian islands did not form a more continuous chain than they now exhibit. These circumstances may account both for the Caucaso-Mongolic propulsion to America, and for the comparatively late period * Par-hotan, city of the Tiger, a mass of extensive ruins, on the Kirton- Gura of the Kalkas, and to the north of Mongolia. The Kirton-Gura communicates with the Amour by the Kulon-nor lake. The ruins are in latitude 48, and in longitude a little west of Pekin. Though not built by the Mongolic nations, this and other cities were no doubt occupied by them till after their conquest of China, when to permit another hardy population to grow up concentrated in the north was no doubt found to be unadvisable. 24* 282 NATURAL HISTORY OF of development which that stock displays towards the south and west. The earliest Chinese annals may not in reality belong to the beardless races, but be an appropriation made by them after their first conquests were effected; for the Chinese heroes and social institutions, including Foh himself, have, in their human relations, characters that do not belong so much to them as to their predecessors, the Kinto Moey, or Yuchi. They have also usages, like the feast of lanterns, which have no proper meaning in their legends, though, like the Hoolee of India in substance, they may be regarded as the same, since they are both dedicated to the opening spring. It is doubtful whether at Canton the votaries of Budha understand the hymns sung by them in his praise; for they are obtained from Ceylon, though the religious system itself is derived originally from Thibet, or perhaps, with still more certainty, from the more western portion of High Asia, before the Hyperborean diffusion reached that quarter. The beardless stock, in its primaeval abode, may not have attained the full stature of Caucasians. Migration to more southerly regions, still more, innervation derived from inter- union with bearded races, probably gave it the development now attained; for no giant tribes are recorded among the unadulterated nations of Mongolic origin; and many instances occur, where, like Anna Comnena, speaking of the first appearance of the Turks, they are described to be of small stature. Here, like in other cases, it should be borne in mind that the ruling tribes and royal clans, the greatest sharers in the division of spoil, possessed the principal propor- tion of Caucasian captive females, and thence acquired an external superiority of aspect, as well as much greater cerebral expansion. This fact is forcibly shown in the Osmanli and Toorkee dynasties of Europe and Persia. Mythology and romance notice dwarfs and Pypilikas, or gold-finding ants (pos- sibly a mode of describing the gold miners of the Altaic range), THE HUMAN SPECIES. 283 Tschutski, Jakoutski, or others, not perhaps pure Hyperbo- reans, such as the iron-working Niron tribes of Mongolia appropriately typified by griffins and dragons, since these very monsters have been their national ensigns from the remotest ages; and at several times conquerors have issued from among them, desolating the earth, and forming the greatest as well as the most transient empires in human history.* Whether the Phryni and Seres of antiquity, mentioned by Pliny, Strabo, and Ptolemy, were really of the beardless stock in possession of Kashgar and Yarkund, and associated with the Tokhari as early as the Macedonian conquest, may well be contested, since the conjecture of Dr. Vincent, that for Scythiae should be read Sindh, is proved to be incorrect. The southern glens of that region, being the spontaneous land of the mulberry tree, had then, no doubt, their own different species of indigenous silk-worms, which they still possess, and from their produce the name Serica was derived, as well as Seres, without reference to the origin of the nation that then had rule. There can be little doubt but that they were Caucasian Scythians of remote times, since the name of the Tokhari has been read phonetically among the vanquished tribes repre- sented on Egyptian temples, where the conquests of a Thoth- mes or Remses are depicted, and the population of those high lands is not even now Mongolic. What the earlier Greeks related of the Seres, who were reported to be satyrs, eighteen cubits in height, sufficiently proves they knew the name only in connection with some colossal statues of Indian or of Bac- trian divinities. The Chinese, in their earliest records, seem to denominate the whole beardless stock Le Min, or black-haired people, according to the old classical comment on the Yaou Tan, in order to distinguish them from the foreign races, which are designated as invariably red or fair-haired; that is, Yuchi. * Such as Ogus Khan, about 657 B. C, to Genghiz Khan, about 1154 A. D. 284 NATURAL HISTORY OF The Mongolic type is, in truth, unknown to ancient history in the shape of organized nations ; but isolated tribes have pen- etrated westward at early periods, more or less mixed up with that subtypical stock which formed the Finnic or Ouralian nations, whose presence in Europe we shall shortly mention. Those among them which are least mixed by Caucasian inter- union, certainly still retain the characteristics evidently belong- ing to the most pure and ancient Hyperborean beardless tribes; still the following description is applicable to both, with only so much difference as the conditions of their respective situa- tions admit to be results of circumstances only. The Beardless Hyperborean,* or Mongolic type, differs from the white Caucasian and Melanic stocks, by constant characters, which mark it externally, even where the subordinate stems are greatly adulterated by intermixture, or modified by climate and other causes. It is a form of Man distinguished from the other two types by a facial angle, sloping backwards from 70 to 80 degrees — the contents of the cerebral chamber varying, according to Dr. Morton's measurement, from 69 to 93 cubic inches; the head is rather small, the face flat, the cheek-bones projecting laterally, the eyes small, not much opened, appearing to be placed obliquely, with the external angle upwards, chiefly because the lachrymary gland is con- cealed by the upper lid, which turns directly down over it. This is a provision of nature common to the ruminants of high latitudes, and the most elevated ridges, who are all destitute of tear pits, probably because the lachrymary structure cannot be exposed in a rigorous climate without positive detriment to the eyes. The Mongolian eye has always a dark iris, the eyebrows are narrow, the hair is coarse, lank, and black, the beard scanty, not curly, partially or wholly wanting at the * The denomination of hyperborean is more strictly applicable to the Arctic stock, though by the ancients the same designation is commonly believed to refer to Gothic, or at most to Finnic tribes, who were at that time merely boreal, or northern inhabitants. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 285 ears, and it appears to be of the same pile as the hair of the head. The nose is small, somewhat pointed, and the mouth well-formed. In the Nogai race the nose is, however, round, flattened, and dilated, the cheek-bones still more prominent, the lips are tumid, and the eyes almost reduced to linear open- ings ; while the black Kalmucks have the obliquity of the lids still greater, so that their external angles seem to be almost forty-five degrees above horizontal. All the true beardless nations are olivaceous in color, the skin varying from a kind of sallow lemon-peel, through various shades of greater depth ; but it is never entirely fair, nor intensely swarthy; although, in the adulterated races that occupy the Himalaya range, slight appearances of blush may be discerned among young people; and the black Kalmucks, from some other unex- plained cause, are of an ashy darkness, not far remote from the true Papua color. The typical nations are all square of body, in stature rather low, the trunk long, the extremities seldom or never lengthened, and the wrists and ankles are weak.* These characteristics of the Hyperborean type retain such uniformity, that the American races are in most particulars, as we have already shown, but little aberrant, and the Malay, Indo-Chinese, &c, continue to bear them, in the exact propor- tion of their commixture with other aberrants, and of the influ- ences generated by local circumstances. In the same ratio we also find the physical structure to harmonize with the intellec- tual qualities. The Hyperborean evinces a feebler innervation than the other typical forms of Man; he is less under amatory influences, less prolific, less enduring in toil; hence more dis- * Where the gland is visible, the eye horizontal, and the beard spreads up to the sides of the ears, there is certainly a mixed descent. It is most common, perhaps solely observed, among natives of the northern prov- inces beyond the wall. No doubt the superior energy and capacity they evince is the cause why they are everywhere in office, and that so many portraits, thus characterized, occur in the Chinese Museum now exhibit- ing in London. 286 NATURAL HISTORY OF posed to severity where he has power; to a victim or a captive inflicting needless torture, less from natural ferocity, than from the want of individual self-reliance, which is thus prone to express fear by precaution. More readily reduced to order when subdued, he evades rather than resists oppression by force; he is more obstinate than brave, but savage to self- destruction when roused by despair; avoiding personal exer- tion, such as to walk or to dig unremittingly in the fields, he rides in every region when the Horse is accessible; more imita- tive than inventive, he exerts his ingenuity to apply mechani- cal aids in necessary labors. Sitting at work, he is dexterous, but little tasteful; at handicraft professions, preferring patient elaboration to exertion; lazy, yet gluttonous, omnivorous with scarcely any distinction; filthy, amounting to a dread of water; crafty, dishonest, plausible; in war he trusts to his horse, or to numbers; he finds sudden irruption, cruelty, plun- der, and desolation, more congenial than open battle and victory. With the mind more vacant than contemplative, the relig- ious sentiment, that source of all exalted and practical feeling, has never risen above an indistinct idea of a Supreme Being, a heaven, or a solar worship; it is better satisfied with the true northern impostures of Shamanism, and with the borrowed demon worship engrafted on Budhistic doctrines; for what is of true moral tendency, either in the ethics of Foh or Budh, is of foreign origin, and repugnant to the intellectual puerilities which are his substitutes for reason, philosophy, and science. A deified, ancestral, and paternal obedience stands in lieu of practical religion — his only support of that innate moral feeling belonging to all human beings. It is the key-stone of absolute power in the state; hence coercion is the civilization of the masses, ceremonious punctiliousness that of their supe- riors, ignorant self-laudation the acquirement of literati, and insolence the portion of all. The discoveries they possess in physics are the results of chance; all the maxims of state are THE HUMAN SPECIES. 287 immutable, and repressive of progress. Though early in pos- session of the mariner's compass, and (particularly the Japan- ese) long compelled to a familiarity with the sea, none of the beardless tribes ever became true navigators, or reasoning ship- builders. The typical nations have monosyllabic languages, depending greatly upon phonetic expression, and their letters are pictorial symbols, immensely diversified; hence their so-called poetical compositions cannot be highly figurative, or reach beyond mediocrity, and their learning is greatly restricted by the cumbrousness of its elements. Finally, what is known of social advancement, of inductive reasoning, or of mathematical acquirement, is derived from foreign sources, or is the work of interunions with the various Caucasian races, Yuchi, Kin-to- Moey, Hindo-Chinese, and others, scattered through every part of the organized nations of the beardless stock. It appears that the present Mongolic tribes were long ignorant of the real use of the Horse; while, in the arctic regions, the white woolly race of the Jakoutsk was not deemed serviceable, except for food. From the Subaltaic Yuchi, who were the first rulers, they no doubt learnt the art, and became conquerors, by the sole acquisition which changes the relations of every people on earth accessible to the animal.* This was certainly subsequent to the oldest Hyperborean invasion of China; for, even to this day, that immense region produces very inferior animals, excepting those bred by the Caucasian Miao-tze mountaineers. Yet, under favorable circumstances, and no doubt with some aid from the Caucasian elements spread through the masses, they have achieved an homogeneous civilization, as early, perhaps earlier, than any people of the south and west; *The Mongolic nations eat horse-flesh. Wild horse-meat, butchered for the market, is still sold daily in many parts of China. 288 NATURAL HISTORY OF and though the reflective powers confer but feeble modes of reasoning, and often false conclusions, a sort of erratic common sense has caused them to alight upon moral truths and humane sentiments, which the most polished nations of Europe acknowl- edge, but scarcely put in practice. With the conditions of existence here shown, it is evident that a people, such as the Chinese in particular, according to their own annals, while re- siding in the southern flanks of the Khinghan mountains, would multiply in time, till want of subsistence compelled the masses to industry, and that, unwarlike and sedentary in the plains, they would fall beneath the energy of kindred tribes, coming upon their horses from the bleak north, to commit devastation, grasp the empire, enslave by mandates, and by an enormous police, till vanquished by the enervating process of the system, these too would fall in turn beneath a new horde of invaders. There were unquestionably more than the two well-known conquests of China, since the empire included the more ancient separate sovereignties; and though the fate of rude conquerors over more civilized nations of homogeneous origin, is ever to become, in civil administration, the pupils of the vanquished, the new dominion debases both. These events are clearly shown in early ages, where the conquering hordes on the plateau of Thibet come up, or are first observed stationed on the south-east, as if they emanated from China; and they speak of great empires, formed in remote ages, among which that of Orgus or Oloug Khan the Great, who flourished, it is said, about 657 B. C, should be mentioned, if indeed his exploits belong to a Mongolic or beardless people; for he resided in winter near the Sir-Deriah, or Jaxartes, centuries before the Geta and Sakia Caucasians came westward by this and the Oxus rivers. Japan, divided into islands, in part possessed by tribes not typical, but of anomalous origin, with a colder stormy climate and soil, often disturbed by the most terrible earthquakes, presents a more energetic population, which, being free from THE HUMAN SPECIES. 289 foreign wars, is ever ready to break out in sanguinary rebellion,- not a little fostered by the jealous timidity of the ruling powers. On the south of the Chinese empire, vast woody mountain ranges and abundant rivers constitute wildernesses of vegeta- tion, thinly inhabited by nations forming several kingdoms, with an interior but little known. The Mongolic stock is most numerous on the north-east, the Caucasian type on the west, and in the interior and the Malay peninsula the Papua popula- tion still lingers. Power is in the hands of the first; the denomination of geographical localities the patrimony of the second; and the third has undoubtedly intermixed and adulter- ated the blood of both. By these facts we detect the successive occupiers; — the Hindoo races invading the aborigines long before they were in turn made subjects of the beardless conquerors. This process, we have already shown, has extended onwards through the Australian and Polynesian islands, with an additional element of an Arabian, and, later still, of an European amalgamation. On the north of China, whence the civilized and sedentary southern people have originally emanated, we find the nomad nations still tending their herds; consequently, these are the real typical Hyperboreans, and, accordingly, they possess the distinctive characters belonging to their origin, in the maxi- mum of development; — the Manchures, or Tungusian stem, Mongols, Bashkirs, Kalmucks, Kirguise, Nogai, Usbeks; Tur- comans being more mixed; and all, in general, misnamed Tahtars, for that term designates, originally, a mere tribe of vanquished inhabitants, who were made tributaries by the earlier Mongolian invaders, on the south of Lake Baikal; and in process of time it was extended to other nations of depend- ent states further to the west. The Mongols and Manchures, in graduated proportions, are, at present, the stall-fed masters of China, and nearly form the whole real military force of the empire, consisting entirely of cavalry, probably less than 25 290 NATURAL HISTORY OF 250,000 strong, covering the inert mass of 300,000,000 subjects, with the aid of 800,000 policemen, denominated infantry, and an enormous crowd of civilians and satellites, all intended for internal rule, and incapable of external vigor. They are, to all appearance, the first who came from the remote north-east, after the Japanese and Chinese. Of the Turkish stems, some have acquired a Caucasian form of head, such as the Osmanlis and the so-called Russian Tahtars, resid- ing in towns; but the nomadic tribes, the Nogais, Kirguise, Turkoman, and Jakoutsk, retain the original structure of the Mongolian form, while the Turks further betray their hybrid character by the number of Sanscrit words found in the lan- guage they speak, which, since they were not among the ancient invaders of India, must have been incorporated on the north side of the great central mountain systems of Asia, and, consequently, from a Caucasian people, whose tongue was a dialect of this great language, proving that it had a national existence much further to the north than is commonly sur- mised. The name Turks, Toorkees, may designate mountain men, for it agrees with their earliest history, as given in the Chinese annals, according to Klaproth, Abel Remusat, and others, who assert that they descend from the Hiong-nou, a people whose capital was Kantcheou, in Tangut, and that they came down the snowy passes of Tang-nu and the great Altai, upon the west, probably by the upper Irtish and the affluents of the Jaxartes. The same annals, however, pretend that they were seated on the northern flanks of the mountain ranges, which may refer to their remoter habitation on the Irtish, but not near the Shensi and Shansi provinces, unless it was after the Yuchi nations were ejected ; for these were still opposed to the Mongols, in those very regions; and the abun- dance of local names now remaining in Thibet shows that Cau- casians occupied a great portion of the high land plateau to a late period. It must have taken ages to dislodge tribes, which we find in subsequent periods making a prodigious resistance; THE HUMAN SPECIES. 291 and therefore the progress from the high declivities of the Mon- golian steppes, which they appear to have held at an early time, to their occupation of the Thian-Shan mountains, may be admitted to come within two or three centuries before the Christian era, because Kanishka, a Caucasian (Sakia) prince, came down and conquered Bactria, only in 120 B. C. It is, therefore, probable that their most ancient name of Hoei-yu was changed to Hiong-nou, a century or two later, when the Caucasian intermixture gave rise to dissension, and their power was broken by civil wars and Chinese dexterity. Though circumstances and dates in Chinese records should not be held more credible than our own western documents of remote antiquity, they still deserve general belief in the char- acter of the events they narrate. Here their course is perfectly natural; and from other sources will be shown, in the sequel, that this general character is fully sustained in the later ages here mentioned. The percussions then given to the nations of central High Asia appear further to be depicted in the figurative, or per- haps physically true legend, that in the fifth century of our era the Oxus and Jaxartes dried up for seven years, and the populations resident on their banks were forced to emigrate for want of water. The period is coincident with that vast con- vulsion when the Hunnic empire suddenly expanded from the frontiers of China to the mouth of the Rhine; and though not entirely, perhaps not even chiefly, composed of Mongolian hordes, as we shall presently show, it certainly embraced, beside Toorkees, vast legions of Kalmucks, Kirguise, and Bashkirs, who, in the career of victory, under Attila, spread, till, in the subsequent dissolution of that power, they could never again reunite to preserve independence; for when, at a later date, fresh waves, entirely composed of the Hyperborean stock, swept them again, in the career of desolation, to the west, Nogais, Usbeks, and Kalmucks, still more dislocated, settled further on to the Crimea, from whence, however, the forgot Kalmucks, by 292 NATURAL HISTORY OF a noble effort to retain their nationality, suddenly departed, in the last century, and, retracing the steps of their ancestors, moved eastward in a vast column, fighting their way through all opposition, till they reached the Chinese frontier in safety. The western direction of the Hyperborean conquests was more particularly marked in the reign of Genghiz Khan, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; of Timur Leng, in the fourteenth; and Nadir Shah, in the seventeenth; during which period, or, rather, from the time of Boleslas the Chaste (1227), to that of Stanislaus Augustus, a Polish writer enumerates, with some exaggeration, not less than ninety-one invasions of Poland coming from the east. Strange, however, as it may appear, none of the foregoing conquerors were themselves pure Mongols, but by connection they all possessed a portion of Caucasian blood, through Finnic, Yuchi, or Turkish alliances. On the north side of the great wall of China, the terms Kuthais and Kara Kuthais are not clearly designated; they may apply generally to the Mongolic residents, though it is evident that the last mentioned refers to a dark race, perhaps the swarthy Kalmucks. It was from this region that Genghiz Khan and his clan first commenced their conquests, which, in Octai's reign, were divided into several dominions.* It is, * These conquerors all sprung, directly or indirectly, from the Niron Cayut, chief family of the Niron tribe of iron miners, smelters, and forg- ing smiths, or Arkenikom, residing in the sacred district of Kobdo, north- east of Irmingtan Peak, part of Altain Niro, situated on the edge of the Shamoo, or Gobi desert, and not far west from Karakorum, once the capital of Genghiz Khan. From this point the waters flow, by the river Selinga, into Lake Baikal, and thence, finally, by the Yenisei, into the Polar Sea. It was here Pisouka Bahauder, eighth in descent from a child of light (Nourayon), laid the foundation of the empire which Genghiz formed. But it must be remarked that the ancestral names of the family do not indicate so much a Mongolic as a Caucasian Finnic origin. Proba- bly the mining mountaineers were still of the Yuchi stock, and, as usual elsewhere, soon became the master tribe over the invaders. In these mountains are probably the oldest mines in the world. Here the Pipili- cas (gold-finding ants), of Hindoo lore, may have been Hyperborean Fins THE HUMAN SPECIES. 293 however, a remarkable circumstance, that, excepting in the ruling families, the unceasing importations of Caucasian female slaves, victims of inroads, which for a succession of ages swept the populations of Southern Asia, and the whole of North- western Europe, independent of similar devastations perpe- trated by Mongolic nations, at still earlier periods, over the Yuchi and other Oriental Asiatics, the Caucasian stock should have left such scanty outward evidence in the masses of the conquerors. The lower innervation, and consequent deadly apathy, in the relations of humanity, alone can account for it. Small as the influence may be in other respects, it has, never- theless, tended to produce, on the north of the great wall of China, a Caucasian ratiocination, which the Kara-kuthai, and all Tahtars evince, in the Islam religious expansion. Batu Khan, nephew of Genghiz, formed, about 1223, the celebrated Golden horde in Kiptchack, a state between the Don, Volga, and Yaik, where, with the habits of various races of mixed and true Caucasians, an immense caravan trade was created, and extended to Samarkand and China on the one side, and on the other came to Astrakan, and thence, by the Volga, to Cazan and the Baltic, or by the Don to Azoff, or, lastly, by the Kur and Rion, reached the post where the Genoese had revived the trade of ancient Colchis, — a wise and industrial system, which, while it lasted, conferred such riches on the government and people, that the resplendent name above noted was the consequence. But that the evident advantages of a peaceful policy could not wholly restrain the habits of rapine, is evident; for it was at this period, 1237, 1241, that Batu, with the Kiptchack or Komans, and Petah Khan, with the Telebog and Nogai swarms, made those great inroads upon eastern Europe which nearly depopulated Russia, Poland, Hungary, and adjacent provinces. But the successes (the Bergmen and dwarfs of every legend), and their dragon guardians Caucasian Fins, such as the Niron, who seem at all times to have recog- nized a dragon for their national standard. 25* 294 NATURAL HISTORY OF of so many ages at length appear to have blunted the restless characters of the Mongolic stock, and their habits became stationary. Pastoral nations, though often conquerors, ever finish by receding before the steady progress of energetic culti- vators. It is exemplified, in this case, by the gradual reaction which sends the Caucasian eastward, to recover the debatable ground. After 1800 years of conflict, he has already regained a great portion of the original seat of the Hyperborean type. Russia has subdued several nations who have little or no history; among others, some of real Mongolic descent, and the Sogha, or Yakutsk, of all men the most hardy, together with the lofty Tschutski, of pretended American origin, but neither appearing to be true Mongols. An important consideration affects the condition of these arctic nations of Asia, namely, the fast decrease of the Reindeer, both domestic and wild, threatening, at no distant period, to reduce the already miserable existence of the people to starvation, where no migration towards the south can offer to improve their lot. The cause of this privation of almost the only source of comfort, in those dreary regions, is not yet fully explained, although several tribes are already totally destitute of their domestic flocks. It may be here, as in North America, that some law in nature is operating, in combination with the progress of civilized nations, to change the character of the high north, and leave it a desert, with scarcely a human tribe able to subsist on it; indeed, the only people must, ultimately, be Samoyed, Esquimaux, and Lapland fish-eating Hyperboreans; the sole remaining race of the beardless stock to which we have space to refer. This people, in both continents, being ever greatly restricted in food, either at no time acquired the full stature of the type, or it still retains the original appearance, from which the nations in better circumstances have passed to more ample structures. Though diminutive, they possess all the character- istics of the Mongolic form, so far as they remain unmixed; but in several instances they have formed unions with the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 295 nearest ejected Caucasian tribes in Eastern Asia, and also, in extending along the arctic shores to the west. By means of their snow skates, their Reindeer, and their seal-skin coracles, they found means to traverse a great space in less time than other migrators; to cross over ice in winter; to pass the Asiatic Mediterranean, which, at that period, may not, as yet, have been totally absorbed; or to cross Behring's Strait, which, how- ever, they do not seem to have accomplished until ages had elapsed. In this manner, they came early in contact and com- mixture with Caucasians, such as the western Yeta tribes, on the shores of the sea, or those they may have found to the west of it, about the Ouralian mountains, and formed the Finnic subtypical stem, on one side, and the Tschudic on the other. Both these suppositions are strengthened by the appearance of Finnic words in the Mexican language, and by a similar occur- rence in the Basque dialect of the Pyrenees, while, on the plains of the north-west, other facts show how near an intimacy was established between the ancient Swedes and the Huns, and between these and the Magyars, who were kindred of the Turks. While this stem of the Mongolic type is thus shown to have spread at a remote period, and to have been mixed in the more temperate climates of the old continent, it is, in a pure state, evidently less ancient than the other populations of America; for it has only been permitted to dwell in regions never occu- pied, or totally forsaken by them, — that is, the Polar and north-west coast; and as they were thus not wanted to assist the necessities of anterior colonists, they have continued to be regarded as enemies, being still unmercifully slaughtered by the stern Indian, on all occasions where he can glut his passion for bloodshed, under the pretext that all the Esquimaux are sorcerers. 296 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FINNIC, OURALIAN, OR TSCHUDIC SUBTYPICAL STEM, Appears to have arisen from an interunion of the two great typical forms of the north; for its characteristics become prom- inent in proportion as the respective alliance with one or the other is predominant; thus, while the Skrict-Finn or Lap- lander, nearly of pure Hyperborean blood, verges in the same degree to the Mongole stock, the Finlander is in structure entirely a Caucasian, though both speak dialects of the same language — here, as elsewhere, showing the ready predom- inance of the Caucasian blood. All the nations of this stem have considerable flexibility of voice, and consequently a great facility in acquiring the languages of their neighbors and of strangers; and hence the Sclavonic and Teutonic dialects have swept away the Finnic in all places where the resident tribes were not isolated by the nature of their country. In Asia the Tschutski are of similar origin as the more western Finns,* and seem to represent the parent stock whence several nations of America take their source, while they are claimed as the most ancient miners of the Altai; a character which again recurs among their kindred of the west. Industrious from necessity, the scattered, less warlike tribes, with that Mongolic tact for applying artificial aids in their labor, early found walrus teeth sufficient to separate portions of meteoric iron or aerolite, anciently more often found in large masses than at present; with the aid of stones they learnt to hammer it into tools, and * Tschutski and Finn are convertible terms in Northern Russia. Tschudi is the Russian name of Finland, and the true appellation of the ancient Scythians. Joten were the giant families, or Gothic Finns of the Germans. There is still a tribe of Tusci remaining among the inhabit- ants of Circassia; and ifRauwolf be correct, the Druses of Libanus were called Trusci. This indicates a portion of the Finnic race to have moved, at a remote age, through Asia Minor towards Syria, and it may thus have formed one of the early constituents of the Imilicon of Palestine. From the Altaic gold mines to the west they were in all places troglodytes and miners. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 297 subsequently into the celebrated swords of the ancient north. Horns of the Elk, and antlers of Reindeer, made ready shovels and pickaxes; and having already a knowledge of meteoric metal, they soon found, that by digging, ores might be brought up from beneath the surface.* The zone of earth given them as a patrimony being inter- sected at right angles by many enormous rivers —by the Ice- land or German Sea — by the White Sea — by the still re- maining portions of the Asiatic Mediterranean — by Behring's Straits — and unceasing winters causing many sufferings to migrators on the east and west, they, like all other men, must have desired to wander to more genial and passable regions; and accordingly, nations arising from this branch of the Mon- golic stock, gradually more and more mixed with Caucasians, can be traced southward, down to the great central range of mountains, where they were met by the opposite commixture of swarthy races, while the purest typical form of the bearded type clung to the line of mountain prolongation, or occupied parallels along it to the western extremity of Europe. The commixture of two typical races, as before observed, is often productive of larger growth among individuals, especially if the northern Caucasian predominate. On the edge where they encountered the Hyperborean, they mixed with it, perhaps alternately as subjects or captives, and as masters, until both were pressed by others, again subdued, or driven forward to other regions. Several of these, and other nations hereafter noticed, can be traced back to the Colchian sea-ports, to the shores of the Meotic estuary and Tauric Chersonesus, where materials for navigating the great rivers of Scythia first im- proved their experience to dare the more open sea of the Eux- ine, ascend the Danube, or pass through the Bosphorus into the * We find them tenants of Southern Siberia, up to the vicinity of the Jenissei about Krasnojarsk, where Pallas discovered an iron mine still retaining stone hammers and brass tools, ascribed by the present Tahtars to the Tschutski. 298 NATURAL HISTORY OF JEgean, and ultimately to become intrepid seamen. Though they possessed some industrial knowledge, destitution, famine, or other causes, made them fierce savages, often positive can- nibals. Such, it is likely, were the Cyclopeans, Lestrigons, Sicanes, and Siculian swarms, which long terrified the more southern Asiatic emigrants on the shores of the Mediterranean. But before the historical era, they were already followed by others (the mining and forging Idaei Dactyli?) and blended with the first Gomerian people that came westward, and together with them, finally merged into various Celtic tribes of Italy, Gaul, and Spain, and occupied the north coast of the Adriatic, where, notwithstanding the character they bear with posterity, they were advancing in the arts of civilization. Others of a still greater Scythic innervation, it may be inferred, penetrated by the passes on both shores, along the western Caucasian chain, and crossing the ridges of Armenia Minor, came upon the Upper Euphrates, skirted the eastern flanks of Ammanus, till they reached the Syrian coast; or, continuing to descend the banks of the great river, formed a portion of that Scythic element which is constantly traced in the Hebrew historical records, and repeatedly noticed in the heroic age of Arabian traditions. In this way they constituted the chief source of that red- haired people which is still found in the mountains of Pales- tine, and is known as the Montefict Arab, and probably formed the first or primitive Phoenician pirates and traders. A tribe of this people was extant on the Euphrates, under the name of Rhustumi; others occupied the Arabian islands; and if all the earliest Scythian tribes were of the same mixed origin, they were the invaders who ruled in Egypt by the names of Hyksos and shepherds; the same who were the cause why red-haired* * The quality of red hair belongs exclusively to northern Asia and Eu- rope ; beside the Northmen and their descendants, it is still almost wholly national among several mixed tribes of northern Russia. If Assyria once THE HUMAN SPECIES. 299 men, and even rufous oxen, were sacrificed, after their expul- sion, in detestation of their dominion. They may have been the parent stock of the Beni Koreish, since the Seyads, who in Asia still pride themselves as descendants of the prophet, stain their beards to a red color; and, finally, clans are likewise still found scattered inland of the northern African shores, where they are taken to be remnants of the Vandals, who were indeed a branch of the same stem that came round by the west end of the Mediterranean. Finnic Scythae, Rauwolf's Trusci, may have passed to Abys- sinia with the first Arabian tribes, and influenced the building of cities of wolf priests, such as was the capital city Tegulet; for who but a people of northern origin would have thought of wolf gods and lupine priests, particularly in Africa, where no true wolf is as yet proved to exist? for the Ounce of Egyptian Sycopolis, Siout of the Prasnestine Mosaic, surely cannot be the insignificant Chakal or Canis Anthus.* We have omitted to notice another characteristic that marks the primaeval Finnic tribes, namely, their dwellings, which once were in Europe similar to those of the present Tschutski of Eastern Asia, and of the North American Indians of the same stock. They are figured in Catlin's Travels, and still was held by red-haired men, they most assuredly originated from people beyond the Caspian. ' * This worship was well known in the south of Europe, where northern tribes had penetrated. Finns, Etruscans, or Pelasgians, most likely instituted the Hirpi, wolf priests, at Soracte, the Luperci at Rome, the most ancient sacerdotal order in the city. Such, again, were the priests of Latona at Delphi. They existed at Thebes in Egypt, and were in all cases funereal ministers. They had, it is probable, mysteries which were the origin of the power to assume any shape, ascribed to the Budas or blacksmiths of Abyssinia, to the Wehrwolf in Europe and Asia, the Escolar of Portugal, and of Bassa Jaon, the mysterious smith of the Basques, the Crewe, Blotmen, sacrificial priests of the northern nations, who slew human victims ; the medicine men, exorcisers of North Amer- ica, the Shamans of Asia, and even the Druid victimizers, wore wolf-skin dresses, or at least girdles of that material. 300 NATURAL HISTORY OF more correctly in those of Prince Maximilian of Wied. In the west they were named Dan, Den, Tan, Ton, &c, denomina- tions preserved in Denmark; Danes Tannieres in Belgium; Tonningen in North Germany. They exist now in Lapland, and among the Samoyeds; are the origin of the legends of the Bergmen, burrowing men, where the forging Alfen dwelt, who were miners and sword smiths in Asia, Scandinavia, and Germany, including Carinthia, long the legendary dwelling of Laurin, brother of the Norwegian Alperich, and the Asiatic Sinnel, princes of a dwarfish people. Even the garden of roses, the mysterious retreat, where the dwarf king, with his subterranean powers, was vanquished by Dietrich of Bern, the Gothic hero, might perhaps be pointed out in the won- derful cavern of Adelsberg,* with its mysterious river, not far from various mines, and particularly that of quicksilver, about Idria. Having been checked in a western progress, perhaps by the still remaining salt marshes, already interspersed with barren sea sands, in north-western Asia, the Scythic Finns accumu- lated and grew to nations of variously mixed character, not un- like those already noticed in south-western Asia and Egypt; but it was ages later before they developed, and pushed on by Lake Ladoga to the Baltic. Here, propelling the true Hyper- boreans, they became Finn-laps, and next, the earlier Scandi- navian inhabitants, at the same time that they formed also the Esthonian, Biarmian, Prussian, and other maritime people. On all these coasts, a certain affinity with, or pressure by, new * This is close by the elevated Schneeberg. The Laybach is twice lost in the earth, and again reappears. The Zirknitz Lake, supplied by subterranean torrents, suddenly becomes empty, and as rapidly fills again j where also the mysterious Proteus Anguinus comes up from reservoirs of everlasting night. The cavern, twelve miles in length, is adorned with stalactites, forming halls, corridors, recesses, pillars, obelisks, hangings, and even forms of animals, so strangely commixed, and of such enormous proportions, that here the powers of enchantment were naturally believed to have held their court. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 301 hordes of colonists possessed of Gomerian blood, or at least of Celto-Scythic traditions and practices, is indicated. It forms the Celtic element in their composition ; and from this source they acquired, together with a portion of their dialects, those habits of forming circles of stones and cromlechs, which are still abundant in Norway, in some parts of north-western Ger- many, and Friesland. They possessed traditions originating in the north as well as south of High Asia ; legends that recur again in the Celtic Basque provinces, and even in western America. The small clans, ruled by a patriarchal or family system, which the earliest documents of the Celtic colonists in Britain ac- knowledge to have found on the soil, and whose smoky cavern dwellings may be traced perhaps near Brixham, on the shores of Torbay, must be referred to that sub-type of the human race; for not being of the Celtic stock, they could not well be of other than of Finnic origin. In the generally scattered diffusion of residence, having abundant supplies of food from the sea, the lakes, rivers, and forests, small clans, with affinities in dialects, creeds, and consanguinity, could not find many motives for hostility. Those savage wars of extermination, rising out of ambition, or for the possession of favorite localities, most likely did not occur until greater pressure of new colonies, vastly augmented populations, increasing cultivation and wealth, roused cupidity and the spirit of dominion ; for, otherwise, the sudden march of whole nations could not subsequently have taken place unmolested by neighbors; such, for instance, as the Gallic, down the Danube, to Greece and Asia Minor; the Boian, north-eastward to Bohemia; or the Cymber, from the coasts of the German Ocean to Italy. In the east of Europe we find a myrmidon people, again, no doubt, burrowing ants, like the gold-finding miners of High Asia, with Thessalian Larissa, subject to the Thraco- Pelasgian Achilles. Moreover, we find the Helotes, and other indigenous tribes reduced to slavery by conquering Heleni, 26 302 NATURAL HISTORY OF who themselves acknowledged gods of high northern origin, and venerated milk-eating Scythse. What could these tribes be but Finnic or Gomerian Celts, who, in the east of Europe, as in the west, were fused into later and more powerful tribes, with far less resistance than is often shown when kindred na- tions oppose the pretensions of each other?* Hence races of Finnic origin passed, in antiquity, by conquest or mutual con- sent, into Celto-Scythae and Pelasgians, so that in many cases it is impossible to trace the nations further up than to their second or third amalgamation. We find this substantiated by words belonging in common to the Etruscan, Basque, Ligu- rian, and ancient languages of western Asia: such, for ex- ample, as Tar, in Tarchon, Brig, in Briga, Larch, in Larissa, Gur, in Calagurris, Maitagurra, the Durga of the Pyrenees, &c; and there are others, in the traditions of tribes that appear to have been connected by Finnic consanguinity, such as the Basque Haitor, the most early British Heytor, the first, if not both, being a denomination of a superior divinity, probably allied to Thor. There is a still more remarkable coincidence in the Navarrese and Cantabrian legend of the blue cow, lowing from the verge of the mountain forest, when national disasters were at hand, corresponding to the same doctrine anciently believed in the western parts of the present Hanoverian domin- ions ; while both recall to mind the celebrated Indian mountain peak of Gho-Karma (the moaning cow), which, if it have a geographical position at all, must be the same as the seat of Mahadeo, at the source of the Ganges, also known by the name of Himavahn. These and other Finnic and Oriental elements, known to exist in the Basque as it is now spoken, justify the claim we make of that ancient race as originally appertaining to the intermediate stem now under consideration, more par- * The river Alpheus bears a Finnic name, for Alf Elf, in Lapland and Finland, still denotes a torrent, and, it may not be amiss to observe, that Eric Erk, in Swedo-Finnic, is still a proper name, always considered a synonym of Hercules. The Heraclidas in fact were Finnic Goths. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 303 ticularly as among the present inhabitants of France there are still extant the wrecks of tribes (the Cagots), which, from the first Celtic invasion to the present time, have never been acknowledged to form a portion of any, though the vulgar is willing to believe they are a residue of Arian Goths: which opinion, even if it were correct, would not much remove them from a Finnic origin. We may associate with these, also, the human ossuaries in the caverns of Guienne, in the vicinity of the river Lot in Quercy, described in a former article ; for they indicate a mode of disposing of the dead generally more careful than the Cel- tic ; and from the more common absence of the skulls, and the regular packing of the extremities in layers, an argument may be drawn to show, that they are second and final deposits of the departed of a race, whose first mode of preserving them was to have the bodies sewed up in skins, hung up for a given period in trees, and then buried, often with a stag's horn by .the side; a practice long in use among the Finnic and Gothic nations, and still followed by kindred tribes in both Americas. These deposits, in the south of central France, have, still, on the mountain above them, the ruins of rectilinear and curved defensive works, not like those of the Gallic tribes; and as they are in the vicinity of the Basque territory, it is likely that a kindred race was the owner of the soil before they were subdued or expelled by the progressing Celtae. It is most probable, that although the Finnic people spread over Europe, their movement from the east was in general coast- wise, and from north towards the south; ascending great rivers from the sea, and in some cases only forming considerable communities. Hence, in Europe and the high north, they are, with scarce an exception, fish-eaters, boatmen; never riders; and only graziers, not cultivators, in the south, when secure from the nature of their location; but even then still substi- tuting osier and willow branches for many purposes of domes- tic utility; for such is still the practice among the Basques as 304 NATURAL HISTORY OF well as the Laplanders. They seem, indeed, scarcely to have been capable of successful resistance against Celtic invaders, in their more pure stunted growth; and that their physical strength was only on a par, and sometimes superior to them, when they were united with the giant forms of Yeta or Gothic origin, who no doubt lorded it over them, but certainly had also protective inclinations. Now tribes of this class, independ- ent of immediate rulers, are constantly found to accompany the smaller race, as in the Pyrenees, where the Gascons of low stature have the stalwart Cantabrians for neighbors and kin- dred ; and, again, where the first mentioned form of man is no longer traceable in history, the second is readily detected by names which always have reference to giant statures, as we have already remarked of the Tyrhenians, &c. So, again, in the swampy islands (palufles) of ancient Flanders, a small race seems once to have resided under the early protection of the Frieslanders, Vuriesen and Huinen, both denoting giants in the Theotisk dialect of Belgium, as it was spoken in the time of Charlemagne.1* Huin, pronounced somewhat in English with the sound of oi in coin, gives Hoin, which immediately reminds the reader of the name of the Huns, who are now admitted to have been an Ouralian Finnic people, allied to the Goths, and sweeping with it, in the train of temporary conquest, several hordes of Mongolians from the east, whose strange aspect misled, or suited the vituperative dismay of Anna Comnena, and the Greek and Roman ecclesiastical writers of the time, who had little better than abusive epithets to oppose to the conquerors. * There is an imperfect vocabulary of this form of the old western Teu- tonic in Olivarius Vredius, Hist. Comitum Flandrias, together with some fragments of Solomon's Song, &c, in the same. Two centuries after, it was nearly similar to the Anglo-Saxon. The present dialect of Flanders still contains many most ancient Theotisk words disregarded in dictiona- ries. But the examination of the whole question is well worthy the atten- tion of English Saxon scholars. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 305 The Ostrogoths were associates of Attila, whose name was held among them in high honor, for we find it repeated in the list of Swedish kings. It is conspicuous in the oldest German Heldenbuch, and the Goths or the Lombards brought it into Italy, where Azzo and Azzolino, mutations of Atzel, the Teu- tonic form of the name, are prominent, chiefly among the Ghibeline nobles, as is naturally to be expected in civil contests between the northern and Italian races. The early alliance of the Finnic stem with the Gothic nations, besides the community of proper names, is still more evident in the mythical list of their progenitors, where the denominations of Geat and Finn are recognized by all the nations of the north-west, including the pagan Saxons of the east coast of England, who, in the poem of Beowulf, denominate themselves Geats, not Saxons.* On the north of the Baltic, reminiscen- ces of the juxtaposition of the dwarf and giant races are abun- dant. Their contests and intermarriages are recorded in sagas, in several cases recompositions of more ancient documents, though passing at last into mythi, in a land where Laplanders still exist; and the conquering race in the southern portion is even now a stalwart people. What they were in rude antiq- uity is often historically marked; and very recently a letter from Professor Nielson announced to the Royal Academy of Stockholm the discovery of enormous human bones, accom- panied by flint arrows, bone spear-heads, and the remains of horses, stags, elks, and bears. THE BASQUES. From the foregoing remarks, we believe ourselves justified to claim the Basque, Esquara, or Vascon people, to be the most southern of the Finnic stem in Europe. Coming up the * See the important preface to Beowulf, in the excellent version of the original, by the learned John H. Kemble, edit. 1837. 26* 306 NATURAL HISTORY OF Garonne from the sea, it evidently spread towards the western Pyrenees; for the ancient frontier fastnesses of these tribes are historically unknown to the north of that river, excepting Cala- gurris, now St. Lizier, on the Salat, an affluent at no great distance from the stream where it is but first emerging from the mountains. The nation extended, on the south of the great ridge, to the Ebro, where a similar fortress, likewise denomi- nated Calagurris, now Calahorra, commanded the upper Ebro. The capital was Pompelo, in the district of the Husia tribe. Denominations of places and early superstitions indicate a Finnic western Caucasian origin. In Spain the Cantabrians were always celebrated for valor, and for arresting the con- quests of the Moors, after the overthrow of the Goths ; per- haps evincing, by their support, a community of origin, which they alone possessed beyond the Pyrenees. Aided by these hardy mountaineers, the Goths resisted the southern invaders, and in the Asturian mountains formed the little kingdom of Oviedo, which soon again expanded into that of Leon. It was in the defiles of this region, that the Franks, under Charles Martel, or Charlemagne, are related to have lost their rear guard, with Roland, and nearly all the heroes of the French cycle of romance. They fell at the pass of Roncesvalles — more, it is said, by the swords of the Asturian mountaineers, than by the Arabian cavalry, which are not likely to have been suffered to enter the mountain fastnesses of a small, warlike, and justly distrustful Christian state. On the north of the western Pyrenees, the Vascones, though early overlaid by Celtic tribes, the Tarbelli, and it may be the Venomanni and Aturi, were nevertheless of the same nation.* * Consult Surita. Both Quintilian and Prudentius were natives of Iberian Calagurris ; no,doubt sprung from Roman colonists. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 307 THE LIGURIANS OR LLOGRIANS.* In the eastern Pyrenees there was another people equally foreign to the Celtse, with affinities which appear to unite it with the Finnic family; and it was called the Ligurian and Llogrian (the Llogrwys of the Celtae); probably originally the same as the Greek Locrian, which had three tribes in the mountains of northern Greece, and the colony of Osolean Locri in Italy. All these came from the north-east of the Euxine, where they had been neighbors of the Achai. They had a legend of their first king's son having been rescued from a wolf by a serpent. Naupactis, the present Lepanto, was their seaport; but originally they had been savages, clothed in the skins of wild beasts, and having their wives in common, like the Vascones. They had names and terms which were likewise found in the Tyrhenian. Already, before the arrival of the Gauls, properly so called, this people having extended between the Cevennes and the sea-coast, up to the mountains of Spain, was encountered by other marine tribes, when, leaving some clans in Corsica, in the Hieres Islands, and among the Iberian families occupying the water Sycanist (the lagoons along the coast), they retreated to the Cottian * They were acknowledged to be Hyperboreans by descent, since Eschylus makes Prometheus instruct Hercules in the road towards the garden of the Hesperides : he must pass Caucasus, then encounter the fierce and innumerable Ligurians, and arrive at a high northern latitude. His imagery looks like an extract from Finnic sagas, the Calewala, or Scandinavian Edda. Bailley notices this passage, see Strabo Geogr. t Not unlikely a Teutonic word, Seekant, border of the sea. This term would have no meaning, but for the lagoons along the coast, only separ- ated from the sea by a continuous belt of shingle. Sicani, Sitaceni, and Siculi, in this case, must mean maritime, coast men, water or sea men, the same as Cantii, in Britain. Yet these names again came from the Euxine Bosphorus, and, according toPhilistus, cited by Dion. Halic, the Siculi were of the same race as the Ligures, notwithstanding that Timeus named them aborigines of Sicily. 808 NATURAL HISTORY OF Alps, the centre of its national strength, where the present Piedmont was in its possession. On the side of Italy, the cap- ital Ticinum now Pavia, was in the district of the Loevian tribe, with the Libuans, on the banks of Lake Garda, and the nation extended to the vicinity of the present Avignon, where Strabo places the Celto-Ligurians. They long were bold sea- men, and a brave and industrious people, defending their lib- erties^against Roman encroachment during forty years, before their last tribe was subdued. They had been early disturbed, both in the Alps, and on the coast, by Gallic invaders, who absorbed or forced settlements among them. It was from the Ligurian tribe of Legobriges, about the year B. C. 600, when the Phoenician and Rhodian trade had declined, that the Pho- cian Euxinos obtained the cession of the port of Marseilles, by means of Petta, daughter of the chief Nannus. The trans- action is related with particulars, both by Aristotle and Justin; but the fact itself indicates the consanguinity of these tribes with the Grecian Locri, who were neighbors of the Pho- cians. By the eminently marine habits of this people, and their migrating disposition, they were, it seems, scattered in various regions; and nowhere, except at the head of the Adriatic and in the Alps, had national consistency. They were of common origin with the Istrian, Liburnian, and other tribes, who appear likewise to have claimed a Colchian descent. Their ships, from the humblest raft, and the coracle of three and a half ox- hides, sewed and stretched over a frame-work of willow, changing successively to lintres, logs, longs, Liburnic-biremes, caracks, caravellas, and finally to ragusas or argosies, were in general the models of those adopted by other nations, and Reul was their most ancient guiding star at sea. But, with the exception of the Liburnians, they were no longer mariners than the swarming period of their departure from Asia; for in subsequent accounts we find them move by land; and if they were the same nation as the Llogrwys, or Llogrians, of THE HUMAN SPECIES. 309 British legend, they had once, at least, a tribe seated on the Llobregat in Spain, and no doubt were in part the migrators who, on retiring northward, crossed the Cevennes to the head waters of the river Loire (Ligeris), which they decorated with their own national appellation. Here they were joined by another, the Illyrian, Venetic, Henyd, Wend, or Gwyned tribe or association, for it may have originated entirely in the com- mercial spirit of the more enlightened persons of several tribes, and even whole clans. The Illyrian Alps, placed between Pannonia and the Adri- atic, contain a variety of nations, which, like those of West- ern Caucasus, might claim to be aboriginal, if they also were not known to have been colonies, which, in remote ages, came up the Danube, and were subsequently driven to the mountains, while others passed through the Bosphorus from the Black Sea, or came from Asia Minor, and skirted the coasts of Greece. Strabo mentions not less than eleven tribes, some of which we find again on the coasts of Colchis, and others are now admitted to be Scythian and Finnic. The Veneti, Carnes, &c, belong to this group. THE VENETI. According to their national tales, plainly the invention of later ages, the Italian Veneti pretended to be a colony of Tro- jan fugitives, under the conduct of Antenor. After they arrived in the west they warred with Servius Velesus, king of the Euganeans; and their records hinted at a consanguinity with the Heneti of Paphlagonia, where they were horsemen and hired soldiers, and, headed, it is said, by king Pylemenus, they served Priam in the Trojan war. But they were thrifty deal- ers, since to them is assigned the introduction of mules in the markets of Asia Minor. The Greek poets spoke of their coun- try, situated at the mouth of the Eridanus (the Po), perhaps also the Rhine, where the Celtse dwelt; and Virgil was well 810 NATURAL HISTORY OF acquainted with their legends and assumed descent. Industri- ous, like modern Armenians, they had successively demanded the protection of the strongest power near them. At one time the Ligurians, and subsequently the Romans, took upon them- selves to defend their interests from Gallic aggression. Their capital, Padavium, now Padua, probably was one of those neu- tral marts necessary to barbarous nations; it was older than Rome, and, in the time of Tiberius, the second city of Italy for extent and riches. They were, Herodotus asserts, Illyrians; and Servius names QEnetus, or Wenetus as one of their kings, assigning them to the same stock as the Liburnians; also the Tauricians, who, like the Ligurian Taurini, had no doubt a Taurine, or Tor god; the Vindelicians, still more allied to the tribes of the Baltic, with the Brennians and Genaunians; all at one time derived from the northern shores of the Euxine. Beyond the Liburni and Veneti, the Sigynnas were the only people known to Hero- dotus, as far as the Ister (Danube); but as this name in the Ligurian tongue merely denotes traders (Zigeuner,* pedlers, tinkers), we may believe that it was a denomination of the Venetic merchants, who went overland to that river, and thence traversed Germany to the Baltic, where they had tribes of kindred origin. Therefore the whole may be claimed as of Finnic source, collectively originators of the numerous markets (nationally Ventae) existing before the extension of the Roman sway to beyond the Rhine and Danube, like a commercial net-work over the west of Europe. In Italy the word Forum was substituted for vent or guent by the Latin nations, while they left Venta to be used beyond the Alps. These were what are now known by the name of Scalae among the more modern * It may be remarked, that both the present Armenians and the gypsies Zincali (Zigeuner of the Germans) have a cranial structure very much resembling the high northern tribes of Finnic Hyperboreans, and are simi- larly nomads and soothsayers, sharp in dealing, and ever, like the others, averse to war. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 311 Italians; Markt, Fair, and Kioping, of the Gothic nations. The existence of these emporia explains how the classical ancients came so early to be acquainted with the amber coast of the north; for, in the third century B. C, Pythias, a Grecian traveller, and Divo, a Bithynian, at a later date, visited the present provinces of Pomerania and Prussia ; and though the work of the first named is lost, quotations remain sufficiently to establish the attention his narrative must have deserved.* THE ETRUSCANS. There was, beside the two nations of Upper Italy here noticed, a people more ancient than either, having in the lan- guage it spoke roots of Teutonic still more abundant; which, although it was believed to be derived from two widely sepa- rated sources, still bore the same import in the designations of both their names. One, the Rasenic, it was asserted, had pos- session of the lower Tridentine Alps, when the other (the Tyrhenic) came up by sea, it is said from Tyrra in Lydia, and, landing at the mouth of the Po, built Adria or Hadria, on the rriargin of the river. The present town stands more than twenty feet above the original foundations, and ten above that which existed in the time of the Romans; facts which, taking the accumulation of the soil near the mouth of the river to have advanced at an equal rate, would give about 3600 years * Pythias, quoted by Pliny, flourished about 330 B. C. He visited the amber coast, and notices the Guttones on the Montonomon estuary (the Frische Nahrung), at one dajT's journey from the island Abalus (the present Palmeniken), where amber was cast up by the sea. Divo is men- tioned as having visited the Baltic in the reign of Augustus ; he is quoted by Jaroslaw, domprobst of Ploezk. There is in Spon even an attempt to figure Hyperborean hunters, one riding a stag (reindeer) being shown galloping towards a net. The work of art is from a bas-relief, found at Etruscan Anxur. 312 NATURAL HISTORY OF for the arrival of the colony which first commenced the city. Such a period is consistent with the first arrival of the Celtae in Gaul. The Semi-Finnic Tyrheni were certainly allied to the Thraco-Pelasgians, and spoke a dialect not yet clearly ascer- tained; had at a very early period an alphabet, which, although primarily also of sixteen letters, neither coincides with the Cadmean nor with the Roman.* They were in possession of a growing civilization, such as smelting ores, and casting in brass effigies and bas-reliefs of divinities and men (they could even plate them with silver and gold), and made fictile vases variously colored; whereon, either in consequence of captured Greeks being among their early slaves, or from causes not known, there are found depicted Hellenic Mythi, often with circumstances not mentioned in the Greek poets, and yet extending over the whole geographical surface of their fables, from Palestine and Asia Minor to Sicily, and even to Gades in Spain. Like the Pelasgians, they built walls of cities with stones of enormous dimensions, generally in courses, with more regularity; but, unlike them, they had fre- quent subterranean passages, or galleries of mines beneath their cities, the use of which is not yet understood. They constructed their tombs usually in caves, dug with skill and considerable beauty, so well concealed and blocked up, that many have been discovered only in latter times; and these are found to have been adorned with sculptures and paintings of no mean artistical merit. The national mythology was however totally distinct from the Greek or Roman, and approximated, or was identical with, that of other Finnic tribes. Such were the Falsen of Etruria (Falaces),-pillar-gods, usually repre- sented in pairs, once well known to the pagan Scandinavians, * It appears that the Greek alphabet never contained at one time all the Etruscan forms, and they continued to write from right to left. It is probable the early Celts wrote with the same letters. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 313 • the Laplanders, and the Finnic Lithuanians, and still found in the houses of the Tschutski of the north-east of Asia.* Being brave, and skilled in the arts of life and war, although they had contests with, and expelled the Kerkopes (by the name evidently a dwarfish race, which fled to Sicily), it is evident that they were not numerous during their occupation of the present Lombardy; for they withdrew to make room for the Ligurians and Heneti, and were driven off still further by the Gauls, their strong walled cities being all on the Mediter- ranean side of Upper Italy. Rome itself was partly an Etrus- can colony, and owed most of the elements of its greatness to the institutions and example of that people. It is to be regretted that these tribes, ruled by independent Lucumons,1 wanted national unity when they were strong; for what the barbarians had begun on the north-west, the Romans fin- ished from the south-east, the whole nation being gradually absorbed by the conquering republic. They were manufac- turers, merchants, and navigators, till they were worsted by Greek assailants, coming from Sicily, and by the Phocian colony of Massilia. Yet it is to the objects of barter which they themselves, or the friendly Venetic traders, or subse- quent rival Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls, carried down the Loire, or across the German territory to the Baltic, that we must refer the bronze effigies, heads of standards (?), helmets, shields, arms, and even coins, often containing Greek mythological subjects, but bearing scarcely any tokens of *See Ossian, Ca-lodin, "Like the pillars of Lodin at Sliva." — Duan II. Were these perchance also the same as the Finno-Teutonic Alces Alkes, Alsen, brethren divinities, with a priest clothed in woman's gar- ments, and honored, without images, in a wood? It may nevertheless be suspected, that elk or stags' horns represented them, as reindeer horns are still used for idols by Laplanders and Samoyeds. Ailsen, on the Weser, may have been a local city for them, and the meaning might be perhaps taken from Elke, each or both. Certainly not Castor and Pollux, in the classical view of these meteor gods. tLucumon, Teutonic Lachman, man of law, judge. 27 314 NATURAL HISTORY OF Greek skill; for all these have been found in Gaul, Britain, the Tyrol, in the waters of the Baltic, and even in the bogs of Ireland.* The three nations, Etruscans, Ligurians, and Veneti, called the river Eridanus, which each, in turn, had possessed, by the names of Podan, Podines, Podinco (the Po), the terminal par- ticle being still abundantly found in certain localities of Lap- land. To these we might join the kindred Illyrian tribes, both on the Danube and the Adriatic, the pirate Liburni, with their fast rowing galleys, the Carni, and other clans, as before shown, mixed even with the Hellenic race; and all, like the true Finnic people, with remarkable veneration for the dead, for sorcery, apparitions, and human sacrifices. But for the present these circumstances may be passed over, as we shall have occasion to revert to them in the sequel. Few vestiges of the Finnic people can now be traced in the hill and mining regions of middle Europe, excepting perhaps in the Alpine, where the name of Tschudi is still preserved in one or more families of some distinction; and to the west, in the Highlands of Scotland, or in northern Ireland, where the significant name of the Fion, Fingall, Fingal, represents a marine tribe, avowedly acquainted with Lochlin, Norway, Friesland, or more properly, the eastern portion of the Baltic; * Such is the bronze group, eight inches high, representing the Centaur Chiron, with young Achilles on his back, in the act of drawing his bow, and a dog leaping against the fore-leg of the horse part, the whole stand- ing on a scroll with a ferule, evidently intended to support a lance. It was found near Sidmouth, much worn by ages of attrition in the wash of the sea. Again, a winged figure, sounding a trumpet, having one knee bent, the other resting on a globe, supported by a ferule, eight inches high, found in the bog of Allen in Ireland. Also numerous specimens of small brazen two and three horned bulls, ensigns of the Sequani, Taurini, &c, bas-relief figures of champions, in copper, found in Tyrol, and silver elastic spiral weighing-scales, with Roman stamp upon them, found in the Baltic ; all, excepting the last, bearing evidence of Etruscan or bar- barian workmanship. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 315 by its name clearly assuming the mixed origin of Finn and Gael. It was one marked as miners and sword smiths, person- ified in the name of Luno, and, moreover, a tribe with Finnic, not Celtic, religious superstitions. These qualities ally the Fion closely with the oldest Cymbers of the north-west, wrho were themselves Scythian-Celts, which is the same as Finns of mixed origin with northern Celtae.* Further north, from Denmark to the extremities of the Baltic, Teutonic Finns were spread all along the shores of that inland sea, perhaps even in Jutland, the best known still existing either entirely Germanized, or only so in their per- sonal appearance. In Scandinavia, they were miners from remote ages, wherever the topography of the land gave assur- ance that ores were beneath the surface. On the German side, fishermen, navigators, pirates, and merchants, collectively known, in a subsequent period, as Venden, Vandals, Vuidini, having every appearance of a consanguinity with the Veneti on the Adriatic, and exchanging, by their means, amber and peltry with the nations of the south, through the interior of Germany. The city Wineta, on the west of the Isle of Usedom, in the subsequently known kingdom of the Obotritae, * The Creon dynasty acquired supremacy over the Gaelcoch, or Red- Haired Celts, in the second century of the Christian era. From the fall of Galgacus, four generations, Trenmor, Trathal, Comhal, and last Fin- gal, ruled, when the power appears to have passed to the Maeatas, or to the family of Gaul, the more ancient head of the people. During the Creon dynasty, the conquests of the Romans were first arrested and then thrown back behind the wall. But whether the name of Fingal be derived from Vindgael (head of the foreigners), may be questioned, though all the Gallic nations then in the north were strangers. There were iron works in Britain before Caesar's invasion, as is proved by the chains and fastenings of the fleet he defeated on the coast of Gaul. The bardic similes still notice "the hundred hammers of the furnace," "the stream of metal from the furnace," &c. There is even the shiel- ing of Glenturret, called Renna Cardich, or the smith's dwelling, with remains of cinders, scoriae, and ruins, all evidence of antique iron works. 316 NATURAL HISTORY OF but now sunk beneath the sea, was the first and greatest emporium of the north, having paved streets, temples, it is said, with brazen gates, and a vast population of strangers and nations of various origin forming the citizens. Wineta, per- haps the typical Vana-land of mythic sagas, was the parent community, whence Arkona, Jomsberg, and Jollin originated. It was the most distant of the Venetic commercial establish- ments; others being at Venta Allobrogum, now Vienne, on the Rhone ; Bienne, at the Vendoni Campi, near Zurich ; at Venda, now Augsburg; Vendobona, now Vienna, on the Danube; Vannes, on the Loire; Guines, near Calais, probably also at Gwent or Vennemare, near Ghent; at Vingium, now Bingen, on the Rhine ; Venta Belgarum, now Winchester, and Venta Icenorum, Caer Gwent. They extended even to Ireland, where Ptolemy places the Promontorium Venicinum. They repeated, in this manner, the commercial policy of the Phoeni- cians, whose name may not be unconnected with the Veneti, and anticipated what the Baltic Vandal Lombards again restored, in the middle ages, under the form of Lombard streets, in most commercial cities of mediaeval Europe. They had a commercial intercourse through Russia, and with the Greek colony at Olbio, on the Borysthenes. It may even be no chimerical supposition, that it was from the Baltic cities that the Hyperborean annual donation came to Delos, which Herodotus and others have noticed. According to Took, the Permians had a barter trade with the Indo-Persians, by the Volga and Kama, to Tscherdyn, on the Kolva, where they received the goods, and carried them up to Petchora, in exchange for furs. Thus the presence of Hindoo opinions and idols may be accounted for, in the poems and antique remains among the Finnic nations. The entirely foreign commence- ment of the above-named cities is proved, among other indica- tions, by their having alone, of all the Baltic nations, temples for national idols, while other Finns had only sacred hedged THE HUMAN SPECIES. 317 localities for their divinities and religious ceremonies.* As already stated, there were two distinct races successively inhabitants of Wineta, and the other neutral trading communi- ties on the south of the Baltic; the first, composed originally of true Veneti from the Adriatic, strengthened by Celtae from the same quarter, — by Roman outlaws and fugitives, — by Celto-Scythae, that reached the north by ascending the Sarma- tian rivers, and by Yeta or Goths from the Lake of Ladoga, all cemented together by marriages with Finnic wives, a prac- tice that commenced at least three centuries before the reign of Augustus, and which finished by forming the tribes dena- tionalized by all the immediate people around them into that power, which, under the name of Vandals and Venden, pene- trated, about five centuries later, southward to the seat of their relatives or progenitors.! A second community formed after their departure, and retaining only a part of the former popula- tion, was composed of Finnic Sarmatians still more heteroge- neous ; for the first, arising out of a congregation of merchants, who had taken wives from the Finn or Sclavonic resident tribes, formed a homogeneous community, without tribal dis- tinctions, and assenting to the same pagan divinities; but the second was an assemblage of clans, which retained their dis- tinct nationalities, lived in separate quarters, and even distinct castles, until they rebelled against the authority of the magis- trates. These people were known to the Huns by the name of Vuinid Fulce, the same as the Celtic, Wenid Vole, and Theotisk Wenden Folk, and the acceptation of Wend or Vend is still retained in the modern Belgic Vent, a man of superior importance, a wanderer, a travelling merchant. Vend, in Gaelic, a head or chief; the fusion of the Finnic Yeta with the * Mone gives detailed notices of the nationality, religion, and institu- tions of the Finnic nations of the Baltic. See " Geschichte des Heiden- thums in nordlichen Europa," vol. i. t They first appeared in arms against the Romans, in the reign of M. Aurelius, A. D. 173. 27* 318 NATURAL HISTORY OF Celtic race being perceptible in various recorded names and events. Thus, in A. D. 563, the Winetans elected for their kino- Samo, a pagan Sennonian Gallic merchant, who con- tinued his reign during thirty-five years. A Finnic Celt, of great ability, has, during the present generation, again found an elective throne in the high north. The Boii, a tribe of Celto-Scytha?, wandered from Gaul to Bohemia, perhaps a pris- tine home; others resided, according to Lelewel, in Gallicia, all before the Christian era; and therefore Gaul was not un- known to the Vandals when they removed to the south. We trace the Celtic nationality still further, in the name of Wal- linische Werder, the locality where Jomsberg, one of the sister cities, was built; even at Dantzig, the same influence was per- ceived in the appellation of the river Rodaun. Historically, it is found in the bond of long-enduring neutrality which the Winetans, then called Vandals, maintained among themselves, the Goths, Suevi, and Burgundians, during their offensive wars against the Roman empire; and their power, in the facility which Stilicho, a native Vandal, found towards the attainment of the first honors of the empire, as well as for raising up enemies against it in his own cause. Political considerations may have prevented the Vandal inroad from proceeding beyond Pannonia towards Italy. The Illyrian Veneti probably bought off the invaders, and pointed out the greater facility of con- quests in the south of Gaul and Spain; for, being inferior in numbers, and less national than the Goths, as subsequent events in the peninsula of Spain attest, they were well advised to pass on, and, when followed, were even then compelled to retire to Mauritania, where Genseric took Carthage in 439, and subsequently being called over to Italy, he plundered Rome in 455, but only to return to Africa. Although, accord- ing to Witichindus, Wineta was then flourishing on the Baltic, the Adriatic Veneti began at Venice again to form a central commercial emporium, and their numbers were soon so great at Constantinople, that the blue faction in the hippo- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 319 drome,* representing the manufacturing power, wholly in their hands, gave cause for serious alarm to the government; even to a degree that ridiculous measures were resorted to, such as secretly enclosing the effigy of a blue Veneta in the brazen hoof of the winged group of Bellerophon, in order that by means of this talisman the Venetic superiority might be coun- teracted. In the Baltic, however, the more recent mixed communities of Winetans, now first called Aestii, or Ostmen, began to droop by internal dissension,! and by the revival of trade in the south of Europe, till the great storm of 809, when the city being par- tially submerged, and Jomsberg nearly ruined, broke their power; and though they made several gallant stands against the pirati- cal rapacity of the Northmen, Wineta was sacked by Hemming, king of the Danes, leaving the wreck of former industry to sur- vive only until Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, led a cru- sade against the Sclavonic tribes of the coast, and commenced their absorption into the German race, leaving the completion of the task to the zeal of two religious orders of knights, which effected their conquest in the thirteenth century. The Finnic races, originally more pacific, industrial, and sedentary, were often broken through by migratory hordes from the east; their colonies, towards the south, were isolated or absorbed, sometimes so changed by intermixture that the lan- guage became pseudo Gothic or Theotisk. Thus, very an- ciently, it becomes doubtful whether the Suciones (Swedes) were of the last mentioned or of the first race; most likely they were mixed; for Suomi, the proper name of the present Finns, resem- bles the old Scandinavian appellation. Of the Sclavonic Finns, Prussian, Livonian, Esthonian, Per- * Blue was the sacred, and still is the most esteemed color of the Finnic nations of the north, as well as of the Illyrian Veneti. tWinni or Wenden, Heneti or southern Wynetae, Suliones, Slavi, Rossi Cambrivii, Circipanni, Rutheni, Greeks, and Jews, began to fortify sep- arate quarters against or for Christianity. 320 NATURAL HISTORY OF mean, Lithuanian, and Courlanders, we need not give details, which are already generalized in Balbi (Atlas Ethnogmphique), and reviewed with as much learning as detail in Mone,* who describes, circumstantially, the national traditions, gods, and religious worship of the different nations, and, among others, of the Prussian. It is remarked, that no people of the north was once so rich in literary monuments; for though a vast quantity of legends and traditions still exist, there were thirty-one national chronicles consulted by Hennenberger, all of which have perished, excepting five, it is supposed by the contempt of the Teutonic order of knights, and by the neglect of the kings of Poland, who shared the ancient archives. From the above, it is clear, that a vein of indigenous civilization had worked on the Baltic, perhaps drawing its remote source from Bactria, by commercial Colchis, totally distinct from southern lore, excepting in the degree which Greek and Roman inter- course might have afforded, or Jewish wanderers, who early found favor among the Finnic Tahtars of Western Asia, may have introduced. THE FINNS OR SUOMI. Crossing the Gulf of Finland, we come to the Suomi, Finne- lap, or Finn people, still so called, which, however, notwith- standing the rocky hills, innumerable lakes, and many woods wherein it lies concealed, the three sealike gulfs which surround it, and the rigorous winters of that latitude, has still not escaped perhaps more than half hybridism; for the northern portion *" Geschichte des Heidenthums in nordlichen Europa." The abun- dance of records and manuscripts was here, no doubt, as elsewhere, the consequence of national intermixtures. King Vanland, who wedded Drifva (trade), daughter of old King Snoe, may represent the peaceful mercantile intercourse with the Venetic cities. Snoe himself gives an idea of ermines and peltry, or at least of the high latitude where the trade was carried on. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 321 alone can be considered as typical of the semi-intermixture of the Hyperborean and Caucasian stocks. It is there alone that the Lapland tongue finds so much affinity as to amount to a decided similarity; there the great distinguishing mental char- acteristic of the whole subtype is observed, in the permanence and generality of iron mining propensities; the godlike office of the forging smith, the constant poetical allusion to gold, silver, and iron, are prominent; and all the sorcery and incan- tations of the Laplanders, short of their magical drums, even now in vogue, — practices alike common to the kindred Shamans of Asia and the Angekoks of Arctic America. Although the Finnic race repudiates in national pride all consanguinity with the Laplander, the northern portion almost equally reviles the southern, because it is less conversant with the old nationali- ties, and is more generally, if not altogether, tall, straight, and fair-haired. On examination, we are assured that there is equal distinctness in the cranial structure between them; but, as yet, no account of a thoroughly scientific inquiry in this question appears to have reached middle Europe. . They are, moreover, accused by the Swedes of being more malevolent, a greater proportion of Finns occurring on the list of malefactors than of natives of Sweden, when both countries were under the same crown; and though the linguistic affinities were described, and the religious dogmas were supposed to be sufficiently well known, the recent discovery of a Finnic poem, named the Kalewala, shows that the sources of research in the north are far from exhausted, and that their harmonious lan- guage was anciently more polished than has been thought.* The ancient Finns were, however, mixed with Yeta races at a very early period; since a peaceful union between them is * Kalewala, or the adventures of Waina Moina, the god of verse a Finnic epic poem, in thirty-two runas, published by Professor Loenroth, a Finn by nation. There is a French version of it by M. Leouzon le Due, 1846 ; but it is strange we hear of none in German, though the work is regarded as perfectly genuine. 322 NATURAL HISTORY OF clearly shown, in the names of Finn, Suen or Sum, that is, Sweno and Atzel, or Attila, which occur both in the lists of Swedish kings, Lombard chiefs, and in part among the Ger- manic gods. The physical Jotun (Yeta) appear to have been the giant masters of this people, till they were vanquished by the Gothic Asi, and driven to live in rocks and caverns, afford- ing a foundation of that dualism, afterwards mythologically applied for the national runes, which even do not conceal dislike to the Asi, and felicitously represent them as destined to be ultimately vanquished; for the basis of Scandinavian mythic lore is Finnic. Fornjoter, the King, progenitor of the Finnic people, bears not a proper name, but an appellative of distinction. His altars, overthrown by Thor, show a system of worship destroyed by the Asi, but nothing to disprove that the whole did not come from the east; that region whence their mythological kindred, the Jotun, are to arrive from, in the ship Nagelfar, at the last day of the world's existence.* Immediately on the north of the Suomi, are the tribes of Laps, who speak a dialect of the same language, although they are almost pure Hyperboreans. The somewhat equal inter- mixture of this race with a Gothic people constitutes the real basis of the Finnic sub-typical stem, since others, more to the eastward, with Slavonic, and again with Caucasian Yeta tribes, produce the same result. Thus, it may be assumed, the Hunnic power was likewise generated in Asia from eastern Caucasians, mixed with Hyperboreans; for, when interunion occurs, the Caucasian type so readily becomes superior, that it is soon doubtful whether any Mongolic blood can be externally observed to be present. This is in Asia the case with the fair Ostiaks of Siberia — the Wotiaks and Tscheremisses — the Mordwines and Wogules; and, in a less degree, among the Permeans or * The Finns, like the American Savages, have feasts of the bear hunt, mystical notions of his origin, and, like them, give him by-names, believ- ing in his superhuman knowledge. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 323 Syrians of Russia, and even the Ghoorkas of the Himalayas are accounted Zwergi, or of dwarf race. THE HUNS. The Huns, originally from Yoguria, being kindred of the Wogules and Ostiaks, held the region between Tomsk and Tobolsk, till they moved westward to the confines of Europe. De Guines and Klaproth differ on their origin more in degree than fundamentally. They are first noticed in the time of Augustus, by Dion. • Periegetes. In the second century they occupied the extensive region between the Caspian Sea and the Borysthenes, having propelled or incorporated the Gepidae and the eastern Goths. They advanced in A. D. 375, to beyond the borders of the Danube, and became the most formidable power of Asia and Europe; for, in the fifth century, uxvder Attila, they had sway from the borders of China to the Rhine, his capital city being Buda, or Hunnic Ettelvar. They ravaged wdth their armies all Germany and the north of France, and pene- trated to the gates of Rome. At that period most of the nomad tribes of Asia were in his service; hence the nation might have been called ferocious and ill-favored; but here also the Caucasian element had already so greatly influenced the external form of the Ispans,or higher chiefs, that these were not inferior to any other privileged races of Europe.* The proper * The goat face of Attila, with horns and beard, represented on a Latin medal, together with the assertion that he called himself "Flagellum Dei," is mere monkish quibbling upon the names Atzel, Attel, Attalus, carried to the Hebrew Atzail, a wandering goat; hence in Arabic, Azalin, Satan. Attila's profile on a coin is shown, with lengthened features, a pair of wings at the shoulders, and his private symbol $££ occurs beneath the figure of a horse on the reverse, so much in the manner of Hindoo Bactrian art that there can be little doubt of its authenticity. He died in 453. A coin, given for one of Attila, or Ath-tila, king of Sweden, circa 548, is more properly applied to the Hunnic sovereign ; for he is figured on horse- back, carrying in his hand the trident or tripula, a real Bactrian weapon ; yet there he is styled Gauta og Suethiot Kongr. See Genswolff runa Kefli; also profiles of Hyatili princes among coins in Wilson's Aria Antiqua. 824 NATURAL HISTORY OF names, Balamir, Bleda, Iring, and Atzel, the Lombardy Atzo, Ailfred, and other words, show the Gothic element pervading usages and objects of social convenience; and the courts of their kings, if the old Burgundian (Frankish) legends may be credited, were as hospitable, as polished, and as splendid, as those of the Greek and Latin sovereigns of that time. The Huns subjected or associated the Haiatili, white Huns, Heph- tal of the Armenians, a partial kindred, with the Yuchi and Sacai, who came from beyond the Oxus, and were seated in Meweram and Khawrarism, with the capital Gogo, probably Ker- keng. They invaded Affghanistan, Scinde and Persia, in 428 ; but, driven back by Bahamm-Ghor, were extended on the north of the Caspian; but, if the conjecture of Professor Wilson be admitted, they were stilL powerful east of the Indus, since they took and destroyed the vast city of Valhabi, in Gujrat, in the year 524 of oar era. When the Hunnic empire had declined, we find a large force of their cavalry under the command of Iliphred and Apsich, in the service of the Byzantine emperor, forming the left wing of the army at the battle of Solacon, in the year 586, where Philippicus defeated the Persians. Other Finnic nations, debris of the Hunnic empire, such as the Avares, became predominant in Eastern Europe in the sixth century. In conjunction with the Lombards, they de- stroyed the power of the Gepidae, a tribe of Yeta, who had again risen to independence, defeated Sigebert, king of the Franks, and rendered the Bulgarians tributary; but, in the next cen- tury, revolting under the conduct of Conviat, these in their turn became puissant, and long held sway in Moesia, on the south of the Danube. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 325 THE KHAZARS. The Khazars, already mentioned by Armenian writers of the second century, were a nation both warlike and agricultural; and, being greatly intermixed with Jewish exiles, they changed from Budhism to the Mosaic tenets in the seventh century, and conferred the title of Hake (king priest) to a Hebrew family, while the temporal authority continued in the hands of the Khagan. In 858 they became Christians, but forsook the cross to please the Chorasmians. They traded largely in peltry from the north, and in other wares from the south-east of Asia. Usually the allies of the Greek empire, their dominions ex- tended from the Sea of Aral to the»river Bogue. Their capital was Baliangar, or Attel, at the mouth of the Volga, and they having formed a portion of the Hunnic empire, and probably ab- sorbed the Haiatili, appear to have built cities in Hungary, doubtless by colonists, or by establishing ventas. THE HUNGARIANS.* The Hungarians, or Magyar Toorkees, seem to have issued from the same Ouralian quarter, and were, with the last men- tioned, formidable to the Khalifs of Persia, about the close of the seventh century. By the end of the ninth, they found * The Byzantine writers view the Huns and Turks as the same ; and, indeed, the names Huns, Hungarians, Unni Occidentales, Onoguri, Ugri, Un°ri, Ongri, are all the same, or tribes of the same people. The Avari or Abares may have had a greater Caucasian element in their national origin. In the whole of the high region west of the Caspian, to the Euxine and eastern coast of the Mediterranean, as far as the Hellespont, it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate distinctly the Finnic from the pure Germanic and Celtic nations. Long before the historic age they absorbed a Melanic nation, which Herodotus called the Colchian in his time. The Pelasgi and Dorians were perhaps Lesghi, and tribes that went into Thynia, from the coast of Thrace, only completed a circle of emigration round the Euxine. 28 326 NATURAL HISTORY OF themselves established in their present abode, where they incorporated the remnant of ancient Huns, still left in Panno- nia. They long ravaged central Europe, until they became Christians in the eleventh, from which period they have been a repeated spoil of the Osmanlis. The Magyars offer another instance where the Finnic stem produces gigantic men; for the Hungarian grenadiers and the national heydukes are more generally of great stature than any other nation of Europe. During the time they resided near the Black Sea, they appear to have been in close friendship with the Zychi or Circassian tribes ; for they have not only a great external correspondence of appearance, but the Circassian language, like the old Arme- nian and the Hungarian, contains a great number of Finnic words, and the Lesghi-Avares of the same mountains have many Hunnic proper names still retained among them. It is probably to these tribes of pure Caucasians, or of hybrid Finns, that the Gog and Magog giants of antiquity, or rather the Haiguge and Magiuge of Curds and Persians, so long the terror of south-western Asia, are to be traced; for the pass of Derbend, on the Caspian, was already, in remote ages, vainly closed by artificial defences, to keep them from pene- trating to the south.* The interunion of Hyperborean with northern Caucasian races constituting also, in our view, the Ouralian stem of arctic Asia, it follows, that in this place the Toorkee tribes, who have the same conformation of the skull as the bearded stock, should be classed with the Finn or Tschudic group, although they are known originally to have been Hyperboreans of the most deformed personal exterior, according to European notions. They have already been mentioned in the notice of * Portce Caspise and Pylse Albania; of the classical writers ; Derbend, gate of security, in Persia ; Demir Capi, iron gate of the Turks. The Chinese wall, the Sassanian lines of Chorassan, and the Roman wall of Britain, were all constructed to arrest the progress of the same Hyperbo- reans of mixed origin. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 327 the Mongolian type, to which they were most strictly allied, so long as they remained unmixed. THE TURKS. Thus, the Atrak Turks, more especially the Osmanlis, differ from the other Toorkees, by their lofty stature, European feat- ures, abundant beards, and fair complexions, derived from their original extraction being Caucasian, of Yuchi race, or from an early intermixture with it, and with the numerous cap- tives they were for ages incorporating from Kashmere, Affghan-i istan, Persia, Syria, Natolia, Armenia, Greece, and eastern Europe. Both these conjectures may be true, because the Cau- casian stock, wherever we find it, contrives to rise into power, from whatever source it may be drawn, and therefore may in part have been pure before the nation left eastern Asia, while the subordinate hordes remained more or less Hyperbo- rean in character; as, in truth, the normal Toorkees about the lower Oxus still are. All have, however, a peculiar form of the posterior portion of the skull, which is less in depth than the European,. and does not appear to be a result of the tight swathing of the turban. Osmanli Turks are a handsome race, and their children in particular are beautiful. The Tschudic Toorkees, moreover, had in ancient times a Sabaean alphabet, written vertically from right to left, not brought, as De Sacy appears to believe, from Syria, by early Christian sects, for in that case it would never have been distorted to a Chinese mode of placing the lines. It is more likely the real ancient Bactrian form, one connected with the literature and science of remote ages, not to be so peremptorily rejected, be- cause no other proofs of this kind of Runic or Ogham are now to be found in the region where it flourished; and the Sanscrit, more perfect, and more extensively dominant, supplanted it, even in Thibet. At a remote age, they came upon the Taujiks (original Persians); they subdued or expelled them, and named 328 NATURAL HISTORY OF their conquest Toorkistan. It is to the Finnic tribes, first pro- pelled across the Jaxartes by these conquerors, that the dynasty or the rulers named Afrasiab, so celebrated in Persian tales, are to be referred, when the names of Iran and Aniran first began to be distinctive of Persia and Bokhara, while the adja- cent states, more anciently called Bactria, retained the name of the capital, Bactra, only in the writings of the west; for Finnic Toorkees had called it Zarias, probably Serai, and at one time it bore the name of Bykum. Afrasiab, whose race was fair- haired, proves that the stock was not so much Turkish as Fin- nic ; and the same inference applies to Salser and to Ros- tum; consequently, that the ruling clan of Cabulistan was for a period of northern race. Of the Torkee branch the Hiong-nu, according to Abel Remusat, is the most ancient recorded in history. It once inhabited Mongolia proper, and possessed a vast empire, which flourished about three centuries before the Christian era; and the dissolution of this state was the chief cause of that succes- sion of barbarian invasions, which, like rolling waves, inces- santly poured upon the west during several centuries, driving intermediate nations before them, or breaking through discom- fited tribes, which? in order to escape, made the most destruc- tive inroads themselves ; often at war with each other, the em- pire passing to a different tribe, or with the Huns, and other more strictly Finns, who in turn held temporary dominion. The Thou Kioei, or Altaic Turks, according to Byzantine his- torians, formed, in 552, a vast empire, which soon reached from the Caspian to China, and broke up in 703. It was Dzabul, their Kan-Khan, who received the ambassador Zemarkh, sent by Justin II., in 569, when another embassy from the emperor of the west was already returning. The Tchy-le or Thiele, a numerous nation, resided, in the sixth century, to the east of Lake Balkach, under the names of Kaoutche and Hoei-he, and from 788 that of Hoei-hou represent the same people. The Tchy-le, according to Klap- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 329 roth, mustered above 300,000 horsemen, and the Hoei were formidable in the eighth century, when they were already advanced in civilization. The Seldjucks, so named after the chief adventurer, who enlisted men of different tribes under his banner, broke into southern Asia in the ninth century, during the reign of Malek; they overturned the empire of the Khalifs, formed the states of Iran, Kerman, and Roum or Iconium; and from the Seldjucks sprung the Osmanlis, the present sovereigns of Turkey. We might here add those tribes with Circassian chiefs, the Petchenages, probably identical with the Kanjars. The Komans and TJzu, united in the eleventh century, who were known to the Russians by the name of Palowze, and Chuni by the Hungarians. From the tenth to the twelfth cen- turies they were the terror of eastern Europe, till in the thir- teenth they were exterminated by the Mongols. All these nations, as well as the true Caucasians we are about to describe, moved into Europe from the distant east, by routes which, it would appear, were entirely the result of chance; yet, upon examination, it is found that the great majority of cases, in whatever geographical locality a prime- val column sought its permanent abode in the west, there, also, one wave after another of kindred race subsequently found its home, notwithstanding ages intervened, and circum- stances had thrown new obstacles in the way. Perhaps intermediate points had continued to be occupied by relatives of both, or records of the success of former colonists had reached back to their points of departure; or, finally, it was because there are in geography natural directions of progress from one region to another, however distant; and that local conditions impel all migrators, once moving on a given line, to follow it out to the ultimate destination. These observations apply entirely in the human movements, from east to west; mountain chains, deserts, the course of rivers, and even real obstacles, conspire to produce the same results, while the con- trary direction is all but impracticable. Intellectual power 28* 330 NATURAL HISTORY OF alone, where arms have ever failed, brings it back to the east by the progress of religious truth, of science, and of the reason- ing of common sense ; thus amply repaying Asm for the innu- merable rudiments of practical and imaginative life we have owed her for so many ages. Having disposed of the Finnic Stem, and shown, in the mix- ture of the Hyperborean with the Caucasian stocks, the direct consequence of soon obliterating the external appearance of hybridism, and perhaps, with somewhat less procreative fertil- ity, tending to elevate individuals and whole clans to giant forms, we should now proceed with the true Caucasian or bearded type, if it were not that, at the commencement of the division of the primaeval stocks, we had noticed, on the south of the Caucasian, that there was similarly an intermediate stem formed of the woolly-haired or Negro type, in various states of commixture with the bearded, where the tokens of degradation, or of inferiority, passed away with even greater rapidity, but less durable results; and though the stature remained the same, the marked difference of color proved the descent from hybrids, who, like the true Negro type, possess the perceptive and imaginative faculties in greater proportion than the more enduring reflective powers; whence the incapacity to advance beyond a certain limit in reasoning, civilization and empire, seems to follow. Taking, therefore this stem, with a view to have in the sequel only the pure Caucasians to examine, we place here THE ETHIOPIAN OR MELANIC STEM, such as it was marked out-by the earliest writers of antiquity. Under this denomination, it is desirable to arrange the races sprung from a real or an apparent interunion between the woolly-haired and the bearded types, distinguished by black, curly, undulating, or lank hair; a sufficient beard, with the feat- ures of a Caucasian form, partially and often supereminently THE HUMAN SPECIES. 331 displayed, having the same typical structure, and the color intensely black, only when local circumstances indicate those qualities to be so far accidental. It is distinct from the sub- typical Malay, and the intermediate ramifications derived from it, by well-marked characteristics, notwithstanding, excepting where there is reason to believe that the Malay stem is itself crossed with Indo-Caucasian tribes in the eastern provinces of India, and in a great part of the southern. Excepting that the ears, especially of the Malabars, and the upper Egyptians, stand somewhat higher, and that the legs are proportionably longer than is the case with either of the types, there are no very distinct characteristics immediately observable, though the mouth, lips and nose are full, the hands, fingers and toes broader and flatter, resembling the Negro form. The African Ethiop has the hair pendent in heavy close ringlets, and the black eyes are still larger, and more soft, than the Indian. Equal intermixture constitutes the usual Mulatto condition; but, in the east, a much greater infusion of Caucasian blood does not very evidently clear the skin. Some of the lank- haired nations of India, as such bearing signs of more than semi-white descent, are, nevertheless, among the swarthiest of the whole. It has even affected old Portuguese colonists, and the ancient Jewish inhabitants of India; neither, it must be confessed, having the least claim to purity of origin, but being a mixed progeny with low caste natives, themselves, as we have before stated, descendants of aboriginal Paharias, Bheels, Nagas, and with only a small admixture of nobler blood. Nev- ertheless, among these slave and outcast tribes, the chiefs have high aristocratic features, which are not unfrequent among their subjects. Whether the mucous membrane of the very dark tribes of Ethiopians, with lank hair, assumes the same appearance as that of Negroes, is not, so far as we have been able to learn, remarked; though, if this condition of melanism should not exist in them, it would produce a very valid argu- ment in favor of the assertion that the woolly-haired race is of 332 NATURAL HISTORY OF a distinct origin. There cannot be, however, a doubt that in the Mulatto state, or half-bred Caucasians, that peculiar struc ture of the skin must be in part remaining, since, in the charac- ter of the hair, we find it in proportion of the bearded parentage; the frizzled and mop-like character passes into spiral curls, then undulates, and, at last, is wholly straight, while, in descending the scale, the mop becomes crisp, and returns to that low state of humanity, which, in the warm regions of the east, was branded with the reproach of being accursed. From this imputation, indeed, the more physically elevated real Ethiopians were not exempted. In the Sacred Scriptures, with perhaps some exceptions, Chna and Egypt were so branded to the promulgation of the Christian dispensation. The hatred incurred by the race of Cham or Ham was, indeed, repeated in the north, by the same pure Caucasian stock, towards the Hyperborean, if we may take the earliest Finnic Tschutski to have been the first miners, and, perhaps, the Tubal Cain of the Pentateuch; for obloquy pursued both, although for ages they were mixed races, and long the deposi- tories of the dawnings of civilization, though not the first to organize human progress. Races of mixed Caucasians, afterwards known as Joktanites, Indo-Arabs, and Semitics, descended the west bank of the Indus, and, from the remotest period, secured the whole Sulei- manic range, and at this time already fixed upon the culmi- nating point of Takt-y-SuIeiman, or, rather, Arawati, the mountain of the dove, or the ship, for their first remove of the Arkite reminiscence from its original centre.* They left the purer Papuas scattered westward, or drove them onward till one of its tribes constituted the Negro races, with a taint of the * The Arawati and Aryawart mountains are, perhaps, higher up in Asia, and the real locality of the diluvian record. But the Parveti Mon- tes of Ptolemy, so named from the Sanscrit Parvat, a dove, is Suleiman Koh, 12,831 feet high, still noted for the abundance of different species of doves. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 333 white stock forming the most western branches, such as the ancient Numidian, and present Caffres and Gallas. In consequence of the deep-rooted hatred of the Caucasian races towards the typical Negro, we find those frequent allu- sions to purity of blood in the Arabian clans of the desert. It is the whole question whereon the poem of Antar hinges; for color alone is not the cause, since Bedoween tribes are, in many instances, exceedingly dark, from the Euphrates to the west coast of Morocco; and the Tarikh Tebry endeavors to account for it in the legend, which relates how the ancient Arabians were fair and blue-eyed, but so wicked that they would not hearken to the prophet Salah. Miraculous omens had no effect, until, at last, they were converted, in one day, from white to red, and, in the next, to black. This tale may be the reminiscence of Scythian inroads and conquest, such as were effected by the giants of the Pentateuch, who, inferior in number, were gradually absorbed by the predominant race; and, though masters (for the master race, in Oriental relations, is, in general, the only object of record), became dark in their descent, and were mostly driven across the Red Sea. The northern infusion was repeated more than once; and, besides Egyptian history, we have the Geta and Arabians confounded by classical writers, as we shall notice in the sequel. The Cushites* of antiquity, confounded in many cases with the Joktanites, correspond, with scarce an exception, to the Ethiopians, as we here notice them: the regions of Cusha Dwipa within, and Cusha Dwipa without, of Hindoo geography, exactly represent Asiatic and African Ethiopia; and the names of Itiopiawan and Itiopia, by which the Abyssinians still desig- * Chus, Cush, Cuth, according to Jacob Bryant and Holwell, is derived from cushet, a bow, still the chief weapon of all the wild mountain races of India, the instrument they used to achieve the death of opposing demi- gods, and, till lately, arming them as the guards of rajahs and princes, who took them into their service. Goosch, in India, still denotes a robber. 334 NATURAL HISTORY OF nate themselves and their country, notwithstanding all dis- claimers to the contrary, denote, like the Arabian term Habesh, for the same state, a mixed people, with perfect correctness, for they were the first semi-Caucasian invaders of Arabia, Cush- ites, Semitic races from the Suleimanic range of the western border of the Indus. Fair tribes, from more northern high lands of Asia, mixed with Indian Nishadas, or with the local Nimreks of the soil, were already a very compounded race in Elam, before they were driven across the Straits of Babelman- deb. They had, even then, the elements of science and civili- zation imparted to them, by the giant invaders of western Asia, or by Gomerians, high on the Indus; for, to this day, tra- ditions, customs, and opinions, prevalent in Abyssinia, bear evidence to the fact. Later colonists passed, no doubt, the same straits, for a considerable influx from the west of Asia is evident in the languages still spoken along the east coast, even as far as the cape; and the higher development of the Galla and Caffre tribes can be traced to a partial Semitic intermix- ture. The basis of civilization must have been communicated from indigenous progress, already developed in the peninsula of India, or by the more recent knowledge carried along with the conquests of pure Caucasians, in the regions of the Ganges, or in Elam (Persia), by other conquerors, but both appearing to derive their acquirements from some common source in the upper valley of the Oxus. The original formation of the Ethiopian stem appears to have been in the burning alluvial deposits formed by the Indus, and along the southern foot of the Himalayas, on the Hel- mund, the Kabul, in Cashmeer, and the Punjaub, where Cau- casian tribes, seeking warmer regions, encountered the black races, and, by conquest and slavery, commenced amalgamation, which every new wave of invaders conduced to increase. Fur- ther immigration to the plains of India naturally followed, through the secondary ranges of the mountain chains, or they crossed over from the high land of Thibet. That the move- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 335 ment was, in a great part, from north-west to south-east, is proved by the presence of Gangarides in the valley of the Bramaputra, where, in other respects, the foreign element in the first population was eastern Caucasian or Malay. Who the bearded tribes were that originally spread over China, was sufficiently shown in the notice of the Mongolic and Finnic nations not to be again repeated, although we have, on the south of Asia, nations similarly constituted, but further debased by certain Papua intermixtures, and all feel the different influ- ence of a southern, and, often, a marine climate. The infusion of northern elements is strikingly proved by the predominating presence of Sanscrit in all the dialects of India, although variously debased by forms of speech of indige- nous origin, Parbatyia, Naja, Dravira, Bheel, Nishada, and Yadhu, &c, upon which it was ingrafted. As the invaders came through the gorges of the mountains in successive swarms, and not always from the same point, they subjugated not only the black aborigines, but also the mixed tribes of their former conquerors, leaving only that portion in freedom which could retreat to inaccessible mountain districts, to recede from the civilization they might have had before their political ruin, and either pure or already under the rule of masters not of the kindred stock. The older invaders seem to have been denomi- nated Chasas, equivalent to the western term Asi, or Asen, high- landers, which is also the meaning of Guras. They came, more particularly, from the southern side of Hindu Koh and Paropa- misus, in their last debased condition, constituting the Indo-Arab races, but here almost universally become true Ethiopians and Cushites, by union with nations still more melanic, and who formed the great majority of the population. Other mountain conquerors first came to the south by descending the passes of Thibet, leading to the high basin of Cashmeer, where the name of the capital being Nagara before it became Caspatyrus, sup- poses the population to have been Naga, and of the same stock with that of the lower Indus, where the name was likewise 336 NATURAL HISTORY OF given to a city, a Heliopolis, as Strabo asserts, where the snake worship was then, as it still is, in existence in Cutch* This very degrading worship was not inconsistent with the idolatrous sacrifice to the giant divinity Muhishan, whose statues have a serpent wound about the loins, and whose legend is of so ancient and peculiar a character, that he may be regarded as a solar god among the aboriginal tribes, he alone riding his war buffalo in battle against Durga, and, therefore, the supreme type of indigenous power before the horse was known in the peninsula of India.t That this divinity was, by Hindu, Arab, or Cushite invention, converted to Kali, is evident by the similarity of Moloch, in Syria, with both; and, by the retreat of Mahades, another form of the same, to the mountains of Kylas, when in danger from the assaults of Ravan, is shown that his worship was not then admitted in southern India. Notwithstanding the repeated contradictions and dualisms of all the Indian mythological compositions, there are to be found shadowy pictures of historical events in the great San- scrit poems still extant; for although even the oldest were written many ages after the transactions to which they refer, probably by men who had no circumstantial traditions, and were more imbued with the marvellous and imaginative to form mythological themes, according to poetical formulae, than * Cutch and Gujrat may both be connected with the Cuthite race, and fit localities for migrators by sea; for from Diu, in Cutch, Gama despatched the open boat that conveyed the intelligence of his arrival in India. It went round the cape, and arrived safe at Lisbon. Nearchus went from Kurrachee. t We have before mentioned the figure of a Rajah riding his war-ox, and the almost Ethiopian Caffres of Africa mounted on them, to a recent period. It is probable that Hannibal derived from his Ethiop Numidian companions the celebrated stratagem, when, by means of oxen with com- bustibles burning on their horns, he puzzled the Romans, and extricated himself from a difficult position. It may be remarked, that the Black Muhishan is opposed to Durga, a divinity of the invading mountaineers. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 337 to draw up historical documents; still there are casual glimpses of facts, fixing certain geographical data, and a general current of events, which reveals many truths, though the dates, the persons, and circumstances, may be nearly all fabulous. Among the Sanscrit poems, beside the Puranas, there are the Mahabarata and the Ramayana, particularly available to form approximate notions on the earliest history of India, and the composition of nations it still contains. Though the substance of the first is said to be fifteen, and of the second thirteen centuries older than the Christian era, it will be safer to con- sider both as referring to events at least as ancient, while the poetical views of the compositions, exclusive of episodes, such as the deluge, &c, are evidently centuries later, and in all cases refer to dates subsequent to the first invasions of the Caucasian Man, though not to the total subjection of the Indian peninsula to his conquests. We take the Ramayana to be the later, in point of composition, in the form it now appears, as shadowing forth the remotest known conditions which affected the two typical stocks in southern Asia. The subject matter is so grand and exciting, that Valmiki's 24,000 slokas, or distiches, are not the only though the most complete elabo- ration of the theme now extant; for there is another ascribed to Vyazudavu, and three or four more, of which that by Bod- hyana is said to be replete with splendid passages. All relate to the actions of Rama, the hero divinity belonging to the first known dynasty of the kings of Oude, at a time when it does not appear that the other sovereignties of the peninsula were, as yet, in possession of the conquering bearded races. The Nishada, Vidantha, Naga states, the kingdom of Kapila, at Hurdwar, on the Ganges, &c, were in the hands of indigenous tribes, and Lanka Dwipa was the abode of demons.* Some, * We have not had access to Ward's History of the Hindoos, and, therefore, cannot judge of the view which that learned scholar takes of the primaeval period. It is, however, a subject of regret, that not more Sanscrit documents have been published, and that what is before the pub- 29 338 NATURAL HISTORY OF like the Rana of the Jaitwar tribe, claiming to be descended from the monkey hero Hanuman, and pretending to have a prolongation of the spine in proof of the fact, shows at least that certain families, of whatever origin they may be derived, still wish to pass for descendants of aboriginal tribes. In the north- west of India, and east of Persia, Shombho, Nishombho, Muhi- shan, Tarika, Durga, and Ravan of Ceylon, are indigenous giants of tradition, in all probability personifications of states, and of repeated wars by Papua tribes against invaders from the high mountains. The persevering nature of the contest may be gathered from the circumstance, that although all were for many ages ruled by chiefs of mixed origin, their final sub- jugation was not accomplished till the Mahommedan conquest. In the usual dualism of mythology and history, we find Rama, the son of Budha, and grandson of Meru, child of the sun, abiding in his holy mountain, west of Kaubul, probably Indo-Koosh.* Bali-Rama, the hero son of Desaratha, or of a tribe so denominated, being accompanied by Jumont (bears), Hanuman, monkeys and other wild beasts constituting his army, came down the Cabul river, across the Indus and Pun- jaub, established or found already formed the kingdom of Ayodhya, now Oude. He with his brother Krishna vanquish Jara Sandha, king of Bahar. In these wars, the wild beasts, with the bear, evidently represent tribes from the high cold regions, while Hanuman, with his monkey army, are the aborig- inal race of the Vindhaya chain and lower districts, probably lie must be sought in many volumes, scattered through the literature of Europe. * Mythologically, the holy mountain may be Dhawalagiri, the highest mountain in the world, and in sight of the northern border of Oude, in which case the Gogra, or more likely the gorge of the Gunduk, in long. 88, may have been the route followed from Thibet by Rama. The pass is still frequented ; but one was more certainly from the north-west, and then, with a tribe from Balk, the march was necessarily by the passes of Kohi- baba. Yet the Hindo-Mongoli dialect shows that at least a conquering people came down Himalaya, by the pass of the Goomty. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 339 Bheels; for Bhil, the god or native prince of this people, slew Krishna with an arrow; and in another mythus likewise killed Heri, one of the Pandoo brethren. Defeated or expelled his conquest, Bali-Rama is related to have been an exile from Oude, wandering with his wife Sita, who, being carried off by the giant Ravan, king of Lanka, originated the war with the Rakhshasas, cannibal giants, in Ceylon. After great opposi- tion, the insular defence is surmounted by the bridge which Hanuman makes of mountains to unite the island to the con- tinent ; and although Rama himself is at one time captured by the Cauravas, the hero divinity and Sita are both released, Ravan slain, and the powers he ruled destroyed. There is in this mythus a religious war indicated, as well as a war of races; the victory is evidently indecisive, since the conqueror returns to northern India, and afterwards reigns in Oude. In this great and brilliant poem is the first notice of the people of Balkh, in Transoxiana, under the name of Bahlikas. They are represented as a kind of fairy philosophers, residing in the holy mountain, or sacred centre of religion; still bearing a cer- tain resemblance to the revered and wise Scythians of the Greek poets. In the second period we have no longer wars of entirely dis- tinct human stems, or at most with only the partial adhesions of the Naga races to the invaders; they became wars of inva- sion upon predecessors, or intestine conflicts among tribes equally mixed. The Mahabarata mythologizes the worldly interests of these nations into religious struggles between the Pandoos and Kurus or Cauravas, the children of the moon and the sun; which may be interpreted by the Celtic, or followers of a lunar arkite doctrine, opposed to the Semitic or solar wor- ship, which belonged more probably to the people of the south. The Pandoo brethren appear to be Gomerian Celtae, sons of Pandu and of Coonti, a princess of Mathura, sister of Heri and Baldiva, the Indian Hercules. Coonti had, by several gods, Yudistra, Bhima, Arjoon, Nycula, and Sydiva, all clearly his- 340 NATURAL HISTORY OF torical heroes or tribes, enveloped in mythological and allegori- cal forms; but the mythological circumstances being a parallel of the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman, they are necessarily older than the ages of Bali-Rama, or of the Pandoo brethren* They are all importations from Balkh, modified in each region by local ingredients. The historical Pandoos are first placed geographically beneath Cashmere, in the hill country north of Lahore, or, as others relate, the Pandian Raij was on the bor- ders of the Jumna, with a tribe named Bahikas among them; after their migration and wars in the south, they are established in the Gomerian Celtic state, the present Carnatic, with Madura for its capital. It is in this vicinity that frequent cromlechs, locally denominated Pandoo Coolies, are to be found ; and they exist likewise near Bombay, where the caverns of Salsette, like those of Elora (Yeroola), confirm that the Pandya tribes, like Rama, originally came from beyond the Indus, and carried on a religious war of conquest against nations who had a solar worship. That they penetrated to Ceylon, may be surmised from several striking coincidences in the oldest legends of the island, when compared with the ancient western tales ascribed by Welsh poets to the Druids. The significant prefix, Tre or Ter, joined to towns and places, is even now as frequent on the main land, and in the islands, as it is in the Celtic provinces of Britain or France.! If Krishna, the blackener, a designa- * It may be observed that the Pandoos are children of the watery ele- ment. Coonti is a native of the locality where the Indian deluge took place ; Heri and Baldiva are solar personages, and the land of their birth is still marked by numerous cromlechs. t Compare the Ceylonese legends in Upham, with the Celtic tale of Iseult and Tristrem, where the dog with three different colored spots, red, blue, and green, represents the candidate for orders in bardic druidism ; and the five colors of the Hibernian are similarly typified by dogs in the mystical language of the initiated. We name here a few localities, bear- ing the prefix ter, tre, tir; Travancore State, Terepuney, Teruwalla, Tri- vandrum, on the west coast; Trichindoor, Tirun, Tiripauramun, Teroomun- galum, Teruchooly, Terumboor, Tripatoor, Teruvunpette, Trinchinopoly, Tiruvalur, Tranquebar, Trinchingode, Tircoiloor, Triomalle, Tirovady, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 341 tion of the sun, likewise connected with the Pandoo mythus, have a historical basis, approximating, though probably still earlier than 1350 years before our era, it marks the period of the Helio-Arkite superaddition to the most ancient northern Caucasian system of a trinal supreme godhead, the Indian Trimurthi,* one not unknown to the Celtae of western Europe, but where it succeeded the Helio-Arkite doctrines, or combined with them, as was also the case in India, where Vishnou is the Arkite savior, and belongs to a mythus more appropriately ascribed to Gomerian Pandoos than to any other race east of the Indus. To them also may belong the Gomerian practice of wives becoming common to a whole family of males, such as still obtains in the mountain parts of the peninsula, in the Suleimanic range, west of the Indus, in Hindu Koh. It was, in a more refined form, a dogma of the Hebrews, was not unknown to the Britons, and put in practice by the Pandoos. In this view, the Pandoo invasion of the lower peninsula appears certainly to be more remote than four centuries B. C, and precedes even the ten assigned to it by the great authority of Professor Wilson; for, in that case, the Gomerian Celtae of the west would have reached their destination long before the arrival of their kindred in the south; a region so much nearer to the common point of departure. Were either of the above admitted, it would subvert the natural connection evidently existing between the east and west, and leave the source of a variety of ideas, opinions, and usages, common to them, totally inexplicable. They extend even to Abyssinia, where the death- wail, and many other usages, are similar to the Irish, and both are unquestionably derived from the far east. If the westward migration of these Hindoo Ethiop tribes were traced to its origin, we might refer one of them as a likely consequence of Tripasson, Trivelore, to Trivalore, on the north of Madras, all in the Carnatic, and Trincomallee, Tricoville, Tirrach, &c, in Ceylon. * The same as Triemathur, on the north, Pendoran of the British, and even Taregatanga of the Peruvians. 29* 342 NATURAL HISTORY OF the severe civil war wherein a part of the Pandoos were worsted. Colonel Todd, in his Rajahstan, points out the plains of Caggar and Surawati, where the decisive conflicts took place, when the fifty-six Yadhu tribes were at length broken, and departed with Ardjoon and Bhima to unknown regions. We find, in other mythical tales, the Asuras or Ashurs* eminently religious and virtuous, according to the doctrines of the Vedas, and therefore invincible, even by their gods, till the jealousy of Vishnou suggests the expedient of preaching, in the form of Budha, tenets still more humane; which, being adopted by the Asuras, causes them to fall from the true religion; thence become liable to defeat, and accordingly they are vanquished; that is, the Brahman interest caused a religious war against the Budha doctrines, admitted to be more humane than the Vedanta; a fact well known to be historical, though here clothed in a mythic garb. Although the Asuras cannot be mistaken for Assyrians, they may, nevertheless, have been original Hasaures, Asii or Arii, the Indo-Germans of history; for these have figured in northern India for many ages, some- times being taken for Indo-Scythians, at others for Hyatili; and it was probably this last swarm of invaders which de- stroyed the city of Valhabi in Gujrat, about the year 524 of our era. The ravages of conquest, ended in this latter case, were of temporary influence. The Rajpoots and Catties (Cuthaei), who were themselves only predecessors of the Indo- Scythae in the north-west of India, recovered their power on the east side of the Indus, and still show the blood of High Asia in their stature and color, even to the extent of gray eyes and light-colored hair, observable in some families; though, in general, they have high Arab or rather Hebrew features. Per- * Here the Asi are admitted to be wise and virtuous. They came from the same region as the Bahlika priesthood ; were terrible in war, typified by their monster heads, and were, perhaps, the Arai or Mahratta colonists. The Asuras were sons of Diti, wife of Kasyapa ; which again gives a mountain origin to these Titans. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 343 haps the Sixth Avatar, where it is related that Vishnou, in the form of Parasha Rama, destroyed the Chetrie, Xeterie, or warrior caste, may signify that the Arkite Pandoo States were able to defeat the Rajpoots in their endeavors to penetrate into southern India. Soon after the period of Alexander's invasion, further dis- locations took place; a portion of the Cuthai (Cathai), however, remained, but the Malli, it seems, were already driven to the southern Ghauts, probably by Arachosian or Affghan conquer- ors, who, for many ages, held sway from the sources of the Cophis or Cabul river, across the Indus, to the Hyphasis or Sutlej, and caused the Indian empire to be regarded as extend- ing westward to the confines of Persia. Most of the tribes, whose names occur in the histories of Alexander, and that can now be deciphered in Indian geography, are no longer in the plains, but form clans in the mountains. The variously mixed races from the north-west and north- east, with the aboriginal Papua tribes, can be traced by the deepening color of their skins towards the south, and by the greater remains of true Papua features, taking into account anomalies of circumstances. It is so, likewise, with the influx of Sanscrit; becoming less prominent in the south, where Pali prevails, and it is also marked by the Brahmanic system of religion, the Vedanta creed becoming more and more modified by other idolatries, and by the Budha doctrines taking refuge in Ceylon, where it appears to have incorporated a whole native demonolatry. This last religious institution was, with its Naga worship, no doubt, established during the period when the peninsula of India was still in the power of the Papua tribes, and was sufficiently exciting to have been carried westward, not only by migrating Negroes, but also by the Ethiopic Stem, by Mongols, and even Gomerians, in their progress to Europe. India being at that early period a scene of conflict, the invaders found sovereignties either already established, or formed them by degrees, as their irruptions became* permanent. In the 344 NATURAL HISTORY OF north-east the Euro-Caucasians established on the left of the Ganges the state of Tirhut; Canya Cubja occupied the upper parts of the river. Sereswati, the present Punjaub and Utkala contained the greater part of Bengal. On the south and west there arose Gujara, Rushtra, or Gujrat, Patala on the Lower Indus, with other kingdoms already named. Khandeish, fur- ther to the south, Mura, or kingdom of Mahrustra, now Mah- ratta State, subdued, perhaps, by Arii or Arai, in the centre, with the Dekhan and Kanara, on the extreme point of the peninsula. But sanguinary and protracted wars alone permit- ted the white races to become dominant and to effect a gradual intermixture. Wars, producing total subjugation, by one race over another, bear the character of extermination ; they necessitate the weaker party to seek safety in flight and migration : nor is the result very different where the races are already partially intermixed, for then a ruling caste, descended from the last victors, is driven to the same course, or to total loss of all supremacy, unless the chances of the conflict are sufficiently chequered to cause the ear- lier and later invaders to coalesce by compromise. Now, if the Pandoo heroes, with Ardjoon and Bhima at their head, departed after the defeat of the Yadhu tribes, there is little doubt that the direction of their retreat was westward, and constituted one of those migrations of the Asiatic Ethiop race, which was afterwards conspicuous in southern Persia, as a portion of the so-called Indo-Arabs, who were ultimately driven from Yemen, and passed to Abyssinia, or formed the Cushite people of Afri- can Ethiopia.* Tribes of this class were most assuredly the * If Nimrod, as is asserted, was a Cuthite king, ruling from the first in Assyria, the Babel which preceded Babylon was a city of Ethiopians, with Caucasian or Finnic rulers, probably the Gaurs, who seem to be iden- tical with the Gordei, who may still be represented by the Coords of the present day. Nineveh, &c, were capitals of northern districts, but the resident population, between the Tigris and Euphrates, was Ethiopian ; since Mesopotamia, now Djezi rat, was encompassed by the river. This cir- cumstance, and the swarthy Colchians of Herodotus, gives the northern THE HUMAN SPECIES. 345 element which formed the Aurite population of Upper Egypt, for they still retain peculiarities of structure observed in the present Malabars.* Others, less swarthy, were colonists of Lower Egypt, constituting the Misr population, of whose progress we have already adduced proofs, by the plants and animals which they could not have possessed, but by depart- ing originally from High Asia, and, subsequently, from the vicinity of the upper Indus; and the further progress they made is likewise to be traced by the symbolical lions in their sculptures being invariably maneless ; a character which marks the variety of that formidable animal existing only in the southern portions of ancient Sindh, Persia and Arabia; while the typical species, if the symbol had been adopted from the ' African, would most assuredly have been figured with a huge mane. Some hordes had preceded them across the Nile, to form a portion of the Mauritanian and Nubian populations, which, we have already shown, were in part driven by the Arabs, at a later period, across the Sahara, to commix with the Negroes on the Gambia, and are now Poulas, Jaloffs, and Mandingos. Others departing by sea, probably from Ceylon, reached as far as Madagascar, where they found already the Ompizee canni- bals, while they formed themselves the tribes of black Malgash Voalzis, Ondeva of the present time. These were followed by Semitic clans of Indo-Arabs, whose kindred we have seen in the Australian Islands, and who, on the shores of eastern Africa, commenced, under the names of Joasmees and Jacal- vas, the same profession of pirates. These, in common with the Habesh, influenced the whole of the south with opinions limit of the Ethiopian extension, that is, as far as the boundaries of the date tree and the habitation of the ostrich. * Among others the large eyes and long legs, which may be the origin of the legend of the Macroceli, Tala-gangha, a tribe of ancient India; but we think the present Catties of Kutch are descended from conquering Cathai of High Asia, giving the name, and forming the master tribe of the original Papua Aurites along the coast. 346 NATURAL HISTORY OF and parts of speech; and they modified the characteristic dis- tinctions of the Negro people within contact, as is evident in the Caffre and Galla nations. There remain now only a few more remarks to make on the Ethiopic tribes in primaeval Arachosia, Aria, and Syria, simi- larly originating in commixture between Arab or Melanic Cau- casians and Papua races. They are traceable by the denomi- nations of Nimreks, Dombuks, and Kakasiah — the black brethren of ancient legends: and the antiquity of occupation in Western Asia is attested by the same documents; for these races are stated in Arabian lore to be pre-Adamite, and the localities they held at one time are perhaps marked by the resi- dence of the black giant, Sukrage, one of the seventy-two Sul- tauns who reigned in Kaf before Argenk, another giant of tradition. Kaf,* an Arabian name for the great central table land of Asia, is here referred to a particular locality, perhaps the chain of Demavend, or one of the several peaks bearing the name of Alburs, or, rather, Kohi-Baba, where Argenk's palace is described to have been adorned with statues of mon- sters, endowed with reason, " such as existed in former crea- tions." There were pictures upon the walls relating to those * Neither Kondemir nor Mirkhond are the inventors of these traditions ; for Kaf was, in Arabian lore, a mountain, " enclosed like a ring surround- ing a finger," and " the sun rose and set from Kaf to Kaf." It denotes the high land of Asia. The Sakrat hinge of the world is Himalaya, and was the region wherein the deeve bird Simurg or Simorganka tells Temu- rah he had served forty Sultauns, his predecessors, and had seen the crea- tion renewed seven times. Kaf, when particularized in the Shah Nameh, is evidently Kohibaba, which, with its two passes, was best known among the elevated peaks on the western front of the great plateau; and there it appears Zohauk is likewise fabled to have had his fastness, though another of the name is placed in the middle of Lake Zurrah. The number of seventy-two Sultauns, compared with the forty Solimans, indicate the priority of residence in easternmost Persia to have been on the side of the sable races. According to Arabian notions of geography, Kohi-Kaf is situated between the habitations of Iran and Ginnistan. " Taric Tebri." See also " d'Herbelot, in voce Soliman ben Daoud." THE HUMAN SPECIES. 347 times, poetical embellishments in the legend, which, since the late discoveries in the ruins of Nineveh, show that the narra- tions are drawn from buildings adorned with Andro-Sphinxes, Sirens, and Taurine monsters, similar to those of Persepolis. The locality may even be much more towards the north and east, since a sculptured sphinx has been discovered about the Altaic gold mines, and similar objects are frequent in the ruins of ancient cities about the river Amour, in Chinese Tar- tary. The name of Temendoun, a giant with one hundred arms, defeated by Kayomurs, first king of Persia, but who escaped and fled to Oman, in Arabia; one more, named An- thalous (Antaeus), with a thousand arms, who was captured and sentenced to death by Soliman Ben Hakki, who could never accomplish his decree, indicate that they are reminis- cences of ancient legends, notwithstanding the evident plagia- risms from Greek fables and Hindoo relations, and that the color, the direction of the flight, and the indestructible charac- ter of these enemies, whose many arms imply the strength of their forces, and the region and antiquity of their occurrence. They are, moreover, countenanced by others, such as the ante- diluvian sovereigns Mahabad, "Father of mankind;" Biurasp, " King before the flood;" and Gilshah, " The first man;" all mythical records of the first Caucasian invasions from the high lands, and the wars they waged upon the black popula- tions in possession of the land. If the relation of Herodotus can be admitted, they were in his time not quite extinct in Col- chis. The evidence of their blood remains marked in the present Bedoueen Arabs; it was unquestionable in the race of Ham in Chaldea and Syria; in the Ethiopia of southern Per- sia, Persis, Chusistan, and Susiana; in Arabia Deserta, from the southern coasts of the Indus to the Straits of Bab-el-Man- deb, and in Upper Egypt to Nubia and Cordofan. The Shah Nameh furnishes traces of their wars with the Iranians, and Asiatic Ethiopians are historically noticed in the time of Xerxes. The whole region, from Hindostan to Lybia, 348 NATURAL HISTORY OF was anciently, and even is now by Orientals, frequently denomi- nated India. Like their ancestors, the population still forms a mixed race, having in general ruling families of a white origin; sometimes named Getae (Goths), Germanii of Kerman- shah. Strabo (lib. vii.) makes Pyrebestas (Abu Rebbia) rule the Getae. Ammianus calls Arabia the desert of the Getae; and the Beni-Ghour (children of the swamp) are still regarded as a fair race, descended from that stock. It is in this territory, and adjoining Egypt, that in the ear- liest antiquity a very considerable civilization is detected, because the confluence of nations moving westward obliged concentration at the isthmus, in order to reach the lower Nile, and in this manner they became conversant with each other's discoveries in the arts of life, and saw the dawn of commerce opening by the mariners of Sidon. Whether the Imilikon, or Amalekites, were of the same mixed stem, does not clearly appear; but that the Phoenicians, Punes, Fynes, so far as the master tribes are concerned, were Finns, is exceedingly probable, since a red-haired race neces- sarily must have come from the northern parts of Asia; and if the language they spoke was in the historical era almost a pure Hebrew, the cause is easily discovered, since a white com- munity, of no great strength, had gradually increased to a series of cities, whereof the vast superiority of inhabitants were Semitics and southern strangers, who, from the period of the first conquest of Phoenicia, acquired political power; whereas, until then, they had perhaps only possessed a certain preemi- nence in the refinements of civilization. The Phoenician power was long settled before the arrival of the Hebrews in Pales- tine, and it was not regarded by them in the same light as the upland tribes of Canaan, since political and commercial alli- ance, and permanent peace, existed between the two states; conditions which could not have been maintained if the Punic race had not been of a very distinct origin from the Canaan- ite. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 349 EGYPT. If the isthmus of the Red Sea was already closed on the Mediterranean side, when the first human population came to the western shores of Asia, it may be assumed that the delta of the Nile was not yet so consolidated as to offer any firm footing beyond the sands on the beach; while the marshy fens within them were, as yet, only beginning to form the pres- ent lower province. Gradually the valley was occupied, from the head of the first bifurcation of the river, up to the cataracts, by a population of very distinct origin, cemented together by causes not now accessible to investigation; for here three nations, at least, adopted the same system of civilization, and amalgamated together from different sources of migration, elaborating a state religion, and peculiar social institutions, whatever difference there might be else in tribal speech and local doctrines. The oldest of these nations had been pushed up the river by succeeding immigrations, and was of true Ethiopic character, Indo-Arab, deb or black, and since known by the names of Aurites, or Abarites. It was apparently com- posed of tribes expelled the coast of Malabar, and distinguished by the more elevated position of the ears, by large dark eyes, strong curly hair, long legs, thick lips, and very swarthy color: the second, a brown race, with lank hair, were the Misr, or Mestrai (Misraim of antiquity), said to have been led by Masr; but all these names indicate a mixed race, which both were; and the third, governed by a fairer high-featured tribe of real Caucasians, were most likely the last comers, and in part a privileged body of conquerors; they were, collectively, the Gouptas, Koptos, said to have followed the mythological Menes,* who first nestled in the marshes of the delta, and * Menes, the same as Manu, who binds the ark to the peak of Hima- vahn ; and Meru, whose holy mountain was west of Cabul, near Bamean, and ancestor of Rama; but it may be a name for Joktan. 30 350 NATURAL HISTORY OF most likely came by sea from Asia Minor. They obtained and kept the ruling power, the Pharaonic crown and priest- hood, for ages, in their hands, although they were neither the authors of the civilization, nor of the religious doctrines of the land. The enormous army, with excessive privileges, main- tained by the state, and forces often called in from abroad, warrant this opinion. The conjecture is strengthened by the prohibition the government gave to all marine enterprise on the Red Sea, and the early and long continuance of suprem- acy it exercised over Syria; and, finally, by the reminiscence of hostilities in High Asia, which prompted the greatest of the Egyptian kings to make repeated inroads as far as Bactria, though ever with ephemeral results. At length the sceptre passed from them to the Cushites, who, in time, were again subdued by new hordes of High Asia; while the Cushite nation secured the coast of Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt, up to the Port of Aphrodite; this was the Ethiopia of Africa, Thosh, or Etaush, and Kush, still called Kish in the country. Both the Cushite and Aurite people had Caucasian or white chiefs, since, even at this day, Dongola women are prized, because they are comparatively fair. Leaders, like the expelled Pandoos, led them, by coasting, till they crossed over from the Arabian side to the Egyptian. Coming from the Indus, the Aurites ascended still higher, to the head of the Red Sea, as we are expressly told by Syncellus. They passed by the Wadi Sendeli, still named Derb-Tuarikh, and thence spread from Memphis to Thebes; for, had they been mere wanderers through deserts, their gods, in after ages, would not have been invariably placed in boats, nor would there have been, annually, a festival, when these idols were sent from below to visit others up the river, in splendid barges * The origin of such a ceremony could only * Diluvian records abound with all the Caucasian and cognate races. There are, probably, more than one hundred fabulous legends, religious and mythical, where the patriarch and his family are designated under different names, circumstances, and localities. Even in Palestine, there THE HUMAN SPECIES. 851 be derived from a commemoration of their first landing, or their original departure from the east, confounded with a diluvian tradition; notwithstanding, that record is so deep rooted, that, even to this day, in Arabia, the Arabs do not call out an army, where many tribes are collected, without bearing at the head of it a reminiscence of the ark, in the shape of a wooden frame, placed on the back of a strong camel, and adorned with ostrich feathers, which they call Merkeb (the ship). The styles of sculpture, architecture, and excavation, not- withstanding the remote period of their origin, have more affinity to the Bactrian Hindoo than to any other colossal, ponderous detail; such as a compound of what remains of Nineveh and the earliest cavern temples would produce, showing traces of the natural development of art, when work- ing upon the same kind of materials with similar means. The statues retain the normal pillar form in all; but the parts of architectural combination advanced beyond mere excavation, as it still was in the most ancient cavern temples of India ; not so complete and less appropriate than the Egyptian, indicating an older date, though it was wielded in both regions by sacer- dotal supremacies over great populations. The system of wor- ship in Egypt was likewise allied to the Indian, though both, no doubt, had their revolutions, innovations, and successive incorporations of foreign elements. British sepoys, forming part of the expedition that was to cooperate with General Sir Ralph Abercrombie in the re-conquest of Egypt, no sooner entered the ancient temples in the valley of the Nile, than they asserted their own divinities were discovered on the walls, and worshipped them accordingly. They even pointed were four or five, all greatly distorted from the true narrative in the Pen- tateuch. One or other of these Indian migrators revived the Neel of India in the Nile of Africa; for, unless the notion had begun in Egypt, all antiquity, to the time of Alexander, would not have been led to believe that the African stream had its source in India. 352 NATURAL HISTORY OF out the Cresvaminam, or Brahmin distinguishing cord, as like- wise a decoration of the painted divinities. Few traces of Aramean or Japetian languages are percepti- ble in the constituents of the ancient Egyptian and modern Copthic. The Hebrew and Arabic are comparatively of recent introduction. Originally the Egyptian form was monosyllabic, essentially different from both, though the Canaanite nations of the same stock spoke a dialect of Chaldee, which in itself appears to be an evanescent tongue, and might have been pre- ceded in Syria by a different form, as it was subsequently suc- ceeded by others, since geographical localities of ancient Pales- tine were constantly indicated by two very different denomina- tions. The Egyptian, no doubt, consisted of a sacred dialect; one which was used in all written documents, sacred and legal, while very diverging forms of speech belonged to different parts of the kingdom. There was, particularly, one in the Delta, another in Upper Egypt, and most likely the Cuthic above the cataracts. Uch and Pharaoth, the most ancient words for king, may nevertheless be both epithets, the first denoting high, eminent;* and the second, a mutation of Phre or Phra, recurs in the Pelhevic proper names of ancient Persia, where it desig- nates command or leadership; while in Egypt the same word seems to have been appropriated to the sun, to exaltation and beauty, in which sense it is equivalent to the Theotisk Frai, Norsk Fager, handsome. Goshen or Goshan, in Egypt, and Gauzan in Mesopotamia, do not denote a temple of the sun, but literally the cow-land, the cattle-country. The Delta was most probably designated in Egyptian by the name of Rab, since in Hebrew it was called Rahab. For ages it gave shelter to pirates and roving clans, which, when they had remained fixed during a certain period, had no means of * Uch. See Manetho. It may be remarked, that there was a tribe of TJchn east of Persis proper, and that it was, according to Volateranus, from among this people the gypsey tribes first came forth. Uchii were, therefore, Highlanders. ' THE HUMAN SPECIES. 353 resuming their marine course of life, because wood for rafts and vessels was always scarce or wanting, the tall reeds and rushes suffering none except the palm-tree to flourish. This was the cause, it may be believed, why the Kapthorim, after leaving Kapthor or Cappadocia, wandering onwards by Rhodes, Crete, and Cyprus, till they rested for a period in the Tanitic arm of the Nile, were obliged to migrate by land to Palestine. There were also the Sinim and Phoenicians in the western arm, and Greek adventurers on the bank near Damietta; others, most likely, were absorbed in the Egyptian people, or passed onward to the west. Several of these tribes are, by classical authorities, placed in connection with the Hyper- boreans, or rather the Finnic races, a branch of which may have been the Hyksos (or Shepherds), with the more proba- bility, as the earliest Armenian language is known to have contained a great proportion of words belonging to that stem of nations, and the Armenian people were styled Haikos or Haik wearers, which is the same as Hyksos. They are even made to be the same as the Cathai, Beni Kous, who may have been the Kufa of High Asia opposed to Sesostris, the fair-haired nation of the ancient Arabian records, and the present Nesearies of the hills; so early were the invasions from the north-east towards Egypt, and so confused become nations when the ruling tribe and the masses are of different typical forms. Above the Egyptian races, the Nubian, Nuba, or swarthy Cushite people, were fixed at a remote age, though Syncellus and their own traditions represent them to be colonists from the banks of the Indus; and the claim is countenanced by the local names of Kutch, Gujerat, Cattywar, provinces on the east side of the present delta of the river; and the circum- stance, that the Abyssinian kings were, and still are, styled Nagas, while in the most ancient kingdoms of the delta of the Indus or Neel, denominated Patala, the Naga or Serpent was venerated in the capital Nagara, and the people were Nagas. 30* 354 NATURAL HISTORY OF Tribes of Cushites had fought their way by sea or by land, and formed a great power in Arabia Felix, till the present Arabians compelled them to cross the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. They returned, however, more than once, to hold dominion in Yemen, carrying the first coffee-plant with them from Africa, and continuing to hold up the commercial prosperity of the country to the time of the Hegira. Since the decline of the Abyssinian empire, subordinate kings still retain the ancient title; such, for instance, as that of Bahar Negash, or king of the plain, &c* The Nubian people are of the same origin, mixed with Arabs of the Rebiah tribe about Ibrim, and more pure from thence to Tinareh in the hills. It was from this region (Etaush) that queens, denominated Candace, became historical personages;! and the case of the eunuch baptized by the apostle Philip, shows that the Hebrew Scriptures were studied before the advent, even as far up as Abyssinia, and that persons of the progeny of Ham came up to Jerusalem to worship. To trust solely in the linguistic character of nations, where slavery, polygamy, and where barter and violence alike daily interchange crowds of captives, is at best unsafe^ all unwritten dialects, and even permanent nationality, become dubious; consequently manners are greatly varied with the circum- stances of existence. * Apophis, supposed to be the Pharaoh visited by Abraham, may have been a Naga king in Lower Egypt, as his name is synonymous with Python. If he were the Apophis slain by Horus, we would have an approximate date for the known system of Egyptian religion. t Candace does not appear to have been a proper name, but a title, per- haps a mutation of Khan or Kong. In that case, Thosh or Taush would denote tusk. Etaush, the land of ivory, which would again indicate the ruling power to have originated in a northern or high mountain race of conquerors. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 355 THE ATLANTICS OR BERBERS. On the north of Africa many wanderers landed from the sea, and migrators from the valley of the Nile were pushed onwards over the Nubian high land. THE NUMIDIANS. One of these seems to have reached that region rather late, if they already possessed horses at the time of their arrival and were the Numidians of Roman history, cele- brated for the small and active horses which the warriors rode without saddle or bridle, guiding them with a rod, or at best with a rope passed round the lower jaw. But we take them to have been a distinct and later invasion, and sufficiently evanescent to have passed away into Negro tribes, since the supremacy of the Arabians became estab- lished. THE AMAZIGH, Or Berbers, properly so called, extending from the Nile to the Atlantic, are now, under the name of Shelluhs, most numerous in the glens of Atlas, where they occupy villages in the south and east of Morocco, with habits not totally lawless nor inhospitable. But several of the tribes differ greatly from them, such as the Errifi of the province of Rif, who are among the most ferocious of human beings, and the Kabyles, Koubals, tribes speaking the Showiah language, which is believed to contain a considerable quantity of Numidian roots. There are other Berber tribes, that are miners, and manufacturers of gun-powder, gun-barrels, knives, black soap, &c. These are again referred to the Numidian people, passing gradually 356 NATURAL HISTORY OF into the Poulah and Jaloffs, who, alone among the Negroes, have horses and camels. THE SUAKIM. East and south of the Nile this great stem seems to pass into Suakim troglodytes, who are referred to the ancient Kahtan Arabs, black by blood, which, if it be correctly viewed, the filiation of this branch of the Ethiopian stem is marked out from beyond the Indus to the west coast of Morocco. To the troglodyte race belong the Ababde, mistaken for Arabs, though they have the Negro mouth and color, occupying a great space between the Red Sea and the Nile. They are conductors of caravans from Sennaar, and spoken of with approbation. The Gomera, a relic of an almost extinct and unknown people, still occupy a portion of the district of Rif in Morocco, living in harmony with the Shelluhs, and possibly descended from those marine Celts, who, in early ages, came down the coasts of Africa, where they left the cairns, peulvans, and cromlechs, which the Romans at more than one place called Philcenian altars, particularly those found near Cyrene, and on the salt lake ; and there is another, distinguished by the name of El-Uted (the Peg), still existing on the Aguache river, in Barbary. It is perhaps also this tribe of Gomera who speak a Celtic dialect, said to be still intelligible to Welsh seamen, and asserted to be likewise understood on the south-west coast of Spain and Portugal. They are graziers; and it may be observed, that, in Sanscrit, Gomed denotes an ox; Gomera, in this case, like Gwalla in Asia, and Galla in Africa, being denominations for oxman, neatherd. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 357 THE TUARIKHS. Though both the Tibboos and Tuarikhs are nearly pure Caucasians, we notice them here on account of the remote antiquity they claim, and the thrifty character they bear; the last mentioned, in particular, are habitually engaged in marauding to make slaves for sale, or in commercial transacr tions at annual fairs, and conducting caravans to the nations of Soudan, Bornou, and Timbuctoo. The language they speak is not Arabic, is as yet little known, the natives assert- ing it to be the most ancient in the world. If the Roman Numidians still retain a national existence, it is perhaps among these tribes that they should be sought. The Tibboos, residing in the middle of Negro tribes, between Fez and Bor- nou, are partly nomads, hospitable and moderate beyond all other tenants of the desert. We may place here the gypsy tribes, the Zingari, Zigeuner of Germany, Bohemians of the French, Karashu of Kurdistan, who, notwithstanding they speak a dialect of Hindoostan, and betray by their color a positive intermixture with Papua blood, have nevertheless the crania of Asiatic Finns, and are known to have dwelt among the southernmost tribes of that stem before they came towards the west. As they may have detected Finnic words in the Cophtic, since Klaproth discovered several in the ancient language of Egypt, there is some reason for the claim set up by these roving families for affinity with a Nilotic population, since they have a similar right to that of Persia and Bokhara, and kindred tribes are among the wan- derers of Northern Africa. They are, indeed, first observed to have traversed portions of Southern Tahtary. Some visited Armenia, Syria, and Egypt; and others, about the year 1400, passed onwards through Poland to Bohemia, and finally extended to England and Spain. We have hitherto shown how typical and aberrant races of 358 NATURAL HISTORY OF man have evidently proceeded eccentrically from the vicinity of the table land of High Asia, so far as the proceeding can be traced by geographical necessities, which in most cases have operated like positive laws, and are corroborated by history when human scripta have recorded the facts. Let us now see how the same conditions of Man's primaeval swarming can be traced in the great Caucasian type, of which the eventful career is so much better known than that of the preceding races. THE BEARDED, INTERMEDIATE, OR CAUCASIAN TYPE, Is so named, because neither of the two other typical forms is distinguished by a well-grown beard. Intermediate form is applicable with reference to the boreal and tropical position of the other types. The appellation of Caucasian remains likewise appropriate, when understood to apply to the Indian or true Caucasus, or Imaus of the ancients, for by these names the region of Hindu-Koosh and the vicinity must be understood; and it is to that locality careful examination ulti- mately traces the first habitation of at least the white races of the bearded stock; * for the term white, though it is in general sufficiently correct, is still not quite admissible for the whole, since the color varies from pure white down to melanism nearly as deep as a genuine Negro. Albinism is frequent; * Caucasus of Western Asia is a name transferred with many others from the central region of the old continent. It seems to be derived from Koh-Cas, or Hindu-Koh, and includes, besides that region, also Paropa- missus, Emodus Imaus, or Western Himalaya, with numerous and elevated peaks, and the high lands of the Arii or Asii. Kohi-Baba, the apparently highest point of the whole, appears to be the local Kaf of Arabian tradition. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 359 and both the phenomena of an entire horny skin and of total hirsuteness seem to belong exclusively to the bearded type. It being to the form under consideration that the tribes class that have peopled Europe and Western Asia almost exclu- sively, its typical characters are easily ascertained. The beard is neither villous nor woolly, but spreading over the lips, chin, and the whole of the nether jaw. It fringes the sides of the face up to the temples, and is crisp, curly, or undulating, but never quite straight or lank, as in the Mongolian. The skull is larger than in the other forms; it is oblong, rounded, with the cerebral portion more developed, containing from 75 to 109 cubic inches; the facial angle is more vertical, rising from 75 degrees to nearly 90. The face is oval, the eyes large, open, horizontal, the pupils passing from hazel or brown, on one hand, to dark, nearly black, and on the other to deep blue, gray, light blue, and even greenish (pink-colored pupils occur only in extreme cases of albinism); the hair is abundant on the head, curly, waving, or lank, varying in shades of colors from very deep brown to auburn, xanthous, and fiery red, usu- ally corresponding, but not always, to the beard and eyebrows, and sometimes from infancy marked with gray, which, in advancing life, in both sexes, is sure to come on, till the whole is turned white. In general, the hair harmonizes with the complexion, which varies, in the white races, from sallow to ruddy and fair. Health has its influence on the color of the skin, in all races; but in the fair the cheeks are frequently colored; the typical races have the mouth small, the teeth set vertically, the lips not tumid, and more delicately graceful in outline; the nose is more prominent, and the wings less spread than in the other forms of man; nor is the nether jaw so angu- lar. The forehead is broad, often high, the occipital part less developed, and the arch of the cranium less solid. Man of the bearded type attains the highest standard, is, in general, above the middle size, and in symmetry excels all the others: the arms are in better proportion, the hands more beau- 360 NATURAL HISTORY OF tifully shaped, and the feet and toes more delicate, and more obliquely arranged. His movements are more decisive of pur- pose, more graceful; the poise of his head places the counte- nance vertically to the horizon* The shoulders are ample, the chest broad, the ribs firm, and the loins well turned; the thighs, and, in particular, the calves of the legs, symmetrical; the whole frame constructed for the endurance of every kind of toil, being protected in some measure with a partial growth of hair, which is scarcely traceable in the other types excepting on the chest. Thus he is constructed with physical powers equal to his intellectual organization, fitted to sustain protracted thought, — continuous attention, alike excited by an activity of disposition stimulating his brain, which is larger and more fully developed in the anterior portion than in any other form of Man. In the mere animal senses of sight, hearing, feeling, smell, and tasting, the social position of civilized nations may render them, in part, less quick, because they are less called into activity; but the Kaufir mountaineer of Hindu-Koosh, and the Arab wanderer, are, no doubt, equal, if not superior, to the acutest perception of Negro, American, or any other wild race in the world. Again, the Caucasian form of Man combines, above the rest, strength of limb with activity of motion, enabling it to endure the greatest vicissitudes of temperature in all climates, — to emigrate, colonize, and multiply in them, * A weight being placed on the head, such as when a Dutch milk-maid skates to market, the heavy pail is so poised upon a kind of pad, that it bears equally on the dome of the cranium ; so, also, is water carried by the abnormal Egyptian peasantry. In both, the weight rests on the per- pendicular axis of the body, through the centre of the skull ; whereas, in the Negro, weight on the head is always poised nearer the forehead, and, consequently, the chin is elevated. With the Mongolian and American, the strain appears to be downward, the muscles of the neck being rigid. Weight is carried, not on the shoulders, like a Caucasian, nor on the head, like the woolly-haired races, but by a strap pressing against the forehead and passing to the back. True Caucasians trust to the shoulders and loins. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 361 with the sole exception of the positive extremes. His longevity is more generally protracted, even in the midst of the enervating habits of high civilization ; his solid fibre gives a reasoned self- possession and daring in vicissitudes, arising from the passions, from accident, or from the elements; and his reflective powers find expedients to brave danger with self-possession and impunity. The moral and intellectual character we find to be in unison with his structure : the reasoning powers outstripping the mere process of comparing sensations, and showing, in volition, more elevated thought, more reasoning, justice, and humanity: he alone of the races of mankind has produced examples of free and popular institutions, a^d his physical characteristics have maintained them in social life. By means of his logical intel- lect, he has arrived at ideas requisite for the acquisition of abstract truths; resorting to actual experiment, he fixed bases whereon to build demonstrable inferences, when the positive facts are not otherwise shown; he invented simple arbitrary characters to represent words and musical sounds, and a few signs which, nevertheless, denote, in their relative positions, all the possible combinations of numbers and quantity; he has measured time and distance, making the sideral bodies uner- ring guides to mark locality and give nautical direction; he has ascended to the skies, descended into the deep, and mastered the powers of lightning. By mechanical researches the bearded man has assuaged human toil, multiplied the results of industry, and created a velocity of locomotion superior to the flight of birds. By his chemical discoveries he has modified bodily pain, and produced numberless discoveries useful in medicine, in arts and manufactures. He has found a sound and connected system of the sciences in general, and acquired a critical literature, while, for more than three thou- sand years, he has been the principal possessor of all human knowledge, and the assertor of fixed laws. He has instituted all the great religious systems in the world, and to his stock 31 362 NATURAL HISTORY OF has been vouchsafed the glory and the conditions of revela- tion. The Caucasian type alone continues in rapid development, covering with nations every congenial latitude, and portending, at no distant era, to bear rule in every region, if not by physi- cal superiority, at least by that dominion which religion, science, and enterprise confer. Constituting, as we here show, the most important, the most elevated, and highly organized type of Man, it becomes interesting to search out the original seat where geographical as well as historical and legendary evidence attest it was cradled, and whence, under the con- ditions of existence which now surround it, fair induction shows the great races of this stock commenced to radiate in all directions. Egyptian antiquity, when not claiming priority of social existence for itself, often pointed to the regions of Habesh, or high African Ethiopia, and sometimes to the north, for the seat of gods and demigods, because both were the intermediate stations of the progenitor tribes. The Hellenic nations, when they searched for their own aboriginal source, a part of their ignorant vanity, sought them in the farthest north, beyond the dominions of Thrace, and knew of moral Lactophagi, of gods and sages, among the Hyperboreans, which could be no nearer than the Borysthenes or Dnieper. Ionia and Western Asia claimed those sources of nationality for the high lands beyond the Euphrates, or for Armenia, where the language was partly Finnic, and further north-east on the Oxus, where the forms of speech were still more Hyperborean. Even Delos had three priestesses, natives of the distant north; and Olen, a high priest, whose name is so thoroughly Finnic as to be still com- mon in Scandinavia. But modern research, without rejecting these facts, has shown that they lead, always, to regions still further east, Hindu-Koosh, Cabul, and the Suleimanic range, high lands, probably designated, in a general form, by the Sanscrit name of Ariavartha, — the high, the holy land of the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 363 Hindoos, whence all the conquering races of the type first brought their heroes, demigods, and legislators; the whole, both of the south and the east, ultimately pointing to Thibet as the cradle of the Caucasian Man. At the western extremity of the Himalaya chain, beneath the plateau of Thibet, is situated the basin of Cashmere, sur- rounded on all sides by lofty mountains, and peaks covered with lasting snow. From this region flow four or five con- siderable affluents, which give its principal importance to the Indus. Where this great stream, by the natives called the Sind and Neelab, breaks from the north through the mountain gorge, commences Hindu-Koh, the real Caucasus and Imaus of the ancients, Kaf, or Kauf, of Arabian writers, a region so elevated that the greater portion is covered with permanent snow. The central mountain system is overlooked by the peak of Hindu-Koh, the culminating point, though others, like Kooner, to the east, and Kohi-Baba, at the western extremity, rise, one more than 15,000, and the other to 18,000 feet above the sea. From the vicinity of the last, the region is bounded on the north by the first feeders of the Oxus, forming another Punjaub, and on the south by the river Cabul, which, passing the foot of the Kohi-Baba (the special Kaf of oriental fiction), flows eastward to the Indus, forming one of the richest valleys in the world for every species of cultivation. Further south, beyond the peaks of Suffeed Koh, commence spurs or prolonga- tions, passing nearly at right angles from the main chain. One, the most western, lower than the other, is the Ghiljee, and the other, more elevated, forming the occidental side of the valley of the Indus, soon rises to a chain, which contains, further south, the peak of the Dove, where, at a remote period, it was already fabled that the ark rested, according to the legends of Northern India. It is not less than 12,000 feet in elevation, and now known by the appellation of Takt-y- Soleimaun. From Hindu-Koosh, a lofty chain, now known by the name 364 NATURAL HISTORY OF of Ghoor, continues westward, and is said to have been more particularly the Parvati Montes, or ancient Paropamissus of Ptolemy. Further on, we find another Takt-y-Soleimaun, as well as a third at Och, on the Syr-Deriah, or Jaxartes. All Arabic names in central Asia are, however, of recent imposition. Then we have the Caspian range, leading on to the second, or interpontine Caucasus of western writers. Towards the east, Hindu-Koosh abuts on the Belor ridges, which turn northward, and first present the high table land of Pamere, termed the back-bone of the world. Pooshtu Kur, the most prominent peak in the new direction of the chain, sends forth, from its broad glacier, the grand source of the Oxus, Jeyhoon or Amou, which flows to the west and north ; and further on, where the Gakchal mountains curve from north to east, joining the Mous- sour and Thianchan chains, continued fronts of elevated gla- ciers pass on, in a north-eastern direction, till they subside in the Gobi Desert. From the glacier of Moustach issues the Jaxartes, flowing on to the Sea of Aral. From longitude 70 to 80 east, there are only three practicable passes to the west; all, further eastward, as well as the river, are turned to the north. From the nucleus of Irin Khabirgan, above the sources of the He river, east of the city Hi, passes a subordinate chain of high lands, leaving Lake Balkach to the west, and soon after (about lat. 49), turning likewise to the north and east, joins the little Altai, and constitutes a second table land, till it is united with the clustering ranges about Lake Baikal. We need not pursue this description further eastward, but confine our observations, by stating that from the east to the south- west a cross range, under various names, separates the Gobi Desert from the plains of Thibet, a great part of which is still geographically unknown, though here, also, as on the west of the great table land, rivers of considerable size, among which another He and the Kachgar Yarkiang terminate in lakes, or are absorbed in the sands, having frequently, in their upper courses, fertile vales and habitable glens. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 365 It is on and around the regions here slightly traced out, that it becomes evident the filiations of the bearded stock should not be viewed solely through the medium of disjointed texts of ancient writers, far removed from the localities, but where they first began; for, in order to form a fair estimate of realities, it is important to study the local geography, and to become thoroughly conversant with the science of what is technically denominated reading the ground, — that is, of grasping the conditions of every topographical and geographical fact; of appreciating the consequences attendant on residing or migrating across, up, or down, the current of streams; of toiling through snow-clad regions, turning a long range, or finding an approach to mountain passes, through marshes and forests, straits by sea, and straits on land; of migrations to be accomplished, not by hunters, but by tribes who have their families and property to carry with them, and must be able to find food in their progress. In opening thus the book of nature, and learning how realities should be dealt with, there remain many other considerations to be kept in view, such as climate and seasons, periods of frost, of ice, or of drought and monsoon winds. Still more, in order to trace the march of ancient nations, it is requisite to search for marks attesting man's handywork, in evidence of his passage; for troglodyte habitations, sepulchral ruins, and piles of stones, tell also, and more forcibly, of by- gone ages, than texts of mere individual authority; nay, they often disprove them, and invalidate remote chronology. In proportion as we may interpret rightly these documents of nature and time, we shall understand human doings in the infancy of society; and when we also call to our aid the relig- ious doctrines, the ancient poetical records, and the laws and legends of a people, we shall find, in general, sufficient data to arrive at epochs in time often more trustworthy than the pre- cise years affixed to events, obtained by reckoning backwards certain astronomical facts, or reigns of kings, which chronolo- gists themselves find means to advance or retard, in order to 31* 366 NATURAL HISTORY OF make them applicable to a favorite theory. Our conclusions we shall rarely find at variance with linguistic relations, when these are fairly tested by circumstances. Here we endeavor to trace Man back from known conditions to others anterior to them, but which must of necessity have been in his career, though it may be that they occurred some centuries sooner or later. It is in this manner we find the reasons for assuming that the Caucasian stock, traced up to the earliest period, was nestling in or above the glens of Hindu-Koosh and the neigh- boring mountain ranges; for there we find it already distin- guished in two or three well marked varieties of color, the swarthy and the fair, and subdivided in several secondary shades, each having homogeneous features, limbs, and intellect- ual capacities. We can even point out the particular geo- graphical localities which several must have occupied; and from what has been stated already in the remarks on the Hindu-Papua tribes, and again on the Caucaso-Mongole or Finnic races, the gradual passage of one typical form to the intermediate. We have, in the remarks upon these subtypical tribes, had occasion to point out the evident possession of Thibet, of parts of China and Mongolia, by the bearded race ; and that they are noticed in early Chinese authorities by the names of Kinto-Moey and Yuchi; and still in part are occupiers of the more inaccessible mountains of the interior, bearing the contemptuous appellations of Miau-tze and Mou-laou. Even western geographers were not entirely ignorant of this fact, since by them Gangarides are placed on the Brahmaputra; and the antique presence of Sanscrit, that most extensive of all languages, is attested, by innumerable denominations, far beyond these regions, since we find them pervading the greater part of Thibet and Indo-China. As the predominant external character, and the correspond- ing intellectual tendencies of the Caucasian Man are found to assimilate with the other two typical stocks in proportion as they approach geographically to, and mix with them, the inter- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 367 mediate Ethiopic on the south, and Finnic on the north, have, next to their points of contact, shades of dark-skinned or fair races, partaking of these characters in degree only according to that vicinity; and thence we must look for the normal point of the type where the influence of the other two is, or at least primevally was, least accessible. This geograph- ical point belongs emphatically to Hindu-Koosh, extending eastward up to the Pamere, and westward through Armenia, and the occidental Caucasus to Greece and Italy, notwithstand- ing the progress which, since the historical ages, the Mongolic diffusion has made in Northern Asia, following a similar extension of the true Caucasians towards the west, after an interval of some ages. Of the three varieties of color and temperament most dis- tinctly marked in the Caucasian type, the first is characterized by brown complexions and dark eyes and hair, very symmetri- cal proportions, a round-domed skull, and an intelligence most vividly imaginative. The temperament sensual, the vindic- tive passions active, the perceptive faculties quick, and the physical energies demanding mental excitement more than reason for exertion. Such are the ardent nations of the south. Opposed to them in form and disposition are the tribes of the north: with a loftier stature, a fair, often a ruddy skin, xan- thous hair, rather ponderous limbs, a squarer skull, and coarser features; they have little comparative vivacity, but are endowed with the faculty of thought and reason less under the control of petulant desires ; more reflective, and therefore more continuously attached to conclusions once formed; slow, but patient in perseverance; and brave, without requiring the stimulus of enthusiasm. They are sincere and single-minded; but addicted to gluttony and drunkenness. Between these two we find the typical root still more essentially mountaineer in habit, with clear complexions, light brown, auburn, light or dark hair. It has the skull formed almost like the southern stem, but broader in the forehead. By nature and locality 368 NATURAL HISTORY OF possessed of the highest endowments of the other two, except- ing perhaps the quality of reasoned patience ; it is imaginative, poetical, inventive, artful, eloquent, valiant, and indefatigable. It has been the master stem from all antiquity; and, in par- ticular, that ambitious race, which is distinguished by high features, has ever been the conquering, the imperious form, that commands in battle and rules in peace, wherever it is found mixed in the social life of nations. Although beauty, valor, and logical capacity, may not by any means be denied the more vertical profiles, yet mathematical, linguistic, and experimental science belong more permanently to the less admired lines of features. It is by the exercise of these facul- ties, tempered with forbearance, that the resolute tenacity of the last mentioned maintains its ground, and the public will obtain modifications of the arbitrary canons which the others have imposed. It is the Caucasian Man, who, in all regions and times, has been the sole depositor of religion. The Papua and Negro races of antiquity do not appear to have possessed creeds at any period deserving to be classed with reasoned allegorical dogmas; they were merely absurd injunctions to commit revolting bloodshed. Even when palliated, remodelled, and systematized by the influence of Caucasian rulers, they con- tinued more to degrade the masters than to elevate the van- quished. Of the Mongolians, we know that the mythological Foh, the Budhas, Fologes, Soloktais, and Siakas, or Sakias, of China and Japan, were appropriated Hindu-Caucasians, Yuchi, or Asiatic Finns. The bearded races alone had pos- session of a true reminiscence of the diluvian cataclysis, and transmitted it by their colonies to every part of the earth, mutilated, altered, and debased, but still always discernible, notwithstanding that in time the high plains of Asia had first instituted a Sabaean worship, and subsequently implanted it upon the Arkite creed, confounding the patriarch navigator with the sun, typifying the deluge in the form of a dragon or THE HUMAN SPECIES. 369 vast sea-serpent, and converting the ship or ark into a living organ of preservation and reproduction: thus was substance afforded for interminable legends, names, and dogmas, which, in one or more forms, spread all around, reached the furthest west, originated the repetition of ancient names for new local- ities, new sites of Paradise, new rivers of Eden, new moun- tains of the Descent, in the succession of migrations, and when time had fixed fresh centres of national existence.* In this manner, while the Semitic nations recalled the memory of their primeval social abode in the Babel of Babylon, the Egyptians saw their Arkite city at Thebes, or Theba; the Persian Arii found the city of the gods in Pasargade, where the huge palace was again an ark; the Hindoos pointed to Kasi, now Benares; and the western Teutonic nations to Asgard, near the mouth of the Don; while, by the very radia- tion of these localities, there is reason to believe, what tradition confirms, that the original locality was high up the course of the Oxus, if, indeed, it was not actually within the mountains of Hindu-Koosh, or Bokhara, significantly denominated the High Land of God. The great mental activity stimulating all the races of this type to physical exertion, has caused the earliest ages to be re- plete with their wars and conquests. First, probably, they were *The root, Ar, in Arach, Araxes, Arachosia, Arbela, Arch, Ararat, Arawati, Aarhorn, Aar, and Ra, rivers, ever implies rushing, soaring, as in the Circassian a peak, in Pelhevic a roaring stream, and in Sanscrit denominations abounding in High Asia always connected with mountain and high land : hence we find it often in connection with the physical local- ities, where Eden and the four rivers of Paradise, as well as the diluvian event, are placed by the traditions of nations. Indian pundits have pointed out Lake Manasa, 17,000 feet above the sea, as the sacred centre whence the four rivers of Paradise, the Brahmaputra, Ganges, Indus, and Sita are erroneously asserted to proceed. But each nation long located in a region has found a sacred centre, and the required rivers, at no great distance from home. There are at least twenty of them between Thibet and Snowdon. 370 NATURAL HISTORY OF directed against the less pugnacious black nations, and then against each other, striving not only for the choice of regions to inhabit for the possession of pasturage and rivers, but to dictate opinions on all questions of human interest; and as the conquerors of one moment were the vanquished of the next, all the tribes, particularly of the west, are exceedingly intermixed; in physical and mental appearance bearing evidence to the fact. It is still more a result of the long continued practice common to all, of buying, selling and capturing human beings for slaves, — the Britons, the Gauls, the Saxons, Germans, Rus- sians, and Hebrews; all the nations of Western Asia, the ancient Greeks, the Romans, the Carthaginians, pagans and Christians, all shared for ages the abominable traffic. The dark-haired nations of the south were choice in searching for fair slaves from the north; the fair preferred more swarthy, and gave great prices for blacks from Africa. Constantinople abounded in Sclavonic captives and children, purchased by Jews; the debtor and the prisoner of war were sold, and Ver- dun was long celebrated for its traffic in emasculated victims. Hence the fair, the xanthous, the brown and black complex- ioned, are mixed in every nation. With regard to the facilities of proceeding by land from the Indus and from central Asia to the west, there is in every direction the difficulty to be encountered of a deficiency of water, and consequently of verdure to subsist cattle. There are extensive deserts of absolute sand, and the coast-line along the Persian Gulf seems never to have been practicable. Beginning from the mouth of the Indus, the first route passing to the west, by Kurrachee, crossed the Luchee Hills to Bam- bacia, Faura, now Puhra, traversed the Gedrosian mountain chain, and led to ancient Pasargada (Persagarda) and Per- sepolis. It was by this line Alexander the Great returned with his forces to Persia. The second was by the Gundara Pass, through the desert to Lake Aria, whence again it bent southward to Persepolis; this was the route of Craterus with a THE HUMAN SPECIES. 371 Macedonian corps. A third avenue still leads through the Boian Pass to the Etymander or Helmund, and Lake Aria, now Zurrah, whence there is a caravan route by Yezd, through the Great Arian Desert, of above fifty days' journey, for loaded camels to Ispahan. Another passes to the north from Dooshak, near the above lake, by Furrah, to Herat, Meshed, to the Atrack River, and Asterabad. But the fourth of these lines is the great and most ancient route of migration, not so much to the Indus, as from the high table land of Thibet to the Oxus, in remote periods apparently much more available than at present, for the inland sea of Western Asia had not yet entirely shrunk into the Caspian and Aral, and the rivers now lost in sand, or wholly dried up, were still flowing to that Mediterranean. It became the high road from Kachgar by Ota, across the Bolor range, through Karatighin to Bactra, or Balkh, was the great outlet from Hindu-Koosh down the Oxus, or along the flanks of Paropamisus to the west, and by the troglodyte city of Bamean, entered the two passes of Kohi- Baba, by Cabul, and Jalalabad (Nagara), to the Indus. The other great line is through the Kiptchak and Gakchal chains, by the Kaksou and Terek passes, leading north-west to Och or Takti Soliman, on the Jaxartes; it is a caravan route, still in use to Orenburg, in Russia. THE SEMITIC RACES. It was along these avenues that the moving colonists descended, both from the plateau of Thibet, and from Hindu- Koosh. We have seen how they penetrated to India; how among other nations the Arab and Indoo Arab formed the prin- cipal basis of the Ethiopian stem, till the whole of the original nations, as Egyptians, Cushites, and Habesh, notwithstanding that more northern, and even fair-haired tribes were merged in them, were finally driven across the Red Sea into Africa. Thus we have noticed how Caucasian characteristics deepen 372 NATURAL HISTORY OF into Papua Negroes, in proportion to their intermixture towards the tropics, or brighten as they pass on to the border of this first distribution; for, on the line of contact, the conquer- ing race has nearly retained its whole integrity, whilst on the north of that line, a melanic shade in the skin, with very dark eyes, and black curly hair, leaves in the first, and perhaps oldest civilized nations, an evidence of some pollution with their vanquished slaves, and makes the question of local hybridism incontestable; for, notwithstanding the distinction drawn by the nations themselves, the facts remain unaltered. And we shall now proceed to notice a second wave of more pure Caucasian Arabians, who left but slender record of their predecessors, and became united with the rejected descendants of the family of Heber. They appear to have been herdsmen of the southern desert, wandering with their goats and sheep, perhaps with camels, onwards towards the west, beneath the Gedrosian high lands, till they crossed the Shat-ul-Arab. THE ARABS. The original tribes of Arabia, already in possession of the land at the time of the departure of Israel, were of the same race as some of the first invaders of India. They mixed with the Papuas, and formed the Ethiopian stem, which possessed the peninsula of Arabia, as far eastward as the lower Euphrates, expanding more and more over the desert of Syria, where the true Bedoween, the swarthy JEnese clans, chiefly resided; but here they were encountered by the giant race from the north-east, who reached Syria or Shams, and soon appear to have established themselves as masters among them, in like manner as they effected the same revolution in Egypt, and Palestine or Canaan; continuing to press southward, they mixed with the possessors of Yemen, retaining, in some cases only, a separate nationality; such, for example, as the Rus- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 373 tumi, the Phoenicians, and the Getae. International wars, and the usual decrease of the fair-skinned master race in climates of tropical heat, caused several tribes to be lost, such as those of Ad, Thamud, Jades, and Tasm, which, being of the more northern portion, were chiefly affected by these causes, and subsequently were vanquished by the Cuthites of Yemen, or were absorbed; and their fate is the subject of sundry marvel- lous legends in the Tarikh Tebri. At present there remain the Arab-el-Arabah, forming two stems, claiming Kahtan for common parent. They are per- haps the Hadoram and Tarah of Moses; but it is not to them that Arabia is indebted for celebrity. Affiliated races produced it. The Mostarabi, or Ishmaelites of the Hejas, claim the honor, and assume a superior nobility of blood, as descendants from Abraham. They are the fabricators of the Kaba, and the distorted legends concerning the patriarchs. In that vocation it seems the Koreish have been chiefly engaged, although the affinity they have with the descendants of Ishmael is doubtful; it being believed that they were originally Edomites, that is, a red-haired people. In this vicinity, among the Edomite cities, there was Erech, Raphia, or Rekem, near Mons Casius and Larissa, Larsh near Gaza, both bearing evidently names con- nected with a Scythic dialect, and repeated wherever Pelasgian nations were spread, from Asia Minor to the Danube; equally common to Celto-Scythic possessions, as the names of Lorch, Lorach, Lorca, Lara, and Larch, abound in Spain and Southern Germany.* Towards the mouth of the Euphrates, however, in the vicinity of scriptural Bosra, the Arabian Zobeir was inhabited by the Orchaeni, a colony, it appears, of Indo- Ethiopians, who, Pliny says, promulgated " a tertia Chaldaeo- rum doctrina." They had acquirements in astronomy and science which were regarded as magical. The inhabitants * Even Nineveh is termed Larissa by Xenophon, and as the eastern- most of the thirteen places so named by the ancients. Most of these were of Pelasgian origin. 32 374 NATURAL HISTORY OF still breed white asses, as of old, and appear themselves like low caste Hindoos. Of this ancient capital there are still vis- ible fragments of pillars, &c; and it may be remarked that Zobeir is more likely derived from a Sanscrit or Scythic root, denoting sorcery, than from an Arab chief of that name, who is said to have fallen near this place, when Ayesha, widow of Mahommed, was defeated by Ali, in the year 656 of our era. Another source of the Arabian people was derived from the Jewish clans, which, after the massacre in Persia, had re- tired to the desert, and become formidable by their numbers and warlike propensities. They had apostatized, and united with the followers of Mahommed, and greatly strengthened his forces, notwithstanding that other clans of Hebrews, who retained the faith of their fathers, were expelled by him. Long before that period they had been forced to disperse, in consequence of the successful inroad of a Roman army under GElius Gallus, who is said to have burst the colossal stone em- bankment raised to sustain the waters of the Mareb, a very extensive reservoir, serving to irrigate a great district of land. The event is known by the name of the deluge of El Maureb; for when the waters escaped, the whole cultivated surface was swept away, and the wretchedness it produced was among the original causes of the subsequent expansion of the Arabian power, because forced emigrations led colonies beyond the Shat-ul-Arab, perhaps, even then, so far to the east as the bank of the Indus, producing constant hostilities against the Par- thians, while other tribes, pressed to the borders of Kourdistan, equally embroiled them with the Byzantine Romans, at a period when the Arabian horse first began to acquire its supe- rior qualities. Ages before that time the Phoenician traders, who were masters in the Persian Gulf and the islands of Bah- rein, had no doubt stimulated the Arabs' love of adventure, and from pirates turned their attention to legitimate trade, ulti- mately becoming the successors of the parents of commercial industry. They traded as they had roved to Madagascar, and THE HUMAN SPECIES. 375 in the monsoons reached not only the marts of India, but, it appears, penetrated by their own efforts, or in connection with a remote navigating system in the South Seas, to the ports of China. For ages the southern portion of Arabia was possessed by Phoenicians and Cuthites: the last mentioned, after they had been driven across the Red Sea to Africa, returned, and again swayed the commercial provinces by their authority; they opposed the progress of Islam, but were at length van- quished, not by the power of the true Arabians, but by the affiliated tribes of Mostarabi, who, with the Koran in hand, rallied all parties in a career of unexampled victory, extin- guishing in their progress languages, nations, traditions, and history, to the wall of China, and to the Pyrenees. Notwithstanding the vicissitudes and intermixture of races, the aspect of the present typical Arabs is a light sinewy struc- ture, with great capacity of endurance, a swarthy complexion, with high lengthened features, black curly locks, and a bril- liant dark eye, full of malignant fire. Though not exempt from subjugation, they have survived conquests, because no victorious nation has ever thought the desert a possession worth acquiring. With the national convulsions the language of Arabia has likewise changed. Ancient Arabic is not only a dead lan- guage, but the character and alphabet are equally lost, though it is supposed to have had two dialects, the Hamjar and Kore- ish, and that certain words and forms of speech in the Axumite tongue of Abyssinia are remains of it. THE HEBREWS. Though of all the nations of antiquity this people is best known, and clearly depicted in the most authentic records, the conclu- sions of the comment on the text are by no means free from objection, respecting the assumed geographical position of the original stem, nor the inference that this people, so far as 376 NATURAL HISTORY OF regards its subsequent alliances and interunions, had the right to call itself pure or unmixed. All the tribes descended from Abraham and Lot were of high land descent, migrating through Armenia, clearly in part of a fair rufous stem, gray- eyed, and auburn hair. Evidence of the fact is repeatedly traced in history and in tradition. The manifestation is still positively marked in many Oriental Israelites; and in Morocco, a region least liable to that kind of adulteration, the women in particular being to this day generally gray-eyed. The family of Heber was, therefore, not Chaldean nor Assyrian. It came from the East, and might be of the same stem as that which subsequently invaded the Suleimanic range, west of the Indus, for here was an early national centre, whence colonies pene- trated to India, where Hebrew congeners may now be believed to exist; as tribes of Rajpoots, and others, passing on to the borders of Indo-China, may be the present Mugs, for all of these have the peculiar Hebrew aspect and conformation ; have even rites and customs similar to that people, as well as tra- ditions and reminiscences, which now assume the aspect of actual descent from the lost tribes of Israel* These facts establish an affinity too positive for utter rejection. Although we will not carry the conditions of Hebrew consanguinity further than to hint that perhaps the promised high destiny of the race embraced alliances which should include the three great typical forms; first, by connection with the rufous stem, through the Asiatic Finn tribes, who were the Scythian con- querors, at one time in Armenia, and again for ages resident in northern Egypt and Palestine; and in the second, by the long * The assertion that these Affghans expelled a nation of Kaafirs or idol- aters since the Hegira, is more unlikely than that they themselves are converted idolaters ; for mountain tribes are not expelled by passing conquerors who have themselves Jewish rites. It is more likely that original consanguinity carried Jewish fugitives among them, whose books and wondrous history caused the whole clan to adopt them as their own. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 377 unrestrained alliances with the real Egyptian people, as well as with Canaanites during the administration of the Judges; and at a later period with Babylonians, Greeks and Romans. A most ancient assimilation of the Hebrew people, if not an actual origin among tribes located near the Gomerian source, is indicated by the exiled tribes having shown a greater ten- dency to mix and assimilate with the Finnic Scythians on the north than with the Arabs on the south; notwithstanding that their language was more positively allied to it than to the Celtic or any Finnic dialect. In the north alone, the ancient Israelite race found honor and power, as was proved by the military energy they displayed against the Persians, noticed in an earlier part of this volume, and again in their connection with and titular dignity among the Khazars ; it is even now shown in the respect bestowed upon the Karaite Jews of the Crimea. These views are strengthened by the beautiful spher- ical cranium of the Jews, as fine as the Arabian or Circassian; by their profiles still predominantly aquiline ; by the frequent recurrence of gray eyes, xanthous hair; and by a sturdy struc- ture, less Arabian than Celtic, yet on the whole retaining an Asiatic and peculiar aspect seldom adorned with beauty. All the foregoing conditions taken together tend to show that the Hebrew race and language were not paternally of a Semitic origin, but that both resulted from the region where the first family came to settle among strangers; and the mixed alliances, in the earlier period of the tribal history, contracted with Egyptians, Canaanites, Arabs, Babylonians, and even Phoenicians, affected it, till in the end they adopted Greek and Roman names. The males of a race cannot alone maintain its purity, and where polygamy exists, the other sex must neces- sarily change it almost entirely. In China, Cochin-China, and Malabar, Jews now exist in families, according to the most trustworthy account, ever since they were expelled Persia, in the year of Christ 508. There are in the last-named region black Jews, probably a mixed race 32* 378 NATURAL HISTORY OF of proselytes of low caste. Though an older people, the Sulei- manic Affghans pretend to be descendants of the first captivity; there is still a clan of them known as the BeniKhaibe in Arabia; and the Falishas of Abyssinia, according to Bruce, are a tribe of Jews; finally, the white race of Zafi-Ibrim, in Madagascar, claim Abraham for their progenitor. The handsomest of the whole nation are asserted to be the Babylonians of Meso- potamia ; and it used to be from among them that the prince of the captivity, now the wretched representative of the ancient kings, was and still is selected by the Turkish govern- ment. In all lands they are, as of old, a stiff-necked race, most reso- lutely attached to their institutions, ever since the Christian dispensation was promulgated. It is difficult to decide whether their own obstinacy of character, or the unceasing injustice of mankind, have been other than agents, mutually acting upon each other, to produce that permanent manifestation in their forms and opinions which separates them from human society, as it were, by a lasting miracle ; still the persecuted Jew bears on his front the tokens of mental power, in his make the attri- butes of physical strength, and in his heart the feelings of mercy and charity, which all the vices acquired by degradation, or natural to his temperament, cannot efface; for since a more humane treatment is afforded to the race, constant examples of good, benevolent and liberal actions embellish their conduct, even more than in the feudal ages their learning and research illustrated their mental capacities. THE BABYLONIANS, CHALDEES, AND ASSYRIANS. The nations now to be considered, though differing among themselves, were evidently all of one family, obscurely traceable to eastern Armenia and Atropatene, whence, as they spoke dialects of Semitic languages, it is evident that, like the Arabs, they had come originally from the high lands in the east. THE HUMAN SPECIES., 379 They were, moreover, advanced in civilization, had solar and astronomical religions, with legends of Fish-men legislators, whose persons and doctrines revealed a diluvian reminiscence, distorted into Indian forms. In their record, the first disper- sion of mankind was transposed from the high table land of Asia to the new centre of their own locality, in the plains of Shinar. Shinar maybe a repetition of the name of Djeen; and the Bab, that is, Ghaut, Gate, or Pass, was, perhaps, transferred to the collateral signification of a tower.* For the pyramidal temple of Belus, still visible among the ruins of historical Babylon, has more than one counterpart in Persia, little inferior in magnitude : that particularly of Bara- dan, situated on the mountain-chain, near the upper Diala, almost south of Lake Van, is remarkable. The remains are of disintegrated brick; and the summit 170 feet high, or only 28 feet less; but it is 600 feet in base, or 100 more than Birs Nimrood,t near the Euphrates. The Babylonian unquestiona- bly had four towers at the angles of the summit, and a broad terrace on one of its faces, with probably a central space between the towers for fire worship. It had walled enclos- ures, perhaps colossal lions, at the entrances ; all which seem to have been common with other structures of the same kind, and notably in the Budh temples of Suka in Java, where every one of the foregoing particularities exists. * Bab, Baby, in the most ancient sense, a giant. Baby in Egyptian, Typhon Taifune. It might be conjectured that the pass, or, at least, one of the principal gorges for descending from the plateau of Thibet, across the Bolor range, upon the sources of the Oxus, was originally meant; for at the foot of this commence the glens which lead to Bamian and to Balkh ; and the summit is close to Kashgar, near Behesh-Kend ; in Ori- ental legend a city of paradise, seated in a verdant region, on the Chi- nese side of the summit. t Birs Nimrood, the temple of Belus, and the temple of Nebuchadnez- zar, are the same ruins. The name of " Tower of Babel" is originally a rabbinical inference. There are many other applications of scriptural localities and names in the south-west of Asia, made at random by the Arabs, who, like most other Semitic nations, having lost their own tradi- 380 NATURAL HISTORY OF If the Chaldeans had been established in a great kingdom when Abraham entered Canaan, it is unlikely that the Elamite Arabs would be sufficiently strong to make alliances with other princes, and undertake invasions to so great a distance as the vicinity of Jerusalem; and in the Egyptian historical paintings of the conquests of Sesostris, and of Thothmes II. and III., all of which appear to have been directed to the valley of the Oxus, that in these transactions there should be no acknowledged representations of Babylonians, or Chaldeans, either as allies or enemies. They first appear as prisoners captured by Tir- haka; whence it seems that either the Egyptian conquerors never proceeded so far east as the Euphrates, or that the Baby- lonian empire did not, at so early a date (that is, in or about the reign of Cushan-rishathaim), embrace the upper course of that river, or of the Tigris.* Regarded as a race, they were unquestionably pure Caucasians of the black-haired tribes; and so closely allied to the subsequent Persians, that no distinction can be made between them, as they are represented in the bas reliefs of Persepolis and those of Nineveh, lately brought to light. They have the same ample beards, and abundant curly locks, similarly trimmed. The sculptures represent the same symbolical monsters, the same cuneiform letters, the same cos- tume, the same system of architecture, and the same school of design in sculpture — as if little or no alteration or progress tions and history, frame new legends out of the Scriptures ; and what the Rabbins only misplaced, they distorted to suit their particular national vanities. * These colored delineations contain, however, a series of nations, most assuredly representing tribes of high-featured Caucasians, and the more vertical profiles of the midland colonies, which can be traced from Indo- Koosh to Asia Minor and Greece. There are fair-haired people, with a blue round spot upon the forehead, like a tribal, or caste mark. They are the Rebo, with ox-hide mantles, and tattooed skins, Cyclopians of High Armenia ; and some wear crosses, perhaps Budh amulets ; and the Rot-n-no, a giant race, with red beards, chariots, horses, elephants, bears, and manufactures in metals ; or people of the giant races, Scytha; or Finns. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 381 had taken place in the national civilizations, between the periods of splendor in Nineveh and the downfall of Persep- olis.* THE GAURS AND PERSIANS. Whether the Chaldeans, or Chasdim of the Hebrews, were only hordes of robbers at the time they are placed by geogra- phers in Arabia Petraea, or whether they were a distinct people from the learned caste of Chaldees at Babylon, is not quite clear, though in either case they must still be regarded as mountaineers before they were established in Babylonia. The physical characters of the Assyrians, and their locality, alike attest that they, the same, or a kindred race, were also moun- taineers, who had migrated, by marching along the flank of the Caspian chain, till they established themselves in eastern Ar- menia ; but whether they were allied to the Karduchi, Kurds of the present time, does not appear, although, in Persian tra- dition, the Gaurs were the first conquerors of Aria or Iran. The name, again, indicates mountaineers or giants; and the region whence they departed was no doubt Paropamisus, or the Gordii Montes. In that case, they passed most likely by the Helmund to Lake Zurra, and spreading over Aria, they * The sculptures of Nimrood, now in the British Museum, indicate a more ancient, though not an essentially different period. Of Bactra we have no minute knowledge, though, from the still existing practice in Cabul, palaces under ground were no doubt likewise constructed there, where the climate is still more severe ; and the similarity of condition with Nineveh is proved from the fact, that it was at the siege of Bactra Ninus himself died. His ambitious wife, Semiramis, succeeded him, and was the conqueror of the Omool Belaut, or "mother of cities," once the capital of Kai Kaus, when it was named Sarias, or Sariaspa? Future research at Ecbatana, that is, about the present Hamadan, and on the sites of other primeval cities of Upper Asia, will, no doubt, reproduce subterranean habitations like those of Nimrood, and reveal conditions of art more perfect in the older than in the subsequent periods. 382 NATURAL HISTORY OF were ultimately driven forward to the present Kurdistan, prob- ably by the Persians, who in their turn had been tenants of Bactria; for all the traditionary events of the first dynasty are referred to the time when they were expelled by the Ou-sun, fair-haired tribes from Thibet, or by Massagetae from the north.* They, too, had traversed the Paropamisus, and, following the Helmund, had crossed the Arian Desert to the hills of Susiana, where they absorbed the Elamite bowmen; located their sacred centre at Persagarda, and, further west, built Persepolis,t where the great empire of Persia properly commenced. The city and palace were constructed according to a system of architec- ture already long established at Zariaspa or Bactra, or in con- formity with one common to the whole vast region of Nineveh, Babylon, and High Asia. The ancient Parsi language shows, however, a certain affinity with the Assyrian through the Pel- hevi, introduced by the Medes, and an adopted civilization, in the use of a cuneiform alphabet. This character continued to be used for inscriptions after the overthrow of Darius, and was revived during the Parthian sway, although another dialect, namely the Zend, was spoken — a fact which attests the pres- ence of a further Sanscrit element, approaching still nearer to the early Gothic of the west, and a tongue even now in part mixed up with the Poushtoo, used by the Affghans. The Belooches and Poushtoo Affghans, the Kurds of Kurdis- tan, the Loures, the modern Persians, and the Ossetes of Cir- cassia, are all branches of this great stem, which, in ancient and in more recent ages, has held dominion over Egypt, and produced some men of great military celebrity (such as Saladin * The Ou-Sun, and Kian-Kuen, or Kakas of Chinese writers, were, according to Klaproth, fair-haired races within the western borders of the high land chains. The Massagetae, first known on the outside of the same table land, gradually moved down to the north-west, and were for a period stationary on the south and east of Lake Aral. They were all Geta tribes, or clans, with Finnic intermixture. t If indeed Persepolis, Pasargada, and Persagarda, are not the same. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 383 the Great); geometricians; and in particular, poets of lasting reputation. THE TYPICAL CAUCASIANS. We now come to the typical Caucasian family, which em- braces the greatest celebral development in width and depth, combined with the highest form of beauty, strength, and power of endurance, coupled with a nervous system less swayed by impulse. In this group are found the most per- fect notions of the ideal beautiful, of relative proportion in art and in literature, of logic and of the mathematical sci- ences in general. The skull, though somewhat lower in the dome, is broader in proportion than the Arab and the Hebrew, more developed at the forehead, making that line more con- tinuously vertical down the nose, which, in the finer specimens, is not aquiline, but straight. The complexion is clear brown, with mostly dark-brown hair, passing to auburn, generally straight, the beard full, the chest ample and deep, the loins small, the gait erect, and the tread martial. It is here that female beauty is possessed of the highest human loveliness, grace, and delicacy; and the manly character attains the most majestic and venerable aspect. The primeval focus of the family is traced up to the high- est glens of Hindu-Koosh, the real Imaus and Caucasus of antiquity. In that region, or possibly still higher, in the most elevated portion of ancient Turan, the Cassio-regio of Thibet, Cassar, or Cashgar of Marco Polo, it is that we must place the primeval point of departure; for there, in a verdant fruitful region, a Behesh, or Paradise, according to Iranian nations, is placed Ardukend, Ordukend, still more anciently Arthur- keind, and now known as Behetseh Keng or Keind. It has still ruins of arched avenues, the work of ancient kings, and the locality is on the caravan road, on the north side of the plateau of Pamere, eastward, going by Cashgar to China; and 384 NATURAL HISTORY OF westward, down the Bolor range to Hindu-Koosh and Balkh. In these mountain ridges the Kaufir of the present time retains the full vigor, independence, and beauty of his earliest pro- genitors, notwithstanding that he is hunted like a wild beast by Moslem half-bred tribes, and debarred all access to more civilized nations. His similarity to the ancient Greek nations is so striking, that it was believed the hardy mountaineers were a relic of a Macedonian army left in the country; nor was the supposition a wild fancy, since dynasties of Greek princes have ruled in Bactria, and in Candahar for several centuries after the memorable invasion of Alexander the Great. THE KAUFIRS, OR MAMOGES.* It is in the fertile glens of lofty ridges of pine forest, forming a portion of Hindu-Koosh and Beloot Tauch, that this people resides, though as yet little known. The true national denomi- nation of it is not even certain, and instead we are obliged to rest contented with the Mahommedan vituperative term of Kauflrs, or infidels, which the Affghans use to designate idola- ters. They divide them into Speen, or white, and Seeapush, or Tor Kauflrs, merely because one is habitually clothed in white cotton, and the other in black goat-skins. The people is divided into a multitude of independent clans, living peaceably together, but in unceasing war with the Moslem, much like the Montenegrins in Europe, who carry on an exterminating con- test with the Turks. The Speen Kauflrs, having Little Thi- bet on the north, Ladauk east, the Punjaub south, and Poushtoo west, have to guard themselves only on the side of the four passes leading from the Punjaub, one from the Affghan side on the west, and two from the north, there being none on the east. * Of the four original tribes, the Mamoges alone retained the primitive manners; the Camoze, Hilar, and Silar, becoming Mahommedans, and mixing with other Islamized nations. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 385 By the direction of these, migrations had easy communication from Thibet, and towards Cabul, or down the Oxus as well as the Indus. The Seeapush appear to be still more remote, and may extend to Cashmere. These tribes are remains of a con- siderable people, among whom were the original Cashmerians, and a great part of the inhabitants of Badakshaun and Cabul, as far south as the Deggaun tribes, and on the southern face of the higher ridges of Himalaya, extending eastward to an unknown distance ; for, at the sources of the Jumna and Bun- derpoosh, clans of Bisharees are blue-eyed, and often have red hair; but nearly the whole of these, being subjected by Mos- lem conquerors, have lost their pristine individuality of national character, though among the Affghan tribes of Cabul, in par- ticular, it is still not unfrequent to observe heads and figures that might serve for models to sculptors who would portray a Jupiter, or a Mars, according to the refined idealism of the ancient Greeks. The Kaufirs have the face oval, the brows well arched, and the nose and mouth even more refined than the Greek. They are moreover, still fairer, generally with lighter hair and gray eyes. They defend their fastnesses, whither they have retired since the Mahommedan conquest in 742 of the Hegira, with obstinate valor, attaching certain privileges to him who slays an Affghan. They still retain a rude idol stone, denominated Irmtan, representing Imra, Dagun or God, the Supreme Being, having besides inferior divinities, evidently borrowed from other nations, chiefly from India. They shave the hair, excepting a tuft in the middle, which, when it is plaited, is exactly similar to the older statues of Horus, when he is holding the Egyp- tian hoe, and recurs again on a coin of Comana, where Per- seus is so figured, and again on one of ancient Tauris. It is the glib of the ancient Irish. The Kaufirs sit on stools, and do not squat like other Asiatics. They are -vehement dancers, and a kind people. Blending with the nearest black-haired tribes, the Mamoges 33 386 NATURAL HISTORY OF may be considered to have formed the ancient Persians, and with the fair-haired on the north, produced the handsome tribes of the earliest Goths; for immediately towards the west the line of migration through Cabul is found interrupted by invaders from both sides, and history is full of the contests which very different nations have maintained in that region. There are even now found, upon this line, remaining tribes of Persians, Usbeks, Toorkees, Mokrees, Reekas, Kalmucks, Arabs, Kir- guise, Hindoos, Punjaubees, Cashmerians and Lesghis, which last are among those most nearly allied to the primeval stock; for, after traversing the space disturbed by migrating collisions, chiefly Turkoman, we find these and the Circassians, Abas- sians, Georgians, Albanians, &c, likewise refugees, in the highest glens of the Caspian Caucasus; and, in remote ages, there is no doubt that some of them once extended along the southern coast of the Caspian and Georgia, onwards to the Borysthenes, and through Asia Minor to the mountains of Thessaly and Greece. THE CIRCASSIAN AND GEORGIAN TRIBES OF THE CASPIAN CAUCASUS. While others, coming more from the north, with, as it appears, a portion of Finnic blood in their veins, held posses- sion of the plains on the Kouban and the Don* these extended westward, in the Crimea, and along the shores of the Euxine, until they were in part swept onwards, and partly driven back to take shelter in the fastnesses they now hold. The Don Cossacks are of the same stem, for although all the tribes are, in various proportions, of mixed origin, the typical form is always evident. * Although the banks of the Borysthenes are known to have been suc- cessively inhabited by Alans, Goths, Geti, Cumans, Polowtses, and Rox- olani, the antiquities known to have been the work of Circassians are still found scattered through the country. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 387 The women of Circassia are beautiful, probably the most beautiful, in features and complexion, of the whole earth. They have, often, light hair and blue eyes, tall, graceful, and erect forms, with straight or slightly aquiline noses, well formed lips, and beautiful teeth ; while the men justly pride themselves on their broad shoulders, slender waists, expressive features, stalwart height, and martial gait. Indeed, this inherent superi- ority of form is so dominant, that the unceasing practice which the Osmanli Turks have of purchasing female slaves of this race, has caused them to have become, from the most ill-shaped and wretched-looking of barbarian Mongoles, a people that can now dispute the palm of beauty with the handsomest of Europe. For, and with these nations, commencing in Central Asia, Kaufirs, Affghans, Georgians, Circassians, Cossacks, tribes of Asia Minor, Greece, Rome, and the Gothic people of the north, on to the west of Europe, there are ever sympathetic feelings, an enduring interest, independent of religious motives, political considerations, or commercial purposes. In England, espec- ially, we feel for them more than curiosity, travel among them, overlook or palliate their barbarism; nay, so strong and deep is the inclination, that among British captives made dur- ing the disastrous winter months in Cabul, most spoke highly of the urbanity they had experienced; several of the softer sex felt unwilling to be released; and some, it is said, actually escaped from those who were to restore them to their homes. Nothing but original consanguinity could reproduce such effects. To that cause alone we must ascribe the long duration of a Macedonian monarchy subsisting for so many generations among the most warlike people in existence; and, in more modern times, that the fierce bigotry of Islamism has not oblit- erated that tendency; for, beyond this line of consanguinity, the Tahtar race, now in possession of Thibet and Bokhara, or the Arab on the south, never excite similar affections, nor feel themselves yearning for approximation. 388 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PELASGIAN, DORIAN, AND HELLENIC TRIBES. ALTHouGH*Ionia or Asia Minor was visited from the most early period by nations coming from the east, some by a north- ern, and others by a southern route, we may regard the popu- lation in general as emanating from the foregoing, and in particular the Pelasgian and the Dorian tribes, which, how- ever, may have been mixed with a proportion of Getic clans, such as the Phrygian undoubtedly were. It is likely that the Carians were similarly of a mixed origin of the same source, as they were remarkable for the hoarse guttural language they spoke, and the resolute determination they evinced in the defence of their country. As colonists they had brought with them elements of civilization more advanced than the Grecian of the same era, and science in the art of war that made them more than respected by the Egyptian power, which, indeed, had warred with them, but appears to have preferred to have them as allies. They seem to have possessed the whole valley of the Meander long after the adjoining tribes had been driven onwards, probably because the volcanic territory at the sources of the river afforded sites for strongholds which guarded the passes. They and the Lycians had connections with the Leuco Syri, as well as with the Greek Pelasgians ; and some such remote affinity may have been the basis of the claim to consanguinity, which, ages after, appears to have been allowed between the Hebrews and the Spartans, as is attested by Josephus. Among the expelled nations, the Hellenes may have been the foremost who crossed the Bosphorus, and made conquests of the possessions then held by a Finnic, or Illyrian race, which, as myrmidons and helots, we have already noticed ; for that these were in anterior possession of the soil is attested by their subjugation, and by the name of the river Alpheus, evi- dently derived from the Finnic Alf, a mountain torrent. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 389 The Hellenic tribes could not have been long in the land before the great swarming commenced on the seas and coasts of Eastern Europe. Besides the Cyclopeans, who left walls of their work from Van in Persia westward to Sicily, and the Punes, or Phoenicians already mentioned, others, like the Cad- means, Etruscans, and Colchians, wandered along the shores, from beneath the high lands of the present Abassia, or came under Ionian Taurus to the Mediterranean, all similarly bent upon forcing a landed possession for themselves, and subsist- ing meantime as sea-roving pirates. The names of the Cen- taurs and Lapithae indicate confusion in the Greek reminis- cences ; for, although they explained the first to have been horsemen, it is more likely that they were ox-riders, such as have been already mentioned in Africa and India, and that their name has passed to a second invasion of real cavalry. But the Thraco-Pelasgians, the Heraclidae, and Achaei, seem to have been Celto Scythae, that is, likewise of Illyrian or Geto Finnic affinity, belonging to the giant races, who, as far as regards the two first mentioned, came round from the Kouban and Don, along the shores of the Euxine, and then sought conquests towards the south, as all the more northern nations were impelled to undertake. On their own national origin, the accounts by Greek writers are confused and contra- dictory regarding the sources and movements of the different tribes of the nation ; and vanity claims aboriginal possession where they were only early conquerors. They commemorate Pelasgian and Dorian invasions coming from the north, while they do not seem to acknowledge that the anterior Hellenic col- onists were, like the myrmidons and other tribes, a vanquished people, who may have had Finnic consanguinities. The pres- ence of tribes from the Asia Minor region is shown in the Cretan colonies settled in Greece, and in the Cretan people themselves, who could not have reached that island more conveniently than by crossing from Caria, by Rhodes and 33* 390 NATURAL HISTORY OF Carpathos; for even the maritime shore of Caria was called Doria. Notwithstanding that polished Greece claimed to be in the centre of the world, and assumed for itself the discovery of almost every element of knowledge and civilization, it had a secret pride in the pretence that the Cadmeans and Thebans were colonies from Egypt; and it may be conceded,that in the wanderings of the parent clans of those denominations, they had been to the south so far, as to remain for a period in the then unclaimed marshes of the Delta, or had resided some time on the coast of Palestine or Syria, which was on many occasions considered as a portion of Egypt. But on the banks of the Nile no civil war, historically known, brought vanquished fugitives to the north; they fled to Abyssinia, or westward towards Cyrene. No true Egyptian was ever known to travel northward, though Greek students and philosophers constantly went in search of knowledge to the regions of the Nile, or eastward even to the Indus. The slight resemblance of the Greek Theban rites with those of Egyptian Thebes was more likely a consequence of Hellenic importation; and the Cad- mean Python worship was derived from the same source as the Colchian and the Celtic, that is, came direct from the east. The alphabet was totally distinct, and the language of Cadmus, if not Semitic, was allied to Sanscrit. The Pelasgi, more properly so called, had resided on the coast of Asia Minor. If we take a Celto Scythic dialect to have been in use among them, the tribal names of Cranai in Hellas, as well as that of Cieropidae, might have reference to their migratory life in boats, while the general appellation may have indicated the character they assumed of heroes or champions, it being alike traceable in the Pelhevi, Pelwan, and the Celtic Pulvan, although, if the denomination had a more Gothic root, the Pelasgi would merely denote skin-clad Asi, nearly the same signification as that of Seeapush Kaufir, and peltry-wearing heroes — a term in later ages applied to the THE HUMAN SPECIES. 391 Goths themselves. The Achaei, though they claimed to be of the Pelasgian family, and the oldest of Greek colonists in Eu- rope, came from the Maeotic estuary near Colchis. They were, as the name indicates, serpent worshippers, or builders of Dracontia, like the Cadmeans, the Colchians, and other nations of Asia Minor. THE TIRYNTHIANS. The Tirynthians, referred to the Cyclopean race, seem to have been a still more early clan of the Pelasgian family; and it may be remarked that a fair-haired nation, with a blue round tribal spot painted between the eyebrows, is represented on Egyptian monuments, wearing mantles of peltry, appar- ently cow hides — a costume which corroborates the meaning of Pelasgians; but as they wear ostrich feathers in the hair, it is evident that these figures refer to clans who had forced their way to the south of the mountain chains; and, if they do not represent giant tribes of Palestine, that they possessed ter- ritory in Mesopotamia, and belonged to that Teutonic race which mixed early with the Arabs before noticed. These observations are not opposed by the actions of the legendary Hercules at Tiryns. The Heraclidae were of the same Pelas- gian stem; and if the name be a mutation of Erck, Erk, they may be fairly referred to the Giant Finns, whose tribes consti- tuted the Tyrhenians, the Raseni, and the subsequent conquer- ors of the north-west of Europe. The Ionian name is of later introduction in Greece ; it was probably before known in Asia Minor, although, if we trust Greek pretensions, they carried it from Europe to Asia. The European Greeks had, however, anteriorly been known by the name of iEgialeans, or coasters, which is an evident proof that at first they only occupied the sea coast, and, consequently, that they had come by water, and not across the Danube, through Thessaly. Among these, the Cretan colony led by Rhadaman- thus, whose name indicates a Getic origin, had settled in Boeo- 392 NATURAL HISTORY OF tia. Tiryns itself was the abode of fishermen, and Argos was built by Cyclopeans, notwithstanding that Euripides calls it Pelasgian. This last name appears to be more generical than the other, and to have superseded it, though it is not improba- ble that the Cyclopeans were likewise a distinct tribe of the family which was soon driven forward to Sicily, where we have already pointed out that they appear to have been con- nected with the Finns of High Asia, in their quality of miners and metallurgists. In connection with the kindred Siculi, they had settlements on the coast of Italy, and with the Sicani, another clan of the same stock, had penetrated to Liguria and Spain. In Greece, the Pelasgians appear to have constituted the chief portion of the historical dominant population. They were most numerous in Thessaly. The Perhaebians, Caucones, Dolopians, Athamanes, the Helli, and Graii, on the west coast of Epirus, were Pelasgi. The Preonian and the Cecropian Athenians were of the same stock. In the peninsula they were known by the names of Argives, Achaians, and Arca- dians. They built more than one Argos; and if the name of Larissa is to be taken as a sure indication of their presence, they would be found extended from Nineveh to the confines of Egypt, Spain, and Southern Germany. There were Pelasgians in Crete, and the western tribes of the race had Finnic affinities in Upper Italy, not less than at least a partial community of opinions and speech with the Celtic and Scytho Celtic nations. In Syria they may have constructed the enormous ramparts of Tortosa with stones, some of which are not less than thirty feet in length, by ten or twelve in thickness, and at so remote a date that the place is named, in Genesis, by the designation of Arpad, or Arvedi, (chap, x.) Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, being all to the north of Greece properly so called, and west of the Bosphorus, nations moving to the south came across the Danube, from Dacia, as well as from Asia Minor, without the route of their movement being known in Greece. Many came westward in fleets of THE HUMAN SPECIES. 393 canoes, from the Euxine and the coasts of Asia Minor, by Rhodes, Carpathos, Casos, and Crete, and therefore they became greatly mixed by the captives they made in piratical wars, as well as by peaceful alliances. The noble typical races that had come direct from the east, had been broken in upon dur- ing the march by northern and by southern wanderers, and forced to deviate from the line of progress by deserts, inland seas, and chains of mountains. Still the characteristic supe- riority of aspect remained, even to the furthest marine colo- nies they carried to eastern Italy, and to Massilia in Gaul; and their intermixture was a further cause of the high civili- zation they soon attained; for national prejudices broke down by communion writh other tribes, and the bigotry of conflicting superstitions, unable to establish particular supremacy for one, adopted a general amalgamation of the whole. Hyperborean gods and Egyptian gods were blended. The recondite sym- bols, pregnant with meaning in the east, became west of the Hellespont mere fables and physical personifications, attractive to a people petulant with a luxuriant fancy, and so elegant in poetical worship, that it passed to other and more gross condi- tions of society, such as the northern Africans and the Ro- mans ; it spread among Celtae, Iberians, and Getae; all striving to recognize their own divinities in the disguised physicalities that came thus recommended from a polished people. THE ROMANS. The western Pelasgians, sometimes considered as the descendants of two great colonies coming from Thessaly and Arcadia, penetrated very early to Italy, a land which looms on the horizon from the heights of Acroceraunus. In both coun- tries we detect the same names of tribes and places, such as Chaones, Elysinians, Siceles, Acheron, Dodona, Pandoria, &c; and if we judge the affinity of nations by their mode of build- ing with huge stones, even the Etruscans were in part of this 394 NATURAL HISTORY OF stock, the rest being Illyrian or Finnic, as we have already noticed. The Pelasgian element, no doubt, furnished the basis of all the arts and legends, which we find they possessed in an eminent degree; and the huge stone-built ramparts of many cities in Italy, as well as Epirus, Greece, Crete, and Asia Minor, attest the work of kindred civilization. Among these, Rome itself was a frontier fortress in the Campania, not improbably known by a name equivalent to Valentia, before it received the present denomination, which, it may be observed, means the same thing in one of the dialects spoken among the Latin tribes. Valentia was probably derived from the same root as Valum and the Teutonic Walle. The Pelasgians left also colonies at Norba, and among the Volsci, Hernici, Marsi, and Sabini, tribes having all names and characteristics of a Getic infusion in their dialects, and indications which show, like the first named in particular, affinity with the Belgic Gauls, chiefly with the Volsci, Tectosages, and Arecomici. The word Volsci, Velkoe, Wilci, Teutonic Volke, is generical for people; and the different tribes had each a particular desig- nation. That of Italy was known by the appellation of Aurunci, from Awe, the Vale, or open country; and the two others, as above, had names equally resolvable into Teutonic meanings. Nor is this singular, since Teutames is the oldest known hero of the Pelasgian race who ruled on the coast of Caria; and Hera, a goddess revered at Samos, may denote simply the Lady, and be the same as Hertha, Ertha, or Orsiloche, in Tau- ris. There are the names of Circe (Kirke), and Falaces, the double divinity and pillar gods of a great number of nations; with many others, all derived from Getic, or Teutonic dialects. The Romans, properly speaking, did not com- pose a homogeneous race. They were, still more than the Greek people, a compound of many tribes, it is true, more or less remotely allied, but still concentrated on the Tiber from distant quarters, the result of distinct colonies and successive arrivals. Among these, the so-called Trojan basis of the v. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 395 Roman population is not more authentic than that of Ante- nor on the coast of the Adriatic, though popular legends are seldom without some basis of truth ; and that Asia Minor con- tributed several tribes of migrators to different parts of Italy, can scarcely be disputed. Of all the Roman nobility, the Julian family alone was con- sidered to be of indigenous origin; the rest were Pelasgi, Etruscans, Sabines, Siculi, and others from the hills, whose parentage is unknown. Although they were mixed with fair- haired tribes, the aspect, profile, and structure of the Roman, has greater resemblance to the Persic aquiline-featured race than to a Celto Scythic type, notwithstanding that the Arabian name for the people, probably derived from the appearance of the majority of the foreign garrisons in the eastern empire, in general composed of northern levies, was Beni Asfar, that is, fair-haired, " as of Esau." If any relics of the Roman physi- ognomy be now traceable within the boundaries of the once mighty state, they must be sought among the mob population of the city beyond the Tiber, known as the Transteverini; for they still bear the animal square-built form, observable in the statues of ancient Romans, with the aquiline features and deep- set eyes, bespeaking power and daring. Elsewhere they have vanished, and they never can have been numerically prominent where there was more of a class population than a real nation- ality; Rome, during the degradation of the empire, becoming a city of foreigners, and the older civic inhabitants scattered over every part of the empire, in search of lucrative office, or possessing all excepting the military, which was exclusively in the hands of strangers. The true Romans had therefore disap- peared before the state itself was extinguished, and, even in Constantinople, scarcely a family of Roman descent appears prominent during the eastern empire. 396 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CELTIC NATIONS, Often designated by the appellation of Gomerians, may be regarded as amongst the very earliest migrators that left the high lands of central Asia, and moved not only in tribes towards the west, but likewise, as we have before shown, penetrated to the extremity of India; and if we accept as theirs the monu- mental structures, composed of very large stones, placed in a particular form, such as are exemplified by what are known in Europe by the term Druidical, they certainly visited the South Seas and the coasts of China, and penetrated to North America. By what inducement they became a nautical peo- ple in the east, and under what denominations they were known in Austral Asia, are questions probably beyond the attainment of research. It is, however, rather singular that the tribal appellation of Gal is common to many clans of Aus- tralian savages; and Galla is still more extensively spread in the east of tropical Africa. In the peninsula of India, we have pointed out the Pandoos of remotest antiquity, with their crom- lechs, and an Arkite worship evinced in their genealogy; and, towards the west, we have them often greatly mixed with other races, in Armenia, Circassia, Asia Minor, Ancient Greece, the Bosphorus of Thrace, Sarmatia on the Baltic, in Scandinavia, on the Danube, in Friesland, in Britain, Gaul, Italy, Spain, and Northern Africa. They are thus knowrn by distinctive names, Celto Scythae, Celto Cimmerians, Cymbers, Belgae, Vulci, or Volsci, Centomanni, Celtiberii, Gallaici, Gallati, Galli, Galli' Comati, Galli Cisalpini, Britanni, Caledonii, Iberii, Hiberni, with an infinite variety of tribal distinctions, and names of sub- ordinate clans. Collectively, they have been named Gome- rians, perhaps without sufficient reason, though we retain the distinction, so far as relates to tribes of this family anciently resident in the south and west of Asia; but as there are nu- merous indications that among the first migratory tribes por- tions, such as the Cimmerii and Cymbri, directed their course THE HUMAN SPECIES. 397 to the north-west, and mixed, to a great extent, with Finnic and Getic nations ; we are. desirous of distinguishing them from all others, collectively, as Celto Scytha?, or Celto Finnic, and more distinctly, by substituting one or the other of the above names. Their probable movement down the Oxus, and passage to the Oural mountains, and thence by Russia, Poland, the Baltic, Scandinavia, and Denmark, into Friesland and Bel- gium, has already been partially noticed ; and taking the so- called Celtic mode of erecting monuments, altars, and tombs, with huge stones, on the surface of the earth, or hidden in cairns and barrows, as proof of their presence, we have in more than one place pointed out that they must have been sea- men on more than one occasion, have traversed great portions of the South Seas, and left the evidence of their toils on the coasts of China as well as America.* That these massive structures are not the chance-work of races of unallied nations, is plain, from the fact, that among nearly one hundred and fifty cromlechs, logging-stones, masses of unwrrought rock, cleared away to constitute them into colossal idols, circles of stones, parallellitha of linear or curve-linear ranges of upright stones, single maen stones, mysterious caves for worship or initiation, shealings, &c, the greater part whereof we possess drawings, we find that they are placed more or less in certain territorial regions, where they form groups or lines leading from one to another. Thus, in particular, those bearing the character of cromlechs pass down the west side of the Indus to the sea; then divide, one line eastward, following the coast to the Coim- batoor as before noticed, and further on to China and the islands of the Pacific; while the other, forming two branches, one follows the mountain chain to the Caspian, the other by the Helrnund, through the desert of Iran to Persepolis, and up the Tigris, till it meets the first on the high land of Armenia, where * In the atlas of Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard there are some delinea- tions of these seeming Celtic structures in the South Seas not before noticed. 34 398 NATURAL HISTORY OF they become directly referable to Cyclopean and other Celto Finnic tribes, and pass from both coasts of Asia Minor along the two shores of the Mediterranean, up the west coast of Spain, and by the Alps and Cevennes down the Loire to the sea, where both unite again, and then skirt the ocean towards the north, cross over into Britain, the final extension ending in Norway.* With the exception of a few observed in the Uni- ted States, no monuments of this class are detected in any other direction. If we now inquire from whence the construc- tors of these peculiar monuments originated, it is clear, that tracing them back to the points whence they branch off, and then further up to the ultimate limit where they are found, though even then there may be traces of them not as yet dis- covered, we have a proximate solution that they commence either beyond the crest of the central high land of Asia, or at least that they are to be found about the Indus, before that stream escapes to the open plain; that is, again, about Hindu- Koosh, and in the vicinity of certain significant local names, such as Penghir (Pen-y-ghir), Carura, &c, bearing Celtic meanings. It is the region west of high Kashgar, north-west of Cashmere, the vicinity of the first known station of the Pandoos, or Pandei. It is near the first great central sacred troglodyte city, Bamean (Adrepsa), and not far to the north from the first commencement and divergences of the character- istic cromlechs ; for it is along the southern flank of the Paro- pamisus that they pass on northward to Armenia, while another descends the Indus to the sea, and thence branches both eastward and to the interior of Southern Persia. From this vicinity we find also that the oldest pagan diluvian legends have radiated ;t * We have thought it right to repeat a part of what had already been stated on this head, because here, in particular, it connects the various tribes of this common family. t Compare the third Avatar, where Prithivi complains to Vishnou, with Davies' " Celtic Researches." Appendix, "Preiddeu," "Anmon." Still more, No. 12, of ditto, page 563, where some lines appear to be Etruscan. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 399 for those of America, of the South Seas, of Tahtary, and of the north and west of the old continent, are all cognizant of the Dragon formula, the Dragon fish, the serpent devour- ing the sun, the moon, and the woman, type of reproductive animal nature, by which the mysterious doctrine is con- veyed. We find the legends of an Eden, a city of the gods, an oasis of bliss, with its four rivers, equally mystified and dis- torted, from the Brahmaputra to Ireland, and a succession of Ararats, from the Himalaya chain to Snowdon* From India to the German Ocean, there are at least eleven, with a series of subordinate localities, more or less complete, assimilated to the narrative of the Pentateuch, in proportion as the Hebrew Scriptures had been accessible, and in particular among the Arab nations, rekindled by the spreading of the Koran. In point of date, it is known, that both in Italy and Britain the Celts were possessed of the soil before their husbandry was acquainted with either barley or wheat corn; acorns were the sole farinaceous food then known. Greek and Latin classics relate the travels of Ceres, and lessons of Triptolemus, as well as Welsh poets the first introduction of cerealia in Britain. Enough has been said in former pages respecting the move- ments of the most eastern branch of these colonists; their wars, * Pagan tradition scarcely separates the creation from the diluvian legends ; paradise from their cities of the gods and primeval abode of man ; their umbilicus, or navel of the world, from the mountains of God, of the descent, of the deluge and the ship ; a locality usually made the centre of the world, according to the position of each nation asserting that doctrine, and accordingly by each surrounded with sacred rivers and hal- lowed localities, without therefore being in the least scrupulous about geographical truth or much coincidence of opinion. Scriptural commen- tators on the geographical relations of Assyria and Persia with the high lands of Asia, have generally sought the easternmost in Armenia instead of Bactria, though profane history and research agree in the fact, that these two regions have been in constant relations of war, trade, migration, and conquest. 400 NATURAL HISTORY OF probably of several ages' duration in the peninsula of India, and of others still more remote in date, who appear to have reached the south-east coast of China, and traversed a great portion of the Pacific. There were others whose early presence in Africa is detected by a variety of customs among the Abys- sinian and even Caffre nations, which we have likewise no further occasion to mention. Of the tribes of Shelluhs in Morocco, whose Showiah dialect is asserted to retain many Celtic words, it is not requisite to say more than what has already been stated, excepting that the existence of cromlechs and maen stones along the coast, such as the Romans noticed by the names of Philaenian altars, and the ancients likewise attest to have existed on the island of Cadiz, or Gades, in Spain, are of themselves sufficient proof of a primeval coast- ing progress along the African shore, which, leaving colonies in Mauritania, now, it may be, mixed with Shelluh tribes, turned northward, marking its progress in Portugal by the usual monuments, and by the name of Portugal itself, as well as that of Gallicia (land of the Gallaici), where they came in contact with the'Finns or Finno-Celts, from the north, whose progress we have already mentioned. We now come to the march of the main body of the Celtae, from their first departure, divided into two great columns, one directing its course to the northward of west, and the other appearing to have followed the southern flanks of the great mountain chain, through Armenia and Asia Minor, to Europe. It is this movement westward, of successive tribes of the family, which has commonly been designated as the Gome- rian. Josephus first made this application to the race in ques- tion from the tenth chapter of Genesis. We may retain the name, without entering into the truth of the Jewish historian's derivation; particularly when restricting the meaning to the portion of this great stem which passed through Middle Asia; because the word may be construed to imply mountaineers in one set of cognate languages, and in another it may be derived, THE HUMAN SPECIES. 401 with little mutation, from Guomo, Homo, which was doubtless in use among the Pelasgians, a somewhat kindred nation, that passed and dwelt along the same line of migration.* It sig- nifies merely man or men, the common appellation of a multi- tude of ancient tribes in Scythic dialects, or those which we take to be offspring of that common tongue of High Asia, the Sanscrit, before it became a polished vehicle of knowledge in the centre of the ancient world. If the tribes which followed the most southern route, such, for example, as that by the Helmund, towards the region where Persepolis and Susa were afterwards built, had black eyes and curly hair, like every race that came in contact with the Ethi- opian stem; those which followed the course more directly west, along the flank of the mountains, where their monu- ments are still visible, -were more probably a blue-eyed people, with brown hair, and full muscular structure; nationally graziers (gwallah), and possessing that basis of traditions which they afterwards carried with them to Gaul and Britain. In a pure state, or already in commixture with tribes of Finnic origin, we find them in Armenia; tribes reckoned among the giant conquerors, penetrating into Syria and Arabia, and the main columns possessing Colchis and Asia Minor, where the rivers Sangarius and Gallus (Halys), with other remote Celtic denominations, attest that they once resided. If the Milesians have a true claim to Celtic consanguinity, they penetrated to the Borysthenes, and built Olbio, where the sturgeon fishery, corn husbandry, and weaving fine cloths from hemp, had formed a flourishing community in the time of Herodotus, or B. C. 460. But this date is several ages posterior to the first * There are other derivations, or the same, reversing the meaning, as is constantly the case in cognate languages, such as the Celtic Combe, a valley, and Teutonic Kam, a crest; for in both we may have the radical meaning of Cumraeg, Cymbri, Cumbers, Cumbrians, Cambrians, Cam- brivii, Cambresians, Kumbers, Kempers, Kempenners, Kennermers, Cimmerians, &c. See also Cuma, in many localities. —Staph. Byzant. 34* 402 NATURAL HISTORY OF Celtic irruption across the Taurine Alps in Italy; since that event preceded the conquests of the Gauls, B. C. about 600, when they established themselves in the Cisalpine territory, an event which was said to be the consequence of over population already accumulated in Transalpine Gaul, and therefore at least many generations after their first arrival. Over popula- tion certainly could not well have been the true cause of expatriation; for several whole tribes of Belgae, and the Allo- brogi, had not yet relinquished the north of the Rhine and Danube. Now these denominations in Theotisk had only two meanings; Volke, as before said, denoting a people, in contra- distinction to Geschlecht and Stam, which were applied to homogeneous clans or tribes; and Gela, Gaul, Gael, by the Celtic nations always understood to designate strangers, foreigners, because most probably they also were partly mixed tribes; the same originally as those who were known by the collective appellations of Belgae, Centomanni, Celtomanni, &c, and only bore the general epithet of Gauls among the Celtae properly so called. This appellation was pronounced by them- selves and the Teutonic race, Wael, Welsh, Velsche, only a dialectical variation from Wilci (wolves). If the Gelas of the Caspian coast were of the same stem, we have a geographical indication that the Celto Scythic, or perhaps Celto Finnic tribes, extended so far towards the north-east as the Araxes; and though the Phrygian, Gallae, the emasculated priesthood of the Syrian Goddess, renowned for circular dances and choral songs, may not have been Gallic by race, the presump- tion is, that they, or the institutions they observed, came from the banks of the above named Phrygian rivers, where the whole region was at one time Celtic. To that quarter a Gallic army from the west, having ravaged Greece, was, ages after, again invited, and there the forces, so far from wearing out in a short period, as armies invariably do on all other occasions, they multiplied to a nation, which was still flourishing at the commencement of the Christian era, under the name of Gala- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 403 tians. Though mutilation was not practised by the Western Celtae who followed Druidical institutions, the vociferation of the many epithets of Hu, and the spinning dance " in graceful extravagance," according to Taliesin, was well known to them; they had even the ecstatic visions of the Syrian Galli, perhaps the very same as the Howling Dervishes, who repeat the ninety-nine perfections of Allah, and their brethren, the twirl- ing fanatics of the mosque of Ayoub, who perform the like dances, and fall into similar fits of frenzy and exhaustion. A multitude of other coincidences can be traced relating to the highest developed religious system of the Celtas in Western Europe, the more perfect, probably, because, through Phoenician agency, the dogmas of Palestine and Syria had been carried westward rapidly, and more unbroken, by nautical colonists. No doubt an intercourse of consanguinity continued to exist between both, since the Galatians had returned east- ward and established themselves a second time in a focus of their ancient possessions, where there were around them inter- minable denominations of places bestowed by their ancestors; and it is likely a proportion of the population still recognized them as relatives. The southern clans, having, in their most early communion with Indo-Arab neighbors, acquired that dialect which might be termed Celto Semitic, probably pos- sessed the most recondite lore of Western Asia, reduced to a homogeneous system. It was that which abounded in Hebrew or Syriac terms : proceeding by sea, it carried the traditions and philosophy of the east to the coasts of Great Britain, destined to be set up first as indigenous; later, to accept numerous grafts from the same quarter, brought by Punic traders ; and, finally, to prepare the west to accept the tidings of the Gospel without that resolute opposition which Greek and Roman civilization so long opposed to Christianity. The Celto Semitic race is still distinctly marked in Spain, Corn- wall, and Wales, by a more spare make, black curly hair, very dark eyes, and brown complexions, frequently set off with 404 NATURAL HISTORY OF bright red lips. It is a spirited race, gifted with the highest imaginative power, serious, thoughtful, religious, obstinate, attached to its own nationalities, and, though in many cases proved to have been a marine people, nowhere really fond of a sea life. Such are the true Cymraeg, the Siluri of Tacitus, abounding in Wales: in Cornwall they are ofttimes named Cadisians, from a legend that their ancestors came from the coast of Spain; and local names indicate the antique presence of Punic and Hebrew colonists and mining speculators, who understood the value of the Cornish ores so well, that, to the age of King Henry III., Jews still were the parties that farmed the right of stream working and mining from the crown. It is probable that the Hibernian Coomary, sea-dogs, or seals, likewise connected with legends of Gallican origin, and the so- called Milesians, belong to the same stock, notwithstanding that their remote ancestors may have resided on the northern shore of the Euxine, as before stated. The name may even be traced as far as Bactria, among the present Rajpoots, celebrated in the Rhamayana for their horses; and Khomen still reside at the Bay of Cambogia in Siam. In Gaul the brown-haired tribes prevail, though dark-eyed families are exceedingly abundant, and the whole are inter- mixed with Finns, Alans, Goths, Burgundians, and Franks, who, nevertheless, though they were mostly nations of real horsemen, have never been enabled to make the Celtic people either in Italy, Gaul, or Catalonia, more than transitorily addicted to a cavalry life, or formidable for their squad- rons, notwithstanding that the antique institution of the tri- marchesia,* and the Gallic Alae in the Roman service, seem to prove the contrary; at all times this species of renown was due only through the Belgic, Allemannic, and Frankish influ- * Or three horsemen combined ; Tri-march-cesec, a master and two attendants, according to Pausanias ; but if there was but one horse and two foot soldiers, the institution was bad. We must allow that the Polish lancers and the Spahis were once formed upon this principle. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 405 ence in the national manners. The characteristic temperament was ever stimulated by momentary objects, unsteady, factious, often frivolous, always brave, witty, and improvident. This great stem of nations could never permanently arrest the steady progress of the Teutonic and Getic tribes, which gradually forced them westward, then mixed with them, became a privileged class of rulers, or adulterated the Celtic blood and language; such were the Gallic, the first and second Belgic tribes, the Centomanni, the Boii, the Allobroges, and lastly the Cymber or Friesonic, which were nearly pure Ger- mans. The intermixture, in proportion as it increased, gave firmness, and those enduring qualities which finally arrested the pressure of the Getic races, and they resembled them in person and in language, as is proved by the Franks, the Si- cambers and Frankonians, or east Franks on the German side of the Rhine, and by the Saxons and Northmen in the British Islands. After they had been subjugated by the Romans, the Danube and the Rhine were both wrested from them by these amalgamated tribes; they sank before the Vandals, the Goths, the Burgundians, the Franks, the Saxons, and the Northmen, in every quarter except the Highlands of Scotland and a por- tion of Ireland. These, with Wales, a small part of French Bretagne, and the Alpine Vaudois, are now the sole portions of the race which still retain the pride of their nationality, their ancient language, and their traditions. That they all came from the east is perhaps sufficiently shown. We have pointed out the routes followed by the migra. tory columns, and their stations in Armenia and Western Asia; their early blending with Finnic or Ural-Altaic tribes, * probably on the Caspian coast, constituting a portion of the Illyrian branch of Eastern Europe. They seem still to retain possession of a portion of territory on the Danube, under the name of Wallachians (for the claim of that people to an Italian or Roman origin is no other than that the Italians are denom- inated Velches by the Southern Allemannic and Sclavonic 406 NATURAL HISTORY OF nations), though by that name they acknowledge themselves actually to belong to the Celtic family. They may be the Celtae which Alexander found on the Ister, according to Arrian, and be the Triballi of Roman history. Further on we observed that wandering tribe, the Boii, in the present Bavaria, the same which once occupied Bohemia, and left two colonies in Gaul, whereof one, seated at the Teste de Buch, near the mouth of the Garonne, had for hereditary Vergobret, roman- ized into Captal de Buch, Jean de Grailly, the last of the family, who was, in the reign of Edward III., the fifth Knight of the Garter, at the foundation of the order. This very title of Buch, their tribal name of Bougers, and their silent wood- land manners, attest that they were not pure Celts, but, like other fair-haired Boii of the north, Belgae or Semi-Germans.* Besides the possession of Bohemia, Celtic tribes long held Galicia in Spain; others, from the Tauric Chersonesus, passed up the rivers and swamps of Sarmatian Galicia and the Baltic, where they came in contact with Illyrian or Finnic Veneti. Passing over to Sweden and Norway, they built up the usual monuments of their presence, and left some portion of their dogmas to the first conquering Getae; thence they edged down by the Cymbric Chersonesus, along the west coast of Germany, and began to force their way into Northern Gaul, at least one century before the Roman conquest. They dislodged the first Belgae, who, not finding space for habitation on the Continent, formed the two well known irruptions into Britain. They extended themselves along the southern coast, reached the British Channel, and passed over to Ireland, where they formed the Firbolg tribes, who, at a later period, encountered the Finnic Celts in the northern portion of the island. Taking the Irish Firbolg to be descended from the * In the letters of St. Paulinus, addressed to the poet Ausonius, there are some details of the manners of these Boii. At present they are col- lectors of rosin in the pine forests of that sandy region, and characteristi- cally possess a breed of vigorous feral horses. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 407 first Belgic branch (that which was expelled by the second Belgae, who secured for themselves the sea-coast and the valley of the Rhine), we may regard them as the purest Celtae now remaining. They still much resemble the Vaudois, the Illyrian Lombards, and the Walloon population, even more than that of Lower Brittany. The Irish are in form athletic, rather spare and wiry; the forehead is narrow, and the head itself is elon- gated ; the nose and mouth large, and the cheek-bones high. The features are rather harsh; and in character they are fiery, brave, generous in their impulses, and very patient of fatigue. Intellectually considered, they are acute, witty, ingenious, but beset with the sense of drollery more than of the true and use- ful ; they are deficient in sobriety of thought and breadth of understanding; they consequently want more excitement for action and enduring reflecting power than the Getic family of nations seems to require. The Finnic Celtae were the first northern marine wanderers, who, having attained the Scottish and Irish coasts, constituted the Gael Coch, or red-haired stran- gers of Scandinavian origin, and first taught the pursuing Getae —in part their kindred — to follow them to the south, under the name of Northmen and Ostmen. The Cymbers were perhaps the last colony from the north that had consanguinity with the Celtae; they broke into Gaul B. C. 108, penetrated to Spain, and, in alliance with Teutonic tribes, they were at length vanquished in the plains of Italy, after they had destroyed several consular armies* In Britain, as already stated, there were a greater diversity of races than is commonly admitted, besides a nameless population of sav- ages, probably Finnic, in possession of the coast when the Celtae first landed. There were among these, and protected by the Hedui, the Veneti (Henyd) and Ligurians (Llogrwys), * They routed, between B. C. 302 and 307, the armies of Papyrius, of Silanus, of Cassius Longinus, and of Caepio and Mallius, who were loaded with the Celtic treasures of Tolosa, once plundered by the Gauls at Grecian Delphos. 408 NATURAL HISTORY OF * who, we have shown, had, through their Illyrian origin, like- wise Finnic affinities; the purer Celtae, such as the Morini and the nautical clans coming from the coast of Spain, and the Belgfe of Semi-Teutonic origin, such as the Cantii and others occupying the east coast of Britain. The intercommunication of knowledge and civilization among tribes, who, in different parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, had been in contact with nations far more advanced in the arts of life, some perhaps, with little delay, passing west in their coracles the whole dis- tance from the regions of Phoenicia and Carthage to Britain, brought dogmas, such as the religious and moral dicta of the Druids attest. They had, no doubt, possession of rudiments of literature and reminiscences of science, and, reaching a home rich in mines, not only became miners and metallurgists — as more than one line of their progenitors had been in the east and in Spain — but, stimulated by the example of the Etruscans in the arts of smelting ores, they must have accelerated the progress of development, which inroads of new hordes, the tendency to intestine factions and open war, too often, and, in the end, too fatally arrested. This imprudent irritability of temperament caused the Celtic races, notwithstanding their military prowess, to be ever sub- dued and ruled by strangers, both in Asia and Eastern Europe, in Gaul and Britain. Without reference to the universally known facts in history, we may add one or two more not so commonly noticed. It was the Veneto-British fleet, defeated by Caesar's navy, off the mouth of the Seine, which produced the Roman invasion.* The struggles between the Christian municipal towns of foreign colonists left by the Romans, and the Pagan Reguli of native race, brought in the Caledonians and then the Saxons. So, again, the force of 12,000 Britons under Prothamus (Pritham ?), which crossed over to Gaul in * It was more likely a fleet of Gallic and British Veneti united, who fought D. Brutus in Quiberon Bay, in order to recover Vannes, Blavet, and Hennebon, all Henyd, or Venetic towns. THE HUMAN SPECIES. 409 457 to support the Emperor (Marjoriam?), stripped the island of its trained defenders, at the time the great Saxon invasion was in progress;* and, lastly, we find the name of Sawel ben Uchel, with his supporters, probably Belgae, taking part with the Saxons in the overthrow of their own race. Language and religious doctrines were likewise different in the three great national divisions of the Celtae. In the north, the name of Druids, or rather Drotne, was a title of civil authority, perhaps even more than religious; the Belgas had no Druids, but Seghers, speakers (sacerdotes of Tacitus); nor was the order known in Cisalpine Gaul, nor in the Iberian posses- sions of the race. Druidism seems to have been evolved on the banks of the Loire, and acquired the higher doctrines in the mining districts of Britain, by intercourse with the Phoeni- cian traders, until it was ready to accept a modified Christian- ity, like that Aurelius Ambrosius entertained, when he assumed the civil and military authority, with the office of chief Druid and that of Christian Bishop! Though the French nation of the present time is in its vast majority of Celtic origin, .there remain only the Bas Bretons who claim something of a pure descent. The Waldenses of the Alps are less distinct. The south-eastern Irish have a just claim to a Belgic origin, and the Cymraeg of Wales to a true southern Celtic parentage; while the Gael of the Scottish Highlands are probably Finnic Celts, who resided in Erin, till they were obliged to retire before the superior numbers of the Fir-bolg.t * This expedition may have given rise to the fabulous wars of Arthur on the continent. Prothamus is mentioned by Jornandes, Freculphus, and Sigebert of Gembloux. t It may be remarked here, that several Celtic terms are referred to Theotisk sources, because they belong to the Celto-Cymber and Belgic tribes, who, as Cassar asserts, spoke a distinct language ; and the roman- ized names of divinities prove to have been invariably of Teutonic, not Gallic origin, from the Rhine to beyond the Scheldt. 35 410 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE GEM OR GOTHIC NATIONS. At length we attain the concluding family of nations. It is that stem, which, though later in reaching the Western Ocean, and, like the rest of the tribes that peopled Europe, though compelled to forsake High Asia, and quit the east, was des- tined nevertheless to hold dominion in Chinese Tahtary, ages after the other Caucasian nations had been expelled or exter- minated by the Mongoles. They likewise were early invaders of India, and are no doubt of the number of those which the Egyptian kings Remses and Thothmes, and the Assyrian Ninus, vainly endeavored permanently to subjugate, notwith- standing that they had the organized masses of great empires at their command, and the invaded mountaineers could not retreat towards the east. This stem of nations was, as it still is, the tall, fair, light, or red-haired portion of the Caucasian type, including the giant races of historical tradition. It ven- tured, in the remotest ages, in small clans, or by mere families, to penetrate far among the dark-haired nations, unsupported by numbers, and trusting solely to their fortitude and valor. The Mongolic, the Ural Altaic Finns, and the Indo Arab nations, have at all times acted by the weight of overwhelming num- bers, therein differing from the fair-haired tribes of mixed and of pure Caucasians, whose cool energy and self-reliance not only takes little account of numbers, but actually is the cause of small sovereignties, and even permanent republics, remain- ing independent to this day. We have in more than one place pointed out families, and clans of this great stem, assuming the absolute mastery of swarthy and of dark-haired nations, or becoming in a collective form the nobility, the privileged class, wherever they resided. An element of this kind, either in part Finnic, or purely Getic, blended in the earliest population of Greece, probably before the formation of the kingdom of Argos, eighteen centuries before the Christian era. The Her- THE HUMAN SPECIES. 411 aclidae were of the fair-haired stock, and so was Theseus, and indeed most of the demigod heroes of Greece; at least that opinion in tradition is equivalent to an admission of the fact that the northern race prevailed among the Hellenes before their historical era. They came from Thrace, from Asia Minor; and, in the quality of marine swarmers down the Euxine, occupied portions of the coast, or passed on to the Mediterranean, to the Adriatic, Gaul, and Spain, where the fabulous Gerion is again represented to have been a fair-haired giant.* All these legends have a singular alliance in consist- ent uniformity, reaching to Egypt, and going round and beyond the Mediterranean Sea. Under the names of Scythians and Tauranians, we find, in Asiatic history, that they were dreaded by all southern nations, even to a single individual coming amongst them. Kindred nations of this stem reached Europe without distinct accounts of their origin and progress; but the movements of others, at later periods, substantiated by Chinese writers, by Indian documents, and by Greek and Latin authors, who record their arrival in the west, attest that they all came from the same region, in Mongolia, Thibet, and the lakes of Central Asia. Being coerced by the pressure of the beardless stock behind, they forced a passage towards Europe through innumerable fields of slaughter, and swarmed during a period commencing probably twelve centuries B. C, perhaps when the great inland sea was already much contracted, and the rivers in their way were not yet so greatly absorbed in sand as they are now. We observe, in fact, that already at the time of the first Celtic expansion in Gaul, when tribes of that race recrossed the * In Asia Minor they appear to have constituted the Lydian, Pelasgian, and Carian nations ; and Tyrhenian or Torubian, and Phoenician, further on, were probably more Finnic, but all allied, as is shown by Hesiod and Herodotus, in Lydian records ; and Ovid, quoting a Naxian legend, where tribes are personified, the Tyrhenian theft of the god Bacchus, indicates that these pirate rovers carried the vine to Italy. 412 NATURAL HISTORY OF Rhine, 600 years B. C, that Semi-Teutones or Getic tribes, such as the Boii, were among them, and that the movement was occasioned by fresh pressure of similar tribes coming down the north-west coast of Germany — tribes that could not be expatriated by any other than enemies of purer Getic race, who were themselves pressed by more of the same, further in the north-east. We have prominent, on the scene of action, the same names of nations, from the high lands of Mongolia to the German Ocean. They continue to roll onwards in waves, retaining their first appellations, till four centuries A. C. In Tahtar, and Chinese and European Chinese annals, they are distinguished by the names of Kinto Moey, Yuchi, and Yetae, Getae, Scythae, Guti, Guttones, Jotun, Goths, Massagetae, &c, until they become known by more tribal denominations, such as Gothi, Germani, Teutones, Xacas, Sacas, Sakya, Sacae: at later periods we find Sueiones, Suevi, Burgundi; and at length they are followed by Sclavonic tribes, which always bear some impression of Ural Altaic consanguinity, notwith- standing that in part they are descended from Sacas, who, repulsed by Indian forces, fell back upon Persia, and brought with them Hindoo mythological notions, that extended among kindred nations, and reached Scandinavia. According to Chinese annalists, when Foh appeared, B. C. 1027, Yuchi were already established in Bactria, along the Sihoon or Jaxartes river, and they had possessed, or still were masters of, the great basin around Lake Balkach; the first station west of the central mountain chain, provided that the Siberian region, in remote times called Geta or Yeta, be not still more ancient, and reveal the original meaning of Get, bright, corrus- cating, the same as Sibir, and our silver, which seems to be the Russian or Sclavonic translation of Yet. The Chinese Yuchi, and more proper names of Yeta and Getae, collectively taken, denoted the whole family of fair- haired tribes, including those which were foremost in the movement towards the west, and were partially intermixed THE HUMAN SPECIES. 413 with the Celtic tribes of the north, forming the Cymber or Cimmerian people before mentioned. Similar interunions affected the Gallic or fair-haired Gaul tribes; the Boii, the Volsci, the Britons of the east coast, the Vuinidi; the Wilci, northern or second Belga?,* &c.; but it may be doubted whether the AUemanni, Allobrogi, Centomanni, Geremanni, Teutones, and Frisones, were of the same races, pure Getae, or with perhaps some Finnic intermixture. That they were nearly allied, is evident from their tribal names, notwithstand- ing that the Romans confounded them, with the Gauls, because, in the time of Marius, it was thought to be the greater honor to vanquish them, and they were encountered on the west side of the Rhine. In Britain, the former were the Gwyddel Coch, or Ywerdon, the red Gael of Ireland, probably the Dalriads noticed in the third century again, of the same nation as the yellow-haired Britons, taller than the Italian race, seen at Rome by Strabo, and still distinguished by the bard of Malcolm III., in 1057. These no doubt were the Celto Scythse of earlier antiquity, little if at all to be divided from the Finnic Celts, but more distinct from the Getic tribes, who are often noticed in antiquity, as milk-eating and western Scythae, residing between the Danube and the Tanais or Don, at the time the eastern Getae, or Massagetae, the Sakas and Sarmatae, were on the plains northward of the Caspian, and along the Oxus and Jaxartes, up to High Asia, and the Yuchi (Yueichi) were still in the present Mongolia. This appears to have been that period when the great conflict of the typical races was at its height, in Northern Central Asia; for the Chinese were then building the Great Wall (B. C. 223) to exclude these valiant tribes from their southern states, and the Persian monarchs were equally anxious to pre- vent them penetrating to the south, since they also had raised * The Esauites, or Italian Edomites of Gorio, who built Norba, Alba, and other Cyclopean cities in Lower Etruria and Latium, were a fair- haired race, most likely Etruscans, speaking an Oscan dialect. 35* 414 NATURAL HISTORY OF a great wall, or continuous lines of defence, from Bactria to the Caspian, a rampart like the Kizil Alan, most likely older than the accession of the Sassanian dynasty ; since further west, the wall between the two seas, passing from Derbend (Porta portarum, Porta? Caspiae) to the Euxine, appears also to be more ancient than historical record. The Yuei-chi, the last Caucasian race that left the north central high land of Asia, being pressed by the Mongolians, or by Huns from the north-east (about 200 B. C), were compelled to quit Chensi, and fell upon the Sai, or Sakas, who, retreat- ing, divided into two great masses, whereof the first directed its course towards the west, and the other, not quite so numer- ous, fell back upon Southern Thibet, and thence came down upon the Greek Bactrian state (B. C. 90), then ruled by Mith- ridates. They had, at the same time, similar conflicts with the Parthians, whose king, Artaban, they slew. They gave an asylum to Sanotrokes, and restored him to power (B. C. 76). From Bactria they crossed the Paropamisus, and sub- dued another Greek sovereignty in Affghanistan, on the south side of the chain. Passing onwards, they formed a province of Scinde; but, in an attempt to penetrate further eastward, they were routed by Vikra-maditya, king of Avanti (B. C. 56). If not from an earlier invasion, it was, at the latest, in consequence of this defeat, that the recoiling Scythte were supplied with the Hindoo religious elements, which some of the tribes, migrating westward, have evidently mixed up with Celtic and Finnic legends' in the north of Europe. We do not, for example, find the Asii, here called Lazi, to have pos- sessed the doctrines recorded in the Edda. When, according to the Chinese annals, they were opposing the Tatzin or the Romans, in their endeavors to open a trade with China, for which purpose, being hindered on land, they sent an ambassa- dor by sea to the Celestial Empire, in the reign of a sovereign denominated " Anton," i. e., Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. While they were still residing on the Caspian, and when they THE HUMAN SPECIES. 415 began to form a strong community on the banks of the Borys- thenes, Thorgitaus, their chief divinity, is not represented with characters suited to the high northern latitude, where Thor and Woden are afterwards made to operate in a manner congenial with the climate. If the city Asgard, once existing near Azof, at the mouth of the Don, was the representative of the first abode commemorated in the north, then the Asii possessed at that point an intermediate resting-place, so that from their first known station within the high table land of Asia, above the southern sources of the Jaxartes, they moved gradually to the south through Sogdiana, across the Paropamisus, and then westward, to the three stations already indicated, before they or a clan of this people again returned to the north, probably by ascending the Borysthenes, and halting some time about the lake of Ladoga, made that water a sacred centre, until they migrated to Scandinavia. The Getae, found by Ovid occupying the west coast of the Euxine, were then already a century in moving onwards towards the north-west of Europe, taking again the great rivers of the present Poland to reach the Baltic. With the Thuringians and Saxons, or Sacasunen, among them, they forced their way to the German Ocean, dislodging the Cym- bers, excepting remnants that clung to the swamps, and the then submerging islands of the deltas formed by the great rivers which discharge their waters into the German Ocean. They were most likely the subsequent Friesen and Sicambers, or Water Cymbers, who, with other tribes of so-called Ger- mani, formed the posterior offensive confederacy of the Franks (Freye-Anke); among these the clan of Merovingians (Meer- vingen), notwithstanding that the site they inhabited is pointed out to have been on the Merwe in Holland, seems nevertheless to indicate a clan of sea-rovers, whose first intel- ligible historical chief, Pharamund (Vaaremund), or com- mander of the navigation, had performed some great exploit in the then fresh career of distant marine expeditions, such as 416 NATURAL HISTORY OF that of plundering and ravaging the coasts of Africa and Spain. They and their chief may perhaps refer to the remark- able escape of the Frankish exiled prisoners, who, in A. D. 280, seized upon shipping on the coasts of the Euxine, and forced their way homeward, plundering Syracuse and the coasts of Gaul and Spain, until they reached the mouth of the Rhine in safety, and loaded with booty. This event may be the basis of the mystical legend of the Bristly Bull monster, which rose out of the sea, and became the parent of the Bor- stigen, Meringauen, or Meeringen; for it explains how a daring, rich, and victorious body of Celto Scytha? and Finni of the west, being moulded into one united companionship by misfortune and by success, replete with the experience of their adventurous achievement, and possessed of captive wives and slaves from highly civilized nations, should have grasped power at home, and given that settled purpose of conquest to these restless tribes, which, until then, had been only known as the mere maraudings of pirates. By the departure of the Franks eastward and across the Rhine, and of the Saxons and Angles to Britain, room was made for other tribes, who either wanted space on the spot, or were daily pressing onwards through the swamps and forests of Poland and Russia. We shall not relate the great influx of them before and with the Huns, and of numerous Finnic and Getic nations from the east, among which the eastern and western Goths were the most conspicuous. Like several others, they had struck upon the shores of the southern Baltic, and then found they must turn to the south. They or,similar migratory bands compelled Alans, Vandals, Burgundians, &c, to precede or to follow them, and to produce that remarkable cross migration from north to south, which caused the intimate mixture of the fair and dark-haired races in middle and south- ern Europe, and in the end effected that thorough civilization of the whole, on principles of progression, continuing to THE HUMAN SPECIES. 417 develop science with daily increasing rapidity, and tending shortly to embrace the whole earth. Though many of the parent races of nations now remaining were without letters, or were possessed of valuable elements of knowledge in a very circumscribed degree, there existed among them all, at a period much earlier than is often allowed, a method of embodying (it is true, commonly under symbolical expressions) records of national belief, manners, and events, which give occasional light, sufficient to rectify the scanty- data of the later classical writers, and the documents contained in the acts of the earlier ages of Christianity. These most ancient national legends are poems, in various forms, and often in some part religious. They are reports, such as Virgil knew, and interwove in his JEneid, concerning the tribes of Latium, and Strabo asserts were possessed by the Iberians. They were recitals committed to memory, like the Homeric poems, preserved from one generation to another by repetition, with an exactness, all things considered, wonderfully perma- nent. Thus the Gael of the Scottish Highlands, and northern Irish, have recorded the poems of Ossian, now thoroughly proved to be genuine. Such are the thirty cantos of the Finnic Kalewalla, lately brought to light, the numerous Scan- dinavian Sagas, and the two Eddas. Even the British Celtic legends of Arthur, the Mabinogion, and the poems of Taliesin and Aneurim, have now likewise established their degree of authenticity, as well as the first part of the Arabic Antar. Among the Teutonic tribes, the staves of the Gehugende, according to Jahn, marked on wood, in Runic letters, con- tained the tribal reminiscences, whence the earliest monkish annalfets have drawn a great part of their first historical mate- rials. The Heldenbuch, and Niebelungen-noth, were most likely preserved by their help. The last mentioned may, however, be of Franco-Theotisk origin, since four or six pages, in the Flemish language, of the twelfth century, have been lately discovered at Ghent. 418 NATURAL HISTORY OF It is to be regretted that many stores of early information have been neglected. The list of classical (Greek and Latin) writers which have perished since the thirteenth century is sufficiently extensive. That of indigenous chronicles, annals, and legends, especially in the north of Europe, since the same period, is even more considerable. Some few may yet remain unknown ; and though the general history of events may not be greatly impaired, we still have to deplore the loss of much that concerns the nationality, the manners, opinions, and tra- ditions of our remoter ancestors, which, after all, are quite as valuable, nay, even more so, than the commemoration of crime and barbarity which has been preserved. Of the class we mean, there are still a few remaining, which, although they be distorted by ill-directed zeal, by imposture, and by ignorance, furnish curious hints in their way. Such, for example, is the song of the Lombards, also known as that of the Ost and West Friesen or Frisons, found by Mr. Bonstetten, at Copen- hagen. In the Land-urbar, or Costumier of the Bernese Swiss, there is likewise a legendary record of the fair-haired tribes of Ober-Hasli, Schwytz, Gessenay, and Bellegarde, printed as early as 1507, by Etterlin, in the chronicles of Lucerne. The Song of Hasli, of about one hundred and eighty stanzas, relates the migration of these clans, their battles, and their arrival near the Brochenberg, v/here they built Schwytz; and, it appears, they fought in the cause of Arcadius and Honorius, about the year 387. Here we terminate this inquiry into the origin and filiation of the races of Man, — a subject, zoologically viewed, we thought more novel, than to repeat what has already been said by other writers, and especially by Dr. Prichard, with his accustomed industry and learning. As for us, we are compelled, for want of space, to abstain from entering into many important particulars, which would be THE HUMAN SPECIES. 419 more necessary for the elucidation of the general theory now advanced, if readers were not now very commonly well informed on most of the points brought here under considera- tion. Want of space compelled us, from the beginning, to mass our superabundant materials into groups, which on many occasions may appear too much generalized, and on others marked with repetitions, which sometimes we thought requisite to refresh the memory of the reader. The basis of the questions chiefly investigated was laid in a series of lec- tures on the same subject, read to the Plymouth Institution, between the years 1832 and 1837. The materials were exclu- sively sought for in scientific researches and profane history; and the successive discoveries and conclusions of other writers since that period, have, in general, strongly supported the main points of our own convictions, to which we attach no further personal importance than what continued research will disprove, or in due time assent to, when the basis of sev- eral conclusions offered in these pages will have acquired more ample notoriety and consequent solidity. APPENDIX. It was intended, when the foregoing work was first in progress, to have thrown into an Appendix such additional observations as might be thought important, or that had escaped notice in their proper places, and to add to them the discoveries which might have become known during the progress of publication; but finding the text already greatly to exceed the usual limits of the single volume allowed for the discussion of the questions we have had to consider, the objects to have come under notice were reluctantly abandoned, or confined to the smallest space. Thus, on the article Indus, pp. 107—111, recent discoveries of more than one ancient bed of the river have been made considerably further to the eastward than what were known, and the conjectures respecting the origi- nal course of the river to the sea, in the Gulf of Cutch, are strengthened. Respecting the abrasion of the west coast of India, pp. 109, 110, might be mentioned Calicut, the capital city at the time of the Portuguese con- quest, but now sunk beneath the sea. With regard to the various levels between the Caspian Sea, the uplands of Russia, and Poland, pp. 120—124, we may remark, that the fall of the rivers opening in the Volga is 110 feet, those that are affluents to the Neva fall 445 feet, making a total of 555 ; now, adding this total to the surface of the Caspian, there appears to be only 200 feet remaining for the culmi- nating ground at the sources of the Volga ; but if these are estimated on 36 422 APPENDIX. measurement based in error, and we make the elevation to be about 700 feet at the highlands of Vologda, still taking the lowest level between the Euxine and the Baltic to be in a line of latitude 58, the waters of the two were of no dissimilar height, while the Gulf of Bothnia was still an open strait, and the northern portion of the Old Continent had not as yet com- menced rising. It appears that Norwegian Lapland has risen 1800 feet in the last 1200 years. At page 129, note, we should have added that even the byssus of the pinna was not destroyed. Pages 142-3. The volcanic disturbances of the Red Sea were again in operation in the last or in the present year (1847), when a new island rose above the surface in the southern portion. The French survey, for a canal between Suez and Lake Mensaleh, recently published, likewise countenances the opinion that the Isthmus was originally open. Page 151. Among others, is the tale of Moshup, the giant spirit, who resided at Nop, now Martha's Vineyard, at a time when the currents ran differently, and ice used to pack about Nantucket shoals. But better evidence is found in the researches of Mr. Lyell, who considers the south- eastern portion of the United States, about Savannah, to be subsiding, while Canada, and latterly Nova Scotia, are shown to be rising, probably in the same ratio as the Arctic regions on the Old Continent. Page 155. The human bones first discovered in England were in fissures of lime rock : they went to mend the highway, and no investigation by competent persons took place until long after. A similar fate attended the discovery of a completely fossilized human body at Gibraltar, in 1748. The fact is related in a manuscript note, inserted hi a copy of the disser- tation on the antiquity of the earth, by the Rev. James Douglass, read at the Royal Society, May 12, 1785. The volume belonged to the late Rev. Vyvyan Arundel, while he was still at Exeter College, Oxford, and the note, signed J. W., is written on paper, by the water-mark indicating about the year 1790. In substance it relates that while the writer was himself at Gibraltar, some miners employed to blow up rocks, for the purpose of raising batteries, about fifty feet above the level of the sea, on APPENDIX. 423 the higher ground, near the Old Mole, discovered an appearance of a human body, which — impatient because the officer to whom notice was sent of the object did not come to witness it — they blew up. It was reported to have been eight feet and a half long. Several of the pieces were taken up, and among them part of a thigh bone, " with flesh, and I thought an appearance of veins, all in a state of perfect petrifaction, as hard as marble itself ; and in the solid part of the same stone a sea shell." It is evident, that if this body was fossilized by the infusion of stalactite matter, it must still have been of most remote antiquity. Pages 156—161. We refer to Mr. Lyell's account of the human remains brought from South America, where, among others, he notices a skull, taken from among a great number of other remains, out of a sandstone rock, now overgrown with very large trees, in the vicinity of Santas, in Brazil. He avows an opinion that the locality may have been an Indian burying-ground, which subsequently sank beneath the level of the sea, and then was hove up again. Now, if this theory be admitted, and it is coupled with the growth of large trees above the deposit, to what period can it be assigned, when we reflect, that the bones of pachyderms, and of a species of extinct horse, both confessedly found in alluvial, must be of a more recent period ? Page 419. With regard to the Slavi, which might have been noticed as the last migrating nation that came from the East to Europe, they were omitted, because no detail could be given even of the little that is known of them. In structure and intellectual capacity they are so like their immediate predecessors, the Goths, that no other sensible difference is observable between them, than that they have even a still greater pre- dominance of Sanscrit roots in their language, and that there are other evidences which lead to a presumption of their route westward having been in part to the south of the Caspian. An instance of the highest intellectual development, in the frontal form of the head, is given in the Plates. . - .-._ ,,ii (■ 1. AMERICAN TYPE .— .-*<•»!»./ rh? .iil.iinli^n or Ihr Skull /'" ''capita] n'/xr nth the OsJnecc 2. WOOLLY-HAIRED TYPE GOLD COAST AKAJOtj"Rl>S 5. BEARDLESS TYPE iSGSGOLE VERTICAL ASPECT Msrfc 4. BEARDED or CAUCASIAN TYPE rEGEE ISLANDS 5. WOOLLY HAIRED TYPE. NEGROES •?^*v.,, MOZAMBIQUE 6. NDO-CHINA-MALAY RACES. COCHIN CHINA. •A*l si: OF BRAZIL RAT-F-'.-.l.-T NEGRO ASU CAYAPO IKD1AX . NEW ZEALAND. ?. TE KEWITl, SON OP TE KAITWATN. >^w,/. hietof rJi*.yffau.Watt<*t.j %«t.B; \":^. OTO INDIAN. CI.VCHE, lior.KY MOUNTAIN INDIAN KOJAI TAHIAS iO. EiW,.KTHY KAWAl '->•*■ U-KLTH m '■■■■ JAPANESE YKi'll FIGHTER 11. CAUCASIAN TAHTARS. CAUCASIAN RACE. z. GREATEST DEVELOFEMEKT * NX'S /->>. SLAVONIC KOBLE. ■ —^fey->C 1 J5> VALUABLE WORKS PUBLISHED BI GOULD AND LINCOLN, 69 WASHINGTON STREET, BOSTON. ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY FOR 1850: or, Tear-Book of Tacts in Science and Art, exhibiting the most important discoveries and improvements in Mechan- ics, Useful Arts, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Astronomy, Meteorology, Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, Geography, Antiquities, &c.; together with a list of recent Scientific Publications; a classified list of Patents; obituaries of eminent Scientific Men; an index of important papers in Scientific Journals, reports, &c. Edited by David A. 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" It is withal, one of the most beautiful specimens of English composition to be found, convey- ing information on a most difficult and profound science, in a style at once novel, pleasing and elegant. It contains the results of twenty years close observation and experiment, resulting in an accumulation of facts, which not only dissipate some dark and knotty old theories with regard to ancient formations, but establish the great truths of geology in more perfect and harmonious con- sistency with the great truths of revelation." — Albany Spectator. PRINCIPLES OF ZOOLOGY : Touching the Structure, Development, Distribution, and Natural Arrangement of the Races of Animals living and extinct, with numerous illustrations. For the use of Schools and Colleges. Part I., Comparative Physiology. By Louis Agassiz and Augustus A. Gould. Revised edition. 12mo,.. .cloth,... .1,00 " This work places us in possession of information half a century in advance of all our elemen- tary works on this subject * * No work of the same dimensions has ever appeared in the English language, containing so much new and valuable information on the subject of which H treats."—Prof. James Hall, in the Albany Journal. " A work emanating from so high a source hardly requires commendation to give it currency. The volume is prepared for the student in zoological science; it is simple and elementary in its style, full in its illustrations, comprehensive in its range, yet well condensed, and brought into the narrow compass requisite for the purpose intended."—Silliman's Journal. " The work may safely be recommended as the best book of the kind in our language."— Cftro- tian Examiner. " It is not a mere book, but a work—a real work in the form of a book. Zoology is an interesting science, and here is treated with a masterly hand. The history, anatomical structure, the nature and habits of numberless animals, are described in clear and plain language and illustrated with innumerable engravings. It is a work adapted to colleges and schools, and no young man should be without it."—Scientific American. PRINCIPLES OF ZOOLOGY, PART II. Systematic Zoology, in which the Prin- ciples of Classification are applied, and the principal groups of animals arc briefly characterized. With numerous illustrations. 12mo,.................[in preparation] TillaHnrfraTh»wA„ND M A N : Lectures on Comparative Physical Geography, in its and riVnJt %! ^? ?f Mankind. By Arnold Guyot, Professor of Physical Geography and Huitory, Neuchatel. Translated from the French, by Prof. C. 0. Felton, with illus- trations. Second thousand. 12mo,..................................cloth___125 ■ " ^ih°Se 7^° hSVe bee" accustomed to regard Geography as a merely descriptive branch of learn- ing, drier than the remainder biscuit after a voyage, will be delighted to find this hitherto un- attractive pursuit converted into a science, the principles of which are definite and the results conclusive."—North American Review. " The grand idea of the work is happily expressed by the author, where he calls it the geograph- ical march of history. Faith, science, learning, poetry, taste, in a word, genius, have liberally contributed to the production of the work under review. Sometimes we feel as if we were studying a treatise on the exact sciences; at others, it strikes the ear like an epic poem. Now it reads like history, and now it sounds like prophecy. It will find readers in whatever language it may be published."— Christian Examiner. " The work is one of high merit, exhibiting a wide range of knowledge, great research, and a philosophical spirit of investigation. Its perusal will well repay the most learned in such subjc cts, and give new views to all, of man's relation to the globe he inhabits."—Silliman's Journal. COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; or, tho Study of the Earth and its Inhabitants. A series of graduated courses for the use of Schools. By Arnold Guyot, author of " Earth and Man," etc. The series hereby announced will consist of three courses, adapted to the capacity of three dif- ferent ages and periods of study. The first is intended for primary schools, and for children of from seven to ten years. The second is adapted for higher schools, and for young persons of from ten to fifteen years. The third is to be used as a scientific manual in Academies and Colleges. Each course will be divided into two parts, one of purely Physical Geography, the other for Eth- nography, Statistics, Political and Historical Geography. Each part will be illustrated by a colored Physical and Political Atlas, prepared expressly for this purpose, delineating, with the greatest care, the configuration of the surface, and the other physical phenomena alluded to in the corres- ponding work, the distribution of the races of men, and the political divisions into States, frc, frc. The two parts of the first or preparatory course are now in a forward state of preparation, and will be issued at an early day. MURAL MAPS: a series of elegant colored Maps, exhibiting the Physical Phenomena of the Globe. Projected on a large scale, and intended to be suspended in the Recitation Room. By Arnold Guyot..........................................[in preparation] KITTO'S POPULAR CYCLOP/EDIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. Con- densed from the larger work. By John Kitto, D. D., F. S. A., author of The Pictoral Bible," "History and Physical Geography of Palestine," Editor of "The Journal of Sacred Literature," etc. Assisted by numerous distinguished Scholars and Divines, British, Continental and American. With numerous illustrations. One volume, octavo, 812pp........................................................cloth,....3,00 The Popular Biblical Cyclopaedia of Literature is designed to furnish a Dictionary or the Bible, embodying the products of the best and most recent researches in Biblical Liter- ature, in which the Scholars of Europe and America have been engaged. The work, the result of immense labor and research, and enriched by the contributions of writers of distinguished eminence in the various departments of Sacred Literature,-has been by universal consent, pronounced the best work of its class extant; and the one best suited to the advanced knowledge of the present day in all the studies connected with Theological Science. The Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature from which this work is condensed by the author i, published in Lo volumes, rendering it about twice the size of the present.wort.and is intended, •ays the author, more particularly for Ministers and Theological Students, „Uh the Popular Cyclopaedia is intended for Parents, Sabbath *^*^£^£^V%£%Z public. It has been the author's aim to avoid imparting to theworKany ™°T denominational bias. On such points -^^^^^^1 treatment has been adopted, and care has b^n taken to prov de a ^ ^^ which have seemed most conclusive to the ^^Z ^ol&e^ highest order of th* «*. Illustrations- amounting to more than three hundred-are ot tne very u b LAKE SUPERIOR : its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals, compared with those of other and similar regions, by L. Agassiz, and contributions from other eminent Scientiflo Gentlemen. With a Narrative of the Expedition, and illustrations by J. E. Cabot. One volume octavo, elegantly illustrated.......................cloth,... .3,50 The illustrations, seventeen in number, are in the finest style of the art, by Sonrel; embracing I'jake and Landscape Scenery, Fishes, and other objects of Natural History, with an outline map of Lake Superior. This work is one of the most valuable scientific works that has appeared in this country. Embodying the researches of our best scientific men, relating to a hitherto comparatively unknown region, it will be found to contain a great amount of scientific information. CHAMBERS' CYCLOP/EDIA OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. A Selection 0/ the choicest productions of English Authors, from the earliest to the present time. Connected by a Critical and Biographical History. Forming two large imperial octavo volumes of 700 pages each, double column letter press; with upwards of 300 elegant Illustrations. Edited by Robert Chambers,.................embossed cloth,... .5,00 cloth, full gilt, extra.....7,50 sheep, extra, raised bands,... .6,00 The work embraces about one thousand Authors, chronologically arranged and classed as Poets, Historians, Dramatists, Philosophers, Metaphysicians, Divines, etc, with choice selections from their writings, connected by a Biographical, Historical, and Critical Narrative; thus presenting a complete view of English Literature, from the earliest to the present time. Let the reader open where he will, he cannot foil to find matter for profit and delight The Selections are gems,— infinite riches in alittle room,—in the language of another "A whole English Library fused DOWN INTO ONE CHEAP BOOK I " ca- The American edition of this valuable work is enriched by the addition of fine steel and mezzotint Engravings of the heads of Shakspeare, Addison, Byron ; a full length portrait ol Db. Johnson ; and a beautiful scenic representation of Oliver Goldsmith and Dr. Johnson. These important and elegant additions, together with superior paper and binding, render the American, superior to all other editions. CHAMBERS' MISCELLANY OF USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING KNOWL- EDGE. Edited by William Chambers. With elegant Illustrative Engravings. 10 vols. cloth.....7,60 cloth, gilt.....10,00 library, sheep,.... 10,00 os- This work has been highly recommended by distinguished individuals, as admirably adapted to Eamily, Sabbath and District School Libraries. " It would be difficult to find any miscellany superior or even equal to it; it richly deserves the epithets ' useful and entertaining,' and I would recommend it very strongly, as extremely well adapted to form parts of a library for the young, or of a social or circulating library, in town or country."—George S. Emerson, Esq., Chairman Boston School Book Committee. CHAMBERS' PAPERS FOR THE PEOPLE. 12mo, in beautiful ornamented covers............................................................................ This series is mainly addressed to that numerous class whose minds have been educated by the improved schooling, and the numerous popular lectures and publications of the present d«ty, and who consequently crave a higher kind of Literature than can be obtained through the existing cheap periodicals. The Papers embrace History, Archaeology, Biography, Science, the Indujtrial and Fine Arts, the leading topics in Social Economy, together with Criticism, Fiction, Personal Narrative, and other branches of Elegant Literature, each number containing a distinct subject. The series will consist of sixteen numbers, of 192 pages each, and when completed, will make eight handsome volumes of about 400 pages each. KITTO'S POPULAR CYCLOP/EDIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. Con densed from the larger work. By John Kitto, D. D. Assisted by numerous distinguished Scholars and Divines, British, Continental and American. With numerous illustrations. One volume, octavo, 812 pp. cloth, $3,00 55= This is just the work for Sabbath School Teachers, the Family Library, and for every one, indeed, who wishes aid in the study of the Scriptures. It contains an immense amount of important information to be found nowhere else. 'Die New York Commercial Advertiser says, " This is a Dictionary of scriptural topics, which should find a place in every library. Sunday School Teachers, and all who study the Scriptures, will find this Cyclopaedia a more valuable auxiliary than any work extant of whichwe have a knowledge. It is the result of the combined biblical, scholastic, and scientific minds of the highest order, and scarcely a question can arise in the mind of the reader of the Sacred Book, but may be answered by reference to this comprehensive volume. For the Family Library, as well as for Bible Classes and Sunday School Teachers, we cordially recommend it." The Puritan Recorder says, " Here we have the larger work referred to in the title, boiled down more than one half, and made more strong and rich by the evaporation. To that numerous and most useful class of laborers in the Lord's vineyard, the Sabbath School Teachers, we would respectfully offer our advice to appropriate three dollars each to make themselves possessors of this valuable help for the discharge of their duties. If any one of them should not have the money, we counsel him ' to sell his garment and buy one.''" The Philadelphia Christian Observer says, " This is a large, handsome and valuable book; it is very happily adapted to meet the wants of the Family, the Sunday School Teacher, and the great majority of the Christian public. As a Bible Dictionary, it is a work of distin- guished merit, embodying the results of the best and most recent researches in biblical literature, in which the scholars of Europe and America have been engaged." i The Mercantile Journal says, " We have examined the work with the greatest interest, and can assure our readers that it is a book of no ordinary value. We know of no work which is more worthy a place by the side of the Bible in every family. It is a book which the Bible reader will consult with pleasure, and which will enhance the interest of the Bible itself, by making the reader more thoroughly acquainted with the localities mentioned therein, with the circumstances connected with the preparation of each book of the sacred Word, with the manners and customs of the ancients, with the geography of the Holy Land, and, in short, with every thiDg connected with the literature of the Bible which would be likely to be of interest to the ordinary reader." The Albany Spectator says, " Here is indeed a rich treasury for the minister and the church, embodying the products of the best, most recent, and reliable researches in biblical literature, and presented in a form so full, and yet so condensed, as to put it within the reach of hundreds of ministers who did not feel able to purchase the unabridged work In this volume you have the pith of the entire work." The Christian Chronicle says, "It is a work of immense research, embodying the latest results of biblical study, contributed by a large corps of enthusiastic and venerable ^ForTeference in the family, for the use of the Sabbath School Teacher and for Bible Classes, it is beyond comparison the best biblical manual issued from the press. We pre- dict for it an extensive circulation, for it must gradualy ^P^eRobmsmi's Camlet and the other smaller and more incomplete manuals which have hitherto been in common use. The New York Christian Intelligencer says, " We know of no work ta^™*™*££ work does honor to them all." PLFMENTS OF MORAL SCIENCE, by Francis Wayland, D. D., President of Brown University, and Professor of Moral Philosophy. Forty-seventh thousand.- 12mo...........I.....................................................olotn.....^ MORAL SCIENCE ABRIDGED, and adapted to the use of Schools and Academies, by the Author. Thirtieth thousand,...................................halfmor.... ,50 The same, Cheap School Edition,....................................boards,.... ,25 This work is used in the Boston Schools, and is exceedingly popular as a text book wherever it has been adopted. ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, by Francis Wayland, D. D. Twenty- first thousand. 12mo,................................................cloth,.... 1,25 POLITICAL ECONOMY ABRIDGED, and adapted to the use of Schools and Academies, by the Author. Seventh thousand,.....................halfmor.... ,50 The above works by Dr. Wayland, are used as Text Books in most of the Colleges and higher Schools throughout the Union, and ore highly approved. PALEY'S NATURAL THEOLOGY. llustrated by forty Plates, with selections from the Notes of Dr. Paxton, and additional Notes, original and selected, with a Vocab- ulary of Scientific Terms. Edited by John Ware, M. D. 12mo.....halfmor.....1,25 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES AND ANCIENT MYTHOLOGY; by C. K. Dillaway. Illustrated by elegant Engravings. Eighth edition, improved. 12mo..half mor.... ,67 THE YOUNG LADIES' CLASS BOOK ; a Selection of Lessons for Reading, in Prose and Verse. By Ebenezer Bailey, A. M. Fifty-second edition,, .half mor.... ,84 BLAKE'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY: being Conversations on Philosophy, with Explanatory Notes, Questions for Examination, and a Dictionary of Philosophical Terms, with twenty-eight steel Engravings. By J. L. Blake, D. D.,.............sheep.....67 BLAKE'S FIRST BOOK IN ASTRONOMY : designed for the use of Common Schools. Illustrated with steel-plate Engravings. By John L. Blake, D. D,........... half bound.....,50 FIRST LESSONS IN INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY; or a Familiar Explan- ation of the Nature and Operations of the Human Mind. By Silas Blaisdale,........ sheep,.....84 THE CICERONIAN; or, the Prussian Method of Teaching the Elements of the Latin Language. Adapted to the use of American Schools. By Professor B. Sears, Secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education. 18mo...............halfmor.... ,50 MEMORIA TECHNICA; or, the Art of Abbreviating those Studies which give the greatest labor to the Memory; including Numbers, Historical Dates, Geography, Astron- omy, Gravities, &c. By L. D. Johnson. Second edition, revised and improved,........ half bound,.....50 PROGRESSIVE PENMANSHIP, Plain and Ornamental, for the use of Schools. By N. D. Gould, author of " Beauties of Writing," " Writing Master's Assistant," etc...... in five parts, each.... ,12>£ Letter Sheet Size of the above in four books,...............stiff covers, each.... ,20 The copies are arranged in progressive series, and are likewise so diversified by the introduction of variations in style, so as to command the constant attention and exercise the ingenuity of the learner, thus removing some of the most serious obstacles to the success of the teacher. They are divided into five series, intended for the like number of books, and are so arranged and folded that a copy always comes over the top of the page on which it is to be written. There are ninety-six copies, presenting a regular inductive system of Penmanship for ordinary business purposes, followed by examples of every variety of Ornamental Writing. 10- This work is introduced into many of the Boston Public and Private Schools, and gives universal satisfaction. WRITING COPIES, Plain and Ornamental, from the "Progressive Penmanship," bound In one book,.............................................................;.# )16?£ VAWABM BSMQIOBS WOUIr THE LIFE AND CORRESPONDENCE OF JOHN FOSTER. Edited by J. E Ryland, with notices of Mr. Foster, as a Preacher and a Companion. By John Shep- PARd. A new edition, two volumes in one, 700 pages. 12ir,o..............cloth,. ...1,25 "In simplicity of language, in majesty of conception, in the eloquence of that conciseness which conveys in a short sentence more meaning than the mind dares at once admit,—his writings are unmatched."—North British Review. R ELIGIOUS PROGR ESS ; Discourses on the Development of the Christian Character. By William R. Williams, D. D. Second edition. 12mo,................cloth,___,85 " This work is from the pen of one of the brightest lights of the American Pulpit We scarcely know of any living writer who has a finer command of powerful thought and glowing, impressive language, than he. The present volume will advance, if possible, the reputation which his pre- vious works have acquired for him."—Albany Evening Atlas. "This book is a rare phenomena in these days. It is a rich exposition of Scripture, with a fund of practical, religious wisdom, conveyed in a style so strong and so massive, as to remind one of (he English writers of two centuries ago; and yet it abounds in fresh illustrations drawn from every —even the latest opened—field of science and of literature."—Methodist Quarterly. LECTURES ON THE LORD'S PRAYER, By William R. Williams, D D. 12mo, cloth,___,85 MOTHERS OF THE WISE AND GOOD, By Rev. Jabez Burns, D. D., Author of " Pulpit Cyclopedia, etc." Third thousand. 16mo,.....................cloth,.....76 A beautiful gallery of portraits of those who not only were " wise and good " in their own gen- eration, but whose influence, long after they were slumbering in the dust, went forth to live again in their children. A sketch of the mothers of many of the most eminent men of the world, and showing how much they were indebted to maternal influence, for their greatness and excellence of character is given. Works of this nature cannot be too widely circulated or attentively read. UNIVERSITY SERMONS. Sermons delivered in the Chapel of Brown University. By Francis Wayland. Third thousand. 12mo,........................cloth,.... 1,00 " The discourses contained in this handsome volume ore characterized by all that richness of thought and elegance of Ian g uagc for which their talented author is celebrated. The whole vtolume is well worthy of the pen of the distinguished scholar and divine from whom it emanates."—Dr. Baird's Christian Union. THE CHRISTIAN'S DAILY TREASURY; a Religions Exercise for every day in the year. By E. Temple. 12mo,......................................cloth,... .1,00 THE EXTENT OF THE ATONEMENT, in its relation to God and the Universe. By Thomas W. Jenkyn, D. D. From the third London Edition. 12mo,. .cloth,.... ,85 ANTIOCH ; or, Increase of Moral Power in the Church of Christ. By P. Church. D.D. With an Essay, by Baron Stow, D. D. 18mo....................cloth,.... ,50 PHILOSOPHY OF THE PLAN OF SALVATION; a book for the times. Byan American Citizen. With an Introductory Essay by Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., 12mo,— cloth,.... ,62>£ THE CHURCH MEMBER'S HAND BOOK; a Plain Guide to the Doctrines and Practice of Baptist Churches. By Rev. William Crowill. Third thousand. 18mo, cloth,.....38 PRACTICAL COMMENTARY ON PHILIPPIANS, by Dr. A. Neander. Trans- lated by H. C. Conant. With an account of the Closing Scenes of the Author's Life, byRAUH. 12mo,............................................................cloth' DR. NEANDER'S COMMENTARY ON EPISTLE OF JAMES, [inpreparation.] w@s^e mmmmmwm'w wwwmmmm©* ARVINES CYCLOP/EDIA OF ANECDOTES OF LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS. Containing a copious and choice selection of Anecdotes of the various forms of Literature, of the Arts, of Architecture, Engravings, Music, Poetry, Painting and Sculpture, and of the most celebrated Literary Characters and Artists of different countries and ages, etc. Elegantly Illustrated. This is a most amusing, instructive and entertaining work. The anecdotes are of a high order, and of such wonderful variety as to furnish something of interest for every class of readers, upon almost every possible topic. The Christian Times says, " The work will be one of rare interest to the scholar and to the general reader. It is illustrated with engravings, and finely printed, the pages resem- bling in size and form the noble edition of ' Chamber's Cyclopaedia,' by the same pub- lishers." The Carpet Bag says, " This is one of the be3t books of the season, and it presents, in a compact form, a thousand wise, witty and remarkable things, that might otherwise never have reached that inordinate public, which, like the daughter of tho ' horse leech' we read of, is continually craving." The work will first be published in eight numbers, at twenty-five cents each, which together will make an elegant royal octavo volume of about 730 pages. The first number has just been issued, and the others will follow once in two weeks till com- pleted. A WREATH AROUND THE CROSS; or, Scripture Truth Illustrated. By Kev. A. Morton Brown. • With an Introduction, by Rev. John Angell James. With an elegant Frontispiece. 16mo. cloth, 60 cents. The Zion's Herald says, " In a richly evangelical style the author illustrates the essential truths of religion by their relation to the Cross. The plan of the work is happy, and its execution able." The Albany Spectator says, "We have not seen a book for many a day with a more beautiful title than this. And the frontispiece is equally beautiful, presenting Christ as cheering the prospect. Leaving the field of mere controversy to others, the author at once approaches and leads all with him to the cross; exhibits it as the means of our justifica- tion, sanctification and eternal blessedness; aims to cultivate the heart rather than the intellect; takes the enquirer from the sign to the thing sanctified; and gives both edification and consolation to enquiring sinners." GUYOT'S MURAL MAP OF THE WORLD, on a large scale, (5 by 7 feet,) for the Recitation Room. Printed in three colors. Price, mounted, $10,00. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPECIES; its typical forms and primeval distribution. With elegant illustrations. By Charles Hamilton Smith. With an Introduction, containing an abstract of the views of Blumenbach, Prichard, Bachman, Agassiz, and other writers of repute, by Samuel Kneeland, Jr., M. D. 12mo. cloth, $1,25 THE EXCELLENT WOMAN, as described in the Book of Proverbs. With splendid Illustrations, and an Introduction, by Rev. William B. Sprague, D. D. 12mo. cloth, extra, in press 0=* An elegant Gift Book. NOVELTIES OF THE NEW WORLD, an Account of the Adventures and Discoveries of the First Explorers of North America. 12mo. cloth, inpress. Being second volume of Banvard's Series of American Histories. YOUNG AMERICANS ABROAD: or Vacation in Europe; embodying the results of a tour through Great Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland, with elegant Hlustrations. 16mo. cloth, in press.