/(/KJ^/f ^ ARMY MEDICAL LIBRARY Cl / WASHINGTON V Pounded 1836 Section. Number ./JO^O^^ Fobm 113c. W. D.. S. G. O. bpo 3—10543 (Revised June 13, 1936) BOHN'S CLASSICAL LIBRARY. NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. VOL. IV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. TRANSLATED, WITH OOPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE LATE JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S., AND H. T. RILEY, Esq., B.A., LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE. LONDON: HEXRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. MDCCCLVI. w z V 727h l'-'S7 v, if N. CONTENTS Or THE FOURTH VOLUME. BOOK XVIII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF GRAIN. Chap. Pagft 1. Taste of the ancients for agriculture ............ 1 2. When the first wreaths of corn were used at Rome...... 3 3. The jugerum of land .................. 4 4. How often and on what occasions corn has sold at a remarkably low price............ .......... 7 5. Illustrious men who have written upon agriculture...... 9 6. Points to be observed in buying land............ 11 7. The proper arrangements for a farm-house.......... 13 8. Maxims of the ancients on agriculture............ 16 9. The different kinds of grain................ 19 10. The history of the various kinds of grain .......... ib. 11. Spelt ........................ 24 12. Wheat ........................ 2a 13. Barley: rice......................2~ 14. Polenta........................ 2S 15. Ptisan ........................29 16. Tragum . * ...................... *'*• 17. Amylum........................*/j. 18. The nature of barley .................. 30 19. Arinca, and other kinds of grain that are grown in the East .. 31 20. Winter wheat. Similago, or fine flour .......... 32 21. The fruitfulness of Africa in wheat ............ 35 22. Sesame. Erysimum or irio. Horminum.......... 36 23. The mode of grinding corn................ *'*■ 24. Millet ........................ 38 25. Panic ........................ '*■ 26. The various kinds of leaven................ «*• 27. The method of making bread: origin of the art........ 39 28. When bakers were first introduced at Eome ........ 40 29. Alica.......................... 41 30. The leguminous plants: the bean.............. 43 31. Lentils. Pease .................... 46 VI CONTENTS. Chap. Parrc 32. The several kinds of chick-pease..............iC> 33. The kidney-bean.................... 4? 34. The rape ................ ...... '*• 35. The turnip ...................... 48 36. The lupine ......................49 37. The vetch ...................... ol 38. The fitch ...................... **■ 39. Silicia ........................**• 40. Secale or asia ....................?_2 41. Farrago: the cracca ..................&• 42. Ocinum: ervilia .................... ib. 43. Lucerne........................ 53 44. The diseases of grain : the oat .............. 54 45. The best remedies for the diseases of grain..........57 46. The crops that should be sown in the different soils...... 59 47. The different systems of cultivation employed by various nations 60 48. The various kinds of ploughs................62 49. The mode of ploughing..................ib. 50. The methods of harrowing, stubbing, and hoeing, employed for each description of grain. The use of the harrow .. .. 66 51. Extreme fertility of soil .......... ...... 67 52. The method of sowing more than once in the year ...... 68 53. The manuring of land..................ib. 54. How to ascertain the quality of seed............ 69 55. What quantity of each kind of grain is requisite for sowing a jugerum .....................71 56. The proper times for sowing................72 57. Arrangement of the stars according to the terrestrial days and nights ......... ............ 74 58. The rising and setting of the stars ............ 77 59. The epochs of the seasons ................78 60. The proper time for winter sowing ............79 61. When to sow the leguminous plants and the poppy......81 62. Work to be done in the country in each month respectively .. ib. 63. Work to be done at the winter solstice ..........82 64. Work to be done between the winter solstice and the prevalence of the west winds ..................83 65. Work to be done between the prevalence of the west winds and the vernal equinox..................84 66. Work to be done after the vernal equinox..........86 67. Work to be done after the rising of the Vergiliae : hay-making , 88 68. The summer solstice ..................92 69. Causes of sterility....................97 70. Eemedies against these noxious influences..........101 71. Work to be done after the summer solstice........ ..102 72. The harvest ......................103 73. The methods of storing corn .. .. ............104 74. The vintage, and the works of autumn............107 75. The revolutions of the moon CONTENTS. Vll Chap. Pajre 76. The theory of the winds..................113 77. The laying out of lands according to the points of the wind .. 114 78. Prognostics derived from the sun ..............117 79. Prognostics derived from the moon ............119 80. Prognostics derived from the stars..............120 81. Prognostics derived from thunder..............121 82. Prognostics derived from clouds.............. ib. 83. Prognostics derived from mists ..............122 84. Prognostics derived from fire kindled by man ......, .. ib. 85. Prognostics derived from water .............. ib. 86. Prognostics derived from tempests..............123 87. Prognostics derived from aquatic animals and birds...... ib. 88. Prognostics derived from quadrupeds............124 89. Prognostics derived from plants..............125 90. Prognostics derived from food .............. ib. BOOK XIX. THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF FLAX, AND AN ACCOUNT OF VARTOUS GARDEN PLANTS. 1. The nature of flax—marvellous facts relative thereto......129 2. How flax is sown: twenty-seven principal varieties of it .. .. 131 3. The mode of preparing flax................135 4. Linen made of asbestos..................136 5. At what period linen was first dyed ............138 6. At what period coloured awnings were first employed in the theatres ...................... ib. 7. The nature of spartum..................139 8. The mode of preparing spartum..............140 9. At what period spartum was first employed..........141 10. The bulb eriophorus .................. ib. 11. Plants which spring up and grow without a root—plants which grow, but cannot be reproduced jfa»-seed ........142 12. Misy; iton: and geranion .. ..«.f. .. "/^">-.......143 13. Particulars connected with the truffle.......> .. .. 144 14. The pezica ..................\. .. ib. 15. Laserpitium, laser, and maspetum..........-.<: .\ .. ib. 16. Magydaris ........,......... .A .. 147 17. Madder........... ...........;| .. 148 18. The radicula...................... ib. 19. The pleasures of the garden .. ..............149 20. The laying out of garden ground..........^s. .. 154 21. Plants other than grain and shrubs...... .. .-: .. 155 22. The natural history of twenty different kinds of plants grown in gardens—the proper methods to be followed in sowing them respectively...................... ib. Vlll CONTENTS. Chap Page 23* Vegetables of a cartilaginous nature—cucumbers. Pepones .. 156 24. Gourds........................}?? 25. Rape. Turnips ....................J°, 26. Radishes........................{^ 27. Parsnips........................J^ 28. Theskirret ......................f°, 29. Elecampane.................. " •• °' 30. Bulbs, squills, and arum............ •• •• • • 1M 31. The roots, flowers, and leaves of all these plants. Garden plants which lose their leaves ................J JO 32. Varieties of the onion..................171 33. The leek........................}<3 34. Garlic ........................ 74 35'. The number of days required for the respective plants to make their appearance above ground..............177 36. The nature of the various seeds .........• # ■• •• 178 37. Plants of which there is but a single kind. Plants of which there are several kinds ............ ......179 38. The nature and varieties of twenty-three garden plants. The lettuce ; its different varieties..............180 39. Endive ........................182 40. Beet: four varieties of it ................183 41. Cabbages; the several varieties of them ..........185 42. Wild and cultivated asparagus ..............188 43. Thistles........................190 44. Other plants that are sown in the garden: ocimum; rocket; and nasturtium....................191 45. Rue..........................ib. 46. Parsley........................192 47. Mint..........................ib. 48. Olusatrum ......................193 49. The caraway......................194 50. Lovage........................ib. 51. Dittander........................195 52. Gith..........................ib. 53. Thepoppy .. .. ..................196 54. Other plants which require to be sown at the autumnal equinox 197 55. Wild thyme; sisymbrium ................ib. 56. Four kinds of ferulaceous plants. Hemp..........198 57. The maladies of garden plants ..............199 58. The proper remedies for these maladies. How ants are best de- stroyed. The best remedies against caterpillars and flies .. 200 59. What plants are benefitted by salt water ..........201 60. The proper method of watering gardens ..........ib. 61. The juices and flavours of garden herbs ..........202 62. Piperitis, libanotis, and smyrnium..............203 CONTENTS. ix BOOK XX. REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE GARDEN PLANTS. CnAP. Page 1. Introduction......................206 2. The wild cucumber: twenty-six remedies..........207 3. Elaterium: twenty-seven remedies.......... .. 208 4. The anguine or erratic cucumber: five remedies...... .. 209 5. The cultivated cucumber: nine remedies ..........210 6. Pepones : eleven remedies ...............211 7. The gourd: seventeen remedies. The somphus : one remedy .. 212 8. The colocynthis: ten remedies .............. ib. 9. Rape : nine remedies ..................213 10. Wild rape: one remedy..................214 11. Turnips; those known as bunion and bunias : five remedies .. ib. 12. The wild radish, or armoracia: one remedy ........215 13. The cultivated radish : forty-three remedies ........ib. 14. The parsnip: five remedies. The hibiscum, wild mallow, or plistolochia: eleven remedies..............218 15. The staphylinos, or wild parsnip: twenty-two remedies .. .. ib. 16. Gingidion : one remedy..................219 17. The skirret: eleven remedies ..............220 18. Sile, or hartwort: twelve remedies ............221 19. Elecampane : eleven remedies ..............222 20. Onions : twenty-seven remedies.............. ib. 21. Cutleek : thirty-two remedies ..............223 22. Bulbed leek : thirty-nine remedies ............225 23. Garlic: sixty-one remedies................ib. 24. The lettuce: forty-two remedies. The goat-lettuce: four re- medies........................228 25. Caesapon : one remedy. Isatis: one remedy. The wild lettuce : seven remedies.................... ib. 26. Hawk-weed : seventeen remedies..............229 27. Beet: twenty-four remedies................232 28. Limonion, or neuroides : three remedies ..........233 29. Endive : three remedies..................ib. 30. Cichorium or chreston, otherwise called pancration, or ambula: twelve remedies....................234 31. Hedypnois : four remedies................ib. 32. Seris, three varieties of it: seven remedies borrowed from it .. 235 33. The cabbage : eighty-seven remedies. Recipes mentioned by Cato ib. 34. Opinions of the Greeks relative thereto ..........237 35. Cabbage-sprouts ....................239 36. The wild cabbage: thirty-seven remedies..........240 37. The lapsana: one remedy ................241 38. The sea-cabbage ; one remedy ..............ib. 39. The squill: twenty-three remedies .. .......... ib. 40. Bulbs: thirty remedies..................243 t X CONTENTS. Chap. **& 41. Bulbine: one remedy. Bulb emetic...... ......24t 42. Garden asparagus ; with the next, twenty-four remedies .. .. 245 43. Corruda, libycum, or orminum .............. *"• 44. Parsley : seventeen remedies................246 45. Apiastrum, or melissophyllum .. .. .......• •• 247 46. Olusatrum or Hipposelinon: eleven remedies. Oreoselinon: two remedies. Helioselinon: one remedy ........248 47. Petrosclinon : one remedy. Buselinon : one remedy .. .. *b. 48. Ocimum : thirty-five remedies ..............249 49. Rocket: twelve remedies ................2<>0 50. Nasturtium: forty-two remedies..............2^1 51. Rue: eighty-four remedies................2o2 52. Wild mint: twenty remedies ..............256 53. Mint: forty-one remedies ................2,^7 54. Pennyroyal: twenty-five remedies..............2<>9 55. Wild pennyroyal: seventeen remedies............260 56. Nep: nine remedies................. . 261 57. Cummin : forty-eight remedies. Wild cummin: twenty-six remedies .....................262 58. Ammi: ten remedies ..................263 59. The capparis or caper : eighteen remedies..........264 60. Ligusticum, or lovage : four remedies .. ..........265 61. Cunila bubula : five remedies .............. ib. 62. Cunila gallinacea, or origanum : five remedies........266 63. Cunilago: eight remedies ................ib. 64. Soft cunila : three remedies. Libanotis: three remedies .. .. ib. 65. Cultivated cunila: three remedies. Mountain cunila: seven re- medies ........................267 66. Piperitis, or siliquastrum : five remedies ..........ib. 67. Origanum, onitis, or prasion : six remedies..........268 68. Tragoriganum : nine remedies ..............ib. 69. Three varieties of Heracleotic origanum: thirty remedies .. .. ib. 70. Dittander : three remedies ........"........270 71. Gith, or melanthion : twenty-three remedies ........ ib. 72. Anise: sixty-one remedies ................271 73. Where the best anise is found : various remedies derived from this plant......................272 74. Dill: nine remedies ..................274 75. Sacopenium, or sagapenon : thirteen remedies........ib. 76. The white poppy: three remedies. The black poppy : eight re- medies. Remarks on sleep. Opium. Remarks in disfavour of the potions known as "anodynes, febrifuges, digestives, and coeliacs." In what way the juices of these plants are to be collected......................275 77. The poppy called rhoeas : two remedies ..........278 78. The wild poppy called ceratitis, glaucium, or paralium : six re- medies...... ..................n,, 79. The wild poppy called heraclium, or aphron: four remedies. Diacodion......................,i. CONTENTS. XI Chap. Page 80. The poppy called tithymalon, or paralion: three remedies .. 279 81. Porcillaca or purslain, otherwise called peplis : twenty-five re- medies ........................280 82. Coriander: twenty-one remedies..............282 83. Orage : fourteen remedies................ib. 84. The mallow called malope : thirteen remedies. The mallow called malache: one remedy. The mallow called althaea or plistolochia : fifty-nine remedies ............283 85. Wild lapathum or oxalis, otherwise called lapathum canther- inum, or rumex : one remedy. Hydrolapathum : two reme- dies. Hippolapathum : six remedies. Oxylapathum : four remedies ......................287 86. Cultivated lapathum: twenty-one remedies. Bulapathum: one remedy........................288 87. Mustard, the three kinds of it: forty-four remedies .. .. ib. 88. Adarca: forty-eight remedies .......... .. .. 290 89. Marrubium or prasion, otherwise linostrophon, philopais, or philochares : twenty-nine remedies............ib. 90. Wild thyme : eighteen remedies........ ......292 91. Sisymbrium or thymbraeum : twenty-three remedies......293 92. Linseed : thirty remedies ................294 93. Blite : six remedies ..................295 94. Meum, and meum athamanticum : seven remedies...... ib. 95. Fennel: twenty-two remedies ..............296 96. Hippomarathron, or myrsineum: five remedies........ ib. 97. Hemp : nine remedies..................297 98. Fennel-giant: eight remedies ..............298 99. The thistle or scolymos : six remedies ..........299 100. The composition of theriaca................ ib. BOOK XXI. AN ACCOUNT OF FLOWERS, AND THOSE USED FOR CHAPLETS MORE PARTICULARLY. 1. The nature of flowers and gardens ............304 2. Garlands and chaplets ...................*b- 3. Who invented the art of making garlands: when they first re- ceived the name of " corollae," and for what reason .. .. 305 4. Who was the first to give chaplets with leaves of silver and gold. Lemnisci: who was the first to emboss them .. .. 306 5. The great honour in which chaplets were held by the ancients ib. 6. The severity of the ancients in reference to chaplets......307 7. A citizen decked with flowers by the Roman people......308 8. Plaited chaplets. Needle-work chaplets. Nard-leaf chaplets. Silken chaplets.................. • • ib- 9. Authors who have written on flowers. An anecdote relative to Queen Cleopatra and chaplets......_........309 Xll CONTENTS. Chap. p»Se 10. The rose: twelve varieties of it..............310 11. The lily: four varieties of it................314 12. The narcissus: three varieties of it ............316 13. How seed is stained to produce tinted flowers .. ......317 14. How the several varieties of the violet are respectively produced, grown, and cultivated. The three different colours of the violet. The five varieties of the yellow violet........317 15. The caltha. The scopa regia................318 16. The bacchar. The combretum. Asarum.......... ib. 17. Saffron: in what places it grows best. What flowers were known at the time of the Trojan war ..........319 18. The nature of odours .....• ............321 19. The iris........................324 20. The saliunca......................325 21. The polium or teuthrion ................ib. 22. Fabrics which rival the colour of flowers..........326 23. The amaranth......................327 24. The cyanos : the holochrysos................328 25. The petilium: the bellio" ................*'*. 26. The chrysocome, or chrysitis................329 27. Shrubs, the blossoms of which are used for chaplets...... ib. 28. Shrubs, the leaves of which are used for chaplets ...... ib. 29. The melothron, spiraea, and origanum. The oneorum or cassia; two varieties of it. The melissophyllum or melittaena. The melilote, otherwise known as Campanian garland......330 30. Three varieties of trefoil: the myophonum.. .. f...... ib. 31. Two varieties of thyme. Plants produced from blossoms and not from seed......................331 32. Conyza ........................332 33. The flower of Jove. The hemerocalles. The helenium. The phlox. Plants in which the branches and roots are odoriferous 333 34. The abrotonum. The adonium: two varieties of it. Plants which reproduce themselves. The leucanthemum......334 35. Two varieties of the amaracus ..............ib. 36. The nyctegreton, or chenamyche, or nyctalops........335 37. Where the melilote is found................ib. 38. The succession in which flowers blossom: the spring flowers. The violet. The chaplet anemone or phrenion. The herb cenanthe. The melanthium. The helichrysos. The gladi- olus. The hyacinth..................336 39. The summer flowers—the lychnis: the tiphyon. Two varieties of the pothos. Two varieties of the orsinum. The vincaper- vinca or chamaedaphne—a plant which is an ever-green .. 337 40. The duration of life in the various kinds of flowers......339 41. Plants which should be sown among flowers for bees. The cerintha ......................(J, 42. The maladies of bees, and the remedies for them ......340 43. The food of bees................ if,. CONTENTS. xiii CnAP. page 44. Poisoned honey, and the remedies to be employed by those who have eaten it ...........; ........341 45. Maddening honey....................342 46. Honey that flies will not touch ..............343 47. Beehives, and the attention which should be paid to them .. 344 48. That bees are sensible of hunger..............345 49. The method of preparing wax. The best kinds of wax. Punic wax. ib. 50. Plants which grow spontaneously: the use made of them by various nations, their nature, and remarkable facts connected with them. The strawberry, the tamnus, and the butcher's broom. The batis, two varieties of it. The meadow parsnip. The hop ......................347 51. The colocasia......................ib. 52. The cichorium. The anthalium or anticellium, or anthyllum. The cetum. The arachidna. The aracos. The candryala. The hypochceris. The caucalis. The anthriscum. The scan- dix. The tragopogon. The parthenium or leucanthes, ama- racus, perdicium, or muralis. The trychnum or strychnum, halicacabum, callias, dorycnion, manicon, peritton, neuras, morio, or moly. The corchorus. The aphace. The acyno- pos. The epipetron. Plants which never flower. Plants which are always in flower ..............348 53. Four varieties of the cnecos................350 54. Plants of a prickly nature : the erynge, the glycyrrhiza, the tri- bulus, the anonis, the pheos or stcebe, and.the hippophaes .. ib. 55. Four varieties of the nettle. The lamium and the scorpio .. 351 56. The carduus, the acorna, the phonos, the leucanthos, the chal- ceos, the cnecos, the polyacanthos, the onopyxos, the helxine, the scolymos, the chamaeleon, the tetralix, and acanthice mas- tiche...... ; ................353 57. The cactos: the pternix, pappos, and ascalias ........354 58. The tribulus : the anonis ................355 59. Plants classified according to their stems: the coronopus, the an- chusa, the anthemis, the phyllanthes, the crepis, and the lotus ib. 60. Plants classified according to their leaves. Plants which never lose their leaves: plants which blossom a little at a time : the heliotropium and the adiantum, the remedies derived from which will be mentioned in the following Book ......356 61. The various kinds of eared plants: the stanyops; the alopecuros; the stelephurus, ortyx, or plautago; the thryallis......357 62. The perdicium. The ornithogale..............ib. 63. Plants which only make their appearance at the end of a year. Plants which begin to blossom at the top. Plants which begin to blossom at the lower part ..............358 64. The lappa, a plant which produces within itself. The opuntia, which throws out a root from the leaf ..........ib. 65. The iasione. The chondrylla. The picris, which remains in flower the whole year through.............. ib. 66. Plants in which the blossom makes its appearance before the XIV CONTENTS. Chap. Page stem. Plants in which the stem appears before the blossom. Plants which blossom three times in the year........359 67. The cypiros. The thesion................ ib. 68. The asphodel, or royal spear. The anthericus or albucus .. ib. 69. Six varieties of the rush : four remedies derived from the cypiros 361 70, The cyperos : fourteen remedies. The cyperis. The cypira .. 363 71. The holoschcenus....................364 72. Ten remedies derived from the sweet-scented rush, or teuchites ib. 73. Remedies derived from the flowers before mentioned: thirty-two remedies derived from the rose ............ib. 74. Twenty-one remedies derived from the lily ........366 75. Sixteen remedies derived from the narcissus ........367 76. Seventeen remedies derived from the violet ........368 77. Seventeen remedies derived from the bacchar. One remedy de- rived from the combretum ..............ib. 78. Eight remedies derived from asarum............369 79. Eight remedies derived from gallic nard.......... ib. 80. Four remedies derived from the plant called "phu"......370 81. Twenty remedies derived from saffron _ ........ : ib. 82. Syrian crocomagna: two remedies ............ ib. 83. Forty-one remedies derivedfrom the iris : two remedies derived from the saliunca..................371 84. Eighteen remedies derived from the polium ........372 85. Three remedies derived from the holochrysos. Six remedies de- rived from the chrysocome ..............373 86. Twenty-one remedies derived from the melissophyllum .. .. ib. 87. Thirteen remedies derived from the melilote ........374 88. Four remedies derived from the trefoil .......... ib. 89. Twenty-eight remedies derived from thyme ........375 90. Four remedies derived from the hemerocalles ........376 91. Five remedies derived from the helenium..........ib. 92. Twenty-two remedies derived from the abrotonum ......377 93. One remedy derived from the leucanthemum. Nine remedies derived from the amaracus .............378 94. Ten remedies derived from the anemone or phrenion .. .. 379 95. Six remedies derived from the ccnanthe ........ .. 380 96. Eleven remedies derived from'the helichrysos...... ,, ib. 97. Eight remedies derived from the hyacinth ...... " 381 98. Seven remedies derived from the lychnis........ ib. 99. Four remedies derived from the vincapervinca .. .. .'. *' 382 100. Three remedies derived from butcher's broom .. .. ."." .. ib. 101. Two remedies derived from the batis .. .'.' \[ ., ib. 102. Two remedies derived from the colocasia .'. .. .. .[ .' ib. 103. Six remedies derived from the anthyllium or anthyllum .. " 383 104. Eight remedies derived from the parthenium, leucanthes, 'or amaracus ................ ■» 105. Eight remedies derived from tne trycbnum or strychnum," haii- cacabum, callias, dorycnion, manicon, neuras, morio or molv 384 106. Six remedies derived from the corchorus...... .. .. 386 CONTENTS. XV Chap. Page 107. Three remedies derived from the cnecos ..........386 108. One remedy derived from the pesoluta ..........ib. 109. An explanation of Greek terms relative to weights and measures ib. BOOK XXII. THE PROPERTIES OF PLANTS AND FRUITS. 1. The properties of plants ............... 389 j 2. Plants used by nations for the adornment of the person .. .. ib. 3. Employment of plants for dyeing. Explanation of the terms sagmen, verbena, and clarigatio ............390 4. The grass crown: how rarely it has been awarded ......392 5. The only persons that have been presented with this crown .. 393 6. The only centurion that has been thus honoured ......394 7. Remedies derived from other chaplet plants..........395 8. The erynge or eryngium ................396 9. The eryngium, called centum capita : thirty remedies .. .. 397 10. Theacanos: one remedy ................398 11. The glycyrrhiza or adipsos : fifteen remedies ........399 12. Two varieties of the tribulus : twelve remedies........400 13. The stoebe or pheos....................401 14. Two varieties of the hippophaes : two remedies........ ib. 15. The nettle: sixty-one remedies..............402 16. The lamium : seven remedies................404 17. The scorpio, two kinds of it: one remedy..........405 18. The leucacantha, phyllos, ischias, or polygonatos : four remedies ib. 19. The helxine : twelve remedies .. .;..........406 20. The perdicium, parthenium, urceolaris, or astercum: eleven re- medies ........................407 21. The chamaeleon, ixias, ulophonon, or cynozolon ; two varieties of it: twelve remedies..................ib. 22. The coronopus......................409 23. The anchusa: fourteen remedies .. ............ ib. 24. The pseudoanchusa, echis, or doris: three remedies......410 25. The onochilon, archebion, onochelis, rhexia, or enchrysa: thirty remedies ......................ib. 26. The anthemis, leucanthemis, leucanthemum, chameemelum, or me- lanthium; three varieties of it: eleven remedies......411 27. The lotus plant: four remedies ..............412 28. The lotometra: two remedies .............. ib. 29. The heliotropium, helioscopium, or verrucaria: twelve remedies. The heliotropium, tricoccum, or scorpiuron: fourteen remedies 413 30. The adiantum, callitrichos, trichomanes, polytrichos, or saxi- fragum ; two varieties of it: twenty-eight remedies .. .. 415 31. The picris : one remedy. The thesion : one remedy......417 32. The asphodel: fifty-one remedies..............ib. 33. The halimon : fourteen remedies...... . 419 XVI CONTENTS. Chap. . Page 34. The acanthus, paederos, or melamphyllos: five remedies .. ..421 35. The bupleuron: five remedies ...... ........ ib. 36. The buprestis : one remedy................422 37. The elaphoboscon : nine remedies..............ib. 38. The scandix : nine remedies. The anthriscum : two remedies.. 423 39. The iasione : four remedies................ib. 40. The caucalis : twelve remedies ..............424 41. The sium : eleven remedies................ib. 42. The sillybum.......... ............42o 43. The scolyraos or limonia : five remedies ..........ib. 44. The sonchos : two varieties : fifteen remedies ........426 45. The condrion or chondrylla : six remedies..........:k 427 46. Mushrooms; peculiarities of their growth..........^428 47. Fungi; signs by which the venomous kinds may be recognized: nine remedies ....................429 48. Silphium: seven remedies ................431 49 Laser : thirty-nine remedies................432 50. Propolis : five remedies..................434 51. The various influences of different aliments upon the disposition 435 52. Hydromel: eighteen remedies ..............436 53. Honied wine: six remedies................437 54. Melitites: three remedies .......'.........438 55. Wax : eight remedies..................ib, 56. Remarks in disparagement of medicinal compositions......439 57. Remedies derived from grain. Siligo: one remedy. Wheat: one remedy. Chaff: two remedies. Spelt: one remedy. Bran: one remedy. Olyra or arinca : two remedies........440 58. The various kinds of meal: twenty-eight remedies ......441 59. Polenta : eight remedies..................442 60. Fine flour: five remedies. Puis : one remedy. Meal used for pasting papyrus, one remedy..............jj, 61. Alica: six remedies ..................443 62. Millet: six remedies ..................444 63. Panic : four remedies ..................ib. 64. Sesame: seven remedies. Sesamoides: three remedies. Anti- cyricum : three remedies................ib. 65. Barley : nine remedies. Mouse-barley, by the Greeks called phcenice : one remedy ................445 66. Ptisan : four remedies..................446 67. Amylum: eight remedies. Oats : one remedy........ib. 68. Bread : twenty-one remedies................447 69. Beans : sixteen remedies ................ib. 70. Lentils: seventeen remedies................448 71. The elelisphacos, sphacos, or salvia : thirteen remedies .. ..449 72. The chickpea and the chicheling vetch : twenty-three remedies.. 450 73. The fitch: twenty remedies............ .. 451 74. Lupines : thirty-five remedies.......... \. [[ \\ 452 75. Irio or erysimum, by the Gauls called vela : fifteen remedies .. 453 76. Horminum: six remedies .......... .454 CONTENTS. XV11 Chap. - page 77. Darnel: five remedies .. *■................454 78. The plant miliaria : one remedy..............455 79. Bromos : one remedy .................. ib. 80. Orobanche or cynomorion : one remedy ..........ib. 81. Remedies for injuries inflicted by insects which breed among leguminous plants ..................ib. 82. The use made of the yeast of zythum............436 BOOK XXIII. THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE CULTIVATED TREES. 1. Introduction......................457 2. The vine........................ib. 3. The leaves and shoots of the vine": seven remedies ......458 4. Omphacium extracted from the vine : fourteen remedies .. .. 459 5. ffinanthe : twenty-one remedies..............460 6. Grapes, fresh gathered..................461 7. Various kinds of preserved grapes: eleven remedies...... ib. 8. Cuttings of the vine : one remedy ............462 9. Grape-stones : six remedies................ib. 10. Grape-husks: eight remedies................463 11. The grapes of the theriaca: four remedies.......... ib. 12. Raisins, or astaphis: fourteen remedies............ib. 13. The astaphis agria, otherwise called staphis or taminia: twelve remedies ......................464 14. The labrusca, or wild vine : twelve remedies ........465 15. The salicastrum : twelve remedies ............ ib. 16. The white vine, otherwise called ampeloleuce, staphyle, melothron, psilotrum, archezostis, cedrostis, or madon: thirty-one remedies 466 17. The black vine, otherwise called bryonia, chironia, gynaecanthe, or apronia : thirty-five remedies ............468 18. Must: fifteen remedies.................. ib. 19. Particulars relative to wine................469 20. The Surrentine wines : three remedies. The Alban wines: two remedies. The Falernian wines : six remedies ......470 21. The Setine wines; one observation upon them. The Statan wines; one observation upon them. The Signian wines : one remedy ......................471 22. Other wines: sixty-four remedies.............. ,/;. 23. Sixty-one observations relative to wine..'..........47u 24. In what maladies wine should be administered; how it should be administered, and at what times ............474 25. Ninety-one observations with reference to wine........477 26. Artificial wines .................... ib. 27. Vinegar: twenty-eight remedies..............478 28. Squill vinegar : seventeen remedies ............480 b xviii CONTENTS. Chap. Page 29. Oxymeli: seven remedies ................4°* 30. Sapa: seven remedies..................'"• 31. Lees of wine : twelve remedies..............4°2 32. Lees of vinegar : seventeen remedies............4°3 33. Lees of sapa: four remedies .. .. ............4°4 34. The leaves of the olive-tree : twenty-three remedies...... w. 35. The blossom of the olive : four remedies ......_.. •• »*. 36. White olives: four remedies. Black olives : three remedies .. 485 37. Amurca of olives : twenty-one remedies ..........486 38. The leaves of the wild olive : sixteen remedies........487 39. Omphacium : three remedies................488 40. Oil of cenanthe': twenty-eight remedies ..........*b. 41. Castor oil: sixteen remedies................489 42. Oil of almonds : sixteen remedies..............490 43. Oil of laurel: nine remedies................ib. 44. Oil of myrtle : twenty remedies............• • ib. 45. Oil of chamaemyrsine, or oxymyrsine; oil of cypros; oil of citrus ; oil of walnuts; oil of cnidium ; oil of mastich ; oil of balanus; various remedies.............. •• 491 46. The Cyprus, and the oil extracted from it;] sixteen remdies. Gleucinum: one remedy................492 47. Oil of balsamum: fifteen remedies..............ib. 48. Malobathrum : five remedies......"..........493 49. Oil of henbane: two remedies. Oil of lupines : one remedy. Oil of narcissus : one remedy. Oil of radishes : five remedies. Oil of sesame : three remedies. Oil of lilies : three remedies. Oil of Selga : one remedy. Oil of Iguvium : one remedy .. ib. 50. Elaeomeli: two remedies. Oil of pitch : two remedies .. .. 494 51. The palm : nine remedies ................ib. 52. The palm which produces the myrobalanum: three remedies .. 495 53. The palm called elate : sixteen remedies ..........ib. 54. Remedies derived from the blossoms, leaves, fruit, branches, bark, juices, roots, wood, and ashes of various kinds of trees. Six ob- servations upon apples. Twenty-two observations upon quinces. One observation upon struthea..............496 55. The sweet apples called melimela: six observations upon them. Sour apples: four observations upon them ........497 56. Citrons: five observations upon them............498 57. Punic apples, or pomegranates : twenty-six remedies......ib. 58. The composition called stomatice : fourteen remedies .. .... 499 59. Cytinus : eight remedies..................500 60. Balaustium : twelve remedies................ib. 61. The wild pomegranate..................501 62. Pears: twelve observations upon them ..........502 63. Figs: one hundred and eleven observations upon them .. .. ib. 64. The wild fig : forty-two observations upon it ........505 65. The herb erineon : three remedies]..............507 66. Plums : four observations upon them............ib. 67. Peaches: two remedies.......... 508 CONTESTS. xix Chap. page 68. Wild plums; two remedies ................508 69. The lichen on plum-trees; two remedies .. ........ ib. 70. Mulberries; thirty-nine remedies.............. ib. 71. The medicament called stomatice, arteriace, or panchrestos; four remedies ......................509 72. Cherries: five observations upon them............511 73. Medlars: two remedies. Sorbs: two remedies........512 74. Pine-nuts: thirteen remedies .............. ib. 75. Almonds: twenty-nine remedies.............. ib. 76. Greek nuts : one remedy .. ..............513 77. Walnuts : twenty-four remedies. The Mithridatic antidote .. 514 78. Hazel-nuts: three observations upon them. Pistachio-nuts: eight observations upon them. Chesnuts: five observations upon them......................515 79. Carobs : five observations upon them. The cornel: one remedy. The fruit of the arbutus................516 80. The laurel: sixty-nine observations upon it........ .. ib. - 81. Myrtle: sixty observations upon it ............519 82. Myrtidanum: thirteen remedies..............521 83. The wild myrtle, otherwise called oxymyrsine, or chamaemyrsine, and the ruscus: six remedies..............ib. NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY. BOOK XVIII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF GRAIN. CHAP. 1. (1.)—TASTE OP THE ANCIENTS FOE AGRICULTURE. We now pass on to the Natural History of the various grains, of the garden plants and flowers, and indeed of all the other productions, with the exception of the trees and shrubs, which the Earth, in her bounteousness, affords us—a boundless field for contemplation, if even we regard the herbs alone, when we take into consideration the varieties of them, their numbers, the flowers they produce, their odours, their colours, their juices, and the numerous properties they possess—all of which have been engendered by her with a view to either the preser- vation or the gratification of the human race. On entering, however, upon this branch of my subject, it is my wish in the first place to plead the cause of the Earth, and to act as the advocate of her who is the common parent of all, although in the earlier* part of this work I have already had occasion to speak in her defence. For my subject matter, as I proceed in the fulfilment of my task, will now lead me to con- sider her in the light of being the producer of various noxious substances as well; in consequence of which it is that we are in the habit of charging her with our crimes, and imputing to her a guilt that is our own. She has produced poisons, it is true; but who is it but man that has found them out ? For the birds of the air and the beasts of the field, it is sufficient to be on their guard against them, and to keep at a distance from them. The elephant, we find, and the urus, know how to 1 In B. ii. c. 63. VOL. iv. B 2 pliny's natubal histoet. [Book XVIII. sharpen2 and renpvate their teeth against the trunks of trees, and the rhinoceros against rocks ; wild boars, again, point their tusks like so many poniards by the aid of both rocks and trees; and all animals, in fact, are aware how to prepare them- selves for the infliction of injury upon others ; but still, which is there among them all, with the exception of man, that dips his weapons in poison ? As for ourselves, we envenom the point of the arrow,3 and we contrive to add to the destructive powers of iron itself; by the aid of poisons we taint the waters of the stream, and we infect the various elements of Nature; indeed, the very air even, which is the main support of life, we turn into a medium for the destruction of life. And it is not that we are to suppose that animals are igno- rant of these means of defence, for we have already had occa- sion to point out4 the preparations which they make against the attacks of the serpent, and the methods they devise for effecting a cure when wounded, by it; and yet, among them all, there is not one that fights by the aid of the poison that belongs to another, with the sole exception of man. Let us then candidly confess our guilt, we who are not contented even with the poisons as Nature has produced them ; for by far the greater portion of them, in fact, are artificially prepared by the human hand! And then besides, is it not the fact, that there are many men, the very existence of whom is a baneful poison, as it were ? Like that of the serpent, they dart their livid tongue, and the venom of their disposition corrodes every object upon which it concentrates itself. Ever vilifying and maligning, like the ill-omened birds of the night, they disturb the repose of that darkness which is so peculiarly their own, and break 'in upon the quiet of the night even, by their moans and wait- ings, the only sounds they are ever heard to emit. Like animals of inauspicious presage, they only cross our path to 2 Of course this is only mere declamation; it is not probable that the animals have any notion at all of sharpening the weapons that nature has given; in addition to which, this mode of sharpening them against hard substances would only wear away the enamel, and ultimately destroy them. The acts of animals in a moment of rage or frenzy have evidently been mistaken here for the dictates of instinct, or even a superior intelligence. 3 See B. xxv. c. 25, and £. xxvii. c. 76. 4 In B. viii. c. 36. 41, 42. The works of the ancients, Fee remarks, are full of these puerilities. Chap. 2.] THE FIRST WBEATHS OF COBN AT EOME. 3 prevent us from employing our energies or becoming useful to our fellow-men; and the only enjoyment that is sought by their abominable aspirations is centred in their universal hatred of mankind. Still, however, even in this respect Nature has asserted her majestic sway; for how much more numerous5 are the good and estimable characters which she has produced ! just in the same proportion that we find her giving birth to productions which are at once both salutary and nutritious to man. It is in our high esteem for men such as these, and the commendations they bestow, that we shall be content to leave the others, like so many brakes and brambles, to the devouring flames of their own bad passions, and to persist in promoting the welfare of the human race ; and this, with all the more energy and per- severance, from the circumstance that it has been our object throughout, rather to produce a work of lasting utility than to ensure ourselves a widely-spread renown. We have only to speak, it is true, of the fields and of rustic operations; but still, it is upon these that the enjoyment of life so materially depends, and that the ancients conferred the very highest rank in their honours and commendations. CHAP. 2. (2.)--WHEN THE FIRST WREATHS OF CORN WERE USED AT ROME. Romulus was the first who established the Arval8 priesthood at Rome. This order consisted of the eleven sons of Acca Larentia, his nurse,7 together with Romulus himself, who as- sumed the appellation of the twelfth of the brotherhood. Upon this priesthood he bestowed, as being the most august dis- tinction that he could confer upon it, a wreath of ears of corn, tied together with a white fillet; and this, in fact, was the first chaplet that was ever used at Rome. This dignity is only ended with life itself, and whether in exile or in captivity, it 6 This sentiment is not at all akin to the melancholy view which our author takes of mankind at the beginning of B. vii. and in other parts of this work. It is not improbable that his censures here are levelled against some who had endeavoured to impede him in the progress of his work. 6 " Arvorum sacerdotes," the priests of the fields. 7 Or foster-mother. It has been suggested that the Rogations of the Roman church may have possibly originated in the Ambarvalia, or cere- monial presided over by the Arval priesthood. B 2 4 flint's NATITBAL HISTOBT. [Book XVIII. always attends its owner. In those early days, two jugera of land were considered enough for a citken of Rome, and to none was a larger portion than this allotted. And yet, at the present day, men who but lately were the slaves of the Emperor Nero have been hardly content with pleasure-gardens that occupied the same space as this ; while they must have fishponds, for- sooth, of still greater extent, and in some instances I might add, perhaps, kitchens even as well. Numa first established the custom of offering corn to the gods, and of propitiating them with the salted8 cake; he was the first, too, as we learn from Hemina, to parch spelt, from the fact that, when in this state, it is more wholesome as an aliment.9 This method, however, he could only establish one way : by making an enactment, to the effect that spelt is not in a pure state for offering, except when parched. He it was, too, who instituted the Fornacalia,10 festivals appropriated for the parching of corn, and others,11 observed with equal solemnity, for the erection and preservation of the " termini," or boundaries of the fields : for these termini, in those days, they particularly regarded as gods; while to other divinities they gave the names of Seia,12 from " sero," " to sow," and of Segesta, from the " segetes," or " crops of standing corn," the statues of which goddesses we still see erected in the Circus. A third divinity it is forbidden by the rules of our religion to name even13 beneath a roof. In former days, too, they would not so much as taste the corn when newly cut, nor yet wine when just made, before the priests had made a libation of the first-fruits. CHAP. 3. (3.)--THE JUGEBUM OF LAND. That portion of land used to be known as a " jugcrum," 8 Made of salt and the meal or flour of spelt. Salt was the emblem of wisdom, friendship, and other virtues. 9 This, Fee observes, is not the case with any kind of wheat; with manioc, which has an acrid principle, the process may be necessary, in order to make it fit for food. 10 Or Feast of the Furnace or Oven. See Ovid's Fasti, B. ii. 1. 5—25. " Called the Terminalia. See Ovid's Fasti, B. ii. 1. 641, et sea. |* Tertulhan, De Spect. i. 16, calls this goddess by the name of Sessia. " Ccelius Rhodiginus, Tuinebus, and Vossius, conjecture that the name of this goddess, who might only be named in the field, was Tutelina. Hardouin thinks that it was Segesta, here mentioned. Chap. 3.] THE JUGERTJM OF LA^D. .1 which was capable of being ploughed by a single " jugum," or yoke of oxen, in one day; an " actus " u being as much as the oxen could plough at a single spell, fairly estimated, without stopping. This last was one hundred and twenty feet in length; and two in length made a jugerum. The most considerable recompense that could be bestowed upon generals and valiant citizens, was the utmost extent of land around which a person could trace a furrow with the plough in a single day. The whole population, too, used to contribute a quarter18 of a sex- tarius of spelt, or else half a one, per head. From agriculture the earliest surnames were derived. Thus, for instance, the name of Pilumnus was given to him who in- vented the " pilum," or pestle of the bake-house, for pounding corn; that of Piso was derived from " piso," to grind corn; and those of Fabius, Lentulus, and Cicero, from the several varieties16 of leguminous plants in the cultivation of which re- spectively these individuals excelled. One individual of the family of the Junii received the name of " Bubulcus,"17 from the skill he displayed in breeding oxen. Among the sacred ceremonials, too, there was nothing that was held more holy than the marriage by confarreation,18 and the woman just married used to present a cake made of spelt.19 Careless cul- tivation of the land was in those times an offence that came under the cognizance of the censors; and, as we learn from Cato,20 when it was said that such and such a man was a good agriculturist or a good husbandman, it was looked upon as the very highest compliment that could be paid him. A man came to be called " locuples," or " rich," from being " loci plenus," or " full of earth." Money, too, received its name of "pecunia,"21 from " pecus," "cattle." At the present 14 Four Roman feet in width, and 120 in length. 18 Quartarius. • 18 " Faba," a bean ; " Lens," a lentil; and " Cicer," a chick-pea. 17 A "bubus," from "oxen." Caius Junius Bubulcus was twice Consul, and once Master of the Horse. is << Farreum" was a form of marriage, in which certain words were used, in presence of ten witnesses, and were accompanied by a certain re- ligious ceremony, in which "panis farreus" was employed ; hence this form of marriage was called " confarreatio." 19 Farreum. 20 De Re Rust. Preface. 21 See B. xxxiii. c. 13. 6 PLINX*S NATUBAL HISTOET* [Book XVIII. day, even, in the registers of the censors, we find set down under the head of "pascua," or "pasture lands," everything from which the public revenues are derived, from the fact that for a long period of time pasture lands were the only sources of the public revenue. Fines, too, were only imposed in the shape of paying so many sheep or so many oxen; and the be- nevolent spirit of the ancient laws deserves remark, which most considerately enjoined that the magistrate, when he in- flicted a penalty, should never impose a fine of an ox before having first condemned the same party to the payment of a sheep. Those who celebrated the public games in honour of the ox received the name of Bubetii.22 King Servius was the first who impressed upon our copper coin23 the figures of sheep and oxen. To depasture cattle secretly by night upon the unripe crops on plough lands, or to cut them in that state, was made by the Twelve Tables24 a capital offence in the case of an adult; and it was enacted that the person guilty of it should be hanged, in order to make due reparation to the goddess Ceres, a punishment more severe, even, than that inflicted for murder. If, on the other hand, the offender was not an adult, he was beaten at the discretion of the praetor; a penalty double the amount of the damage was also exacted. The various ranks, too, and distinctions in the state had no other origin than the pursuits of agriculture. The rural tribes held the foremost rank, and were composed of those who possessed lands ; while those of the city, a place to which it was looked upon as ignominious to be transferred, had the discredit thrown upon them of being an indolent race. Hence it was that these last were only four in number, and received their names from the several parts of the City which they re- spectively inhabited; being the Suburran, the Palatine, Col- line, and Exquiline tribes. Every ninth day2* the rural tribes used to visit the city for the purpose of marketing, and it was for this reason that it was made illegal to hold the comitia upon 24 St Augustin, De Civ. Dei., mentions a goddess, Bubona, the tutelar divinity of oxen. Nothing seems to be known of these games. 21 See B. xxxiii. c. 13. Macrobius says that it was Janus. 24 Table vii. s. 2. 25 On the " Nundinge," or ninth-day holiday: similar tc our market- days. According to our mode of reckoning, it was every eighth day. Chap. 4.] THE PBICE OF COBN. 7 the Nundinee; the object being that the country people might not be called away thereby from the transaction of their busi- ness. In those days repose and sleep were enjoyed upon straw. Even to glory itself, in compliment to corn, the name was given of " adorea."26 For my own part, I greatly admire27 the modes of expres- sion employed in our ancient language: thus, for instance, we read in the Commentaries of the Priesthood to the follow- ing effect:—" For deriving an augury from the sacrifice of a bitch,28 a day should be set apart before the ear of corn appears from out of the sheath,29 and then again before it enters the sheath." CHAP. 4.--HOW OFTEN AND ON WHAT OCCASIONS COBN HAS SOLD AT A REMARKABLY LOW PRICE. The consequence was, that when the Roman manners were such as these, the corn that Italy produced was sufficient for its wants, and it had to be indebted to no province for its food; and not only this, but the price of provisions was in- credibly cheap. Manius Marcius, the aedile30 of the people, was the first who gave corn to the people at the price of one as for the mbdius. L. Minutius Augurinus,31 the same who detected, when.eleventh tribune of the people, the projects of Spurius Maelius, reduced the price of corn on three market days,32 to one as per modius; for which reason a statue was erected in honour of him, by public subscription, without the Trigeminian Gate.33 T. Seius distributed corn to the people, 28 From " ador," the old name for " spelt:" because corn was the chief reward given to the conqueror, and his temples were graced with a wreath of corn. 27 In the first place, it is difficult to see what there is in this passage to admire, or " wonder at," if that is the meaning of " admiror;" and then, besides, it has no connection with the context. The text is probably in a defective state. 28 See c. 69 of this Book. 39 « Vagina." The meaning of this word here has not been exactly ascertained. It has been suggested that the first period alludes to the ap- pearance of the stalk from its sheath of leaves, and the second to the for- mation of the ear. 30 a.tj.c. 298. 31 See B. xxxiv. c. 11. a.tj.c. 317. 32 Nundinis. 33 On the road to Ostia. It was said to have received its name from the Horatii and Curiatii. 8 plint's NATUBAL HISTOET. [Hook XVIII. in his aedileship,34 at one as per modius, in remembrance of which statues were erected in honour of him also in the Capi- tol and the Palatium : on the day of his funeral he was borne to the pile on the shoulders of the Roman people. In the year,?5 too, in which the Mother of the Gods was brought to Rome, the harvest of that summer, it is said, was more abundant than it had been for ten years before. M. Varro informs us, that in the year36 in which L. Metellus exhibited so many elephants in his triumphal procession, a modius of spelt was sold for one as, which was the standard price also of a congius of wine, thirty pounds' weight of dried figs, ten pounds of olive oil, and twelve pounds of flesh meat. Nor did this cheapness originate in the wide-spread domains of individuals encroaching con- tinually upon their neighbours, for by a law proposed by Lici- nius Stolo, the landed property of each individual was limited to five hundred jugera; and he himself was convicted under his own law of being the owner of more than that amount, having as a disguise prevailed upon his son to lend him his name. Such were the prices of commodities at a time when the fortunes of the republic were rapidly on the increase. The words, too, that were uttered by Manius Curius37 after his triumphs and the addition of an immense extent of territory to the Roman sway, are well known: " The man must be looked upon," said he, "as a dangerous citizen, for whom seven jugera of land are not enough;" such being the amount of land that had been allotted to the people after the expulsion of the kings. What, then, was the cause of a fertility so remarkable as this ? The fact, we have every reason to believe, that in those days the lands were tilled by the hands of generals even, the soil exulting beneath a plough-share crowned with wreaths of laurel, and guided by a husbandman graced with triumphs: whether it is that they tended the seed with the same care that they had displayed in the conduct of wars, and manifested the same diligent attention in the management of their fields that they had done in the arrangement of the camp, 34 A.TJ.C. 345. 35 a.u.c. 550. He alludes to the introduction of Cybele, from Pessinus, in Galatia, in the Second Punic war. 36 a.u.c. 604. See B. viii. c. 6. 37 Manius Curius Dentatus, Consul a.tj.c 464. Chap. 5.] WBITEBS UPON AGEICULTUEE. 9 or whether it is that under the hands of honest men every- thing prospers all the better, from being attended to with a scrupulous exactness. The honours awarded to Serranus38 found him engaged in sowing his fields, a circumstance to which he owes his surname.39 Cincinnatus was ploughing his four jugera of land upon the Yaticanian Hill—the same that are still known as the "Quintian Meadows,"40 when the mes- senger brought him the dictatorship—finding him, the tradi- tion says, stripped to the work, and his very face begrimed with dust. " Put on your clothes," said he, " that I may de- liver to you the mandates of the senate and people of Rome." In those days these messengers bore the name of " viator," or " wayfarer," from the circumstance that their usual employ- ment was to fetch the senators and generals from their fields. But at the present day these same lands are tilled by slaves whose legs are in chains, by the hands of malefactors and men with a branded face ! And yet the Earth is not deaf to our adjurations, when we address her by the name of " parent," and say that she receives our homage41 in being tilled by hands such as these; as though, forsooth, we ought not to be- lieve that she is reluctant and indignant at being tended in such a manner as this! Indeed, ought we to feel any surprise were the recompense she gives us when worked by chastised slaves,42 not the same that she used to bestow upon the labours of warriors ? CHAP. 5.—1LLUSTBIOUS MEN WHO HAVE WRITTEN UPON AGRI- CULTURE. Hence it was that to give precepts upon agriculture became one of the principal occupations among men of the highest rank, and that in foreign nations even. For among those who 38 A.u.c. 497. 39 From " sero," to sow. See the JEneid, B. vi. 1. 844, where this cir- cumstance is alluded to. 40 « prata Quintia." Hardouin says that in his time this spot was still called I Prati: it lay beyond the Tiber, between the vineyard of the Me- dici and the castle of Sant Angelo. 41 He alludes to the twofold meaning of the word " coli," " to be tilled," or "toreceive homage from." 42 " Ergastulorum." The " Ergastula" were places of punishment at- tached to the country houses of the wealthy, for the chastisement of refractory slaves, who were usually made to work in chains. 10 pli>"t's NATURAL HISTOBT. [Book XVIII. have written on this subject we find the names of kings even, Hiero, for instance, AttalusPhilometor, andArchelaiis, as well as of generals, Xenophon, for example, and Mago the Carthaginian. Indeed, to this last writer did the Roman senate award such high honours, that, after the capture of Carthage, when it bestowed the libraries of that city upon the petty kings of Africa, it gave orders, in his case only, that his thirty-two Books should be translated into the Latin language, and this, although M. Cato had already compiled his Book of Precepts; it took every care also to entrust the execution of this task to men who were well versed in the Carthaginian tongue, among whom was pre-eminent D. Silanus, a member of one of the most illustrious families of Rome. I have already indicated,43 at the commencement of this work, the numerous learned authors and writers in verse, together with other illustrious men, whose authority it is my intention to follow ; but among the number I may here more particularly distinguish M. Varro, who, at the advanced age of eighty-eight years, thought it his duty to publish a treatise upon this subject. (4.) Among the Romans the cultivation of the vine was introduced at a comparatively recent period, and at first, as indeed they were obliged to do, they paid their sole attention to the culture of the fields. The various methods of cultivat- ing the land will now be our subject; and they shall be treated of by us in no ordinary or superficial manner, but in the same spirit in which we have hitherto written; enquiry shall be made with every care first into the usages of ancient days, and then into the discoveries of more recent times, our attention being devoted alike to the primary causes of these operations, and4the - , 16 PLINY'S NATUBAL HISTOBY. [Book XVIII. it in the very highest style is mere extravagance, unless, in- deed, the work is done by the hands of a man's own family, his tenants, or those whom he is obliged to keep at any rate. But besides this, even when the owner tills the land itself, there are some crops which it is really not worth the while to gather, if we only take into account the manual labour expended upon them. The olive, too, should never be too highly75 cultivated, nor must certain soils, it is said, be too carefully tilled, those of Sicily,76 for instance; hence it is, that new comers there so often find themselves deceived.77 CHAP. 8.--MAXIMS OF THE ANCIENTS ON AGBICULTURE. In what way, then, can land be most profitably cultivated ? Why, in the words of our agricultural oracles, " by making good out of bad." But here urij only right that we should say a word in justification of our forefathers, who in their precepts on this subject had nothing else in view but the benefit of mankind : for when they use the term "bad" here, they only mean to say that which costs the smallest amount of money. The principal object with them was in all cases to cut down expenses to the lowest possible sum ; and it was in this spirit that they made the enactments which pronounced it criminal for a person who had enjoyed a triumph, to be in possession, among his other furniture, of ten pounds' weight of silver plate: which permitted a man, upon the death of his farm- steward, to abandon all his victories, and return to the culti- vation of his lands—such being the men the culture of whose farms the state used to take upon itself; and thus, while they led our armies, did the senate act as their steward. It was in the same spirit, too, that those oracles of ours have given utterance to these other precepts, to the effect that he is a bad agriculturist who has to buy what his farm might have supplied him with; that the man is a bad manager who does in the day-time what he might have done in the night, except, indeed, when the state of the weather does not allow 75 He means to say that it is so much labour lost, as it will take care of itself; but this is hardly in accordance with his numerous directions given in B. xv. Virgil, Geor. B. ii. 421, et seq., speaks of the olive as re- quiring no attention when it has once taken root. 79 See B. xvii. c. 3. 77 In throwing away money and labour upon land that does not require it. Chap. 7.] MAXIMS ON AGEICULTUEE. 17 it; that he is a worse manager still, who does on a work-day what he might have done on a feast-day ;78 but that he is the very worst of all, who works under cover in fine weather, in- stead of labouring in the fields. I cannot refrain from taking the present opportunity of quoting one illustration afforded us by ancient times, from which it will be found that it was the usage in those days to bring before the people even questions connected with the various methods employed in agriculture, and will be seen in what way men were accustomed to speak out in their own defence. C. Furius Chresia4us, a freedman, having found him- fyU self able, from a very small piece of land, to raise far more abundant harvests than his neighbours could from the largest farms, became the object of very considerable jealousy among them, and was accordingly accused of enticing away the crops of others by the practice of sorcery. Upon this, a day was named by Spurius Calvinus, the curule aedile, for his appear- ance. Apprehensive of being condemned, when the question came to be put to the vote among the tribes, he had all his implements of husbandry brought into the Forum, together with his farm servants, robust, well-conditioned, and well-clad people, Piso says. The iron tools were of first-rate quality, the mattocks were stout and strong, the plough-shares ponde- rous and substantial, and the oxen sleek and in prime condi- tion. When all this had been done, " Here, Roman citi- zens," said he, " are my implements of magic; but it is impos- sible for me to exhibit to your view, or to bring into this Forum, those midnight toils of mine, those early watchings, those sweats, and those fatigues." Upon this, by the unani- mous voice of the people, he was immediately acquitted. Agriculture, in fact, depends upon the expenditure of labour and exertion; and hence it is that the ancients were in the habit of saying, that it is the eye of the master that does more towards fertilizing a field than anything else. ___ We shall give the rest of these precepts in their appropriate places, according as we find them adapted to each variety of cultivation ; but in the meantime we must not omit some of a general nature, which here recur to our recollection, and more 78 Virgil, Georg. I. 268, et seq., speaks of the work that might be done on feast days—making hedges, for instance, irrigating land, catching birds, washing sheep, and burning weeds. VOL. IV. C 18 pliny's natubal histoby. [Book XVIII. particularly that maxim of Cato, as profitable as it is humane: " Always act in such away as to secure the love of your neigh- bours." He then proceeds to state his reasons for giving this advice, but it appears to me that no one surely can entertain the slightest doubt upon the subject. One of the very first recommendations that he gives is to take every care that the farm servants are kept in good condition.79 It is a maxim universally agreed upon in agriculture, that nothing must be done too late; and again, that everything must be done at its proper season; while there is a third precept, which reminds us that opportunities lost can never be regained. The male- diction uttered by Cato against rotten ground has been treated of at some length already j80 but there is another precept which he is never tired of repeating, " Whatever can be done by the help of the ass, will cost the least money." Fern will be sure to die at the end of a couple of years, if you prevent it from putting forth leaves ; the most efficient me- thod of ensuring this is to beat the branches with a stick while they are in bud ; for then the juices that drop from it will kill the roots.81 It is said, too, that fern will not spring up again if it is pulled up by the roots about the turn of the summer solstice, or if the stalks are cut with the edge of a reed, or if it is turned up with a plough-share with a reed placed83 upon it. In the same way, too, we are told that reeds may be effectually ploughed up, if care is taken to place a stalk of fern upon the share. A field infested with rushes should be turned up with the spade, or, if the locality is stony, with a two-pronged mattock : overgrown shrubs are best removed by fire. Where ground is too moist, it is an advantageous plan to cut trenches in it and so drain it; where the soil is cretaceous, these trenches should be left open; and where it is loose, they should be strengthened with a hedge to prevent them from falling in. When these drains are made on a declivity, they should have a layer of gutter tiles at the bottom, or else house tiles with the face upwards : in some cases, too, they should be covered83 79 "Ne familiae male sit." so In B. xvii. c. 3. bl The Pteris aquilina, or female fern. No such juices drop from it m here mentioned by Pliny, Fee says. 62 A superstition quite unworthy of our author; and the same with respect to that mentioned in the next line. 83 Sub-soil drainage is now universally employed, with the agency of draining-tiles, made for the purpose. Chap. 10.] DIFFERENT KINDS OF GEAIN. 19 with earth, and made to run into others of a larger size and wider; the bottom, also, should, if possible, have a coating of stores or of gravel. The openings, too, should be strengthened with two stones placed on either side, and another laid upon the top. Democritus has described a method of rooting up a forest, by first macerating the flower of the lupine84 for one day in the juice of hemlock, and then watering the roots of the trees with it. CHAP. 9. (7.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAIN. As the field is now prepared, we shall proceed to speak of the nature of the various kinds of grain; we must premise, however, that there are two principal classes of grain, the cereals,85 comprising wheat and barley, and the legumina, such as the bean and the chick-pea, for instance. The difference between these two classes is too well known to require any further description. CHAP. 10.--THE HISTORY OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF GRAIN. The cereals are divided again into the same number of varieties, according to the time of the year at which they are sown. The winter grains are those which are put in the ground about the setting of the Vergiliae,86 and there re- ceive their nutriment throughout the winter, for instance, wheat,87 spelt,88 and barley.89 The summer grains are those which are sown in summer, before the rising of the Vergiliae,90 84 The flower of the lupine could not possibly produce any such effect; and the juice of cicuta, or hemlock, in only a very trifling degree. b5 This word answers to the Latin " frumenta," which indicates all those kinds of corn from which bread was prepared by the ancients. 86 See c. 59 of this Book. 87 Triticum hibernum of Linnaeus, similar to the "siligo" mentioned in the sequel. Winter wheat was greatly cultivated in Apulia. 88 " Far." This name is often used in the classics, to signify com in general; but in the more restricted sense in which it is here employed, it is "Triticum dicoccum," the "Zea" of the Greeks. It consists of two varie- ties, the single grained, the Triticum mouococcum of Linnaeus, and the double-grained, the Triticum spelta of Linnaeus, which is still called " farra'* in Friuli. 89 Hordeum sativum of Lmnaeus. 80 See c. 66 of this Book. C 2 20 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XVIII. such as millet,91 panic,92 sesame,93 horminum,94 and irio,95 in accordance, however, with the usage of Italy only; for in Greece and Asia all the grains are sown just after the setting of the Vergiliae. There are some, again, that are sown at either season in Italy, and others at a third period, or, in other words, in the spring. Some authors give the name of spring- grain to millet, panic, lentils,96 chick-peas,97 and alica,88 while they call wheat, barley, beans, turnips, and rape, semen- tive or early sowing seeds. Certain species of wheat are only sown to make fodder for cattle, and are known by the name of " farrago,"99 or mixed grain; the same, too, with the legumi- nous plants, the vetch, for instance. The lupine,1 however, is grown in common as food for both cattle and men. All the leguminous2 plants, with the exception of the bean, have a single root, hard and tough, like wood, and destitute of numerous ramifications; the chick-pea has the deepest root of all. Corn has numerous fibrous roots, but no ramifications. Barley makes its appearance3 above ground the seventh day after sowing; the leguminous plants on the fourth, or at the very latest, the seventh; the bean from the fifteenth day to the twentieth: though in Egypt the leguminous plants appear as early as the third day after they are sown. In barley, one extremity of the grain throws out the root, and the other the 91 Panicum Italicum of Linnaeus. 92 Panicum miliaceum of Linnaeus. This was probably one of the first grains from which bread was made. 93 The Sesamum orientale of Linnaeus. It is no longer cultivated in Europe, though formerly it was much used in Greece. 94 It is very doubtful if this is the same as clary, the Salvia horminum of Linnaeus, as that is one of the Labiatae, whereas here, most probably, a leguminous plant is spoken of. 95 It has been asserted that this is identical with the Sisymbrium poly- ceratium of Linnaeus, rock-gentle, rock-gallant, or winter-cress. Fee, how- ever, is strongly of opinion that it can only be looked for in the Sisym- brium irio of Linnaeus. 96 Ervum lens of Linnaeus. 97 The Cicer arietinum of naturalists, the Garbanzo of the Spaniards. It abounds in the south of Europe and in India. 98 A variety of spelt was called by this name ; but it was more gene- rally applied to a kind of flummery, -pottage or gruel. 99 Hence our word "forage." 1 Lupinus hirsutus and pilosus of Linnaeus. 2 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 2. 3 All this, of course, depends upon numerous circumstances. Chap. 10.J DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAIN. 21 blade; this last flowers, too, before the other grain. In the cereals in general it is the thicker end of the seed that throws out the root, the thinner end the blossom; while in the other seeds both root and blossom issue from the same part. During the winter, corn is in the blade; but in the spring winter corn throws out a tall stem. As for millet and panic, they grow with a jointed and grooved4 stalk, while sesame has a stem resembling that of fennel-giant. The fruit of all these seeds is either contained in an ear, as in wheat and barley, for instance, and protected from the attacks of birds and small animals by a prickly beard bristling like so many palisades; or else it is enclosed in pods, as in the leguminous plants, or in capsules, as in sesame and the poppy. Millet and panic can only be said to belong to the grower and the small birds in common, as they have nothing but a thin membrane to cover them, without the slightest protection. Panic receives that name from the panicule5 or down that is to be seen upon it; the head of it droops languidly, and the stalk tapers gra- dually in thickness, being of almost the toughness and con- sistency of wood : the head is loaded with grain closely packed, there being a tuft upon the top, nearly a foot in length. In millet the husks which embrace the grain bend downward with a wavy tuft upon the edge. There are several varieties of panic, the mammose, for instance, the ears of which are in clusters with small edgings of down, the head of the plant being double ; it is distinguished also according to the colour, the white, for instance, the black, the red, and the purple even. Several kinds of bread are made from millet, but very little from panic : there is no grain known that weighs heavier than millet, and which swells more in baking. A modius of millet will yield sixty pounds' weight of bread; and three sextarii steeped in water will make one modius of fermenty.6 A kind of millet7 has been introduced from India into Italy within the last ten years, of a swarthy colour, large grain, and a 4 Tin's is certainly the fact, as Fee says, but it is the same with all the graminea. 5 A characteristic of the Panicum miliaceum in particular. 6 Or porridge; " puis." 7 It has been suggested that this was maize, but that is indigenous to South America. Fee has little doubt that it is the Holcus sorgho of Lin- naeus, the " Indian millet," that is meant. 22 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII, stalk like that of the reed. This stalk springs up to the height of seven feet, and has tufts of a remarkable size, known by the name of " phobaa.''8 This is the most prolific of all the cereals, for from a single grain no less than three sextarii9 are pro- duced : it requires, however, to be sown in a humid soil. Some kinds of corn begin to form the ear at the third joint, and others at the fourth, though at its first formation the ear remains still concealed. Wheat, however, has four10 articula- tions, spelt11 six, and barley eight. In the case of these last, the ear does not begin to form before the number of joints, as above mentioned, is complete. Within four or five days, at the very latest, after the ear has given signs of forming, the plant begins to flower, and in the course of as many days or a little more, sheds its blossom: barley blossoms at the end of seven days at the very latest. Yarro says that the grains are perfectly formed at the end of four times12 nine days from their iiowering, and are ready for cutting at the ninth month. The bean, again, first appears in leaf, and then throws out a stalk, which has no articulations13 upon it. The other legu- minous plants have a tough, ligneous stalk, and some of them throw out branches, the chick-pea, the fitch, and the lentil, for instance. In some of the leguminous plants, the pea, for example, the stem creeps along the ground, if care is not taken to support it by sticks: if this precaution is omitted, the quality is deteriorated. The bean and the lupine are the only ones among the leguminous plants that have a single stem: in all the others the stem throws out branches, being of a lig- neous nature, very thin, and in all cases hollow. Some of these plants throw out the leaves from the root, others at the top.14 Wheat, barley, and the vetch, all the plants, in fact, which produce straw, have a single leaf only at the summit: in barley, however, this leaf is rough, while in the others it 8 From the Greek ^o/3jj. The stalk and husk of the sorgho is covered with a fine down. The reading " cornis " has been adopted. 9 This is considered by Fee to be very improbable. 10 In reality these vary, according to the rapidity of the growth. 11 Strictly speaking, spelt has seven. 12 This depends upon the time when it is sown, and numerous other cir- cumstances. 13 Strictly speaking, he is right; but still there is a swelling in tie stalk, to be perceived at the points where the leaves take their rise. 14 This is incorrect; they all of them throw out leaves from the root, Chap. 10.] DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAIN. 23 is smooth. * * * In the bean, again, the chick-pea, and the pea, the leaves are numerous and divided. In corn the leaf is similar to that of the reed, while in the bean it is round, as also in a great proportion of the leguminous plants. In the ervilia16 and the pea the leaf is long,16 in the kidney-bean veined, and in sesame17 and irio the colour of blood. The lupine and the poppy are the only ones among these plants that lose18 their leaves. The leguminous plants remain a longer time in flower, the fitch and the chick-pea more particularly ; but the bean is in blossom the longest of them all, for the flower remains on it forty days; not, indeed, that each stalk retains its blossom for all that length of time, but, as the flower goes off in one, it comes on in another. In the bean, too, the crop is not ripe all at once, as is the case with corn ; for the pods make their appearance at different times, at the lowest parts first, the blossom mounting upwards by degrees. When the blossom is off in corn, the stalk gradually thickens, and it ripens within forty days at the most. The same is the case, too, with the bean, but the chick-pea takes a much shorter time to ripen ; indeed, it is fit for gathering within forty days from the time that it is sown. Millet, panic, sesame, and all the summer grains are ripe within forty days after blossoming, with considerable variations, of course, in reference to soil and weather. Thus, in Egypt, we find barley cut at the end of six months, and wheat at the end of seven, from the time of sowing. In Hellas, again, barley is cut in the seventh month, and in Peloponnesus in the eighth; the wheat being got in at a still later period. Those grains which grow on a stalk of straw are enclosed in an envelope protected by a prickly beard; while in the bean and the leguminous plants in general they are enclosed in pods upon branches which shoot alternately from either side. The cereals are the best able to withstand the winter, but the legu- minous plants afford the most substantial food. In wheat, the 15 The same as the " Ervum" probably, the fitch, orobus, or bitter vetch. 16 Not so with the pea, as known to us. 17 This is only true at the end of the season, and when the plant is dying. ,8 These annuals lose their leaves only that have articulations on the stem ; otherwise they die outright at the fall of the leaf. 24 pliny's NATUEAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. grain has several coats, but in barley,19 more particularly, it is naked and exposed; the same, too, with arinca,20 but most of all, the oat. The stem is taller in wheat than it is in barley, but the ear is more bearded21 in the last. Wheat, barley, and winter-wheat22 are threshed out; they are cleaned, too, for sowing just as they are prepared for the mill, there being no necessity for parching23 them. Spelt, on the other hand, millet, and panic, cannot be cleaned without parching them ; hence it is that they are always sown raw and with the chaff on. Spelt is preserved in the husk, too, for sowing, and, of course, is not in such case parched by the action of fire. chap. 11.—SPELT. Of all these grains barley is the lightest,24 its weight rarely exceeding fifteen pounds to the modius, while that of the bean is twenty-two. Spelt is much heavier than barley, and wheat heavier than spelt. In Egypt they make a meal25 of olyra,28 a third variety of corn that grows there. The Gauls have also a kind of spelt peculiar to that country: they give it the name of " brace,"27 while to us it is known as " sandala:" it has a grain of remarkable whiteness. Another difference, again, is the fact that it yields nearly four pounds more of bread to the modius than any other kind of spelt. Verrius states that for three hundred years the Romans made use of no other meal than that of corn. 19 If by " tunica" he means the husk of chaff, which surrounds the grain, the assertion is contrary to the fact, in relation to barley and the oat. 20 Only another name, Fee thinks, for the Triticum hibernum, or winter- wheat. Spelt or zea has been suggested, as also the white barley of the south of Europe; see c. 20. 21 Egyptian wheat, or rather what is called mummy-wheat, is bearded equally to barley. 22 Siligo. 23 Before grinding. 34 Oats and rye excepted. 25 Here the word "far" means "a meal," or "flour," a substitute for that of " far," or " spelt." 26 Triticum monococcum, according to some. Fee identifies it with the Triticum spelta of Linnaeus. 27 A variety, probably, of the Triticum hibernum of Linnams, with white grains; the white-wheat of the French, from which the ancient Gauls made their malt; hence the French word " brasser," to "brew." Chap. 12.] WHEAT. 25 CHAP. 12.—WHEAT. There are numerous kinds of wheat which have received their names from the countries where they were first produced. For my part, however, I can compare no kind of wheat to that of Italy either for whiteness or weight, qualities for which it is more particularly distinguished: indeed it is only with the produce of the more mountainous parts of Italy that the foreign wheats can be put in comparison. Among these the wheat of Bceotia'-8 occupies the first rank, that of Sicily the second, and that of Africa the third. The wheats of Thrace, Syria, and, more recently, of Egypt, used to hold the third rank for weight, these facts having been ascertained through the medium of the athletes; whose powers of consumption, equal to those of beasts of burden, have established the gradations in weight, as already stated. Greece, too, held the Pontic29 wheat in high esteem; but this has not reached Italy as yet. Of all the varieties of grain, however, the Greeks gave the pre- ference to the kinds called dracontion, strangia, and Selinusium, the chief characteristic of which is a stem of remarkable thick- ness : it was this, in the opinion of the Greeks, that marked them as the peculiar growth of a rich soil. On the other hand, they recommended for sowing in humid soils an extremely light and diminutive species of grain, with a remarkably thin stalk, known to them as speudias, and standing in need of an abundance of nutriment. Such, at all events, were the opi- nions generally entertained in the reign of Alexander the Great,. at a time when Greece was at the height of her glory, and the most powerful country in the world. Still, however, nearly one hundred and forty-four years before the death of that prince we find the poet Sophocles, in his Tragedy of " Trip- tolemus," praising the corn of Italy before all others. The passage, translated word for word, is to the following effect:— "And favour'd Italy grows white with hoary wheat." And it is this whiteness that is still one of the peculiar merits of the Italian wheat; a circumstance which makes me the more surprised to find that none of the Greek writers of a later period have made any reference to it. 28 From Theophrastus, De Causis, B. iv. 29 That of the Ukraine and its vicinity, which is still held in high esteem. 26 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIIL Of the various kinds of wheat which are imported at the present day into Rome, the lightest in weight are those which come from Gaul and Chersonnesus; for, upon weighing them, it will be found that they do not yield more than twenty pounds to the modius. The grain of Sardinia weighs half a pound more, and that of Alexandria one-third of a pound more than that of Sardinia; the Sicilian wheat is the same in weight as the Alexandrian. The Boeotian wheat, again, weighs a whole pound more than these last, and that of Africa a pound and three quarters. In Italy beyond the Padus, the spelt, to my knowledge, weighs twenty-five pounds to the modius, and, in the vicinity of Clusium, six-and-twenty. We find it a rule, universally established by Nature, that in every kind of commissariat bread30 that is made, the bread exceeds the weight of the grain by one-third; and in the same way it is generally considered that that is the best kind of wheat, which, in kneading, will absorb one congius of water.31 There are some kinds of wheat which give, when used by themselves, an ad- ditional weight equal to this ; the Balearic wheat, for instance, which to a modius of grain yields thirty-five pounds weight of bread. Others, again, will only give this additional weight by being mixed with other kinds, the Cyprian wheat and the Alexandrian, for example; which, if used by themselves, will yield no more than twenty pounds to the modius. The wheat of Cyprus is swarthy, and produces a dark bread; for which reason it is generally mixed with the white wheat of Alexan- dria ; the mixture yielding twenty-five pounds of bread to the modius of grain. The wheat of Thebais, in Egypt, when made into bread, yields twenty-six pounds to the modius. To knead the meal with sea-water, as is mostly done in the mari- time districts, for the purpose of saving the salt, is extremely pernicious; there is nothing, in fact, that will more readily predispose the human body to disease. In Gaul and Spain, where they make a drink32 by steeping corn in the way that has been already described—they employ the foam33 which thickens upon the surface as a leaven: hence it is that the bread in those countries is lighter than that made else- where. » Eani?1mjUtaris1- 31 To the modius of wheat. 61 He alludes to beer, or sweet-wort. See B. xiv. c. 29 53 He alludes to yeast. See B. xxii. c. 82. Chap. 13.] BARLEY--BICE. 27 There are some differences, also, in the stem of wheat; for the better the kind the thicker it is. In Thrace, the stem of the wheat is covered with several coats,34 which are rendered absolutely necessary by the excessive cold of those regions. It is the cold, also, that led to the discovery there of the three- month35 wheat, the ground being covered with snow most of the year. At the end mostly of three months after it has been sown, this wheat is ready for cutting, both in Thrace and in other parts of the world as well. This variety is well known, too, throughout all the Alpine range, and in the northern pro- vinces there is no kind of wheat that is more prolific ; it has a single stem only, is by no means of large size in any part of it, and is never sown but in a thin, light soil. There is a two- month36 wheat also found in the vicinity of iEnos, in Thrace, which ripens the fortieth day after sowing; and yet it is a surprising fact,_ that there is no kind of wheat that weighs heavier than this, while at the same time it produces no bran. Both Sicily and Achaia grow it, in the mountainous districts of those countries ; as also Euboea, in the vicinity of Carystus. So greatly, then, is Columella in error,37 in supposing that there is no distinct variety of three-month wheat even; the fact being that these varieties have been known from the very earliest times. The Greeks give to these wheats the name of " setanion." It is said that in Bactria the grains of wheat are of such an enormous size, that a single one is as large as our ears of corn.38 CHAP. 13.--BARLET : RICE. Of all the cereals the first that is sown is barley. We shall state the appropriate time for sowing each kind when we come to treat of the nature of each individually. In India, there is 34 This assertion, from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 4, is not based on truth. It is possible that he may allude in reality to some other gramineous plant. 35 Trimestre. 36 Bimestre. 37 Columella (B. ii. c. 6) does not state to this effect; on the contrary, he speaks of the existence of a three months' wheat; but he asserts, and with justice, that wheat sown in the autumn is better than that sown in March. 38 If he alludes here to what Theophrastus says, his assertion is simply that, in Bactria, the grains are as large as an olive-stone. 28 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. both a cultivated and a wild39 barley, from which they make excellent bread, as well as alica.40 But the most favourite food of all there is rice,41 from which they prepare a ptisan42 similar to that made from barley in other parts of the world. The leaves of rice are fleshy,43 very like those of the leek, but broader; the stem is a cubit in height, the blossom purple, and the root globular, like a pearl in shape.44 CHAP. 14.--POLENTA. Barley is one of the most ancient aliments of man, a fact that is proved by a custom of the Athenians, mentioned by Menander,45 as also by the name of "hordearii,"46 that used to be given to gladiators. The Greeks, too, prefer barley to any- thing else for making polenta.47 This food is made in various ways :' in Greece, the barley is first steeped in water, and then left a night to dry. The next day they parch it, and then grind it in the mill. Some persons parch it more highly, and then sprinkle it again with a little water; after which they dry it for grinding. Others shake the grain from out of the ear while green, and, after cleaning and soaking it in water, pound it in a mortar. They then wash the paste in baskets; and leave it to dry in the sun; after which they pound it again, clean it, and grind it in the mill. But whatever the mode of preparation adopted, the proportions are always twenty pounds of barley to three pounds of linseed,48 half a pound of coriander, and fifteen drachmae49 of salt: the ingredients are first parched, and then ground in the mill. Those who want it for keeping, store it in new earthen vessels, with fine flour and bran. In Italy, the barley is parched without being steeped in water, and then ground to a 39 There is no wild barley in India at the present day. 10 Porridge, or fermenty. 41 Oryza sativa of Linnaeus. 42 Like our rice-milk, probably. See B. xxii. c. 26. 43 They are not carnose or fleshy, but thin, and similar to those of the reed. 44 On the contrary, it is tough and fibrous. 45 The barley was, originally, the prize given to the victor in the Eleu- sinian games. 46 Or _" barley-fed." it The aXfirov of the Greeks. 48 This, as Fee observes, would tend to give it a very disagreeable flavour. 49 "Acetabulum." Chap. 17.] AMYLUM. 29 fine meal, with the addition of the ingredients already men- tioned, and some millet as well. Barley bread, which was extensively used by the ancients, has now fallen into universal disrepute, and is mostly used as a food for cattle only. chap. 15.—PTISAN. With barley, too, the food called ptisan60 is made, a most substantial and salutary aliment, and one that is held in very high esteem. Hippocrates, one of the most famous writers on medical science, has devoted a whole volume to the praises of this aliment. The ptisan of the highest quality is that which is made at Utica; that of Egypt is prepared from a kind of barley, the grain of which grows with two points.61 In Bsetica and Africa, the kind of barley from which this food is made is that which Turranius calls the "smooth"52barley: the same author expresses an opinion, too, that olyra ffl and rice are the same. The method of preparing ptisan is universally known. CHAP. 16.--TRAGTXM. In a similar manner, too, tragum is prepared from seeds4 wheat, but only in Campania and Egypt. CHAP. 17.—AMYLUM. Amylum is prepared from every kind of wheat, and from winter-wheatM as well; but the best of all is that made from three-month wheat. The invention of it we owe to the island of Chios, and still, at the present day, the most esteemed kind comes from there; it derives its name from its being made without the help of the mill.56 Next to the amylum made with three-month wheat, is that which is prepared from the lighter kinds of wheat. In making it, the grain is soaked in 50 Similar to our pearl barley, probably. 51 " Anguli." Dalechamps interprets this as two rows of grain; but Fee thinks that it signifies angles, and points. The Polygonum fagopyrum of Linnaeus, he says, buck-wheat, or black-wheat, has an angular grain, but he doubts whether that can possibly be the grain here alluded to. 52 There is no barley without a beard; it is clearly a variety of wheat that is alluded to. 63 Triticum spelta of Linnaeus. 54 " Semen," the same as zea, or spelt. 63 Siligo. M "AfivXov. 30 PLINY'S NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XVIII, fresh water, placed in wooden vessels ; care being taken to keep it covered with the liquid, which is changed no less than five times in the course of the day. If it can be changed at night as well, it is all the better for it, the object being to let it imbibe the water gradually and equally. When it is quite soft, but before it turns sour, it is passed through linen cloth, or else wicker-work, after which it is poured out upon a tile covered with leaven, and left to harden in the sun. Next to the amylum of Chios, that of Crete is the most esteemed, and next to that the ^Egyptian. The tests of its goodness are its being light and smooth: it should be used, too, while it is fresh. Cato,57 among our writers, has made mention of it. CHAP. 18.--THE NATURE OP BARLEY. Barley-meal, too, is employed for medicinal purposes; and it is a curious fact, that for beasts of burden they make a paste of it, which is first hardened by the action of fire, and then ground. It is then made up into balls, which are introduced vith the hand into the paunch, the result of which is, that the vigour and muscular strength of the animal is considerably increased. In some kinds of barley, the ears have two rows of grains,58 and in others more; in some cases, as many as six.59 The grain itself, too, presents certain differences, being long and thin, or else short or round, white, black,60 or, in some instances, of a purple colour. This last kind is employed for making polenta : the white is ill adapted for standing the se- verity of the weather. Barley is the softest of all the grains: it can only be sown in a dry, loose soil,61 but fertile withal. The chaff of barley ranks among the very best; indeed, for litter there is none that can be compared with it. Of all grain, barley is the least exposed to accidents, as it is gathered before the time that mildew begins to attack wheat; for which reason it is that the provident agriculturist sows only as much wheat 57 De Re Bust. c. 87. This " amylum" seems somewhat to resemble our starch. 58 The Hordeum distichum of Linnaeus. 59 Hordeum hexastichum of Linnaeus. The Hordeum vulgare, or com- mon barley, has but four rows. 60 These varieties are not known at the present day, and Fee questions if they ever existed. There is a black barley found in Germany, the Hor- deum nigrum of Willdenow. 61 A calcareous soil is the best adapted for barley. Chap. 19.] GRAIN GROWN IN THE EAST. 31 as may be required for food. The saying.is, that "barley is sown in a money-bag," because it so soon returns a profit. The most prolific kind of all is that which is got in at Car- thage,62 in Spain, in the month of April. It is in the same month that it is sown in Celtiberia, and yet it yields two har- vests in the same year. All kinds of barley are cut sooner than other grain, and immediately after they are ripe; for the straw is extremely brittle, and the grain is enclosed in a husk of re- markable thinness. It is said, too, that a better polenta63 is made from it, if it is gathered before it is perfectly ripe. CHAP. 19. (8.)--ARINCA, AND OTHER KINDS OF GRAIN THAT ARE GROWN IN THE EAST. The several kinds of corn are not everywhere the same ; and even where they are the same, they do not always bear a simi- lar name. The kinds most universally grown are spelt, by the ancients known as " adorea," winter wheat,64 and wheat ;65 all these being common to many countries. Arinca was originally peculiar to Gaul, though now it is widely diffused over Italy as well. Egypt, too, Syria, Cilicia, Asia, and Greece, have their own peculiar kinds, known by the names of zea,66 olyra, and tiphe.67 In Egypt, they make a fine flour from wheat of their own growth, but it is by no means equal to that of Italy. Those countries which employ zea, have no spelt. Zea, how- ever, is to be found in Italy, and in Campania more particularly, where it is known by the name of " seed."68 The grain that bears this name enjoys a very considerable celebrity, as we shall have occasion to state69 on another occasion ; and it is in honour of this that Homer70 uses the expression, fyiBupog apoupu, and not, as some suppose, from the fact of the earth giving life.71 Amylum is made, too, from this grain, but of a 62 Nova Carthago, or New Carthage. 63 This fallacious opinion is shared with Galen, De Facult. Anim. B. vi. c. 11. 64 Siligo. 65 Triticum. 64 The Triticum dicoccum, or spelt. 67 Probably rye. See the next Chapter. 63 Semen. 69 In c. 20, also in c. 29. This grain, which was in reality a kind of spelt, received its name probably from having been the first cultivated. 70 II. ii. c. 548 : "the land that produces zea." 71 Not aito ra £tjv, from "living." 32 pliny's natural histoby. [Book XVIII. coarser72 quality than the kind already mentioned;73 this, however, is the only difference that is perceptible. The most hardy kind, however, of all the grains is spelt, and the best to stand the severity of the weather; it will grow in the very coldest places, as also in localities that are but half tilled, or soils that are extremely hot, and destitute of water. This was the earliest food of the ancient inhabitants of Latiuro; a strong proof of which is the distributions of adorea that were made in those times, as already stated.74 It is evident, too, that the Bomans subsisted for a long time upon pottage," and not bread; for we find that from its name of " puis," cer- tain kinds of food are known, even at the present day, as " pul- mentaria."76 Ennius, too, the most ancient of our poets, in describing the famine in a siege, relates how that the parents snatched away the messes of pottage77 from their weeping children. At the present day, even, the sacrifices in conformity with the ancient rites, as well as those offered upon birthdays, are made with parched pottage.78 This food appears to have been as much unknown in those days in Greece as polenta was in Italy. CHAP. 20.--WINTER WHEAT. SIMILAGO, OR FINE FLOUR. There is no grain that displays a greater avidity than wheat, and none that absorbs a greater quantity of nutriment. With all propriety I may justly call winter wheat79 the very choicest of all the varieties of wheat. It is white, destitute of all flavour,80 and not oppressive81 to the stomach. It suits moist 72 Merely, as Fee says, from the faulty method employed in its prepa- ration, as starch has, in all cases, the same physical appearance. 73 In c. 17 of this Book. 74 In c. 3 of this Book. 75 n PuiS)" lite our porridge. 76 Any food that was originally eaten with " puis," and afterwards with bread, was so called, such as meat, vegetables, &c. 77 " Offam." This word, which in the later writers signifies a "cake," originally meant a hardened lump of porridge. 78 Pulte fritilla. 79 " Siligo." There are numerous contradictions in Pliny with reference to this plant, but it is now pretty generally agreed that it is the Triticum hibernum of Linnaeus : the " froment tousselle" of the French. It was formerly the more general opinion that it was identical with spelt; but that cannot be the case, as spelt is red, and siligo is described as white. 80 " Sine virtute." It is doubtful what is the meaning of this. 81 Sine pondere. Chap. 20.] WINTER WHEAT. 33 localities particularly well, such as we find in Italy and Gallia Comata; but beyond the Alps it is found to maintain its cha- racter only in the territory of the Allobroges and that of the Memini; for in the other parts of those countries it degene- rates at the end of two years into common wheat.82 The only method of preventing this is to take care and sow the heaviest grains only. (9.) Winter wheat furnishes bread of the very finest quality and the most esteemed delicacies of the bakers. The best bread that is known in Italy is made from a mixture of Cam- panian winter wheat with that of Pisae. The Campanian kind is of a redder colour, while the latter is white; when mixed with chalk,83 it is increased in weight. The proper proportion for the yield of Campanian wheat to the modius of grain is four sextarii of what is known as bolted flour;M but when it is used in the rough and has not been bolted, then the yield should be five sextarii of flour. In addition to this, in either case there should be half a modius of white meal, with four sextarii of coarse meal, known as " seconds," and the same quantity of bran.85 The Pisan wheat produces five sextarii of fine flour to the modius; in other respects it yields the same as that of Campania. The wheat of Clusium and Arretium gives another sextarius of fine flour, but the yield is similar to that of the kinds already mentioned in all other respects. If, however, as much of it as possible is converted into fine wheat meal, the modius will yield sixteen pounds weight of white bread, and three of seconds, with half a modius of bran. These differences, however, depend very materially upon the grinding; for when the grain is ground quite dry it produces more meal, but when sprinkled with salt water86 a whiter flour, though at the same time a greater quantity of bran. It is very evident that " farina," the name we give to meal, is derived from " far." A modius of meal made from Gallic winter 82 In other places he says, most unaccountably, that wheat "degenerates into siligo." M As to this practice, see c. 29. 84 " Quam vocant castratam." 63 From this account, it would appear that there were twenty-four sex- tarii to the modius; but the account in general is very contradictory. 86 Salt water is rarely used for this purpose in modern times. See this passage discussed in Beckmann on Inventions, Bohn's Ed. vol. i. p. 164. VOL. IV. D 34 PLINY"S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. wheat, yields twenty-two pounds of bread ; while that of Italy, if made into bread baked in tins,87 will yield two or three pounds more. When the bread is baked in the oven,88 two pounds must be added in weight in either case. (10.) Wheat yields a fine flour89 of the very highest quality. In African wheat the modius ought to yield half a modius of fine flour and five sextarii of pollen, that being the name given to fine wheat meal, in the same way that that of winter wheat is generally known as " flos," or the " flower." This fine meal is extensively used in copper works and paper manu- factories. In addition to the above, the modius should yield four sextarii of coarse meal, and the same quantity of bran. The finest wheaten flour will yield one hundred90 and twenty- two pounds of bread, and the fine meal of winter wheat one hundred90 and seventeen, to the modius of grain. When the prices of grain are moderate, meal sells at forty asses the mo- dius, bolted wheaten flour at eight asses more, and bolted flour of winter wheat, at sixteen asses more. There is another distinction again in fine wheaten flour, which originated for- merly in the days of L. Paulus. There were three classes of wheat; the first of which would appear to have yielded seven- teen pounds of bread, the second eighteen, and the third nine- teen pounds and a third : to these were added two pounds and a half of seconds,91 and the same quantity of brown91 bread, with six sextarii of bran.92 Winter wheat never ripens all at once, and yet there is none of the cereals that can so ill brook any delay; it being of so delicate a nature, that the ears directly they are ripe will begin to shed their grain. So long, however, as it is in stalk, it is exposed to fewer risks than other kinds of wheat, from the fact 87 " Artopticio." See c. 27 of this Book. 88 Without tin, probably; or the tin bread may have been baked before the fire, similar to the method adopted at the present day with the American ovens. *9 " Similago." Founders still use meal occasionally for making moulds; it is also employed in making paper. 90 The mention of "hundreds" here is evidently faulty, unless the other part of the passage is corrupt. Fee suggests twenty-two and twenty seven. 91 But above we find him -stating that "secundarius," "seconds" flour, and "cibarius," or "coarse," meal, are the same thing. His con- tradictions cannot apparently be reconciled. 92 The whole of this passage, as Brotier remarks, is evidently corrupt. Chap. 21.] WHEAT IN AFRICA. 35 of its always having the ear upright, and not retaining the dew, which is a prolific cause of mildew. From arinca93 a bread of remarkable sweetness is made. The grains in this variety lie closer than they do in spelt; the ear, too, is larger and more weighty. It is rarely the case that a modius of this grain does not weigh full sixteen pounds. In Greece they find great difficulty in threshing it; and hence it is that we find Homer94 saying that it is given to beasts of burden, this being the same as the grain that he calls "olyra." In Egypt it is threshed without any difficulty, and i3 remark- ably prolific. Spelt has no beard, and the same is the case with winter wheat, except95 that known as the Laconian variety. To the kinds already mentioned we have to add bromos,96 the winter wheat just excepted, and tragos,97 all of them exotics introduced from the East, and very similar to rice. Tiphe98 also belongs to the same class, from which in our part of the world a cleaned grain resembling rice is pre- pared. Among the Greeks, too, there is the grain known as zea; and it is said that this, as well as tiphe, when cleaned from the husk and sown, will degenerate99 and assume the form of wheat; not immediately, but in the course of three years. CHAP. 21.--THE FRT/ITFTJLNESS OF AFRICA IN WHEAT. There is no grain more prolific than wheat, Nature having bestowed upon it this quality, as being the substance which she destined for the principal nutriment of man. A modius of 93 Fee has no doubt that this was siligo, or winter-wheat, in a very high state of cultivation. 94 II. v. 1. 195. 95 There are still some varieties both of winter-wheat and spelt that have the beard. 96 It is generally thought that this is the oat, the Avena sativa of Lin- naeus, while some have suggested rice. Fee thinks that by the name, some exotic gramineous plant is meant. ' 97 Probably a variety of spelt, as Sprengel conjectures, from Galen and other writers. See c. 16 of this Book. 98 Fee thinks that it is the grain of the Festuca fluitans of Linnasus that is here alluded to, and identifies it with the " ulva palustris" of Virgil, Geor. Hi. 174. 99 The Latin word "degener" cannot here mean "degenerate, m our souse of the word, but must merely imply a change of nature in the plant. D 2 36 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII, wheat, if the soil is favourable, as at Byzacium,1 a champaign district of Africa, will yield as much as one hundred and fifty3 modii of grain. The procurator of the late Emperor Augustus sent him from that place—a fact almost beyond belief—little short of four hundred shoots all springing from a single grain; and we have still in existence his letters on the subject. In a similar manner, too, the procurator of Nero sent him three hundred and sixty stalks all issuing from a single grain.3 The plains of Leontium in Sicily, and other places in that island, as well as the whole of Bsetica, and Egypt more particularly, yield produce a hundred-fold. The most prolific kinds of wheat are the ramose wheat,4 and that known as the " hun- dred-grain"5 wheat. Before now, as many as one hundred beans, too, have been found on a single stalk. CHAP. 22.--SESAME. ERYSIMUM, OR IRIO. HORMINUM. We have spoken6 of sesame, millet, and panic as belonging to the summer grains. Sesame7 comes from India, where they extract an oil from it; the colour of its grain is white. Similar in appearance to this is the erysimum of Asia and Greece, and indeed it would be identical with it were it not that the grain is better filled.8 It is the same grain that is known among us as " irio;" and strictly speaking, ought rather to be classed among the medicaments than the cereals. Of the same nature, too, is the plant called "horminum"9 by the Greeks, though resembling cummin10 in appearance; it is sown at the same time as sesame: no animal will eat either this or irio while green. CHAP. 23.—THE MODE OF GRINDING CORN. All the grains are not easily broken. In Etruria they first 1 See B. xvii. c. 3. 2 "We know of no such fruitfulness as this in the wheat of Europe. Fifteen-fold, as Fee remarks, is the utmost amount of produce that can be anticipated. 3 Fee mentions instances of 150, 92, and 63 stalks arising from a single grain; but all these fall far short of the marvels here mentionedby Pliny. 4 The Triticum compositum of Linnaeus; supposed to have originally come from Egypt or Barbary. 5 " Centigranium." Probably the same as the last. 6 Inc. 10 of this Book. 7 See c. 10 foPJng^US-- „ , 9 Already mentioned inc. 10, lu See B. xix. c. 47; and B. xx. c. 57. Chap. 23.] THE MODE OF GRINDING CORN. 37 parch the spelt in the ear, and then pound it with a pestle shod with iron at the end. In this instrument the iron is notched11 at the bottom, sharp ridges running out like the edge of a knife, and concentrating in the form of a star; so that if care is not taken to hold the pestle perpendicularly while pounding, the grains will only be splintered and the iron teeth broken. Throughout the greater part of Italy, however, they employ a pestle that is only rough12 at the end, and wheels turned by water, by means of which the corn is gra- dually ground. I shall here set forth the opinions given by Mago as to the best method of pounding corn. He says that the wheat should be steeped first of all in water, and then cleaned from the husk ; after which it should be dried in the sun, and then pounded with the pestle ; the same plan, he says, should be adopted in the preparation of barley. In the latter case, however, twenty sextarii of grain require only two sextarii of water. When lentils are used, they should be first parched, and then lightly pounded with the bran; or else, adopting another method, a piece of unbaked brick and half a modius of sand13 should be added to every twenty sextarii of lentils. Ervilia should be treated in the same way as lentils. Sesame should be first steeped in warm water, and then laid out to dry, after which it should be rubbed out briskly, and then thrown into cold water, so that the chaff maj- be disengaged by floating to the surface. After this is done, the grain should again be spread out in the sun, upon linen cloths, to dry. Care, however, should be taken to lose no time in doing this, as it is apt to turn musty, and assume a dull, livid colour. The grains, too, which are just cleaned from the husk, require various methods of pounding. When the beard is ground by itself, without the grain, the result is known as " acus,"14 but it is only used by goldsmiths.15 If, on the other hand, it is beaten 11 This would rather grate the grain than pound it, as Beckmann ob- serves. See his Hist. Inv., vol. i. pp. 147 and 164, Bohn'sEd., where the meaning of this passage has been commented upon. Gesner, also, in his Lexicon Rusticum, has endeavoured to explain it. 12 Ruido. 13 It is surprising to find the Romans, not only kneading their bread with sea-water, but putting in it pounded bricks, chalk, and sand ! 14 Beard chaff; so called, probably, from the sharpness of the points, like needles (acus). 15 See B. xxxiii. c. 3 ; where he says, that afire lighted with this chaff, fuses gold more speedily than oue made with maple wood. 38 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTQRY. [Book XVIII. out on the threshing-floor, together with the straw, the chaff has the name of " palea," ***** and in most parts of the world is employed as fodder for beasts of burden. The residue of millet, panic, and sesame, is known to us as " apluda j" but in other countries it is called by various other names. CHAP. 24.—MILLET. Campania is particularly prolific in millet, and a fine white porridge is made from it: it makes a bread, too, of remarkable sweetness. The nations of Sarmatia16 live principally on this porridge, and even the raw meal, with the sole addition of mares' milk, or else blood17 extracted from the thigh of the horse. The ^Ethiopians know of no other grain but millet and barley. CHAP. 25.--PANIC. The people of Gaul, and of Aquitania18 more particularly, make use of panic; the same is the case, too, in Italy beyond the Padus, with the addition, however, of the bean, without which they prepare none of their food. There is no aliment held in higher esteem than panic by the nations of Pontus. The other summer grains thrive better in well-watered soils than in rainy localities; but water is by no means beneficial to millet or panic when they are coming into blade. It is re- commended not to sow them among vines or fruit-trees, as it is generally thought that these crops impoverish the soil. CHAP. 26. (11)—THE VARIOUS KIND8 OF LEAVEN. Millet is more particularly employed for making leaven; and if kneaded with must,19 it will keep a whole year. The same is done, too, with the fine wheat-bran of the best quality; it is kneaded with white must three days old, and then dried in the sun, after which it is made into small cakes. When re- quired for making bread, these cakes are first soaked in water, 16 The Tartars still employ millet as one of their principal articles of food. They also extract a kind of wine from it. 17 Virgil alludes to this, Georg. iii. 463. 18 Panic is still employed more than any other grain in the south of France. 19 Or grape-juice. This must have tended to affect the taste of the bread. Chap. 27.] THE METHOD OF MAKING BREAD. 39 and then boiled with the finest spelt flour, after which the whole is mixed up with the meal; and it is generally thought that this is the best method of making bread. The Greeks have established a rule that for a modius of meal eight ounces of leaven is enough. These kinds of leaven, however, can only be made at the time of vintage, but there is another leaven which may be pre- pared with barley and water, at any time it may happen to be required. It is first made up into cakes of two pounds in weight, and these are then baked upon a hot hearth, or else in an earthen dish upon hot ashes and charcoal, being left till they turn of a reddish brown. When this is done, the cakes are shut close in vessels, until they turn quite sour: when wanted for leaven, they are steeped in water first. When barley bread used to be made, it was leavened with the meal of the fitch,20 or else the chicheling vetch,21 the proportion being, two pounds of leaven to two modii and a half of barley meal. At the present day, however, the leaven is prepared from the meal that is used for making the bread. For this purpose, some of the meal is kneaded before adding the salt, and is then boiled to the consistency of porridge, and left till it begins to turn sour. In most cases, however, they do not warm it at all, but only make use of a little of the dough that has been kept from the day before. It is very evident that the principle which causes the dough to rise is of an acid nature, and it is equally evident that those persons who are dieted upon fermented bread are stronger22 in body. Among the ancients, too, it was generally thought that the heavier wheat is, the more wholesome it is. CHAP. 27.—THE METHOD OF MAKING BREAD : ORIGIN OF THE ART. It seems to me quite unnecessary to enter into an account of the various kinds of bread that are made. Some kinds, we find, receive their names from the dishes with which they are eaten, the oyster-bread,23 for instance: others, again, from their peculiar delicacy, the artolaganus,24 or cake-bread, for example; and others from the expedition with winch they are 20 Ervum. 21 " Cicercula." See B. xxii. c. 72. 22 This remark is founded upon just notions. 23 Ostrearius. 21 From aproc, and \dyavov, bread and cake. 40 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIII. prepared, such as the " speusticus,"25 or " hurry-bread." Other varieties receive their names from the peculiar method of baking them, such as oven-bread,26 tin-bread,27 and mould- bread.28 It is not so very long since that we had a bread in- troduced from Parthia, known as water-bread,29 from a method in kneading it, of drawing out the dough by the aid of water, a process which renders it remarkably light, and full of holes, like a sponge : some call this Parthian bread. The excellence of the finest kinds of bread depends principally on the goodness of the wheat, and the fineness of the bolter. Some persona knead the dough with eggs or milk, and butter even has been employed for the purpose by nations that have had leisure to cultivate the arts of peace, and to give their attention to the art of making pastry. Picenum still maintains its ancient reputation for making the bread which it was the first to in- vent, alica30 being the grain employed. The flour is kept in soak for nine days, and is kneaded^ on the tenth with raisin juice, in the shape of long rolls; after which it is baked in an oven in earthen pots, till they break. This bread, however, is never eaten till it has been well31 soaked, which is mostly done in milk mixed with honey. CHAP. 28.--WHEN BAKERS WERE FIRST INTRODUCED AT ROME. There were no bakers at Pome until32 the war with King Perseus, more than five hundred and eighty years after the building of the City. The ancient Romans used to make their own bread, it being an occupation which belonged to the wo- men, as we see the case in many nations even at the present day. Plautus speaks of the artopta, or bread-tin, in his Comedy of the Aulularia,33 though there has been considerable discussion for that very reason among the learned, whether or 25 From oirtido), to hasten. A sort of crumpet, probably. 26 Furnaceus. 27 Artopticeus. 28 " Clibanis." The clibanus was a portable oven or mould, broader at the bottom than the top. 29 Aquaticus. 3° See cc. 10 and 29 of this Book. 31 It would appear to be somewhat similar to our rusks. 32 "Which ended a.u.c. 586. 33 A. ii. s. 9,1. 4. " Ego hinc artoptam ex proxumo utendam peto." It is thought by some commentators, that the word used by Pliny here was, in reality, " Artoptasia," a female baker ; and that he alludes to a passage in the Aulularia, which has now perished. Chap. 29. ALICA. 41 not that line really belongs to him. We have the fact, too, well ascertained, in the opinion of Ateius Capito, that the cooks in those days were in the habit of making the bread for persons of affluence, while the name of " pistor "34 was only given to the person who pounded, or " pisebat," the spelt. In those times, they had no cooks in the number of their slaves, but used to hire them for the occasion from the market. The Gauls were the first to employ the bolter that is made of horse-hair; while the people of Spain make their sieves and meal-dressers of flax,35 and the Egyptians of papyrus and rushes. CHAP. 29.--ALTCA. But among the very first things of all, we ought to speak of the method employed in preparing alica,36 a most delightful and most wholesome food, and which incontestably confers upon Italy the highest rank among the countries that produce the cereals. This delicacy is prepared, no doubt, in Egypt as well, but of a very inferior quality, and not worth our no- tice. In Italy, however, it is prepared in numerous places, the territories of Verona and Pisae, fjpr example; but that of Campania is the most highly esteemed. There, at the foot of mountains capped with clouds, runs a plain, not less in all than forty miles in extent. The land here—to give a description first of the nature of the soil—is dusty on the surface, but spongy below, and as porous as pumice. The inconveniences that generally arise from the close vicinity of mountains are here converted into so many advantages : for the soil, acting on it as a sort of filter, absorbs the water of the abundant rains that fall; the consequence of which is, that the water not being left to soak or form mud on the surface, the cultivation is greatly facilitated thereby. This land does not return, by the aid of any springs, the moisture it has thus absorbed, but thoroughly digests it, by warming it in its bosom, in a neated oven as it were. The ground is kept cropped the whole year through, once with panic, and twice with spelt; and yet in the Bpring, when the soil is allowed to have a moment's repose, 31 Which in Pliny's time signified " baker." 35 The Stipa tenacissima of Linnaeus, Fee says; or else the Lygeum spartum of Linnaeus. 36 As to the cereal so called, see c. 10 of this Book. 42 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. it will produce roses more odoriferous by far than the cultivated rose: for the earth here is never tired of producing, a circum- stance in which originated the common saying, that Campania produces more unguents37 than other countries do oil. In the same degree, however, that the Campanian soil excels that of all other countries, so does that part of it which is known to us as Laborise,38 and to the Greeks as Phlegraeum, surpass all the rest. This district is bounded on two sides by the consular high road, which leads from Puteoli to Capua on the one Bide, and from Cumae on the other. Alica is prepared from the grain called zea, which we have already mentioned39 as being known to us as " seed" wheat. The grain is cleansed in a wooden mortar, for fear lest stone, from its hardness, should have the effect of grating it. The motive power for raising the pestle, as is generally known, is supplied by slaves working in chains, the end of it being en- closed in a case of iron. After the husks have been removed by this process, the pure grain is broken to pieces, the same implements being employed. In this way, there are three different kinds of alica made, the finest, the seconds, and the coarse, which last is known as " aphaerema."40 Still, however, these various kinds have none of them that whiteness as yet for which they are so distinguished, though even now they are preferable to the Alexandrian alica. With this view—a most singular fact—chalk41 is mixed with the meal, which, upon becoming well incorporated with it, adds very materially to both the whiteness and the shortness42 of the mixture. This chalk is found between Puteoli and Neapolis, upon a hill called Leucogseum ;43 and there is still in existence a decree of the late Emperor Augustus, (who established a colony at Capua), which orders a sum of twenty thousand sesterces to be paid annually from his exchequer to the people of Neapolis, for the lease df this hill. His motive for paying this rent, he stated, was the fact that the people of Campania had alleged that it 37 Or perfumed oils. 38 See B. iii. c. 9. A volcanic district. 39 In c. 20 of this Book. 40 Grain from which the husk is removed. 41 A sub-carbonate of lime; it is still known in those parts of Campa- nia, and is called " lumera." 43 Teneritatem. 43 From the Greek, meaning " white earth." Chap. 30.] LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 43 was impossible to make their alica without the help of this mineral. In the same hill, sulphur is found as well, and the springs of Araxus issue from its declivities, the waters of which are particularly efficacious for strengthening the sight, healing wounds, and preventing the teeth from becoming loose. A spurious kind of alica is made, more particularly of a de- generate kind of zea grown in Africa; the ears of it are larger and blacker than those of the genuine kind, and the straw is short. This grain is pounded with sand, and even then it is with the greatest difficulty that the outer coats are removed; when stripped, the grain fills one half only of the original measure. Gypsum, in the proportion of one fourth, is then sprinkled44 over it, and after the mixture has been well incor- porated, it is bolted through a meal-sieve. The portion that remains behind, after this is done, is known as " excepticia,"46 and consists of the coarser parts; while that which has passed through is submitted to a second process, with a finer sieve ; and that which then refuses to pass has the name of "secun- daria."46 That, again, which, in a similar manner, is submitted to a third sifting, with a sieve of the greatest fineness, which will only admit of sand passing through it, is known as " cri- braria,"47 when it remains on the top of the sieve. There is another method, again, that is employed every where for adulterating it. They pick out the whitest and largest grains of wheat, and parboil them in earthen pots; these are then dried in the sun till they have regained their original- size, after which they are lightly sprinkled with water, and then ground in a mill. A better granaeum w is made from zea than from wheat, although it is nothing else, in fact, but a Bpurious alica: it is whitened by the addition of boiled milk, in place of chalk. CHAP. 30. (12.)--THE LEGUMINOUS PLANTS : THE BEAN. We now come to the history of the leguminous plants, among which the place of honour must be awarded to the 44 Fee enquires, and with good reason, how the African mixture ac- commodated itself to the stomachs of those who ate it. 45 Residue. 46 Seconds. 47 Sieve flour. 48 A porridge or pap, made of ground grain. It is mentioned by Cato, o. 86. 44 pliny's natural history. [BookXVIIL bean ;49 indeed, some attempts have even been made to use it for bread. Bean meal is known as " lomentum ;" and, as is the case with the meal of all leguminous plants, it adds con- siderably, when mixed with flour, to the weight of the bread. Beans are on sale at the present day for numerous purposes, and are employed for feeding cattle, and man more particu- larly. They are mixed, also, among most nations, ^ with wheat,60 and panic more particularly, either whole or lightly broken. In our ancient ceremonials, too, bean pottage51 occu- pies its place in the religious services of the gods. Beans are mostly eaten together with other food, but it is generally thought that they dull the senses, and cause sleepless nights attended with dreams. Hence it is that the bean has been condemned52 by Pythagoras; though, according to some, the reason for this denunciation was the belief which he enter- tained that the souls of the dead are enclosed in the bean: it is for this reason, too, that beans are used in the funereal ban- quets of the Parentalia.63 According to Varro, it is for a similar cause that the Flamen abstains from eating beans : in addition to which, on the blossom of the bean, there are cer- tain letters of ill omen to be found. There are some peculiar religious usages connected with the bean. It is the custom to bring home from the harvest a bean by way of auspice, which, from that circumstance, has the name of "referiva."54 In sales by public auction, too, it is thought lucky to include a bean in the lot for sale. It is a fact, too, that the bean is the only one among all the grains that fills out at the increase of the moon,55 however much it may have been eaten away: it can never be thoroughly boiled in sea-water, or indeed any other water that is salt. 49 The Faba vulgaris of the modern naturalists. It is supposed to have originally come from Persia. 50 It is said that this mixture is still employed in the Valais and in Savoy. 51 Fabata. 62 Beans were used in ancient times, in place of balls or pebbles, in voting by ballot. Hence it has been suggested that Pythagoras, in recom- mending his disciples to abstain from beans, meant to advise them to have nothing to do with politics. 53 The sacrifices offered to the Manes or spirits of deceased relations, See Ovid's Fasti, B. ii. 1. 56,5. 34 " Brought home." The bean was offered up, to ensure good luck. 55 Didymus, in the Geoponica, B. ii. c. 33, repeats this absurdity. Chap. 30.] THE BEAN. 45 The bean is the first leguminous plant that is sown; that being done before the setting of the Vergiliae, in order that it may pass the winter in the ground. Virgil56 recommends that it should be sown in spring, according to the usage of the parts of Italy near the Padus: but most people prefer the bean that has been sown early to that of only three months' growth; for, in the former case, the pods as well as the stalk afford a most agreeable fodder for cattle. When in blossom more par- ticularly, the bean requires water ; but after the blossom has passed off, it stands in need of but very little. It fertilizes87 the ground in which it has been sown as well as any manure; hence it is that in the neighbourhood of Thessaly and Ma- cedonia, as soon ' as it begins to blossom, they turn up58 the ground. The bean, too, grows wild in most countries, as in those islands of the Northern Ocean, for instance, which for that reason have been called by us the "Eabariae."59 In Mauritania, also, it is found in a wild state in various parts, but so remark- ably hard that it will never become soft by boiling. In Egypt there is a kind of bean60 which grows upon a thorny stalk; for which reason the crocodiles avoid it, being apprehensive of danger to their eyes. This stalk is four cubits in length, and its thickness, at the very most, that of the finger : Avere it not for the absence of articulations in it, it would resemble a soft reed in appearance. The head is similar to that of the poppy, being of a rose colour : the beans enclosed in this head are not above thirty in number; the leaves are large, and the fruit is bitter and odoriferous. The root, however, is highly esteemed by the natives as a food, whether eaten raw or well boiled; it bears a strong resem- blance to that of the reed. This plant grows also in Syria and Cilicia, and upon the banks of Lake Torone in Chalcidice. 66 Georg. i. 215. 67 This notion still prevails, and the bean, while in blossom, is dug into the ground to manure it, both in England and France. 58 It does not appear, however, that this was done with the view of digging in the beans. 6J Or Bean Islands. See B. iv. c. 27. 60 The Nymphaea nelumbo of Linnaeus is alluded to, but it is no longer to be found in Egypt. Pliny is supposed to derive this from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. iv. c. 10, but his translation is not exactly correct. 46 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIII. CHAP. 31.—LENTILS. pease. Among the leguminous plants the lentil is sown in the month of November, and the pea,61 among the Greeks. The lentil thrives best in a soil that is rather thin than rich, and mostly stands in need of dry weather. There are two kinds of lentil grown in Egypt; one of which is rounder and blacker than the other, which has a peculiar shape of its own. The name of this plant has been applied to various uses, and among others has given origin to our word " lenticula." ** I find it stated in some authors that a lentil diet is productive of evenness of temper. The pea requires to be sown in a warm, sunny spot, and is ill able to endure cold ; hence in Italy and the more rigorous climates, it i6 sown in the spring only, a light, loose soil being chosen for the purpose. CHAP. 32.—THE SEVERAL KINDS OF CHICK-PEASE. The chick-pea63 is naturally salt,64 for which reason it is apt to scorch the ground, and should only be sown after it has been steeped a day in water. This plant presents consider* able differences in reference to size, colour,65 form, and taste. One variety resembles in shape a ram's head, from which cir- cumstance it has received the name of " arietinum;" there are both the white and the black arietinum. There is also the columbine chick-pea, by some known as the " pea of Venus;" it is white, round, and smooth, being smaller than the arie- tinum, and is employed in the observances of the night festivals or vigils. The chicheling vetch,66 too, is a diminutive kind of chick-pea, unequal and angular, like67 the pea. The chick- pea that is the sweetest in flavour is the one that bears the closest resemblance to the fitch; the pod in the black and the red kinds is more firmly closed than in the white ones. 61 Pisum sativum of Linnaeus. 62 Meaning a wart or pimple on the face. 63 Cicer arietinum of the botanists. ei it Gigni cum salsilagine." It abounds in India, and while blossom- ing, it distils a corrosive acid, which corrodes the shoes of those who tread upon it. 65 There are still the red and the white kinds, the large and the small. 6G Cicercula: the Lathyrus sativus of Linnaeus. It is difficult to cook, and hard of digestion. See c. 26. 67 This must be said in reference to some of the nease when in a dried state. Chap. 34.] THE RAPE. 47 CHAP. 33.--THE KIDNEY-BEAN. The pod of the chick-pea is rounded, while in other legu- minous plants it is long and broad, like the seed which it contains; in the pea, again, it is of a cylindrical form. In the case of the kidney-bean68 it is usual t* eat the pod together with the seed. This last may be sown in all kinds of soils indifferently, between the ides of October69 and the calends of November.70 As soon as ever the leguminous plants begin to ripen, they ought to be plucked, for the pods will very soon open and the seed fall out, in which case it is very difficult to fiud : the same is the case, too, with the lupine. But before we pass on to the lupine, it will be as well to make some men- tion of the rape.71 CHAP. 34. (13.)—THE RAPE. The Latin writers have only treated of this plant in a cur- sory manner, while those of Greece have considered it a little more attentively; though even they have ranked it among the garden plants. If, however, a methodical arrangement is to be strictly observed, it should be spoken of immediately after corn, or the bean, at all events; for next to these two produc- tions, there is no plant that is of more extensive use. For, in the first place, all animals will feed upon it as it grows; and it is far from being the least nutritious plant in the fields for various kinds of birds, when boiled in water more particularly. Cattle, too, are remarkably fond of the leaves of rape; and the stalks and leaves, when in season, are no less esteemed as a food for man than the sprouts of the cabbage ;71 these, too, when turned yellow and left to die in the barn, are even more highly esteemed than72 when green. As to the rape itself, it will keep all the better if left in its mould, after which it should be dried in the open air till the next crop is nearly ripe, as a resource in case of scarcity. Next to those of the 83 A variety of the Phaseolus vulgaris of Linnaeus: the " haricot" of the French. The French bean and the scarlet-runner are cooked in a similar manner among us. 69 15th of October. 70 1st of November. 71 Tho Napo-brassica of Linnaeus. The turnip cabbage, or rape- colewort. Ti This taste, it is most probable, is nowhere in existence at the present day. 48 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIII. grape and corn, this is the most profitable harvest of all for the countries that lie beyond the Padus. The rape is by no means difficult to please in soil, for it will grow almost anywhere, indeed where nothing else can be sown. It readily derives nutriment from fogs and hoar-frosts, and grows to a marvel- lous size ; I have seen them weighing upwards of forty pounds.7' It is prepared for table among us in several ways, and is made to keep till the next crop, its fermentation74 being prevented by preserving it in mustard. It is also tinted with no less than six colours in addition to its own, and with purple even; in- deed, that which is used by us as food ought to be of no other colour.75 . . The Greeks have distinguished two principal species of rape, the male and the female,76 and have discovered a method of ob« taining them both from the same seed; for when it is sown thick, or in a hard, cloggy soil, the produce will be male. The smaller the seed the better it is in quality. There are three kinds of rape in all; the first is broad and flat, the second of a spherical shape, and the third, to which the name of "wild" rape77 has been given, throws out a long root, similar in appearance to a radish, with an angular, rough leaf, and an acrid juice, which, if extracted about harvest, and mixed with a woman's milk, is good for cleansing the eyes and improving defective sight. The colder the weather the sweeter they are, and the larger, it is generally thought; heat makes them run to leaf. The finest rape of all is that grown in the district of Nursia: it is valued at as much as one sesterce78 per pound, and, in times of scarcity, two even. That of the next best quality is produced on Mount Algidus. CHAP. 35.--THE TURNIP. The turnip78* of Amiternum, which is pretty nearly of the ' 73 This is not by any means an exaggeration. 74 Acrimonia. 75 These coloured varieties, Fee says, belong rather to the Brassica oleracea, than to the Brassica rapa. It is not improbable, from the struc- ture of this passage, that Pliny means to say that the colours are artina- ally produced. 76 In reality, belonging to the Crucifera, the rape is hermaphroditical. 77 Wild horse-radish, which is divided into two varieties, the Bapha- nus raphanistrum of Linnaeus, and the Cochlearia Armoracia, may possibly be meant, but their roots bear no resemblance to the radish. 78 An enormous price, apparently. "8* The Brassica napus of Linnaeus. Chap. 36.] THE LUPINE. 49 same nature as the rape, thrives equally well in a cold soil. It is sown just before the calends of March,79 four sextarii of seed to thejugerum. The more careful growers recommend that the ground should be turned up five times before putting in the turnip, and four for rape, care being taken, in both cases, to manure it well. Rape, they say, will thrive all the better, if it is sown together with some chaff. They will have it, too, that the sower ought to be stripped, and that he should offer up a prayer while sowing, and say : "I sow this for myself and for my neighbours." The proper time for sow- ing both kinds is the period that intervenes between the festi- vals80 of the two divinities, Neptune and Vulcan. It is said, too—and it is the result of very careful observatidh—that these plants will thrive wonderfully well, if they are sown as many days after the festival of Neptune as the moon was old when the first snow fell the previous winter. They are sown in spring as well, in warm and humid localities. CHAP. 36. (14.)—THE LUPINE. The lupine is the next among the leguminous plants that is in extensive use, as it serves for food for man in common with the hoofed quadrupeds. To prevent it from springing out of the pod81 while being gathered, and so lost, the best plan is to gather it immediately after a shower. Of all the seeds that are sown, there is not one of a more marvellous na- ture than this, or more favoured by the earth. First of all, it turns every day with the sun,82 and shows the hour to the husbandman, even though the weather should happen to be cloudy and overcast. It blossoms, too, no less than three times, and so attached is it to the earth, that it does not re- quire to be covered with the soil; indeed, this is the only seed that does not require the earth to be turned up for sowing it. It thrives more particularly on a sandy, dry, and even gravelly soil; and requires n© further care to be taken in its cultiva- tion. To such a degree is it attached to the earth, that even 79 1st of March. *° The Neptunalia and the Vulcanalia; 23rd of July and 23rd of August. kl In consequence of the brittleness of the pod. ,2 This is an exaggeration of certain phenomena observed in the leave* of all leguminous plants. YOL. IV. E 50 PLINY's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. though left upon a soil thickly covered with brambles, it wjll throw out a root amid the leaves and brakes, and so con- trive to reach the ground. We have already stated83 that the soil of a field or vineyard is enriched by the growth of a crop of lupines; indeed, so far is it from standing in need of manure, that the lupines will act upon it as well as the very best. It is the only seed that requires no outlay at all, so much so, in fact, that there is no necessity to carry it even to the spot where it is sown ; for it may be sown the moment it is brought from the threshing-floor :M and from the fact that it falls from the pod of its own accord, it stands in need of no one to scatter it. Thisfs85 the very first grain sown and the last that is gathered, both operations generally taking place in the month of Sep- tember ; indeed, if this is not done before winter sets in, it is liable to receive injury from the cold. And then, besides, it may even be left with impunity to lie upon the ground, in case showers should not immediately ensue and cover it in, it being quite safe from the attacks of all animals, on account of its bitter taste : still, however, it is mostly covered up in a slight furrow. Among the thicker soils, it is attached to a red earth more particularly. In order to enrich86 this earth, it should be turned up just after the third blossom ; but where the soil is sandy, after the second. Chalky and slimy soils are the only ones that it Has an aversion to; indeed, it will never come to anything when sown in them. Soaked in warm water, it is used as a food, too, for man. One modius is a sufficient meal for an ox, and it is found to impart considerable vigour to cattle; placed, too, upon the abdomen87 of children, it acts as a remedy in certain cases. It is an excellent plan to season the lupine by smoking it; for when it is kept in a moist state, maggots are apt to attack the germ, and render it useless for reproduction. If cattle have eaten it off while in leaf, as a matter of necessity it should be ploughed in as soon as possible. 85 In B. xvii. c. 6. 84 " Ex area." This reading is favoured by the text of Columella. B. ii c. 10, who says the same. But " ex arvo," from the field, i. e. the " moment it is gathered "—seems preferable, as being more consistent with the context 85 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 1. 11, &c. 86 It is still thought that the lupine enriches the soil in which it grows. 87 Marcellus Empiricus says, that boiled lupine meal, spread as a plaster, and laid oa the abdomen, will destroy intestinal worms. Chap. 39.] silicia. 51 CHAP. 37. (15.)—THE VETCH. The vetch,88 too, enriches the soil, and its cultivation en- tails no labour on the agriculturist. It is sown after the ground has been but once turned up, and requires neither hoe- ing nor manuring; nothing at all, indeed, except harrowing. There are three periods for sowing it; the first is about the setting of Arcturus, when it is intended for feeding cattle in the month of December, while in the blade ; this crop, too, is the best of all for seed, for, although grazed upon, it will bear just as well. The second crop is sown in the month of January, and the last in March ; this last being the best crop for fodder. Of all the seeds this is the one that thrives best in a dry soil; still, however, it manifests no repugnance to a shaded locality. This grain, if gathered when quite ripe, produces a chaff superior to that of any other. If sown near vines supported by trees, the vetch will draw away the juices from the vines, and make them languid. CHAP. 38.--THE FITCH. The cultivation of the fitch,89 too, is attended with no diffi- culty. It requires weeding, however, more than the vetch. Like it, the fitch has certain medicinal90 properties; for we find the fact still kept in remembrance by some letters of his, that the late Emperor Augustus was cured by its agency. Pive modii will sow as much ground as a yoke of oxen can plough in a day. If sown in the month of March,91 it is injurious, they say, to oxen : and when sown in autumn, it is apt to pro- duce head-ache. If, however, it is put in the ground at the beginning of spring, it will be productive of no bad results. chap. 39. (16.)—SILICIA. Silicia,92 or, in other words, fenugreek, is sown after alight ploughing93 merely, the furrows being no more than some four 88 Vicia sativa of Linnaeus. 89 Or orobus, the Ervum ervilia of Linnasus. 90 It is thought by many that the ervum is unwholesome, being produc- tive of muscular weakness. The blade of it is said to act as a poison on pigs. However, we find the farina, or meal, extolled by some persons for its medicinal qualities ; and if we are to trust to the advertisements in the newspapers, it is rising rapidly in esteem. See B. xxii. c. 73. 91 From Columella, B. ii. c. 11 9i Trigonella fceuum Gnecuni of Linnaeus, m « Scarificatio." L 2 52 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIII. fingers in depth ; the less the pains that are bestowed upon it the better it will thrive—a singular fact that there should be anything that profits from neglect. The kinds, however, that are known as "secale" and "farrago" require harrowing only. CHAP. 40.--SECALE OR ASIA. The people of Taurinum, at the foot of the Alps, give to secale94 the name of " asia ;" it is a very inferior95 grain, and is only employed to avert positive famine. It is prolific, but has a straw of remarkable thinness; it is also black and sombre-looking, but weighs extremely heavy. Spelt is mixed with this grain to modify its bitterness,96 and even then it is very disagreeable to the stomach. It will grow upon any soil, and yields a hundred-fold; it is employed also as a manure for enriching the land. chap. 41.—farrago: the cracca. Farrago, a mixture made of the refuse of " far," or spelt, is sown very thick, the vetch being sometimes mingled with it; in Africa, this mixture is sometimes made with barley. All these mixtures, however, are only intended for cattle, and the same is the case with the cracca,97 a degenerate kind of legu- minous plant. Pigeons, it is said, are so remarkably fond of this grain, that they will never leave the place where it has been given to them. CHAP. 42.--OCTNUM : ERVILIA. Among the ancients there was a sort of fodder, to which Cato98 gives the name of " ocinum ;" it was employed by them to stop scouring in oxen. This was a mixture of various kinds of fodder, cut green before the frosts came on. Mamilius Sura, however, explains the term differently, and says that ten modii of beans, two of vetches, and the same quantity of ervilia,** were mixed and sown in autumn on a jugerum of land. He 94 Probably the Secale cereale of Linnrcus, cultivated rye. 95 It is now held in high esteem in many, parts of Europe. 96 Bye has no bitterness, and this assertion has led some to doubt if it" identical with the " secale" of Pliny. 97 Perhaps identical with the Vicia cracca of Linnams. 98 In c. 54 and 60, and elsewhere. See B. xvii c. 35 98' Probably, fitches. Chap. 43.] LUCERNE. 53 Btates, also, that it is a still better plan to mix some Greek oats99 with it, the grain of which never falls to the ground ; thi3 mix- ture, according to him, was ocinum, and was usually sown as a food for oxen. Varrol informs us that it received its name on account of the celerity with which it springs up, from the Greek unsug, " quickly." CHAP. 43.--LUCERNE. Lucerne * is by nature an exotic to Greece even, it having been first introduced into that country from Media,3 at the time of the Persian wars with King Darius ; still it deserves to be mentioned among the very first of these productions. So su- perior are its qualities, that a single sowing will last more than thirty4 years. It resembles trefoil in appearance, but the stalk and leaves are articulated. The longer it grows in the stalk, the narrower is the leaf. Amphilochus has devoted a whole book to this subject and the cytisus.6 The ground in which it is sown, being first cleaned and cleared of stones, is turned up in the autumn, after which it is ploughed and har- rowed. It is then harrowed a second and a third time, at in- tervals of five days ; after which manure is laid upon it. This seed requires either a soil that is dry, but full of nutriment, or else a well-watered one. After the ground has been thus pre- pared, the seed is put in in the month of May ;6 for if sown earlier, it is in danger from the frosts. It is necessary to sow the seed very thick, so that all the ground may be occupied, and no room left for weeds to shoot up in the intervals; .a result which may be secured by sowing twenty modii to the jugerum. The seed must be stirred at once with the rake, to prevent the sun from scorching it, and it should be covered over with earth as speedily as possible. If the soil is naturally damp or weedy, the lucerne will be overpowered, and the spot 99 Fee suggests that this may be the Avena sterilis, or else the Avena fatua of Linnaeus. 1 De Be Bust. B. i. c. 31. 2 " Medica," in Latin, a kind of clover, the Medicago sativa of Linnaeus, 3 Fee is inclined to doubt this. * Pliny exggerates here : Columella, B. ii. c. 11, says, only "ten :" a field, however, sown with it will last, with a fresh sowing, as long as twenty years. 5 See B. xiii. c. 47. s Columella, B. ii. c. 11, says April. 64 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIII. degenerate into an ordinary pasture; it is necessary, therefore, directly the crop is an inch in height, to disengage it from all weeds, by hand, in preference to the weediug-hook. It is cut when it is just beginning to flower, and this is re- peated as often as it throws out new blossoms; which happens mostly six7 times in the year, and four at the very least. Care should be taken to prevent it from running to seed, as it is much more valuable as fodder, up to the third year. It should be hoed in the spring, and cleared of all other plants; and in the third year the surface should be well worked with the weeding-hook. By adopting this method, the weeds will be effectually destroyed, though without detriment to the lu- cerne, in consequence of the depth of its roots. If the weeds should happen to get ahead of it, the only remedy is to turn it up repeatedly with the plough, until the roots of the weeds are thoroughly destroyed. This fodder should never be given to cattle to satiety, otherwise it may be necessary to let blood; it is best, too, when used while green. When dry, it becomes tough and ligneous, and falls away at last into a thin, useless dust. As to the cytisus, which also occupies the very foremost rank among the fodders, we have already spokens of it at suf- ficient length when describing the shrubs. It remains for us now to complete our account of all the cereals, and we shall here devote a portion of it to the diseases to which they are subject. CHAP. 44. (17.)—THE DISEASES OF GRAIN : THE OAT. The foremost feature of disease in wheat is the oat.' Barley, too, will degenerate into the oat; so much so, in fact, that the oat has become an equivalent for corn; for the people of Ger- many are in the habit of sowing it, and make their porridge of nothing else. This degeneracy is owing more particularly to humidity of soil and climate; and a second cause is a weakness in the seed, the result of its being retained too long in the ground before it makes its appearance above it. The same, too, will 7 By the aid of careful watering, as many as eight to fourteen cuttings are obtained in the year, in Italy and Spain. In the north of Europe there is but one crop. 3 In B. xiii. c. 47. 9 He borrows this notion of the oat being wheat in a diseased state, from Theophrastus. Singularly enough, it was adopted by the learned Buffon. J Chap. 44.] THE DISEASES OF GRAIN. 55 be the consequence, if the seed is decayed when put in the ground. This may be known, however, the moment it makes its appearance, from which it is quite evident, that the defect lies in the root. There is another form of disease, too, which closely resembles the oat, and which supervenes when the grain, already developed to its full size, but not ripe, is struck by a noxious blast, before it has acquired its proper body and strength; in this case, the seed pines away in the ear, by a kind of abortion, as it were, and totally disappears. The wind is injurious to wheat and barley, at three10 periods of the year in particular: when they are in blossom, directly the blossom has passed off, and just as the seed is beginning to ripen. In this last case, the grain wastes away, while in the two former ones it is prevented from being developed. Gleams of sunshine, every now and then, from the midst of clouds, are injurious to corn. Maggots, too, breed " in the roots, when the rains that follow the seed-time are succeeded by a sudden heat, which encloses the humidity in the ground. Maggots make their appearance,12 also, in the grain, when the ear fer- ments through heat succeeding a fall of rain. There is a small beetle, too, known by the name of "cantharis,"13 which eats away the blade. All these insects die, however, as soon as their nutriment fails them. Oil,14 pitch, and grease are pre- judicial to grain, and care should be taken not to let them come in contact with the seed that is sown. Kain is only beneficial to grain while in the blade ; it is injurious to wheat and barley while they are in blossom, but is not detrimental to the legu- minous plants, with the exception of the chick-pea. When grain is beginning to ripen, rain is injurious, and to barley in particular. There is a white grass15 that grows in the fields, very similar to panic in appearance, but fatal to cattle. As to 10 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. viii. c. 10. 11 This but rarely happens in our climates, as Fee remarks. 12 The grains are sometimes, though rarely, found devoured on the staUi, by a kind of larva?. 13 Some coleopterous1 insect, probably, now unknown, and not the Can- tharis vesicatoria, or " Spanish fly," as some have imagined. Diosco- rides and Athenaeus state to the same effect as Pliny. 14 The proper influence of the humidity of the earth would naturally be impeded by a coating of these substances. 15 This plant has not been identified; but none of the gramineous plants are noxious to cattle, with the exception of the seed of darnel. 56 PLINV'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. darnel,16 the tribulus,17 the thistle,18 and the burdock,191 can consider them, no more than the bramble, among the maladies that attack the cereals, but rather as so many pests inflicted on the earth. Mildew,20 a malady resulting from the inclemency of the weather, and equally attacking the vine 21 and corn, k in no degree less injurious. It attacks corn most frequently in localities which are exposed to dews, and in vallies which have not a thorough draught for the wind ; windy and elevated spots, on the other hand, are totally exempt from it. Another evil, again, in eorn, is over-luxuriance, when it falls to the ground beneath the weight22 of the grain. One evil, however, to which all crops in common, the chick-pea even, are exposed, is the attacks of the caterpillar, when the rain, by washing away the natural saltness of the vegetation, makes it£3 all the more tempting for its sweetness. There is a certain plant,24 too, which kills the chick-pea and the fitch, by twining around them; the name of it is " oro- banche." In a similar manner, also, wheat is attacked by darnel,25 barley by a long-stalked plant, called " aegilops,"26 and the lentil by an axe-leafed grass, to which, from the resem- blance27 of the leaf, the Greeks have given the name of "pele- cinon." All these plants, too, kill the others by entwining around them. In the neighbourhood of Philippi, there is a plant known as ateramon,28 which grows in a rich soil, and 16 Lolium temulentum of Linnaeus. 17 See B. xxi. c. 58. 18 " Carduus." A general term, probably including the genera Centaurea (the prickly kinds), Serratula, Carduus, and Cnicus. The Centaurea sol- stitialis is the thistle most commonly found in the south of Europe. 19 Gallium Aparine of Linnaeus. 20 Barley, wheat, oats, and millet have, each its own "rubigo" or mil- dew, known to modern botany as uredo. " The Erineum vitis of botanists. 22 This rarely happens except through the violence of wind or rain. 23 See c. 32 of this Book. 24 The Cuscuta Europaea, probably, of Linnaeus; one of the Convolvuli. 23 "Mrn." It is generally considered to be the same with darnel, though Pliny probably looked upon them as different. 26 The jEgilops ovata, probably, of Linnaeus. Dalechamps and Har- douin identify it with the barren oat, the Avena sterilis of Linnaeus. 27 To the Greek iriXUvs, or battle-axe. It is probably the Biserrula pelecina of Linnaus, though the Astragalus hamosus and the Coronilla securidaca of Linnaeus have been suggested. 28 Pliny has here committed a singular error in translating from Theophrastus, de Causis, B. iv. c. 14, who only says that a cold wind in Chap. 45.] REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF GRAIN. 57 kills the bean, after it has been exposed, while wet, to the blasts of a certain wind: when it grows in a thin, light soil, this plant is called " teramon." The seed of darnel is ex- tremely minute, and is enclosed in a prickly husk. If intro- duced into bread, it will speedily produce vertigo ; and it is said that in Asia and Greece, the bath-keepers, when they want to disperse a crowd of people, throw this seed upon burning coals. The phalangium, a diminutive insect of the spider genus,29 breeds in the fitch, if the winter happens to be wet. Slugs, too, breed in the vetch, and sometimes a tiny snail makes its way out of the ground, and eats it away in a most singular manner. These are pretty nearly all the maladies to which grain is subject. CHAP. 45.--THE BEST REMEDIES FOR THE DISEASES OF GRAIN. The best remedy for these maladies, so long as grain is in the blade, is the weeding-hook, and, at the moment of sowing, ashes.30 As to those diseases which develope themselves in the seed and about the root, with due care precautions may be ef- fectually employed against them. It is generally supposed that if seed has been first steeped in wine,31 it will be less exposed to disease. Virgiln recommends that beans should be drenched with nitre and amurca of olives; and he says that if this is done, they will be all the larger. Some persons, again, are of opinion, that they will grow of increased size, if the seed is steeped for three days before it is sown in a solution of urine and water. If the ground, too, is hoed three times, a modius of beans in the pod, they say, will yield not less than a modius the vicinity of Philippi makes the beans difficult to cook or boil, artpd/iovtc. From this word he has coined two imaginary plants, the "ateramon," and the " teramon." Hardouin defends Pliny, by suggesting that he has borrowed the passage from another source, while Fee doubts if he really- understood the Greek language. 29 More probably one of the Coleoptera. He borrows from Theo- phrastus, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 10. 30 This will only prevent the young plants from becoming a prey to snails and slugs. 31 This plan is attended with no good results. 32 Georg. i. 193. It is generally said that if seed is steeped in a solu- tion of nitre, and more particularly hydrochloric acid, it will germinate with accelerated rapidity ; the produce, however, is no finer than at other times. 58 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. of shelled33 beans. Other seeds, again, it is said, will be exempt from the attacks of maggots, if bruised cypress34 leaves are mixed with them, or if they are sown just at the moon's conjunction. Many persons, for the more effectual protection of millet, recommend that a bramble-frog should be carried at night round the field before the hoeing is done, and then buried in an earthen vessel in the middle of it. If this is done, they say, neither sparrows nor worms will attack the crop. The frog, however, must be disinterred before the millet is cut; for if this is neglected, the produce will be bitter. It is pretended, too, that all seeds which have been touched by the shoulders of a mole are remarkably productive. Democritus recommends that all seeds before they are sown should be steeped in the juice of the herb known as "aizoiim,"35 which grows on tiles or shingles, and is known to us by the Latin name of " sedum" or " digitellum."36 If blight pre- vails, or if worms are found adhering to the roots, it is a very common remedy to sprinkle the plants with pure amurca of olives without salt, and then to hoe the ground. If, however, the crop should be beginning to joint, it should be stubbed at once, for fear lest the weeds should gain the upper hand. I know for certain37 that flights of starlings and sparrows, those pests to millet and panic, are effectually driven away by means of a certain herb, the name of which is unknown to me, being buried at the four corners of the field: it is a wonderful thing to relate, but in such case not a single bird will enter it. Mice are kept away by the ashes of a weasel or a cat being steeped in water and then thrown upon the seed, or else by using the water in which the body of a weasel or a cat has been boiled. The odour, however, of these animals makes itself perceived in the bread even; for which reason it is generally thought a better plan to steep the seed in ox-gall.38 As for mildew, that greatest curse of all to corn, if branches of laurel are 33 e# Chap. 54.] HOW TO A80ERTAIN THE QUALITY OF SEED. 69 universally agreed upon is, that we must never sow without first manuring the ground; although in this respect even there are certain rules to be observed. Millet, panic, rape, and tur- nips should never be sown in any. but a manured soil. If, on the other hand, the land is not manured, sow wheat there in preference to barley. The same, too, with fallow lands; though in these it is generally recommended that beans should be sown. It should be remembered, however, that wherever beans are sown, the land should have been manured at as re- cent a period as possible. If it is intended to crop ground in autumn, care must be taken to plough in manure in the month of September, just after rain has fallen. In the same way, too, if it is intended to sow in spring, the manure should be spread in the winter. It is the rule to give eighteen cart-loads of manure to each jugerum, and to spread it well before ploughing it in,83 or sowing the seed.84 If this manuring, however, is omitted, it will be requisite to spread the land with aviary dust just before hoeing is commenced. To clear up any doubts with reference to this point, I would here ob- serve that the fair price for a cart-load of manure is one denarius; where, too, sheep furnish one cart-load, the larger cattle should furnish ten i85 unless this result is obtained, it is a clear proof that the husbandman has littered his cattle badly. There are some persons who are of opinion that the best method of manuring land is to pen sheep there, with nets erected to prevent them from straying. If land is not ma- nured, it will get chilled ; but if, on the other hand, it is over- manured, it becomes burnt up : it is a much better plan, too, to manure little and often than in excess. The warmer the soil is by nature, the less manure it requires. CHAP. 54. (24.)—HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE QUALITY OF SEED. The best seed of all is that which is of the last year's growth. That which is two years old is inferior, and three the worst of all 83 " Ares" seems to be a preferable reading to" arescat,'' " before it dries." 84 Schneider, upon Columella, B. ii. c. 15, would reject these words, and they certainly appear out of place. 85 Poinsinet would supply here " tricenis diebus," " in thirty days," from Columella, B. ii. c. 15. 70 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [BookXVlII. —beyond that, it is unproductive.86 The same definite rule Avhich applies to one kind of seed is applicable to them all: the seed which falls to the bottom87 on the threshing-floor, should be reserved for sowing, for being the most weighty it is the best in quality: there is no better method, in fact, of ascertaining its quality. The grains of those ears which have intervals between the seed should be rejected. The best gram is that which has a reddish hue,88 and which, when broken between the teeth, presents the same89 colour ; that which has more white within is of inferior quality. It is a well-known fact that some lands require more seed than others, from which circumstance first arose a superstition that exists among the peasantry ; it is their belief that when the ground demands the seed with greater avidity than usual, it is famished, and devours the grain. It is consistent with reason to- put in the seed where the soil is humid sooner than elsewhere, to prevent the grain from rotting in the rain : on dry spots it should be sown later, and just before the fall of a shower, so that it may not have to lie long without germinating and so come to nothing. When the seed is put in early it should be sown thick, as it is a considerable time before it germinates; but when it is put in later, it should be sown thinly, to prevent it from being suf- focated. There is a certain degree of skill, too, required in scattering the seed evenly ; to ensure this, the hand must keep time90 with the step, moving always with the right foot. There are certain persons, also, who have a secret method91 of their own, having been born92 with a happy hand which im- parts fruitfulness to the grain. Care should be taken not to sow seed in a warm locality which has been grown in a cold 86 " Sterile." This is not necessarily the case, as we know with reference to what is called mummy wheat, the seed of which has boen recovered at different times from the Egyptian tombs. 87 The threshing floor was made with an elevation in the middle, and the sides on an incline, to the bottom of which the largest grains would be the most likely to fall. 88 « Far " or spelt is of a red hue in the exterior. • 89 This appearance is no longer to be observed, if, indeed, Pliny is cor- rect : all kinds of corn are white in the interior of the grain. 90 Hand-sowing is called by the French, " semer a, la volee." 91 This occult or mysterious method of which Pliny speaks, consists Bolely of what we should call a " happy knack," which some men have of Bowing more evenly than others. 92 Sors genialis atque fecunda est. Chap. 55.] HOW MUCH GRAIN REQUISITE FOR A JUGERUM. 71 one, nor should the produce of an early soil be sown in a late one. Those who give advice to the contrary have quite mis- applied their pains. CHAP. 55.--WHAT QUANTITY OF EACH KIND OF GRAIN IS REQUISITE FOR SOWING A JUGERUM. ^In a soil of middling quality, the proper proportion of seed is five modii of wheat or winter-wheat to the jugerum, ten of spelt or of seed-wheat—that being the name which we have mentioned94 as being given to one kind of wheat—six of barley, one-fifth more of beans than of wheat, twelve of vetches, three of chick-pease, chicheling vetches, and pease, ten of lupines, three of lentils—(these last, however, it is said, must be sown with dry manure)—six of fitches, six of fenu- greek, four of kidney-beans, twenty of hay grass,98 and four sextarii of millet and panic. Where the soil is rich, the pro- portion must be greater, where it is thin, less.96 There is another distinction, too, to be made; where the soil is dense, cretaceous, or moist, there should be six modii of wheat or winter-wheat to the jugerum, but where the land is loose, dry, and prolific, four will be enough. A meagre soil, too, if the crop is not very thinly sown, will produce a dimi- nutive, empty ear. Bich lands give a number of stalks to each grain, and yield a thick crop from only a light sowing. The result, then, is, that from four to six modii must be sown, according to the nature of the soil; though there are some who make it a rule that five modii is the proper proportion for sowing, neither more nor less, whether it is a densely-planted locality, a declivity, or a thin, meagre soil. To this subject bears reference an oracular precept which never can be too carefully observed97—" Don't rob the harvest."98 Attius, in his Praxidicus,99 has added that the proper time for sowing is, 93 This Chapter is mostly from Columella, B. ii. c. 9. 94 In c. 19 of this Book. 95 Probably the mixture called "farrago " in c. 10 and c. 41. 96 Upon this point the modern agriculturists are by no means agreed. 97 From Cato, De Be Bust. c. 5. as Twenty-first of March. 71 In c. 46 and c. 47. Chap. 65.] WORK FOR WINTER. 85 ever it may happen to be, on which the west winds begin to prevail (for it is not always on the seventh before the ides of February ™ that they do begin), whether, in fact, they begin to blow before the usual time, as is the case with an early spring, or whether after, which generally happens when the winter is prolonged—there are subjects innumerable to engage the attention of the agriculturist, aud those, of course, should be the first attended to, which will admit of no delay. Three month wheat must now be sown, the vine pruned in the way we have already ~a described, the olive carefully attended to, fruit-trees put in and grafted, vineyards cleaned and hoed, seedlings laid out, and replaced in the nursery by others, the reed, the willow, and the broom planted and lopped, and the elm, the poplar, and the plane planted in manner already men- tioned. At this period, also, the crops of corn ought to be weeded,74 and the winter kinds, spelt more particularly, well hoed. In doing this, there is a certain rule to be observed, the proper moment being when four blades have made their appear- ance, and with the bean this should never be done until three leaves have appeared above ground ; even then, however, it is a better plan to clean them only with a slight hoeing, in preference to digging up the ground—but in no case should they ever be touched the first fifteen days of their blossom. v Barley must never be hoed except when it is quite dry : take care, too, to have all the pruning done by the vernal equinox. Four men will be sufficient for pruning a jugerum of vineyard, and each hand will be able to train fifteen vines to their trees.75 At this period, too, attention should be paid to the gardens and rose-beds, subjects which will be separately treated of in succeeding Books; due care should be given to ornamental gardening as well. It is now, too, the very best time for making ditches. The ground should now be opened for future purposes, as we find recommended by Virgil76 in particular, iu order that the sun may thoroughly warm the clods. It is a piece of even more sound advice, which recommends us to plough no lands in the middle of spring but those of mid- dling quality ; for if this is done with a rich soil, weeds will be sure to spring up in the furrows immediately; and if, on the 72 Seventh of February. ™ In B. xvii. c. 35. 74 Fee approves of this method of weeding before the corn is in ear. 75 In a day, probably. 76 Georg. i. 63. S6 PLINY*S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. other hand, it is a thin, meagre land, as soon as the heat comes on, it will be dried up, and so lose all the moisture which should be reserved to nourish the seed when sown. It is a much better plan, beyond a doubt, to plough such soils as these in autumn. Cato77 lays down the following rules for the operations of spring. "Ditches," he says, "should be dug in the seed- plots, vines should be grafted, and the elm, the fig, the olive, aud other fruit-trees planted in dense and humid soils. Such meadows7S as are not irrigated, must be manured in a dry moon, protected from the western blasts, and carefully cleaned; noxious weeds must be rooted up, fig-trees cleared, new seed-' plots made, and the old ones dressed : all this should be clone before you begin to hoe the vineyard. When the pear is in blossom, too, you should begin to plough, where it is a meagre, gravelly soil. When you have done all this, you may plough the more heavy, watery soils, doing this the last of all." The proper time for ploughing, then,79 is denoted by these two signs, the earliest fruit of the lentisk 80 making its appear- ance, and the blossoming of the pear. There is a third sign, however, as well, the flowering of the squill among the bul- bous,81 and of the narcissus among the garland, plants. For both the squill and the narcissus, as well as the lentisk, flower three times, denoting by their first flowering the first period for ploughing, by the second flowering the second, and by the third flowering the last; in this way it is that one thing affords hints for another. There is one precaution, too, that is by no means the least important among them all, not to let ivy touch the bean while in blossom; for at this period the ivy is noxious82 to it, and most baneful in its effects. Some plants, again, afford certain signs which bear reference more particularly to themselves, the fig for instance ; when a few leaves only are found shooting from the summit, like a cup in shape, then it is more particularly that the fig-tree should be planted. CHAP. 66.—WORK TO BE DONE AFTER THE VERNAL EQUINOX. The vernal equinox appears to end on the eighth & day be- 77 De Re Rust. 40. " See B. xvii. c. 8. 79 Alluding to his quotation from Cicero in c. 61. b0 Or mastich. ei gee C- 7 0f t\^s Tj00k w It is not known whence he derived this unfounded notion w Twenty-fifth of March. Chap. 66.] THE VJUiNAL EQUINOX. S" fore the calends of April. Between the equinox and the morning rising of the Vergiliae, the calends84 of April announce, according to Caesar, [stormy weather].85 Upon the third66 before the nones of April, the Vergiliae set in the evening in Attica, and the day after in Boeotia, but according to Caesar and the Chaldaeans, upon the nones.87 In Egypt, at this time, Orion and his Sword begin to set. According to Caesar, the setting of Libra on the sixth before88 the icles of April an- nounces rain. On the fourteenth before89 the calends of May, the Suculae set to the people of Egypt in the evening, a stormy constellation, and significant of tempests both by land and sea. This constellation sets on the sixteenth90 in Attica, and on the fifteenth, according to Caesar, announcing four days of bad weather in succession : in Assyria it sets upon the twelfth91 before the calends of May. This constellation has ordinarily the name of Parilicium, from the circumstance that the eleventh92 before the calends of May is observed as the natal day of the City of Borne; upon this day, too, fine weather generally re- turns, and gives us a clear sky for our observations. The Greeks call the Suculae by the name of "Hyades,"93 in conse- quence of the rain and clouds which they bring with them; while our people, misled by the resemblance of the Greek name to another word94 of theirs, meaning a "pig," have imagined that the constellation receives its name from that word, and have consequently given it, in their ignorance, the name of " Suculae," or the " Little Pigs." In the calculations made by Caesar, the eighth 95 before the calends of May is a day remarked, and on the seventh96 before the Calends, the constellation of the Kids rises in Egypt. On the sixth before97 the calends, the Dog sets in the evening in Boeotia and Attica, and the Lyre rises in the morning. On the fifth " before the calends of May, Orion has wholly set 84 First of April. 85 This passage is omitted in the original, but was probably left out by inadvertence. * Third of April. 87 Fifth of April. 88 Eighth of April. 89 Eighteenth of Apr 1. 90 Sixteenth of April. 91 Twentieth of Apri. 9i Twenty-first of April. See B. six. c. 24. 93 From vtiv, to rain. 9l " Sus," a pig. 95 Twenty-fourth of April. 98 Twenty-fifth of April. 97 Twenty-sixth of April. " Twenty-seventh of April. 83 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. to the people of Assyria, and on the fourth99 before the calends the Dog. On the sixth before » the nones of May, the Suculae rise in the morning, according to the calculation of Caesar, and on the eighth before2 the ides, the She-goat, which announces rain. In Egypt the Dog sets in the evening of the same day. Such are pretty nearly the movements of the constellations up to the sixth before3 the ides of May, the period of the rising of the Vergiliae. In this interval of time, during the first fifteen days, the agriculturist must make haste and do all the work for which he has not been able to find time before the vernal equinox ; and he should bear in mind that those who are late in pruning their vines are exposed to jibes and taunts, in imitation of the note of the bird of passage known to us as the cuckoo.4 For it is looked upon as a disgrace, and one that subjects him to well- merited censure, for that bird, upon its arrival, to find him only then pruning his vines. Hence it is, too, that we find those cutting jokes,5 of which our peasantry are the object, at the beginning of spring. Still, however, all such jokes are to be looked upon as most abominable, from the ill omens6 they convey. In this way, then, we see that, in agricultural operations, the most trifling things are construed as so many hints supplied us by Nature. The latter part of this period is the proper time for sowing panic and millet; the precise moment, how- ever, is just after the barley has ripened. In the case of the very same land, too, there is one sign that points in common both to the ripening of the barley and the sowing of panic and millet—the appearance of the glow-worm, shining in the fields at night. " Cicindelae "7 is the name given by the country people to these flying stars, while the Greeks call them " lam- pyrides,"—another manifestation of the incredible bounteous- ness of Nature. CHAP. 67. (27.)--WORK TO BE DONE AFTER THE RISING OF THE VERGILLE : HAY-MAKING. Nature had already formed the Vergiliae, a noble group of 9 Twenty-ejghth of April. ' Second of May. 2 Eighth of May. 3 Tenth of May. 1 " Cuculus." See B. x. c. 11. * " Petulantiae vales." Perhaps " indecent," or "wanton jokes :" at least, Ilardouin thinks so. 6 By causing quarrels, probably. 7 See B. xi. c. 34. Chap. 67.] WORK FOR SPRING. 89 stars, in the heavens; but not content with these, she has made others as well for the face of the earth, crying aloud, as it were :"'* " Why contemplate the heavens, husbandman ? Why, rustic, look up at the stars? Do not the nights already afford you a sleep too brief for your fatigues ? Behold now! I scatter stars amid the grass for your service, and I reveal them to you in the evening, as you return from your work; and that you may not disregard them, I call your attention to this marvel. Do you not see how the wings of this insect cover a body bright and shining like fire, and how that body gives out light in the hours of the night even ? I have given you plants to point out to you the hours, and, that you may not have to turn your eyes from the earth, even to view the sun, the heliotropium and the lupine have been made by me to move with his movements. Why then still look upwards, and scan the face of heaven ? Behold, here before your very feet are your Vergiliae; upon a certain day do they make their appear- ance, and for a certain time do they stay. Equally certain, too, it is that of that constellation they are the offspring. Whoever, then, shall put in his summer seeds before they have made their appearance, will infallibly find himself in the wrong." It is in this interval, too, that the little bee comes forth, and announces that the bean is about to blossom ; for it is the bean in flower that summons it forth. We will here give another sign, which tells us when the cold is gone; as soon as ever you see the mulberry8 in bud, you have no occasion to fear any injury from the rigour of the weather. It is the time, now, to put in cuttings of the olive, to clear away between the olive-trees, and, in the earlier days of the equinox, to irrigate the meadows. As soon, however, as the grass puts forth a stem, you must shut off the water from the fields.9 You must now lop the leafy branches of the vine, it being the rule that this should be done as soon as the branches have attained four fingers in length ; one labourer will be suf- ficient for a jugerum. The crops of corn, too, should be hoed over again, an operation which lasts twenty days. It is gene- rally thought, however, that it is injurious to both vine and corn to begin hoeing directly after the equiuox. This is the proper time, too, for washing sheep. 7* A quotation from some unknown poet, Sillig thinks. 8 See li. xvi. c. 41. 9 See Virgil, Eel. iii. 1. 111. 90 pltny's natural history. [Book XVIII. After the rising of the Vergiliae the more remarkable signs are, according to Caesar, the morning rising of Arcturus, which takes place on the following day ;10 and the rising of the Lyre on the third11 before the ides of May. The She-goat sets in the evening of the twelfth before12 the calends of June, arid in Attica the Dog. On the eleventh13 before the calends of June, according to Caesar, Orion's Sword begins to appear; and, according to the same writer, on the fourth14 before the nones of June the Eagle rises in the evening, and in Assyria as well. On the seventh15 before the ides of June Arcturus sets in the morning to the people of Italy, and on the fourth16 before the ides the Dolphin rises in the evening. On the seventeenth" before the calends of July Orion's Sword rises in Italy, and, four days later, in Egypt. On the eleventh18 before the calends of July, according to Caesar's reckoning, Orion's Sword begins to set; and the eighth19 before the calends of Jul)', the longest day in the year, with the shortest night, brings us to the sum- mer solstice. In this interval of time the vine should be cleared of its superfluous branches, and care taken to give an old vine one turning up at the roots, a young tree two. Sheep, too, are sheared at this period, lupines turned up for manuring the land, the ground dug, vetches cut for fodder, and beans gathered in and threshed. (28.) About the calends of June20 the meadows are mown ; the cultivation of which, the one which is the easiest of all, and requires the smallest outlay, leads me to enter into some further details relative to it. Meadow lands should be selected in a rich, or else a moist or Avell-watered, soil, and care should be taken to drain the rain-water upon them from the high- road. The best method of ensuring a good crop of grass, is first to plough the land, and then to harrow it: but, before passing the harrow over it, the ground should be sprinkled with such seed as may have fallen from the hay in the hay- lofts and mangers. The land should not be watered, however, the first year,21 nor should cattle be put to graze upon it before 10 Eleventh of May. »» Thirteenth of May. 12 Twenty-first of May. 13 Twenty-second of'May. 14 Second of June. 15 Seventh of June. 16 Tenth of June. >7 Fifteenth of June. 18 Twenty-first of June. 19 Twenty-fourth of June. 20 First of June. 21 Columella, B. ii. c. 18. Chap. 67.] HAY-MAKING. 91 the second hay-harvest, for fear lest the blade should be torn up by the roots, or be trodden down and stunted in its growth. Meadow land will grow old in time, and it requires to be reno- vated every now and then, by sowing upon it a crop of beans, or else rape or millet, after which it should be sown the next year with corn, and then left for hay the third. Care, too, should be taken, every time the grass is cut, to pass the sickle over the ground, and so cut the aftermath which the mowers have left behind ; for it is a very bad plan to leave any of the grass and let it shed its seed there. The best crop for meadow land is trefoil,22 and the next best is grass ;23 nummulus24 is the very worst of all, as it bears a pod which is particularly injurious; equisaetis,25 too, which derives its name from its resemblance to horse-hair, is of a noxions character. The pro- per time for mowing grass is when the ear begins to shed its blossom and to grow strong: care must be taken to cut it before it becomes dry and parched. "Don't mow your hay too late," says Cato;26 "but cut it before the seed is ripe." Some persons turn the water upon it the day before mowing, where it is practicable to do so. It is the best plan to cut hay in the night while the dews are falling.27 In some parts of Ital)r the mowing is not done till after harvest. This operation, too, was a very expensive one in ancient times. In those days the only whetstones28 known were those of Crete and other places beyond sea, and they only used oil to sharpen the scythe with. For this purpose the mower moved along, with a horn, to hold the oil, fastened to his thigh. Italy has since furnished us with whetstones which are used with water, and give an edge to the iron quite equal to that imparted by the file; these water-whetstones, however, turn green very quickly. Of the scythe29 there are two va- 22 The varieties now known as Trifolium pratense, Tri folium rubens and Trifolium repens. 23 " Gramen." Under this head, as Fee says, he probably includes the gramineous plants, known as Alopccurus, Phleum, Poa, Festuoa, &c. 2* Probably the Lysimachia nummularia of Linnaeus, which has a ten- dency to corrode the lips of the sheep that pasture on it. 25 Known to us as "horse-tail;" varieties of which are the Equisefum fluviatile and the Equisetum palustre of Linnaeus. 26 De Re Rust. c. 53. 27 See Virgil's Georg. i. 289. 23 As to whetstones, for further information, see B. xxvi. c. 47. 29 The word " falx," "sickle" or "scythe," is used here as denoting an implement for mowing, and not reaping. 92 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. rieties; the Italian,80 which is considerably shorter than the other, and can be handled among underwood even; and tho Gallic, which makes quicker work31 of it, when employed on extensive domains, for there they cut the grass in the middle only, and pass over the shorter blades. The Italian mowers cut" with one hand only. It is a fair day's work for one man to cut a jugerum of grass, and for another to bind twelve hun- dred sheaves of four pounds each. When the grass is cut it should be turned towards the sun, and must never be stacked until it is quite dry. If this last precaution is not carefully taken, a kind of vapour will be seen arising from the rick in the morning, and as soon as the sun is up it will ignite to a certainty, and so be consumed. When the grass has been cut, the meadow must be irrigated again, for the purpose of ensur- ing a crop in the autumn, known to us as the " cordum," or aftermath. At Interamna in Umbria the grass is cut four times32 a-year, and this although the meadows there are not irrigated,—in most places, three. After all this has been done, too, the pasturage of the land is found no less lucrative than the hay it has produced. This, however, is a matter of con- sideration for those more particularly who rear large herds of cattle, and every one whose occupation it is to breed beasts of burden, Avill have his own opinions upon the subject: it is found, however, the most lucrative of all by those whose busi- ness it is to train chariot-horses. CHAP. 68.—THE SUMMER SOLSTICE. We have already stated33 that the summer solstice arrives at the eighth degree of Cancer, and upon the eighth day before31 the calends of July : this is an important crisis in the year, and of great interest to the whole earth. Up to this period from the time of the winter solstice the days have gone on increasing, and the sun has continued for six months making his ascension towards the north ; having now surmounted the heights of the heavens, at this point he reaches the goal, and 30 Similar in shape to our sickle, or reaping hook, no doubt. 31 " Majoris compendii." Similar to our reaping-hook, also. Fee thinks that the former was similar to the " faux faucille," or false sickle, the latter to the common sickle of the French. 32 Fee says that this is the case in some parts of France. 33 In c. 59 of this Book. 31 Twenty-fourth of June. See the last Chapter. Chap. CS.] THE SUMMER SOLSTICE. 93 after doing so, commences his return towards the south ; the consequence of which is, that for the next six months ho increases the nights and subtracts from the length of the days. From this period, then, it is the proper time to gather in and store away the various crops in succession, and so make all due preparations for the rigour and severity of the winter. It was only to be expected that Nature should point out to us the moment of this change by certain signs of an indubi- table character; and she has accordingly placed them beneath the very hands of the agriculturist, bidding the leaves turn round35 upon that day, and so denote that the luminary has now run its course. And it is not the leaves of trees only that are wild and far remote that do this, nor have those persons who are on the look-out for these signs to go into devious forests and mountain tracts to seek them. Nor yet, on the other hand, are they to be seen in the leaves of trees only that are grown in the vicinity of cities or reared by the hand of the ornamental gardener, although in them they are to be seen as well. Nature upon this occasion turns the leaf of the olive which meets us at every step; she turns the leaf of the linden, sought by us, as it is, for a thousand purposes; she turns the leaf of the white poplar, too, wedded to the vine that grows upon its trunk. And still, for her, all this is not enough. " You have the elm," she says, "reared for the sup- port of the vine, and the leaf of that I will make to turn as will. The leaves of this tree you have to gather for fodder, the leaves of the vine you prune away. Only look upon them, and there you behold the solstice ;36 they are now pointing towards a quarter of the heavens the reverse of that towards which they looked the day before. The twigs of the withy, that most lowly of trees, you employ for tying things without number. You are a head taller than it—I will make its leaves to turn round as well. Why complain, then, that you are but a rustic peasant ? It shall be no fault of mine if you do not understand the heavens and become acquainted with the movements of the celestial bodies. I will give another sign, too, that shall address itself to your ear—only listen for the cooing of the ring-doves; and beware of sup- 35 On this subject see B. xvi. c. 36. See also Varro, De Re Rust. B. i. c. 46, and Aulus Gellius, B. ix. c. 7. 36 " Tents Bidus." 91 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XYIII. posing that the summer solstice is past, until you see the wood-pigeon sitting ou her eggs." Between the summer solstice and the setting of the Lyre, on the sixth day before the calends of July,37 according to Caesar's reckoning, Orion rises, and upon the fourth38 before the nones of July, his Belt rises to the people of Assyria. Upon the morning of the same day, also, the scorching constellation of Procyon rises. This last constellation has no name with the Romans, unless, indeed, we would consider it as identical with Canicula,39 or Lesser Dog, which we find depicted among the stars ; this last is productive of excessive heat, as we shall shortly have further occasion to state. On the fourth40 before the nones of July, the Crown sets in the morning to the people of Chalda?a, and in Attica, the whole of Orion has risen by that day. On the day before41 the ides of July, the rising ot Orion ends to the Egyptians also; on the sixteenth" before the calends of August, Procyon rises to the people of Assyria, and, the day but one after, of nearly all other countries as well, indicating a crisis that is universally known among all nations, and which by us is called the rising of the Dog-star ; the sun at this period entering the first degree of Leo. The Dog-star rises on the twenty-third day after the summer solstice; the influence of it is felt by both ocean, and earth, and even by many of the animals as well, as stated by us elsewhere on the appro- priate occasions.43 No less veneration, in fact, is paid to this star, than to those that are consecrated to certain gods; it kindles the flames of the sun, and is one great source of the heats of summer. On the thirteenth 44 day before the calends of August, the Eagle sets in the morning to the people of Egvpt, and the breezes that are the precursors of the Etesian winds, begin to blow; these, according to Csesar, are first perceived in Italy, on the tenth before45 the calends of August. The Eagle sets in the morning of that day to the people of Attica, and on the 37 Twenty-sixth of June. 3S Fourth of July. 39 There is some confusion, apparently, here. Canicula, Syrius, or the Dog-star, belongs to the Constellation Canis Major ; while Canis Miner, a Constellation which contains the star Procyon, (" the forerunner of the Dog,'') precedes it. 40 Fourth of July. « Fourteenth of Julv. 43 Seventeenth of July. « ^ n c 40; an(i B' x;x. c. 23. " Twentieth of July. & Twenty-third of July. Chap. 68.] THE SUMMER SOLSTICE. 93 third before46 the calends of August, the Royal Star in the breast of Leo rises in the morning, according to Caesar. On the eighth before47 the ides of August, one half of Arcturus has ceased to be visible, and on the third before48 the ides the Lyre, by its setting, opens the autumn,—according to Caesar at least; though a more exact calculation has since shown, that this takes place on the sixth day before49 the ides of that month. The time that intervenes between these periods is one that is of primary importance in the cultivation of the vine; as the constellation of which we have spoken, under the name of Canicula, has now to decide upon the fate of the grape. It is at this period that the grapes are said to be charred,60 a blight falling upon them which burns them away, as though red-hot coals had been applied to them. There is no hail that can be compared with this destructive malady, nor yet any of those tempests, which have been productive of such scarcity aud dearth. For the evil effects of these, at the very utmost, are only felt in isolated districts, while the coal blight,51 on the other hand, extends over whole countries, far and wide. Still, how- ever, the remedy would not be very difficult, were it not that men would much rather calumniate Nature, than help them- selves. It is said that Democritus,52 who was the first to com- prehend and demonstrate that close affinity which exists be- tween the heavens and the earth, finding his laborious re- searches upon that subject slighted by the more opulent of his fellow-citizens, and presaging the high price of oil, which was about to result upon the rising of the Vergiliae, (as we have already mentioned,53 and shall have to explain more fully here- after), bought up all the oil in the country, which was then at a very low figure, from the universal expectation of a fine crop of olives; a proceeding which greatly surprised all who knew that u life of poverty and learned repose was so entirely the object of his aspirations. When, however, his motives had been fully justified by the result, and vast riches had flowed in upon him apace, he returned all his profits to the disappointed 4'; Thirtieth of July. 47 Sixth of August. 48 Eleventh of Aug'ust. 49 Eighth of August. 60 See B. xvii. c. 87. 5I Carbunculus. 83 Cicero, De Div., B. ii. 201, Aristotle, Polit. B. i. c. 7, and Diogenes Lin rtius tell this story of Thalcs the philosopher; Pliny being the only one that applies it to Democritus. 33 In the. lust Chapter. This passage is corrupt. 96 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIIT. proprietors, whose avarice had now taught them to repent, thinking it quite sufficient to have thus proved how easy it was for him to acquire riches whenever he pleased. At a more recent period, again, Sextius,*4 a Roman philosopher re- siding at Athens, made a similar application of his knowledge. Such, then, is the utility of science, the instruction provided by which it shall be my aim, as clearly and as perspicuously as possible, to apply to the various occupations of a country life. Most writers have said that it is the dew, scorched by a burning sun, that is the cause of mildew H in corn, and of coal- blight in the vine; this, however, seems to me in a great measure incorrect, and it is my opinion that all blights result entirely from cold, and that the sun is productive of no injurious effects whatever. This, in fact, will be quite evident, if only a little attention is paid to the subject; for we find that the blight makes its appearance at first in the night time only, and before the sun has shone with any vigour. The natural inference is, that it depends entirely upon the moon, and more particularly as such a calamity as this is never known <:o happen except at the moon's conjunction, or else at the full moon, periods at which the influence of that heavenly body is at its greatest height. For at both of these periods, as already86 stated by us more than once, the moon is in reality at the full; though during her conjunction she throws back to the heavens all the light which she has received from the sun. The difference in the effects produced by the moon at these two periods is very great, though at the same time equally apparent; for at the conjunc- tion, that body is extremely hot in summer, but cold in win- ter ; while, on the other hand, at the full moon, the nights are cold in summer, but warm in winter. The reason of thif, although Fabianus and the Greek writers adopt another me- thod of explaining it, is quite evident. During the moon's conjunction in summer, she must of necessity move along with the sun in an orbit nearer to the earth, and so become warmed 54 Mentioned by Seneca, Ep. 59. 55 It was reserved for the hitter part of the last century to discover that mildew operated on vegetation through the medium of minute, parasitical fungi. It is mostly attributed to detects in the light or the atmosphere, or else humidity in excess. See c. 41 of this Book. 95 In B. ii. e. 6, for instance. Chap. 69.] CAUSES OP STERILITY. 97 by the heat which she receives by reason of her closer vicinity to the sun. In winter, again, at the time of the conjunction, she is farther off from us, the sun being also removed to a greater distance. On the other hand, again, when the moon is at the full in summer, she is more remote from the earth, and in opposition with the sun; while, in winter, she ap- proaches nearer to us at that period, by adopting the same orbit as at her conjunction in summer. Naturally humid her- self, as often as from her position she is cold, she congeals to an unlimited extent the dews which fall at that period of the year. CHAP. 69.—CAUSES OF STERILITY. But we ought always to bear in mind, more particular!}', that there are two varieties of evils that are inflicted upon the earth by the heavens. The first of these, known by us under the name of " tempests," comprehends hail-storms, hurricanes and other calamities of a similar nature ; when these take place at the full moon, they come upon us with additional intensity. These tempests take their rise in certain noxious constellations, as already stated by us on several occasions, Arcturus, for in- stance, Orion, and the Kids. The other evils that are thus inflicted upon us, supervene with a bright, clear sky, and amid the silence of the night, no one being sensible of them until we have perceived their effects. These dispensations are universal and of a totally different character from those previously mentioned, and have various names given to them, sometimes mildew, sometimes blast, and sometimes coal blight; but in all cases sterility is the infallible result. It is of these last that we have now to speak, entering into details which have not hitherto been treated of by any writer; and first of all we will explain the causes of them. (29.) Independently of the moon, there are two principal causes of these calamities, which emanate more particularly from two quarters of the heavens of but limited extent. On the one hand, the Vergiliae exercise an especial influence on our harvests, as it is with their rising that the summer begins, and with their setting, the winter; thus embracing, in the space of six months, the harvest, the vintage, and the ripening of all the vegetable productions. In addition to this, there is a circular tract in the heavens, quite visible to the human eye even, known VOL. IV. H 98 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIIT. as the Milky Way. It is the emanations from this, flowing as it were from the breast, that supply their milky57 nutriment to all branches of the vegetable world. Two constellations more particularly mark this circular tract, the Eagle in the north, and Canicula in the south ; of this last, we have already made mention M in its appropriate place. This circle traverses also Sagittarius and Gemini, and passing through the centre of the sun, cuts the equinoctial line below, the constellation of the Eagle making its appearance at the point of intersection on the one side, and Canicula on the other. Hence it is that the influences of both these constellations develope themselves upon all cultivated lands ; it being at these points only that the centre of the sun is brought to correspond with that of the earth. If, then, at the moments of the rising and the setting of these constellations, the air, soft and pure, transmits these genial and milky emanations to the earth, the crops will thrive and ripen apace; but if, on the other hand, the moon, as al- ready59 mentioned, sheds her chilling dews, the bitterness there- of infuses itself into these milky secretions, and so kills the vegetation in its birth. The measure of the injury so inflicted on the earth depends, in each climate, upon the combination of the one or other of these causes; and hence it is that it is not felt in equal intensity throughout the whole earth, nor even pre- cisely at the same moment of time. We have already80 said that the Eagle rises in Italy on the thirteenth day61 before the calends of January, and the ordinary course of Nature does not permit us before that period to reckon with any degree of certainty upon the fruits of the earth ; for if the moon should happen to be in conjunction at that time, it will be a necessary consequence, that all the winter fruits, as well as the early ones, will receive injury more or less. The life led by the ancients was rude and illiterate; still, as will be readily seen, the observations they made were not less remarkable for ingenuity than are the theories of the pre- sent day. With them there were three set periods for gather- ing in the produce of the earth, and it was in honour of these periods that they instituted the festive days, known as the 57 An onomatic prejudice, as Fee says, solely founded on the peculiarity of the name. 58 In the preceding Chapter. *» In the preceding Chapter. 60 In B- xyi- c 42. 6i Twentieth of December. Chap. 69] CAUSES OP STERILTTY. 09 Robigalia,62 the Florolia, and the Vinalia. The Eobigalia were established by Numa in the fortieth year of his reign, and are still celebrated on the seventh day before the calends of May, as it is at this period that mildew63 mostly makes its first at- tacks upon the growing corn. Varro fixes this crisis at the moment at which the sun enters the tenth degree of Taurus, in accordance with the notions that prevailed in his day : but the real cause is the fact, that thirty-one64 days after the vernal equinox, according to the observations of various nations, the Dog-star sets between the seventh and fourth before the ca- lends of May, a constellation baneful in itself, and to appease which a young dog should first be sacrificed.65 The same people also, in the year of the City 513, instituted the Floralia, a festival held upon the fourth before66 the calends of May, in accordance with the oracular injunctions of the Sibyl, to secure a favourable season for the blossoms and flowers. Varro fixes this day as the time at which the sun enters the fourteenth degree of Taurus. If there should happen to be a full moon during the four days at this period, injury to the corn and all the plants that are in blossom, will be the necessary result. The First Vinalia, which in ancient times were established on the ninth before 67 the calends of May, for the purpose of tast- ing68 the wines, have no signification whatever in reference to the fruits of the earth, any more than the festivals already mentioned have in reference to the vine and the olive; the germination of these last not commencing, in fact, till the rising of the Vergiliae, on the Sixth day before69 the ides of 61 Or festival in honour of Bobigo, the Goddess of mildew, on the twenty-fifth of April. See Ovid's Fasti, B. iv. 1. 907, et seq. 64 Bobigo. 63 " Nineteen" is the proper number. 65 " Et cui praeoccidere caniculam necesse est." The real meaning of this passage would seem to be,—"Before which, as a matter of course, Canicula must set." But if so, Pliny is in error, for Canicula, or Procyon, sets heliacally after the Dog-star, though it rises before it. Hardouin ob- serves, that it is abundantly proved from the ancient writers that it was the custom to sacrifice a puppy to Sirius, or the Dog-star, at the Robi°-aliu. As Littre justly remarks, it would almost appear that Pliny intended, by his ambiguous language, to lead his readers into error. 56 Twenty-eighth of April. The festival of Flora. 67 Twenty-third of April. This was the first, or Urban Vinalia : the second, or Rustic Vinalia, were held on the nineteenth of August. 68 The same as the Greek IliOuiyia, or "opening of the Casks " 69 Tenth of May. H 2 100 pliny's natural history. [Book XVIII. May, as already mentioned on previous occasions.70 This, again, is another period of four days, which should never be blemished bv dews, as the chilling constellation of Arcturus, which sets on the following day, will be sure to nip the vegetation; still less ought there to be a full moon at this period. On the fourth before71 the nones of June, the Eagle rises again in the evening, a critical day for the olives and vines in blossom, if there should happen to be a full moon. For my part, I am of opinion that the eighth n before the calends of July, the day of the summer solstice, must be a critical day, for a similar reason; and that the rising of the Dog-star, twenty- three days after the summer solstice, must be so too, in case the moon is then in conjunction ; for the excessive heat is pro- ductive of injurious effects, and the grape becomes prematurely ripened, shrivelled, and tough. Again, if there is a full moon on the fourth before73 the nones of Jdly, when Canicula rises to the people of Egypt, or at least on the sixteenth be- fore 74 the calends of August, when it rises in Italy, it is pro- ductive of injurious results. The same is the case, too, from the thirteenth day before75 the calends of August, when the Eagle sets, to the tenth before76 the calends of that month. The Second Vinalia, which are celebrated on the fourteenth77 before the calends of September, bear no reference to these in- fluences. Varro fixes them at the period at which the Lyre begins its morning setting, and says that this indicates the be- ginning of autumn, the day having been set apart for the pur- pose of propitiating the weather : at the present day, however, it is observed that the Lyre sets on the sixth before7S the ides of August. Within these periods there are exerted the sterilizing in- fluences of the heavens, though I am far from denying that they may be considerably modified by the nature of the locality, according as it is cold or hot. Still, however, it is sufficient for me to have demonstrated the theory ; the modifications of its re- sults depending, in a great degree, upon attentive observation. It is beyond all question too, that either one of these two cause- 70 In B. xvi. c. 42, and in c. 66 of this Book. 71 Second of June. 72 Twenty-fourth of June. 73 Fourth of July. 74 Seventeenth of July. 75 Twentieth of July. 76 Twenty-third of July. 77 Nineteenth of August. 78 Eighth of August. Chap. 70.] REMEDIES AGAINST NOXIOUS INFLUENCE'S. 101 will be always productive of its own peculiar effects, the full moon, I mean, or else the moon's conjunction. And here it suggests itself how greatly we ought to admire the bounteous provisions made for us by Nature ; for, in the first place, these calamitous results cannot by any possibility befall us every year, in consequence of the fixed revolutions of the stars; nor indeed, when they do happen, beyond a few nights in the year, and it may be easity known beforehand which nights those are likely to be. In order, too, that we might not have to apprehend these injuries to vegetation in all the months, Nature has so ordained that the times of the moon's conjunction in summer, and of the full moon in winter, with the exception of two days only at those respective periods, are well ascertained, and that there is no danger to be apprehended on any but the nights of summer, and those nights the shortest of all; in the day-time, on the other hand, there is nothing to fear. And then, besides, these phaenomena may be so easily understood, that the ant even, that most diminutive of insects, takes its rest during the moon's conjunction, but toils on, and that during the night as well, when the moon is at the full; the bird, too, called the "parra"7' disappears upon the day on which Sirius rises, and never re- appears until that star has set; while the witwall,80 on the other hand, makes its appearance on the day of the summer solstice. The moon, however, is productive of no noxious effects at either of these periods, except when the nights are clear, and every movement of the air is lulled ; for so long as clouds prevail, or the wind is blowing, the night" dews never fall. And then, besides, there are certain remedies to counter- act these noxious influences. CHAP. 70.—REMEDIES AGAINST THESE NOXTOCS INFLUENCES. When you have reason to fear these influences, make bon- fires in the fields and vineyards of cuttings or heaps of chaff, or else of the weeds that have been rooted up ; the smoke81 will act as a good preservative. The smoke, too, of burning chaff will be an effectual protection against the effects of fogs, when likely to be injurious. Some persons recommend that three 79 See B. x. c. 45, and c. 50. The popinjays lapwing, and tit-mouse have been suggested. s0 Virio. See B. x. c. 45. 81 Columella, De Arborib. c. 13, gives simihir advice. 102 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. crabs should be burnt82 alive among the trees on which the vines are trained, to prevent these from being attacked by coal blight; while others say that the flesh of the silurus83 should be burnt in a slow fire, in such a way that the smoke may be dispersed by the wind throughout the vineyard. Varro informs us, that if at the setting of the Lyre, which is the beginning of autumn, a painted grape84 is consecrated in the midst of the vineyard, the bad weather will not be pro- ductive of such disastrous results as it otherwise would. Archi- bius85 has stated, in a letter to Antiochus, king of Syria, that if a bramble-frog86 is buried in a new earthen vessel, in the middle of a corn-field, there will be no storms to cause injury. CHAP. 71.--WORK TO RE DONE AFTER THE SUMMER SOLSTICE. The following are the rural occupations for this interval of time—the ground must have another turning up, and the trees must be cleared about the roots and moulded up, where the heat of the locality requires it. Those plants, however, which are in bud must not be spaded at the roots, except where the soil is particularly rich. The seed-plots, too, must be well cleared with the hoe, the barley-harvest got in, and the threshing-floor prepared for the harvest with chalk, as Cato87 tells us, slackened with amurca of olives; Virgil88 makes men- tion of a method still more laborious even. In general, how- ever, it is considered sufficient to make it perfectly level, and then to cover it with a solution of cow-dung89 and water ; this being thought sufficient to prevent the dust from rising. Si This absurd practice is mentioned in the Geoponica, B. v. c. 31. S3 As to this fish, see B. ix. c. 17. "4 " Uva picta " This absurdity does not seem to be found in any of Varro's works that have come down to us. 85 Nothing whatever is known of him or his works ; and, as Fee says, apparently the loss is little to be regretted. 86 Rubeta rana. 87 De Re Rust. 129. Cato, however, does not mention chalk, but Virgil (Georg, i. 178) does. Poinsinet thinks that this is a " lapsus memoriae" in Pliny, but Fee suggests that there may have been an omission by the copyists. ** See the last Note. He recommends that it should be turned up with the hand, rammed down with " tenacious chalk," and levelled with a large roller. 89 Both cow-dung and marc of olives are still employed in some parts of France, in preparing the threshing floor. Chap. 72.] THE HARVEST. 103 CHAP. 72. (30.)—THE HARVEST. The mode of getting in the harvest varies considerably. In the vast domains of the provinces of Gaul a large hollow frame,90 armed with teeth and supported on two wheels, is driven through the standing corn, the beasts being yoked91 behind it; the result being, that the ears are torn off and fall within the frame. In other countries the stalks are cut with the sickle in the middle, and the ears are separated by the aid of paddle-forks.92 In some places, again, the corn is torn up by the roots; and it is asserted by those who adopt this plan, that it is as good as a light turning up for the ground, whereas, in reality, they deprive it of its juices.93 There are differences in other respects also : in places where they thatch their houses with straw, they keep the longest haulms for that purpose ; and where hay is scarce, they employ the straw for litter. The straw of panic is never used for thatching, and that of millet is mostly burnt; barley-straw, however, is always preserved, as being the most agreeable of all as a food for oxen. In the Gallic provinces panic and millet are gathered, ear by ear, with the aid of a comb carried in the hand. In some places the corn is beaten out by machines94 upon the threshing-floor, in others by the feet of mares, and in 90 Palladius gives a long description of this contrivance, which seems to have been pushed forward by the ox; the teeth, which were sharp at the edge and fine at the point, catching the ears and tearing them off. But, as Fee says, the use of it must have been very disadvantageous, in conse- quence of the unequal height of the stalks. The straw, too, was sacrificed by the employment of it. 91 In contrarium juncto. 92 " Merges." Supposed to be the same as the " batillum" of Varro. Its form is unknown, and, indeed, the manner in which it was used. It is not improbable that it was a fork, sharp at the edge, and similar to an open pair of scissars, with which the heads of corn were driven off, as it were ; this, however, is only a mere conjecture. By the use of " atque," it would almost appear that the "merges" was employed after the sickle had been used; but it is more probable that he refers to two different me- thods of gathering the ears of corn. 93 The roots and the stubble are, in reality, as good as a manure to the land. 94 Called " tribulum ;" a threshing-machine moved by oxen. Varro, De Re Rust. i. 52, gives a description of it. Fee says that it is still used in some parts of Europe. 104 pltny's natural HISTOKV. [Book XVIII. others with flails. The later wheat is cut, the more prolific98 it is; but if it is got in early, the grain is finer and stronger. The best rule is to cut it before the grain hardens, and just as it is changing colour :97 though the oracles on husbandry say that it is better to begin the harvest two days too soon than two days too late. Winter and other wheat must be treated exactly the same way both on the threshing-floor and in the granary. Spelt, as it is difficult to be threshed, should be stored with the chaff on, being only disengaged of the straw and the beard. Many countries make use of chaff98 for hay; the smoother and thinner it is, and the more nearly resembling dust, the better; hence it is that the chaff99 of millet is considered the ,best, that of barley being the next best, and that of wheat the worst of all, except for beasts that are hard worked. In stony places they break the haulms, when dry, with staves, for the cattle to lie upon: if there is a deficiency of chaff, the straw as well is ground for food. The following is the method em- ployed in preparing it: it is cut early and sprinkled with bay salt,1 after which it is dried and rolled up in trusses, and given to the oxen as wanted, instead of hay. Some persons set fire to the stubble in the fields, a plan that has been greatly ex- tolled by Virgil :2 the chief merit of it is that the seed of the weeds is effectually destroyed. The diversity of the methods employed in harvesting mainly depends upon the extent of the crops and the price of labour. CHAP. 73--THE METHODS OF STORING CORN. Connected with this branch of our subject is the method of storing corn. Some persons recommend that granaries should be built for the purpose at considerable expense, the walls 96 On the contrary, Fee says, the risk is greater from the depredations of birds, and the chance of the grain falling out in cutting, and gathering in. Spelt and rye may be left much longer than wheat or oats. 97 Columella, B. ii. c. i., gives the same advice. 98 "Palea" seems here to mean "chaff;" though Fee understands it us meaning strav. 99 The chaff of millet, and not the straw, must evidently be intended here, for he says above that the straw—" culmus "—of millet is generally burnt. 1 Muria dura. 2 Georg. i. 84, et seq. Fee says that Virgil has good reason for his commendations, as it is a most excellent plan. Chap. 73.] THE METHODS OF STORING CORN. 105 being made of brick, and not less than three3 feet thick; the corn, they say, should be let in from above, the air being carefully excluded, and no windows allowed. Others, again, say that the granary should have an aspect in no direction but the north-east or north, and that the walls should be built without lime, that substance being extremely injurious4 to corn ; as to what we find recommended in reference to amurca of olives, we have already mentioned it on a former5 occasion. In some places they build their granaries of wood, and upon pillars,6 thinking it the best plan to leave access for the air on every side, and from below even. Some persons think, how- ever, that the grain diminishes in bulk if laid on a floor above the level of the ground, and that it is liable to ferment beneath a roof of tiles. Many persons say, too, that the graiu should never be stirred up to air7 it, as the weevil is never known to penetrate beyond four fingers in depth ; consequently', beyond that depth there is no danger. According to Columella,8 the west wind is beneficial to grain, a thing that surprises me, as that wind is generally a very parching9 one. Some persons recommend that, before housing the corn, a bramble-frog should be hung up by one of the hind legs at the threshold of the granary. To me it appears that the most important pre- caution of all is to house the grain at the prpper time; for if it is unripe when cut, and not sufficiently firm, or if it is got in in a heated state, it follows of necessity that noxious in- sects will breed in it. There are several causes which contribute to the preserva- tion of grain; the outer10 coats in some kinds are more nu- merous, as in millet, for instance; the juices are of an olea- ginous nature,11 and so supply ample moisture, as in sesame, for example; while in other kinds, again, they are naturally 3 Palladius, i. 19, says two feet. 4 On account of the damp. Columella, however, recommends a mix- ture of sand, lime, and marc of olives for the floor; B. i. c. 6. 5 In B. xv. c. 8. 6 This is still done in the Valais, and has the great merit of preserving the com from house and field-mice. 7 " Ventilare." On the contrary, the weevil penetrates deep, and does not keep near the surface. B De Re Rust. ii. 21. 9 See B. ii. c. 48. 10 Those keep the best, Fee says, which have a farinaceous pen'sperm. Millet has but one coat. 11 This, iu reality, would tend to make them turn rancid all the sooner. lOfl PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Cook XVIII. bitter,15 as in the lupine and the chicheling veteb. It is in wheat more particularly that insects breed, as it is apt to heat from the density of its juices, and the grain is covered with a thick bran. In barley the chaff is thinner, and the same is the case with all the leguminous seeds : it is for this reason that they do not ordinarily breed insects. The bean, however, is covered with a coat of a thicker substance ; and hence it is that it fer- ments. Some persons sprinkle wheat, in order to make it keep the longer, with amurca13 of olives, a quadrantal to a thousand modii: others, again, with powdered Chalcidian or Carian chalk, or with worm-wood.14 There is a certain earth found at Olynthus, and at Cerinthus, in Eubcea, which pre- vents grain from spoiling. If garnered in the ear, grain is hardly ever found to suffer any injury. The best plan, however, of preserving grain, is to lay it up in trenches, called " siri," as they do in Cappadocia, Thracia, Spain, and at * * * in Africa. Particular care is taken to dig these trenches in a dry soil, and a layer of chaff is then placed at the bottom ; the grain, too, is always stored in the ear. In this case, if no air is allowed to penetrate to the corn, we may rest assured that no noxious insects will ever breed in it. Varro15 says, that wheat, if thus stored, will keep as long as fifty years, and millet a hundred ; and he assures ua that beans and other leguminous grain, if put away in oil jars with a covering of ashes, will keep for a great length of time. He makes a statement, also, to the effect that some beans were preserved in a cavern in Ambracia from the time of King Pyrrhus until the Piratical War of Pompeius Magnus, a period of about two hundred and twenty years. The chick-pea is the only grain in which no insect will breed while in the granary. Some persons place upon the heaps of the leguminous grains pitchers full of vinegar and coated with pitch, a stratum of ashes being laid beneath; and they fancy that if this is done, no injury will happen. Some, again, store them in vessels which have held salted provisions, with a coating of plaster on the top, while other persons are 12 And so repel the attacks of insects. 13 This would not only spoil the flavour, but absolutely injure the corn as well. 14 This also, if practised to any extent, would infallibly spoil the grain. » De Be Rust. i. 57. Chap. 74.] THE VINTAGE. 107 in the habit of sprinkling lentils with vinegar scented with laser,1' and, when dry, giving them a covering of oil. But the most effectual method of all is to get in everything that you would preserve from injury at the time of the moon's conjunction ; and hence it is of the greatest impor- tance to know, when getting in the harvest, whether it is for garnering or whether for immediate sale. If cut during the increase of the moon, grain will increase in size. CHAP. 74. (31.)—THE VINTAGE, AND THE WORKS OF AUTUMN. In accordance with the ordinary divisions of the year, we now come to autumn, a period which extends from the setting of the Lyre to the autumnal equinox, and from that to the setting of the Vergiliae and the beginning of winter. In these intervals, the more important periods are marked by the rising of the Horse to the people of Attica, in the evening of the day beforel7 the ides of August; upon which day also the Dolphin sets in Egypt, and, according to Caesar, in Italy. On the eleventh18 before the calends of September, the star called the Vintager begins to rise in the morning, according to Caesar's reckoning, and to the people of Assyria: it announces the ripening of the vintage, a sure sign of which is the change of colour in the grape. On the fifth19 before the calends of Sep- tember, the Arrow sets in Assyria, and the Etesian winds cease to blow : on the nones 20 of September, the Vintager rises in Egypt, and in the morning of that day, Arcturus rises to the people of Attica: on the same morning, too, the Arrow sets. On the fifth before21 the ides of September, according to Caesar, the She-Goat rises in the evening; and one half of Arcturus becomes visible on the day before22 the ides of September, being portentous23 of boisterous weather for five days, both by land and sea. The theory relative to the effects produced by Arcturus, is stated in the following terms: if showers prevail, it is said, at the setting of the Dolphin, they will not cease so long as Arcturus is visible. The departure of the swallows may be 16 See B. xix. c 15 : also Columella, De Re Rust. B. ii. c. 10. 17 Twelfth of August. 18 Twenty-second of August, 19 Twenty-eighth of August. 20 Fifth of September. 21 Ninth of September. 22 Twelfth of September. 23 See the Rudens of Plautus, Prol. 1. 69. 108 PLTNY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. looked upon as the sign of the rising of Arcturus ; for if over. taken by it, they are sure to perish. On the sixteenth day before24 the calends of October, the Ear of Corn, which Virgo holds, rises to the people of Egypt in the morning, and by this day the Etesian winds have quite ceased to blow. According to Caesar, this constellation rises on the fourteenth M before the calends, and it affords its prognostics to the Assyrians on the thirteenth. On the eleventh before24 the calends of October, the point of junction27 in Pisces disap- pears, and upon the eighth28 is the autumnal equinox. It is a remarkable fact, and rarely the case, that Philippus, Callip- pus, Dositheus, Parmeniscus, Conon,29 Criton, Democritus, and Eudoxus, all agree that the She-Goat rises in the morning of the fourth before 30 the calends of October, and on the third31 the Kids. On the sixth day before32 the nones of October, the Crown rises in the morning to the people of Attica, and upon the morning of the fifth,33 the Charioteer sets. On the fourth before34 the nones of October, the Crown, according to Caesar's reckoning, begins to rise, and on the evening of the day after is the setting of the constellation of the Kids. On the eighth before35 the ides of October, according to Caesar, the bright star rises that shines in the Crown, and on the evening of the sixth before36 the ides the Vergiliae, rise. Upon the ides37 of October, the Crown has wholly risen. On the seventeenth be- fore 3tf the calends of November, the Suculae rise in the evening, and on the day before the calends, according to Caesar's reckon- ing, Arcturus sets, and the Suculae39 rise with the sun. In the evening of the fourth day before40 the nones of November, Arcturus sets. On the fifth before41 the ides of November, Orion's Sword begins to set; and on the third42 before the ides the Vergiliae set. 24 Sixteenth of September. M Eighteenth of September. 26 Twenty-first of September 27 Commissura. 28 Twenty-fourth of September. 29 Mentioned by Virgil, Eccl. iii. 1. 38, and by Propertius, Eleg. iv. 1. 30 Twenty-eighth of September. 31 Twenty-ninth of September. 32 Second of October. 33 Third of October. 34 Fourth of October. S5 Eighth of October. 38 Tenth of October. S7 Fifteenth of October. 38 Sixteenth of October. 39 Or Hyades, see C. 66. 40 Second of November, 41 Ninth of November. 42 Eleventh of November. Chap. 74.] THE VINTAGE. 109 In this interval of time, the rural operations consist in sowing rape and turnips, upon the days which have been mentioned on a previous occasion.43 The people in the country are of opinion, that it is not a good plan to sow rape after the departure of the stork; but for my own part, I am of opinion that it should be sown after the Vulcanalia, and the early kind at the same time as panic. After the setting of the Lyre, Vetches should be sown, kidney-beans and hay-grass : it is generally recom- mended that this should be done while the moon is in con- junction. This, too, is the proper time for gathering in the leaves: it is fair work for one woodman, to fill four baskets44 in the day. If the leaves are gathered while the moou is on the wane, they will not decay; they ought not to be dry, however, wheu gathered. The ancients were of opinion, that the vintage is never ripe before the equinox; but at the present day I find that it is gathered in before that period; it will be as well, therefore, to give the signs and indications by which the proper moment may be exactly ascertained. The rules for getting in the vin- tage are to the following effect: Never gather the grape in a heated state,45 or in other words, when the weather is dry, and before the rains have fallen ; nor ought it to be gathered when covered with dew,—or in other words, when dews have fallen during the night,—nor yet before the dews have been dispelled by the sun. Commence the vintage when the bearing-shoots begin to recline upon the stem, or when, after a grape is re- moved from the bunch, the space left empty is not filled up; this being a sure proof that the berry has ceased to increase in size. It is of the greatest consequence to the grape, that it should be gathered while the moon is on the increase. Each pressing should fill twenty culei,46 that being the fair propor- tion. To fill twenty culei and vats 47 from twenty jugera of vineyard, a single press will be enough. In pressing the grape, Bonie persons use a single press-board, but it is a better plan 43 In c. 35 of this Book. 44 " Frondarias fiscinas." These must have been baskets of a very large size. The leaves were used for fodder. 45 This, Fee says, is diametrically opposite to the modern practice. 46 The " culeus," it is supposed, was of the same measure of capacity as the "doliura,"and held twenty amphorae. The " prcssura," or "pressing." was probably the utmost quantity that the pressing vat would hold at one time. *' " Lauus." 110 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. to employ two, however large the single ones may be. It is the length of them that is of the greatest consequence, and not the thickness : if wide, however, they press the fruit all the better, The ancients used to screw down the press-boards with ropes and leather thongs, worked by levers. Within the last hundred years the Greek press has been invented, with thick spiral grooves running down the48 stem. To this stem there are spokes attached, which project like the rays of a star, and by means of which the stem is made to lift a box filled with stones —a method that is very highly approved of. It is only within the last two-and-twenty years, that a plan has been discovered of employing smaller press-boards, and a less unwieldy press: to effect this, the height has been reduced, and the stem of the screw placed in the middle, the whole pressure being concen- trated upon broad planks49 placed over the grapes, which are covered also with heavy weights above. This is the proper time forgathering fruit; the best moment for doing so is when it has begun to fall through ripeness, and not from the effects of the weather. This is the season, too, for extracting the lees of wine, and for boiling defrutum :M this last must be done on a night when there is no moon, or if it is a full moon, in the day-time. At other times of the year, it must be done either before the moon has risen, or after it has set. The grapes employed for this purpose should never be gathered from a young vine, nor yet from a tree that is grown in a marshy spot, nor should any grapes be used but those that are perfectly ripe : the liquor, too, should never be skimmed with anything but a leaf,51 for if the vessel should happen to be touched with wood, the liquor, it is generally thought, will have a burnt and smoky flavour. The proper time for the vintage is between the equinox and the setting of the Vergiliae, a period of forty-four days. It is a saying among the growers, that to pitch wine-vessels after that day, in consequence of the coldness of the weather, is only so much time lost. Still, however, I have 6een, before now, persons getting in the vintage on the calends of JanuaryK 48 *' Mali rugis per cocleas bullantibus." The whole of this passage is full of difficulties. 49 " Tympana;" literally, " drums." 50 Grape juice boiled down to one half; see B. xiv. c. 9. si Yirgil mentions this in the Georgics, B i. 295. Of course, it is no- thing but an absurd superstition. 52 First of January. Chap. 75.] THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE MOON. Ill even, in consequence of the want of wine-vessels, and putting the must into receivers,53 or else pouring the old wine out of its vessels, to make room for new liquor of a very doubtful quality. This, however, happens not so often in consequence of an over-abundant crop, as through carelessness, or else the avarice which leads people to wait for a rise in prices. The method that is adopted by the most economical managers, is to use ^ the produce supplied -by each year,64 and this, too, is found in the end the most lucrative mode of proceeding. As for the other details relative to wines, they have been discussed at sufficient length already ;ss and it has been stated on a pre- vious occasion,68 that as soon as the vintage is got in, the olives should at once be gathered, with other particulars relative to the olive after the setting of the Vergiliae. CHAP. 75. (32.)--THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE MOON. I shall now proceed to add some necessary information re- lative to the moon, the winds, and certain signs and prognos- tics, in order that I may complete the observations I have to make with reference to the sidereal system. Virgil67 has even gone so far, in imitation of Democritus, as to assign certain operations to certain days58 of the moon ; but my sole object shall be, as, indeed, it has been throughout this work, to con- sult that utility which is based upon a knowledge and appre- ciation of general principles. All vegetable productions are cut, gathered, and housed to more advantage while the moon is on the wane than while it is on the increase. Manure must never be touched except when the moon is on the wane; and land must be manured more particularly while the moon is in conjunction, or else at the first quarter. Take care to geld your boars, bulls, rams, and kids, while the moon is on the wane. Put eggs under the hen at a new moon. Make your ditches in the night-time, when the moon is at full. Cover up the roots of trees, while the moon is at full. Where the soil is humid, put in seed 53 Piscinis. 51 /. e. before getting in the next year's crop. Of course, he alludes only to wines of an inferior class, used for domestic consumption. 66 In B. xiv. se in ^ xv c 3 57 Georg. i. 276. 68 In contradistinction to the two periods of full moon, and change of the moon, the only epochs in reference to it noticed by Pliny. 112 PLINTHS NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. at the moon's conjunction, and during the four days about that period. It is generally recommended, too, to give an airing to corn and the leguminous grains, and to garner them, towards the end of the moon; to make seed-plots when the moon is above the horizon; and to tread out the grape, to fell tim- ber, and to do many other things that have been mentioned in their respective places, when the moon is below it. The observation of the moon, in general, as already ob- served in the Second Book,59 is not so very easy, but what I am about here to state even rustics will be able to comprehend: so long as the moon is seen in the west, and during the earlier hours of the night, she will be on the increase, and one half of her disk will be perceived ; but when the moon is seen to rise at sun-set and opposite to the sun, so that they are both perceptible at the same moment, she will be at full. Again, as often as the moon rises in the east, and does not give her light in the earlier hours of the night, but shows herself during a portion of the day, she will be on the wane, and one half of her only will again be perceptible : when the moon has ceased to be visible, she is in conjunction, a period known to us as " interlunium."60 During the conjunction, the moon will be above the horizon the same time as the sun, for the whole of the first day; on the second, she will advance upon the night ten-twelfths of an hour and one-fourth of a twelfth ;81 on the third day, the same as on the second, and * * * so on in succession up to the fifteenth day, the same proportional parts of an hour being added each day. On the fifteenth day she will be above the horizon all night, and below it all day. On the sixteenth, she will remain below the horizon ten-twelfths of an hour, and one-fourth of a twelfth, at the first hour of the night, and so on in the same proportion day after day, up to the period of her conjunction ; and thus, the same time which, by remaining under the horizon, she withdraws from the first part of the night, she will add to the end of the night by remaining above the horizon. Her revolutions, too, will occupy thirty days one month, and twenty-nine the next, and so on alternately. Such is the theory of the revolutions of the moon. 59 In Chapters 6. 7, 8 and 11. 60 Or "between moons." The " change of the moon,'' as we call it. 81 51 j minutes. Chap. 76.] THE THEORY OF THE WINDS. 113 CHAP. 76. (33.)—THE THEORY OF THE WINDS. The theory of the winds62 is of a somewhat more intricate nature. After observing the quarter in which the sun rises on any given day, at the sixth63 hour of the day take your position in such a manner as to have the point of the sun's rising on your left; you will then have the south directly facing you, and the north at your back : a line drawn through a field in this direction6' is called the " cardinal"65 line. The observer must then turn round, so as to look upon his shadow, for it will be behind him. Having thus changed his position, so as to bring the point of the sun's rising on that day to the right, and that of his setting to the left, it will be the sixth hour of the day, at the moment when the shadow straight before him is the shortest. Through the middle of this Bhadow, taken lengthwise, a furrow must be traced in the ground with a hoe, or else a line drawn with ashes, some twenty feet in length, say; in the middle of this line, or, in other words, at the tenth foot in it, a small circle must then be described: to this circle we may give the name of the " umbilicus," or " navel." That point in the line which lies on the side of the head of the shadow will be. the point from which the north wind blows. You who are engaged in prun- ing trees, be it your care that the incisions made in the wood do not face this point; nor should the vine-trees66 or the vines have this aspect, except in the climates of Africa,67 Cyrenae, or Egypt. "When the wind blows, too, from this point, you must never plough, nor, in fact, attempt any other of the operations of which we shall have to make mention.68 That part of the line which lies between the umbilicus and the feet of the shadow will look towards the south, and indi- cate the point from which the south wind69 blows, to which, as already mentioned,70 the Greeks have given the name of Notus. When the wind comes from this quarter, you, hus- bandman, must never fell wood or touch the vine. In Italy 62 Many of his statements are drawn from Aristotle's Treatise, " De Mundo." 63 Our mid-day. 64 From due north to due south. 6i Cardo. 66 << Arbusta." The trees on which the vines were trained. 67 I. e. the north-west of Africa; the Roman province so called. 88 In the next Chapter. 69 Ventus Auster. 70 In B. ii. c. 46. VOL. IV. I 114 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. ("Book XVIII. this wind is either humid or else of a burning heat, and in Africa it is accompanied with intense heat71 and fine clear weather. In Italy the bearing branches should be trained to face this quarter, but the incisions made in the trees or vines when pruned must never face it. Let those be on their guard against this wind upon the four72 days at the rising of the Vergiliae, who are engaged in planting the olive, as well as those who are employed in the operations of grafting or ino- culating. It will be as well, too, here to give some advice, in reference to the climate of Italy, as to certain precautions to be observed at certain hours of the day. You, woodman, must never lop the branches in the middle of the day; and you, shepherd, when you see midday approaching in summer, and the shadow gradually decreasing, drive your flocks from out of the sun into some well-shaded spot. When you lead the flocks to pas- ture in summer, let them face the west before midday,73 and after that time, the east: if this precaution is not adopted, calamitous results will ensue; the same, too, if the flocks are led in winter or spring to pastures covered with dew. Nor must you let them feed with their faces to the north, as already mentioned;74 for the wind will either close their eyes or else make them bleared, and they will die of looseness. If you wish to have females,75 you should let the dams have their faces to- wards the north while being covered. CHAP. 77. (34.)—THE LAYING OUT OF LANDS ACCORDING TO THE POINTS OF THE WIND. We have already stated76 that the umbilicus should be de- scribed in the middle of the line. Let another line be drawn transversely through the middle of it, and it will be found to run from due east to due west; a trench cut through the land in accordance with this line is known by the name of " decu- manus." Two other lines must then be traced obliquely across them in the form of the letter X, in such a way as to 71 Incendia. 78 See B. xvii. c. 2. « See B. viii. c. 75. 74 He seems to be in error here, as he has nowhere made mention of this. 75 Aristotle, on the other hand, and Columella, B. vii. c. 3, say " male.?." See also B. viii. c. 72, where males are mentioned in connection with the north-wind. Also the next Chapter in this Book. 76 In the last Chapter Chap. 77.] THE LAYING OUT OF LANDS. 115 run exactly from right and left of the northern point to left and right of the southern one. All these lines must pass through the centre of the umbilicus, and all must be of corre- sponding length, and at equal distances. This method should always be adopted in laying out land; or if it should be found necessary to employ it frequently, a plan77 of it may be made in wood, sticks of equal length being fixed upon the surface of a small tambour,78 but perfectly round. In the method which I am here explaining, it is necessary to point out one precaution that must always be observed by those who are unacquainted with the subject. The point that must be veri- fied first of all is the south, as that is always the same; but the sun, it must be remembered, rises every day at a point in the heavens different to that of his rising on the day before, so that the east must never be taken as the basis for tracing the lines. Having now ascertained the various points of the heavens, the extremity of the line that is nearest to the north, but lying to the east of it, will indicate the solstitial rising, or, in other words, the rising of the sun on the longest day, as also the point from which the wind Aquilo79 blows, known to the Greeks by the name of Boreas. You should plant all trees and vines facing this point, but take care never to plough, or sow corn, or plant in seed plots, while this wind is blowing, for it has the effect of drying up and blasting the roots of the trees while being transplanted. Be taught in time—one thing is good for grown trees, another for them while they are but young. Noi have I forgotten the fact, that it is at this point of the heavens that the Greeks place the wind, to which they give the name of Caecias; Aristotle, a man of most extensive learning, who has assigned to Caecias this position, explains that it is in con- sequence of the convexity of the earth, that Aquilo blows in an opposite direction to the wind called Africus. The agriculturist, however, has nothing to fear from Aquilo, in respect to the operations before mentioned, all the year through; for this wind is softened by the sun in the middle of 77 Very similar to our compass, but describing only eight points of the wind, instead of thirty-two. 78 « Tympanum," a drum, similar in shape to our tambourines or else kettle-drums. 58 See B. ii. c. 46. 116 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. the summer, and, changing its name, is known by that of Ete- sias.80 When you feel the cold, then, be on your guard; for, whatever the noxious effects that are attributed to Aquilo, the more sensibly will they be felt when the wind blows from due north. In Asia, Greece, Spain, the coasts of Italy, Campania, and Apulia, the trees that support the vines, as well as the vines themselves, should have an aspect towards the north-east. If you wish to have male produce, let the flock feed in such a way, that this wind may have the opportunity of fecunda- ting the male, whose office it is to fecundate the females. The wind Africus, known to the Greeks by the name of Libs, blows from the south-west, the opposite point to Aquilo; when animals, after coupling, turn their heads towards this quarter,61 you may be sure that female produce has been conceived. The third82 line from the north, which we have drawn trans- versely through the shadow, and called by the name of " de- cumanus," will point due east, and from this quarter the wind Subsolanus blows, by the Greeks called Apeliotes. It is to this point that, in healthy localities, farm-houses and vineyards are made to look. This wind is accompanied with soft, gentle showers; Pavonius, however, the wind that blows from due west, the opposite quarter to it, is of a drier nature ; by the Greeks it is known as Zephyrus. Cato has recommended that olive-yards should look due west. It is this wind that begins the spring, and opens the earth; it is moderately cool, but healthy. As soon as it begins to prevail, it indicates that the time has arrived for pruning the vine, weeding the corn, plant- ing trees, grafting fruit-trees, and trimming the olive; for its breezes are productive of the most nutritious effects. The fourth83 line from the north, and the one that lies nearest the south on the eastern side, will indicate the point of the sun's rising at the winter solstice, and the wind Volturnus, known by the name of Eurus to the Greeks. This wind is warm and dry, and beehives and vineyards, in the climates of Italy and the Gallic provinces, should face this quarter. Directly opposite to Volturnus, the wind Corus blows ; it in- dicates the point of the sun's setting at the summer solstice, 8n Or the " summer" wind. si Africus, or south-west. 82 Or, according to our mode of expression, the "second," or "next but one." b3 Or, as we say, the " third.' Chap. 78.] PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE SUN. 11/ and lies on the western side next to the north. By the Greeks it is called Argestes, and is one of the very coldest of the winds, which, in fact, is the case with all the winds that blow from the north; this wind, too, brings hailstorms with it, for which reason it is necessary to be on our guard against it no less than the north. If Volturnus begins to blow from a clear quarter of the heavens, it will not last till night; but if it is Subso- lanus, it will prevail for the greater part of the night. What- ever the wind that may happen to be blowing, if it is accom- panied by heat, it will be sure to last for several days. The earth announces the approach of Aquilo, by drying on a sudden, while on the approach of Auster, the surface becomes moist without any apparent cause. CHAP. 78. (35.)—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE SUN. Having now explained the theory of the winds, it seems to me the best plan, in order to avoid any repetition, to pass on to the other signs and prognostics that are indicative of a change of weather. I find, too, that this is a kind of knowledge that greatly interested Virgil,84 for he mentions the fact, that during the harvest even, he has often seen the winds engage in u combat that was absolutely ruinous to the improvideut agri- culturist. There is a tradition, too, to the effect that Demo- critus, already mentioned, when his brother Damasus was get- ting in his harvest in extremely hot weather, entreated him to leave the rest of the crop, and house with all haste that which had been cut; and it was only within a very few hours that his prediction was verified by a most violent storm. On the other hand, it is particularly recommended never to plant reeds except when rain is impending, and only to sow corn just be- fore a shower ; we shall therefore briefly touch upon the prog- nostics of this description, making enquiry more particularly into those among them that have been found the most useful. In the first place, then, we will consider those prognostics of the weather which are derived from the sun.85 If the sun is bright at its rising, and not burning hot, it is indicative of fine 84 Georg. i. 313, et seq. " Saepe ego, quum flavis messorem induceret arvis Agricola, et fragili jam stringeret hordea culmo, Omnia ventorum coucurrere prcelia vidi." 65 See the Treatise of Theophrastus on the Prognostics of the Weather. 118 FLINT'S NATURAL UISTORV. [Book XVIII. weather, but if pale, it announces wintry weather accompanied with hail. If the sun is bright and clear when it sets and if it rises with a similar appearance, the more assured ol fine weather mav we feel ourselves. If it is hidden in clouds at its rising, it is indicative of rain, and of wind, when the clouds are of a reddish colour just before sunrise ; if black clouds are intermingled with the red ones, they betoken rain as well. When the sun's rays at its rising or setting appear to unite, rainy weather may be looked for. When the clouds are red at sunset, they give promise * of a fine day on the morrow; but if, at the sun's rising, the clouds are dispersed in various quar- ters, some to the south, and some to the north-east, even though the heavens in the vicinity of the sun may be bright, they are significant of rain and wind. If at the sun's rising or set- ting, its rays appear contracted, they announce the approach of a shower. If it rains at sunset, or if the sun's rays attract the clouds towards them, it is portentous of stormy weather on the following day. When the sun, at its rising, does not emit vivid rays, although there are no clouds surrounding it, rain may be expected. If before sunrise the clouds collect into dense masses, they are portentous of a violent storm; but if they are repelled from the east and travel westward, they in- dicate fine weather. When clouds are seen surrounding the face of the sun, the less the light they leave, the more violent the tempest will be : but if they form a double circle round the sun, the storm will be a dreadful one. If this takes place at sunrise or suuset, and the clouds assume a red hue, the ap- proach of a most violent storm is announced : and if the clouds hang over the face of the sun without surrounding it, they presage wind from the quarter from which they are drifting, and rain as well, if they come from the south. If, at its rising, the sun is surrouuded with a circle, wind may be looked for in the quarter in which the circle breaks ; but if it disappears equally throughout, it is indicative of fine weather. If the sun at its rising throws out its rays afar through the clouds, and the middle of its disk is clear, there will be rain; and if its rays are seen before it rises, both rain and wind as well. If a white circle is seen round the sun at its setting, there will be a slight storm in the night; but if there 86 This, Fee observes, is confirmed by experience. Aratus, as translated by Avienus, states to a similar effect. Chap. 79.] PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE MOON. 119 is a mist around it, the storm will be more violent. If the sun is pale at sunset, there will be wind, and if there is a dark circle round it, high winds will arise in the quarter in which the circle breaks. CHAP. 79.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE MOON. The prognostics derived from the moon, assert their right to occupy our notice in the second place. In Egypt, attention is paid, more particularly, to the fourth day of the moon. If, when the moon rises, she shines with a pure bright light, it is generally supposed that we shall have fine weather; but if she is red, there will be wind, and if of a swarthy87 hue, rain. If upon the fifth day of the moon her horns are obtuse, they are always indicative of rain, but if sharp and erect, of wind, and this on the fourth day of the moon more particularly. If her northern horn is pointed and erect, it portends wind; and if it is the lower horn that presents this appearance, the wind will be from the south; if both of them are erect, there will be high winds in the night. If upon the fourth day of the moon she is surrounded by a red circle, it is portentous of wind and rain. In Varro we find it stated to the following effect:—" If, at the fourth day of the moon, her horns are erect, there will be great storms at sea, unless, indeed, she has a circlet88 around her, and that circlet unblemished; for by that sign we are informed that there will be no stormy weather before full moon. If, at the full moon, one half of her disk is clear, it is indicative of fine weather, but if it is red, of wind, and if black, of rain. If a darkness comes over the face of the moon, covered with clouds, in whatever quarter it breaks, from that quarter wind may be expected. If a twofold circle surrounds the moon, the storm will be more violent, and even more so still, if there are three circles, or if they are black, broken, and disjointed. If the new moon at her rising has the upper horn obscured, there will be a prevalence of rainy weather, when she is on the wane; but if it is the lower horn that is obscured, there will be rain before full moon; if, again, the moon is darkened in the middle of her disk, there will be rain when she is at full. If the moon, when full, has a circle round her, it indicates wind from the quarter in the circle which is the brightest; but if at her rising the 87 So Virgil, Georg. i. 427. 88 Coronam. 120 PLINY'S NATURAL HTSTORV. [Book XVIII. horns are obtuse, they are portentous of a frightful tempest. If, when the west wind prevails, the moon does not make her appearance before her fourth day, there will be a prevalence of stormy weather throughout the month. If on the sixteeoth day the moon has a bright, flaming appearance, it is a presage of violent tempests." There are eight different epochs of the moon, or periods at which she makes certain angles of incidence with the sun, and most persons only notice the prognostics derived from the moon, according to the places which they occupy between these angles. The periods of these angles are the third day, the seventh, the eleventh, the fifteenth, the nineteenth, the twenty- third, the twenty-seventh, and that of the conjunction. CHAP. 80.--PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THE STARS. In the third rank must be placed the prognostics derived from the stars. These bodies are sometimes to be seen shooting to and fro ;89 when this happens, winds immediately ensue, in that part of the heavens in which the presage has been afforded. When the heavens are equally bright throughout their whole expanse, at the periods previously mentioned,90 the ensuing autumn will be fine and cool. If the spring and sum- mer have passed not without some rain, the autumn will be fine and settled,91 and there will be but little wind : when the autumn is fine, it makes a windy winter. When the bright- ness of the stars is suddenly obscured, though without92 clouds or fog, violent tempests may be expected. If numerous stars are seen to shoot,93 leaving a white track behind them, they presage wind from that quarter.9"* If they follow in quick suc- cession from the same quarter, the wind will blow steadily, but if from various quarters of the heavens, the wind will shift in sudden gusts and squalls. If circles are seen to surround any of the planets, there will be rain.94 In the constellation M See B. ii. c. 6 and c. 36. 9° In c. 59 of this Book 91 " Densum." Fee says that this is in general confirmed by experience. 92 This results, Fee says, from the presence of thin, aqueous vapours, which portend a change in the atmosphere. 93 Fee attributes this phenomenon to hydrosulphuric gas, ignited in the air by an electric spark. The notion that these meteors are stars, was prevalent to a very recent period. 93* To which they proceed. 94 This, Fee says, is confirmed by experience. Chap. 82.] PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM CLOUD3. 121 of Cancer, there are two small stars to be seen, known as the Aselli,99 the small space that lies between them being occupied by a cloudy appearance, which is known as the Manger j96 when this cloud is not visible in a clear sky, it is a presage of a violent storm. If a fog conceals from our view the one of these stars which lies to the north-east, there will be high winds from the south ; but if it is the star which lies to the south that is so obscured, then the wind will be from the north-east. The rainbow, when double, indicates the approach97 of rain ; but if seen after rain, it gives promise, though by no means a cer- tain one, of fine weather. Circular clouds around some of the stars are indicative of rain. CHAP. 81.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM THUNDER. When, in summer, there is more thunder than lightning, . wind may be expected from that quarter ; but if, on the other hand, there is not so much thunder as lightning, there will be a fall of rain. When it lightens in a clear sky, there will bo rain, and if there is thunder as well, stormy weather ; but if it lightens from all four quarters of the heavens, there will be a dreadful tempest. When it lightens from the north-east only, it portends rain on the following day ; but when from the north, wind may be expected from that quarter. When it lightens on a clear night from the south, the west, or the north-west, there will be wind and rain from those quarters. Thunder98 in the morning is indicative of wind, and at midday of rain. CHAP. 82.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM CLOUDS. When clouds are seen moving in a clear sky, wind may be expected in the quarter from which they proceed ; but if they accumulate in one spot, as they approach the sun they will disperse. If the clouds are dispersed by a north-east wind, it is a presage of high winds, but if by a wind from the south, of rain. If at sunset the clouds cover the heavens on either side of the sun, they are indicative of tempest; if they are black and lowering in the east, they threaten rain in the night, but if in the west, on the following day. If the clouds spread in 95 Or '•' Little Asses." M Praesepia. 97 This, as Fee remarks, is consistent with experience. 98 This, Fee remarks, appears to be consistent with general experience. 122 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. large numbers from the east, like fleeces of wool in appearance, they indicate a continuance of rain for the next three days. When the clouds settle on the summits of the mountains,®* there will be stormy weather; but if the clouds clear away, it will be fine. When the clouds are white and lowering, a hail- storm, generally known as a "white"1 tempest, is close at hand. An isolated cloud, however small,2 though seen in a clear sky, announces wind and storm. CHAP. 83.--PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM MISTS. Mists descending from the summits of mountains, or from the heavens, or settling in the vallies,3 give promise of fine weather. CHAP. 84.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM FIRE KINDLED BV MAN. Next to these are the prognostics that are derived from fire kindled upon the earth.4 If the flames are pallid, and emit a murmuring noise, they are considered to presage stormy weather; and fungi upon the burning wick of the lamp are a sign of rain.5 If the flame is spiral and flickering, it is an in- dication of wind, and the same is the case when the lamp goes out of itself, or is lighted with difficulty. So, too, if the snuff liangs down, and sparks gather upon it, or if the burning coals adherefi to vessels taken from off the fire, or if the fire, when covered up, sends out hot embers or emits sparks, or if the cin- ders gather into a mass upon the hearth, or the coals burn bright and glowing. CHAP. 85.--PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM WATER. There are certain prognostics, too, that may be derived from 99 Theophrastus states to a similar effect, and it is confirmed by the ex- perience of those who live in mountainous countries. 1 We still hear of the " white squalls" of the Mediterranean. 2 "' Behold, there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a man's hand.'----And it came to pass in the meanwhile, that the heaven was black with clouds and wind, and there was a great rain."—1 Kings, xviii. 44, 45. 3 The truth of this, Fee says, he has personally experienced in the vallies of the Alps. < Terreni ignes. 6 This, and the other phenomena here mentioned, result, as Fee says, from the hygrometric state of the air. Virgil mentions this appearance on the wick of the lamp, Georg. i. 392. 6 Fee thinks that this indicates fine weather rather than rain, as show- ing a pure state of the atmosphere. Cliop. 87] PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM ANIMALS. 123 water. If, when the sea is calm, the water ripples in the har- bour, with a hollow, murmuring noise, it is a sign of wind, and if in winter, of rain as well. If the coasts and shores re- echo while the sea is calm, a violent tempest may be expected ; and the 6ame when the sea, though calm, is heard to roar, or throws up foam and bubbling spray. If sea puluiones7 are to be seen floating on the surface, they are portentous of stormy weather for many days to come. Very frequently, too, the sea is seen to Swell in silence, and more so than when ruffled by an ordinary breeze; this is an indication that the winds are at work within its bosom already. CHAP. 86.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM TEMPESTS THEMSELVES. The reverberations, too, of the mountains, and the roaring of the forests, are indicative of certain phaenomena; and the same is the case when the leaves are seen to quiver,8 without a breath of wind, the downy filaments of the poplar or thorn to float in the air, and feathers to skim along the surface of the water.9 In champaign countries, the storm gives notice of its approach by that peculiar muttering10 which precedes it; while the murmuring that is heard in the heavens affords us no doubtful presage of what is to come. CHAP. 87.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM AQUATIC ANIMALS, AND BIRDS. The animals, too, afford us certain presages; dolphins, for instance, sporting in a calm sea, announce wind in the quarter from which they make their appearance.11 When they throw up the water in a billowy sea, they announce the approach of a calm. The loligo,12 springing out of the water, shell-fish adhering to various objects, sea-urchins fastening by their stickles upon the sand, or else burrowing in it, are so many in- 7 Sea-" lungs." See B. ix. c. 71. 8 Ludentia. 9 Virgil mentions these indications, Georg. i. 368-9. 10 " Suus fragor." The winds, Fee remarks, however violent they may be, make no nofse unless they meet with an obstacle which arrests their onward progress. 11 Theophrastus, Cicero, and Plutarch state to a similar effect; and it is corroborated by the experience of most mariners. 18 The ink-fish; Sepia loligo of Linnaeus. See B. ix. c. 21. 124 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. dications of stormy weather: the same, too, when frogs12croak more than usual, or coots14 make a chattering in the morning. Divers, too, and ducks, when they clean their feathers with the bill, announce high winds; which is the case also when the aquatic birds unite in flocks, cranes make for the interior, and divers15 and sea-mews forsake the sea or the creeks. Cranes when they fly aloft in silence announce fine weather, and so does the owlet,18 when it screeches during a shower; but if it is heard in fine weather, it presages a storm. Havens, too, when they croak with a sort of gurgling noise and shake their feathers, give warning of the approach of wind, if their note is continuous: but if, on the other hand, it is smothered, and only heard at broken intervals, we may expect rain, ac- companied with high winds. Jackdaws, when they return late from feeding, give notice of stormy weather, and the same with the white birds,17 when they unite in flocks, and the land birds, when they descend with cries to the water and besprinkle themselves, the crow more particularly. The swallow,18 too, when it skims along the surface of the water, so near as to ripple it every now and then with its wings, and the birds that dwell in the trees, when they hide themselves in their nests, afford similar indications; geese, too, when they set up a continuous gabbling,19 at an unusual time', and the heron,20 when it stands moping in the middle of the sands. CHAP. 88.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM QUADRUPEDS. !Nbr, indeed, is it surprising that the aquatic birds, or any birds, in fact, should have a perception of the impending 13 Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 378. 14 " Fulicae." See B. x. c. 61, and B. xi. c. 44. is Virgil says the same of the diver, or didapper,Georg. i. 361; and Lucan, Pharsalia, v. 553. 16 Both Theophrastus and JElian mention this. 17 It is not known what bird is here alluded to, but Fee is probably right in suggesting a sort of sea-mew, or gull. 18 This is still considered a prognostic of rain. Fee says that the swal- low descends thus near to the surface to catch the insects on the wing, which are now disabled from rising by the hygrometric state of the atmo- sphere. 19 This is confirmed by experience.. 20 On the contrary, Lucan says (Pharsalia, B. v. 1. 549), that on the ap- proach of rain, the heron soars in the upper regions of the air ; and Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 364. SUMMARY. 12.5 changes of the atmosphere. Sheep, however, when they skip and frisk with their clumsy gambols,21 afford us similar prog- nostics ; oxen, when they snuff upwards towards the sky, and lick22 themselves against the hair; unclean swine, when they tear to pieces the trusses of hay that are put for other ani- mals ;23 bees, when, contrary to their natural habits of indus- try, they keep close within the hive; ants, when they hurry to and fro, or are seen carrying forth their eggs; and earth- worms,51 emerging from their holes—all these indicate ap- proaching changes in the weather. CHAP. 89.—PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM PLANTS. It is a well-known fact, that trefoil bristles up, and its leaves stand erect, upon the approach of a tempest. CHAP. 90.--PROGNOSTICS DERIVED FROM FOOD. At our repasts, too, and upon our tables, when we see the vessels sweat in which the viands are served, and leave marks upon the side-board,25 it is an indication that a dreadful storm is impending. Summary.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, two thousand and sixty. Roman authors quoted.—Massurius Sabinus,26 Cassius He- mina,27 Verrius Flaccus,"8 L. Piso,29 Cornelius Celsus,30 Turra- nius Gracilis,31 D. Silanus,32 M. Varro,33 Cato the Censor,34 Scrofa,38 the Sasernae,36 father and son, Domitius Calvinus,37 21 Indecera lascivia. 23 Fee suggests that they probably do this to diminish the electric fluid with which the air is charged. 23 Alienos sibi manipul'os. 24 This is confirmed by common experience. 25 " Bepositoriis." See B. xix. c. L3, and B. xxx. c. 49. 28 See end of.B. vii. 27 See end of B. xii. 28 See end of B. iii. 29 See end of B. ii. ' 80 See end of B. vii. 31 See end of B. iii. 32 See end of B. xiv, iS See end of B. ii. 34 See end of B. iii. 35 See end of B. xi. 56 See end of B. x. 37 See end of B. xi. 126 PLINY*8 NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XVIII. Hyginus,38 Virgil,39 Trogus,40 Ovid,11 Graecinus,42 Columella,43 Tubero,44 L. Tarutius,45 who wrote in Greek on the Stars, Caesar46 the Dictator, who wrote upon the Stars, Sergius Paulus,47 Sabinus Fabianus,48 M. Cicero,49 Calpurnius Bassus,M Ateius Capito,51 Mamilius Sura,52 Attius,53 who wrote the Praxidica. Foreign authors quoted.—Hesiod,54 Theophrastus,55 Aris- totle,56 Democritus,57 King Hiero,68 King Attalus Pbilometor,5' King Archelaus,60 Archytas,61 Xenophon,62 Amphilochus63 of 38 See end of B. iii. 39 See end of B. vii. 40 See end of B. vii. 41 A native of Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, and one of the greatest poets of the Augustan age. It is most probable that his " Fasti" was extensively consulted by Pliny in the compilation of the present Book, Six Books of the F'asti have come down to us, but the remaining six have perished, if, indeed, they were ever written, which has been doubted by many of the learned. 42 See end of B. xiv. 43 See end of B. viii. 44 See end of B. ii. It is supposed that there were several writers of this name, but it is impossible to say with certainty which of them is the one here referred to. It is probable, however, that it is either L. iElius Tubero, the friend of Cicero, or else Q. iElius Tubero, his son, that is alluded to. 43 L. Tarutius Firmianus, a mathematician and astronomer, and a friend and contemporary of Cicero and M. Varro. At the request of the latter, he took the horoscope of Bomulus. It is generally supposed that he was of Etruscan descent. 46 The founder of the imperial dignity at Rome. His Commentaries are the only work written by him that has come down to us. His trea- tise on the Stars, which Pliny frequently quotes throughout this Book, was probably written under the inspection of the astronomer, Sosigenes. 47 See end of B. ii. 48 Nothing is known of this writer. It has been suggested, however, that he may have been the same person as Papirius Fabianus, mentioned at the end of B. ii. 49 See end of B. vii. 50 See end of B. xvi. 51 See end of B. iii. 52 See end of B. x. 53 L. Accius, or Attius, an early Roman tragic poet, and the son of a freedman, born about B.C. 170. His tragedies were chiefly imitations from the Greek. He is highly praised by Cicero. The " Praxidica" here men- tioned, is probably the same as the " Pragmatica" spoken of by Aldus Gellius, B. xx. c. 3. Only some fragments of his Tragedies are left. 64 See end of B. vii. 55 See end of B. iii. 58 See end of B. ii. v gee end of B. ii. 68 See end of B. viii. *» See end of B. viii. 60 See end of B. viii. si gee end of B. viii. 82 See end of B. iv. «3 gee en(i 0f jj. viii. SUMMARY. 127 Athens, Anaxipolis81 of Thasos, Aristophanes65 of Miletus, Apollodorus66 of Lemnos, Antigonus67 of Cymae, Agathocles68 of Chios, Apollonius69 of Pergamus, Aristander70 of Athens, Bac- chius71 of Miletus, Bion72 of Soli, Chsereas73 of Athens, Chse- ristus74 of Atbens, Diodorus75 of Priene, Dion76 of Colophon, Epigenes77 of Khodes, Euagon78 of Thasos, Euphronius79 of Atbens, Androtion80 who wrote on Agriculture, ^Eschrion81 who wrote on Agriculture, Lysimachus82 who wrote on Agri- culture, Dionysius83 who translated Mago, Diophanes84 who made an Epitome from Dionysius, Thales,85 Eudoxus,86 Philip- pus,87 Calippus,88 Dositheus,89 Parmeniscus,90 Meton,91 Criton,92 04 See end of B. ix. 65 See end of B. viii. 30 See end of B. viii. 67 See end of B. viii. 08 See end of B. viii. 69 See end of B. viii. 70 See end of B. viii. 7l See end of B. viii. 72 See end of B. vi. 73 See end of B. viii. 74 See end of B. xiv. 75 See end of B. xv. 76 See end of B. viii. 77 See end of B. ii. 78 See end of B. x. 79 See end of B. viii. 1,0 See end of B viii. 8t See end of B. viii. ,: See end of B. viii. 8i See end of B. xii. bi See end of B. viii. 85 Of Miletus, the most ancient of the Greek philosophers, and the founder of the Ionian school of Philosophy. He is said to have written upon the Solstice and the Equinox, and a work on Astronomy, in verse, was also attributed to him. It is, however, more generally believed, that he left no written works behind him, and that those attributed to him weie forgeries. 86 gee end 0f g jj# 87 An astronomer of Medatna, or Medma, in Magna. Graecia, and a dis- ciple of Plato. He is said to have written a treatise on the winds, and Plutarch states that he demonstrated the figure of the moon. 88 An astronomer of Cyzicus, and a friend of Aristotle, whom he assisted in completing the discoveries of Eudoxus. He invented the cycle of seventy-six years, called after him the Calippic. 69 Of Colonus, a geometrician, to whom Archimedes dedicated his works on the sphere and cylinder, and on spirals. 90 A grammarian, who is supposed to have written a commentary on Aratus. Varro, De Ling. Lat. x. 10, speaks of him as making the dis- tinctive characteristics of words to be eight in number. 91 A famous astronomer of Athens, to whom the discovery of the cycle of nineteen years has been attributed. _ 9i There were several learned men of this name, but it appears impos- sible to say which of them is the one here alluded to ; probably it is either the Pythagorean philosopher of -&!gae, who wrote on Predestination, or else the historian, a native of Pieria in Macedonia. There was also an astronomer of this name, a native of Naxos, and a friend of Eudoxus of Cnidos. 123 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XVin. CEnopides,93 Zenon,94 Euctemon,95 Harpalus,96 Hecataeus,,; Anaximander,98 Sosigenes," Hipparchus,1 Aratus,2 Zoroaster,3 Archibius.4 93 A famous astronomer, a native of Chios. He is said to have claimed the discovery of the obliquity of the Ecliptic. 94 Probably Zenon of Elea, one of the most famous philosophers of antiquity. All of his works had perished at a very early period. 95 An Athenian astronomer, the friend and assistant of Meton, about 430 b.c. 96 An astronomer mentioned by Censorinus, as having corrected the in- tercalation of Cleostratus. Nothing further appears to be known of him. 97 For Hecataeus of Miletus, see B. iv. For Hecatoeus of Abderu, see B. vi. 9S See end of B. iv. 99 See end of B. ii. l See end of B. ii. 2 A native of Soli, or else Tarsus, in Cilicia. He was the author of two Greek astronomical poems which have come down to us. He flou- rished about b.c. 270. 3 Nothing can be said of him with any degree of historical certainty. By the Persians he was called Zerdusht, and was said to have been the founder of the Magian religion. There were several works in Greek bearing his name, but which, no doubt, were forgeries of a later age than that usually assigned to him. 4 He is mentioned in c. 70 of this Book, as writing a letter to Antio- chus, king of Syria; but nothing further seems to be known of him. 129 BOOK XIX. THE NATURE AND CULTIVATION OF FLAX, AND AN ACCOUNT OF VARIOUS GARDEN PLANTS. CHAP. 1.--THE NATURE OF FLAX—MARVELLOUS FACTS RELATIVE ' THERETO. We have now imparted a knowledge1 of the constellations and of the seasons, in a method unattended with difficulty for the most ignorant even, and free from every doubt; indeed, to those who understand these matters aright, the face of the earth contributes in no less a degree to a due appreciation of the celestial phenomena, than does the science of astronomy to our improvement in the arts of agriculture. Many writers have made it their next care to treat of horti- culture ; but, for my own part, it does not appear to me alto- gether advisable to pass on immediately to that subject, and, indeed, I am rather surprised to find that some among the learned, who have either sought the pleasures of knowledge in these pursuits, or have grounded their celebrity upon them, have omitted so many particulars in reference thereto ; for no mention do we find in their writings of numerous vegetable productions, both wild as well as cultivated, many of which are found, in ordinary life, to be of higher value and of more extended use to man than the cereals even. To commence, then, with a production which is of an uti- lity that is universally recognized, and is employed not only upon dry land but upon the seas as well, we will turn our at- tention to flax,2 a plant which is reproduced from seed, but which can neither be classed among the cereals nor yet among the garden plants. What department is there to be found of active life in which flax is not employed ? and in what pro- duction of the earth are there greater marvels3 revealed to us 1 More particularly in B. xvii. cc. 2 and 3, and B. xviii. cc. 57—75. 2 The Linum usitatissimum of Linnaeus. 3 What would he have said to the application of the powers of steam, and the electric telegraph ? VOL. IV. K 130 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. than in this ? To think that here is a plant which brings Egypt in close proximity to Italy!—so much so, in fact, that Galerius4 and Balbillus,5 both of them prefects of Egypt, made the passage to Alexandria from the Straits of Sicily, the one in six days, the other in five! It was only this very last sum- mer, that Valerius Marianus, a senator of praetorian rank, reached Alexandria from Puteoli in eight days, and that, too, with a very moderate breeze all the time ! To think that here is a plant which brings Gades, situate near the Pillars of Hercules, within six days of Ostia, Nearer Spain within three, the province of Gallia Narbonensis within two, and Africa within one !—this last passage having been made by C. Fla- vius, when legatus of Vibius Crispus, the proconsul, and that, too, with but little or no wind to favour his passage! What audacity in man! What criminal perverseness ! thus to sow a thing in the ground for the purpose of catching the winds and the tempests, it being not enough for him, forsooth, to be borne upon the waves alone! Nay, still more than this, sails even that are bigger than the very ships themselves will not suffice for him, and although it takes a whole tree to make a mast to carry the cross-yards, above those cross-yards sails upon sails must still be added, with others swelling at the prow and at the stern as well—so many devices, in fact, to challenge death! Only to think, in fine, that that which moves to and fro, as it were, the various countries of the earth, should spring from a seed so minute, and make its appearance in a stem so fine, so little elevated above the surface of the earth ! And then, besides, it is not in all its native strength that it is employed for the purposes of a tissue; no, it must first be rent asunder, and then tawed and beaten, till it is reduced to the softness of wool; indeed, it is only by such violence done to its nature, and prompted by the extreme audacity of man, and* * * * that it is rendered subser- vient to his purposes. The inventor of this art has been 4 Possibly Galerius Trachalus, Consul a.d. 68, a relation of Galeria Fundana, the wife of the Emperor Vitellius. 5 Governor of Egypt in the reign of Nero, a.d. 55. He is mentioned by Seneca, Queest. Nat. B. iv. c 2, and is supposed to have written a work on Egypt and his journeys in that country. 6 Or, as Sillig suggests, "after ill treatment such as this, that it arrives at the sea." The passage is evidently defective. Chap. 2.] HOW FLAX IB SOWN. 131 already mentioned by us on a more appropriate occasion ;7 not satisfied that his fellow-men should perish upon land, but anxious that they should meet their end with no sepulchral rites to await them, there are no execrations8 to be found that can equal his demerits ! It is only in the preceding Book9 that I was warning the agriculturist, as he values the grain that is to form our daily sustenance, to be on his guard against the storm and the tem- pest ; and yet, here we have man sowing with his own hand, man racking his invention how best to gather, an object the only aspirations of which upon the deep are the winds of heaven! And then, too, as if to let us understand all the better how highly favoured is this instrument of our punishment, there is no vegetable production that grows with greater fa- cility;10 and, to prove to us that it is in despite of Nature her- Belf that it exists, it has the property of scorching11 the ground where it is grown, and of deteriorating the quality of the very soil itself. CHAP. 2. (1.)—HOW FLAX IS SOWN: TWENTY-SEVEN PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF IT. "Flax is mostly sown in sandy12 soils, and after a single ploughing only. There is no plant that grows more rapidly15 7 In B. vii. c. 57. He alludes to Daedalus. 8 He probably has in view here the imprecation uttered by Horace :— " Illi robur, et aes triplex Circa pectus erat, qui fragilem truci Commisit pelago ratem."—Odes, i. 3. At the present day hemp forms a material part in the manufacture of sails. In addition to flax, the ancients employed broom, rushes, leather, and various skins of animals for the purpose. 9 In c. 76. 10 On the contrary, as Fee observes, the cultivation of flax is attended with the greatest difficulties. 11 See B. xvii. c. 7. Virgil says, Georg. i. 77, "Urit enim lini campum seges"—but in the sense, as Fee remarks, of exliausting, not scorching the soil. 12 A light soil, and well manured, is usually employed for the purpose. Columella, B. ii. c. 10, recommends a rich, moist soil. It is sown in March or April, and is gathered, according to the season, from June to September. 13 Though rapid in its growth, there are many vegetable productions that grow more rapidly. K 2 132 pliny's natural history. [Book XIX. than this; sown in spring,14 it is pulled up in summer, and is, for this reason as well, productive of considerable injury to the soil.13 There may be some, however, who would forgive Egypt for growing it, as it is by its aid that she imports the merchandize of Arabia and India ; but why should the Gallic provinces base any of their reputation upon this product ?16 Is it not enough, forsooth, for them to be separated by mountains from the sea, and to have, upon the side on which they arc bounded by the Ocean, that void and empty space, as it is called ? " The Cadurci,18 the Caleti, the Kuteni,19 the Bitu- riges,20 and the Morini,21 those remotest of all mankind, as it is supposed, the whole of the Gallic provinces, in fact, are in the habit of weaving sail-cloth; and at the present day our ene- mies even, who dwell beyond the Rhenus, have learned to do the same ; indeed, there is no tissue that is more beautiful in the eyes of their females than linen. I am here reminded of the fact, that we find it stated by M. Varro, that it is a custom ' peculiar to the family of the Serrani22 for the women never to wear garments of linen. In Germany it is in caves23 deep under- ground that the linen-weavers ply their work ; and the same is the case, too, in the Alian territory, in Italy, between the rivers Padus and Ticinus, the linen of which holds the third rank among the kinds manufactured in Europe, that of Saeta- bis 24 claiming the first, and those of Retovium25 and of Paven- 14 This was the time for sowing it with the Romans, though in some countries, at the present day, it is sown so late as the autumn. 15 In B. xviii. c. 72, he has spoken of this method of gathering vege- table productions as injurious to the soil, by withdrawing its natural juices. 16 " Censentur hoc reditu ?" There is little doubt that the Gauls, like their German neighbours, cultivated flax for the purposes of female dress, and not mainly for the manufacture of sails. 17 " Quod vocant inane." He implies that the boundless space of ocean on the "Western coasts of Gaul was useless for any purposes of navi- gation. 18 See B. iv. c. 33. 19 See B. iv. c. 33. 20 See B. xxxiv. c. 48. 21 See B. iv. c. 31. 22 A family of the Atilia gens. 23 It was, and is still to some extent, a prevalent opinion, that the hu- midity of caves under-ground is favourable to the manufacture of tissues of hemp and flax. 24 In Spain. See B. i. c. 1, and B. iii. c. 4. 25 Cluvier takes this place to be the same with Litubium in Liguria. mentioned by Livy, B, xxxii. Chap. 2.] PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF FLAX. 133 tia, in the vicinity of Alia, on the -^Emilian Way, the second, place in general estimation. The linens of Eaventia are pre- ferred for whiteness to those of Alia, which are always un- bleached : those of Retovium are remarkable for their extreme fineness, combined with substance, and are quite equal in whiteness to the linens of Faventia; but they have none of that fine downy nap 26 upon them, which is so highly esteemed by some persons, though equally disliked by others. A thread is made, too, from their flax, of considerable strength, smoother and more even, almost, than the spider's web; when tested with the teeth, it emits a sharp, clear twang; hence it is, that it sells at double the price of the other kinds. But it is the province of Nearer Spain that produces a linen of the greatest lustre, an advantage which it owes to the waters of a stream which washes the city of Tarraco27 there. The fine- ness, too, of tjiis linen is quite marvellous, and here it is that the first manufactories of cambric28 were established. From the same province, too, of Spain, the flax of Zoela29 has of late years been introduced into Italy, and has been found extremely serviceable for the manufacture of hunting-nets. Zoela is a city of Callaecia, in the vicinity of the Ocean. The flax, too, of Cumse, in Campania, has its own peculiar merits in the manufacture of nets for fishing and fowling ; it is employed, also, for making hunting-nets. For it is from flax, in fact, that we prepare various textures, destined to be no less insi- dious to the brute creation than they are to ourselves. It is with toils made from the flax of Cumae that wild boars are taken, the meshes being proof against their bristles,30 equally with the edge of the knife : before now, too, we have seen some of these toils of a fineness so remarkable31 as to allow of being 26 " Lanugo." This is not generally looked upon as a merit in linen, at the present day. •'• Now Tarragona. See B. iii. c. 4. 28 "Carbasus." This was probably the Spanish name originally for fine flax, and hence came to signify the cambrics, or fine linen tissues made of it. It seems, however, to have afterwards been extended to all kinds of linen tissues, as we find the name given indifferently to linen garments, sail-cloth, and awnings for the theatres. 59 See B. iii. c 4. 30 " Sffitas ecu per ferri aciem vincunt." This passage is probably in a mutilated state. 31 There must either be some corruption in the text, or else Pliny must have been mistaken. Nets such as these could have been of no possible use in taking a wild boar. 134 Pliny's natural history. [Book XIX. passed through a man's ring, running ropes and all, a single individual being able to carry an amount of nets sufficient to environ a whole forest—a thing which we know to have been done not long ago by Julius Lupus, who died prefect of Egypt. This, however, is nothing very surprising, but it really is quite wonderful that each of the cords was composed of no less than one hundred and fifty threads. Those, no doubt, will be astonished at this, who are not aware that there is preserved in the Temple of Minerva, at Lindus, in the Isle of Rhodes, the cuirass of a former king of Egypt, Amasis by name, each thread employed in the texture of which is composed of three hundred and sixty-five other threads. Mucianu3, who was three times consul, informs us that he saw this curiosity very recently, though there was but little then remaining of it, in consequence of the injury it had experienced at the hands of various persons who had tried to verify the fact. Italy, too, holds the flax of the Peligni in high esteem, though it is only employed by fullers; there is no kind known that is whiter than this, or which bears a closer resemblance to wool. That grown by the Cadurci32 is held in high estimation for making mattresses;33 which, as well as flock,34 are an invention for which we are indebted to the Gauls: the ancient usage of Italy is still kept in remembrance in the word " stramentum,"35 the name given by us to beds stuffed with straw. The flax of Egypt, though the least strong36 of all as a tissue, is that from which the greatest profits are derived. There are four varieties of it, the Tanitic, the Pelusiac, the Butic, and the Tentyritic—so called from the various districts in which they are respectively grown. The upper part of Egypt, in the vicinity of Arabia, produces a shrub, known by some as " gossypium,"3T but by most persons as "xylon;" hence the 32 See B. iv. c. 33. Now Querci, the chief town of which is Cahors, 33 "Culcitae." 34 "Tomenta." 33 Exactly corresponding to our "paillasse," a "bed of straw." 36 This is doubtful, though at the same time it is a well-known fact that the Egyptian flax grows to the greatest size. Hasselquist speaks of it attaining a height of fifteen feet. 37 Our cotton, the Gossypium arboreum of Linnaeus. See B. xii.c. 21. The terms xylon, byssus, and gossypium, must be regarded as synonymous, being applied sometimes to the plant, sometimes to the raw cotton, and sometimes to the tissues made from it. Gossypium was probably the bar- barous name of the cotton tree, and byssus perhaps a corruption of its Hebrew name. Chap. 3.] THE MODE OF PREPARING FLAX. 13.T name of " xylina," given to the tissues that are manufactured from it. The shrub is small, and bears a fruit, similar in appearance to a nut with a beard, and containing in the inside a silky substance, the down of which is spun into threads. There is no tissue known, that is superior to those made from this thread, either for whiteness, softness, or dressing: the most esteemed vestments worn by the priests of Egypt are made of it. There is a fourth kind of tissue, known by the name of "othouinum," which is made from a kind of marsh- reed,38 the panicule only being employed for the purpose. In Asia, again, there is a thread made from broom,39 which is employed in the construction of fishing-nets, being found to be remarkably durable; for the purpose of preparing it, the shrub is 6teeped in water for ten days. The Ethiopians, also, and the people of India, prepare a kind of thread from a fruit which resembles our apple, and the Arabians, as already40 men- tioned, from gourds that grow upon trees. CHAP. 3.—THE MODE OF PREPARING FLAX. In our part of the world the ripeness of flax is usually ascertained by two signs, the swelling of the seed, and its assuming a yellowish tint. It is then pulled up by the roots, made up into small sheaves that will just fill the hand, and hung to dry in the sun. It is suspended with the roots upwards the first day, and then for the five following days the heads of the sheaves are placed, reclining one against the other, in such a way that the seed which drops out may fall into the middle. Linseed is employed for various medicinal40* purposes, and it is used by the country-people of Italy beyond the Padus in a certain kind of food, which is remarkable for its sweet- 38 Probably the Arundo donax of modern botanists. See B. xvi. c. 66. 39 Fee says, that the people of Pisa, at the present day, soak the stalks of broom, and extract therefrom a thread, of which cords and coarse stuffs are made. 40 In B. xii. c. 21. He seems there to speak of the cotton-tree, though Fee suggests that he may possibly allude to the " Bombax pentandrum" of Linnaeus. 40" It is the mucilage of the perisperm that is so useful in medicine. As an article of food, the farina of linseed is held in no esteem whatever. In times of scarcity, attempts have been made to mix it with flour or meal, but the result has been found to be heavy and indigestible, and has caused, it is said, the death even of those who have eaten of it in considerable quantities. 136 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. ness : for this long time past, however, it has only been in gene- ral use for sacrifices offered to the divinities. After the wheat harvest is over, the stalks of flax are plunged in water that has been warmed in the sun, and are then submitted to pres- sure with a weight; for there is nothing known that is more light and buoyant than this. When the outer coat is loosened, it is a sign that the stalks have been sufficiently steeped ; after which41 they are again turned with the heads downwards, and left to dry as before in the sun: when thoroughly dried, they are beaten with a tow-mallet on a stone. The part that lies nearest to the outer coat is known by the name of "stuppa;" it is a flax of inferior quality, and is mostly employed for making the wicks of lamps. This, how- ever, requires to be combed out with iron hatchels, until the whole of the outer skin is removed. The inner part presents numerous varieties of flax, esteemed respectively in propor- tion to their whiteness and their softness. Spinning flax is held to be an honourable42 employment for men even: the husks, or outer coats, are employed for heating furnaces and ovens. There is a certain amount of skill required in hatchel- ling flax and dressing it: it is a fair proportion for fifty pounds in the sheaf to yield fifteen pounds of flax combed out. When spun into thread, it is rendered additionally supple by being soaked in water and then beaten out upon a stone; and after it is woven into a tissue, it is again beaten with heavy maces : indeed, the more roughly it is treated the better it is. CHAP. 4.—LINEN MADE OF ASBESTOS. There has been invented also a kind of linen which is in- combustible by flame. It is generally known as " live"43 linen, and I have seen, before now, napkins44 that were made of it 41 There are various other methods employed of dressing flax at the present day; but they are all of them long and tedious. 42 And not feminine or servile. 43 " Vivum." 44 He evidently considers asbestus, or amianthus, to be a vegetable, and not a mineral production. It is, in reality, a mineral, with long flexible filaments, of a silky appearance, and is composed of silica, magnesia, and lime. The wicks of the inextinguishable lamps of the middle ages, the existence of which was an article of general belief, were said to be made of asbestus. Paper and lace, even, have been made of it in modern times. Chap. 4.] LINEN MADE OF ASBESTOS. 137 thrown into a blazing fire, in the room where the guests were at table, and after the stains were burnt out, come forth from the flames whiter and cleaner than they could possibly have been rendered by the aid of water. It is from this material that the corpse-cloths of monarchs are made, to ensure the separation of the ashes of the body from those of the pile. This substance grows45 in the deserts o'f India,46 scorched by the burning rays of the sun: here, where no rain is ever known to fall, and amid multitudes of deadly serpents, it be- comes habituated to resist the action of fire. Rarely to be found, it presents considerable difficulties in weaving it into a tissue, in consequence of its shortness; its colour is naturally red, and it only becomes white through the agency of fire. By those who find it, it is sold at prices equal to those given for the finest pearls ; by the Greeks it is called " asbestinon,"47 a name which indicates its peculiar properties. Anaxilaiis49 makes a statement to the effect that if a tree is surrounded with linen made of this substance, the noise of the blows given by the axe will be deadened thereby, and that the tree may be cut down without their being heard. For these qualities it is that this linen occupies the very highest rank among all the kinds that are known. The next rank is accorded to the tissue known as " byssus,"49 an article which is held in the very highest estimation by females, and is produced in the vicinity of Elis, in Achaia.50 I find it stated by some writers that a scruple of this sold for- 45 "Nascitur." In the year 1702 there was found near the Nzevian Gate, at Borne, a funereal urn, in which there was a skull, calcined bones, and other ashes, enclosed in a cloth of asbestus, of a marvellous length. It is still preserved in the Vatican. 46 On the contrary, it is found in the Higher Alps in the vicinity of the Glaciers, in Scotland, and in Siberia, even. 47 Signifying " inextinguishable," from d, " not," and ofiewviii, " to extinguish." See B. xxxvii. c. 54. 48 See end of this Book. 49 He evidently alludes to cotton fabrics under this name. See Note 37 to c. 2 of this Book. 50 Pausanias, in his Eliaca, goes so far as to say, that byssus was found only in Elis, and nowhere else. Judging from the variable temperature of the climate, it is very doubtful, Fee says, if cotton was grown there at all. Arrian, Apollonius, and Philostratus say that the tree which pro- duced the byssus had the leaves of the willow, and the shape of the pop- lar, characteristics which certainly do not apply to the cotton-tree. 138 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. merly at four denarii, the same rate, in fact, as gold. The downy nap of linen, and more particularly that taken from the sails of sea-going ships, is very extensively employed for medicinal purposes, and the ashes of it have the same virtues as spodium.51 Among the poppies, too,52 there is a variety which imparts a remarkable degree of whiteness to fabrics made of linen. CHAP. 5.--AT WHAT PERIOD LINEN WAS FIRST DYED. Attempts, too, have even been made to dye linen, and to make it assume the frivolous colours53 of our cloths. This was first done in the fleet of Alexander the Great, while sailing upon the river Indus ; for, upon one occasion, during a battle that was being fought, his generals and captains distinguished their vessels by the various tints of their sails, and astounded the people on the shores by giving their many colours to the breeze, as it impelled them on. It was with sails of purple, too, that Cleopatra accompanied M. Antonius to the battle of Actium, and it was by their aid that she took to flight: such being the distinguishing mark of the royal ship. CHAP. 6.—AT WHAT PERIOD COLOURED AWNINGS WERE FIRST EMPLOYED IN THE THEATRES. In more recent54 times linens alone have been employed for the purpose of affording shade in our theatres; Q. Catulus having been the first who applied them to this use, on the occasion of the dedication by him of the Capitol. At a later period, Lentulus Spinther, it is said, was the first to spread awnings of fine linen55 over the theatre, at the celebra- tion of the Games in honour of Apollo. After this, Caesar, 61 Impure oxide of metals, collected from the chimneys of smelting-houses. Fee says that Pliny on this occasion is right. 52 In B. xx. c. 79, he speaks of the " heraclion" poppy, supposed by some of the commentators to be identical with the one mentioned here. 53 «' Vestium insaniam." 54 " Postea." Sillig would reject this word, as being a corruption, and not consistent with fact, Catulus having lived before the time of Cleo- patra. He suggests that the reading should be " Populo Romano ea in the- atris spectanti umbram fecere." " Linen, too, has provided a shade for the Roman people, when viewing the spectacles of the theatre." Lucretius, B. iv. 1. 73, et seq., speaks of these awnings as being red, yellow, and iron grey. " u Carbasina." Cambric. Chap. 7.] THE NATURE OF SPARTUM. 139 when Dictator, covered with a linen awning the whole of the Roman Forum, as well as the Sacred Way, from his own house as far as the ascent to the Capitol, a sight, it is said, more won- derful even than the show of gladiators which he then exhi- bited. At a still later period, and upon the occasion of no public games, Marcellus, the son of Octavia, sister of Augus- tus, during his eedileship, and in the eleventh consulship of his uncle, on the * * * day before the calends of August, covered in the Forum with awnings, his object being to consult the health of those assembled there for the purposes of litigation —a vast change, indeed, from the manners prevalent in the days of Cato the Censor, who expressed a wish that the Forum was paved with nothing else but sharp pointed stones. Awnings have been lately extended, too, by the aid of ropes, over the amphitheatres of the Emperor Nero, dyed azure, like the heavens, and bespangled all over with stars. Those which are employed by us to cover the inner court56 of our houses are generally red: one reason for employing them is to protect the moss that grows there from the rays57 of the sun. In other respects, white fabrics of linen have always held the ascendancy in public estimation. Linen, too, was highly valued as early as the Trojan war; for why else should it not have figured as much in battles as it did in shipwrecks ? Thus Homer,88 we find, bears witness that there were but few among the warriors of those days who fought with cuirasses59 on made of linen; while, as for the rigging of the ships, of which that writer speaks, it is generally supposed by the more learned among the commentators, that it was made of this ma- terial ; for the word " sparta,"60 which he employs, means nothing more than the produce of a seed. CHAP. 7. (2.)—THE NATURE OF SPARTUM. For the fact is that spartum61 did not begin to be employed 56 The cavaedium is generally supposed to have been the same as the " atrium," the large inner apartment, roofed over, with the exception of an opening in the middle, which was called the " compluvium," or "im- pluvium," over which .the awning here mentioned was stretched. Here the master of the house received his visitors and clients. 57 White would be much preferable to red for this purpose. 58 II. ii. 11. 629 and 830. «• II. viii. 1. 63. 60 II. ii. 1. 135. See B. xxiv. c. 40. 61 The Stipa tenacissima of Linnaeus; a kind of broom, called " Esparto" by the Spaniards. 140 pliny's natural history. [Book XIX. till many ages after the time of Homer ; indeed, not before the first war fhat the Carthaginians waged in Spain. This, too, is a plant that grows spontaneously,62 and is incapable of being reproduced by sowing, it being a species of rush, peculiar to a dry, arid soil, a morbid production confined to a single country only ; for in reality it is a curse to the soil, as there is nothing whatever that can be sown or grown in its vicinity. There is a kind of spartum grown in Africa,63 of a stunted nature, and quite useless for all practical purposes. It is found in one portion of the province of Carthage64 in Nearer Spain, though not in every part of that; but wherever it is produced, the mountains, even, are covered all over with it. This material is employed by the country-people there for making65 their beds ; with it they kindle their fires also, and prepare their torches; shoes66 also, and garments for the shep- herds, are made of it. As a food for animals, it is highly in- jurious,07 with the sole exception of the tender tops of the shoots. When wanted for other uses, it is pulled up by the roots, with considerable labour; the legs of the persons so em- ployed being protected by boots, and their hands with gloves, the plant being twisted round levers of bone or holm-oak, to get it up with the greater facility. At the present day it is gathered in the winter, even; but this work is done with the least difficulty between the ides of May68 and those of June, that being the period at which it is perfectly ripe. CHAP. 8.--THE MODE OF PREPARING SPARTUM. When taken up it is made into sheaves, and laid in heaps for a couple of days, while it retains its life and freshness; on the third day the sheaves are opened out and spread in the sun 62 Although, as Fee says, this is still the fact, it is a plant which would readily admit of cultivation. Varro, however, De Re Rust. B. i. c. 2d, speaks of it in conjunction with hemp, flax, and rushes, as being sown. 63 This kind, Fee thinks, may possibly have been identical with the Spartum Lygeum of Linnaeus, false esparto, or alvarde. 64 At the present day it is only in the provinces on the Mediterranean that spartum is found; the other provinces producing nothing but alvarde. 65 It is still used in the southern parts of Spain for the same purposes. 66 The shoes now made of it are known as " espartenas" and " alpar- gatas." 57 It is not dangerous in itself, but is too tough to be a favourite article of food with cattle. 68 Fifteenth of May and thirteenth of June. Chap. 10."] TILE BULB ERIOPHORUS. 141 to dry, after which it is again made up into sheaves, and placed under cover. It is then put to soak in sea-water, this being the best of all for the purpose, though fresh water will do in case sea-water cannot be procured : this done, it is again dried in the sun, and then moistened afresh. If it is wanted for im- mediate use, it is put in a tub and steeped in warm water, after which it is placed in atfYrprigKi'"position to dry : this being universally admitted to be the most expeditious method of pre- paring it. To make it ready for use, it requires to be beaten out. Articles made of it are proof, more particularly, against the action of fresh or sea-water; but on dry land, ropes of hemp are generally preferred. Indeed, we find that spartum receives nutriment even from being under water, by way of compen- sation, as it were, for the thirst it lias had to endure upon its native soil. By nature it is peculiarly well adapted for repairing, and however old the material may be, it unites very well with new. The person, indeed, who is desirous duly to appreciate this marvellous plant, has only to consider the numerous uses to which, in all parts of the world, it is applied: from it are made, the rigging of ships, various appliances of mechanism employed in building, and numerous other articles which supply the wants of daily life. To suffice for all these requirements, we find it growing solely on a tract of ground which lies upon the sea-line of the province of New Carthage, somewhat less than thirty miles in breadth by one hundred in length. _ The expense precludes its being transported to any very considera- ble distance. CHAP. 9.--AT WHAT PERIOD SPARTUM WAS FIRST EMPLOYED. The Greeks used formerly to employ the rush for making ropes; so, at least, we are led to believe, from the name69 given bv them to that plant; and at a later period they made them, it is very clear, from the leaves of the palm, and the inner bark of the linden-tree. It seems to me very probable, too, that it was from them that the Carthaginians borrowed the first hint for applying spartum to a similar purpose. CHAP. 10.--THE BULB ERIOPHORUS. Theophrastus70 informs us, that there is a kind of bulb, which 69 The same word, signifying both a " rush" and a " rope." 70 Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 13. Athenaeus, B. ii., mentions it also. 142 PLINY* S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. grows on the banks of rivers, and which encloses between the outer coat and the portion that is eaten a sort of woolly sub- Btance, of which felt socks, and other articles of dress, are made; but, in the copies, those at least which have fallen in my way, there is no mention made of the country in which it grows, or of any details in connection with it, beyond the fact that the name given to it is " eriophoron."71 As to spartum, he makes no12 mention of it whatever, although he has given the history, with the greatest exactness, of all the known plants, three hundred and ninety years before our time—a fact to which I have already73 alluded on other occasions: from this it would appear that spartum has come into use since his day. CHAP. 11.—PLANTS WHICH SPRING UP AND GROW WITHOUT A ROOT—PLANTS WHICH GROW, BUT CANNOT BE REPRODUCED FEOM SEED. As we have here made a beginning of treating of the marvels of Nature, we shall proceed to examine them in detail; and among them the very greatest of all, beyond a doubt, is the fact that any plant should spring up and grow without a root. Such, for instance, is the vegetable production known as the truffle ;74 surrounded on every side by earth, it is connected with it by no fibres, not so much as a single thread even, while the spot in which it grows, presents neither protuberance nor cleft to the view. It is found, in fact, in no way adhering to the earth, but enclosed within an outer coat; so much so, in- deed, that though we cannot exactly pronounce it to be com- posed of earth, we must conclude that it is nothing else but a callous75 concretion of the earth. 71 Fee is at a loss to identify this plant, but considers it quite clear that it is not the same with the Eriophorum augustifolium of Linnaeus, a cyperaceous plant, of which the characteristics are totally different. Do- donaeus, however, was inclined to consider them identical. 72 On the contrary, Theophrastus does mention it, in the Hist. Plant. B. i. c. 8, and speaks of it as having a bark composed of several tunics or membranes. 73 In B. xiii. c. 13, and B. xv. c. 1. 74 " Tuber." The Tuber cibarium of Linnaeus, the black truffle ; and probably the grey truffle, the Tuber griseum. 75 This callous secretion of the earth, or corticle, is, as Fee says, a sort of hymenium, formed of vesicles, which, as they develope themselves, are Chap. 12.] MISY, ITON, AND OERANION. 143 Truffles generally grow in dry, sandy soils, and spots that are thickly covered with shrubs; in size they are often larger than a quince, and are found to weigh as much 76 as a pound. There are two kinds of them, the one full of sand, and con- sequently injurious to the teeth, the other free from sand and all impurities. They are distinguished also by their colour, which is red or black, and white within ; those of Africa71 are the most esteemed. Whether the truffle grows gradually, or whether this blemish of the earth—for it can be looked upon as nothing else—at once assumes the globular form and magni- tude which it presents when found; whether, too, it is pos- sessed of vitality or not, are all of them questions, which, in my opinion, are not easy to be solved. It decays and rots in a manner precisely similar to wood. It is known to me as a fact, that the following circumstance happened to Lartius Licinius, a person of praetorian rank, while minister of justice,78 a few years ago, at Carthage in Spain ; upon biting a truffle, he found a denarius inside, which all but broke his fore teeth—an evident proof that the truffle is no- thing else but an agglomeration of elementary earth. At all events, it is quite certain that the truffle belongs to those vegetable productions which spring up spontaneously, and are incapable of being reproduced from seed.79 chap. 12. (3.)—misy; iton; and geranion. Of a similar nature, too, is the vegetable production known in the province of Cyrenaica by the name of " misy,"80 re- found to contain diminutive truffles. Pliny is wrong in saying that the truffle forms neither cleft nor protuberance, as the exact contrary is the fact. 76 Haller speaks of truffles weighing as much as fourteen pounds. Valmont de Bomare speaks of a truffle commonly found in Savoy, which attains the weight of a pound. 17 Those of Africa are in general similar to those found in Europe, but there is one peculiar to that country, possibly the same that is mentioned in the following Chapter under the name of " misy." 73 " Jura reaqenti." 79_ It is really propagated by spores, included in sinuous chambers in the interior; but, notwithstanding the attempts that have been made, it has never yet been cultivated with any degree of success. In c. 13, Pliny seems to recognize the possibility of its multiplication by germs, where he says thnt its forraiition is attributed by some to water. *° Fee takes this to be the Tuber niveum of Dcsfontaines, the snow- white truffle. It is globular and somewhat piriform, grows to the size of a walnut, and sometimes of an orange, and is said to be most delicate eatino-. 144 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. markable for the sweetness of its smell and taste, but more fleshy than the truffle : the same, too, as to the iton81 of the Thracians, and the geranion of the Greeks. CHAP. 13.—PARTICULARS CONNECTED WITH THE TRUFFLE. The following peculiarities we find mentioned with reference to the truffle. When there have been showers in autumn, and frequent thunder-storms, truffles are produced, thunder82 con- tributing more particularly to their.developement; they do not, however, last beyond a year, and are considered the most delicate eating when gathered^ in spring. In some places the formation of them is attributed to water ; as at My tUene,83 for instance, where they are never to be found, it is said, unless the rivers overflow, and bring down the seed from Tiara, that being the name of a place at which they are produced in the greatest abundance. The finest truffles of Asia are those found in the neighbourhood of Lampsacus and Alopeconnesus; the best in Greece are those of the vicinity of Elis. CHAP. 14.--THE PEZICA. Belonging to the mushroom genus, also, there is a species, known to the Greeks by the name of " pezica,"84 which grows without either root or stalk. CHAP. 15.--LASERPITIUM, LASER, AND MASPETUM. Next to these, laserpitium85 claims our notice, a very re- 81 These truffles or morels do not appear to have been identified. 82 Juvenal alludes to this absurd notion, Sat. v. 1. 116. " The long wished-for thunder will provide a more ample repast." 83 Theophrastus, as quoted by Athenaeus, B. ii. speaks of this. 84 "Peziza" was a name given by the ancients to a kind of cupuliform mushroom; in which, however, we cannot recognize the " pezica" of Pliny. Some writers think that this was the same as the lycoperdon and geastrum of botanists, our puff-ball: while others take it to be the morel, the Morchella esculenta, Sprengel in the number. Fee is inclined to be of opinion that an edible mushroom is meant, but is quite at a loss to identify it. 85 Possibly the Ferula asafcetida of Linnaeus; or, according to some, the Thapsia silphium of Viviani, Flor. Lib. It was a plant common, accord- ing to ancient writers, to Syria, Armenia, Media, and Libya ; but it was the produce of this last country, probably, that afforded the juice or gum resin here mentioned as " laser," and so highly esteemed by the ancients, as forming a component part of their perfumes. Fee is inclined to think that the Laserpitium here spoken of was the Thapsia silphium, and to Chap. 15.] LASERPITIUM, LASER, AND MASPETUM. 145 markable plant, known to the Greeks by the name of " sil- phion," and originally a native of the province of Cyrenaica. The juice of this plant is called " laser," and it is greatly in vogue for medicinal as well as other purposes, being sold at the 6ame rate as silver. For these many years past, however, it has not been found in Cyrenaica,86 as the farmers of the revenue who hold the lands there on lease, have a notion that it is more profitable to depasture flocks of sheep upon them. Within,the memory of the present generation, a single stalk87 is all that has ever been found there, and that was sent as a curiosity to the Emperor Nero. If it so happen that one of the flock, while grazing, meets with a growing shoot88 of it, the fact is easily ascertained by the following signs; the sheep, after eating of it, immediately falls asleep, while the goat is seized with a fit of sneezing.89 For this long time past, there has been no other laser imported into this country, but that pro- duced in either Persis, Media, or Armenia, where it grows in considerable abundance, though much inferior90 to that of Cy- renaica ; and even then it is extensively adulterated with gum, sacopenium,91 or pounded beans. I ought the less then to reject the more general opinion that it is identical with the Ferula asa- fcetida. Pliny has probably caused some confusion by blending the de- scription of other writers with that given by Theophrastus, each having in view a different plant. Indeed, whatever the Laserpitium or Silphium of other countries may have been, it is not improbable that the odoriferous plant of Cyrenaica was not identical with the Ferula asafcetida of Linnaeus. The foliage of the Thapsia silphium is exactly similar to that of the Laserpitium as depicted on medals of Cyrenaica, still extant. We learn from Littre, that Dr. Guy on showed, in 1842, to the Academie des Sciences, a plant which the Arabs of Algeria employ as a purgative, and which they call bonnefa. It is the Thapsia Garganica of Desfontaines, and is considered by Guyon to be identical with the Silphium of the ancients. 86 See B. xxii. c. 48. In the " Budens" of Plautus, the scene of which is near Cyrene, frequent allusion is made to the growth of laserpitium there, and the preparation and export of the resin, as forming the staple article of commerce. 87 Scribonius Largus, who lived in the time of Tiberius, speaks of using in a prescription laser of Cyrenaica, " if it can be met with;" " si poterit inveniri." M " In spem nascentis." 89 Fee remarks that Pliny has not found this absurd story in any of the works from which he has compiled his account, but thai it is entirely his own. 90 This was probably the Ferula asafcetida of Linnaaus. " See B. xx. c. 75. VOL. IV. L 146 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. omit the facts, that in the consulship92 of C. Valerius and M. Herennius, there was brought to Rome, from Cyrenee, for the public service, thirty pounds' weight of laserpitium, and that the Dictator Caesar, at the beginning of the Civil War, took from out of the public treasury, besides gold and silver, no less than fifteen hundred pounds of laserpitium. We find it stated by the most trustworthy among the Greek writers,93 that this plant first made its appearance in the vicinity of the gardens of the Hesperides and the Greater Syrtis, im- mediately after the earth had been soaked on a sudden by a shower as black as pitch. This took place seven years before the foundation of the city of Cyrenee, and in the year of Rome 143. The virtues of this remarkable fall of rain extended, it is said, over no less than four thousand stadia of the African territory ; and upon this soil laserpitium began universally to grow, a plant that is in general wild and stubborn, and which, if attempted to be cultivated, will leave the spot where it has been sown quite desolate and barren. The roots of it are numerous and thick, the stalk being like that of fennel-giant, and of similar thickness. The leaves of this plant were known as "maspetum," and bore a considerable resemblance to parsley; the seeds of it were foliaceous, and the plant shed its leaves every year. They used to feed the cattle there upon it; at first it purged them, but afterwards they would grow fat, tho flesh being improved in flavour in a most surprising degree. After the fall of the leaf, the people themselves were in the habit of eating94 the stalk, either roasted or boiled : from the drastic effects of this diet the body was purged for the first forty days, all vicious humours being effectually removed.95 The juices of this plant were collected two different ways, either from the root or from the stalk ; in consequence of which these two varieties of the juice were known by the distinguish- ing names of "rhizias" and " caulias,"96 the last being of in- ferior quality to the other, and very apt to turn putrid. Upon 92 a.u.c. 661. 93 Fe'e remarks, that if Pliny here alludes to Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 3, he has mistaken his meaning. 94 This, as Fee says, could hardly apply to the Ferula asafcetida of Linnaeus, the stalk of it being extremely acrid, and the juice fetid in the highest degree. 95 " Vitia his omnibus." The reading here is probably corrupt. 96 " Root-juice," and " stalk-juice." Chap. 16.] MAGYDARIS. 1 17 the root there was a black bark, which was extensively em- ployed for the purposes of adulteration. The juice of the plant was received in vessels, and mixed there with a layer of bran; after which, from time to time it was shaken, till it had reached a proper state of maturity; indeed, if this precaution was neglected, it was apt to turn putrid. The signs that it had come to maturity were its colour, its dryness, and the ab- sorption of all humidity. There are some authors, however, who state that the root of laserpitium was more than a cubit in length, and that it pre- sented a tuberosity above the surface of the earth. An incision, they say, was made in this tuberosity, from which a juice would flow, like milk in appearance; above the tuberosity grew a stalk, to which they give the name of "magydaris;"97 the leaves that grew upon this stalk were of the colour of gold, and, falling at the rising of the Dog-star, when the south winds begin to prevail, they acted as seed for the purposes of repro- duction. It was from these leaves, too, they say, that laser- pitium 98 was produced, the root and the stalk attaining their full growth in the space of one year. The same writers also state, that it was the practice to turn up the ground about the plant, and that it had no such effect as purging the cattle that were fed upon it; though one result of using it as food was, that such cattle as were ailing were either cured of their dis- tempers, or else died immediately upon eating of it, a thing, however, that but rarely happened. The first description, however, is found to agree more nearly with the silphium that comes from Persis. CHAP. 16.--MAGYDARIS, There is another99 variety of this plant, known as " magy- daris,"1 of a more delicate nature, less active in its effects, and destitute of juice. It grows in the countries adjacent to Syria,5 but is not to be found in the regions of Cyrenaica. There 97 Poinsinet fancies that this name means " staff of the Magi.1' 98 Or "laser," these names being indifferently applied to the gum-resin. 99 The whole of this paragraph has been borrowed from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. iii. 1 Sprengel takes this to be the Laserpitium ferulaceum of Linnaeus, but Fee thinks it is more than doubtful if the identity can be established. * From Theophrastus. Dioscorides says, on the other hand, that it grows in Libya. 148 Pliny's natural history. [Book XIX. grows also upon Mount Parnassus,2' in great abundance, a plant to which some persons give the name of "laserpitium:" by means of all these varieties, adulterations are effected of a pro- duction that is held in the highest esteem for its salutary qualities and its general usefulness. The chief proofs of its genuineness consist in its colour, which ought to be slightly red without, and when broken quite white and transparent within ; the drops of it, too, should melt very rapidly on the application of spittle. It is extensively employed for medi- cinal purposes.3 CHAP. 17.--MADDER. There are two other plants also, which are but little known to any but the herd of the sordid and avaricious, and this be- cause of the large profits that are derived from them. The first of these is madder,4 the employment of which is neces- sary in dyeing wool and leather. The madder of Italy is the most esteemed, and that more particularly which is grown in the suburbs of the City; nearly all our provinces, too, pro- duce it in great abundance.5 It grows spontaneously, but is capable of reproduction by sowing, much after the same man- ner as the fitch. The stem,6 however, is prickly, and articu- lated, with five leaves arranged round each joint: the seed is red. Its medicinal properties we shall have occasion to men- tion in the appropriate place.7 CHAP. 18.--THE RADICULA. The plant known to us by the name of " radicula,"8 is the 2* From Littre we learn that M. Fraas has suggested that the Magy- daris and Laserpitium are possibly the Ferula Tingitana, and the Ptychotis verticillata of Decandolle, which last he has found upon high mountains in the lower region of pines, on Mount Parnassus, among others. 3 See B. xxii. cc. 48, 49. 4 The Bubia tinctorum of Linnaeus. 5 Dioscorides speaks of the madder of Bavenna as being the most esteemed. It is much cultivated at the present day in the South of France, Holland, and the Levant. That of Lille enjoys a high reputation. 6 It is covered with bristly hairs, or rather, fine, hooked teeth. There is, however, no resemblance whatever between it and ervilia or orobus, the fitch. 7 B. xxiv. c. 56. 8 Or " little root;" though, in reality, as Pliny says, it had a large root. Some writers have supposed, that by this name is meant the Reseda luteola of Linnaeus, the " dyer's weed" of the moderns; but neither Chap. 19.] THE PLEASURES OF THE GARDEN. 149 second of these productions. It furnishes a juice that is ex- tensively employed in washing wool, and it is quite wonderful how greatly it contributes to the whiteness and softness of wool. It may be produced anywhere by cultivation, but that which grows spontaneously in Asia and Syria,9 upon rugged, rocky sites, is more highly esteemed. That, however, which is found beyond the Euphrates has the highest repute of all. The stalk of it is ferulaceous 10 and thin, and is sought by the inhabitants of those countries as an article of food. It is em- ployed also for making unguents, being boiled up with the other ingredients, whatever they may happen to be. In leaf it strongly resembles the olive. The Greeks have given it the name of " struthion." It blossoms in summer, and is agree- able to the sight, but entirely destitute of smell. It is somewhat thorny, and has a stalk covered with down. It has an ex- tremely diminutive seed, and a large root, which is cut up and employed for the purposes already mentioned. CHAP. 19. (4.)--THE PLEASURES OF THE GARDEN. Having made mention of these productions, it now remains for us to return to the cultivation of the garden,11 a subject recommended by its own intrinsic merits to our notice : for we find that in remote antiquity, even, there was nothing looked upon with a greater degree of admiration than the gardens of the Hesperides,11* those of the kings Adonis12 and Alci- Pliny nor any of the Greek writers mention the Badicula as being used for dyeing. Some, again, identify it with the Gypsophila struthium of Linnaeus, without sufficient warranty, however, as Fee thinks. 9 The Gypsophila struthium grows in Spain, and possibly, Fee says, in other countries. Linnaeus has "pretended," he says, that the Spaniards still employ the root and stalk of the Gypsophila for the same purposes as the ancients did the same parts of the Radicula. He himself, however, though long resident in Spain, had never observed such to be the fact. 10 This description, Fee says, does not correspond with that of the Gyp- Bophila struthium, the stalk of which does not at all resemble that of the ferulaceous plants, and the leaf is quite different in appearance from that of the olive. " As Fee observes, by the word "hortus" the Romans understood Bolely the "vegetable" or "kitchen-garden;" the pleasure garden being generally denominated "horti." n' See B. v. c. 1. 12 A fabulous king of Phoenicia, probably, whose story was afterwards transferred, with considerable embellishments, to the Grecian mythology. Adonis is supposed to have been identical with the Thammuz of Scripture, 150 pliny's natural history. [Book XIX. nous,13 and the Hanging Gardens, whether they were the work of Semiramis, or whether of Cyrus, king of Assyria, a subject of which we shall have to speak in another work.14 The kmgs of Rome cultivated their gardens with their own hands; indeed, it was from his garden that Tarquinius Superbus16 sent to his son that cruel and sanguinary message of his. In our laws of the Twelve Tables, we find the word <' villa," or " farm," nowhere mentioned; it is the word " hortus " that is always used with that signification, while the term "heredium" we find employed for " garden." There are certain religious impressions, too, that have been attached to this species of property,16 and we find that it is in the garden and the Forum only that statues of satyrs are con- secrated, as a protection against the evil effects17 of spells and sorcery; although in Plautus, we find the gardens spoken of as being under the tutelage of Venus. At the present day, under the general name of gardens,18 we have pleasure-grounds situate in the very heart of the City, as well as extensive fields and villas. Epicurus, that connoisseur19 in the enjoyments of a life of ease, was the first to lay out a garden at Athens ;20 up to his time it had never been thought of, to dwell in the country in the middle of the town. At Rome, on the other hand, the garden21 constituted of itself the poor man's field, and it was from the garden that the lower classes procured their daily food—an aliment how guiltlessly obtained ! But still, it is a great deal better, no doubt,22 to dive into the abysses of the mentioned by Ezekiel, viii. 14, where he speaks of the " women weep- ing for Thammuz." Hardouin considers him to have been a Syrian deity, identical with the Moon. 13 Celebrated by Homer, Od. B. vi. and xiii. 14 "Alio volumine." As no further mention is made by Pliny of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, it is most probable that he contemplated giving a description of them in another work, an intention which he did not live to realize. 15 See further on this subject, c. 53 of the present Book. 16 The reading, "quam rem," seems preferable to "quam ob rem," adopted by Sillig. 17 " Effascinationes." The effects of the evil eye. 18 "Hortorum." "Pleasure-gardens." 19 " Otii magister." 20 For the purpose of teaching philosophy there. 21 "Hortus." The "kitchen-garden." 28 Ironically said. Chap. 19.] THE PLEASURES OP THE GARDEN. 151 deep, and to seek each kind of oyster at the risk and peril of shipwreck, to go searching for birds beyond the river Phasis28 even, which, protected as they are by the terrors invented by fable,24 are only rendered all the more precious thereby—to go searching for others, again, in Numidia,26 and the very sepul- chres of ^Ethiopia,28 or else to be battling with wild beasts, and to get eaten one's self while trying to take a prey which another person is to eat! And yet, by Hercules ! how little do the productions of the garden cost us in comparison with these ! How more than sufficient for every wish and for every want!— were it not, indeed, that here, as in every thing else, turn which way we will, we find the same grounds for our wrath and in- dignation. We really might be content to allow of fruits being grown of the most exquisite quality, remarkable, some of them for their flavour, some for their size, some, again, for the monstrosities of their growth, morsels all of them forbidden to the poor !27 We might allow of wines being kept till they are mellowed with age, or enfeebled by being passed through28 cloth strainers, of men, too, however prolonged their lives, never drinking any but a wine that is still older than them- selves ! We might allow of luxury devising how best to ex- tract the very aroma, as it were, and marrow29 only from grain ; of people, too, living upon nothing but the choicest productions of the confectioner, and upon pastes fashioned in fantastic shapes : of one kind of bread being prepared for the rich, and another for the multitude ; of the yearly produce of the field being classified in a descending scale, till it reaches the humble means of the very lowest classes—but do we not find that these refined distinctions have been extended to the very herbs even, and that riches, have contrived to establish points of dissimilarity in articles of food which ordinarily sell for a single copper coin ?30 In this department even, humble as it is, we are still des- 23 He alludes to the pheasant. See B. x. c. 67. 24 He alludes to Colchis, the country of Medea, the scene of the ex- ploits of Jason and the Argonauts, and the land of prodigies and fable. 26 Se. B. x. cc. 38 and 67. He alludes to " meleagrides," or Guinea- fowls. 20 See B. x. c. 37. He alludes to the birds called " Memnonides." 27 See B. xvii. c. 1. 28 See B. xiv. c. 28. 29 He alludes to the finest and most delicate kinds of wheaten flour. See B. xviii. c. 29. M " Cho asse." 152 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX tined to find certain productions that are denied to the com- munity at large, and the very cabbages pampered to such an enormous extent that the poor man's table is not large enough to hold them. Asparagus, by Nature, was intended to grow wild,31 so that each might gather it where he pleased—but, lo and behold! we find it in the highest state of cultivation, and Ravenna produces heads that weigh as much as three pounds32 even ! Alas for the monstrous excess of gluttony! It would be surprising indeed, for the beasts of the field to be forbidden the thistle for food, and yet it is a thing forbidden33 to the lower classes of the community ! These refined dis- tinctions, too, are extended to the very water even, and, thanks to the mighty influence of money, there are lines of demar- cation drawn in the very elements themselves. Some persons are for drinking ice, others for quaffing snow, and thus is the curse of the mountain steep turned into an appetizing sti- mulus for the palate !34 Cold is carefully treasured up for the summer heats, and man's invention is racked how best to keep Bnow freezing in months that are not its own. Some again there are who first boil the water,35 and then bring it to the temperature of winter—indeed, there is nothing that pleases man in the fashion in which Nature originally made it. And is it the fact, then, that any herb of the garden is reared only for the rich man's table ? It is so—but still let no one of the angered populace think of a fresh secession to Mount Sacer or Mount Aventine; for to a certainty, in the long run, all-powerful money will bring them back to just the Bame position as they were in when it wrought the severance. For, by Hercules !36 there was not an impost levied at Rome 31 As " corruda," or " wild asparagus." The Brassica capitata alba of ft Bauhin,or white cabbage, sometimes attains a weight of ten or twelve pounds. 32 This is an exaggeration, probably. 33 He alludes to the artichoke, or Cinara cardunculus of the botanists, which bears some resemblance to the common thistle. 34 Martial and Aulus Gellius speak of ice and snow drinks. The latter must have been very injurious to the stomach. 35 See B. xxxi. c. 23. 36 In this corrupt and otherwise unintelligible pasaage, we have adopted the proposed emendations of Sillig, who is of opinion that it bears reference to the abolition of the market-dues, or " portorium," by Augus- tus Caesar, and the substitution of a property tax of one twentieth of the land, a method of taxation which inflicted greater hardships than the former one, as it was assessed according to the superficies, not the produce Chap. 19.] THE PLEASURES OF THE GARDEN. 153 more grievous than the market-dues, an impost that aroused the indignation of the populace, who repeatedly appealed with loud clamours to all the chief men of the state to be relieved from it. At last they were relieved from this heavy tax upon their wares; and then it was found that there was no tax more lucrative, more readily collected, or less obnoxious to the ca- prices of chance, than the impost that was levied in exchange for it, in the shape of a property-tax, extended to the poorest classes: for now the very soil itself is their surety that paid the tax will be, their means are patent to the light of day, and the superficial extent of their possessions, whatever the weather may chance to be, always remains the same. Cato,37 we find, speaks in high praise of garden cabbages:— indeed, it was according to their respective methods of garden cultivation that the agriculturists of early times were appreci- ated, and it was immediately concluded that it was a sign of a woman being a bad and careless manager of her family, when the kitchen-garden—for this was looked upon as the woman's department more particularly—was negligently cultivated; as in such case her only resource was, of course, the shambles or the herb-market. But cabbages were not held in such high esteem in those days as now: indeed, all dishes were held in disrepute which required something else to help them down, the great object being to economize oil as much as possible ; and as to the flesh-market, so much as a wish even to taste its wares was visited with censure and reproach. The chief thing that made them so fond of the garden was the fact that its produce needs no fire and ensures economy in fuel, and that it offers resources which are always ready and at hand. These articles of food, which from their peculiar nature we call "vinegar-diets,"38 were found to be easy of digestion, by no means apt to blunt and overload the senses, and to create but little craving for bread as an accompaniment. A portion of them which is still used by us for seasonings, attests that our forefathers used of the land. His proposed emendations of the text are as follows : " mox enim certe sequabit eos pecunia quos pecunia separaverit. Itaque------ ac minore fortunse jure, quam cum hereditate datur pensio ea pauperum ; his in solo sponsor est," &c. 37 De Re Rust. cc. 156, 157. He speaks of it as being eaten either boiled or raw, but in the latter case with vinegar. F£e thinks that even then it would make a very acrid and indigestible diet. 38 "Acetaria." Salads. 154 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX, only to look at home for their resources, and that no Indian peppers were in request with them, or any of those other condi- ments which we are in the habit of seeking beyond the seas. In former times the lower classes of Rome, with their mimic gardens in their windows, day after day presented the reflex of the country to the eye, when as yet the multitudes of atro- cious burglaries, almost innumerable, had not compelled us to shut out all such sights with bars to the passers by. Let the garden, then, have its due meed of honour, and let not things, because they are common, enjoy for that the less share of our consideration—and the more so, as we find that from it men of the very highest rank have been content to borrow their surnames even; thus in the Valerian family, for instance, the Lactucini have not thought themselves disgraced by taking their name from the lettuce. Perhaps, too, our labours and research may contribute some slight re- commendation to this our subject; although, with Virgil,39we are ready to admit how difficult it is, by language however elevated, to ennoble a subject that is so humble in itself. CHAP. 20.—TUE LAYING OUT OF GARDEN GROUND. There is no doubt that the proper plan is, to have the gar- dens adjoining the country-house; and they should be watered, more particularly, by a river running in front of it, if possible; or else with water drawn from a well by the aid of a wheel or of pumps, or by swipes.40 The ground should be opened just as the west winds are beginning to prevail; fourteen days after which it should be got ready for autumn, and then before the winter solstice it should have another turning up. It will require eight men to dig a jugerum, manure being mixed with the earth to a depth of three feet: the ground, too, should be divided into plots or beds with raised and rounded edges, each of which should have a path dug round it, by means of which access may be afforded to the gardener and a channel formed for the water needed for irrigation. 39 He alludes, no doubt, to the words of Virgil, in Georg. iv. 1. 6. " In tenui labor, at tenuis non gloria------'' though in that instance the poet is speaking of bees. w «Tollenonum haustu." These would be used in the case of well- water ; they are still to be seen occasionally in this country, and are very common on the continent. The wheel is also used for drawing well-water, and is frequently employed in Barbary and Spain. Chap. 22.] HISTORY OF TWENTY DIFFERENT PLANTS. 155 CHAP. 21.—PLANTS OTHER THAN GRAIN AND SHRUBS. Among the garden plants there are some that recommend themselves by their bulbs, others by the head, others by the stalk, others by the leaf, others by both: some, again, are valued for their seed, others for the outer coat, others for their membranous tissues, others for their cartilaginous substance, others for the firmness of their flesh, and others for the fleshy tunics in which they are enveloped. CHAP. 22.--THE NATURAL HISTORY OF TWENTY DIFFERENT KINDS OF PLANTS WHICH GROW IN GARDENS--THE PROPER METHODS TO BE FOLLOWED IN SOWING THEM RESPECTIVELY. Of some plants the fruits41 are in the earth, of others both in the earth and out of it, and of others, again, out of the earth solely. Some of them increase as they lie upon the ground, gourds and cucumbers, for instance; the same products will grow also in a hanging position, but they are much heavier even then than any of the fruits that grow upon trees. The cucumber, however, is composed of cartilage and a fleshy sub- stance, while the gourd consists of rind and cartilage : this last is the only vegetable production the outer coat of which be- comes of a ligneous nature, when ripe. Radishes, turnips, and rape are hidden in the earth, and so, too, are elecampane,41* skirrets,42 and parsnips,43 though in a different manner. There are some plants, again, to which we shall give the name of " ferulaceous," anise44 and mallows, for instance ; indeed, we find it stated by some writers that in Arabia45 the mallow be- 41 By the word "fructus" he no doubt means the edible parts solely, the leaf, stalk, or root, as the case may be. 41* Fee is surprised to find elecampane figuring among the garden vege- tables. It has a powerful odour, is bitter, and promotes expectoration. Though not used as a vegetable it is still used as a preserve, or sweetmeat, mixed with sugar. See further on it in c. 29 of this Book. 42 See c. 28 of this Book. 43 See c. 27 of this Book. 44 Fee remarks that this juxtaposition of anise and mallows betokens the most complete ignorance of botany on the part of our author; there being few plants which differ more essentially. The field-mallow, or Malva silvestris of Linnseus, or perhaps several varieties of it, are here referred to. The anise will be further mentioned in c. 74 of this Book. 45 Fee suggests that the plant here mentioned may have been an annual, probably the Lavatorea arborea of botanists, or some kindred species. In u few months it is known to attain a height of ten feet or more. 156 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. comes arborescent at the sixth month, so much so, in fact, as to admit of its being used for walking-sticks. We have another instance, again, in the mallow-tree of Mauretania, which is found at Lixus, a city built upon an aestuary there; and at which spot, it is said, were formerly the gardens of the Hesperides, at a distance of two hundred paces from the Ocean, near the shrine of Hercules, more ancient, tradition says, than the temple at Gades. This mallow-tree1* is twenty feet in height, and. of such a thickness that there is not a person in existence who is able with his arms to span its girth. In the class of ferulaceous plants we must include hemp47 also. There are some plants, again, to which we must give the appellation of "fleshy;"48such as those spongy49 productions which are found growing in damp meadows. As to the fungus, with a hard, tough flesh, we have already50 made mention of it when speaking of wood and trees; and of truffles, which form another variety, we have but very recently given a de- scription.51 CHAP. 23. (5.)—VEGETABLES OF A CARTILAGINOUS NATURE— CUCUMBERS. PEPONES. The cucumber52 belongs to the cartilaginous class of plants, and grows above the ground. It was a wonderful favourite with the Emperor Tiberius, and, indeed, he was never without it; for he had raised beds made in frames upon wheels, by means of which the cucumbers were moved and exposed to the full heat of the sun; while, in winter, they were withdrawn, and placed under the protection of frames glazed with mirror- stone.53 We find it stated, also, by the ancient Greek writers, 46 In Fee's opinion this tree cannot have belonged to the family of Mal- vaceae ; the Adansonia and some other exotics of the family, with which Pliny undoubtedly was not acquainted, being the only ones that attain these gigantic proportions. 47 There is no resemblance between mallows and hemp, any more than there is between mallows and anise. 48 "Carnosa." 49 Hardouin thinks that he alludes to the Conferva, or river sponge. again mentioned in B. xxvii. c. 45. Fee, however, dissents from that opinion. 50 In B. xvi. cc. 11 and 13, and in cc. 12 and 14 of the present Book, 51 In c. 11 of the present Book. 62 The Cucumis sativus of Linnaeus. 63 " Lapis specularis." See B. xxxvi. c. 45. Columella, De Re Rust. B. xi. c. 3, speaks of this mode of ripening cucumber, and the fondness of the Emperor Tiberius for them. Chap. 23.] CUCUMBERS. 157 that the cucumber ought to be propagated from seed that has been steeped54 a couple of days in milk and honey, this method having the effect of rendering them all the sweeter to the taste. The cucumber, while growing, may be trained to take any form that may be wished : in Italy the cucumbers are green55 and very small, while those grown in some of the provinces are remarkably large, and of a wax colour or black.56 Those of Africa, which are also remarkably prolific, are held in high esteem; the same, too, with the cucumbers of Moesia, which are by far the largest of all. When the cucumber acquires a very considerable volume, it is known to us as the "pepo."57 Cucumbers when eaten remain on the stomach till the follow- ing day, and are very difficult58 of digestion; still, for all that, in general they are not considered very unwholesome. By nature they have a wonderful hatred to oil, and no less affec- tion for water, and this after they have been cut from the stem even.69 If water is within a moderate distance of them, they will creep towards it, while from oil, on the other hand, they will shrink away : if any obstacle, too, should happen to arrest their progress, or if they are left to hang, they will grow curved and crooked. Of these facts we may be satisfactorily convinced in a single night even, for if a vessel filled with water is placed at four fingers' distance from a cucumber, it will be found to have descended to it by the following morn- ing ; but if the same is done with oil, it will have assumed the curved form of a hook by the next day. If hung in a tube while in blossom, the cucumber will grow to a most surprising 84 Theophrastus and Columella say the same of the cucumber, and Palladius of the melon, but there is no ground, probably, for the belief. In very recent times, however, Fee says, it was the usage to steep the seeds of the melon in milk. This Uquid, in common with any other, would have the effect of softening the exterior integuments, and thereby facilitating the germination, but no more. * Still known as the "green" or "gherkin" cucumber, and much used, when young, for pickling. 56 Probably in the sense of a very dark green, for black cucumbers are a thing unheard of. 57 He is evidently speaking of the pompion, or pumpkin, the Cucurbita pepo of Linnaeus: quite distinct from the cucumber. 58 Cucumbers are not difficult of digestion to the extent that Pliny would have us to believe. 69 As Fee says, it is a loss of time to combat such absurd prejudices as these. 158 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. length.60 It is only of late, too, that a cucumber of entirely new shape has been produced in Campania, it having just the form of a quince.61 It was quite by accident, I am told, that the first one acquired this shape in growing, and it was from the seed of this that all the others have been reproduced. The name given to this variety is " melopepo." These last do not grow hanging, but assume their round shape as they lie on the ground. A thing that is very remarkable in them, in addition to their shape, colour, and smell, is the fact that, when ripe, although they do not hang from the stem, they separate from it at the stalk. Columella62 has given us a plan of his, by which we may have cucumbers the whole year round: the largest bramble- bush that can be procured is transplanted to a warm, sunny spot, and then cut down, about the time of the vernal equinox, to within a couple of fingers of the ground; a cucumber-seed is then inserted in the pith of the bramble, and the roots are well moulded up with fine earth and manure, to withstand the cold. According to the Greeks, there are three kinds of cu- cumbers, the Laconian, the Scytalic, and the Boeotian,63 the Laconian being the only one among them that is fond M of the water. There are some persons who recommend steeping the seed of the cucumber in the juice of the herb known as the " culix;"65 the produce, they say, will be sure to grow without seeds. CHAP. 24.—GOURDS. Gourds resemble the cucumber in nature, at least in their manner of growing; they manifest an equal aversion to the winter, too, while they require constant watering and manure. 60 This is conformable with modern experience. 61 Fee says that this is the melon, the Cucumis melo of Linnaeus. 62 B. xi. c. 3. Columella professes to borrow it from the people of Mendes in Egypt. 63 Theophrastus enumerates these varieties, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4. 64 Theophrastus only says that the Laconian cucumber thrives better with watering than the others. 65 It is impossible to identify this plant, as no ancient writer has given any description of it: it has been suggested, however, that it may have been the Plantago Psyllium, or else the Inula pulicaria of Linnaeus. Of course there is no truth in the story here told of the effects of its juice upon the cucumber. Chap. 24.] GOURDS. 159 Both cucumbers and gourds are sown in holes a foot and a half66 deep, between the vernal equinox and the summer sol- stice, at the time of the Parilia OT more particularly. Some per- sons, however, think it better to sow gourds after the calends of March,68 and cucumbers after the nones,69 and at the time of the Quinquatria.70 The cucumber and the gourd climb up- wards in a precisely similar manner, their shoots creeping along the rough surface of the walls, even to the very roof, so great is their fondness for elevated spots. They have not sufficient strength, however, to support themselves without the aid of stays. Shooting upwards with the greatest rapidity, they soon cover with their light shade the arched roofs of the houses and the trellises on which they are trained. From this circum- fltance it is that we find the gourd classified into two primary kinds, the roof-gourd,71 and the common gourd, which creeps upon the ground. In the first kind, from a stalk of remark- able thinness is suspended a fruit of considerable weight and volume, and quite immoveable by the action of the wind. The gourd, too, as well as the cucumber, admits of being lengthened to any extent, by the aid of osier tubes more particularly. Just after the blossom has fallen off, the plant is introduced into these tubes, and as it grows it can be made to assume any form that may be wished, that of a serpent coiled up being the one that is mostly preferred; if left at liberty to grow as it hangs, it has been known before now to attain to no less than72 nine feet in length. The cucumber flowers gradually, blossom succeeding blos- som ; and it adapts itself perfectly well to a dry soil. It is 66 This depth would probably have the effect of retarding, or else utterly impeding, the growth of the plant. 67 See c. 44 of this Book. The Parilia was a festival celebrated on the nineteenth of April, the anniversary of the foundation of Borne. 68 First of March. 69 Seventh of March. ™ See B. xviii. c. 56. 71 The " camerarium," and the "plebeium." The former, Fee thinks, is the Cucurbita longior of Dodonaeus and J. Bauhin, the long gourd, and other varieties probably of the calabash gourd, the Cucurbita leucantha of Duchesne. The latter is probably the Cucurbita pepo and its varieties. Fee thinks that the name " cucurbita," as employed by Pliny, extends not only to the gourd, but the citrul or small pumpkin as well. 72 As Fee says, he must be speaking of the fruit here, and not the plant, which attains a far greater length than nine feet. 160 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. covered with a white down, which increases in quantity as the plant gains in size. The gourd admits of being applied to more numerous uses than the cucumber even : the stem is used as an article of food73 when young, but at a later period it changes its nature, and its qualities become totally different: of late, gourds have come to be used in baths for jugs and pitchers, but for this long time past they have been employed as casks74 for keeping wine. The rind is tender while the fruit is green, but still it is always scraped off when the gourd is used for food. It ad- mits of being eaten several ways, and forms a light and whole- some aliment, and this although it is one of those fruits that are difficult of digestion by the human stomach, and are apt to swell out those who eat of them. The seeds which lie nearest to the neck of the gourd produce fruit of remarkable75 length, and so do those which lie at the lower extremities, though not at all comparable with the others. Those, on the other hand, which lie in the middle, produce gourds of a round shape, and those on the sides fruit that are thick and short. The seeds are dried by being placed in the shade, and when wanted for sowing, are steeped in water first. The longer and thinner the gourd is, the more agreeable it is to the palate, and hence it is that those which have been left to grow hanging are reckoned the most wholesome: these, too, have fewer seeds than the others, the hardness of which is apt to render the fruit less agreeable for eating. Those which are intended for keeping seed, are usually not cut before the winter sets in; they are then dried in the smoke, and are extensively employed for preserving76 garden seeds, and for making other articles for domestic use. There has been a method discovered, also, of preserving the gourd for table, and the cucumber as well, till nearly the time when the next year's crop is ripe; this is done by putting them in brine. We are assured, too, that if put in a hole dug in a place well shaded 73 The young shoots of the gourd, Fee says, would afford an insipid food, with but little nutriment. 14 The varieties thus employed, Fee says, must have been the Cucurbita lagenaria of Linnaeus, and the Cucurbita latior of Dodonaeus. 15 This is not the fact. The seed produces fruit similar to that from which it was taken, and no more. 76 The trumpet gourd, the Cucurbita longior of Dodonaeus, is still em- ployed, Fee says, by gardeners for this purpose. Chap. 25.] RAPE : TURNIPS. 1G1 from the sun, with a layer of sand beneath, and dry hay and earth on the top of them, they may be kept green for a very long time. We also find wild 77 cucumbers and gourds; and, indeed, the same is the case with pretty nearly all the garden plants. These wild varieties, however, are only possessed of certain medicinal properties, and for this reason we shall defer any further mention of them till we come to the Books appro- priated to that subject. CHAP. 25.--RAPE. TURNIPS. The other plants that are of a cartilaginous nature are con- cealed, all of them, in the earth. In the number of these is the rape, a subject upon which it would almost appear that we have treated78 at sufficient length already, were it not that we think it as well to observe, that medical men call those which are round " male,"79 while those which are larger and more elongated, are known to them as " female " rape: these last are superior in sweetness, and better for keeping, but by successive sowings they are changed into male rape.80 The same authors, too, have distinguished five different va- rieties of the turnip :81 the Corinthian, the Cleonsean, the Liothasian, the Boeotian, and the one which they have charac- terized as peculiarly the " green" turnip. The Corinthian turnip w grows to a very large size, and the root is all but out of the ground; indeed, this is the only kind that, in growing, shoots upwards, and not as the others do, downwards into the ground. The Liothasian is known by some persons as the Thracian turnip ;83 it is the one that stands extreme cold the best of all. Next to it, the Boeotian kind is the sweetest; it is re- markable, also, for the roundness of its shape and its shortness; 77 See B. xx. c. 2. 78 In B. xviii. c. 34. 79 Though borrowed from Theophrastus and the Greek school, this dis- tinction is absurd and unfounded. "° It is not the fact that the seed of the round kind, after repeated sowings, will produce long roots. Pliny, however, has probably miscopied Theophrastus, who says, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4, that this transformation takes place when the seed is sown very thick. This assertion, however, is no more founded on truth than that of Pliny. 81 Also from Theophrastus, B. vii. c. 4; though that author is speaking of radishes, patyaviStq, and not turnips. 83 Properly radish. ^ Properly radish. VOL. IV. M 162 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. while the Cleonsean turnip,84 on the other hand, is of an elon- gated form. Those, in general, which have a thin, smooth leaf, are the sweetest; while those, again, the leaf of which is rough, angular, and prickly, have a pungent taste. There is a kind of wild turnip,85 also, the leaves of which resemble those of rocket.86 At Rome, the highest rank is given to the turnips of Amiternum,87 and those of Nursia; after them, those grown in the neighbourhood of the City88 are held in the next de- gree of esteem. The other particulars connected with the sowing of the turnip have been already mentioned89 by us when speaking of the rape. CHAP. 26.--RADISHES. Radishes are composed of an outer coat and a cartilaginous substance, and in many instances the rind is found to be thicker than the bark of some trees. This plant is remarkable for its pungency, which increases in proportion to the thickness of the rind : in some cases, too, the surface ■ of it assumes a ligneous nature. Radishes are flatulent90 to a remarkable degree, and are productive of eructations ; hence it is that they are looked upon as an aliment only fit for low-bred people,91 and this more particularly if coleworts are eaten directly after them. If, on the other hand, they are eaten with green olives, the eructations produced are not so frequent, and less offensive. In Egypt the radish is held in very high esteem, on account of the abundance of oil92 that is extracted from the seed. In- 84 Badish. 85 Properly radish. 86 See B. xx. c. 49. Fee queries whether this radish may not be the Baphanus raphanistrum of botanists. See B. xviii. c. 34. 87 See B. xviii. c. 35. 88 " Nostratibus." Poinsinet would render this, " Those of my native country," i. e. the parts beyond the Padus. As Pliny resided at Rome during the latter part of his life, there can be little doubt but that he al- ludes to the vicinity of Borne. 89 See B. xviii. c. 34. 90 This property extends to most of the Cruciferae. 91 " Cibus illiberalis." _ 92 The variety Oleifera of the Baphanus sativus is still cultivated exten- sively in Egypt and Nubia for the extraction of the oil. The variety Oleifera of the Brassica napus is also greatly cultivated in Egypt. Fee suggests that Pliny may possibly confound these two plants under the one name of " raphanus." It is worthy of remark, too, that the Colza oil, so much used in France and Belgium for burning in lamps, is expressed from the seed of the Brassica oleracea, a species of cabbage. Chap. 26.] RADISHES. 163 deed, the people of that country sow this plant in preference to any other, whenever they can get the opportunity, the profits derived from it being larger than those obtained from the culti- vation of corn, and the imposts levied upon it considerably less : there is no grain known that yields a larger quantity of oil. The Greeks have distinguished the radish93 into three dif- ferent kinds, according to the characteristic features of the leaves, there being the crisped leaf, the smooth leaf, and the wild radish, the leaf of which is smooth, but shorter than that of the others ; it is round also, grows in great abundance, and spreads like a shrub. The taste of this last variety is acrid, and it acts medicinally as a strong purgative. In the first kind, again, there are certain differences, determined by the seed, for in some varieties the seed is of an inferior quality, and in others remarkably small: these defects, however, are only found to exist in the kind that has the crisped leaf. Our own people, again, have found other varieties of the radish : there is the Algidan 91 radish, long and transparent, so called from the place of its growth: another, similar to the rape in form, is known as the Syrian radish; it is pretty nearly the mildest and the most tender of them all, and is well able to bear the winter. The very best of all, however, is the one that has been brought from Syria, very recently it would seem, as we do not find it mentioned by any of our writers: it lasts the whole of the winter through. In addition to these kinds, there is another, a wild variety, known by the Greeks as "agrion,"95 and to the people of Pontus as " armon," while others, again, call it " leuce,96 and our people " armoracia ;"97 it has more leaves, however, than root. In testing the quality of the radish, it is the stem more par- 93 The Raphanus sativus of Linnaeus. This passage, however, down to " crisped leaf," properly applies to the cabbage, and not the radish, Pliny- having copied the Greek, and taken the word 'patyavoQ, properly " cabbage," to mean " radish;" which in the later Greek writers it sometimes does, though not in this instance. 94 Mount Algidus was near Tusculum, fifteen miles from Rome. Its coldness contributed greatly to the goodness of its radishes. 95 Or " wild." Fee suggests that this is the Baphanus rustieanus of Lobellius, the Cochlearia Armoracia of Linnaeus, the wild radish, or horse- radish. 96 Or " white." From the extreme whiteness of the roots. 97 Probably meaning, " radish of Armorica." M 2 164 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. ticularly, that is looked at; in those which are acrid to the taste, for instance, it is rounder and thicker than in the others, and grooved with long channels, while the leaves are more un- sightly to the eye, being angular and covered with prickles. The radish requires to be sown in a loose, humid soil, has a great aversion to manure, and is content with a dressing solely of chaff: so fond is it of the cold, that in Germany it is known to grow as large as an infant in size.98 For the spring crop, it is sown immediately after the ides of February ;99 and then again about the time of the Vulcanalia,1 this last crop being looked upon as the best: many persons, however, sow radishes in March, April, and September. When the plant begins to grow to any size, it is considered a good plan to cover up the leaves successively, and to earth up the root as well; for the part of it which appears above ground is apt to become hard and pithy. Aristomachus recommends the leaves to be taken off in winter, and the roots to be well moulded up, to prevent the water from accumulating about them; and he says, that by using these precautions, they will be all the finer in summer. Some authors have mentioned a plan of making a hole with a dibble, and covering it at the bottom with a layer of chaff, six fingers in depth; upon this layer the seed is put, and then covered over with manure and earth ; the result of which is, according to their statement, that radishes are obtained full as large as the hole so made. It is salt, however, that conduces more particularly to their nutriment, and hence it is that they are often watered with brine ; in Egypt, too, the growers sprinkle nitre 2 over them, the roots being remarkable for their mildness The salt, too, has the similar effect of removing all their pun- gency, and when thus treated, they become very similar in their qualities to radishes that have been boiled: for when boiled they become sweet and mild, and eat, in fact, just like turnips. 98 Fee suggests that he is here speaking of the beet-root, in reality a native of the north of Europe. 99 Thirteenth of February. 1 The festival of Vulcaa, beginning on the twenty-third of August, and lasting eight days. 2 A natural production, the carbonate of sodium of the chemists, known from time immemorial by the name of "natron." See B. xxx. c. 46; from which passage it would appear that it was generally employed for watering the leguminous plants. Chap. 27.] PARSNIPS. 165 Medical men recommend raw radishes to be eaten fasting, with salt, for the purpose3 of collecting the crude humours of the viscera ; and in this way they prepare them for the action of emetics. It is said, too, that the juices of this plant are absolutely necessary for the cure of certain diseases of the diaphragm ; for it has been found by experiment, in Egypt, that the phthiriasis4 which attaches itself to the internal parts of the heart, cannot possibly be eradicated by any other remedy, the kings of that country having ordered the bodies of the dead to be opened and examined, for the purpose of enquiring into certain diseases. Such, too, is the frivolity of the Greeks, that, in the temple of Apollo at Delphi, it is said, the radish is so greatly pre- ferred to all other articles of diet, as to be represented there in gold, the beet in silver, and the rape in lead.—"Sou might be very sure that Manius Curius was not a native of that country, the general whom, as we find stated in our Annals, the am- bassadors of the Samnites found busy roasting rape at the fire, when they came to offer him the gold which he so indignantly refused. Moschion, too, a Greek author, has written a volume on the subject of the radish. These vegetables are considered a very useful article of food during the winter, but they are at all times very injurious to the teeth, as they are apt to wear them away; at all events, they give a polish to ivory. There is a great antipathy between the radish5 and the vine ; which last will shrink from the radish, if sown in its vicinity. CHAP. 27.—PARSNIPS. The other kinds which have been classified by us among the cartilaginous plants, are of a more ligneous nature; and it is a singular thing, that they have, all of them, a strong flavour. Among these, there is one kind of wild parsnip which grows 1 Dioscorides recommends these puerilities with the cabbage, and not the radish ; though Celsus gives similar instructions with reference to the radish. 4 It was a general belief with the ancients that the phthiriasis, or mor- bus pediculosus, has its seat in the heart. It was supposed also that the juice of the radish was able, by reason of its supposed subtlety, to penetrate the coats of that organ. 5 This is said by other ancient authors, in reference to the cabbage and the vine. See B. xxiv. c. i. 166 pliny's natural history. [Book XIX. spontaneously; by the Greeks it is known as " staphylinos."6 Another kind7 of parsnip is grown either from the root trans- planted, or else from seed, at the beginning of spring or in the autumn; Hyginus says that this may be done in February, August, September, and October, the ground being dug to a very considerable depth for the purpose. The parsnip begins to be fit for eating at the end of a year, but it is still better at the end of two: it is reckoned more agreeable eating in autumn, and more particularly if cooked in the saacepan ; even then, however, it preserves its strong pungent flavour, which it is found quite impossible to get rid of. The hibiscum8 differs from the parsnip in being more slender: it is rejected as a food, but is found useful for its medicinal properties. There is a fourth kind,9 also, which bears a similar degree of resemblance to the parsnip; by our people it is called the " gallica," while the Greeks, who have distinguished four varieties of it, give it the name of " daucus." We shall have further occasion10 to mention it among the medicinal plants. CHAP. 28.---THE SKIRRET. The skirret,11 too, has had its reputation established by the Emperor Tiberius, who demanded a supply of it every year from Germany. It is at Gelduba,12 a fortress situate on the banks of the Rhenus, that the finest are grown; from which it would appear that they thrive best in a cold climate. There is a string running through the whole length of the skirret, and which is drawn out after it is boiled ; but still, for all this, a considerable proportion of its natural pungency 6 There is some doubt as to the identity of this plant, but Fee, after examining the question, comes to the conclusion that it is the Daucus Carota, or else Mauritanicus of Linnaeus, the common carrot, or that of Mauritania. Sprengel takes it to be either this last or the Daucus guttatus, a plant commonly found in Greece. 7 The Pastinaca sativa of Linnaeus, or common parsnip. 8 The marsh-mallow, probably, the Althaea officinalis of Linnaeus. 9 The carrot. The Daucus Carota of Linnaeus. 10 In B. xxv. c. 64. 11 " Siser." The Sium sisarum of Linnaeus. See also B. xx. c. 17. It is said to have been originally a native of China. 12 It is supposed that this is the same with Gelb, near Neuss, in Ger- many, mentioned by Tacitus, Hist. B. iv. cc. 26. 32. Chap. 29.] ELECAMPANE. 167 is retained ; indeed, when modified by the addition of honied wine, this is even thought to impart to dishes an additional relish. The larger parsnip has also a similar sting inside, but only when it is a year old. The proper time for sowing the skirret is in the months of February, March, April, August, September, and October. CHAP. 29.—ELECAMPANE. Elecampane ,3 is not so elongated as the preceding roots, but more substantial and more pungent; eaten by itself it is very injurious to the stomach, but when mixed with other condi- ments of a sweet nature, it is extremely wholesome^ There are several methods employed for modifying14 its natural acridity and rendering it agreeable to the palate : thus, for in- stance, when dried it is reduced to a fine flour, and then mixed with some sweet liquid or other, or else it is boiled in vinegar and water, or kept in soak in it; it is also steeped in various other ways, and then mixed with boiled1S grape-juice, or else incorporated with honey or raisins, or dates with plenty of meat on them. Other persons, again, have a method of pre- paring it with quinces, or else sorbs or plums, while sometimes the flavour is varied by the addition of pepper or thyme. This plant is particularly good for weakness of the stomach, and it has acquired a high reputation from the circumstance that Julia17 Augusta used to eat it daily. The seed of it is quite useless, as the plant is reproduced, like the reed, from eyes extracted from the root. This vegetable, as well as the skirret and the parsnip, is sown both in spring and autumn, a considerable distance being left between the plants ; indeed, for elecampane, a space of no less than three feet is required, as 13 The Inula Helenium of Linnaeus. Its English name is derived from Inula campana, that under which it is so highly recommended in the pre- cepts of the School of Health at Salerno. See also B. xx. c. 19. At the present day it is universally rejected as an article of food in any shape. 14 The School of Salerno says that it may be preserved by being pickled in brine, or else in the juice of rue, which, as Fee remarks, would pro- duce neither more nor less than a veritable poison. The modern Pharma- copoeias give the receipt of a conserve of elecampane, which, however, is no longer used. li " Defrutum." Must, boiled down to one half. 17 The daughter of Augustus Caesar. 168 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Hook XIX. it throws out its shoots to a very considerable distance.18 Skirrets, however, are best transplanted. CHAP. 30.—BULBS, SQUILLS, AND ARUM. , Next in affinity to these plants are the bulbs,19 which Cato, speaking in high terms of those of Megara,20 recommends most particularly for cultivation. Among these bulbs, the squill,21 we find, occupies the very highest rank, although by nature it is medicinal, and is employed for imparting an additional sharp- ness to vinegar :22 indeed, there is no bulb known that grows to a larger size than this, or is possessed of a greater degree of pungency. There are two varieties of it employed in medi- cine, the male squill, which has white leaves, and the female squill, with black23 ones. There is a third kind also, which is good to eat, and is known as the Epimenidian24 squill; the leaf is narrower than in the other kinds, and not so rough. All the squills have numerous seeds, but they come up much more quickly if propagated from the offsets that grow on the sides. To make them attain a still greater size, the large leaves that grow around them are turned down and covered over with earth; by which method all the juices are carried to the heads. Squills grow spontaneously and in vast numbers in the Baleares and the island of Ebusus, and in the Spanish pro- vinces.25 The philosopher Pythagoras has written a whole vo- lume on the merits of this plant, setting forth its various me- 13 The same account nearly is given in Columella, De Re Rust. B. xi. c. 3. 19 Under this general name were included, probably, garlic, scallious, chives, and some kinds of onions ; but it is quite impossible to identify tlie ancient " bulbus" more closely than this. 20 It has been suggested that this was probably the onion, the Allium cepa of Linnaeus. 21 The Scilla maritima of Linnaeus, the sea-squill. 22 See B. xx. c. 39. He might have added that it renders vinegar both an emetic, and a violent purgative. 23 The leaves are in all cases green, and no other colour; but in one kind the squamae, or bracted leaves, are white, and in another, red. 24 Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 11, gives it this name. As none of the sea-squills can be eaten with impunity, Fee is inclined to doubt if this really was a squill. 25 They still abound in those places. The Spanish coasts on the Medi- terranean, Fee says, as well as the vicinity of Gibraltar, are covered with them. Chap. 30.] BULBS, SQUILLS, AND ARUM. 169 dicinal properties; of which we shall have occasion to speak more at length in the succeeding Book.26 ^ The other species of bulbs are distinguished by their colour, size, and sweetness ; indeed, there are some that are eaten raw even—those found in the Tauric Chersonesus, for instance. Next to these, the bulbs of Africa are held in the highest esteem, and after them those of Apulia. The Greeks have distinguished the following varieties: the bulbine,27 the seta- nion,28 the opition,29 the cyix,30 the leucoion,31 the Jegilips,32 and the sisyrinchion33—-in the last there is this remarkable feature, that the extremities of the roots increase in winter, but during the spring,when the violet appears, they diminish in size and gradually contract, and then it is that the bulb begins to in- crease in magnitude. Among the varieties of the bulb, too, there is the plant known in Egypt by the name of " aron."34 In size it is very nearly as large as the squill, with a leaf like that of lapathum, and a straight stalk a couple of cubits in length, and the thick- ness of a walking-stick : the root of it is of a milder nature, so much so, indeed, as to admit of being eaten raw. Bulbs are taken up before the spring, for if not, they are apt to spoil very quickly. It is a sign that they are ripe when the leaves become dry at the lower extremities. When too old they are held in disesteem; the same, too, with the long and the smaller ones; those, on the other hand, which are red and round are greatly preferred, as also those of the largest size. In most of them there is a certain degree of pungency in the upper part, but the middle is sweet. The ancients have 26 In c. 39. -1 Fee thinks that this may be the Muscaria botryo'ides of Miller, Diet. No. I. See also B. xx. c. 41. 28 A variety, probably, of the common onion, the Allium cepa of Linnams. 29 Some variety of the genus Allium, Fee thinks. 30 Fee queries whether this may not be some cyperaceous plant with a bulbous root. 31 A white bulb, if we may judge from the name. The whole of this passage is from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 11. 32 This has not been identified. The old reading was "aegilops," a name now given to a kind of grass. 33 The Iris sisyrinchium of Linnaeus. 34 The Arum colocasia of Linnaeus, held in great esteem by fhe ancient Egyptians as a vegetable. The root is not a bulb, but tubercular, and the leaf bears no resemblance to that of the Lapathum, dock or sorrel. It was sometimes known by the name of "lotus." 170 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. stated that bulbs are reproduced from seed only, but in the champaign country of Praeneste they grow spontaneously, and they grow to an unlimited extent in the territory of the Henri.35 CHAP. 31. (6.)--THE ROOTS, FLOWERS, AND LEAVES OP ALL THESE PLANTS. GARDEN PLANTS WHICH LOSE THEIR LEAVES. Nearly all36 the garden plants have a single37 root only, radishes, beet, parsley, and mallows, for example; it is lapa- thum, however, that has the longest root of them all, it attain- ing the length of three cubits even. The root of the wild kind is smaller and of a humid nature, and when up it will keep alive for a considerable period. In some of these plants, however, the roots are fibrous, as we find the case in parsley and mallows, for instance; in others, again, they are of a ligneous nature, as in ocimum, for example ; and in others they are fleshy, as in beet, and in saffron even more so. In some, again, the root is composed of rind and flesh, as in the radish and the rape ; while in others it is jointed, as in hay grass.38 Those plants which have not a straight root throw out imme- diately a great number of hairy fibres, orage39 and blite,40 for instance : squills again, bulbs, onions, and garlic never have any but a vertical root. Among the plants that grow spon- taneously, there are some which have more numerous roots than leaves, spalax,41 for example, pellitory,42 and saffron.43 Wild thyme, southernwood, turnips, radishes, mint, and rue bL ssom all44 at once; while others, again, shed their blossom directly they have begun to flower. Ocimum45 blossoms gradu- 35 In Gaul. See B, iv. c. 31. 36 This passage, and indeed nearly the whole of the Chapter, is bor- rowed from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. i. c. 9. 37 Fee thinks that by the expression fiovoppi^a, Theophrastus means a root that strikes vertically, instead of spreading. 38 Gramen. See B. xviii. c. 67, and B. xxiv. c. 118. S9 Atriplex. See B. xx. c. 83. « See B. xx. c. 93. 41 Poinsinet suggests that this may mean the " mole-plant," ao7ra\al being the Greek for " mole." 42 "Perdicium." See B. xxii. cc. 19, 20. 43 " Crocus." See B. xxi. c. 17,'et seq. 44 This is not the fact. All these assertions are from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 3. *s Fee thinks that the ocimum of Pliny is not the basil of the moderns, the Ocimum basilicum of the naturalists. The account, however, hure given would 7ery well apply to basil. Chap. 32.] VARIETIES OE THE ONION. 171 ally, beginning at the lower parts, and hence it is that it is so very long in blossom: the same is the case, too, with the plant known as heliotropium.46 In some plants the flower is white, in others yellow, and in others purple. The leaves fall first47 from the upper part in wild-marjoram and elecampane, and in rue48 sometimes, when it has been injured accidentally. In some plants the leaves are hollow, the onion and the seal- lion,49 more particularly. CHAP. 32.--VARIETIES OF THE ONION. Garlic and onions60 are invoked by the Egyptians,51 when taking an oath, in the number of their deities. The Greeks have many varieties52 of the onion, the Sardian onion, the Samothracian, the Alsidenian, the setanian, the schistan, and the Ascalonian,53 so called from Ascalon,54 a city of Judaea. They have, all of them, a pungent smell, which55 draws tears from the eyes, those of Cyprus more particularly, and those of Cnidos the least of all. In all of them the body is composed of a cartilage of an unctuous56 nature. The variety known as the setanian is the smallest of them all, with the exception of the Tusculan57 onion, but it is sweet to the taste. The schis- tan53 and the Ascalonian kinds are used for storing. The schistan onion is left during the winter with the leaves on; in the spring it is stripped of them, upon which offsets make 46 The Heliotropium Europaeum of botany. See B. xxii. c. 19. 47 These assertions, Fee says, are not consistent with modern experience. 48 See c. 45 of this Book. 49 " Gethyum." The Allium schcenoprasum, probably, of botany, the ciboul or scallion. so The Allium cepa of Linnaeus. 51 The inhabitants of Pelusium, more particularly, were devoted to the worship of the onion. They held it, in common with garlic, in great aversion as an article of food. At Pelusium there was a temple also in which the sea-squill was worshipped. 52 With some little variation, from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii.c. 4. 53 Supposed to be identical with the Allium Ascalonicum of Linnaeus, the chalotte. Pliny is the only writer who mentions the Alsidenian onion. M To the Ascalonian onion, the scallion, or ciboul, owes its English name. 56 Owing to the acetic acid which the bulb contains, and which acts on the membranes of the eye. * 66 " Pinguitudinis." 57 Fee queries whether the early white onion of Florence, the smallest now known among the cultivated kinds, may not possibly be identical with the setanian, or else the Tusculan, variety. 68 From oxifa, to " divide" or " tear off." 172 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORV. [Book XIX. their appearance at the same divisions as the leaves ; it is to this circumstance that this variety owes its name. Taking the hint from this fact, it is recommended to strip the other kinds of their leaves, to make them bulb all the better, instead of running to seed. The Ascalonian onion is of a peculiar nature, being barren in some measure in the root; hence it is that the Greeks have recommended it to be reproduced from seed, and not from roots: the transplanting, too, they say, should be done later in the spring, at the time the plant germinates, the result being that it bulbs with all the greater rapidity, and hastens, as it were, to make up for lost time ; great dispatch, however, is requisite in taking it up, for when ripe it rots with the greatest rapi- dity. If propagated from roots, it throws out a long stalk, runs rapidly to seed, and dies. There are considerable differences, too, in the colour of the onion ; the whitest of all are those grown at Issus and Sardes. The onions, too, of Crete are held in high esteem, but there is some doubt whether they are not the same as the Ascalonian variety; for when grown from seed they produce a fine bulb, but when planted they throw out a long stalk and run to seed; in fact, they differ from the Ascalonian kind only in the sweet- ness of their flavour. Among us there are two principal varieties known of the onion; the scallion, employed for seasonings, is one, known to the Greeks by the name of " gethyon," and by us as the "pal- lacana;" it is sown in March, April, and May. The other kind is the bulbed or headed59 onion; it is sown just after the autumnal equinox, or else after the west winds have begun to prevail. The varieties of this last kind, ranged according to their relative degrees of pungency, are the African onion, the Gallic, the Tusculan, the Ascalonian, and the Amiternian: the roundest in shape are the best. The red onion, too, is more pungent than the white, the stored than the fresh, the raw than the cooked, and the dried than the preserved. The onion of Amiternum is cultivated in coir}, humid localities, and is the only one that is reproduced from heads,60 like garlic, the other kinds being grown from seed. This last kind yields no 59 "Capitata." 60 For this reason, Fee is inclined to reaard it as a variety either of garlic, Allium sativum, or of the chalotte, Allium Ascalonicum of Linus w. Chap. 33.] THE LEEK. 173 seed in the ensuing summer, but a bulb only, which dries and keeps; but in the summer after, the contrary is the case, for seed is produced, while the bulb very quickly spoils. Hence it is that every year there are two separate sowings, one of seed for the reproduction of bulbs, and one of bulbs for the growth of seed; these onions keep best in chaff. The scallion has hardly any bulb at all, but a long neck only—hence it is nothing but leaf, and is often cut down, like the leek ; for this reason, too, like the leek, it is grown from seed, and not from plants. In addition to these particulars, it is recommended that the ground intended for sowing onions should be turned up three times, care being taken to remove all roots and weeds; ten pounds of seed is the proper proportion for a jugerum. Savory too, they say, should be mixed with them, the onions being all the finer for it; the ground, too, should be stubbed and hoed four times at least, if not oftener. In Italy, the Ascalonian onion is sown in the month of February. The seed of the onion is gathered when it begins to turn black, and before it becomes dry and shrivelled. CHAP. 33.--THE LEEK. While upon this subject, it will be as well, too, to speak of the leek,61 on account of the affinity which it bears to the plants just mentioned, and more particularly because cut-leek has recently acquired considerable celebrity from the use made of it by the Emperor Nero. That prince, to improve his voice,6'- used to eat leeks and oil every month, upon stated days, ab- staining from every other kind of food, and not touching so much as a morsel of bread even. Leeks are reproduced from seed, sown just after the autumnal equinox; if they are in- tended for cutting,63 the seed is sown thicker than otherwise. The leeks in the same bed are cut repeatedly, till it is quite ex- hausted, aud they are always kept well manured. If they are 61 The Allium porrum of Linnaeus. 62 This prejudice in favour of the leek, as Fee remarks, still exists. It is doubtful, however, whether its mucilage has any beneficial effect upon the voice. See B. xx. c. 21. 63 Fee says, that it is a practice witli many gardeners, more harmful than beneficial, to cut the leaves of the leek as it grows, their object being to increase the size of the stalk. 174 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. wanted to bulb before being cut, when they have grown to some size they are transplanted to another bed, the extremities of the leaves being snipped off without touching the white part, and the heads stripped of the outer coats. The ancients were in the habit of placing a stone or potsherd upon the leek, to make the head grow all the larger, and the same with the bulbs as well; but at the present day it is the usual practice to move the fibrous roots gently with the weeding-hook, so that by being bent they may nourish the plant, and not withdraw the juices from it. It is a remarkable fact, that, though the leek stands in need of manure and a rich soil, it has a particular aversion to water; and yet its nature depends very much upon the natural proper- ties of the soil. The most esteemed leeks are those grown in Egypt, and next to them those of Ostia and Aricia.64 Of the leek for cutting, there are two varieties: that with grass- green 65 leaves and incisions distinctly traced on them, and the leek with paler and rounder leaves, the incisions being more lightly marked. There is a story told, that Mela,66 a member of the Equestrian order, being accused of mal-administration by order of the Emperor Tiberius, swallowed in his despair leek-juice to the amount of three denarii in weight of silver, and expired upon the spot without the slightest symptom of pain. It is said, however, that a larger dose than this is pro- ductive of no injurious effects whatever.67 CHAP. 34. — GARLIC. Garlic w is generally supposed, in the country more particu- larly, to be a good specific69 for numerous maladies. The-ex- 64 Martial, B. xiii. Epig. 19, mentions the leeks of Aricia. 65 Fee thinks that this may be the wild leek, which is commonly found as a weed in Spain. 60 M. Annaeus Mela, the brother of L. Seneca the philosopher, and the father of the poet Lucan. 67_ Though Pliny would seem inclined, as Fee says, to credit this story, the juice of the leek is in reality quite harmless. 63 The Allium sativum of Linnaeus. It was much eaten by the Roman soldiers and sailors, and by the field labourers. It is in reference to this vegetable, " more noxious than hemlock," that Horace exclaims— " 0 dura mcssorum ilia!" 69 It was thought to have the property of neutralizing the venom of Chap. 34.] OARLIC. 175 ternal coat consists of membranes of remarkable fineness, which are universally discarded when the vegetable is used; the inner part being formed by the union of several cloves, each of which has also a separate coat of its own. The flavour of it is pun- gent, and the more numerous the cloves the more pungent it is. Like the onion, it imparts an offensive smell to the breath ; but this is not the case when it is cooked. The various species of garlic are distinguished by the periods at which they ripen: the early kind becomes fit for use in sixty days. Another dis- tinction, too, is formed by the relative size of the heads. Ulpi- cum,70 also, generally known to the Greeks as " Cyprian garlic," belongs to this class; by some persons it is called " antisco- rodon," and in Africa more particularly it holds a high rank among the dishes of the rural population; it is of a larger size than ordinary garlic. When beaten up with oil and vinegar, it is quite surprising what a quantity of creaming foam is pro- duced. There are some persons who recommend that neither ulpicum nor garlic should be sown on level ground, but say that they should be planted in little mounds trenched up, at a distance of three feet apart. Between each clove, they say, there should be a distance of four fingers left, and as soon as ever three leaves are visible, the heads should be hoed; the oftener they are hoed, the larger the size they will attain. When they begin to ripen, the stalks are bent downwards, and covered over with earth, a precaution which effectually prevents them from running to leaf. In cold soils, it is considered better to plant them in spring than in autumn. For the purpose of depriving all these plants of their strong smell, it is recommended to set them when the moon is below the horizon, and to take them up when she is in conjunction. Independently of these precautions, we find Menander, one of the Greek writers, recommending those who have been eating garlic to eat immediately afterwards a root of beet serpents; and though persons who had just eaten of it were not allowed to enter the Temple of the Mother of the Gods, it was prescribed to those who wished to be purified and absolved from crimes. It is still held in considerable esteem in the south of Europe, where, by the lower classes, great medicinal virtues are ascribed to it. 70 Theophrastus says, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4, that this is the largest of all the varieties of garlic. 176 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. roasted on hot coals; if this is done, he says, the strong smell of the garlic will be effectually neutralized. Some persons are of opinion, that the proper period for planting garlic and ulpicum is between the festival "of the Compitalia71 and that of the Saturnalia." Garlic, too, can be grown from seed, but it is very slow, in such case, in coming to maturity ; for in the first year, the head attains the size only of that of a leek, in the second, it separates into cloves, and only in the third it arrives at maturity ; there are some, however, who think that garlic grown this way is the best. Garlic should never be allowed to run to seed, but the stalk should be twisted, to promote its growth, and to make the head attain a larger size. If garlic or onions are wanted to keep some time, the heads should be dipped in salt water, made luke-warm; by doing this, they will be all the better for keeping, though quite worthless for reproduction. Some persons content themselves with hanging them over burning coals, and are of opinion that this is quite sufficient to prevent them from sprouting : for it is a well-known fact, that both garlic and onions sprout when out of the ground, and that after throwing out their thin shoots they shrivel away to nothing. Some persons are of opinion, too, that the best way of keeping garlic is by storing it in chaff. There is a kind73 of garlic that grows spontaneously in the fields, and is known by the name of " alum." To preserve the seeds that are sown there from the remorseless ravages of the birds, this plant is scattered over the ground, being first boiled, to prevent it from shooting. As soon as ever they have eaten of it, the birds become so stupefied as to be taken with the hand even,74 and if they remain but a few moments only on the spot, they fall fast asleep. There is a wild garlic, too, generally known as " bear's" garlic;75 it has exactly the smell of millet, with a very small head and large leaves. 71 Second of May. 72 Seventeenth of December. 73 The Allium oleraceum of Linnaeus. 71 Fee refuses credence to this story. 75 " Ursinum." The Allium ursinum of Linnrous, Instead, however, of having the comparatively mild smell of millet, its odour is powerful; so much so, as to impart a strong flavour to the milk of the cows that eat of it. It is very common, Fee says, in nearly every part of France. Chap. 35.] GROWTH OF PLANTS. 177 CHAP. 35. (7.)—THE NUMBER OF DAYS REQUIRED FOR THE RE- SPECTIVE PLANTS TO MAKE THEIR APPEARANCE ABOVE GROUND. Among the garden76 plants which make their appearance most speedily above ground, are ocimum, blite, the turnip, and rocket; for they appear above the surface the third day after they are sown. Anise, again, comes up on the fourth day, the lettuce on the fifth, the radish on the sixth, the cucumber and the gourd on the seventh—the cucumber rather the first of the two—cresses and mustard on the fifth, beet on the sixth day in summer and the tenth in winter, orage on the eighth, onions on the nineteenth or twentieth, and scallions on the tenth or twelfth. Coriander, again, is more stubborn in its growth, cunila and wild marjoram do not appear till after the thirtieth day, and parsley comes up with the greatest difficulty of all, for at the very earliest it is forty days before it shows itself, and in most instances as much as fifty. The age,77 too, of the seed is of some importance in this re- Bpect; for fresh seed comes up more rapidly in the case of the leek, the scallion, the cucumber, and the gourd, while in that of parsley, beet, cardamum, cunila, wild marjoram, and co- riander, seed that has been kept for some time is the best. There is one remarkable circumstance 7S in connection with the seed of beet; it does not all germinate in the first year, but some of it in the second, and some in the third even ; hence it is that a considerable quantity of seed produces only a very moderate crop. Some plants produce only in the year in which they are set, and some, again, for successive years, parsley, leeks, and scallions79 for instance ; indeed, these plants, when once sown, retain their fertility, and produce for many years. 76 The whole nearly of this Chapter is borrowed from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. cc. 1 and 2. It must be borne in mind that what the Romans called the "third" day would with us be the "second," and so on ; as in reckoning, they included the day reckoned from, as well as the day reckoned to. 77 Fee remarks, that most of the observations made in this Chapter are well founded. 7s This statement, Fee remarks, is entirely a fiction, it being impos- sible for seed to acquire, the second year, a faculty of germinating which it has not had in the first. 79 This is true, but, as Fee observes, the instances might be greatly extended. VOL. IV. H 178 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. CHAP. 36.—THE NATURE OF THE VARIOUS SEEDS. In most plants the seed is round, in some oblong ; it is broad and foliaceous in some, orage for instance, while in others it is narrow and grooved, as in cummin. There are differences, also, in the colour of seeds, which is either black or white; while some seeds are woody and hard, in radishes, mustard, and rape, the seeds are enclosed in pods. In parsley, corian- der, anise, fennel, and cummin, the seed has no covering at all, while in blite, beet, orage, and ocimum, it has an outer coat, and in the lettuce it is covered with a fine down. There is no seed more prolific than that of ocimum ;80 it is generally re- commended81 to sow it with the utterance of curses and im- precations, the result being that it grows all the better for it; the earth, too, is rammed down when it is sown, and prayers offered that the seed may never come up. The seeds which are enveloped in an outer coat, are dried with considerable diffi- culty, that of ocimum more particularly; hence it is that all these seeds are dried artificially, their fruitfulness being greatly promoted thereby. Plants in general come up better when the seed is sown in heaps than when it is scattered broad-cast: leeks, in fact, and parsley are generally grown by sowing the seed in little bags :62 in the case of parsley, too, a hole is made with the dibble, and a layer of manure inserted. All garden plants grow either from seed or from slips, and some from both seed and suckers, such as rue, wild marjoram, and ocimum,83 for example—this last being usually cut when it is a palm in height. Some kinds, again, are reproduced from both seed and root, as in the case of onions, garlic, and bulbs, and those other plants of which, though annuals them- selves, the roots retain their vitality. In those plants which grow from the root, it lives for a considerable time, and throws out offsets, as in bulbs, scallions, and squills for example.— 80 Fee says that basil, the Ocimum basilicum of Linnaeus, is not meant here, nor yet the leguminous plant that was known to the Bomans by that name. 8l A singular superstition truly! Theophrastus says the same in rela- tion to cummin seed. 82 This is not done at the present day. 83 This can hardly be our basil, the Ocimum basilicum, for that plant is an annual. Chap. 37.] DIFFERENT KINDS OF PLANTS. 179 Others, again, throw out offsets, though not from a bulbous root, such as parsley and beet, for instance. When the stalk is cut, with the exception M of those which have not a rough stem, nearly all these plants put forth fresh shoots, a thing that may be seen in ocimum,85 the radish,88 and the lettuce,87 which are in daily use among us; indeed, it is generally thought that the lettuce which is grown from a fresh sprouting, is the sweetest. The radish, too, is more pleasant eating when the leaves have been removed before it has begun to run to stalk. The same is the case, too, with rape; for when the leaves are taken off, and the roots well covered up with earth, it grows all the larger for it, and keeps in good preservation till the en- suing summer. CHAP. 37.--PLANTS OF WHICH THERE IS BUT A SINGLE KIND. PLANTS OF WHICH THERE ARE SEVERAL KINDS. Of ocimum, lapathum, blite, cresses, rocket, orage, coriander, and anise respectively, there is but a single kind, these plants being the same everywhere, and no better in one place than in another. It is the general belief that stolen88 rue grows the best, while, on the other hand, bees89 that have been stolen will never thrive. Wild mint, cat-mint, endive, and penny- royal, will grow even without any cultivation. With refer- ence to the plants of which we have already spoken, or shall have occasion to speak, there are numerous varieties of many of them, parsley more particularly. (8.) As to the kind of parsley90 which grows spontaneously in moist localities, it is known by the name of " helioselinum;"" it has a single leaf92 only, and is not rough at the edges. In 81 Fee suggests that Pliny may have intended here to except the Mono- cotyledons, for otherwise his assertion would be false. 85 This, Fee says, cannot be basil, for when cut it will not shoot again. 80 The radish is not mentioned in the parallel passage by Theophrastus. 67 The lettuce, as Fee remarks, will not shoot again when cut down. 88 This puerility, Fee observes, runs counter to the more moral adage, that " stolen goods never prosper." 89 SeeB. xi. c. 15. 30 This variety, Fee says, is the Apium graveolens of Linnaeus. 91 Or marsh-parsley. 92 Pliny has mistranslated, or rather misread, the passage of Theo- phrastus, who says, B. vii. c. 6, that this kind of parsley is (iav6v\\ov, N 2 189 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. dry places, we find growing the kind known as " hipposeli- num,"93 consisting of numerous leaves, similar to helioselinum. A third variety is the oreoselinum,94 with leaves like those of hemlock, and a thin, fine, root, the seed being similar to that of-anise, only somewhat smaller. The differences, again, that are found to exist in cultivated parsley,95 consist in the comparative density of the leaves, the crispness or smoothness of their edges, and the thinness or thickness of the stem, as the case may be : in some kinds, again, the stem is white, in others purple, and in others mottled. CHAP. 38.--THE NATURE AND VARIETIES OF TWENTY-THREK GARDEN PLANTS. THE LETTUCE ; ITS DIFFERENT VAR1ETIE8. The Greeks have distinguished three varieties of the lettuce ;* the first with a stalk so large, that small garden gates,97 it is said, have been made of it: the leaf of this lettuce is some- what larger than that of the herbaceous, or green lettuce, but extremely narrow, the nutriment seeming to be expended on the other parts of the plant. The second kind is that with a rounded98 stalk; and the third is the low, squat lettuce,99 gene- rally known as the Laconian lettuce. " thinly covered with leaves," and not fiovofvWov, " having a single leaf." Palladius {In Aprili.) translates it, " molli folio," "with a soft leaf;" but, though Fee commends this version, it is not correct. 93 Or "horse-parsley." Hardouin takes this to be Macedonian parsley, the Bubon Macedonicum of Linnaeus. Fee, following C. Bauhin and Sprengel, is inclined to identify it with Macerona. the Smyrnium olusa- trum of Linnaeus. 94 Or "mountain-parsley." Probably the Athamanta oreoselinum of Linnaeus. Some commentators, however, take it to be the Laserpitium formosum of Wilidenow. Sprengel identifies it with the Selinum oreosu- linum of Linnaeus. 93 The Apium petroselinum, probably, of Linnaeus. 96 The Lactuca sativa of Linnaeus. This account of the Greek varieties is from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4. 97 This, no doubt, is fabulous, and on a par with the Greek tradition that Adonis concealed himself under the leaves of a lettuce, when he was attacked and killed by the wild boar. The Coss, or Boman, lettuce, as Fee remarks, is the largest of all, and that never exceeds fifteen to twenty inches i» height, leaves, stalk and all. 3S This would seem not to be a distinct variety, as the rounded stalk is a cnaracteristic of them all. 99 " Sessile." A cabbage-lettuce, probably ; though Hardouin dissents from that opinion. Chap. 38.] THE NATURE OF GARDEN PLANTS. 181 Some persons' have made distinctions in reference to their respective colours, and the times for sowing them: the black lettuce is sown in the month of January, the white in March, and the red in April; and they are fit for transplanting, all of them, at the end of a couple of months. Those, again, who have pursued these enquiries even further than this, have dis- tinguished a still greater number of varieties of them—the purple, the crisped, the Cappadocian,6 and the Greek lettuce, this last having a longer leaf than the rest, and a broad stalk : in addition to which, there is one with a long, narrow leaf, very similar to endive in appearance. The most inferior kind, however, of all, is the one to which the Greeks, censuring it for its bitterness, have given the name of " picris."3 There is still another variety, a kind of white lettuce, called " meconis,"4 a name which it derives from the abundance of milk, of a narcotic quality, which it produces; though, in fact, it is gene- rally thought that they are all of them of a soporific tendency. In former times, this last was the only kind of lettuce that was held in any esteem5 in Italy, the name " lactuca " having been given it on account of the milk6 which it contains. The purple kind, with a very large root, is generally known as the Csecilian7 lettuce; while the round one, with an ex- tremely diminutive root and broad leaves, is known to some persons as the "astytis,"8 and to others as the " eunychion," it having the effect, in a remarkable degree, of quenching the amorous propensities. Indeed, they are, all of them, possessed of cooling and refreshing properties, for which reason it is, that they are so highly esteemed in summer; they have the effect, also, of removing from the stomach distaste for food, and of promoting the appetite. At all events, we find it stated, that the late Emperor Augustus, when ill, was saved _ l Columella more particularly. There are still varieties known respec- tively as the black, brown, white, purple, red, and blood-red lettuce. 2 Martial, B. v. Epig. 79, gives to this lettuce the epithet of " vile." 3 It has been suggested that this may have been wild endive, the Cicho- reum intubus of botanists. 4 Or "poppy-lettuce." See B. xx. c. 26. The Lactuca virosa, pro- bably, of modern botany, the milky juice of which strongly resembles opium in its effects. 5 For its medicinal qualities, most probably. 6 "Lac." 7 So called, Columella informs us, from Caecilius Metellus, Consul A.u.c. 503. 8 Meaning " antaphrodisiac." The other name has a kindred meaning. 1S2 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. on one occasion,9 thanks to the skill of his physician, Musa,10 by eating lettuces, a food which the excessive scruples of his former physician, C. iEmilius, had forbidden him. At the present day, however, lettuces have risen into such high esti- mation, that a method has been discoveTed even of preserving them during the months in which they are out of season, by keeping them in oxymel.11 It is generally supposed, also, that lettuces have the effect of making blood. In addition to the above varieties, there is another kind of lettuce known as the "goats' lettuce,"12 of which we shall have occasion to make further mention when we come to the medi- cinal plants : at the moment, too, that I am writing this, a new species of cultivated lettuce has been introduced, known as the Cilician lettuce, and held in very considerable esteem; the leaf of it is similar to that of the Cappadocian lettuce, except that it is crisped, and somewhat larger. CHAP. 39.—ENDIVE. Endive, though it cannot exactly be said to be of the same genus as the lettuce, still cannot be pronounced to belong to any other.13 It is a plant better able to endure the rigours of the winter than the lettuce,14 and possessed of a more acrid taste, though the flavour of the stalk15 is equally agreeable. Endive is sown at the beginning of spring, and transplanted at the end of that season. There is also a kind of spread- ing16 endive, known In Egypt as "cichorium,"17 of which we shall have occasion18 to speak elsewhere more at length. 9 a.u.c. 731. 10 Antonius Musa. For this service he received a large sum of money, and the permission to Avear a gold ring, and a statue was erected by pub- lic subscription in honour of him, near that of iEsculapius. He is sup- posed to be the person described by Virgil in the iEneid, B. xii. 1. 390, et seq., under the name of lapis. See B. xxix. c. 5 of this work. 11 Vinegar and honey ; a mixture very ill-adapted, as Fee observes, to preserve either the medicinal or alimentary properties of the lettuce. 12 "Caprina lactuca." See B. xx. c. 24. 13 Endive, in fact, belongs to the same family as the lettuce. 14 This is not the case; unless, indeed, under the name " lactuca," Pliny would include several plants, that in reality are not lettuces. 15 The stalk, in fact, is more intensely bitter than the leaves. 16 " Erraticum.'' Wild endive. 17 From which comes the French " chicoree," and our '•' chicory," or " succory." 18 In'B. xx. c. 29, and B. xxi. c. 52. Chap. 40.] BEET: TOUR VARIETIES OF IT. 183 A method has been discovered of preserving all the thyrsi or leaves of the lettuce in pots, the object being to have them fresh when wanted for boiling. Lettuces may be sown all the year19 through in a good soil, well-watered and carefully ma- nured f0 two months being allowed to intervene between sow- ing and transplanting, and two more between transplanting and gathering them when ripe. The rule is, however, to sow them just after the winter solstice, and to transplant when the west winds begin to prevail, or else to sow at this latter period, and to plant out at the vernal equinox. The white lettuce is the best adapted for standing the rigours of the winter. All the garden plants are fond of moisture ; lettuces thrive, more particularly, when well manured, and endive even more so. Indeed, it is found an excellent plan to plant them out with the roots covered up in manure, and to keep up the supply, the earth being cleared away for that purpose. Some, again, have another method of increasing their size ; they cut them21 down when they have reached half a foot in height, and cover them with fresh swine's dung. It is the general opinion that those lettuces only will admit of being blanched which are produced from white seed; and even then, as soon as they begin to grow, sand from the sea-shore should be spread oyer them, care being taken to tie the leaves as soon as ever they begin to come to any size. CHAP. 40.—BEET : FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. Beet22 is the smoothest of all the garden plants. The Greeks distinguish two kinds of beet, according to the colour, the black and the white. The last, which is the kind generally preferred, has but very little seed, and is generally known as the Sicilian23 beet; just as it is the white lettuce that is held in the highest degree of esteem. Our people, also, distinguish two varieties of beet, the spring and the autumn kinds, so 19 The usual times for sowing the lettuce are before winter and after February. 20 An excess of manure is injurious to the lettuce. 21 As already stated in a previous Note (p. 179), lettuces when cut dov?n will not grow again, with the exception of a few worthless lateral branches. 22 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 4. 23 Not the Beta sicla of modern botany, Fee thinks. The black beet of the ancients would be one of the dark purple kinds. 184 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. called from the periods of sowing; although sometimes we find beet sown in June even. This is a plant, too, that ia sometimes transplanted; and it thrives all the better, like the lettuce, if the roots are well covered with manure, in a moist soil. Beet is mostly eaten24 with lentils and beans ; it is pre- pared also in the same way as cabbage, with mustard more particularly, the pungency of which relieves its insipidity. Medical men are of opinion that beet is a more unwholesome-5 vegetable than cabbage; hence it is that I never remember seeing it served at table. Indeed, there are some persons who scruple to taste it even, from a conviction that it is a food suitable only for persons of a robust constitution. Beet is a vegetable with twofold characteristics, partaking of the nature of the cabbage in its leaves and resembling a bulb in the root; that which grows to the greatest breadth being the most highly esteemed. This plant, like the lettuce, is made to grow to head by putting a light weight upon it the moment it begins to assume its proper colour. Indeed, there is no garden plant that grows to a larger head than this, as it sometimes spreads to a couple of feet in breadth, the nature of the soil contributing in a very considerable degree to its size: those found in the territory of Circeii attain the largest size. Some persons26 think that the best time for sowing beet is when the pomegranate is in flower, and are of opinion that it ought to be transplanted as soon as it has thrown out five leaves. There is a singular difference—if indeed it really exists—between the two varieties of beet, the white kind being remarkable for its purgative qualities, and the black being equally astringent. When wine in the vat has been deteriorated by assuming a flavour like27 that of cabbage, its original flavour is restored, it is said, by plunging beet leaves into it. 21 It was only the leaf of beet, and not the root, that was eaten by the ancients. From Martial, B. xiii. Epig. 10, we learn that the leaves were preserved in a mixture of wine and pepper. 25 Though not positively unwholesome, the leaves would form an insipid dish, that would not agree with all stomachs. Galen says that it cannot be eaten in great quantities with impunity, but Diphilus the physician, as quoted by Athenaeus, B. ix. c. 3, says the reverse. Some MSS. read here " innocentiorem," " more harmless." 26 Columella says the same, De Be Bust. B. xi. c. 3. 27 Fee would seem to render this, " when wine has been spoiled by cab- bage leaves being mixed with it." Chap. 41.] CABBAGES; SEVERAL VARIETIES OF THEM. 185 chat. 41—cabbages; the several varieties of them. Cabbage and coleworts, which at the present day are the most highly esteemed of all the garden vegetables, were held in little repute, I find, among the Greeks; but Cato,28 on the other hand, sings the wondrous praises of the cabbage, the medicinal properties of which we shall duly enlarge29 upon when we come to treat of that subject. Cato distinguishes three varieties of the cabbage; the first, a plant with leaves wide open, and a large stalk; a second, with crisped leaves, to which he gives the name of "apiaca;"30 and a third, with a thin stalk, and a smooth, tender leaf, which with him ranks the lowest of all. Cabbages may be sown the whole year through, as we find that they are cut at all periods of the year; the best time, however, for sowing them is at the autumnal equinox, and they are usually transplanted as soon as five leaves are visible. In the ensuing spring after the first cut- ting, the plant yields sprouts, known to us as "cymae."31 These sprouts, in fact, are small shoots thrown out from the main stem, of a more delicate and tender quality than the cabbage itself. The exquisite palate, however, of Apicius33 rejected these sprouts for the table, and his example was fol- lowed by the fastidious Drusus Caesar; who did not escape, however, the censures of his father, Tiberius, for being so over-nice. After the cymae have made their appearance the cabbage throws out its summer and autumn shoots, and then its winter ones; after which, a new crop of cymae is produced, there being no plant so productive as this, until, at last, it is quite exhausted by its extreme fertility. A second time for sowing cabbages is immediately after the vernal equinox, the plants of this growth being transplanted at the end of spring, that they may not run up into sprouts before coming to a top : and a third sowing takes place about the summer solstice, the transplanting being done in summer if the soil is moist, but, if too dry, in autumn. When moisture and manure are sup- plied in small quantities, the flavour of the cabbage is all the 28 De Be Bust. cc. 156, 157. 29 In B. xx. c. 33. 30 Or " parsley" cabbage, so called from its crisped leaves: the curled colewort, or Brassica viridis crispa of C. Bauhin. 31 The same as our Brussels sprouts. Columella, however, B. xi. c. 3, and B. xii. c. 7, speaks of the Brassica cyma as a distinct variety of cabbage. 32 See B. viii. c. 77. 186 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XIX. more agreeable, but when they are supplied in greater abun- dance, the plants attain a larger size. Asses' dung is the best adapted for its growth. The cabbage, too, is one of those articles so highly esteemed by epicures; for which reason it will not be amiss if we speak of it at somewhat greater length. To obtain plants equally remarkable for their size and flavour, care must be taken first of all to sow the seed in ground that has had a couple of turn- ings up, and then to follow up the shoots as they appear above ground by moulding them up, care being taken to throw up the earth over them as they increase in luxuriance, and to let nothing but the summit appear above the surface. This kind is known as the Tritian33 cabbage : in money and labour it costs twice as much as any of the others. The other varieties of the cabbage34 are numerous—there is the Cumanian cabbage, with leaves that lie close to the ground, and a wide, open head; the Aricinian33 cabbage, too, of no greater height, but with more numerous leaves and thinner— this last is looked upon as the most useful of them all, for beneath nearly all of the leaves there are small shoots thrown out, peculiar to this variety. The cabbage, again, of Pompeii35 is considerably taller, the stalk, which is thin at the root, increasing in thickness as it rises among the leaves, which are fewer in number and narrower; the great merit of this cab- bage is its remarkable tenderness, although it is not able to stand the cold. The cabbage of Bruttium,37 on the other hand, thrives all the better for cold; the leaves of it are remarkably large, the stalk thin, and the flavour pungent. The leaves, again, of the Sabine38 cabbage are crisped to such a degree as to excite our surprise, and their thickness is such as to quite exhaust the stem ; in sweetness, however, it is said to surpass all the others. There have lately ejme into fashion the cabbages known as the " Lacuturres ;"39 they are grown in the valley of Aricia, 83 The Brassica oleracea capitata of Lamarck, and its varieties. 31 The ordinary cabbage, or Brassica oleracea of Linnaeus. 35 A variety, Fee thinks, of the Lacuturrian cabbage. 38 The Brassica oleracea botrytis of Linnaeus, the cauliflower. 37 Or Calabrian cabbage : it has not been identified. 38 The Brassica oleracea Sabellica of Linnaeus, or fringed cabbage. 33 Or "Lake-towers." The turnip-cabbage or rape-colewort, the Bras- sion oleracea gongyloides of Linnaeus. Chap. 41.] CABBAGES ; SEVERAL VARIETIES OF THEM. 187 where there was formerly a lake, now no longer in existence, and a tower which is still standing. The head of this cabbage is very large, and the leaves are almost without number, some of them being round and smooth, and others long and sinewy; indeed, there is no cabbage that runs to a larger head than this, with the sole exception of the Tritian variety, which has a head sometimes as much as a foot in thickness, and throws out its cymae the latest of all. In all kinds of cabbages, hoar-frost contributes very mate- rially to their sweetness ; but it is apt to be productive of con- siderable injury, if care is not taken, to protect the pith by cutting them aslant. Those plants which are intended for seed are never cut. There is another kind, again, that is held in peculiar esteem, and which never exceeds the height of an herbaceous plant; it is known by the name of " halmyridia,"40 from the circum- stance of its growing on the sea-shore41 only. It will keep green and fresh during a long voyage even, if care is taken not to let it touch the ground from the moment that it is cut, but to put it into oil-vessels lately dried, and then to bung them so as to effectually exclude all air. There are some42 who are of opinion, that the plant will come to maturity all the sooner if some sea-weed is laid at the root when it is transplanted, or else as much pounded nitre as can be taken up with three fingers; and others, again, sprinkle the leaves with trefoil seed and nitre pounded together.43 Nitre, too, preserves the green- ness of cabbage when cooked, a result which is equally ensured by the Apician mode of boiling, or in other words, by steeping the plants in oil and salt before they are cooked. There is a method of grafting vegetables by cutting the shoots and the stalk, and then inserting in the pith the seed 40 Generally thought to be the Crambe maritima of botanists, sea-cab- bage, or sea-kale. Some, however, take it to be the Convolvulus solda- nella of Linnaeus. See B. xx. c. 38. 41 From «Xc, the " sea." 42 He alludes to the statement made by Columella, probably, De Re Rust. B. xi. c. 3. 43 Fee remarks, that probably we here find the first germs of the prac- tice which resulted in the making ofsour-krout (sauer-kraut). Dalechamps censures Pliny for the mention of trefoil here, the passage which he has translated speaking not of that plant, but of the trefoil or three-leaved cabbage., 188 PLINY* S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX of another plant; a plan which has been adopted with the wild cucumber even. There is another kind of wild cabbage, also, the lapsana,44 which has become famous since the triumphs of the late Emperor Julius, in consequence of the songs and jokes of his soldiers more particularly; for in the alternate lines sung by them, they used to reproach him for having made them live on lapsana at the siege of Dyrrhachium, and to rally him upon the parsimonious scale on which he was in the habit of recom- pensing their services. The lapsana is nothing more than a wild cyma.45 CHAP. 42.--WILD AND CULTIVATED ASPARAGUS. Of all the garden plants, asparagus is the one that requires the most delicate attention in its cultivation. We have already46 spoken at considerable length of its origin, when treating of the wild plants, and have mentioned that Cato47 recommends it to be grown in reed-beds. There is another kind, again, of a more uncultivated nature than the garden asparagus, but less pungent than corruda ;48 it grows upon the mountains in dif- ferent countries, and the plains of Upper Germany are quite full of it, so much so, indeed, that it was a not unhappy remark of Tiberius Caesar, that a weed grows there which bears a re- markably strong resemblance to asparagus. That which grows spontaneously upon the island of Nesis, off the coast of Cam- pania, is looked upon as being by far the best of all. Garden asparagus is reproduced from roots,49 the fibres of which are exceedingly numerous, and penetrate to a consider- able depth. When it first puts forth its shoots, it is green; these in time lengthen out into stalks, which afterwards throw 44 The same as the " chara," probably, mentioned by Caesar, Bell. Civ, B. iii. Hardouin thinks that it is the common parsnip, while Clusius and Cuvier would identify it with the Crambe Tatarica of Hungary, the roots of which are eaten in time of scarcity at the present day. Fee suggests that it may belong to the Brassica napo-brassica of Linnaeus, the rape- colewort. See B. xx. c. 37. 45 Or cabbage-sprout. 46 In B. xvi. c. 67. The Asparagus officinalis of Linnaeus. 47 De Be Bust. c. 161. 48 Or wild sperage. See B. xvi. c. 67 ; also B. xx. c. 43. 49 " Spongiis." Fee is at a loss to know why the name " spongia" should have been given to the roots of asparagus. Probably, as Facciolati says, from their growing close and matted together. See the end of this Chapter. Chap. 42.J WILD AND CULTIVATED ASPARAGUS. 189 out streaked branches from the head: asparagus admits, also, of being grown from seed. Cato " has treated of no subject with greater care than this, the last Chapter of his work being devoted to it, from which we may conclude that it was quite new to him, and a subject which had only very recently occupied his attention. He re- commends that the ground prepared for it should be a moist or dense soil, the seed being set at intervals of half a foot every way, to avoid treading upon the heads; the seed, he says, Bhould be put two or three into each hole, these being made with the dibble as the line runs—for in his day, it should be remembered, asparagus was only grown from seed—this being done about the vernal equinox. It requires, he adds, to be abundantly manured, and to be kept well hoed, due care being taken not to pull up the young plants along with the weeds. The first year, he says, the plants must be protected from the severity of the winter with a covering of straw, care being taken to uncover them in the spring, and to hoe and stub up the ground about them. In the spring of the third year, the plants must be set fire to, and the earlier the period at which the fire is applied, the better they will thrive. Hence it is, that as reed-beds61 grow all the more rapidly after being fired, asparagus is found to be a crop remarkably well suited for growing with them. The same author recommends, however, that asparagus should not be hoed before the plants have made their appearance above-ground, for fear of disturbing the roots ; and he says that in gathering the heads, they should be cut close to the root, and not broken off at the surface, a method which is sure to make them run to stalk and die. They should be cut, he says, until they are left to run to seed, and after the seed is ripe, in spring they must be fired, care being taken, as soon as they appear again, to hoe and manure them as before. After eight or nine j-ears, he says, when the plants have be- come old, they must be renewed, after digging and manuring the ground, by replanting the roots at intervals of a foot, care being taken to employ sheep's dung more particularly for the purpose, other kinds of manure being apt to produce weeds. No method of cultivating this plant that has since been tried has been found more eligible than this, with the sole exception that the seed is now sown about the ides of February, by laying 50 De Be Bust. c. 161. sl See B. xvii. c. 47. 190 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. it in heaps in small trenches, after steeping it a considerable time in manure ; the result of which is that the roots become matted, and form into spongy tufts, which are planted out at intervals of a foot after the autumnal equinox, the plants con- tinuing to be productive so long as ten years even. There is no soil more favourable to the growth of asparagus, than that of the gardens of Kavenna.52 We have already M spoken of the corruda, by which term I mean the wild asparagus, by the Greeks called " orminos," or " myacanthos," as well as by other names. I find it stated, that if rams' horns are pounded, and then buried in the ground, asparagus will come up.54 CHAP. 43.—THISTLES. It really might have been thought that I had now given an account of all the vegetable productions that are held in any degree of esteem, did there not still remain one plant, the cultivation of which is extremely profitable, and of which I am unable to speak without a certain degree of shame. For it is a well-known fact, that some small plots of land, planted with thistles,55 in the vicinity of Great Carthage and of Cor- duba more particularly, produce a yearly income of six thousand sesterces ;56 this being the way in which we make the mon- strous productions even of the earth subservient to our glut- tonous appetites, and that, too, when the very four-footed brutes57 instinctively refuse to touch them. Thistles are grown two different ways, from plants set in autumn, and from seed sown before the nones of March ;S9 in which latter case they are transplanted before the ides of No- vember,59 or, where the site is a cold one, about the time that the west winds prevail. They are sometimes manured even, 52 On the contrary, Martial says that the asparagus of Eavenna was no better than so much wild asparagus. « In B. xvi. c. 67. _ See also c. 19 of this Book. 5* Dioscorides mentions this absurdity, but refuses to credit it. 55 Probably the artichoke, the Cinara scolymus of Linnams. See fur- ther on this subject, B. xx. c. 99. 56 About £24 sterling. " Sestertia" has been suggested, which would make the sum a thousand times as much. 5/ The ass, of course, excepted, which is fond of thistles. 53 Seventh of March. 59 Thirteenth of November. Chap. 45.] RUE. 191 and if60 such is the will of heaven, grow all the better for it. They are preserved, too, in a mixture of honey and vinegar,61 with the addition of root of laser and cummin—so that a day may not pass without our having thistles at table.62 CHAP. 44.--OTHER PLANTS THAT ARE SOWN IN THE GARDEN : OCIMUM ; ROCKET ; AND NASTURTIUM. For the remaining plants a brief description will suffice. The best time for sowing ocimum,63 it is said, is at the festival of the Parilia ;64 though some say that it may be done in autumn as well, and recommend, when it is sown in winter, to drench the seed thoroughly with vinegar. Rocket,65 too, and nastur- tium66 may be grown with the greatest facility either in sum- mer or winter. Rocket, more particularly, is able to stand the cold, and its properties are quite different from those of the lettuce, as it is a great provocative of lust. Hence it is that we are in the habit of mixing these two plants in our dishes, the excess of cold in the one being compensated by the equal degree of heat in the other. Nasturtium has received that name from67 the smarting sensation which its pungency causes to the nostrils, and hence it is that a certain notion of smartness has attached itself to the word, it having become quite a proverbial saying, that a sluggish man should eat nasturtium, to arouse him from his torpidity. In Arabia, it is said, this plant attains a size that is quite marvellous. chap. 45.—RUE. Rue,63 too, is generally sown while the west winds prevail, as well as just after the autumnal equinox. This plant has an extreme aversion to cold, moisture, and dung; it loves dry, sunny localities, and a soil more particularly that is rich in brick clay ; it requires to be nourished, too, with ashes, which 60 " Si Dis placet." 61 Oxymel. 02 This is evidently said contemptuously. 63 See further as to the identity of this plant, B. xx. c. 48. 64 Twenty-second of April. 65 Brassica eruca of Linnaeus. See B. xx. c. 49. 6S Cresses, or nosesmart, the Lepidium sativum of Linnaeus. See B. xx. c. 50. 67 " Quod nasum torqueat." 03 The Buta graveolens of Linnaeus. See B. xx. c. 51. This offensive herb, though looked upon by the Bomans as a vegetable, is now only re- garded as an active medicament of almost poisonous qualities. 192 pliny's natural history. [Book XIX should be mixed with the seed as well, as a preservative against the attacks of caterpillars. The ancients held rue in peculiar esteem ; for I find that honied wine flavoured with rue was distributed to the people, in his consulship,69 by Cornelius Cethegus, the colleague of Quintus Tlamininus, after the closing of the Comitia. This plant has a great liking70 for the fig-tree, and for that tree only; indeed, it never thrives better than when grown beneath that tree. It is generally grown from slips, the lower end of which is inserted in a perforated7' bean, which holds it fast, and so nurtures the young plant with its juices. It also reproduces itself;72 for the ends of the branches bending downwards, the moment they reach the ground, they take root again. Ocimum73 is of a very similar nature to rue, except that it dries with greater difficulty. When rue has once gained strength, there is considerable diffi- culty in stubbing it, as it causes itching ulcerations on the hands, if they are not covered or previously protected by being rubbed with oil. Its leaves, too, are preserved, being packed in bundles for keeping. CHAP. 46.—PARSLEY. Parsley is sown immediately after the vernal equinox, the seed being lightly beaten74 first in a mortar. It is thought that, by doing this, the parsley will be all the more crisped, or else by taking care to beat it down when sown with a roller or the feet. It is a peculiarity of this plant, that it changes colour: it has the honour, in Achaia, of forming the wreath of the victors in the sacred contests of the Nemean Games. chap. 47.—MINT. It is at the same season, too, that mint75 is transplanted; or, 69 a.u.c. 421. 70 It so happens that it thrives best on the same soil as the fig-tree. 71 This practice has no beneficial effect whatever. 72 This is not the fact; for its branches never come in contact with the ground. 73 Pliny has derived the greater part of this Chapter from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B, vii. c. 5, and Columella, B. xi. c. 3. 74 For the purpose of separating the seeds, which are slightly joined to- gether ; and of disengaging a portion of the perisperm. At the present day this is not done, for fear of bursting the kernel of the seed. 75 See B. xx. c. 53. Chap. 48.] OLUSATRUM. 1.93 if it has not yet germinated, the matted tufts of the old roots are used for the purpose. This plant, too, is no less fond of a humid soil than parsley ; it is green in summer and turns yellow in winter. There is a wild kind of mint, known to us as " mentastrum :"76 it is reproduced by layers, like the vine, or else by planting the branches upside down. It was the sweetness of its smell that caused this plant to change its name among the Greeks, its former name with them being " mintha," from which the ancient Romans derived their name77 for it; whereas now, of late, it has been called by them rid-jog/aov.78 The mint that is used in the dishes at rustic entertainments pervades the tables far and wide with its agreeable odour. When once planted, it lasts a considerable length of time ; it bears, too, a strong resemblance to pennyroyal, a property of which is, as mentioned by us more than once,'9 to flower when kept in our larders. These other herbs, mint, I mean, and catmint, as well as pennyroyal, are all kept for use in a similar manner; but it is cummin80 that is the best suited of all the seasoning herbs to squeamish and delicate stomachs. This plant grows on the surface of the soil, seeming hardly to adhere to it, and raising itself aloft from the ground : it ought to be sown in the middle of the summer, in a crumbly, warm soil, more particularly. There is another wild kind81 of cummin, known by some per- 'sons as "rustic," by others as "Thebaic" cummin: bruised and drunk in water, it is good for pains in the stomach. The cummin most esteemed in our part of the world is that of Carpetania,82 though elsewhere that of Africa and Ethiopia is more highly esteemed ; with some, indeed, this last is pre- ferred to that of Egypt. CHAP. 48.--OLUSATRUM. But it is olusatrum,83 more particularly, that is of so singular 76 Called by the Greeks KaXafiivQt], according to Apuleius. '< Or " Mentha." 78 " Sweet-smelling." 79 " Saepius." See B. xviii. c. 60. tu The Cuniinum cyminum of botanists. See B. xx. c. 57. 81 See B. xx. c. 57. "8- In Hispania Tarraconensis. See B. iii. c. 4. w Or "black-herb:" the herb Alexander, the Smyrnium olusatrum of Linnajus. See B. xx. c. 46. VOL. IV. 0 194 PLINY's NATURAL IIISTOJlY. [Hook XIX. a nature, a plant which by the Greeks is called "hippost- limim,"81 and by others "smyrnium." This plant is repro- duced from a tear-like gum85 which exudes from the stem ; it is also grown from the roots as well. Those whose business it is to collect the juice of it, say that it has just the flavour of myrrh; and, according to Theophrastus,86 it is obtained by planting myrrh. The ancients recommended that hipposelinum should be grown in uncultivated spots covered with stones, and in the vicinity of garden walls; but at the present day it is sown in ground that has been twice turned up, between the prevalence of the west winds and the autumnal equinox. The caper,87 too, should be sown in dry localities more par- ticularly, the plot being hollowed out and surrounded with an embankment of stones erected around it: if this precaution is not taken, it will spread all over the adjoining land, and entail sterility upon the soil. The caper blossoms in summer, and retains its verdure till the setting of the Vergiliae; it thrives the best of all in a sandy soil. As to the bad qualities of the caper which grows in the parts beyond the sea, we have already88 enlarged upon them when speaking of the exotic shrubs. CHAP. 49.—THE CARAWAY. The caraway80 is an exotic plant also, which derives its name, " careum," from the country90 in which it was first grown ; it is principally employed for culinary purposes. This plant will grow in any kiud of soil, and requires to be culti- vated just the same way as olusatrum; the most esteemed, however, is that which comes from Curia, and the next best is that of Phrygia. CHAP. 50.—LOVAGR. Lovage91 grows wild in the mountains of Liguria, its native 84 " Horse-parsley." 83 See B. xvii. c. 14, and B. xxi. c. 14. S6 Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 1. This story originated, no doubt, in the fan- cied resemblance of its smell to that of myrrh. "7 The Capparis spiuosa of Linnaeus. See B. xiii. c. 44, also B. xx. c- 59- * In B. xiii. c. 44. 39 The Carum carvi of Linnaeus. 90 Caria, in Asia Minor. 91 The Ligusticum levisticum of Linnceus. Chap. 52.] GITH. 195 country, but at the present day it is grown everywhere. The cultivated kind is the sweetest of the two, but is far from powerful; by some persons it is known as " panax." Cra- teuas, a Greek writer, gives this name, however, to the plant known to us as "cunila bubula;"92 and others, again, call the conyza93 or cunilago, cunila, while they call cunila,94 properly so called, by the name of " thymbra." With us cunila has another appellation, being generally known as " satureia," and reckoned among the seasoning plants. It is usually sown in the month of February, and for utility rivals wild marjoram. These two plants are never used together, their properties being so extremely similar; but it is only the wild marjoram of Egypt that is considered superior to cunila. CHAP. 51.--DITTANDER. Dittander,95 too, was originally an exotic plant: it is usually sown after the west winds have begun to prevail. As soon as it begins to shoot, it is cut down close to the ground, after which it is hoed and manured, a process which is repeated the succeeding year. After this, the shoots are fit for use, if the rigour of the winter has not injured them; for it is a plant quite unable to withstand any inclemency96 of the weather. It grows to the height of a cubit, and has a leaf like that of the laurel,97 but softer; it is never used except in combination with milk. chap. 52.—GITH. Gith98 is employed by bakers, dill and anise by cooks and medical meii. Sacopenium,99 so extensively used for adulter - 92 "Ox cunila." One of the Labiatee, probably; but whether one of the Satureia or of the Thymbra is not known. See B. xx. cc. 60, 61 93 See B. xxi. c. 32. 94 Scribonius Largus gives this name to savory, the Satureia hortensis of Linnaeus. The whole of this passage is very confused, and its mean- ing is by no means clear. 9> The Lepidium sativum of Linnaeus. See B. xx. c. 70. 06 It is an annual, in fact. 87 Its leaf has no resemblance whatever to that of the laurel. 88 The Nigella sativa of Linnams. See B. xx. c. 71. 99 Or sagapenum. See B. xx. c. 75. It is mentioned also in B. xii. c. 56, as being used for adulterating galbanum. As to laser, see c. 15 of the present Book. O 2 19G PLINV's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. ating laser, is also a garden plant, but is only employed for medicinal purposes. CHAP. 53.--THE POPPY. There are certain plants which are grown in company1 with others, the poppy, for instance, sown with cabbages and purs- lain, and rocket with lettuce. Of the cultivated poppy* there are three kinds, the first being the white3 poppy, the seed of which, parched, and mixed with honey, used to be served up in the second course at the tables of the ancients; at the pre- sent day, too, the country people sprinkle it on the upper crust of their bread, making it adhere by means of the yolk of eggs, the under crust being seasoned with parsley and gith to heighten the flavour of the flour. The second kind is the black4 poppy, from which, upon an incision being made in the stalk, a milky juice distils; and the third is that known to the Greeks bv the name of "rhoeas;"5 and by us as the wild poppy. This last grows spontaneously, but in fields, more particularly, which have been sown with barley : it bears a strong resemblance to rocket, grows to the height of a cubit, and bears a red flower, which quickly fades; it is to this flower that it is indebted for its Greek name.6 As to the other kinds of poppies which spring up sponta- neously, we shall have occasion to speak of them when treat- ing of the medicinal plants.7 That the poppy has always been held in esteem among the Romans, we have a proof in the story related of Tarquinius8 Supcrbus, who, by striking down the tallest poppies in his garden, surreptitiously conveyed, 1 This practice, as Fee remarks, is not followed; and indeed, unless it is intended to transplant them, it would be attended with injurious results to the young plants. 2 As to the poppy, for further particulars see B. xx. c. 76 and the Note. 3 The variety Album of the Papaver somniferum of modern botanists. * The variety Nigrum of the Papaver somniferum. The white poppy has also a milky juice. 5 The Papaver rhoeas of modern botanists, the corn-poppy, or wild poppy. The seed of the poppy does not partake of the qualities of its capsular envelope, and at the present day it is extensively employed in the South of Europe for sprinkling over pastry. 6 " Bhoeas," the " crimson," or "pomegranate" poppy. 7 See B. xx. cc. 76—79. s See c. 17 of this Book, also Ovid's Fasti, B. ii. 1. 703, et seq. Chap. 55.] WILD THYME ; SISYMBRIUM. 197 unknown to them, his sanguinary message through the envoys who had been sent by his son. CHAP. 54.--OTHER PLANTS WHICH REQUIRE TO BE SOWN AT THi: AUTUMNAL EQUINOX. There are some other plants, again, which require to be sown together at the time of the autumnal equinox; coriander, for instance, anise, orage, mallows, lapathum, chervil, known to the Greeks as " paederos,"9 and mustard,10 which has so pun- gent a flavour, that it burns like fire, though at the same time it is remarkably wholesome for the body. This last, though it will grow without cultivation, is considerably improved by being transplanted; though, on the other hand, it is extremely difficult to rid the soil of it when once sown there, the seed when it falls germinating immediately. This seed, when cooked in the saucepan,11 is employed even for making ragouts, its pungency being rendered imperceptible by boiling; the leaves, too, are boiled just the same way as those of other vegetables. There are three different kinds of mustard,12 the first of a thin, slender form, the second, with a leaf like that of the rape, and the third, with that of rocket: the best seed comes from Egypt. The Athenians have given mustard the name of "nap3r,"13 others, " thapsi,"14 and others, again, " saurion."15 CHAP. 55.—WILD THYME; SISYMBRIUM. Most mountains abound with wild thyme and sisymbrium, those of Thrace, for example, where16 branches of these wild plants are torn up and brought away for planting, So, too, the people of Sicyon seek for wild thyme on their mountains, » "Lad'slove." 10 Black mustard, Fee thinks. 11 He can hardly mean a pottage made of boiled mustard-seed alone, as Fee seems to think. If so, however, Fee no doubt is right in thinking that it would be intolerable to a modern palate. 12 See B. xx. c. 87. 13 Perhaps a corruption of its Greek name, oivqiri. 14 Hardouin suggests " thlaspi." 15 Its bite being as sharp as the venom of the "saurus," or lizard. 18 Hardouin, from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, suggests a reading, " whence the streams bring down branches of them torn off, and so plant them." IDS PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. and the Athenians on the slopes of Hymettus. Sisymbrium, too, is planted in a similar manner; it grows to the greatest perfection upon the walls of wells, and around fish preserves and ponds.17 CHAP. 56. (9.)—FOUR KINDS OF FERULACEOUS PLANTS. HEMP. The other garden plants are of the ferulaceous kind, such as fennel, for instance, very grateful to serpents, as already stated,18 and used for numerous seasonings when dried; thapsia, too, which bears a close resemblance to fennel, and already mentioned by us when speaking19 of the exotic shrubs. Then, too, there is hemp,20 a plant remarkably useful for making ropes, and usually sown after the west winds have begun to prevail: the more thickly it is sown, the thinner are the stalks. The seed is gathered when ripe, just after the autumnal equinox, and is dried by the agency of the sun, the wind, or smoke.21 The hemp itself is plucked just after vintage-time, and is peeled and cleaned by the labourers at night. The best hemp is that of Alabanda,22 which is used more particularly for making hunting-nets, and of which there are three varieties. The hemp which lies nearest the bark or the pith is the least valuable, while that which lies in the middle, and hence has the name of " mesa," is the most esteemed. The hemp of Mylasa23 occupies the second rank. With re- ference to the size to which it grows, that of Rosea,23' in the Sabine territory, equals the trees in height.24 We have already mentioned two kinds of fennel-giant when speaking25 of the exotic shrubs : the seed of it is used in Italy for food; the plant, too, admits of being preserved, and, if stored in earthen pots, will keep for a whole year. There are 17 The plants, Fee says, that we find in these localities, are nearly always ferns, or else Marchantia, or mosses of the genus Hypnum. Fee queries whether one of these may not have been the sisymbrium of Pliny. Water-cresses, again, have been suggested. 18 In B. viii. c. 41. The Anaethum fceniculum of Linnaeus. 19 In B. xiii. c. 42. 20 The Cannabis sativa of Linnaeus. See B. xx. c. 97. 21 Hemp-seed is never smoke-dried now. 22 See B. v. c 29. The same hemp is mentioned as being used for making hunting-nets, by Gratius, in the Cynegeticon. 23 See B. v. c. 29. 23* See B. iii. c. 17, and B. xvii. c. 3 24 This, as Fee says, is no doubt erroneous. It is seldom known to at- tain a couple of inches in circumference. 25 In B. xiii. c. 42. Chap. ".] THE MALADIES OF GARDEN PLANTS. 199 two parts of it that are used for this purpose, the upper stalks and the umbels of the plant. This kind of fennel is some- times known by the name of " corymbia," and the parts pre- served are called " corymbi." CHAP. 57. (10.)--THE MALADIES OF GARDEN PLANTS. The garden plants, too, like the rest of the vegetable pro- ductions, are subject to certain maladies. Thus, for26 instance, ocimum, when old, degenerates into wild thyme, and sisym- brium27 into mint, while the seed of an old cabbage produces rape, and vice versa. Cummin, too, if not kept well hoed, is killed by haemodorum,28 a plant with»a single stalk, a root si- milar to a bulb in appearance, and never found except in a thin, meagre soil. Besides this, cummin is liable to a peculiar disease of its own, the scab :29 ocimum, too, turns pale at the rising of the Dog-star. All plants, indeed, will turn of a yellow complexion on the approach of a woman who has the menstrual discharge30 upon her. There are various kinds of insects,31 too, that breed upon the garden plants—fleas, for instance, upon turnips, and cater- pillars and maggots upon radishes, as well as lettuces and cab- bages ; besides which, the last two are exposed to the attacks of slugs and snails. The leek, too, is infested with peculiar insects of its own ; which may very easily be taken, however, by laying dung upon the plants, the insects being in the habit of burrowing in it. Sabinus Tiro says, in bis book entitled " Cepurica,"32 which he dedicated to Maecenas, that it is not advisable to touch rue, cuuila, mint, or ocimum with any im- plement of iron. 26 These absurd notions are borrowed from Theophrastus, De Causis, c. 8. 27 See B. xx. c. 91. 28 Or, according to some readings, " limodorum," a parasitical plant, probably the Lathiuea phelypeu of Sprengel. Fee suggests that this plant may be the Polygonum convolvulus of Linnaeus, or else one of the Cuscuta?, or a variety of Orobanche. 29 "Scabies." A fungous excrescence, Fee thinks, now known as "puc- cinia," or '' urcdo." 30 See B. xvii. c. 47. Fee says that he has met with persons, in their eound sensus, who obstinately defend the notion here mentioned by Pliny. 31 See Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c. 5. Many of these insects, how- ever, do not breed upon the plants, but are only attracted to them. 32 "Book on Gardening." 200 pliny'e natural history. [Book XIX. CHAT. 58.--THE TROPER REMEDIES FOR THESE MALADIES. HOW ANTS ARE BEST DESTROYED. THE BEST REMEDIES AGAINST CATEU- PILLARS AND FLIES. The same author recommends as a remedy against ants, which are by no means the slightest plague in a garden that is not kept well watered, to stop up the mouths of their holes with sea-slime or ashes. But the most efficient way of destroying them is with the aid of the plant heliotropium ;33 some per- sons, too, are of opinion that water in which an unburnt brick has been soaked is injurious to them. The best protection for turnips is to sow a few fitches with them, and for cabbages chick- peas, these having the effect of keeping away caterpillars. If, however, this precaution should have been omitted, and the caterpillars have already made their appearance, the best remedy is to throw upon the vegetables a decoction of wormwood,34 or else of house-leek,35 known to some as " a'izoiim," a kind of herb already mentioned by us. If cabbage-Beed, before it is sown, is steeped in the juice of house-leek, the cabbages, it is Baid, are sure not be attacked b}' any insect. It is said, too, that all caterpillars may be effectually exter- minated, if the skull37 of a beast of burden is set up upon a stake in the garden, care being taken to employ that of a female only. There is a story related, too, that a river crab, hung up in the middle of the garden, is a preservative against the attacks of caterpillars. Again, there are some persons who are in the habit of touching with slips of blood-red cornel38 such plants as they wish to preserve from caterpillars. Flies,39 too, infest well-watered gardens, and more particularly so, if there happen to be any shrubs there ; they may be got rid of, how- ever, by burning galbanum.40 (11.) With reference to the deterioration to which seed is subject,41 there are some seeds which keep better than others, 33 The Heliotropium Europaeum of botanists. See B. xxii. c. 29. 34 This may possibly, Fee says, be efficacious against some insects. 55 See B. xviii. c. 45. 37 A mere puerility, of course, though it is very possible that the insects may collect in it, and so be more easily taken. Garden-pots, on sticks, are still employed for this purpose. 38 See B. xvi. c. 30. 39 " Culices," including both flies and gnats, probably. 40 See li. xii. c. 56. 41 An almost literal translation of Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vii. c.6. Chap. 60.] THE PROPER METHOD OF WATERING GARDENS. 201 Buch, for instance, as that of coriander, beet, leeks, cresses, mustard, rocket, cunila, nearly all the pungent plants in fact. The seed, on the other hand, of orage, ocimum, gourds, and cucumbers, is not so good for keeping. All the summer seeds, too, last longer than the winter ones ; but scallion seed is the very worst for keeping of them all. But of those, even, which keep the very longest, there is none that will keep be- yond four years—for sowing42 purposes, at least; for culinary purposes, they are fit for use beyond that period. CHAP. 59.—WHAT PLANTS ARE BENEFITTED BY SALT WATER. A peculiar remedy for the maladies to which radishes, beet, rue, and cunila are subject, is salt water, which has also the additional merit of conducing ver)r materially to their sweet- ness and fertility. Other plants, again, are equally benefitted by being watered with fresh water, the most desirable for the purpose being that which is the coldest and the sweetest to drink: pond and drain-water, on the other hand, are not so good, as they are apt to carry the seeds of weeds along with them. It is rain,43 however, that forms the principal aliment of plants; in addition to which, it kills the insects as they develope themselves upon them. CHAP. 60. (12.)--THE PROPRK METHOD OF WATERING GARDENS. The proper times44 for watering are the morning and the evening, to prevent the water from being heated45 by the sun ; with the sole exception, however, of ocimum, which requires to be watered at midday; indeed, this plant, it is generally thought, will grow with additional rapidity, if it is watered with boiling water when sown. All plants, when trans- 42 This is certainly not true with reference to the leguminous and gra- mineous plants. It is pretty generally known as a fact, that wheat has germinated after being buried in the earth two thousand years : mummy- wheat, at the present day, is almost universally known. 43 Bain-water, if collected in cisterns, and exposed to the heat of the sun, is the most beneficial of all; rain has the effect also of killing nume- rous insects which have bred in the previous drought. 44 From Theophrastus, B. vii. c. 5. Evening is generally preferred to morning for this purpose; the evaporation not being so quick, and the plant profiting more from the water. 43 It should, however, be of a middling temperature, and warmed to Borne extent by the rays of the sun. 202 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. planted, grow all the better and larger for it, leeks and turnips more particularly. Transplanting, too, is attended with cer- tain remedial effects, and acts as a preservative to certain plants, such as scallions, for instance, leeks, radishes, parsley, lettuces, rape, and cucumbers. All the wild plants46 are generally smaller in the leaf and stalk than the cultivated ones, and have more acrid juices, cunila, wild marjoram, and rue, for example. Indeed, it is only the lapathum47 that is better in a wild state than cultivated : in its cultivated state it is the same plant that is known to us as the " rumix," being the most vigorous48 by far of all the plants that are grown ; so much so, indeed, that it is said that when it has once taken root, it will last for ever, and can never be extirpated from the soil, more particu- larly if water happens to be near at hand. Its juices, which are employed only in ptisaus,49 as an article of food, have the effect of imparting to them a softer and more exquisite flavour. The wild variety60 is employed for many medicinal purposes. So true it is, that the careful research of man has omitted nothing, that I have even met with a poem,51 in which I find it stated, that if pellets of goats' dung, the size of a bean, are hollowed out, and the seed of leeks, rocket, lettuces, parsley, endive, and cresses is inserted in then., and then sown, the plants will thrive in a marvellous degree. Plants52 in a wild state, it is generally thought, are more dry and acrid than when cultivated. CHAP. 61.—THE JUICES AND FLAVOURS OF GARDEN HEUBS. This, too, reminds me that I ought to make some mention of the difference between the juices and flavours of the garden herbs, a difference which is more perceptible here than in the, fruits even.53 In cunila, for instance, wild marjoram, cresses, and mustard, the flavour is acrid; in wormwood54 and cen- 4R These statements are consistent with modern experience. 47 See B. xx. c. 85. 48 He says this probably in reference partly to the large leaves which characterize the varieties of dock. 40 Dishes made of rice or barley. See B. xviii. c. 13. 50 See B. xx. c. 85. 51 He does not give the name of the poet, but, as Fee says, we do not experience any great loss thereby. 52 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plnnt, B. vii. c. 6. 33 See B. xv. c. 32. ** " Absinthium." See B. xxvii. c. 28. Chap. 62.1 PIPEItlTIS, LIBANOTIS, AND SMYRNIUM. 203 taury,55 bitter; in cucumbers, gourds, and lettuces, watery; and in parsley, anise, and fennel, pungent and odoriferous. The salt flavour is the only one that is not to be found66 in plants, with the sole exception, indeed, of the chicheling37 vetch, though even then it is to be found on the exterior surface only of the plant, in the form of a kind of dust which settles there. CHAP. 62.--PIPERITIS, LIBANOTIS, AND SMYRNIUM. To come to a full understanding, too, both here as elsewhere, how unfounded are the notions which are generally entertained, I shall take this opportunity of remarking that panax56 has the flavour of pepper, and siliquastrum even more so, a circum- stance to which it owes its name of piperitis :69 libanotis,60 again, has just the odour of frankincense, and smyrnium61 of myrrh. As to panax, we have spoken of it at sufficient length already.62 Libanotis grows in a thin, crumbly soil, and is generally sown in spots exposed to the falling dews ; the root, which is just like that of olusatrum,63 has a smell in no way differing from that of frankincense ; when a year old, it is ex- tremely wholesome for the stomach ; some persons give it the name of rosmarinum.64 Smyrnium is a garden herb that grows in similar soils, and has a root which smells like myrrh : sili- quastrum, too, is grown in a similar manner. Other plants, again, differ from the preceding ones, both in smell and taste, anise ffi for example; indeed, so great is the difference in thi3 respect, and in their relative virtues, that not only are the properties of each modified by the other, but quite neutralized even. It is in this way that our cooks correct the flavour of vinegar in their dishes with parsley, and our butlers employ the same plant, enclosed in sachets, for removing a bad odour in wine. 65 See B. xxv. c. 30. 66 Fee remarks, that though rarely to be met with, the salt flavour is still to be found in the vegetable kingdom. 57 The "cicercula," or Lathyrus sativus of Linnaeus. See B. xviii. c. 32. M See B. xii. c. 57. 59 Or pepper-wort. See B. xx. c. 66. 60 See B. xx. c. 54. 61 The same, probably, as olusatrum. See cc. 37 and 48 of this Book, and R xx. c. 46 : also 15. xxvii. c. 109. 6a In B. xii. c. 57. 63 See c. 48 of this Book. 64 Bosemary, or "sea-dew." 65 See B. xx. c. 74. 204 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XIX. "Thus far, then, we have treated of the garden plants, viewed as articles of food only; it remains for us now (for up to the present we have only spoken of their various methods of culti- vation, with some succinct details relative thereto), to enlarge upon the more elaborate operations of Nature in this respect; it being quite impossible to come to a full understanding as to the true characteristics of each individual plant, without a knowledge of its medicinal effects, a sublime and truly myste- rious manifestation of the wisdom of the Deity, than which nothing can possibly be found of a nature more elevated. It is upon principle that we have thought proper not to enlarge upon the medicinal properties of each plant when treating of it; for it is a quite different class of persons that is interested in knowing their curative properties, and there is no doubt that both classes of readers would have been inconvenienced iii a very material degree, if these two points of view had engaged our attention at the same moment. As it is, each class will have its own portion to refer to, while those who desire to do so, will experience no difficulty in uniting them, with reference to any subject of which we may happen to treat. Summary.—Eemarkable facts, narratives, and observations, one thousand one hundred and forty-four. Roman authors quoted.—Maccius Plautus,67 M. Yarro,68 J). Silanus,69 Cato the Censor,70 Hyginus,71 Virgil,72 Mucianus,73 Celsus,74 Columella,75 Calpurnius Bassus,76 Mamilius Sura,77 Sabinus Tiro,78 Licinius Macer,79 Quintus Hirtius,80 Vibius 68 Fee suggests, though apparently without any good reason, that this paragraph, to the end of the Book, is an interpolation of the copyists. 67 See end of B. xiv. 68 See end of B. ii. 89 See end of B. xiv. 70 See end of B. iii. 71 See end of B. iii. 72 See end of B. vii. "V See end of B. ii. 74 See end of B. vii. 75 See end of B. viii. 76 See end of B. xvi. 77 See end of B. x. 78 Beyond the mention made of this writer in c. 57, nothing whatever i9 known of him. 79 C. Licinius Macer, a Boman annalist and orator, born about b.c 110. Upon being impeached by Cicero, he committed suicide. He wrote a His- tory or Annals of Borne, which are frequently referred to by Livy aud Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 80 Nothing whatever appears to be known of this writer. SUMMARY. 205 Rufus,91 Caesennius82 who wrote the Cepurica, Castritius8" who wrote on the same subject, Firmus 84 who wrote on the same subject, Petrichus 85 who wrote on the same subject. Foreign authors quotkd. — Herodotus,86 Theophrastus,87 Democritus,88 Aristomachus,89 Menander90 who wrote the Biochresta, Anaxiliius.91 81 See end of B. xiv. ?2 Nothing whatever is known relative to this writer on Horticulture. w Nothing certain is known of him; but it has been suggested that lie may have been the father of the rhetorician Castritius, so often mentioned by Aulus Gellius, and who lived in the time of the Emperor Adrian. 64 Nothing whatever is known relative to this writer. 85 The author of a Greek poem on venomous serpents, mentioned in B. xx. c. 96, and B. xxii. c. 40; and by the Scholiast on the Theriaca of Nicander. 66 See end of B. ii. 87 See end of B. iii. «• See end of B. ii. " See end of B. xi. 90 Nothing whatever is known of him. His Book seems to have been a compendium of " Things useful to life." 91 A physician and Pythagorean philosopher, born at one of the cities called Larissa, but which, is now unknown. He was banished by the ' Emperor Augustus, b.c. 28, on the charge of practising magic, a charge probably based on his superior skill in natural philosophy. He is fre- quently mentioned by Pliny in the coarse of this work. 206 BOOK XX. REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE GARDEN PLANTS. CHAP. 1.--INTRODUCTION. "We are now about to enter upon an examination of the greatest of all the operations of Nature—we are about to discourse to man upon his aliments,1 and to compel him to admit that he is ignorant by what means he exists. And let no one, misled by the apparent triviality of the names which we shall have to employ, regard this subject as one that is frivolous or con- temptible : for we shall here have to set forth the state of peace or of war which exists between the various departments of Nature, the hatreds or friendships which are maintained by objects dumb and destitute of sense, and all, too, created—a wonderful subject for our contemplatiou !—for the sake of man alone. To these states, known to the Greeks by the respec- tive appellations " sympathia" and " antipathia," we are in- debted for the first principles2 of all things ; for hence it is that water has the property of extinguishing fire, that the sun absorbs water, that the moon produces it, and that each of those heavenly bodies is from time to time eclipsed by the other. Hence it is, too, descending from the contemplation of a loftier sphere, that the loadstone3 possesses the property of at- 1 Fee remarks, that the commencement of this exordium is contrary to truth, and that Pliny appears to forget that in the Eighteenth Book he bus treated, at very considerable length, of the various cereals, the art of preparing bread, pottages, ptisans. &c. He suggests, that the author may have originally intended to place the Eighteenth Hook after the present one, and that on changing his plan he may have neglected to alter the pre- sent passage. From his mention, however, of man's "ignorance by what means he exists," it is not improbable that he may have considered that the nutritive qualities of plants are really based upon their medicinal vir- tues, a point of view little regarded by the majority of mankind in his time, but considered by Pliny to be the true key to a just appreciation of their utility. 2 " Quibus cuncta constant." See li. xxir. c. 1. * -See B. xxxiv. c. 42. Chap. 2.] THE WILD CUCUMBER. 207 trading iron, and another stone,4 again, that of repelling it; and that the diamond, that pride of luxury ard opulence, though infrangible by every other object, and presenting a resistance that cannot be overcome, is broken asunder by a he-gout's blood 6—in addition to numerous other marvels of which we shall have to speak on more appropriate occasions, equal to this or still more wonderful even. My only request is that pardon may be accorded me for beginning with objects of a more humble nature, though still so greatly conducive to our health—I mean the garden plants, of which I shall now pro- ceed to speak. CHAP. 2. (1.)—THE WILD CUCUMBER; TWENTY-SIX REMEDIES. We have already stated6 that there is a wild cucumber, con- siderably smaller than the cultivated one. From this cucum- ber the medicament known as " elaterium" is prepared, being the juice extracted from the seed.7 To obtain this juice the fruit is cut before it is ripe—indeed, if this precaution is not taken at an early period, the seed is apt to spirt8 out and be pro- ductive of danger to the eyes. After it is gathered, the fruit is kept whole for a night, and on the following day an incision is made in it with a reed. The seed, too, is generally sprinkled with ashes, with the view of retaining in it as large a quan- tity of the juice as possible. When the juice is extracted, it is received in rain water, where it falls to the bottom; after which it is thickened in the sun, and then divided into lozenges, 4 The " theamedos." See B. xxxvi. c. 25. 5 Pliny is the only author who makes mention of this singularly absurd notion. 6 In B. xix. c. 24 : so, too, Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 154. The wild cu- cumber of Pliny, as Fee observes, is in reality not a cucumber, but a totally different plant, the Cucumis silvestris asiuinus of C. Lauhin, the Momordica elaterium of Linua;us, or squirting cucumber. 7 Elaterium, Fee says, is not extracted from the seed, but is the juice of the fruit itself, as Pliuy, contradicting himself, elsewhere informs us. Theophrastus commits the same error, which Dioscorides does not; and it is not improbable that Pliny has copied from two sources the method of making it. B Meaning the juice and seed combined, probably. Fee thinks that it is to this the medicament owes its name, from iXduvu. to " drive" or "impel." It is much more probable, however, that the medicine was so called from its strong purgsitive powers ; for, as Galen tells us, i\aTijpuii> was a name given to purgative medicines in general. 208 PLINl's NATURAL HISTORY. [Rook XX. which are of singular utility to mankind for healing dimness'' of sight, diseases of the eyes, and ulcerations of the eyelids. It is said that if the roots of a vine are touched with thin juice, the grapes of it will be sure never to be attacked by birds. The root,10 too, of the wild cucumber, boiled in vinegar, is employed in fomentations for the gout, and the juice of it is used as a remedy for tooth-ache. Dried and mixed with resin, the root is a cure for impetigo11 and the skin diseases known as " psora" n and " lichen :"13 it is good, too, for imposthumes of the parotid glands and inflammatory tumours,14 and restores the natural colour to the skin when a cicatrix has formed.— The juice of the leaves, mixed with vinegar, is used as an injection for the ears, in cases of deafness. CHAP. 3.---ELATERIUM ; TWENTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. The proper season for making elaterium is the autumn ; and there is no medicament known that will keep longer than this." It begins to be fit for use when three years old; but if it is found desirable to make use of it at an earlier period than this, the acridity of the lozenges majr be modified by putting them with vinegar upon a slow fire, in a new earthen pot. The older it is the better, and before now, as we learn from Theophrastus, it has been known to keep15 so long as two hun- dred years. Even after it has been kept so long as fifty" years, it retains its property of extinguishing a light; indeed, 9 Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 154, states to this effect. Fee remarks that. singularly enough, most of the antionhthamrics used by the ancients, were composed of acrid and almost corrosive medicaments, quite in opposition to the sounder notions entertained on the subject by the moderns. 10 Dioscorides says the same; and much the same statements are made by Celsus, Apuleius, Marcellus Empiricus, and Plinius Yalerianus. The different parts of the plant, dried, have but very feeble properties, Fee says. 11 A sort of tetter or ring-worm Celsus enumerates four varieties. 18 Itch-scab, probably. 13 A disease of the skin, in which the scab assumes the form almost of a lichen or moss. 14 "Panos." "Panus" was the name given to a wide-spreading, but not deeply-seated, tumour, the surface of which presented a blistered appearance. 10 Fee says that this is not the fact, as it speedily deteriorates by keeping. 16 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 10. Chap. 4.] ANGUINE OR ERRATIC CUCUMBER. 209 it is the proper way of testing the genuineness of the drug to hold it to the flame and make it scintillate above and below, before finally extinguishing it. The elaterium which is pale, smooth, and slightly bitter, is superior17 to that which has a grass-green appearance and is rough to the touch. It is generally thought that the seed of this plant will faci- litate conception if a woman carries it attached to her person, before it has touched the ground ; and that it has the effect of aiding parturition, if it is first wrapped in ram's wool, and then tied round the woman's loins, without her knowing it, care being taken to carry it out of the house the instant she is delivered. Those persons who magnify the praises of the wild cucum- ber say that the very best is that of Arabia, the next being that of Arcadia, and then that of Cyrenae : it bears a resem- blance to the heliotropium,18 they say, and the fruit, about the size of a walnut, grows between the leaves and branches. The seed, it is said, is very similar in appearance to the tail of a scorpion thrown back,, but is of a whitish hue. Indeed, there are some persons who give to this cucumber the name of " scorpionium," and say that its seed, as well as the elaterium, is remarkably efficacious as a cure for the sting of the scor- pion. As a purgative, the proper dose of either is from half an obolus to an obolus, according to the strength of the pa- tient, a larger dose than this being fatal.19 It is in the same proportions, too, that it is taken in drink for phthiriasis20 and dropsy ; applied externally with honey or old olive oil, it is used for the cure of quinsy and affections of the trachea. CHAP. 4. (2.)—THE ANGUINE OR ERRATIC CUCUMBER : FIVE REMEDIES. Many authors are of opinion that the wild cucumber is identical with the plant known among us as the " anguine," and by sqme persons as the "erratic"21 cucumber. Objects 17 Fee acknowledges the truth of this observation, that of a green colour containing feculent matter, and showing that the juice is not pure. 18 In reality there is no such resemblance whatever. See B. xxii. c. 29. 19 Fee says that this is an exaggerated account of the properties of the wild cucumber, as it would require a very considerable dose to cause death. 20 The Morbus pedicularis, or " lousy disease." 21 This has been identified by some writers, Fe'e says, with the Cucumis flcxuosus of Linnaeus; but, as he observes, that plant comes originally VOL. TV. P 210 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. sprinkled with a decoction of this plant will never be touched by mice. The same authors22 say, too, that a decoction of it in vinegar, externally applied, gives instantaneous relief in cases of gout and diseases of the joints. As a remedy, too, for lum- bago, the seed of it is dried in the sun and pounded, being given in doses of twenty denarii to half a sextarius of water. Mixed with woman's milk and applied as a liniment, it is a cure for tumours which have suddenly formed. Elaterium promotes the menstrual discharge ; but if taken by females when pregnant, it is productive of abortion. It is good, also, for asthma, and, injected into the nostrils, for the jaundice.23 Rubbed upon the face in the sun, it removes freckles24 and spots upon the skin. CHAP. 5..—THE CULTIVATED CUCUMBER : NINE REMEDIES. Many persons attribute all these properties to the cultivated cucumber25 as well, a plant which even without them would be of very considerable importance, in a medicinal point of view. A pinch of the seed, for instance, in three fingers, beaten up with cummin and taken in wine, is extremely bene- ficial for a cough : for phrenitis, also, doses of it are adminis- tered in woman's milk, and doses of one acetabulum for dysen- tery. As a remedy for purulent expectorations, it is taken with an equal quantity of cummin ;26 and it is used with hy- dromel for diseases of the liver. Taken in sweet wine, it is a diuretic; and, in combination with cummin,26 it is used as an injection for affections of the kidneys. from India, and it is more than probable that it was not known by the ancients; iu addition to which, it is possessed of no medicinal properties whatever. He looks upon it as an indigenous plant not identified. 22 So Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 154. jj u Morbus regius;" literaUy, the " royal disease." !4 " Lentigo." 15 See B. xix. c. 23. It is but little appreciated for its medicinal pro- perties by the moderns. Emulsions are sometimes made of the seeds, which are of an oily nature. Fee says that the French ladies esteem pommade of cucumber as an excellent cosmetic; which is, however, an erroneous notion. 26 The combination of cummin with cucumber seed is in opposition, Fee remarks, with their medicinal properties, the one being soothing, and the other moderately exciting. Chap. 6.J PHPONES. 211 CHAP. 6.--PEPONES : ELEVEN REMEDIE3. The fruit known as pepones27 are a cool and refreshing diet, and are slightly relaxing to the stomach. Applications are used of the pulpy flesh in defluxions or pains of the eyes. The root, too, of this plant cures the hard ulcers known to us as "ceria," from their resemblance to a honeycomb, and it acts as an emetic.28 Dried and reduced to a powder, it is given in doses of four oboli in hydromel, the patient, immediately after taking it, being made to walk half a mile. This powder is employed also in cosmetics29 for smoothing the skin. The rind, too, has the effect30 of promoting vomiting, and, when applied to the face, of clearing the skin; a result which is equally produced by an external application of the leaves of all the cultivated cucumbers. These leaves, mixed with honey, are employed for the cure of the pustules known as " epi- nyctis;"31 steeped in wine, they are good, too, for the bites of dogs and of multipedes,32 insects known to the Greeks by the name of " seps,"33 of an elongated form, with hairy legs, and noxious to cattle more particularly; the sting being fol- lowed by swelling, and the wound rapidly putrifying. The smell of the cucumber itself is a restorative34 in fainting fits. It is a well-known fact, that if cucumbers are peeled and then boiled in oil, vinegar, and honey, they are all the more pleasant eating-35 for it. 27 As to the several varieties of the pumpkin or gourd, known under this name, see B. xix. c. 24. 29 Dioscorides states to the same effect, and, as Fee thinks, with a pro- bability of being correct. 29 " Smegmata." 30 This assertion, Fee says, is utterly untrue. 81 From (iri, "upon," and vi£, "night." These are red or whitish pustules, accompanied with sharp pains, which appear on the skin at night, and disappear in the day-time. Seec. 21. 32 Or "many-legs." See B. xxix. c. 39. Probably one of our mille- pedes or centipedes : though Fee suggests that it may have been a large caterpillar 33 From " bile." Melancholy, or bad spirits, was so called from a notion that it was owing to a predominance of an imaginary secretion called by the ancients " black bile." 72 The cceliac flux, Fee says, is symptomatic of chronic enteritis ; and is a species of diarrhoea, in which the chyme is voided without undergoing any change in passing through the intestines. 71 "Praecordiorum." 74 " Enterocele." 75 De Morb. Mulier. B. ii. c. 67. 16 Eating or corroding ulcers. 77 Hippocrates, De DiaetA, B. ii. cc. 25, 26, says that radishes are of a cold, and hyssop of a warm, nature. 218 fltny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX dulness of hearing, too, radish-juice is injected into the ear. To promote vomiting, it is extremely beneficial to eat radishes fasting. CHAP. 1 4.--THE PARSNIP : FIVE REMEDIES. THE HIBISCUM, WILD MALLOW, OR PLISTOLOCHIA : ELEVEN REMEDIES. The hibiscum, by some persons known as the wild mallow,7' and by others as the " plistolochia," bears a strong resemblance to the parsnip ;79 it is good for ulcerations of the cartilages, and is employed for the cure of fractured bones. The leaves of it, taken in water, relax the stomach; they have the effect, also, of keeping away serpents, and, employed as a liniment, are a cure for the stings of bees, wasps, and hornets. The root, pulled up before sunrise, and wrapped in wool of the colour known as " native,"80 taken from a sheep which has just dropped a ewe lamb, is employed as a bandage for scrofulous swellings, even after they have suppurated. Some persons are of opinion, that for this purpose the root should be dug up with an implement of gold, and that care should be taken not to let it touch the ground. Celsus,81 too, recommends this root to be boiled in wine, and applied in cases of gout unattended with swelling. CHAP. 15. (5.)—THE STAPHYLINOS, OR WILD PARSNIP: TWENTY- TWO REMEDIES. The staphylinos, or, as some persons call it, "erratic95 parsnip," is another kind. The seed M of this plant, pounded and taken in wine, reduces swelling of the abdomen, and alleviates hysterical suffocations and pains, to such a degree as to restore the uterus to its natural condition. Used as a liniment, also, with raisin wine, it is good for pains of the bowels in females; for men, too, beaten up with an equal proportion of bread, and taken in wine, it may be found beneficial "for similar pains. It 78 " Moloche agria." 79 gee b. xix. c. 27. 80 See B. viii. c. 73. 81 De Bemed. B. iv. c. 24. The parsnip is a stimulating plant, and it is not without reason, Fee says, that Celsus recommends it for this pur- pose. ss Or " wild." See B. xix. c. 27. 83 This seed, Fee says, is an energetic excitant, and certainly would cot be found suitable' for any of the purposes here mentioned by Pliny; though equally recommended for them by Galen, Dioscorides, and in Athena?us. Chap. 16.] GINGIDION. 219 is a diuretic also, and it will arre3t the progress of phagedaenic ulcers, if applied fresh with honey, or else dried and sprinkled on them with meal. Dieuches recommends the root of it to be given, with hy- dromel, for affections of the liver and spleen, as also the sides, loins, and kidneys; and Cleophantus prescribes it for dysen- tery of long standing. Philistio says that it should be boiled in milk, and for strangury he prescribes four ounces of the root. Taken in water, he recommends it for dropsy, as well as in cases of opisthotony,81 pleurisy, and epilepsy. Persons, it is said, who carry this plant about them, will never be stung by serpents, and those who have just eaten of it will receive no hurt from them. Mixed with axle-grease,65 it is applied to parts of the body stung by reptiles; and the leaves of it are eaten as a remedy for indigestion. Orpheus has stated that the staphylinos acts as a philtre,86 most probably because, a very-well-established fact, when employed as a food, it is an aphrodisiac ; a circumstance which has led some persons to state that it promotes conception. In other respects the cultivated parsnip has similar properties; though the wild kind is more powerful in its operation, and that which grows in stony soils more particularly. The seed, too, of the cultivated parsnip, taken in wine, or vinegar and water,87 is salutary for stings inflicted by scorpions. By rubbing the teeth with the root of this plant, tooth-ache is removed. chap. 16.—gingidion: one remedy. The Syrians devote themselves particularly to the cultiva- tion of the garden, a circumstance to which we owe the Greek proverb, " There is plenty of vegetables in Syria."88 84 Tetanus, or contraction of the muscles, in which the head is twisted round or stretched backwards. 85 "Axungia;" properly swine's grease, with which the axle'trees of chariots were rubbed. See B. xxviii. c. 9. 66 Diphilus of Siphnos, as quoted in AthenaBUs, B. ix. c. 3, states that the ancients employed this plant as a philtre, for which reason it was called by some persons k XX. every kind of wild beast, whether taken with the drink or food, or applied topically. Taken in wine, it is a remedy for the sting of the haemorrhois30 more particularly, acting as an emetic. We shall not be surprised too, that it acts as a pow- erful remedy for the bite of the shrew-mouse, when we find that it has the property of neutralizing aconite, otherwise known as " pardalianches."31 It neutralizes henbane, also, and cures the bites of dogs, when applied with honey to the wound. It is taken in drink also for the stings of serpents ; and of its leaves, mixed with oil, a most valuable liniment is made for bruises on the body, even when they have swelled and formed blisters. Hippocrates32 is of opinion also, that fumigations made with garlic have the effect of bringing away the after-birth; and he used to employ tbe ashes of garlic, mixed with oil, for the cure of running ulcers of the head. Some persons have pre- scribed boiled garlic for asthmatic patients ; while others, again, have given it raw. Diocles prescribes it, in combina- tion with centaury, for dropsy, and to be taken in a split fig, to promote the alvine evacuations : taken fresh, however, in unmixed wine, with coriander, it is still more efficacious for that purpose. Some persons have given it, beaten up in milk, for asthma. Praxagoras used to prescribe garlic, mixed with wine, for jaundice, and with oil and pottage for the iliac passion : • he employed it also in a similar form, as a liniment for scrofulous swellings of the neck. The ancients used to give raw garlic in cases of madness, and Diocles administered it boiled for phrenitis. Beaten up, and taken in vinegar and water, it is very useful as a gargle for quinsy. Three heads of garlic, beaten up in vinegar, give relief in toothache : and a similar result is obtained by rinsipg the mouth with a decoction of garlic, and inserting pieces of it in the hollow teeth. Juice of garlic is sometimes injected into the ears with goose-grease,3** and, taken in drink, or simi- 30 This serpent is described by Lucan, in the " Pharsalia," B. ix. 1. 708, et seq., where a fearful account is given of the effects of its sting. Nicander, in his " Theriaca,'' informs us that those bitten by the haemorrhois die with the blood flowing from the nose and ears, whence its name. 31 Pard or panther-strangle. See B. xxvii. c. 2. The juice of garlic has no such effect as here stated. 32 De Morb. Mul. B. i. c. 74. »2* See B. xxix c. 39. Chap. 23.] GARLIC. 227 larly injected, in combination with vinegar and nitre, it arrests phthiriasis33 and porrigo.34 Boiled with milk, or else beaten up and mixed with soft cheese, it is a cure for catarrhs. Em- ployed in a similar manner, and taken with pease or beans, it is good for hoarseness, but in general it is found to be more serviceable cooked than raw, and boiled than roasted : in this last state, however, it is more beneficial to the voice. Boiled iu oxymel, it has the effect of expelling tape-worm and other intestinal worms ; and a pottage made of it is a cure for te- nesmus. A decoction of garlic is applied topically for pains iu the temples; and first boiled and then beaten up with hone}-, it is good for blisters. A decoction of it, with stale grease, or milk, is excellent for a cough; and where per- sons are troubled with spitting of blood or purulent matter, it may be roasted in hot ashes, and taken with honey in equal proportions. For convulsions and ruptures it is admi- nistered in combination with salt and oil; and, mixed with grease, it is employed for the cure of suspected tumours. Mixed with sulphur and resin, garlic draws out the humours from fistulous sores, and employed with pitch, it will extract an arrow even35 from the wound. In cases of leprosy, lichen, and eruptions of the skin, it acts as a detergent, and effects a cure, in combination with wild marjoram, or else reduced to ashes, and applied as a liniment with oil and garura.36 It is em- ployed in a similar manner, too, for erysipelas; and, reduced to ashes, and mixed with honey, it restores contused or livid spots on the skin to their proper colour. It is generally be- lieved, too, that taken in the food and drink, garlic is a cure for epilepsy, and that a clove of it, taken in astringent wine, with an obolus' weight of silphium,37 will have the effect of dispelling quartan fever. Garlic cures coughs also, and sup- K The Morbus pedicularis. From the frequent mention of it, Fee says, it would seem to have been very prevalent in ancient times; whereas now, it is but rarely known. 31 A disease of the skin; supposed by some to be the same as ring • worm. The word is employed in modern medicine to signify skin dis- eases in general, such as itch, lichen, scaldhead, ringworm, &c. 35 Pintianus suggests " hirudines," "leeches," and not "arundines," arrows. The latter reading is supported, however, by Plinius Valerianus and M. Empiricus. 36 An expensive kind of fish-sauce : for some further account of it see B. ix. c. 30. 37 See B. xix. c. 15. Q 2 228 pliny's natural history. [Book XX. purations of the chest, however violent they may be; to ob- tain which result, another method is followed, it being boiled with broken beans, and employed as a diet till the cure is fully effected. It is a soporific also, and in general imparts to the body an additional ruddiness of colour. Garlic acts as an aphrodisiac, beaten up with fresh cori- ander, and taken in pure wine. The inconveniences which result from the use of it, are dimness of the sight and flatu- lency; and if taken in too large quantities, it does injury to the stomach, and creates thirst. In addition to these parti- culars, mixed with spelt flour, and given to poultry in their food, it preserves them from attacks of the pip.38 Beasts of burden, it is said, will void their urine all the more easily, and without any pain, if the genitals are rubbed with garlic. CHAP. 24.—THE LETTUCE : FORTY-TWO REMEDIES. THE GOAT- LETTUCE : FOUR REMEDIES. The first kind of lettuce which grows spontaneously, is the one that is generally known as " goat39-lettuce;" thrown into the sea, this vegetable has the property of instantaneously kill- ing all the fish that come into its vicinity. The milky juice of this lettuce,40 left to thicken and then put into vinegar, is given in doses of two oboli, with the addition of one cyathus of water, to patients for dropsy. The stalk and leaves, bruised and sprinkled with salt, are used for the cure of wounds of the sinews. Pounded with vinegar, and employed as a gargle in the morning twice a month, they act as a preventive of tooth-ache. CHAP. 25.—CJESAPON : ONE REMEDY. ISATIS; ONE REMEDY. TRE WILD LETTUCE : SEVEX REMEDIES. There is a second kind of wild lettuce, known by the Greeks 38 See B. x. c. 78. 3» " Caprina." See B. xxvi. c. 39. 40 Fee is of opinion that this in reality is not a lettuce, but that Pliny has been led, by the milky juice which it contains, to that conclusion. In B. xxvi. c. 39, he calls it " tithymalum." Hardouin conjectures it to have been the spurge, or Euphorbia lathyris of Linnaeus, the juice ot which is a violent drastic ; and Fee is of opinion that it must have bern one of the Euphorbiaceae. At the same time, he says, powerful as their properties are, we cannot believe that they exercise the destructive effects on fish here stated. Chap. 26.] HAWK-WE ED. 229 as " cassapon."41 The leaves of this lettuce, applied as a liniment with polenta,42 are used for the cure of ulcerous sores. This plant is found growing in the fields. A third kind, again, grows in the woods; the name given to it is " isatis."43 The leaves of this last, beaten up and applied with polenta, are very useful for the cure of wounds. A fourth kind is used by dyers of wool; in the leaves it would resemble wild lapa- thum, were it not that they are more numerous and darker. This lettuce has the property of stanching blood, and of heal- ing phagedaenic sores and putrid spreading ulcers, as well as tumours before suppuration. Both the root as well as the leaves are good, too, for erysipelas ; and a decoction of it is drunk for affections of the spleen. Such are the properties peculiar to each of these varieties. CHAP. 26.--HAWK-WEED : SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. The properties which are common to all the wild varieties44 are whiteness, a stem sometimes as much as a cubit in length, and a roughness upon the stalk and leaves. Among these plants there is one with round, short leaves, known to some per- sons as " hieracicn ;"45 from the circumstance that the hawk tears it open and sprinkles46 its eyes with the juice, and so dis- pels any dimness of sight of which it is apprehensive. The juice of all these plants is white, and in its properties resem- bles that of the popp}7.47 It is collected at harvest-time, by 41 Fee thinks that this plant may be looked for among the varieties of the Sonchus or the Hieracium, which belong to the same family as the lettuce. 42 See B. xviii. c. 14. 4,1 Fee thinks that this is the Isatis tinctoria of Linnams in a wild state, and Littre suggests that the one next mentioned is the s;ime plant, culti- vated. Fee says, however, that this plant, employed in dyeing wool, does not contain any milky juice, a fact which should have cautioned Pliny against classing it among the Lactucre. 41 Of the lettuce, evidently. Fee says, who would recognise a lettuce, - with its green leaves, and smooth stalk and leaves, under this description ? Still, it is by no means an inaccurate description of the wild lettuce. 45 " Hawk-weed," from the Greek «prr£, " a hawk." Under this name are included, Fee thinks, the varieties of the genus Crepis. 46 Apuleius, Metam. c. 30, says this of the eagle, when preparing to soar aloft. 47 This is in some degree true of the juices of the wild lettuces, in a medicinal point of view; but it must be remembered that he has enume- rated the Isatis among them, which in reality has no milky juice at all. 230 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. making incisions in the stalk, and is kept in new earthen vessels, being renowned as a remedy for numerous maladies/"' Mixed with woman's milk, it is a cure for all diseases of the eyes, such as argema for instance, films on the eyes, scars and inflammations49 of all kinds, and dimness of the sight more particularly. It is applied to the eyes, too, in wool, as a remedy for defluxious of those organs. This juice also purges the bowels, taken in doses of two oboli in vinegar and water. Drunk in wine it is a cure for the stings of serpents, and the leaves and stalk of the plant are pounded and taken in vinegar. They are employed also as a liniment for wounds, the sting of the scorpion more particu- larly ; combined, too, with oil and vinegar, they are similarly applied for the bite of the phalangium.50 They have the effect, also, of neutralizing other poisons, with the exception of those which kill by suffocation or by attacking the bladder, ■as also with the exception of white lead. Steeped in oxymel, they are applied to the abdomen for the purpose of drawing out vicious humours of the intestines. The juice is found good, also, in cases of retention of the urine. Crateuas prescribes it to be given to dropsical patients, in doses of two oboli, with vinegar and one cyathus of wine. Some persons collect the juice of the cultivated lettuce as well, but it is not so efficacious51 as the other. "We have already made mention,52 to some extent, of the peculiar properties of the cultivated lettuce, such as promoting sleep, allaying the sexual passions, cooling the body when heated, purging53 the stomach, and making blood. In addition to these, it possesses no few properties besides; for it has the effect of removing flatulency, and of dispelling eructations, while at the same time it pro- motes the digestion, without ever being indigestible itself. Indeed, there is no article of diet known that is a greater sti- mulant to the appetite, or which tends in a greater degree to 48 " Lactucarium," or the inspissated milky juice of the garden lettuce, is still used occasionally as a substitute for opium, having slightly anodyne properties, but, as Fee remarks, all that Pliny says here of its effects is erroneous. 49 " Adustiones;" " burns," perhaps. 50 A kind of spider. See B. xi. cc. 24, 28, 29. 51 This is consistent with modern experience, as to the medicinal effects of the cultivated plants in general. 5- In B. xix. c. 38. 53 The lettuce is not a purgative, nor ha6 it the property here ascribed to it, of making blood. Chap. 2G] HAWK WEED. 231 modify it; it being the extent, either way, to which it is eaten that promotes these opposite results. In the same way, too, lettuces eaten in too large quantities are laxative, but taken in moderation they are binding. They have the effect, also, of attenuating the tough, viscous, phlegm, and, according to what some persons say, of sharpening the senses. They are ex- tremely serviceable, too, to debilitated stomachs; for which purpose * **4 oboli of sour sauce65 is added to them, the sharp- ness of which is modified by the application of sweet wine, to make it of the same strength as vinegar-sauce.56 If, again, the phlegm with which the patient is troubled is extremely tough and viscous, wine of squills or of wormwood is em- ployed; and if there is any cough. perceptible, hyssop wine is mixed as well. Lettuces are given with wild endive for cceliac affections, and for obstructions of the thoracic organs. White lettuces, too, are prescribed in large quantities for melancholy and affections of the bladder. Praxagoras recommends them for dysentery. Lettuces are good, also, for recent burns, before blisters have made their appearance : in such cases they are applied with salt. They arrest spreading ulcers, being applied at first wiih saltpetre, and afterwards with wine. Beaten up, they are applied topically for erysipelas; and the stalks, beaten up with polenta, and applied with cold water, are soothing for luxations of the limbs and spasmodic contractions; used, too, with wine and polenta, they are good for pimples and erup- tions. Por cholera lettuces have been given, cooked in the saucepan, in which case it is those with the largest stalk and bitter that are the best: some persons administer them, also, as an injection, in milk. These stalks boiled, are re- markably good, it is said, for the stomach: the summer let- tuce, too, more particularly, and the bitter, milky lettuce, of which we have already67 made mention as the " meconis," have a soporific effect. This juice, in combination with woman's milk, is said to be extremely beneficial to the eye- sight, if applied to the head in good time; it is a remedy, M Sillig is probably correct in his belief that there is a lacuna here. ss «< Oxypori." M " Ad intinctum aceti." 61 In B. xix. c. 38; the "opium" or " poppy lettuce," the Lactuca Bilvestris of modern botany, the soporific properties of which are superior to those of the cultivated kinds. 232 PLINY S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. too, for such maladies of the eyes as result from the action of cold. I find other marvellous praises lavished upon the lettuco, such, for instance, as that, mixed with Attic honey, it is no less beneficial for affections of the chest than abrotonum ;w that the menstrual discharge is promoted in females by using it as a diet; that the seed, too, of the cultivated lettuce is administered as a remedy for the stings of scorpions, and that pounded, and taken in wine, it arrests all libidinous dreams and imaginations during sleep; that water, too, which affects59 the brain will have no injurious effects upon those who eat lettuce. Some persons have stated, however, that if let- tuces are eaten too frequently they will prove injurious to the eyesight. CHAP. 27. (8.)--REET : TWENTY-FOUR REMEDIES. Nor are the twro varieties of the beet without their remedial properties.60 The root of either white or black beet, if hung by a string, fresh-gathered, and softened with water, is said to be efficacious for the stings of serpents. White beet, boiled and eaten with raw garlic, is taken for tapeworm ; the root, too, of the black kind, similarly boiled in water, removes por- rigo ; indeed, it is generally stated, that the black beet is the more efficacious61 of the two. The juice of black beet is good for inveterate head-aches and vertigo, and injected into the ears, it stops singing in those organs. It is a diuretic, also, and employed in injections is a cure for dysentery and jaun- dice. This juice, used as a liniment, allays tooth-ache, and is good for the stings of serpents ; but due care must be taken that it is extracted from this root only. A decoction, too, of beet-root is a remedy for chilblains. A liniment of white beet-root applied to the forehead, arrests defluxions of the eyes, and mixed with a little alum it is an excellent remedy for erysipelas. Beaten up, and applied 59 Or southern-wood. See B. xxi. c. 34. 59 See B. xxxi. cc. 11 and 12. 60 There are few plants, Fee says, which are so utterly destitute of all remedial properties as the beet. See B. xix. c. 40. 61 Fee says that the leaves of beet are not at all efficacious except as applications for inflammations of the body. Chap. 29.] ENDIVE. 233 without oil, it is a cure for excoriations. In the same way, too, it is good for pimples and eruptions. Boiled, it is applied topically to spreading ulcers, and in a raw state it is employed in cases of alopecy, and running ulcers of the head. The juice, injected with honey into the nostrils, has the effect of clearing the head. Beet-root is boiled with lentils and vinegar, for the purpose of relaxing the bowels; if it is boiled, how- ever, some time longer, it will have the effect of arresting fluxes of the stomach and bowels. CHAP. 28.--L1MONION, OR NEUROIDES : THREE REMEDIES. There is a wild beet, too, known by some persons as " limo- nion,"62 and by others as " neuroides;" it has leaves much smaller and thinner than the cultivated kind, and lying closer together. These leaves amount often to eleven63 in number, the stalk resembling that of the lily.64 The leaves of this plant are very useful for burns, and have an astringent taste in the mouth: the seed, taken in doses of one acetabulum, is good for dysentery. It is said that a decoction of beet with the root has the property of taking stains out of cloths and parchment. CHAP. 29.—ENDIVE : THREE REMERTES. Endive,65 too, is not without its medicinal uses. The juice of it, employed with rose oil and vinegar, has the effect of allaying headache ; and taken with wine, it is good for pains in the liver and bladder : it is used; also, topically, for defluxions of the eyes. The spreading endive has received from some per- 82 Dioscorides merely says that the leaves of the limoniori are similar to those of beet, but he does not state that it is a kind of wild beet. 53 Dioscorides says " ten or more." 84 Fee is inclined to identify the "limonium," or "meadow-plant," with the Staticelimonium of Linnaeus; but looks upon its identification as very doubtful. Fuchs, Tragus, and Lonicerus, have identified it with the Pyrola rotundifolia; but that is not a meadow plant, it growing only iu the woods. Others, again, have suggested the Senecio doria, or " water trefoil." 65 Divided by naturalists into wild chicory or endive, the Cichorium intybus of Linnscus, and cultivated endive, the Cichorium endivia of Lin- naeus. The name "endive" comes from the Arabian "hindeb;" but whe- ther that was derived from the Latin " intubum," or vice versa, is uncer- tain. The two kinds above mentioned, are subdivided, Fee says, into two varieties, the cultivated and the wild. See B. xix. c. 39. 2.34 PLTNY's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. sons among us the name of " ambula." In Egypt, the wild endive is known as " cichorium,"66 the cultivated kind being called " seris." This last is smaller than the other, and the leaves of it more full of veins. CHAP. 30. --CICHORIUM OR CHRESTON, OTHERWISE CALLED PANCRATION, OK AMBULA : TWELVE REMEDIES. Wild endive or cichorium has certain refreshing qualities,87 used as an aliment. Applied by way of liniment, it disperses abscesses, and a decoction of it loosens the bowels. It is also very beneficial to the liver, kidneys, and stomach. A decoc- tion of it in vinegar has the effect of dispelling the pains of strangury; and, taken in honied wine, it is a cure for the jaundice, if unattended with fever. It is beneficial, also, to the bladder, and a decoction of it in water promotes the menstrual discharge to such an extent as to bring away the dead foetus even. In addition to these qualities, the magicians68 state that persons who rub themselves with the juice of the entire plant, mixed with oil, are sure to find more favour with others, and to obtain with greater facility anything they may desire. This plant, in consequence of its numerous salutary virtues, has been called by some persons " chreston,"69 and "pancra- tion"70 by others. CHAP. 31.--HEDYPNOIS : FOUR REMEDIE8. There is a sort of wild endive, too, with a broader leaf, known to some persons as " hedypnois."''1 Boiled, it acts as an astringent upon a relaxed stomach, and eaten raw, it is pro- ductive of constipation. It is good, too, for dysentery, when eaten with lentils more particularly. This variety, as well as 66 The foundation of the Greek name, et^hipov, and the Arabic "Schikhrieh." 61 The medicinal properties of endive vary, according as it is employed wild or cultivated, and according to the part employed. The leaves are more bitter than the stalk, but not so much so as the root. The juice of all the varieties i3 very similar, probably, to that of the lettuce; but, as Fee says, little use has been made of it in modern times. 68 Or else, "Magi." «» The "useful." w « The all-powerful." 71 The Cichorium luteum of C. Bauhin, the Leontodon palustre of Lin- neeus : known to us as the " dandelion,*' or by a coarser name. Chap. 33.] THE CABBAGE. 235 the preceding one, is useful for ruptures and spasmodic con- tractions, and relieves persons who are suffering from sperma- torrhoea. CHAP. 32.--SERIS, THREE VARIETIES OF IT : SEVEN REMEDIES BORROWED FROM IT. The vegetable, too, called " seris,"72 which bears a consi- derable resemblance to the lettuce, consists of two kinds. The wild, which is of a swarthy colour, and grows in summer, is the best of the two; the winter kind, which is whiter than the other, being inferior. - They are both of them bitter, but are extremely beneficial to the stomach, when distressed by humours more particularly. Used as food with vinegar, they are cooling, and, employed as a liniment, they dispel other humours besides those of the stomach. The roots of the wild variety are eaten with polenta for the stomach ; and in cardiac diseases they are applied topically above the left breast. Boiled in vinegar, all these vegetables are good for the gout, and for patients troubled with spitting of blood or spermatorrhoea; the decoction being taken on alternate days. Petronius Diodotus, who has written a medical Anthology,73 utterly condemns seris, and employs a multitude of arguments to support his views: this opinion of his is opposed, however, to that of all other writers on the subject. CHAP. 33. (9).--THE CABBAGE : EIGHTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. RE- CIPES MENTIONED BY CATO. It would be too lengthy a task to enumerate all the prais< s of the cabbage, more particularly as the physician Chrysippus has devoted a whole volume to the subject, in which its vir- tues are described in reference to each individual part of the human body. Dieuches has done the same, and Pythagoras too, in particular. Cato, too, has not been more sparing in its praises than the others; and it will be only right to examine the opinions which he expresses in relation to it, if for no other purpose than to learn what medicines the Roman people made use of for six hundred years. The most ancient Greek writers have distinguished three74 varieties of the cabbage ; the curly74 cabbage, to which they 72 The kind known as garden endive, the Cichorium endivia of Linnams. 73 " Anthologuniena." 74 See B. xix. c. 41. - « " Crispam." 236 PLINY'8 NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. have given the name of "selinotdes,"76 from the resemblance of its leaf to that of parsley, beneficial to the stomach, and moderately relaxing to the bowels; the " helia," with broad leaves running out from the stalk—a circumstance, owing to which some persons have given it the name of " canlodes"— of no use whatever in a medicinal point of view ; and a third, the name of which is properly " crambe," with thinner leaves, of simple form, and closely packed, more bitter than the others, but extremely efficacious in medicine.77 Cato78 esteems the curly cabbage the most highly of all, and next to it, the smooth cabbage with large leaves and a thick stalk. He says that it is a good thing for head- ache, dimness of the sight, and dazzling79 of the eyes, the spleen, stomach, and thoracic organs, taken raw in the morn- ing, in doses of two acetabula, with oxymel, coriander, rue, mint, and root of silphium.80 He says, too, that the virtue of it is so great that the very person even who beats up this mix- ture feels himself all the stronger for it; for which reason he recommends it to be taken mixed with these condiments, or, at all events, dressed with a sauce compounded of them. For the gout, too, and diseases of the joints, a liniment of it should be used, he says, with a little rue and coriander, a sprinkling of salt, and some barley meal: the very water even in which it has been boiled is wonderfully efficacious, according to him, for the sinews and joints. For wounds, either recent or of long standing, as also for carcinoma,81 which is incurable by any other mode of treatment, he recommends fomentations to be made with warm water, and, after that, an application of cabbage, beaten up, to the parts affected, twice a-day. He says, also, that fistulas and sprains should be treated in a similar way, as well as all humours which it may be desirable to bring to a head and disperse; and he states that this vegetable, boiled and eaten fasting, in considerable quantities, with oil -6 «< Parsley-like." 77 The only use now made of the cabbage, in a medicinal point of view, is the extraction from the red cabbage, which is rich in saccharine matter, of a pectoral, and the employment of the round cabbage, in the form of sour-krout, as an antiscorbutic. The great majority of the statements aa to the virtues of the cabbage, though supported by Cato, and in a great measure by Hippocrates, are utterly fallacious. 78 De Be Bust. 157. 79 " Scintillationibus." 80 See B. xix. c. 15. si Or cancer. Chop. 34.] OPINIONS OF THE GREEKS. 237 and salt, has the effect of preventing dreams and wakefulness : also, that if, after one boiling, it is boiled a second time, with the addition of oil, salt, cummin, and polenta, it will relieve gripings8- in the stomach ; and that, if eaten in this way with- out bread, it is more beneficial still. Among various other par- ticulars, he says, that if taken in drink with black wine, it has the effect of carrying off the bilious secretions ; and he recom- mends the urine of a person who has been living on a cabbage diet to be preserved, as, when warmed, it is a good remedy for diseases of the sinews. I will, however, here give the iden- tical words in which Cato expresses himself upon this point: "If you wash little children with this urine," says he, " they will never be weak and puny." He recommends, also, the warm juice of cabbage to be in- jected into the ears, in combination with wine, and assures us that it is a capital remedy for deafness : and he says that the cabbage is a cure for impetigo83 without the formation of ulcers. CHAP. 34.--OPINIONS OF THE GREEKS RELATIVE THERETO. As we have already given those of Cato, it will be as well to set forth the opinions entertained by the Greek writers on this subject, only in relation, however, to those points upon which he has omitted to touch. They are of opinion that cabbage, not thoroughly boiled, carries off the bile, and has the effect of loosening the bowels ; while, on the other hand, if it is boiled twice over, it will act as an astringent. They say, too, that as there is a"natural84 eumity between it and the vine, it combats the effects of wine; that, if eaten before drink- ing, it is sure to prevent85 drunkenness, being equally a clis- pellent of crapulence86 if taken after drinking: that cabbage is a food very beneficial to the eyesight, and that the juice of it raw is even more so, if the corners of the eyes are only touched with a mixture of it with Attic honey. Cabbage, too, 82 Cato, De Be Bust., 156, 157. S3 See Note 11 to C. 2 of this Book. 84 This absurd notion of antipathy is carried, so far by the author of the Geoponica, B. v. c. 11, that he states that if wine is thrown on cabbage while on the fire, it will never be thoroughly boiled. 85 Fee remarks, that this fact would surely have engaged the attention of the moderns, if there had been any truth in the statement. 88 " Crapulam discuti." " Crapulu" was that state, after drinking, col- loquially known at the present day as "seediness." 238 pliny's natural history-. [Book XX. according to the same testimony, is extremely easy of diges- tion,67 and, as an aliment, greatly tends to clear the senses. The school of Erasistratus proclaims that there is nothing more beneficial to the stomach and the sinews than cabbage ; for which reason, he says, it ought to be given to the paralytic and nervous, as well as to persons affected with spitting of blood. Hippocrates prescribes it, twice boiled, and eaten with salt, for dysentery and cceliac affections, as also for tenesmus and diseases of the kidneys; he is of opinion, too, that, us an aliment, it increases the quantity of the milk in women who are nursing, and that it promotes the menstrual dis- charge.88 . The stalk, too, eaten raw, is efficacious in expelling the dead foetus. Apollodorus prescribes the seed or else the juice of the cabbage to betaken in cases of poisoning by fungi; and Philistion recommends the juice for persons affected with opisthotony, in goats'-milk, with salt and honey. . I find, too, that persons have been cured of the gout by eating cabbage and drinking a decoction of that plant. This decoction has been given, also, to persons afflicted with the cardiac disease and epilepsy, with the addition of salt; and it has been ad- ministered in white wine, lor affections of the spleen, for a period of forty days. According to Philistion, the juice of the raw root should be given as a gargle to persons afflicted with icterus 89 or phrenitis, and for hiccup he prescribes a mixture of it, in vinegar, with coriander, anise, honey, and pepper. Used as a liniment, cab- bage, he says, is beneficial for inflations of the stomach ; and the very water, even, in which it has been boiled, mixed with barley-meal, is a remedy for the stings of serpents90 and foul ulcers of long standing ; a result which is equally effected by a mixture of cabbage-juice with vinegar or fenugreek. It is in this manner, too, that some persons employ it topically, for affections of the joints and for gout. Applied topically, cab- bage is a cure for epinyctis, and all kinds of spreading eruptions on the body, as also for sudden91 attacks of dimness ; indeed, if 67 The contrary is in reality the case, it being a diet only suitable to strong stomachs. 8* De Morb. Mulier. B. i. cc. 73 and 74. De Nat. Mulier. 29 and 31. 89 The jaundice. 30 Fee is inclined to account for the numerous antidotes and remedies mentioned for the stings of serpents, by supposing that the stings them- selves of many of them were not really venomous, but only supposed to hi so. Sl " Bepentinas caligiues." Chap. 35.] CABBAGE-SPROUTS. 239 eaten with vinegar, it has the effect of curing the last. Ap- plied by itself, it heals contusions and other livid spots ; and mixed with a ball of alum in vinegar, it is good as a liniment for leprosy and itch-scabs: used in this way, too, it prevents the hair from falling off. Epicharmus assures us that, applied topically, cabbage is extremely beneficial for diseases of the testes and genitals, and even better still when employed with bruised beans; he says, too, that it is a cure for convulsions; that, in combination with rue, it is good for the burning heats of fever and maladies of the stomach; and that, with rue-seed, it brings away the after-birth. It is of use, also, for the bite of the shrew-mouse. Dried cabbage-leaves, reduced to a powder, are a cathartic both by vomit and by stool. CHAP. 35.--CAM?AGE-SPROUTS. In all varieties of the cabbage, the part most agreeable to the taste is the C)'ma,92 although no use-is made of it in medi- cine, as it is difficult to digest, and by no means beneficial to the kidneys. At the same time, too, it should not be omitted, that the water in which it has been boiled,93 and which is so highly praised for many purposes, gives out a very bad smell when poured upon the ground. The ashes of dried cabbage- stalks are generally reckoned among the caustic substances : mixed with stale grease, they are emploj-ed for sciatica, and, used as a liniment, in the form of a depilatory, toge- ther with silphium 94 and vinegar, they prevent hair that has been once removed from growing again. These ashes, too, are taken lukewarm in oil, or else by themselves, for convul- sions, internal ruptures, and the effects of falls with violence. And are we to say then that the cabbage is possessed of no evil qualities whatever ? Certainly not, for the same authors tell us, that it is apt to make the breath smell, and that it is injurious to the teeth and gums. In Eg}pt, too, it is never eaten, on account of its extreme bitterness.95 92 " Sprout," or " Brussels sprout." See B. xix. c. 41. 93 He is probably speaking of cabbage-water in general. 94 See B. xix. c. 15. 95 This liitter or pungent cabbage, Fee suggests, did not, probably, belong to the genus Brassica. 240 FLINT'S NATUUAL HISTORY. [Book XX. CHAP. 36.--THE WILD CABBAGE : THIRTY-SEVEN REMEDIES. Cato » extols infinitely more highly the properties of wild or erratic cabbage f so much so, indeed, as to affirm that the very powder of it, dried and collected in a scent-box, has the property, on merely smelling at it, of removing maladies of the nostrils and the bad smells resulting therefrom. Some per- sons call this wild cabbage " petrsea:" 9S it has an extreme an- tipathy to wine, so much so, indeed, that the vine invariably98" avoids it, and if it cannot make its escape, will be sure to die. This vegetable has leaves of uniform shape, small, rounded, and smooth : bearing a strong resemblance to the cultivated cab- bage, it is whiter, and has a more downy99 leaf. According to Chrysippus, this plant is a remedy for flatu- lency, melancholy, and recent wounds, if applied with honey, and not taken off before the end of six days: beaten up in water, it is good also for scrofula and fistula. Other writers, again, say that it is an effectual cure for spreading sores on the body, known as " nomae ;" that it has the property, also, of removing excrescences, and of reducing the scars of wounds and sores; that if chewed raw with honey, it is a cure for ulcers of the mouth and tonsils; and that a decoction of it used as a gargle with honey, is productive of the same effect. They say, too, that, mixed in strong vinegar with alum, in the pro- portion of three parts to two of alum, and then applied as a liniment, it is a cure for itch scabs and leprous sores of long standing. Epicharmus informs us, that for the bite of a mad dog, it is quite sufficient to apply it topically to the part af- fected, but that if used with silphium and strong vinegar, it is better still: he says, too, that it will kill a dog, if given to it with flesh to eat. The seed of this plant, parched, is remedial in cases of poison- 95 De Be Bust. c. 157. 97 Fee is of opinion that Pliny has here confused the description of two different plants; and that, intending to describe the Brassica arvensis of modern botany, he has superadded a description of the " Crambe agria," mentioned by Dioscorides, which appears to be identical with the Crambe maritima, or Brassica marina, the " sea-cabbage" of the ancients (see c. ■38), the Convolvulus soldanella of modern botany. 98 Or " rook-cabbage," a name given more properly to the Convolvulus soldanella. 98" See c. 34, and B. xxiv. c. 1. 99 A description, really, of the Convolvulus soldanella. Chap. 39.] THE SQUILL. 241 ing, by the stings of serpents, eating fungi, and drinking bulls' blood. The leaves of it, either boiled and taken in the food or else eaten raw, or applied with a liniment of sulphur and nitre, are good for affections of the spleen, as well as hard tu- mours of the mamillae. In swelling of the uvula, if the parts affected are only touched with the ashes of the root, a cure will be the result; and applied topically with honey, they are equally beneficial for reducing swrellings of the parotid glands, and curing the stings of serpents. We will add only one more proof of the virtues of the cabbage, and that a truly marvellous one—in all vessels in which water is boiled, the incrustations which adhere with such tenacity that it is otherwise impossible to detach them, will fall off immediately if a cabbage is boiled therein. CHAP. 37.--THE LAPSANA : ONE REMEDY. Among the wild cabbages, we find also the lapsana,1 a plant which grows a foot in height, has a hairy leaf, and strongly resembles mustard, were it not that the blossom is whiter. It is eaten cooked, and has the property of soothing and gently relaxing the bowels. CHAP. 38.—THE SEA-CABBAGE : ONE REMEDY. Sea-cabbage2 is the most strongly purgative of all these plants. It is cooked, in consequence of its extreme pungency, with fat meat, and is extremely detrimental to the stomach. CHAP. 39.t—THE SQUILL : TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. In medicine, we give the name of white squill to the male plant, and of black3 to the female: the whiter the squill, the better it is for medicinal4 purposes. The dry coats being first taken off of it, the remaining part, or so much of it as retains life, is cut into pieces, which are then strung and suspended 1 See B. xix. c. 41. 2 The Convolvulus soldanella of Linnaeus, Fee thinks : not one of the Crucifera, but belonging to the Convolvulaceae. 3 See B. xix. c. 30. 4 The squill is still regarded in medicine as one of the most energetic of all the vegetable productions, as a diuretic, an expectorant, and, in large doses, an emetic. Squill vinegar is stiU the form in which it is usually administered. Columella gives a somewhat different account of the mode of preparing it. VOL. IV. R 242 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. on a string, at short distances from each other. After these pieces are thoroughly dried, they are thrown into a jar of the very strongest vinegar, suspended in such a way, however, as not to touch any portion of the vessel. This is done forty-eight days before the summer solstice. The mouth of the jar is then tightly sealed with plaster; after which it is placed beneath some tiles which receive the rays of the sun the whole day through. At the end of forty-eight days the vessel is removed, the squills are taken out of it, and the vinegar poured into another jar. This vinegar has the effect of sharpening the eyesight, and, taken every other day, is good for pains in the stomach and sides: the strength of it, however, is so great, that if taken in too large a quantity, it will for some moments produce all the appearance of death. Squills, too, if chewed by themselves even, are good for the gums and teeth; and taken in vinegar and honey they expel tapeworm and other intestinal worms. Put fresh beneath the tongue, they prevent persons afflicted with dropsy from experiencing thirst. Squills are cooked in various ways; either in a pot with a lining of clay or grease, which is put into an oven or furnace, or else cut into pieces and stewed in a saucepan. They are dried also in a raw state, and then cut into pieces and boiled with vinegar ; in which case, they are employed as a liniment for the stings of serpents. Sometimes, again, they are roasted and then cleaned; after which, the middle of the bulb is boiled again in water. When thus boiled, they are used for dropsy, as a diuretic, being taken in doses of three oboli, with oxymel: they are employed also in a similar manner for affections of the spleen, and of the stomach, when it is too weak to digest the food, provided no ulcerations have made their appearance; also for gripings of the bowels, jaundice, and inveterate cough, accom- panied with asthma. A cataplasm of squill leaves, taken off at the end of four days, has the effect of dispersing scrofulous swellings of the neck; and a decoction of squills in oil, applied as a liniment, is a cure for dandriff and running ulcers of the head. Squills are boiled with honey also for the table, with the view of aiding the digestion more particularly; used in this way, too, they act upon the inside as a purgative. Boiled Chcp. 40.] BULBS. 243 with oil, and then mixed with resin, they are a cure for chaps on the feet; and the seed, mixed with honey, is applied to- pically, for the cure of lumbago. Pythagoras says that a squill, suspended at the threshold of tbe door, effectually shuts all access to evil spells and incantations.5 CHAP 40.—BULBS : THIRTY REMEDIES. Bulbs,6 steeped in vinegar and sulphur, are good for the cure of wounds in the face ;7 beaten up and used alone, they are beneficial for contractions of the sinews, mixed with wine, for porrigo, and used with honey, for the bites of dogs; in this last case, however, Erasistratus says that they ought to be mixed with pitch. The same author states that, applied to- pically with honey, they stanch the flowing of blood; other writers say, however, that in cases of bleeding at the nose, coriander and meal should be employed in combination with them. Theodorus prescribes bulbs in vinegar for the cure of lichens, and for eruptions in the head he recommends bulbs mixed with astringent wine, or an egg beaten up ; he treats defluxions of the eyes also with bulbs, applied topically, and uses a similar method for the cure of ophthalmia. The red bulbs more particularly, will cause spots in the face to dis- appear, if rubbed upon them with honey and nitre in the sun; and applied with wine or boiled cucumber they will remove freckles. Used either by themselves, or as Damion recom- mends, in combination with honied wine, they are remarkably efficacious for the cure of wounds, care being taken, however, not to remove the application till the end of four days. The 5 Theocritus says that the squill effectually protects statues and tombs from outrages being committed upon them; and it was so customary to plant them about the graves, that it became a proverbial saying, " lie is frantic enough to pluck squills from a grave." Theophrastus states that squills were employed in certain expiatory ceremonials. 8 As to the identification of the " bulbs," see B. xix. c. 30. The wild bulbs, Fee is of opinion, are probably the Nigrum allium or Moly of modern Botany; and the Allium schcenopiasum belongs, in his opinion, to the cultivated bulbs. 7 Supposing, Fee says, that the Bulbi of the ancients belonged to the genus Allium or garlic of modern Botany, we may conclude that in a me- dicinal point of view, they were of an exciting nature, powerful vermifuges, and slightly blistering when applied topically. The other statements here made, as to their medicinal qualities, are not consistent with modern ex- perience. R 2 244 pliny's natural history. [Book XX. same author prescribes them, too, for the cure of fractured ears, and collections of crude humours in the testes.8 For pains in the joints, bulbs are used with meal; boiled in wine, and applied to the abdomen, they reduce hard swellings of the viscera. In dysentery, they are given in wine mixed with rain water; and for convulsions of the intestines they are employed, in combination with silphium, in pills the size of a bean : bruised, they are employed externally, for the purpose of checking perspirations. Bulbs are good, too, for the sinews, for which reason it is that they are given to paralytic patients. The red bulb, mixed with honey and salt, heals sprains of the feet with great rapidity. The bulbs of Megara9 act as a strong aphrodisiac, and garden bulbs, taken with boiled must or raisin wine, aid delivery. Wild bulbs, made up into pills with silphium, effect the cure of wounds and other affections of the intestines. The seed, too, of the cultivated kinds is taken in wine as a cure for the bite of the phalangium,10 and the bulbs themselves are applied in vinegar for the cure of the stings of serpents. The ancients used to give bulb-seed to persons afflicted with madness, in drink. The blossom, beaten up, removes spots upon the legs, as well as scorches produced by fire. Diocles is of opinion that the sight is impaired by the use of bulbs; he adds, too, that when boiled they are not so wholesome as roasted, and that, of whatever nature they may be, they are difficult of digestion. chap. 41.—bulbine; one remedy, bulb emetic. The Greeks give the name bulbine11 to a plant with leaves resembling those of the leek, and a red bulbous root. This plant, it is said, is marvellously good for wounds, but only when they are of recent date. The bulbous plant known as the "emetic" bulb,12 from the effects which it produces, has dark leaves,13 and longer than those of the other kinds. 8 Testium pituitas. 3 See B. xix. c. 30. Athenseus, B. ii. c. 26, attributes a similar pro- perty to the bulbs of Megara. 10 See B. xi. cc. 24, 28. 11 The Hyacinthus botryoides of Linnaeus, most probably. 12 " Bulbus vomitorius."" The Narcissus jonquilla of Linnams, the " emetic jonquil." The bulb of the Spanish jonquil acts as a strong emetic. w Dioscorides says, more correctly, a black outer coat or peeling. Chap. 43.] CORRUDA, LIBYCUM, OR ORMINUM. 245 CHAP. 42. (10.)—GARDEN ASPARAGUS; WITH THE NEXT TWENTY-FOUR REMEDIES. Asparagus14 is said to be extremely wholesome as an aliment to the stomach. With the addition of cummin, it dispels flatulency of the stomach and colon ; it sharpens the eyesight also, acts as a mild aperient upon the stomach, and, boiled with wine, is good for pains in the chest and spine, and diseases of the intestines. Eor pains in the loins and kidneys asparagus- seed 15 is administered in doses of three oboli, taken with an equal proportion of cummin-seed. It acts as an aphrodisiac, and is.an extremely useful diuretic, except that it has a ten- dency to ulcerate the bladder.16 The root, also, pounded and taken in white wine, is highly extolled by some writers, as having the effect of disengaging calculi, and of soothing pains in the loins and kidneys; there are some persons, too, who administer this root with sweet wine for pains in the uterus. Boiled in vinegar the root is very beneficial in cases of elephantiasis. It is said that if a person is rubbed with asparagus beaten up in oil, he will never be stung by bees. CHAP. 43.—CORRUDA, LIBYCUM, OR ORMINUM. Wild asparagus is by some persons called " corruda," by others " libycum," and by the people of Attica " orminus."17 For all the affections above enumerated it is more efficacious even than the cultivated kind, that which is white13 more particularly. This vegetable has the effect of dispelling the jaundice, and a decoction of it, in doses of one hemina, is recommended as an aphrodisiac ; a similar effect is produced also by a mixture of asparagus seed and dill in doses of three 14 Asparagus is recognized in modern times, as exercising a strong action on the kidneys. Fee says, that according to Dr. Broussais, it is a sedative to palpitations of the heart, an assertion, the truth of which, he says, his own experience has confirmed. The root is also looked upon as diuretic. 15 Asparagus seed is not used in modern pharmacy, and it is very doubt- ful if it possesses any virtues at all. 16 Fee says that there is no truth in this assertion. 17 See B. xix. c. 42 : the Asparagus tenuifolius of Linnaeus, the wild asparagus, or Corruda of the South of France. 18 Fee says that in the South of Europe there is a kind, known to bota- nists as white asparagus, with a prickly stem : he suggests that it may possibly be the same as that here spoken of. 246 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. oboli respectively. A decoction of asparagus juice is given also for the stings of serpents; and the root of it, mixed with that of marathrum,19 is reckoned in the number of the most valuable remedies we are acquainted with. In cases of hematuria, Chrysippus recommends a mixture of asparagus, parsley, and cummin seed, to be given to the patient every five days, in doses of three oboli, mixed with two cyathi of wine. He says, however, that though employed this way, it is a good diuretic, it is bad for dropsy, and acts as an antaphrodisiac; and that it is injurious to the bladder, unless it is boiled first.21 He states also, that if the water in which it is boiled is given to dogs, it will kill them j22 and that the juice of the root boiled in wine, kept in the mouth, is an effectual cure for tooth-ache. chap. 44. (11.)—parsley; seventeen remedies. Parsley23 is held in universal esteem; for we find sprigs of it swimming in the draughts of milk given us to drink in country-places; and we know that as a seasoning for sauces, it is looked upon with peculiar favour. Applied to the eyes with honey, which must also be fomented from time to time with a warm decoction of it, it has a most marvellous efficacy in cases of defluxion of those organs or of other parts of the body; as also when beaten up and applied by itself, or in combination with bread or with polenta. Fish, too, when found to be in an ailing state in the preserves, are greatly refreshed by giving them green parsley. As to the opinions entertained upon it among the learned, there is not a single production dug out of the earth in reference to which a greater diversity exists. 19 Or fennel. Fee says that, till very recently, the roots of asparagus and of fennel were combined in medicine, forming part of the five " major aperitive " roots. The sirop of the five aperitive roots is still used, he says, in medicine. 21 Chrysippus and Dioscorides were of opinion, that a decoction of as- paragus root causes sterility in women ; a false notion, which, as Fee re- marks, prevailed very generally in Greece. 23 This is not consistent with fact. 23 See B. xix. c. 37. Parsley, though possessed of marked properties, is but little employed in medicine. Whot Pliny here states respecting it, Fee says, is a tissue of fables : but it is still used for the cure of sores, and even as an ophthalmic. Chap. 45.] APIASTRUM, OR MELTSSOPHYLLUM. 247 Parsley is distinguished as male and female :24 according to Chrysippus, the female plant has a hard leaf and more curled than the other, a thick stem, and an acrid, hot taste. Dio- nysius says, that the female is darker than the other kind, has a shorter root, and engenders small worms.25 Both of these writers, however, agree in saying that neither kind of parsley should be admitted into the number of our aliments; indeed, they look upon it as nothing less than sacrilege to do so, seeing that parsley is consecrated to the funereal feasts in honour of the dead. They say, too, that it is injurious to the eye- sight, that the stalk of the female plant engenders small worms, for which reason it is that those who eat of it become barren— males as well as females; and that children suckled by females who live on a parsley diet, are sure to be epileptic. They agree, however, in stating that the male planjt is not so inju- rious in its effects as the female, and that it is for this reason that it is not absolutely condemned and classed among the for- bidden plants. The leaves of it, employed as a cataplasm, are used for dispersing hard tumours26 in the mamillae; and when boiled in water, it makes it mpre agreeable to drink. The juice of the root more particularly, mixed with wine, allays the pains of lumbago, and, injected into the ears, it dimihishes hardness of hearing. The seed of it acts as a diuretic, pro- motes the menstrual discharge, and brings away the after- birth. Bruises and livid spots, if fomented with a decoction of parsley-seeed, will resume their natural colour. Applied to- pically, with the white of egg, or boiled in water, and then drunk, it is remedial for affections of the kidneys; and beaten up in cold water it is a cure for ulcers of the mouth. The seed, mixed with wine, or the root, taken with old wine, has the effect of breaking calculi in the bladder. The seed, too, is given in white wine, to persons afflicted with the jaundice. CHAP. 45.--APIASTRUM, OR MELISSOPHTLLUM. Hyginus gave the name of " apiastrum " to melissophyl- lum i27 but that which grows in Sardinia is poisonous, and 24 This distinction, Fee says, cannot be admitted. 25 Or maggots. 26 This belief in its efficacy, Fee says, still exists. 27 See B. xxi. c 86 : this is the Melissa officinalis of Linnaeus, or balm- 248 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. universally condemned. I speak here of this plant, because I feel it my duty to place before the reader every object which has been classified, among the Greeks, under the same name. CHAP. 46.—OLUSATRUM OR HIPPOSEL1NON : ELEVEN REMEDIES. OREOSELINON ; TWO REMEDIES. HELIOSELINON ; ONE REMEDY. Olusatrum,58 usually known as hipposelinon,29 is particu- larly repulsive to scorpions. The seed of it, taken in drink, is a cure for gripings in the stomach and intestinal complaints, and a decoction of the seed, drunk in honied wine, is curative in cases of dysuria.30 The root of the plant, boiled in wine, expels calculi of the bladder, and is a cure for lumbago and pains in the sides. Taken in drink and applied topically, it is a cure for the bite of a mad dog, and the juice of it, when drunk, is warming for persons benumbed with cold. Some persons make out oreoselinon31 to be a fourth species of parsley : it is a shrub about a palm in height, with an elon- gated seed, bearing a strong resemblance to that of cummin, and efficacious for the urine and the catamenia. Heliose- linon32 is possessed of peculiar virtues against the bites of spiders : and oreoselinon is used with wine for promoting the menstrual discharge. CHAP. 47. (12.)—PETROSEL1NON ; ONE REMEDY. BUSELINON ; ONE REMEDY. Another kind again, which grows in rocky places, is known by some persons as " petroselinon :"33 it is particularly good for abscesses, taken in doses of two spoonfuls of the juice to one cyathus of juice of horehound, mixed with three cyathi of warm water. Some writers have added buselinon34 to the list, gentle, from which the bees gather honey, quite a different plant to api- astrum or wild parsley. The Sardinian plant here mentioned, is probably the same as the Ranunculus, mentioned in B. xxv. c. 109, where its iden- tification will be further discussed. 28 See B. xix. c. 48. 29 Or " horse parsley." 30 Or strangury. No medicinal use is made of this plant in modern times. 31 Or " mountain parsley," see B. xix. c. 48. 32 Or "marsh-parsley," see B. xix. c.37. It is possessed of certain energetic properties, more appreciated by the ancient physicians than in modern pharmacy. 33 "Bock-parsley :" from this name comes our word "parsley." It is not clearly known to what variety of parsley he refers under this name. u Or " ox-parsley." C. Bauhin identifies this with the Petroselinum Cre- Chap. 48.] OCIMUM. 249 which differs only from the cultivated kind in the shortness of the stalk and the red colour of the root, the medicinal properties being just the same. Taken in drink or ap- plied topically, it is an excellent remedy for the stings of serpents. CHAP. 48.--OCIMUM ; THIRTY-FIVE REMEDIES. Chrysippus has exclaimed as strongly, too, against ocimum35 as he has against parsley, declaring that it is prejudicial to the Btomach and the free discharge of the urine, and is injurious to the sight; that it produces insanity, too, and lethargy, as well as diseases of the liver ; and that it is for this reason that goats refuse to touch it. Hence he comes to the conclusion, that the use of it ought to be avoided by man. Some persons go so far as to say, that if beaten up, and then placed beneath a stone, a scorpion will breed there j36 and that if chewed, and then placed in the sun, worms will breed in it. The people of Africa maintain, too, that if a person is stung by a scorpion the same day on which he has eaten ocimum, his life cannot possibly be saved. Even more than this, there are some who assert, that if a handful of ocimum is beaten up with ten sea or river crabs, all the scorpions in the vicinity will be attracted to it. Diodotus, too, in his Book of Recipes,37 says, that ocimum, used as an article of food, breeds lice. Succeeding ages, again, have warmly defended this plant; it has been maintained, for instance, that goats do eat it, that the rnind of no one who. has eaten of it is at all affected, and, that mixed with wine, with the addition of a little vinegar, it is a cure for the stings of land scorpions, and the venom of those found in the sea. Experience has proved, too, that the smell of this plant in vinegar is good for fainting fits and lethargy, ticum or Agriopastinaca of Crete; but, as Fee remarks, it is not clear to which of the Umbelliferse he refers under that name. 35 The Ocimum basilicum of Linnaeus, according to most commentators: though Fee is not of that opinion, it being originally from India, and never found in a wild state. From what Varro says, De Be Bust. B. i. c. 31, he thinks that it must be sought among the leguminous plants, the genus Hedysarum, Lathyrus, or Medicago. He remarks also, that Pliny is the more to be censured for the absurdities contained in this Chapter, as the preceding writers had only mentioned them to ridicule them. 3* See B. ix. c. 51. 57 " In Empericis." 250 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. as well as inflammations; that employed as a cooling lini- ment, with rose oil, myrtle oil, or vinegar, it is good for head- ache ; and that applied topically with wine, it is beneficial for defluxions of the eyes. It has been found also, that it is good for the stomach ; that taken with vinegar, it dispels flatulent eructations; that appliaations of it arrest fluxes of the bowels ; that it acts as a diuretic, and that in this way it is good for jaundice and dropsy, as well as cholera and looseness of the bowels. Hence it is that Philistio has prescribed it even for cceliac affections, and boiled, for dysentery. Some persons, too, though contrary to the opinion of Plistonicus, have given it in wine for tenesmus and spitting of blood, as also for ob- structions of the viscera. It is employed, too, as a liniment for the mamillae, and has the effect of arresting the secretion of the milk. It is very good also for the ears of infants, when applied with goose-grease more particularly. The seed of it, beaten up, and inhaled into the nostrils, is provocative of sneezing, and applied as a liniment to the head, of running at the nostrils: taken in the food, too, with vinegar, it purges the uterus. Mixed with copperas38 it removes warts. It acts, also, as an aphrodisiac, for which reason it is given to horses and asses at the season for covering. (13.) Wild ocimum has exactly the same properties in every respect, though in a more active degree. It is particularly good, too, for the various affections produced by excessive vo- miting, and for abscesses of the womb. The root, mixed with wine, is extremely efficacious for bites inflicted by wild beasts. CHAP. 49.—ROCKET : TWELVE REMEDIES. The seed of rocket39 is remedial for the venom of the scor- pion and the shrew-mouse : it repels, too, all parasitical in- sects which breed on the human body, and applied to the face, as a liniment, with honey, removes40 spots upon the skin. Used with vinegar, too, it is a cure for freckles ; and mixed with ox-gall it restores the livid marks left by wounds to their 38 " Atramento sutorio.'' 39 The Brassica eruca of Linnaeus. 40 None of the numerous remedies mentioned by Pliny for removing spots on the skin, are at all efficacious, in Fee's opinion. Chap. 50.] NASTURTIUM. 251 natural colour. It is said that if this plant is taken in wine by persons who are about to undergo a flogging, it will impart a certain degree of insensibility to the body. So agreeable is its flavour as a savouring for food, that the Greeks have given it the name of " euzomon."41 It is generally thought that rocket, lightly bruised, and employed as a fomentation for the eyes, will restore the sight to its original goodness, and that it allays coughs in young infants. The root of it, boiled in water, has the property of extracting the splinters of broken bones. As to the properties of rocket as an aphrodisiac, we have mentioned them already.42 Three leaves of wild rocket plucked with the left hand, beaten up in hydromel, and then taken in drink, are productive of a similar effect. CHAP. 50.—NASTURTIUM : FORTY-TWO REMEDIES. Nasturtium,43 on the other hand, is an antiaphrodisiac ;44 it has the effect also of sharpening the senses, as already stated.45 There are two46 varieties of this plant: one of them is pur- gative, and, taken in doses of one denarius to seven of water, carries off the bilious secretions. Applied as a liniment to scrofulous sores, with bean-meal, and then covered with a cabbage-leaf, it is a most excellent remedy. ' The other kind, which is darker than the first, has the effect of carrying off vicious humours of the head, and sharpening the sight: taken in vinegar it calms the' troubled spirits, and, drunk with wine or taken in a fig, it is good for affections of the spleen ; taken in honey, too, fasting daily, it is good for a cough. The seed of it, taken in wine, expels all kinds of intestinal worms, and with the addition of wild mint, it acts more efficaciously still. It is good, too, for asthma and cough, in combina- tion with wild marjoram and sweet wine; and a decoction of it in goats' milk is used for pains in the chest. Mixed with 41 " Good for sauces." 42 In B. xix. c. 44. 43 The Lepidium sativum of Linnaeus, cresses or nose-smart. 44 This opinion is corroborated by Dioscorides, B. ii. c. 185, and confirmed by the author of the Geoponica, B. xii. c. 27. Fee inclines to the opinion of Dioscorides, and states that is highly antiscorbutic. 45 In B. xix, c. 44. 48 The two varieties, the white and the black, are no longer distin- guished. The only variety now recognized, Fee says, is that with crisped leaves. 252 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. pitch it disperses tumours, and extracts thorns from the body; and, employed as a liniment, with vinegar, it removes spots upon the body. When used for the cure of carcinoma, white of eggs is added to it. With vinegar it is employed also as a liniment for affections of the spleen, and with honey it is found to be veiy useful for the complaints of infants. Sextius adds, that the smell of burnt nasturtium drives away serpents, neutralizes the venom of scorpions, and gives relief in head-ache; with the addition too, of mustard, he says, it is a cure for alopecy, and applied to the ears with a fig, it is a remedy for hardness of hearing. The juice of it, he says, if injected into the ears, will effect the cure of tooth-ache, and employed with goose-grease it is a remedy for porrigo and ulcerous sores of the head. Applied with leaven it brings boils47 to a head, and makes carbuncles suppurate and break: used with honey, too, it is good for cleansing phagedenic ulcers. Topical applications are made of it, combined with vinegar and polenta, in cases of sciatica aud lumbago: it is similarly employed, too, for lichens and malformed48 nails, its qualities being naturally caustic. The best nasturtium of all is that of Babylonia; the wild49 variety possesses the same qualities as the cultivated in every respect, but in a more powerful degree." CHAP. 51.—RUE : EIGHTY-FOUR REMEDIES. One of the most active, however, of all the medicinal plants, is rue.50 The cultivated kind has broader leaves and ' more numerous branches than the other. Wild rue is more violent in its effects, and more active in every respect. The juice of it is extracted by beating it up, and moistening it moderately with water; after which it is kept for use in 47 " Furunculos." Gangrenous sores, probably. 48 " Unguibus scabris," i. e. for the removal of malformed nails, with the view to the improvement of their appearance. 49 The Lepidium Iberis of Linnaeus, Fee thinks. 50 The Buta graveolens of Linnaeus. The Bomans, singularly enough, valued this offensive plant as a condiment for their dishes, and a seasoning for their wines.—See B. xiv. c. 19 : and at the present day even, it is ad- mired for its smell, Fee says, by the ladies of Naples. The Italians use it also for their salads. Its smell is thought to prevent infection, for which reason it is still used, in country-places, at funerals, and is placed before prisoners when tried criminaUy, for the prevention, it is said, of gaol fever. Chap. 51.] RUE. 253 boxes of Cyprian copper. Given in large doses, this juice has all the baneful effects of poison,61 and that of Macedonia more particularly, which grows on the banks of the river Aliac- mon.52 It is a truly wonderful thing, but the juice of hemlock has the property of neutralizing its effects. Thus do we find one thing acting as the poison of another poison, for the juice of hemlock is very beneficial, rubbed upon the hands and [face]53 of persons employed in gathering rue. In other respects, rue is one of the principal ingredients employed in antidotes, that of Galatia more particularly. Every species of rue, employed by itself, has the effect also of an antidote, if the leaves are bruised and taken in wine. It is good more particularly in cases of poisoning by wolfsbane54 and mistletoe, as well as by fungi, whether administered in the drink or the food. Employed in a similar manner, it is good for the stings of serpents ; so much so, in fact, that weasels,55 when about to attack them, take the precaution first of pro- tecting themselves by eating rue. Rue is good, too, for the injuries by scorpions and spiders, the stings of bees, hornets, and wasps, the noxious effects produced by cantharides and salamanders,66 and the bites of mad dogs. The juice is taken in doses of one acetabulum, in wine; and the leaves, beaten up or else chewed, are applied topically, with honey and salt, or boiled with vinegar and pitch. It is said that people rubbed with the juice of rue, or even having it on their per- son, are never attacked by these noxious creatures, and that serpents are driven away by the stench of burning rue. The most efficacious, however, of all, is the root of wild rue, taken with wine; this too, it is said, is more beneficial still, if drunk in the open air. Pythagoras has distinguished this plant also into male and 51 It is not the rue that has this effect, so much as the salts of copper which are formed. 52 Fee thinks it not likely that the rue grown here was at all superior to that of other localities. 53 This word, omitted in the text, is supplied from Dioscorides. 54 Or aconite. There is no truth whatever in these assertions, that rue has the effect of neutralizing the effects of hemlock, henbane, or poisonous fungi. Boerrhave says that he employed rue successfully in cases of hyste- ria and epilepsy ; and it is an opinion which originated with Hippocrates, and is still pretty generally entertained, that it promotes the catamenia. 55 See B. viii. c. 40. * See B. x. c. 86. 254 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. female, the former having smaller leaves than the other, and of a grass-green colour; the female plant, he says, has leaves of a larger size and a more vivid hue. The same author, too, has considered rue to be injurious to the eyes ; but this is an error, for engravers and painters are in the habit of eating it with bread, or else nasturtium, for the benefit of the sight; wild goats, too, eat it for the sight, they say. Many persons have dispersed films on the eyes by rubbing them with a mix- ture of the juice of rue with Attic honey, or the milk of a woman just delivered of a male child: the same result has been produced also by touchiug the corners of the eyes with the pure juice of the plant. Applied topically, with polenta, rue carries off defluxions of the eyes; and, taken with wine, or applied topically with vinegar and rose oil, it is a cure for head-ache. If, however, the pain attacks the whole of the head,57 the rue should be applied with barley-meal and vin- egar. This plant has the effect also of dispelling crudities, flatulency, and inveterate pains of the stomach; it opens the uterus, too, and restores it when displaced; for which purpose it is applied as a liniment, with honey, to the whole of the abdomen and chest. Mixed with figs, and boiled down to one half, it is administered in wine for dropsy ; and it is taken in a similar manner for pains of the chest, sides, and loins, as well as for coughs, asthma, and affections of the lungs, liver, and kidneys, and for shivering fits. Persons about to indulge in wine, take a decoction of the leaves, to prevent head-ache and surfeit. Taken in food, too, it is wholesome, whether eaten raw or boiled, or used as a confection; boiled with hyssop, and taken with wine, it is good for griping3 of the stomach. Employed in the same way, it arrests internal haemorrhage, and, applied to the nostrils, bleeding at the nose: it is beneficial also to the teeth if rinsed with it. In cases of ear-ache, this juice is injected into the ears, care being taken to moderate the dose, as already stated, if wild rue is employed. Tor hardness of hearing, too, and singing in the ears, it is simi- larly employed in combination with oil of roses, or oil of laurel, or else cummin and honey. Juice of rue pounded in vinegar, is applied also to the temples and the region of the brain in persons affected with phrenitis; some persons, however, have added to this mixture " Si vero sit cephulaea." Chap. 51. RUE. 255 wild thyme and laurel leaves, rubbing the head and neck as well with the liniment. It has been given in vinegar to lethargic patients to smell at, and a decoction of it is admi- nistered for epilepsy, in doses of four cyathi, as also just be- fore the attacks in fever of intolerable chills. It is likewise given raw to persons for shivering fits Bue is a provoca- tive58 of the urine to bleeding even : it promotes the men- strual discharge, also, and brings away the after-birth, as well as the dead foetus even, according to Hippocrates,59 if taken in sweet red wine. The same author, also, recommends applications of it, as well as fumigations, for affections of the uterus. For cardiac diseases, Diocles prescribes applications of rue, in combination with vinegar, honey, and barley-meal : and for the iliac passion, he says that it should be mixed with meal, boiled in oil, and spread upon the wool of a sheep's fleece. Many persons recommend, for purulent expectorations, two drachmas of dried rue to one and a half of sulphur; and, for spitting of blood, a decoction of three sprigs in wine. It is given also in dysentery, with cheese, the rue being first beaten up in wine; and it has been prescribed, pounded with bitumen, as a potion for habitual shortness of breath. For persons suf- fering from violent falls, three ounces of the seed is recom- mended. A pound of oil, in which rue leaves have been boiled, added to one sextarius of wine, forms a liniment for parts of the body which are frost-bitten. If rue really is a diuretic, as Hippocrates60 thinks, it is a singular thing that some persons should give it, as being an anti-diuretic, for the suppression of incontinence of urine. Applied topically, with honey and alum, it cures itch-scabs, and leprous sores; and, in combination with nightshade and hogs'-lard, or beef-suet, it is good for morphew, warts, scrofula, and maladies of a similar nature. "Used with vinegar and oil, or else white lead, it is good for erysipelas ; and, applied with vinegar, for carbuncles. Some persons prescribe silphium also as an ingredient in the liniment; but it is not employed by them for the cure of the pustules known as epinyctis. Boiled rue is recommeuded, also, as a cataplasm for swellings 58 Dioscorides says however, B. iii. c. 52, that 'it arrests incontinence of the urine. See below. M De Morb. Mul. B. i. c. 128. w De Diaeta, B. ii. c. 26. 256 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. of the mamillae, and, combined with wax, for eruptions of pituitous matter.61 It is applied with tender sprigs of laurel, in cases of defluxion of the testes; and it exercises so peculiar an effect upon those organs, that old rue, it is said, employed in a liniment, with axle-grease, is a cure for hernia. The seed pounded, and applied with wax, is remedial also for broken limbs. The root of this plant, applied topically, is a cure for effusion of blood in the eyes, and, employed as a lini- ment, it removes scars or spots on all parts of the body. Among the other properties which are attributed to rue, it is a singular fact, that, though it is universally agreed that it is hot by nature, a bunch of it, boiled in rose-oil, with the addition of an ounce of aloes, has the effect of checking the perspiration in those who rub themselves with it; and that, used as an aliment, it impedes the generative functions. Hence it is, that it is so often given in cases of spermatorrhoea, and where persons are subject to lascivious dreams. Every pre- caution should be taken by pregnant women to abstain from rue as an article of diet, for I find it stated that it is productive of fatal results to the foetus.62 Of all the plants that are grown, rue is the one that is most generally employed for the maladies of cattle, whether arising from difficulty of respiration, or from the stings of noxious creatures—in which cases it is injected with wine into the nostrils—or whether they may happen to have swallowed a horse-leech, under which circumstances it is administered in vinegar. In all other maladies of cattle, the rue is prepared just as for man in a similar case. CHAP. 52. (14.)--WILD MINT : TWENTY REMEDIES. Mentastrum, or wild mint,63 differs from the other kind in the appearance of the leaves, which have the form of those of ocimum and the colour of pennyroyal; for which reason, some persons, in fact, give it the name of wild pennyroyal.84 The leaves of this plant, chewed and applied topically, are a cure for elephantiasis; a discovery which was accidentally made in 61 " Pituitae eruptionibus." 63 This prejudice, Fee says, still survives. f3 The Menta silvestris of Linnaeus; though Clusius was of opinion that it ig the Nepeta tuberosa of Linnaeus. M " Silvestre puleium." Chap. 53.] MINT. 257 the time of Pompeius Magnus, by a person affected with this malady covering his face with the leaves for the purpose of neutralizing the bad smell that arose therefrom. These leaves are employed also as a liniment, and in drink, with a mixture of salt, oil, and vinegar, for the stings of scorpions; and, in doses of two drachmae to two cyathi of wine, for those of sco- lopendrse and serpents. A decoction, too, of the juice is given for the sting of the scolopendra.65 Leaves of wild mint are kept, dried and reduced to a fine powder, as a remedy for poisons of every description. Spread on the ground or burnt, this plant has the effect of driving away scorpions. Taken in drink, wild mint carries off the lochia in females after parturition; but, if taken before, it is fatal to the foetus. It is extremely efficacious in cases of rupture and convulsions, and, though in a somewhat less degree, for orthopncea,66 gripings of the bowels, and cholera: it is good, too, as a topical appli- cation for lumbago and gout. The juice of it is injected into the ears for worms breeding there ; it is taken also for jaun- dice, and is employed in liniments for scrofulous sores. It prevents67 the recurrence of lascivious dreams ; and taken in vinegar, it expels tape-worm.68 For the cure of porrigo, it is put in vinegar, and the head is washed with the mixture in the sun. CHAP. 53.—MINT : FORTY-ONE REMEDIES. The very smell of mint69 reanimates the spirits, and its flavour gives a remarkable zest to food: hence it is that it is bo generally an ingredient in our sauces. It has the effect of preventing milk from turning sour, or curdling and thickening; hence it is that it is so generally put into milk used for drink- ing, to prevent any danger of persons being choked70 by it in a 65 Galen and Dioscorides say the same; but it is not the fact; the leaves being of no utility whatever. 66 Difficulty of breathing, unless the neck is kept in a straight position. 67 Fee is inclined to think exactly the contrary. 08 Its properties as a vermifuge are contested. 69 According to ancient fable,"Mintha, the daughter of Cocytus, and be- loved by Pluto, was changed by Proserpine into this plant: it was gene- rally employed also in the mysteries of the Greeks. It is the Mentha 6ativa of Linnaeus. 70 Fee says that this passage alone would prove pretty clearly that Pliny had no idea of the existence of the gastric juices. VOL. IV. s _>;,8 PLINl's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. curdled state. It is administered also for this purpose in water or honied wine. It is generally thought, too, that it is in consequence of this property that it impedes generation, by preventing the seminal fluids from obtaining the requisite con- sistency. In males as well as females it arrests bleeding, and it has the property, with the latter, of suspending the men- strual discharge. Taken in water, with amylum,71 it prevents looseness in cceliac complaints. Syriation employed this plant for the cure of abscesses of the uterus, and, in doses of three oboli, with honied wine, for diseases of the liver: he prescribed it also, in pottage, for spitting of blood. It is an admirable remedy for ulcerations of the head in children, and has the effect equally of drying the trachea when too moist, and of bracing it when too dry. Taken in honied wine and water, it carries off purulent phlegm. The juice of mint is good for the voice when a person is about to engage in a contest of eloquence, but only when taken just before. It is employed also with milk as a gargle for swelling of the uvula, with the addition of rue and coriander. With alum, too, it is good for the tonsils of the throat, and, mixed with honey, for roughness of the tongue. Employed by itself, it is a remedy for internal convulsions and affections of the lungs. Taken with pomegranate juice, as Democrites tells us, it arrests hiccup and vomiting. The juice of mint fresh gathered, inhaled, is a remedy for affections of the nos- trils. Beaten up and taken in vinegar, mint is a cure for cholera, and for internal fluxes of blood : applied externally, with polenta, it is remedial for the iliac passion and tension of the mamillae. It is applied, too, as a liniment to the temples for head-ache; and it is taken internally, as an antidote for the stings of scolopendrse, sea-scorpions, and serpents. As a liniment it is applied also for defluxions of the eyes, and all eruptions of the head, as well as maladies of the rectum. Mint is an effectual preventive, too, of chafing of the skin, even if held in the hand only. In combination with honied wine, it is employed as an injection for the ears. It is said, too, that this plant will cure affections of the spleen, if tasted in the garden nine days consecutively, without plucking it, the person who bites it saying at the same moment that he does so for the benefit of the spleen: and that, if dried, and re- 71 See B. xviii. c. 17, and B. xxii. c. 67. Chap. 54.] PENNYROYAL. 259 duced to powder, a pinch of it with three fingers taken in water, will cure stomach-ache.72 Sprinkled in this form in drink, it is said to have the effect of expelling intestinal worms. CHAP 54.--PENNYROYAL : TWENTY-FIVE REMEDIES, Pennyroyal73 partakes with mint, in a very considerable degree, the property74 of restoring consciousness in fainting fits; Blips of both plants being kept for the purpose in glass bottles75 filled with vinegar. It is for this reason that Varro has de- clared that a wreath of pennyroyal is more worthy to grace our chambers76 than a chaplet of roses : indeed, it is said that, placed upon the head, it materially alleviates head-ache.77 It is generally stated, too, that the 6mell of it alone will pro- tect the head against the injurious effects of cold or heat, and that it acts as a preventive of thirst; also, that persons ex- posed to the sun, if they carry a couple of sprigs of penny- royal behind the ears, will never be incommoded by the heat. For various pains, too, it is employed topically, mixed with polenta and vinegar. The female78 plant is the more efficacious of the two ; it has a purple flower, that of the male being white. Taken in Cold water with salt and polenta it arrests nausea, as well as pains of the chest and abdomen. Taken, too, in water, it prevents gnawing pains of the stomach, and, with vinegar and polenta, it arrests vomiting. In combination with salt and vinegar, and polenta, it loosens the bowels. Taken with boiled honey and nitre, it is a cure for intestinal complaints. Employed 72 It is only in this case and the next, Fee says, that modern experience agrees with our author as to the efficacy of mint. 73 The Menta pulegium of Linnaeus. 74 Its medicinal properties are similar to those of mint; which is a good stomachic, and is useful for hysterical and hypochondriac affections, as well as head-ache. We may therefore know how far to appreciate the medi- cinal virtues ascribed by Pliny to these plants. 75 "Ampullas." 76 "Cubiculis:" "sleeping-chambers." It was very generally the practice among the ancients to keep odoriferous plants in their bed-rooms; a dangerous practice, now held in pretty general disesteem. 77 Strong odours, as Fee remarks, are not generally beneficial for head- ache. 73 Dioscorides makes no such distinction, and botanically speaking, as Fee observes, this distinction is fault}-. S 2 2G0 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. with wine it is a diuretic, and if the wine is the produce of the Aminean79 grape, it has the additional effect of dispersing calculi of the bladder and removing all internal pains. Taken in conjunction with honey and vinegar, it modifies the men- strual discharge, and brings away the after-birth, restores the uterus, when displaced, to its natural position, and expels the dead80 foetus. The seed is given to persons to smell at, who have been suddenly struck dumb, and is prescribed for epi- leptic patients in doses of one cyathus, taken in vinegar. If water is found unwholesome for drinking, bruised pennyroyal should be sprinkled in it; taken with wine it modifies acri- dities81 of the body. Mixed with salt, it is employed as a friction for the sinews, and with honey and vinegar, in cases of opisthotony. Decoctions of it are prescribed as a drink for persons stung by serpents; and, beaten up in wine, it is employed for the stings of scorpions, that which grows in a dry soil in particular. This plant is looked upon as efficacious also for ulcerations of the mouth, and for coughs. The blossom of it, fresh gathered, and burnt, kills fleas82 by its smell. Xenocrates, among the other reme- dies which he mentions, says that in tertian fevers, a sprig of pennyroyal, wrapped in wool, should be given to the patient to smell at, just before the fit comes on, or else it should be put under the bed-clothes and laid by the patient's side. CHAP. 55.--WILD PENNYROYAL : SEVENTEEN REMEDIES. For all the purposes already mentioned, wild pennyroyal83 has exactly the same properties, but in a still higher degree. It bears a strong resemblance to wild marjoram,84 and has a smaller leaf than the cultivated kind: by some persons it is known as " dictamnos."85 When browsed upon by sheep and goats, it makes them bleat, for which reason, some of the 79 See B. xiv. c. 5. 60 "Defunctos partus" is certainly a better reading than "defunctis partus," though the latter is the one adopted by Sillig. 81 " Salsitudines." Hardouin is probably right in his conjecture, that the correct reading is "lassitudines," "lassitude." &; " Pulices." It is to this belief, no doubt, that it owes its Latin name " pulegium," and its English appellation, " flea-bane." 83 It differs in no respect whatever from the cultivated kind, except that the leaves of the latter are somewhat larger. 84 Or origanum. « Whence our name "dittany." Chap. 56.] NEP. 261 Greeks, changing a single letter in its name, have called it " blechon,"86 [instead of "glechon."] This plant is naturally so heating as to blister the parts of the body to which it is applied. For a cough which results from a chill, it is a good plan for the patient to rub himself with it before taking the bath ; it is similarly employed, too, in shiver- ing fits, just before the attacks come on, and for convulsions and gripings of the stomach. It is also remarkably good for the gout. To persons afflicted with spasms, this plant is administered in drink, in combination with honey and salt; and it renders expectoration easy in affections of the lungs.87 Taken with salt it is beneficial for the spleen and bladder, and is cura- tive of asthma and flatulency. A decoction of it is equally as good as the juice : it restores the uterus when displaced, and is prescribed for the sting of either the land or the sea scolopen- dra, as well as the scorpion. It is particularly good, too, for bites inflicted by a human being. The root of it, newly taken up, is extremely efficacious for corroding ulcers, and in a dried state tends to efface the deformities produced by scars. CHAP. 56.--NEP : NINE REMEDIES. Nep88 has also some affinity in its effects with pennyroyal. Boiled down in water to one third, these plants dispel sudden chills: they promote the menstrual discharge also in females, and allay excessive heats in summer. Nep possesses certain virtues against the stings of serpents; at the very smoke and smell of it they will instantly take to flight, and persons who have to sleep in places where they are apprehensive of them, will do well to place it beneath them. Bruised, it is employed to- pically for lacrymal fistulas89 of the eye: fresh gathered and 86 The " bleating plant;" from (SXrjxaopah "to bleat." Dioscorides, B. ii. c. 36, says the same of cultivated pennyroyal. 87 "Pulmonum vitia exscreabilia facit." 88 Or " catmint;" the variety " longifolia," Fee thinks, of the Menta silvestris of Linnaeus; or else the Melissa altissima of Sibthorp. Sprengel identifies it with the Thymus Barrel ieri, the Melissa Cretica of Linnams. Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 42, identifies the " Calamintha " of the Greeks with the Nepeta of the Bomans. The medicinal properties of Nep, or catmint, are the same as those of the other mints. 8" " ^Egilopiis." 262 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. mixed in vinegar with one third part of bread, it is applied as a liniment for head-ache. The juice of it, injected into the nostrils, with the head thrown back, arrests bleeding at the nose, and the root has a similar effect. This last is em- ployed also, with myrtle-seed, in warm raisin wine, as a gargle for the cure of quinsy. CHAP. 57.—CUMMIN : FORTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. WILD CUMMIN : TWENTY-SIX REMEDIES. Wild cummin is a remarkably slender plant, consisting of four or five leaves indented like a saw; like the cultivated * kind, it is much employed in medicine, among the stomachic remedies more particularly. Bruised and taken with bread, or else drunk in wine and water, it dispels phlegm and flatu- lency, as well as gripings of the bowels and pains in the intes- tines. Both varieties have the effect, however, of producing paleness91 in those who drink these mixtures; at all events, it is generally stated that the disciples of Porcius Latro,92 so cele- brated among the professors of eloquence, used to employ this drink for the purpose of imitating the paleness which had been contracted by their master, through the intensity of his studies: and that Julius Vindex,93 in more recent times, that assertor of our liberties against Nero, adopted this method of playing upon91 those who were looking out for a place in his will. Applied in the form of lozenges, or fresh with vinegar, cummin has the effect of arresting bleeding at the nose, and used by 90 Cummin is the Cuminum cyminum of Linnaeus. The seed only is used, and that but rarely, for medicinal purposes, being a strong excitant and a carminative. In Germany, and Turkey, and other parts of the East, cummin-seed is esteemed as a condiment. 91 Horace, B. i. Epist. 19, says the same; but in reality cummin pro- duces no such effect. 9i M. Porcius Latro, a celebrated rhetorician of the reign of Augustus, a Spaniard by birth, and a friend and contemporary of the elder Seneca. His school was one of the most frequented at Borne, and he numbered among his scholars the poet Ovid. He died b.c. 4. 93 The son of a Boman senator, but descended from a noble family in Aquitanian Gaul. When propraetor of Gallia Celtica, he headed a revolt against Nero ; but being opposed by Virginius Bufus, he slew himself at the town of Vesontio, now Besancon. 94 "Captationi" is suggested by Sillig as a preferable reading to " captatione," which last would imply that it was Vindex himself who sought a place by this artifice, in the wills of others. Chap. 58.] AMMI. 263 itself, it is good for defluxions of the eyes. Combined with honey, it is used also for Bwellings of the eyes. With children of tender age, it is sufficient to apply it to the abdomen. In cases of jaundice, it is administered in white wine, immediately after taking the bath. (15.) The cummin of ^Ethiopia,95 more particularly, is given in vinegar and water, or else as an electuary with honey. It is thought, too, that the cummin of Africa his the peculiar property of arresting incontinence of urine. The cultivated plant is given, parched and beaten up in vinegar, for affections of the liver, as also for vertigo. Beaten up in sweet wine, it is taken in cases, also, where the urine is too acrid; and for affections of the uterus, it is administered in wine, the leaves of it being employed topically as well, in layers of wool. Parched and beaten up with honey, it is used as an application for swellings of the testes, or else with rose oil and wax. For all the purposes above-mentioned, wild cummin w is more efficacious than cultivated; as also, in combination with oil, for the stings of serpents, scorpions, and scolopendrse. A pinch of it with three fingers, taken in wine, has the effect of arrest- ing vomiting and nausea; it is used, too, both as a drink and a liniment for the colic, or else it is applied hot, in dossils of lint,97 to the part affected, bandages being employed to keep it in its place. Taken in wine, it dispels hysterical affections, the proportions being three drachmas of cummin to three cyathi of wine. It is used as an injection, too, for the ears, when affected with tingling and singing, being mixed for the purpose with veal suet or honey. For contusions, it is applied as a liuiment, with honey, raisins, and vinegar, and for dark freckles on the skin with vinegar. CHAP. 58.--AMMI : TEN REMEDIES. There is another plant, which bears a very strong resem- 95 There would be but little difference, Fee observes, between this and the cummin *f other countries, as it is a plant iii which little change is effected by cultivation. Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 79, says that the cummin of ^Ethiopia (by Hippocrates called "royal cummin") has a 6weeter smell than the other kinds. 96 Fee is inclined to identify wild cummin, from the description of it given by Dioscorides, with the Delphinium consolida of Linnetus; but at (he same time, he says, it is impossible to speak positively on the subject. 97 " Penicillis." 264 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. blance to cummin, known to the Greeks as " ammi;" " some persons are of opinion, that it is the same as the ^Ethiopian cummin. Hippocrates gives it99 the epithet of " royal;" no doubt, because he looks upon it as possessed of greater virtues than Egyptian cummin. Many persons, however, consider it to be of a totally different nature from cummin, as it is so very much thinner, and of a much whiter colour. Still, it is em- ployed for just the same purposes as cummin, for we find it used at Alexandria for putting under loaves of bread, and form- ing an ingredient in various sauces. It has the effect of dispel- ling flatulency and gripings of the bowels, and of promoting the secretion of the urine and the menstrual discharge. It is employed, also, for the cure of bruises, and to assuage defluxions of the eyes. Taken in wine with linseed, in doses of two drachmae, it is a cure for the stings of scorpions; and, used with an equal proportion of myrrh, it is particularly good for the bite of the cerastes.1 Like cummin, too, it imparts paleness of complexion to those who drink of it. Used as a fumigation, with raisins or with resin, it acts as a purgative upon the uterus. It is said, too, that if women smell at this plant during the sexual congress, the chances of conception will be greatly promoted thereby. CHAP. 59.--TnE CAPPARIS OR CAPER I EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. We have already spoken2 of the caper at sufficient length when treating of the exotic plants. The caper which comes3 from beyond sea should never be used ; that of Italy4 is not so dangerous. It is said, that persons who eat this plant daily, are never attacked by paralysis or pains in the spleen. The root of it, pounded, removes white eruptions of the skin, if 98 The Ammi Copticum of modern botany. 99 The ^Ethiopian cummin, namely, which Pliny himself seems inclined to confound with ammi. 1 Or " horned" serpent. See B. viii. c. 35, and B. xi. c. 45. 2 In B. xiii. c. 44. 3 It is not improbable that under this name he alludes to the carpels of some kind of Euphorbiacea, which bear a resemblance to the fruit of the caper. Indeed, there is one variety of the Euphorbia with an acrid juice, known in this country by the name of the " caper-plant." 4 The Capparis spinosa, probably, on which the oapers used in our sauces are grown. Chap. 61.] CUNILA BUBULA. 265 rubbed with it in the sun. The bark6 of the root, taken in wine, in doses of two drachmas, is good for affections of the spleen; the patient, however, must forego the use of the bath. It is said, too, that in the course of thirty-five days the whole of the spleen may be discharged under this treatment, by mine and by stool. The caper is also taken in drink for lumbago and paralysis ; and the seed of it boiled, and beaten up in vinegar, or the root chewed, has a soothing effect in tooth-ache. A decoction of it in oil is employed, also, as an injection for ear- ache. The leaves and the root, fresh out of the ground, mixed with honey, are a cure for the ulcers known as phagedaenic. In the same way, too, the root disperses scrofulous swellings; and a decoction of it in water removes imposthumes of the pa- rotid glands, and worms. Beaten up and mixed with barley- meal, it is applied topically for pains in the liver; it is a cure, also, for diseases of the bladder. In combination with oxymel, it is prescribed for tapeworm, and a decoction of it in vinegar removes ulcerations of the mouth. It is generally agreed among writers that the caper is prejudicial to the stomach. CHAP. 60.--LIGUSTICUM, OR LOVAGE t FOUR REMEDIES. Ligusticum,6 by some persons known as " panax," is good for the stomach, and is curative of convulsions and flatulency. There are persons who give this plant the name of " cunila bubula;" but, as we have already7 stated, they are in error in so doing. CHAP. 61. (16.)--CUNILA BUDULA: FIVE REMEDIES. In addition to garden cunila,8 there are numerous other varieties of it employed in medicine. That knoAvn to us as " cunila bubula," has a very similar seed to that of penny- royal. This seed, chewed and applied topically, is good for wounds : the plaster, however, must not be taken off till the fifth day. For the stings of serpents, this plant is taken in wine, and the leaves of it are bruised and applied to the 5 Until recently, the bark was employed in the Materia Medica, as a diuretic : it is now no longer used. 6 Or Lovage. See B. xix. c. 50. 7 In B. xix. c. 50, where he states that Crateuas has given to the wild Ligusticum the name of Cunila bubula, or " ox cunila." 8 See B. xix. c. 50. 266 PLINY'S natural HISTORY. [Book XX. wound; which is also rubbed with them as a friction. The tortoise,9 when about to engage in combat with the serpent, employs this plant as a preservative against the effects of its sting; some persons, for this reason, have given it the name of " panacea."10 It has the effect also of dispersing tumours and maladies of the male organs, the leaves being dried for the purpose, or else beaten up fresh and applied to the part affected. For every purpose for which it is employed it combines re- markably well with wine. CHAP. 62.—CUNILA GALLINACEA, OR ORIGANUM : FIVE REMEDIES. There is another variety, again, known to our people as " cunila gallinacea,"11 and to the Greeks as Heracleotic origa- num.12 Beaten up with salt, this plant is good for the eyes; and it is a remedy for cough and affections of the liver. Mixed with meal, and taken as a broth, with oil and vine- gar, it is good for pains in the side, and the stings of serpents in particular. CHAP. 63.—CUNILAGO : EIGHT REMEDIES. There is a third species, also, known to the Greeks as " male cunila," and to us as "cunilago."13 This plant has a foetid smell, a ligneous root, and a rough leaf. Of all the varieties of cunila, this one, it is said, is possessed of the most active properties. If a handful of it is thrown anywhere, all the beetles in the house, they say, will be attracted to it; and, taken in vinegar and water, it is good for the stings of scorpions more particularly. It is stated, also, that if a person is rubbed with three leaves of it, steeped in oil, it will have the effect of keeping all ser- pents at a distance. OHAP. 64.—SOFT CUNILA : THREE REMEDIES. LIBANOTIS '. THREE REMEDIES. The variety, on the other hand, known as soft14 cunila, has a 9 See B. viii. cc. 41 and 44. 10 Universal remedy, or " all-heal." 11 Or " Poultry cunila :" the Origanum Heracleoticum of Linnaeus. 12 See B. xxv. c. 12. • 13 An Umbellifera, Fee says, of the modern genus Convza. See B. xxi. c. 32. ; u Fee is of opinion that Pliny has here confounded "cunila" with "conyza" and that he means the KovvZa ftiKpd of Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 136. the KovvZ,a Qi)Xvq of Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 2, supposed to be the Inula pulicaria of Linnaeus. See B. xxi. c. 32. Chap. 66.] PIPERITIS, OR SILIQUASTRUM. 267 more velvety leaf, and branches covered with thorns ; when rubbed it has just the smell of honey, and it adheres to the fingers when touched. There is another kind, again, known to us as " libanotis,"15 a name which it owes to the resem- blance of its smell to that of frankincense. Both of these plants, taken in wine or vinegar, are antidotes for the stings of serpents. Beaten up in water, also, and sprinkled about a place, they kill fleas.16 CHAP. 65.--CULTIVATED CUNILA ; THREE REMEDIES. MOUNTAIN CUNILA J SEVEN REMEDIES. Cultivated cunila17 has also its medicinal uses. The juice of it, in combination with rose oil, is good for the ears; and the plant itself is taken in drink, to counteract the effects of violent blows.18 A variety of this plant is the mountain cunila, similar to wild thyme in appearance, and particularly efficacious for the stings of serpents. This plant is diuretic, and promotes the lochial dis- charge : it aids the digestion, too, in a marvellous degree. Poth varieties have a tendency to sharpen the appetite, even when persons are troubled with indigestion, if taken fasting in drink: they are good, too, for sprains, and, taken with barley-meal, and vinegar and water, they are extremely useful for stings inflicted by wasps and insects of a similar nature. We shall have occasion to speak of other varieties of liba- notis19 in their appropriate places. CHAP. 66. (17.)—PIPERITIS, OR SILIQUASTRUM: FIVE REMEDIES. Piperitis,20 which we have already mentioned as being called " siliquastrum," is taken in drink for epilepsy. Castor21 used to give a description of it to the following effect: " The ?talk of it is long and red, with the knots lying close together; the leaves are similar to those of the laurel, and the seed is white 15 A variety of Conyza. See B. xxi. c. 32. 16 Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 136, says the same of the tcovvZa pucpd, oi " small conyza." 17 The Satureia thymbra of Linnaeus. See B. xix. c. 50. 18 " Ictus," possibly " stings." 19 See the preceding Chapter: also B. xix. c. 62, and B. xxi. c. 32. 20 Perhaps Indian pepper, the Capsicum annuum of Botany. See B. iix. c. 62. " For some account of Castor, the botanist, see the end of this Book. 268 pliny's natural history;. [Book XX. and slender, like pepper in taste." He described it also as being beneficial to the gums and teeth, imparting sweetness to the breath, and dispelling flatulency. CHAP. 67.--ORIGANUM, ONITIS, OR PRASlON : SIX REMEDIES. Origanum,22 which, as we have already stated, rivals cunila in flavour, includes many varieties employed in medicine. Onitis,23 or prasion,24 is the name given to one of these, which is not unlike hyssop in appearance: it is employed more particu- larly, with warm water, for gnawing pains at the stomach, and for indigestion. Taken in white wine it is good for the stings of spiders and scorpions; and, applied with vinegar and oil, in wool, it is a cure for sprains and bruises. CHAP. 68.--TRAGORIGANUM : NINE REMEDIES. Tragoriganum25 bears a strong resemblance to wild thyme. It is diuretic, disperses tumours, and taken in drink is extremely efficacious in cases of poisoning by mistletoe and stings by ser- pents. It is very good for acid eructations from the stomach, and for the thoracic organs. It is given also for a cough, with honey, as well as for pleurisy and peripneumony. CHAP. 69.--THREE VARIETIES OF HERACLEOTIC ORIGANUM: THIRTY REMEDIES. Heraclium,26 again, comprehends three varieties; the first,47 22 Or "Wild Marjoram. See B. xix. c. 50. 33 So called, Nicander says, from being sought with avidity by the ass, ovoff. It is the Origanum onites of Linnaeus. 24 The Prasion, or " green plant," mentioned by Hippocrates and Theo- phrastus, is not identical, Fee says, with the Origanum onitis, it being the Marrubium Creticum, or peregrmum of modern botanists. To add to the confusion of these names, we find Pliny stating, in c. 69, that the name of " prasion" was given also by the Greeks to his second species of Hera- clium, and that of " onitis" to the Heraclium Heracleoticum. 25 Or " Goat's origanum:" the Thymus tragoriganum of Linnaeus. Dios- corides mentions two kinds of tragoriganum", one of which has been sup- posed by Clusius to be the Thymus mastichina of Linnaeus, and the other the Stachys glutinosa of Linnaeus; Zanoni being the first author who pro- mulgated this opinion; from which Fee, however, dissents. 26 Or Heracleotic origanum: see c. 62 of this Book. Pliny here con- founds several distinct plants, and, as Fee observes, the whole account is in hopeless confusion. 27 Probably the Origanum Heracleoticum of Linnaeus, mentioned in c. 62. Chap. 69.] HERACLEOTIO ORIGANUM. 269 which is the darkest, has broader leaves than the others, and is of a glutinous nature ; the second,26 which has leaves of a more Blender form, and not unlike sampsuchum28* in appearance, is by some persous called " prasion," in preference: the third23 is of an intermediate nature between the other two, but is less efficacious for medicinal purposes than either. But the best kind of all is that of Crete, for it has a particularly agree- able smell; the next best being that of Smyrna, which has even a more powerful odour than the last. The Heracleotic origanum, however, known by the name of " onitis," is the one that is the most esteemed for taking in drink. Origanum, in general, is employed for repelling serpents ; and it is given boiled to persons suffering from wounds. Taken in drink, it is diuretic; and mixed with root of panax, it is given for the cure of ruptures and convulsions. In combina- tion with figs or hyssop, it is prescribed for dropsical patients in doses of one acetabulum, being reduced by boiling to one sixth. It is good also for the itch,30 prurigo, and-leprosy, taken just before the bath. The juice of it is injected into the ears with milk; it being a cure, also, for affections of the tonsils and the uvula, and for ulcers of the head. A decoction of it, taken with the ashes in wine, neutralizes poison by opium or gypsum.31 Taken in doses of one acetabulum, it re- laxes the bowels. It is applied as a liniment for bruises and for tooth-ache; and mixed with honey and nitre, it imparts whiteness to the teeth. It has the effect, also, of stopping bleeding at the nose. A decoction of this plant, with barley-meal, is employed for imposthumes of the parotid glands; and, beaten up with nut- galls and honey, it is used for roughness of the trachea: the leaves of it, .with honey and salt, are good, too, for the spleen. Boiled with vinegar and salt, and taken in small doses, it at- 28 The Marrubium Creticum, or peregrinum, probably, a variety of horehound. See c. 67. 28* See B. xiii. c. 2, and B. xv. c. 7. 29 The Origanum onites of Linnreus, probably. See c. 67. 30 Fee says that a strong infusion of pepperwort has been used in France for the itch, with successful results. 31 Sulphate of lime, which, as Fee remarks, though insoluble, does not act as a poison, but causes a derangement of the digestive functions. The wines of the Romans were extensively treated with this substance, and we have seen in B. xviii. that it was used as an ingredient in their bread. 270 pliny's natural history. [Book XX. tenuates the phlegm, when very thick and black; and beaten up with oil, it is injected into the nostrils for jaundice. When persons are affected with lassitude, the body is well rubbed with it, care being taken not to touch the abdomen. Used with pitch, it is a cure for epinyctis, and, applied with a roasted fig, it brings boils to a head. Employed with oil and vinegar, and barley-meal, it is good for scrofulous swellings; and ap- plied topically in a fig, it is a cure for pains in the sides. Beaten up, and applied with vinegar, it is employed as a lini- ment for bloody fluxes of the generative organs, and it accele- rates the lochial discharge after child-birth. CHAP. 70.—DITTANDER : THREE REMEDIES. Dittander32 is generally considered to rank among the caustic plants. It is owing to this property that it clears the skin of the face, not, however, without excoriating it; though, at the same time, the excoriations are easily healed by employing wax and rose oil. It is owing to this property, too, that it always re- moves, without difficulty, leprous sores and itch-scabs, as well as the scars left by ulcers. It is said, that in cases of tooth- ache, if this plant is attached to the arm on the suffering side, it will have the effect of drawing the pain to it. CHAP. 71.—GITH, OR MELANTHION I TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. Gith33 is by some Greek writers called " melanthion," u and by others " melaspermon."35 That is looked upon as the best which has the most pungent odour and is the darkest in appearance. It is employed as a remedy for wounds made by serpents and scorpions : I find that for this purpose it is ap- plied topically with vinegar and honey, and that by burning it serpents are kept at a distance,36 It is taken, also, in doses of one drachma for the bites of spiders. Beaten up, and smelt at in a piece of linen cloth, it is a cure for running at the nos- trils; and, applied as a liniment with vinegar and injected 32 Dittander, or pepperwort: the Lepidium latifolium of Linnaeus. »3 Or fennel-flower,: the Nigella sativa of Linnaeus. Fee suggests that its name, "gith," is from the ancient Egyptian. ?t " Black flower." 35 " Black seed." 36 It is no longer used in medicine, but it is esteemed as a seasoning in the East. All that Pliny states as to its medicinal properties, Fee con- siders to be erroneous. The action of the seed is irritating, and reduced to powder, it causes sneezing. Chap. 72.] anise. 271 into the nostrils, it dispels head-ache. With oil of iris it is good for defluxions and tumours of the eyes, and a decoc- tion of it with vinegar is a cure for tooth-ache. Beaten up and applied topically, or else chewed, it is used for ulcers of the mouth, and combined with vinegar, it is good for leprous sores and freckles on the skin. Taken in drink, with the addition of nitre, it is good for hardness of breathing, and, employed as a liniment, for indurations, tumours of long standing, and suppurations. Taken several days in succession, it augments the milk in women who are nursing. The juice of this plant is collected38 in the same manner as that of henbane; and, like it, if taken in too large doses, it acts as a poison, a surprising fact, seeing that the seed is held in esteem as a most agreeable seasoning for bread.39 The seed cleanses the eyes also, acts as a diuretic, and promotes the men- strual discharge ; and not only this, but I find it stated also, that if thirty grains only are attached to the body, in a linen cloth, it will have the effect of accelerating the after-birth. It is stated, also, that beaten up in urine, it is a cure for corns on the feet; and that when burnt it kills gnats and flies with the smell. CHAP. 72.--ANISE : SIXTY-ONE REMEDIES. Anise,40 too, one of the comparatively small number of plants that have been commended by Pythagoras, is taken in wine, either raw or boiled, for the stings of scorpions. Both green and dried, it is held in high repute, as an ingredient in all sea- sonings and sauces, and we find it placed beneath the under- crust of bread.41 Put with bitter-almonds into the cloth Btrainers42 for filtering wine, it imparts an agreeable flavour to the wine: it has the effect, also, of sweetening the breath, and removing all bad odours from the mouth, if chewed in the morning with sniyrnion43 and a little honey, the mouth being then rinsed with wine. This plant imparts a youthful look44 to the features; and if 38 See B. xxv. c. 17. 39 See B. xix. c. 52. 10 The Pimpinella anisum of Linnaeus. 41 It is still used in some countries as a seasoning with which bread and pastry are powdered. 42 See B. xiv. c. 28. 43 See B. xix/ cc. 48 and 62: also B. xxvii. c. 97. 14 This and the next statement are utterly fabulous. 272 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX suspended to the pillow, so as to be smelt by a person when asleep, it will prevent all disagreeable dreams. It has the effect of promoting the appetite, also—for this, too, has been made by luxury one of the objects of art, ever since labour has ceased to stimulate it. It is for these various reasons that it has received the name of " anicetum,"46 given to it by some. CHAP. 73.—WHERE THE REST ANISE IS FOUND: VARIOUS REMEDIE8 DERIVED FROM THIS PLANT. The most esteemed anise is that of Crete, and, next to it, that of Egypt. This plant is employed in seasonings to sup- ply the place of lovage ; and the perfume of it, when burnt and inhaled, alleviates headache. Evenor prescribes an appli- cation of the root, pounded, for defluxions of the eyes; and Iollas employs it in a similar manner, in combiuation with saffron and wine, or else beaten up by itself and mixed with polenta, for violent defluxions and the extraction of such ob- jects as have got into the eyes : applied, too, as a liniment in water, it arrests cancer of the nose. Mixed with hyssop and oxymel, and employed as a gargle, it is a cure for quinsy; and, in combination with rose oil, it is used as an injection for the ears. Parched anise purges off phlegm from the chest, and, if taken with honey, it is better still. Eor a cough, beat up fifty bitter almonds, shelled, in honey, with one acetabulum of anise. Another very easy remedy, too, is to mix three drachmae of anise with two of poppies and some honey, a piece the size of a bean being taken three times a-day. Its main excellence, however, is as a carminative; hence it is that it is so good for flatulency of the stomach, griping pains of the intestines, and cceliac affections. A de- coction of it, smelt at and drunk, arrests hiccup, and a decoc- tion of the leaves removes indigestion. A decoction of it with parsley, if applied to the nostrils, will arrest sneezing. Taken in drink, anise promotes sleep, disperses calculi of the bladder, arrests vomiting and swelling of the viscera, and acts as an excellent pectoral for affections of the chest, and of the dia- 45 "Unconquerable," from the Greek a, "not," and vitdto, "to con- quer." Fee thinks that the word is a diminutive of "anisum." which, according to some persons, is a derivative from " anysun," the Arabic name of the plant. Dioscorides gives the name "anicetum" to dill, and xutt to anise. Chap. 73.] ANISE. 273 phragm, where the body is tightly laced. It is beneficial, also, to pour a decoction of it, in oil, upon the head for head-ache. It is generally thought that there is nothing in existence more beneficial to the abdomen and intestines than anise ; for which reason it is given, parched, for dysentery and tenesmus. Some persons add opium to these ingredients, and prescribe three pills a-day, the size of a bean, with one cyathus of wine. Dieuches has employed the juice of this plant for lumbago, and prescribes the seed of it, pounded with mint, for dropsy and cceliac affections: Evenor recommends the root, also, for affections of the kidneys. Dalion, the herbalist, employed it, with parsley, as a cataplasm for women in labour, as also for paius of the uterus; and, for women in labour, he pre- scribes a decoction of anise and dill to be taken in drink. It is used as a liniment also in cases of phrenitis, or else applied fresh gathered and mixed with polenta; in which form it is used also for infants attacked with epilepsy46 or convulsions. Pythagoras,.indeed, assures us that persons, so long as they hold this plant in the hand, will never be attacked with epi- lepsy, for which reason, as much of it as possible should be planted near the house; he says, too, that women who inhale the odour of it have a more easy delivery, it being his advice also, that, immediately after they are delivered, it should be given them to drink, with a sprinkling of polenta. Sosimenes employed this plant, in combination with vinegar, for all kinds of indurations, and for lassitude he prescribes a decoction of it in oil, with the addition of nitre. The same writer pledges his word to all wayfarers, that, if they take aniseed in their drink, they will be comparatively exempt from fatigue47 on their journey. Heraclides prescribes a pinch of aniseed with three fingers, for inflations of the stomach, to be taken with two oboli of castoreum tt in honied wine; and he recommends a similar preparation for inflations of the abdomen and intestines. In cases of orthopncea, he recommends a pinch of aniseed with three fingers, and the same quantity of hen- bane, to be mixed in asses'-milk. It is the advice of many to those who are liable to vomit,49 to take, at dinner, one ace- 46 A mere fable, as Fee remarks. 47 A fiction, without any foundation in truth. 48 See B. viii. c. 47, and B. xxxii. cc. 13, 23, 24, and 28. 49 Fee evidently mistakes the meaning of this passage, and censure. YOL. IV. T 274 pliny's natural history. [Book XX tabulum of aniseed and ten laurel-leaves, the whole to be beaten up and drunk in water. Anise, chewed and applied warm, or else taken with casto- reum in oxymel, allays suffocations of the uterus. It al?o dispels vertigo after child-birth, taken with a pinch of cucum- ber seed in three fingers and the same quantity of linseed, in three cyathi of white wine. Tlepolemus has employed a pinch of aniseed and fennel in three fingers, mixed with vinegar and one cyathus of honey, for the cure of quartan fever. Ap- plied topically with bitter almonds, aniseed is beneficial for maladies of tbe joints. There are some persons who look upon it as, by nature, an antidote to the venom of the asp. It is a diuretic, assuages thirst, and acts as an aphrodisiac. Taken in wine, it promotes a gentle perspiration, and it has the property of protecting cloth from the ravages of moths. The more recently it has been gathered, and the darker its colour, tbe greater are its virtues : still, however, it is injurious to the stomach, except when suffering from flatulency. cnAP. 74. (18.)—dill : nine remedies. Dill50 acts also as a carminative, allays gripings of the sto- mach, and arrests looseness of the bowels. The roots of this plant are applied topically in water, or else in wine, for de- fluxions of the eyes. The seed of it, if smelt at while boil- ing, will arrest hiccup; and, taken in water, it dispels indi- gestion. The ashes of it are a remedy for swellings of the uvula ; but the plant itself weakens the eyesight and the ge- nerative powers. CHAP 75.--SACOPKNIUM, OR SAGAPENON : THIRTEEN REMEDIES. The sacopenium which grows in Italy is totally different from that which comes from beyond sea. This last, in fact, is similar to gum ammoniac, and is known as " sagapenon."81 Pliny for speaking of anise as an emetic. On the' contrarv, he here pre- scribes it to counteract vomiting, and he has previously stated, in this Chapter, that it arrests vomiting. 50 The Anethum graveolens of Linnaeus : originally a native of the hot climates. Its properties are very similar to those of anise. 51 Or Sagapenum. This is a fetid gum-resin, imported from Persia and Alexandria, and supposed, though without sufficient proof, Fee savs, to be the produce of the Ferula Persica. It is occasionaUy used in medicine as a stimulating expectorant. In odour it somewhat resembles assafcetida, only it is much weaker. Galen speaks of it as the produce of a Ferula. It acts also as a purgative and a vermifuge. Chap. 76.] THE WHITE AND BLACK POPPY. 2/5 !2Sacopenium is good for pains of the sides and chest, for convulsions, coughs of long standing, expectorations, and swellings of the thoracic organs : it is a cure also for vertigo, palsy, opisthotony, affections of the spleen and loins, and for shivering fits. For suffocations of the uterus, this plant is given in vinegar to smell at; in addition to which, it is some- times administered in drink, or employed as a friction with oil. It is a good antidote, also, for medicaments of a noxious nature. CHAP. 76.—THE WHITE POPPY: THREE REMEDIES. THE BLACK POPPY : EIGHT REMEDIES. REMARKS ON SLEEP. OPIUM. REMARKS IN DISFAVOUR OF THE POTIONS KNOWN AS "ANODYNES, FEBRIFUGES, DIGESTIVES, AND CCELIACS." IN AVHAT "WAY THE JUICES OF THESE PLANTS ARE TO BE COLLECTED. We have already63 stated that there are three varieties of the cultivated poppy, and, on the same occasion, we promised to describe the wild kinds. With reference to the cultivated varieties, the calyx54 of the white55 poppy is pounded, and is taken in wine as a soporific; the seed of it is a cure, also, for elephantiasis. The black56 poppy acts as a soporific, by the juice which exudes from incisions57 made in the stalk—at the time when the plant is beginning to flower, Diagoras says; but when the blossom has gone off, according to Iollas. This is done at the third68 hour, in a clear, still, day, or, in other words, when the dew has thoroughly dried upon the poppy. It is recommended to make the incision just beneath the head 52 See B. xii. c. 56, and B. xix. c. 52. Some writers have supposed, but apparently without any sufficient authority, that this is the Ferula com- munis of Linnaeus. Fee is of opinion that one of the Umbelliferee is meant. 53 In B. xix. c. 53. 61 It is probable, Fee says, that Pliny does not intend here to speak of the calyx as understood by modern botanists, but the corolla of the plant. The calyx disappears immediately after the plant has blossomed; and is never employed by medical men at the present day, who confine themselves to the heads or capsules. 55 The variety Album of the Papaver somniferum. See B. xix. c. 53. 58 The variety A. nigrum of the Papaver somniferum of Decandolle. 57 The incisions are made in the capsules, and towards the upper part of the peduncle. The account given by Pliny, Fee remarks, differs but little from that by Kaempfer, in the early part of last century. 66 Nine in the morning. T 2 276 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. and calyx of the plant; this being the only kind, in fact, into the head of which the incision is made. This juice, like that of any other plant, is received in wool ;M or else, if it is in very minute quantities, it is scraped off with the thumb nail justasit is from the lettuce, and so again on the following day, with the portion that has since dried there. If obtained from the poppy in sufficiently large quantities, this juice thickens, after which it is kneaded out into lozenges, and dried in the shade. This juice is possessed not only of certain sopo- rific qualities, but, if taken in too large quantities, is productive of sleep unto death even : the name given to it is " opium."60 It was in this way, we learn, that the father of P. Licinius Csecina, a man of Praetorian rank, put an end to his life at Bavilum61 in Spain, an incurable malady having rendered existence quite intolerable to him. Many other persons, too, have ended their lives in a similar way. It is for this reason that opium has been so strongly exclaimed against by Dia- goras and Erasistratus; for they have altogether condemned it as a deadly poison, forbidding it to be used for infusions even, as being injurious to the sight. Andreas says, in addi- tion to this, that the only reason why it does not cause instan- taneous blindness, is the fact that they adulterate it at Alex- andria. In later times, however, the use of it has not been disapproved of—witness the celebrated preparation known as "diacodion."62 Lozenges are also made of ground poppy- seed, which are taken in milk as a soporific.63 The seed is employed, too, with rose-oil for head-ache ; and, in combination with that oil, is injected into the ears for ear-ache. Mixed with woman's milk, this seed is used as a liniment for gout: the leaves, too, are employed in a similar manner. Taken in vinegar, the seed is prescribed as a cure for erysipelas and wounds. For my own part, however, I do not approve of opium 59 This plan, Fee thinks, would not be attended with advantage. 60 A name, probably, of Eastern origin, and now universally employed. 61 " Bilbilis" has been suggested. 62 Syrop of white poppies was, till recently, known as sirop of diaco- dium. Opium is now universaUy regarded as one of the most important ingredients of the Materia Medica. 63 Poppy-seed, in reality, is not possessed of any soporific qualities what- ever. This discovery, however, was only made in the latter part of the last century, by the French chemist, Bosier. Chap. 76.] THE WHITE AND BLACK POPPY. 277 entering into the composition of eye-salves,64 and still less of the preparations from it known as febrifuges,65 digestives, and coeliacs: the black poppy, however, is very generally pre- scribed, in wine, for cceliac affections. All the cultivated66 poppies are larger than the others, and the form of the head is round. In the wild poppy the head is elongated and small, but it is possessed of more active67 properties than the others in every respect. This head is often boiled, and the decoction ot it taken to promote sleep, the face being fomented also with the water. The best poppies are grown in dry localities, and where it seldom rains. When the heads and leaves of the poppy are boiled together, the name given to the decoction is " meconium ;"68 it is much less powerful, however, in its effects than opium. The principal test69 of the purity of opium is the smell, which, when genuine, is so penetrating as to be quite insup- portable. The next best test is that obtained by lighting it at a lamp ; upon which it ought to burn with a clear, brilliant flame, and to give out a strong odour when extinguished ; a thing that never happens when opium has been drugged, for, in such case, it lights with the greatest difficulty, and the flame repeatedly goes out. There is another way of testing its genuineness, by water ; for, if it is pure, it will float like a thin cloud upon the surface, but, if adulterated, it will unite in the form of blisters on the water. But the most surprising thing of all is the fact, that the sun's heat in summer furnishes a test; for, if the drug is pure, it will sweat and gradually melt, till it has all the appearance of the juice when fresh gathered. Mnesides is of opinion that the best way of preserving opium is to mix henbane seed with it; others, again, recom- mend that it should be kept with beans. " "Collyriis." 65 " Lexipyretos," "pepticas," and " cceliacas"—Greek appellations. 66 The type of the cultivated poppy is the Papaver somniferum of Linnaeus. 67 This, Fee says, is a matter of doubt. 68 From fitfKwv, a " poppy." Tournefort has described this kind of opium obtained by decoction ; it is held in little esteem. 69 Fee remarks, that this account of the tests of opium is correct in the extreme. 278 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. CHAP. 77. (19.)—THE POPPY CALLED RHCSAS *. TWO REMEDIES. The poppy which we have70 spoken of under the names of "rhoeas" and the " erratic" poppy, forms an intermediate va- riety between the cultivated and the wild poppy; for it grows in the fields, it is true, but it is self-set nevertheless. Some persons eat71 it, calyx and all, immediately after it is gathered. This plant is an extremely powerful purgative : five heads of it, boiled in three semi-sextarii of wine, and taken in drink, have the effect of producing sleep. CHAP. 78.—THE WILD POPPT CALLED CERATITIS, GLAUCIUM, OR PARALIUM : SIX REMEDIES. There is one variety of wild poppy known as " ceratitis."72 It is of a black colour, a cubit in height, and has a thick root covered with bark, with a head resembling a small bud, bent and pointed at the end like a horn. The leaves of this plant are smaller and thinner than those of the other wild poppies, and the seed, which is very diminutive, is ripe at harvest. Taken with honied wine, in doses of half an acetabulum, the seed acts as a purgative. The leaves, beaten up in oil, are a cure for the white73 specks which form on the eyes of beasts of burden. The root, boiled down to one half, in doses of one acetabulum to two sextarii of water, is prescribed for maladies of the loins and liver, and the leaves, employed with honey, are a cure for carbuncles. Some persons give this kind of poppy the name of " glau- cion," and others of " paralium,"74 for it grows, in fact, in spots exposed to exhalations from the sea, or else in soils of a nitrous nature. CHAP. 79.--THE WILD POPPY CALLED HERACLIUM, OR APHRON : FOUR REMEDIES. DIACODION. There is another kind75 of wild poppy, known as "heraclion" 70 In B. xix. c. 53. The Papaver rhoeas of Linnaeus : the field poppy, corn poppy, or corn rose. .71 Theophrastus says that it has just the taste of wild endive. Fee re- marks that the peasants of Treves eat the leaves of this poppy while young. n The Glaucium Corniculatum of Persoon; the horned poppy, or glau- cium. This, Fee remarks, is not a poppy in reality, but a species of the genus Chehdonium. The juice is an irritating poison, and the seed is said to act as an emetic. 73 « Argema." u « By the sea-shore." 7a Not a poppy, but the Euphorbia esula of Linneeus, a spurge. The Chap. 80.] THE POPPY CALLED TITHYMALON. 279 by some persons, and as " aphron " by others. The leaves of it, when seen from a distance, have all the appearance of spar- rows ;76 the root lies on the surface of the ground, and the seed lias exactly the colour of foam.77 This plant is used for the purpose of bleaching linen78 cloths in summer. It is bruised in a mortar for epilepsy, being given in white wine, in doses of one acetabulum, and acting as an emetic. This plant is extremely useful, also, for the composition of the medicament known as " diacodion,"79 and " arteriace." This preparation is made with one hundred and twenty heads80 of this or any other kind of wild poppy, steeped for two days in three sextarii of rain water, after which they are boiled in it. You must then diy the heads ; which done, boil them down with honey to one half, at a slow heat. More recently, there have been added to the mixture, six drachmae of saffron, hypocisthis,81 frankincense, and gum acacia, with one sextarius of raisin wine of Crete. All this, however, is onljT so much ostentation ; for the virtue of this simple and ancient prepara- tion depends solely upon the poppy and the honey. CHAP. 80.—THE POPPY CALLED TITHYMALON, OR PARALION : THREE * REMEDIES. There is a third kind, again, called "tithymalon ;"82 some milky juice found in the stalk and leaves have caused it to be classed among the poppies, as other varieties of Euphorbiaceae appear to have been, among the wild lettuces. 76 Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 31, compares this plant with the Struthium—(see B. xix. c. 18). Pliny, or his scribes, have supposed him to be speaking of the arpovOog, or " sparrow"—hence the present mistake. The Struthium itself has received that name from the resemblance which its flower bears to a bird with the wings expanded. 71 Hence its name, " aphron." 78 See B. xix. c. 4. Pliny has here mistaken a passage of Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 31; where he attributes this quality to the Struthium, and not the Heraclium. 79 See c. 76 of this Book. It is difficult to conjecture how one of the Euphorbiaceae, a powerful drastic, could enter into the composition of a soothing preparation, such as the diacodion is said to have been. * " Capitibus." As Fee remarks, the capsules of Euphorbia bear no resemblance whatever to the heads of the poppy. Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 67, similarly confounds these two plants. 61 See B. xxvi. c. 31. 82 See B. xxvi. c. 41. Probably the Euphorbia paralias of Linnaeus, or Sea euphorbia. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of the Eu- phorbia esula above mentioned. 280 Pliny's natural history. [Book XX. persons give it the name of " mecon," others of " paralion." It has a white leaf, resembling that of flax, and a head the size of a bean. It is gathered when the vine is in blossom, and dried in the shade. The seed, taken in drink, purges the bowels, the dose being half an acetabulum, in honied wine. The head of every species of poppy, whether green or dry, used as a fomentation, assuages defluxions83 of the eyes. Opium, if taken in pure wine immediately after the sting of a scorpion, prevents any dangerous results. Some persons, however, at- tribute this virtue to the black poppy only, the head or leaves being beaten up for the purpose. CHAP. 81. (20.)--PORCILLACA OR PURSLAIN, OTHERWISE CALLED PEPLIS : TWENTV-FIVE REMEDIES. There is a wild purslain,84 too, called " peplis," not much superior in its virtues to the cultivated ^ kind, of which such remarkable properties are mentioned. It neutralizes the effects, it is said, of poisoned arrows, and the venom of the serpents known as haemorrhois and prester ;86 taken with the food and applied to the wound, it extracts the poison. The juice, too, they say, taken in raisin wine, is an antidote for henbane. When the plant itself cannot be procured, the seed of it is found to be equally efficacious. It is a corrective, also, of im- purities in water ; and beaten up in wine and applied topically, it is a cure for head-ache and ulcers of the head. Chewed in combination with honey, it is curative of other kinds of sores. It is similarly applied to the region of the brain in infants, and in cases of umbilical hernia; as also for defluxions of the eyes, in persons of all ages, being applied to the forehead and'tem- ples with polenta. If employed as a liniment for the eyes, milk and honey are added,.and when used for proptosis87 of 83 The fructiferous heads of the Euphorbiaceae, thus employed, would, as Fee remarks, be productive of most disastrous results. 84 The Euphorbia peplis of Linnaeus. 83 See B. xiii. c. 40. By Dioscorides, B. iv. c. 165, all these virtues are attributed exclusively to the cultivated purslain. Indeed, there is no ana- logy between the properties of the two plants; though neither of them is possessed of the wonderful virtues as antidotes here mentioned, and they would only increase the sufferings of asthmatic patients. 86 As to this serpent, see Lucan's Pharsalia, B. ix. 1. 722, et seq. 87 A kind of spreading tumour, which, according to Scribonius Largus, would appear as if about to force the eye out of the socket. Fee remarks, that this malady is no longer known. Chap. 81.] PORCILLACA OR PUR8LAIN. 281 the eyes, the leaves are beaten up with bean-shells. In com- bination with polenta, salt, and vinegar, it is employed as a fomentation for blisters. Chewed raw, purslain reduces ulcerations of the mouth and gum-boils, and cures tooth-ache; a decoction of it is good, too, for ulcers of the tonsils. Some persons have added a little myrrh to it, when so employed. Chewed, it strengthens such teeth as may happen to be loose, dispels crudities, imparts ad- ditional strength to the voice, and allays thirst. Used with nut- galls, linseed, and honey, in equal proportions, it assuages pains in the neck; and, combined with honey or Cimolian chalk, it is good for diseases of the mamillae. The seed of it, taken with honey, is beneficial for asthma. Eaten in salads,89 this plant is very strengthening to the stomach. In burning fevers, ap- plications of it are made with polenta; in addition to which, if chewed, it will cool and refresh the intestines. It arrests vomiting, also, and for dysentery and abscesses, it is eaten with vinegar, or else taken with cummin in drink : boiled, it is good for tenesmus. Taken either in the food or drink, it is good for epilepsy; and, taken in doses of one acetabulum in boiled wine,90 it promotes the menstrual discharge. Employed, also, as a liniment with salt, it is used as a remedy for fits of hot gout and erysipelas. The juice of this plant, taken in drink, strengthens the kid- neys and bladder, and expels intestinal worms. In conjunc- tion with oil, it is applied, with polenta, to assuage the pain of wounds, and it softens indurations of the sinews. Metro- dorus, who wrote an Abridgment of Botany,91 says that it should be given after delivery, to accelerate the lochial discharge. It is also an antaphrodisiac, and prevents the recurrence of las- civious dreams. One of the principal personages of Spain, whose son has been Praetor, is in the habit of carrying the root of it, to my knowledge, suspended by a string from his neck, except when he is taking the bath, for an incurable affection of the uvula; a precaution by which he has been spared all inconvenience. I have found it stated, too, in some authors, that if the head is rubbed with a liniment of this plant, there will be no de- 88 See B. xxxv. c. 57. 89 " Acetariis." 90 " Sapa." Grape-juice, boiled down to one third. 91 'Eirirofiijv 'pi^orovukvwv. 282 pliny's natural history. [Book XX. fluxions perceptible the whole year through. It is generally thought, however, that purslain weakens tbe sight. chap. 82.—coriander: twenty-one remedies. There is no wild coriander92 to be found; the best, it is generally agreed, is that of Egypt. Taken in drink and ap- plied to the wound, it is a remedy for the sting93 of one kind of serpent, known as the amphisbaena :94 pounded, it is healing also for other wounds, as well as for epinyctis and blisters. Employed in the same state with honey or raisins, it disperses all tumours and gatherings, and, beaten up in vinegar, it re- moves abscesses of an inflammatory nature. Some persons recommend three grains of it to be taken for tertian fevers, just before the fit comes on, or else in larger quantities, to be bruised and applied to the forehead. There are others, again, who think that it is attended with excellent results, to put coriander under the pillow before sunrise. While green, it is possessed of very cooling and refreshing properties. Combined with honey or raisins, it is an excellent remedy for spreading ulcers, as also for diseases of the testes, burns, carbuncles, and maladies of the ears. Applied with woman's milk, it is good for defluxions of the eyes; and for fluxes of the belly and intestines, the seed is taken with water in drink; it is also taken in drink for cholera, with rue. Coriander seed, used as a potion with pomegranate juice and oil, expels worms in the intestines. Xenocrates states a very marvellous fact, if true; he says, that if a woman takes one grain of this seed, the menstrual discharge will be retarded one day, if two grains, two days, and so on, according to the number of grains taken. Marcus Varro is of opinion, that if coriander is lightly pounded, and sprinkled over it with cummin and vinegar, all kinds of meat may be kept in summer without spoiling. CHAP. 83.--ORAGE : FOURTEEN REMEDIES. Orage,95 again, is found both wild and cultivated. Pytha- 92 The Coriandrum sativum of Linnaeus. At the present day, wild cori- ander is commonly found in Italy, on uncultivated soils. It may have been naturalized, however, 1* e"e thinks, since the time of Pliny. 93 Nicander says also, that it is a cure for the stings of serpents and scorpions, but there is no truth in the assertion. 94 See B. viii. c. 35. 9i The Atriplex hortensis of Liunseus. Fe'e thinks' that the wild atri- Chap. 84.] THE MALLOW. 283 goras has accused this plant of producing dropsy, jaundice, and paleness of the complexion, and he says that it is extremely difficult of digestion. He asserts, also, to its disparagement, that every thing that grows near it in the garden is sure to be drooping and languid. Diocles and Dionysius have added 'a statement, that it gives birth to numerous diseases, and that it should never be boiled without changing the water repeatedly; they say, too, that it is prejudicial to the stomach, and that it is productive of freckles and pimples on the skin. I am at a loss to imagine why Solo of Smyrna has stated that this plant is cultivated in Italy with the greatest difficulty. Hippocrates% prescribes it with beet, as a pessary for affec- tions of the uterus ; and Lycus of Neapolis recommends it to be taken in drink, in cases of poisoning by cantharides. He is of opinion, also, that either raw or boiled, it may be advan- tageously employed as a liniment for inflammatory swellings, incipient boils, and all kinds of indurations ; and that, mixed with oxymel and nitre, it is good for erysipelas and gout. This plant, it is said, will bring away mal-formed nails, without producing sores. There are some persons who give orage-seed with honey for jaundice, and rub the throat and tonsils with it, nitre being added as well. They employ it, also, to purge the bowels, and use the seed, boiled, as an emetic,97 either taken by itself, or in conjunction with mallows or lentils. Wild orage is used for dyeing the hair, as well as the other purposes above enumerated. CHAP. 84. (21.)—THE MALLOW CALLED MALOPE : THIRTEEN REME- DIES. THE MALLOW CALLED MALACHE : ONE REMEDY. THE MALLOW CALLED ALTJLEiA, OR PLISTOLOCHIA: FIFTY-NINE REME- DIES. Both kinds of mallows,98 on the other hand, the cultivated and the wild, are held in very general esteem. These kinds are subdivided, each of them, into two varieties, according to plex of Pliny is some kind of Chenopodium, which it is now impossible to identify. Orage is more of an aliment than a medicament. Applied ex- ternally, it is soothing and emollient. 96 De Morb. Mulier. B. ii. c. 57. 97 It would not have this effect. The statements here given relative to the virtues of orage are, in general, considered to be correct. 98 See B. xix. c. 22. 284 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. the size of the leaf. The cultivated mallow with large leaves is known to the Greeks by the name of " malope," w the other being called " malache,"1—from the circumstance, it is gene- rally thought, that it relaxes ■ the bowels. _ The wild3 mallow, again, with large leaves and white roots, is called " althaea," and by some persons, on account of its salutary properties, " plistolochia."4 Every soil in which mallows are sown, is rendered all the richer "thereby. This plant is possessed of re- markable virtues,5 as a cure for all kinds of stings.6 those of scorpions, wasps, and similar insects, as well as the bite of the shrew-mouse, more particularly ; nay, what is even more than this, if a person has been rubbed with oil in which any one of the mallows has been beaten up, or even if he carries them on his person, he will never be stung. A leaf of mallow put upon a scorpion, will strike it with torpor. The mallow is an antidote, also, against the poisonous effects of white7 lead; and applied raw with saltpetre, it extracts all kinds of pointed bodies from the flesh. A decoction of it with the root, taken in drink, neutralizes the poison of the sea-hare,8 provided, as some say, it is brought off the stomach by vomiting. Other marvels are also related in connection with the mallow, but the most surprising thing of all is, that if a person takes half a cyathus of the juice of any one of them daily, he will be 99 The Malva silvestris of Linnaeus, or wild mallow. 1 The Malva rotundifolia of Linnaeus, or round-leaved mallow. 2 From fiaXdffoo), to "soften," or "relax." 3 These wild varieties are the same in every respect as the cultivated kinds; their essential characteristics not being changed by cultivation. See further as to the Althaea or marsh mallow, at the latter end of this Chapter. * The meaning of this name appears to be unknown. " Pistolochia" is a not uncommon reading. * Mallows were commonly used as a vegetable by the ancients; and are so in China and the south of France, at the present day. The mucila- ginous principle which they contain renders them emollient and pectoral; they are also slightly laxative. 6 The only benefit resulting from the application of mallows would be the reduction of the inflammation ; the plant having no efficacy whatever in neutralizing the venom. 7 Sub-carbonate of lead. The mallow would have little or no effect in such a case. * See B. ix. c. 72, and B. xxxii. c. 3. Chap. 84.] THE MALLOW. 285 exempt from all diseases.9 Left to putrefy in wine, mallows are remedial for running sores of the head, and, mixed with honey, for lichens and ulcerations of the mouth; a decoction of the root, too, is a remedy for dandriff10 of the head and looseness of the teeth. With the root of the mallow which has a single stem,11 it is a good plan to prick the parts about a tooth when it aches, until the pain has ceased. With the addition of human saliva, the mallow cleanses scrofulous sores, imposthumes of the parotid glands, and inflammatory tumours, without producing a wound. The seed of it, taken in red wine, disperses phlegm and relieves nausea; and the root, attached to the person with black wool, is a remedy for affections of the mamillae. Boiled in milk, and taken as a pottage, it cures a cough within five days. Sextius Niger says that mallows are prejudicial to the sto- mach, and Olympias, the Theban authoress, asserts that, em- ployed with goose-grease, they are productive of abortion. Some persons are of opinion, that a good handful of the leaves, taken in oil and wine, promotes the menstrual discharge. At all events, it is a well-known fact, that if the leaves are strewed beneath a woman in labour, the delivery will be accelerated; but they must be taken away immediately after the birth, or prolapsus of the uterus will be the consequence. Mallow-juice, also, is given to women in labour, a decoction of it being taken fasting in wine, in doses of one hemina. Mallow seed is attached to the arms of patients suffering from spermatorrhoea; and, so naturally adapted is this plant for the promotion of lustfulness, that the seed of the kind with o single stem, sprinkled upon the genitals, will increase the sexual desire in males to an infinite degree, according to Xenocrates; who says, too, that if three roots are attached to the person, in the vicinity of those parts, they will be produc- tive of a similar result. The same writer informs us also, that injections of mallows are good for tenesmus and dysentery, and for maladies of the rectum even, if used as a fomentation only. The juice is given warm to patients afflicted with melan- 9 The same was said in the middle ages, of the virtues of sage, and in more recent times of the Panax quinquefolium, the Ginseng of the Chinese. 10 Q. Serenus Sammonicus speaks of the accumulation of dandriff in the hair to such a degree as to form a noxious malady. He also mentions the present remedy for it. 11 Some commentators have supposed this to be the Alcea rosa of Lin- naeus ; but Fee considers this opinion to be quite unfouuded. 286 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Rook XX. cholv, in doses of three cyathi,-and to insane persons'2 in doses of four. One hemina of the decoction is prescribed, also, for epilepsy.13 A warm decoction of the juice is employed, too, as a fomentation for calculus, flatulency, gripings of the stomach, and opisthotony. The leaves are boiled, and applied with oil, as a poultice for erysipelas and burns, and raw, with bread, to arrest inflammation in wounds. A decoction of mallows is beneficial for affections of the sinews and bladder, and for gnawing pains of the intestines ; taken, too, as an aliment, or an injection, they are relaxing to the uterus, and the decoction, taken with oil, facilitates the passage of the urine.14 The root of the althaeals is even more efficacious for all the purposes above enumerated, and for convulsions and ruptures more particularly. Boiled in water, it arrests looseness of the bowels; and taken in white wine, it is a cure for scrofulous sores, imposthumes of the parotid glands, and inflammations of the mamillae. A decoction of the leaves in wine, applied as a liniment, disperses inflammatory tumours ; and the leaves, first dried, and then boiled in milk, are a speedy cure for a cough, however inveterate. Hippocrates prescribes a decoction of the root to be drunk by persons wounded or thirsty from loss of blood, and the plant itself as an application to wounds, with honey and resin. He also recommends it to be employed in a similar manner for contusions, sprains, and tumours of the muscles, sinews, and joints, and prescribes it to be taken in wine for asthma and dysentery. It is a singular thing, that water in which this root has been put, thickens when exposed in the open air, and congeals16 like ice. The more recently, however, it has been taken up, the greater are the virtues of the root.17 13 It would be of no use whatever in such cases, Fee says. 13 Without any good results, Fee says. 14 li Permeatus suaves facit." We can only make a vague guess at the meaning; as the passage is, most probably, corrupt. 15 The Althaea officinalis of Linnaeus, or marsh-mallow. The medicinal properties are similar to those of the other varieties of the mallow. 16 It is the fact, that water, in which mallows are steeped, owing to the mucilage of the root, assumes the appearance of milk. " Fee says that this milky appearance of the water does not depend on the freshness of the root; as it is only the aqueous particles that are dried up, the mucilage preserving its chemical properties in their original in- tegrity. ° Chap. 85.] WILD LAPATHUM OR OXALIS. 287 CHAP. 85.—WILD LAPATHUM OR OXALIS, OTHERWISE CALLED LAPATHUM CANTHEEINUM, OR RUMEX : OXE REMEDY. HYDRO- LAPATHUM : TWO REMEDIES. HIPPOLAPATHUM : SIX REMEDIES. OXYLAPATHUM : FOUR REMEDIES. Lapathum, too, has pretty nearly the same properties. There is a wild18 variety, known to some as " oxalis," very similar in taste to the cultivated kind, with pointed leaves, a colour like that of white beet, and an extremely diminutive root: our people call it "rumex,"19 while others, again, give it the name of " lapathum cantherinum." 20Mixed with axle-grease, this plant is very efficacious for scrofu- lous sores. There is another kind, again, hardly forming a distinct variety, known as " oxylapathon,"21 which resembles the cultivated kind even more than the last, though the leaves are more pointed and redder: it grows only in marshy spots. Some authors are found who speak of a " hydrola- pathon,"" which grows in the water, they say. There is also another variety, known as " hippolapathon,"23 larger than the cultivated kina, whiter, and more compact. The wild varieties of the lapathum are a cure21 for the stings of scorpions, and protect those who carry the plant on their person from being stung. A decoction of the root in vinegar, employed as a gargle, is beneficial to the25 teeth, and if drunk, is a cure for jaundice. The seed is curative of the most obstinate maladies of the stomach.26 The root of hip- polapathuni, in particular, has the property of bringing off malformed nails ; and the seed, taken in wine, in doses of two drachmae, is a cure for dysentery. The seed of oxylapathum, 19 The Bumex acetosella of Linnaeus, or small sorrel. 19 See B. xix. c. 60. 20 " Horse Lapathum." 21 Or " Lapathum with pointed leaves;" the Bumex acutus of Linnaeus. 22 Or " water lapathum ;" the Bumex aquaticus of Linnaeus. 2:t Or "horse lapathum;" the Bumex patientia of Linnaeus: or dock, ;is Fee thinks : though, according to Sprengel, the cultivated lapathum was identical with that plant. " The medicinal properties of the lapathum vary according to the parts of the plant employed. The leaves and stalks of the acid kinds of Bumex are refreshing, and slightly diuretic and laxative. The action of those which are not acid is sudorific, antiherpetic, and depurative. 25 Fee says that it would be of no benefit whatever for tooth-ache. 24 It is not possessed of any stomachic properties, Fee remarks. 288 PLINY'S NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XX. washed in rain-water, with the addition of a piece of gum acacia, about the size of a lentil, is good for patients troubled with spitting of blood.27 Most excellent lozenges are made of the leaves and root of this plant, with the addition of nitre and a little incense. When wanted for use, they are first steeped in vinegar. CHAP. 86.--CULTIVATED LAPATHUM : TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES. BULAPATHUM : ONE REMEDY. As to garden lapathum,28 it is good in liniments on the forehead for defluxions of the eyes. The root of it cures lichens and leprous sores, and a decoction of it in wine is remedial for scrofulous swellings, imposthumes of the parotid glands, and calculus of the bladder. Taken in wine it is a cure for affections of the spleen, and employed as a fomenta- tion, it is equally good for cceliac affections, dysentery, and tenesmus. Eor all these purposes, the juice of lapathum is found to be even still more efficacious. It acts as a car- minative and diuretic, and dispels films on the eyes: put into the bath, or else rubbed' upon the body, without oil, before taking the bath, it effectually removes all itching sen- sations. The root of it, chewed, strengthens the teeth, and a decoction of it in wine arrests29 looseness of the stomach: the leaves, on the other hand, relax it. Not to omit any particulars, Solo has added to the above varieties a bulapathon,30 which differs only from the others in the length of the root. This root, taken in wine, is very beneficial for dysentery. CHAP. 87. (22.)—MUSTARD, THE THREE KINDS OF IT : rORTY-FOUK REMEDIES. Mustard, of which we have mentioned31 three different 27 It would be of no utility in such a case, Fee says. 28 Supposed by Fee to be tbe same as the wild lapathum of the last Lhapter, the Bumex acetosella of Linnaeus; small sorrel. 29 Fee remarks that no part of lapathum is naturally astringent. Or "ox lapathum." Fee considers this to be identical with the hippolapathon" of the last Chapter. fnuLl* Hi*^' °a 54\ F*e j^1111^ these three varieties of mustard as S.-nf; ?t ?lender-stemmed mustard of Pliny he identifies with the Sina- £l.*vf™ ,Jiin?aeus' m"stard ™th ^hite seeds. The mustard mentioned as Having the leaves of rape he considers to be the same as the Sinapu Chap. S7.] MUSTABD. 289 kinds, when speaking of the garden herbs, is ranked by Py- thagoras among the very first of those plants the pungency of which mounts upwards; for there is none to be found more penetrating to the brain and nostrils. Pounded with vinegar, mustard is employed as a liniment for the stings of serpents and scorpions, and it effectually neu- tralizes the poisonous properties of fungi. To cure an immo- derate secretion of phlegm it is kept in the mouth till it melts, or else it is mixed with hydromel, and employed as a gargle. Mustard is chewed for tooth-ache, and is taken as a gargle with oxymel for affections of the uvula; it is very beneficial, also, for all maladies of the stomach. Taken with the food, it facilitates expectoration32 from the lungs: it is given, too, for asthma and epileptic fits, in combination with cucumber seed. It has the effect of quickening the senses, and effectually clears the head by sneezing, relaxes the stomach, and promotes the menstrual discharge and the urinary secretions : beaten up with figs and cummin, in the proportion of one-third of each ingredient, it is. used as an external application for dropsy. Mixed with vinegar, mustard resuscitates by its powerful odour persons who have swooned in fits of epilepsy or lethargy, as well as females suffering from hysterical suffoca- tions. For the cure of lethargy tordylon is added—that being the name given to the seed of hartwort33—and if the lethar- gic sleep should happen to be very profound, an application of it, with figs and vinegar, is made to the legs, or to the head31 even. Used as an external application, mustard is u cure for inveterate pains of the chest, loins, hips, shoulders, and, in general, for all deep-seated pains in any part of the body, raising blisters35 by its caustic properties. In cases of extreme indurations of the skin, the mustard is applied to the part without figs; and a cloth is employed doubled, where it is apprehended that it may burn too powerfully. It is used nigra of Linnaeus, mustard with black seed; and that with the leaf of the rocket he identifies with the Sinapis eruco'ides of Linnaeus, the Eruca silvestris of Gessner, or rocket-leaved mustard. 32 In reality, mustard is injurious for all affections of the chest and throat. K "Seseli." 34 A sinapism applied to the head, Fee remarks, in cases of cerebral congestion, would very soon cause death. 35 Mustard poultices are used extensively at the present day for blisters •>n the chest. VOL. IV. 2.00 flint's natural history. [Hook XX. also, combined with red-earth,38 for alopecy, itch-scabs, le- prosy, phthiriasis, tetanus, and opisthotony. They employ it also as a liniment with honey for styes37 on the eyelids and films on the eyes. The juices of mustard are extracted in three different ways, in earthen vessels in which it is left to dry gradually in the sun. From the thin stem of the plant there exudes also a milky juice,38 which when thus hardened is remedial for tooth-ache. The seed and root, after they have been left to steep in must, are beaten up together in a mortar; and a good handful of the mixture is taken to strengthen39 the tbroat, stomach, eyes, head, and all tbe senses. This mixture is extremely good, too, for fits of lassitude in females, being one of the most wholesome medicines in existence. Taken in vinegar, mustard disperses calculi in the bladder; and, in com- bination with honey and goose-grease, or else Cyprian wax, it is employed as a liniment for livid spots and bruises. From the seed, first steeped in olive-oil, and then subjected to pressure, an oil is extracted, which is employed for rigidity of the sinews, and chills and numbness in the loins and hips. CHAP. 88.—ADARCA : FORTY-EIGHT REMEDIES. It is said that adarca, of which we have already made mention40 when speaking of the forest-trees, has a similar nature41 to that of mustard, and is productive of the same effects : it grows upon the outer coat of reeds, below the head. CHAP. 89.--MARRUBIUM OR PRASION, OTHERWISE LINOSTROPHON, PH1LOPAIS, OR PHILOCHARES : TWENTY-NINE REMEDIES. Most medical writers have spoken in high terms of marru- 36 " Bubrica." 37 « Scabras genas." 8 This is not the fact; no juice flows from the stem which is capable of becoming concrete. Z f8 a tonic> mustard-seed is commonly taken whole at the present day. 40 In B. xvi. c. 66. In B. xxxii. c. 52, we shall find Pliny speaking of this substance under the name of «Calamochnus." Dioscorides, B v. H.HJ' TT ladarca as growing in Cappadocia, and as being a salt sub- stance which adheres to reeds in time of drought really have belT' ^^ P°SSibly be the° fact'w^tever adarca may Chap. 89.] MARRUBIUM OR PRA8I0N. 291 bium, or horehound, as a plant of the very greatest utility. Among the Greeks, it is called " prasion "42 by some, by others "iinostrophon,"43 and by others, again, " philopais"44 or " philochares :"45 it is a plant too well known to require any description.46 The leaves47 and seed beaten up, together, are good for the stings of serpents, pains of the chest and side, and inveterate coughs. The branches, too, boiled in water with panic,1" so as to modify its acridity, are remarkably useful for persons troubled with spitting49 of blood. Horehound is applied also, with grease, to scrofulous swellings. Some persons recommend for a cough, a pinch of the fresh seed with two fingers, boiled with a handful of speltM and a little oil and salt, the mixture to be taken fasting. Others, again, regard as quite incomparable for a similar purpose an extract of the juices of horehound and fennel. Taking three sextarii of the extract, they boil it down to two, and then add one sextarius of honey; after which they again boil it down to two, and administer one spoonful of the preparation daily, in one cyathus of water. Beaten up with honey, horehound is particularly beneficial for affections of the male organs; employed with vinegar, it cleanses lichens, and is very salutary for ruptures, convul- sions, spasms, and contractions of the sinews. Taken in drink with salt and vinegar, it relaxes the bowels, promotes the menstrual discharge, and accelerates the after-birth. Dried, powdered, and taken with honey, it is extremely efficacious 42 The "grass-green" plant. 43 The "twisted flax" plant. 44 " Lad's-love." 45 " Love and grace," apparently. 46 There are two kinds of prasion mentioned by Dioscorides, and by Pliny at the end of the present Chapter, one of which Fee is inclined to identify with the Ballota nigra of Linnaeus, the fetid ballota; and the other with the Marrubium vulgare of Linnaeus, the white horehound. Bochart conjectures that the word " marrubium " had a Punic origin, but Linnaeus thinks that it comes from " Maria urbs," the " City of the Marshes," si- tuate on Lake Fucinus, in Italy. 47 Though much used in ancient times, horehound is but little employed in medicine at the present day : though its medicinal value, Fee thinks, is very considerable. Candied horehound is employed to some extent in this country, as a pectoral. 48 See B. xviii. c. 25. 49 Its medicinal properties, as recognized in modern times, are in most respects dissimilar to those mentioned by Pliny. u 2 292 pliny'8 natural history. [fiookXX. for a dry cough, as also for gangrenes and hang-nails.81 The juice, too, taken with honey, is good for the ears and nos- trils: it is a remedy also for jaundice, and diminishes the bilious secretions. Among the few antidotes52 for poisons, it is one of the very best known. The plant itself, taken with iris and honey, purges the sto- mach and promotes expectorations: it acts, also, as a strong diuretic, though, at the same time, care must be taken not to use it when the bladder is ulcerated and the kidneys are af- fected. It is said, too, that the juice of horehound improves tbe eyesight. Castor speaks of two varieties of it, the black horehound and the white, which last he considers to be the best. He puts the juice of it into an empty eggshell, and then mixes the egg with it, together with honey, in equal pro- portions: this preparation used warm, he says, will bring abscesses to a head, and eleanse and heal them. Beaten up, too, with stale axle-grease and applied topically, he says, hore- hound is a cure for the bite of a dog. CHAP. 90.--WILD THYME : EIGHTEEN REMEDIES. Wild thyme, it is said, borrows its name, " serpyllum," from the fact that it is a creeping83 plant, a property peculiar to the wild kind, that which grows in rocky places more particularly. The cultivated54 thyme is not a creeping plant, but grows up- wards, as much a palm in height. That which springs up spontaneously, grows the most luxuriantly, its leaves and branches being whiter than those of the other kinds. Thyme is efficacious as a remedy for the stings of serpents, the cen- chris55 more particularly ; also for the sting of the scolopendra, both sea and land, the leaves and branches being boiled for the purpose in wine. Burnt, it puts to flight all venomous crea- 51 " Pterygia." " Pterygium" is also a peculiar disease of the eye. 5i " Inter pauca." He has mentioned, however, a vast number of so- called antidotes or remedies. It is just possible that he may mean, " There are few antidotes like it for efficacy." 53 " A faerpendo :" tbe Thymus serpyllum of Linnaeus. 54 The Thymus zygis of Linnaeus: the Serpyllum folio thymi of C. Rauhin. Dioscorides says that it is the cultivated thyme that is a creeping plant. 5S See Lucan's Pharsalia, B. ix. 1. 712, et seq. Chap. 91.] SISYMBRIUM OR THYMBR^UM. 293 tures by its smell, and it is particularly beneficial as an anti- dote to tbe venom of marine animals. A decoction of it in vinegar is applied for head-ache, with rose oil, to the temples and forehead, as also for phrenitis and lethargy : it is given, too, in doses of four drachmae, for grip- ings of the stomach, strangury, quinsy, and fits of vomiting. It is taken in water, also, for liver complaints. The leaves are given in doses of four oboli, in vinegar, for diseases of the spleen. Beaten up in two cyathi of oxymel, it is used for spitting of blood. CHAP. 91.—SISYMBRIUM OR THYMBRJEUM : TWENTY-THREE REMEDIES. Wild65* sisymbrium, by some persons called " thymbrseum," does not grow beyond a foot in height. The kind56 which grows in watery places, is similar to nasturtium, and they57 are both of them efficacious for the stings of certain insects, such as hornets and the like. That which grows in dry loca- lities is odoriferous, and is employed58 for wreaths : the leaf of it is narrower than in the other kind. They both of them alleviate head-ache, and defluxions of the eyes, Philinus says. Some persons, however, employ bread in addition; Avhile others, again, use a decoction of the plant by itself in wine. It is a cure, also, for epinyctis, and removes spots on the face in females, by the end of four days; for which purpose, it ia applied at night and taken off in the day-time. It arrests vomiting, hiccup, gripings, and fluxes of the stomach, whether taken with the food, or the juice extracted and given in drink. This plant, however, should never be eaten by pregnant women, except in cases where the foetus is dead, for the very application of it is sufficient to produce abortion. Taken with wine, it is diuretic, and the wild variety expels calculi even. For persons necessitated to sit up awake, an infusion of it in vinegar is applied as a liniment to the head. M* The Sisymbrion menta of Gerard ; the Menta hirsuta of Decandolle, prickly mint. Sprengel, however, takes it to be the Menta silvestris of modern Botany. 68 The Sisymbrion nasturtium of Linnaeus. 57 Apparently the Sisymbrium just mentioned, and the Nasturtium. 58 Ovid Fasti, B. iv. 1. 869, speaks of Sisymbrium as being esteemed by tbe Boman ladies for its agreeable smell. !0A PLINY'S NATURAL II1STOKY. [Cook XX. CHAP. 92.—LINSEED : THIRTY REMEDIES. Linseed69 is not only used in combination with other sub- stances, but, employed by itself, it disperses spots on the face in women: its juice, too, is very beneficial to the sight. Combined with incense and water, or else with myrrh and wine, it is a cure for defluxions of the eyes, and employed with honey, grease, or wax, for imposthumes of the parotid glands. Prepared60 like polenta, it is good for fluxes of the stomach; and a decoction of it in water and oil, applied topi- cully with anise, is prescribed for quinsy. It is sometimes used parched, also, to arrest looseness of the bowels, and ap- plications of it are used, with vinegar, for cceliac affections and dysentery. It is eaten with raisins, also, for pains in the liver, and excellent electuaries are made of it for the treatment of phthisis. Linseed-meal, with the addition of nitre, salt, or ashes, softens rigidities of the muscles, sinews, joints, and vertebrae, as well as of the membranous tissues of the brain. Em- ployed with figs, linseed-meal ripens abscesses and brings them to a head : mixed with the root of wild cucumber, it extracts61 all foreign bodies from the flesh, as well as splinters of broken bones. A decoction of linseed-meal in wine prevents ulcers from spreading, and mixed with honey, it is remedial for pituitous eruptions. Used with nasturtium, in equal quantities, it rectifies62 malformed nails; mixed with resin and myrrh, it cures affections of the testes and hernia,63 and with water, gangrenous sores. A decoction of linseed-meal with fenu- greek, in the proportion of one sextarius of each, in hydromel, is recommended for pains in the stomach; and employed as 59 See B. xix. c. 1. The rich mucilage of linseed makes it extremely valuable, in a medicinal point of view, for poultices. This mucilage is found in the perisperm more particularly; the kernel containing a fixed oil, which is extremely valuable for numerous purposes. The account given by Pliny and the other ancient writers of the medicinal uses of linseed, is, in general, correct. 80 " Inspersum," sprinkled with boiling water; like oatmeal for por- ridge, probably. 61 It would be of no use whatever for such a purpose, Fee says. ce « Emendat." By bringing them off probably. M It would be of no utility for hernia, Fee says, or for the cure of gan- grenous sores. Chap. 94.] MEUM. 295 an injection, with oil or honey, it is beneficial for dangerous affections of the chest and intestines. CHAP. 93.—BLITE : SIX REMEDIES. Blite64 seems to be a plant of an inert nature, without flavour or any pungency whatever; hence it is that, in Menander, we find husbands giving this name to their wives, by way of66 reproach. It is66 prejudicial to the stomach, and disturbs the bowels to such a degree, as to cause cholera in some. It is stated, however, that, taken in wine, it is good for the stings of scorpions; and that it is sometimes used as a liniment for corns on the feet, and, with oil, for affections of the spleen and pains in the temples. Hippocrates is of opi- nion, that if taken with the food,67 it will arrest the menstrual discharge. CHAP. 94. (23.)--MEUM, AND MEUM ATHAMANTICUM : SEVEN REMEDIES. Meum68 is never cultivated in Italy except by medical men, and by very few of those. There are two varieties of it, the finer kind being known as " athamanticum," because, accord- ing to some, it was first discovered by Athamas; or else be- cause, as others think, that of the best quality is found upon Mount Athamas.69 The leaf of it is similar to that of dill, and the stem is sometimes as much as two cubits in length : the roots, which run obliquely, are numerous and mostly black, though sometimes white : it is not of so red a hue as the other, kind. The root of this plant, pounded or boiled, and taken in water, is diuretic, and is marvellously efficacious for dispelling flatu- lency of the stomach. It is good, too, for gripings of the bowels and affections of the bladder: applied with honey to the 61 The Blitum capitatum of Linnaeus. 65 Hence, too, the Latin word " bliteus," meaning "insipid," "sense- less," or '• worthless." 66 This is not the case, it being as innocuous as it is insipid. Applied topically, the leaves are emollient. 67 There is no foundation, Fee says, for this opinion. 88 The iEthusa meum of Linnaeus; our Spignel, or Baldmoney, 1he Athamanta Matthioli of Wulf. By some authorities it is called Feni- culum Alpinum perenne. It is possessed of exciting properties, and is no longer used in medicine. 69 See B. iv. c. 8. 296 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. region of the uterus, it acts as a diuretic ; and used as a liniment with parsley, upon the lower regions of the abdomen in infants, it has a similar effect. chap. 95.—fennel: twenty-two remedies. Fennel has been rendered famous by the serpent, which tastes it, as already70 stated, when it casts its old skin, and sharpens its sight with the juice of this plant: a fact which has led to the conclusion that this juice must be beneficial, also, in a high degree to the human sight. Fennel-juice is gathered when the stem is swelling with the bud ; after which it is dried in the sun and applied as an pintment with honey. This plant is to be found in all parts of the world. The most esteemed preparation from it, is that made in Iberia, from the tear-like drops which exude71 from the stalk and the seed fresh-ga- thered. The juice is extracted, also, from incisions made in the root at the first germination of the plant. CHAP. 96.--HIPPOMARATHBON, OR MYRSINEUM : FIVE REMEDIES. There is, also, a wild72 variety of fennel, known by some persons as " hippomarathron," and by others as "myrsineum;" it has a larger leaf and a more acrid taste than the other kind. It is taller, also, about the thickness of a walking-stick, and has a white root: it grows in warm, but stony localities. Diocles speaks, too, of another73 variety of hippomarathron, with a long narrow leaf, and a seed like that of coriander. The seed of the cultivated fennel is medicinally employed in 'wine, for the stings of scorpions and serpents, and the juice of it, injected into the ears, has the effect of destroying small worms that breed there. Fennel is employed as an ingredient in nearly all our seasonings,74 vinegar75 sauces more particu- larly : it is placed also beneath the undercrust of bread. The 70 See B. viii. c. 41. This plant is the Anethum feniculum of Lin- naeus. The seed and roots are still used in medicine, being sudorific, diuretic, and aperitive. 11 This resinous juice of fennel is no longer employed, or indeed known, Fee says, to the curious. n " Horse marathrum :" the Cachrys Libanotis of Linnaeus, probably. 73 The Seseli tortuosum of Linnaeus, probably. 74 It is sometimes used at the present day for condiments, as a substitute for anise. Pliny's account of its medicinal virtues. Fee says, is replete with errors. r 75 " Oxyporis:" perhaps " salad-dressings." Chap. 97.] HEMP. 297 seed, in fevers even, acts as an astringent upon a relaxed sto- mach, and beaten up with water, it allays nausea : it is highly esteemed, also, for affections of the lungs and liver. Taken in moderate quantities, it arrests looseness of the bowels, and acts as a diuretic ; a decoction of it is good for gripings of the stomach, and taken in drink, it restores the milk. The root, taken in a ptisan,76 purges the kidueys—an effect which is equally produced by a decoction of the juice or of the seed ; the root is good too, boiled in wine, for dropsy and convulsions. The leaves are applied to burning tumours, with vinegar, expel calculi of the bladder, and act as an aphrodisiac. »In whatever way it is taken in drink, fennel has the pro- perty of promoting the secretion of the seminal fluids; and it is extremely beneficial to the generative organs, whether a de- coction of the root in wine is employed as a fomentation, or whether it is used beaten up in oil. Many persons apply fennel with wax to tumours and bruises, and employ the root, with the juice of the plant, or else with honey, for the bites of dogs, and with wine for the stings of multipedes. Hippomarathron is more efficacious, in every respect, than cultivated fennel ;77 it expels calculi more particularly, and, taken with weak wine, is good for the bladder and irregula- rities of the menstrual discharge. In this plant, the seed is more efficacious than the root; the dose of either of them being a pinch with two fingers, beaten up, and mixed with the usual drink. Petrichus, who wrote a work " On Serpents,"78 and Micton, who wrote a trea- tise " On79 Botany," are of opinion that there is nothing in existence of greater efficacy against serpents than hippoma- rathron : indeed, Nicander80 has ranked it by no means among the lowest of antidotes. CHAP. 97.--HEMP : NINE REMEDIES. Hemp originally grew in the forests,81 where it is found with a blacker and rougher leaf than in the other82 kinds. 78 See B. xviii. c. 13. 71 Their properties, Fee says, are very similar. 78 "Ophiaca." - 79 " Bhizotomumena." 80 Theriaca, 1. 596. et seq. 81 The wild hemp of Pliny is the Althaea cannabina of Linnaeus; the hemp marsh-mallow. 83 The cultivated hemp is the Cannabis sativa of Linnaeus. 298 PLINY'S NATURAL HI3T0UY. [Book XX, Hempseed,83 it is said, renders men impotent: the juice of this seed will extract worms from the ears, or any insect which may have entered them, though at the cost of producing head-ache. The virtues of hemp, it is said, are so great, that an infusion of it in water will cause it to coagulate : hence it is, that if taken in water, it will arrest looseness in beas s of burden. A decoction of the root in water, relaxes contractions of the joints, and cures gout and similar maladies. It is ap- plied raw to burns, but it must be frequently changed, so aa not to let it dry. CHAP. 98.--FENNEL-GIANT : EIGHT REMEDIES. Fennel-giant88 has a seed similar to that of dill. That which has a single stem, bifurcated8* at the top, is generally thought to be the female plant. The stalks of it are eaten boiled ;87 and, pickled in brine and honey, they are recom- mended as particularly beneficial to the stomach j88 if taken, however, in too large quantities, they are apt to produce head-ache. The root of it in doses of one denarius to two cyathi of wine, is used in drink for the stings of serpents, and the root itself is applied topically for the same purpose, as also for the cure of gripings of the stomach. Taken in oil and vinegar, it is used as a check for excessive perspirations, in fevers even. The inspissated juice of fennel-giant, taken in quantities the size of a bean, acts as a purgative ;89 and the pith90 of it is good for the uterus, as well as all the maladies previously mentioned. To arrest haemorrhage, ten of the seeds are taken in drink, bruised in wine, or else with the 83 He is speaking of the hemp marsh-mallow here, and not the real hemp; though at the same time he mingles with his statement several facts which are stated by Dioscorides with reference to the genuine hemp. See B. xix. c. 56. 84 This is evidently stated in reference to the hemp-mallow. 85 For an account "of the Ferula, see B. xiii. c. 42. 86 An accidental circumstance, Fee says, and no distinctive mark of sex or species. 81 Fee thinks that Pliny's meaning is, that it is eaten as a confection, similar to those of angelica and parsley stalks at the present day. That, however, would hardly appear to be the sense of the passage. In B. xix. c. 56, he speaks of it being dried and used as a seasoning. 88. Fennel-giant is considered to be a good stomachic. 69 This, Fee thinks, is probably the fact. 90 The pith, in reality, of the Umbelliferae, is insipid and inert. Chap 100.] THE COMPOSITION OF THERIACA. 299 pith of the plant. There are some persons who think that the seed should be administered for epilepsy, from the fourth to the seventh day of the moon, in doses of one spoonful. Fennel-giant is naturally so inimical to the mursena, that the very touch of it even will kill that fish. Castor was of opinion that the juice of the root is extremely beneficial to the sight. CHAP. 99.--THE THISTLE OR SCOLYMOS : SIX REMEDIES. We have already91 spoken, when treating of the garden plants, of the cultivation of the thistle; we may as well, therefore, not delay to mention its medicinal properties. Of wild thistles there are two varieties ; one92 of which throws out numerous stalks immediately it leaves the ground, the other93 being thicker, and having but a single stem. They have, both of them, a few leaves only, and covered with prickles, the head of the plant being protected by thorny points : the last mentioned, however, puts forth in the middle of these points a purple blossom, which turns white with great rapidity, and is carried off by the wind; the Greeks give it the name of " scolymos." This plant, gathered before it blossoms, and beaten up and subjected to pressure, produces a juice, which, applied to the head, makes the hair grow again when it has fallen off through alopecy. The root of either kind, boiled in water, creates thirst, it is said, in those who drink it. It strengthens the stomach also, and if we are to believe what is said, has some influence upon the womb in promoting the conception of male offspring: at all events, Glaucias, who seems to have paid the most attention to the subject, has written to that effect.. The thin juice, like mastich, which exudes from these plantaf imparts sweetness to the breath. / CHAP. 100. (24.)--THE COMPOSITION OF THERIACA. But as we are now about to leave the garden plants, we will take this opportunity of describing a very famous preparation 91 In B. xix. c. 43. 92 This, Fee considers to be the Cinara carduncellus of Linnaeus, arti- choke thistle, or Cardonette of Provence. 93 The Cinara scolymus of Linnaeus probably, our artichoke, which the ancients do not appear to have eaten. Both the thistle and the artichoke are now no longer employed in medicine. 300 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX. extracted from them as an antidote against the stings of all kinds of venomous animals: it is inscribed in verse91 upon a stone in the Temple of iEsculapius at Cos. Take two denarii of wild thyme, and the same quantity of opopanax and meum respectively ; one denarius of trefoil seed; and of aniseed, fennel-seed, ammi, and parsley, six denarii respectively, with twelve denarii of meal of fitches. Beat up these ingredients together, and pass them through a sieve ; after which they must be kneaded with the best wine that can be had, and then made into lozenges of one victoria- tus95 each: one of these is to be given to the patient, steeped in three cyathi of wine. King Antiochus96 the Great, it is said, employed this theriaca97 against all kinds of venomous animals, the asp excepted. Summary.—Eemarkable facts, narratives, and observations, one thousand, five hundred, and six. Roman authors quoted.—Cato1 the Censor, M. Varro,5 Pompeius Lenaeus,3 C. Valgius,4 Hyginus,6 Sextius Niger" 94 Galen gives these lines, sixteen in number, in his work De Antidot. B. ii. c. 14; the proportions, however, differ from those given by Pliny. 95 Half a denarius; the weight being so called from the coin which was stamped with the imnge of the Goddess of Victory. See B. xxxiii. c. 13. 96 Antiochus II., the father of Antiochus Epiphanes. 97 Or " antidote." In this term has originated our word " treacle," in the Elizabethan age spelt " triacle." The medicinal virtues of this com- position were believed in, Fee remarks, so recently as the latter half of the last century. The most celebrated, however, of all the " theriacae" of the ancients, was the " Theriaca Andromachi," invented by Androma- chus, the physician of the Emperor Nero, and very similar to that com- posed by Mithridates, king of Pontus, and by means of which he was ren- dered proof, it is said, against all poisons. See a very learned and inter- esting account of the Theriacae of the ancients, by Dr. Greenhill, in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Boman Antiquities. His articles " Pharmuccu- tica," and. " Therapeutica," will also be found well worth attention by the reader of Pliny. 1 See end of B. iii. 2 See end of B. ii. 3 See end of B. xiv. 4 He is also mentioned in B. xxv. c. 2, as having commenced a treatise on Medicinal Plants, which he did not live to complete. It is not im- probable that he is the same Valgiua that is mentioned in high terms by Horace, B. i. Sat. 10. 5 See end of B. iii. 6 See end of B. xii. SUMMARY. 301 who wrote in Greek, Julias Bassus7 who wrote in Greek, Celsus,8 Antonius Castor.9 Foreign authors quoted.—Democritus,10 Theophrastus,11 Orpheus,12 Menander 13 who wrote the " Biochresta," Pytha- goras,11 Nicander.15 Medical authors quoted.—Chrysippus,16 Diocles,17 Ophe- lion,18 Heraclides,19 Hicesius,20 Dionysius,21 Apollodorus22 of Citiura, Apollodorus23 of Tarentum, Praxagoras,24 Plistoni- 7 Supposed by some to be the same with the Bassus Tullius mentioned by ancient writers as the friend of Niger, possibly the Sextius Niger here mentioned. 8 See end of B. vii. 9 He lived at Borne in the first century of the Christian era, and pos- sessed a botanical garden, probably the earliest mentioned. He lived more than a hundred years, in perfect health both of body and mind. See B. xxv. c. 5. 10 See end of B. ii. 11 See end of B. iii. 12 A mystic personage of the early Grecian Mythology, under whose name many spurious works were circulated. Pliny says. B. xxv. c. 2, that he was the first who wrote with any degree of attention on the subject of Plants. 13 See end of B. xix. 14 See end of B. ii. ls See end of B. viii. 16 Probably Chrysippus of Cnidos, a pupil of Eudoxus and Philistion, father of Chrysippus, the physician to Ptolemy Soter, and tutor to Erasis- tratus. Others, again, think that the work "on the Cabbage," mentioned by Pliny in c. 33, was written by another Chrysippus, a pupil of Erasis- tratus, in the third century b.c. 17 A native of Carystus, in Euboea, who lived in the fourth century b.c. He belonged to the medical sect of the Dogmatici, and wrote several medi- cal works, of which the titles only and a few fragments remain. 18 Of this writer nothing whatever is known. 19 For Heraclides of Heraclea, see end of B. xii.; for Heraclides of Pontus, see end of B. iv.; and for Heraclides of Tarentum, see end of B. xii. They were all physicians. 20 See end of B. xv. 21 See end of B. xii. 22 It was probably this personage, or the one next mentioned, who wrote to Ptolemy, one of the kings of Egypt, giving him directions as to what wines he should drink. See B. xiv. c. 9. A person of this name wrote a work on Ointments and Chaplets, quoted by Athenaeus, and another on Venomous Animals, quoted by the same author. This last is probably the work referred to by Pliny, B. xxi. cc. 16, 29, &c. It has been suggested also, that the proper reading here is " Apollonius" of Citium, a pupil of Zopyrus, a physician of Alexandria. 23 See the preceding Note. 24 A celebrated physician, a native of the island of Cos. He belonged to the medical sect of the Dogmatici, and flourished probably in the fourth century b.c. He was more particularly celebrated for his comparatively accurate knowledge of anatomy. The titles only and a few fragments of his works survive. 302 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XX cus,25 Medius,28 Dieuches,27 Cleophantus,28 Philistion,29 Ascle- piades,30 Crateuas,31 Petronius Diodotus,32 lollas,33 Erasistra- tus,34 Diagoras,36 Andreas,36 Mnesides,37 Epicharmus,38 Da- mion, 39 Dalion, 40 Sosimenes, 41 Tlepolemus, 42 Metrodo- 25 A pupil of Praxagoras. He appears to have written a work on Anatomy, quoted more than once by Galen. 28 A pupil of Chrysippus of Cnidos, and who lived probably in the fourth and third centuries b.c. Galen speaks of him as being held in great repute among the Greeks. 27 He flourished in the fourth century b.c, and belonged to the medi- cal sect of the Dogmatici. He wrote some medical works, of which no- thing but a few fragments remain. 28 He lived probably about the beginning of the third century b.c, as he was the tutor of Antigenes and Mnemon. He seems to have been famous for his medicinal prescriptions of wine, and the quantities of cold water which he gave to his patients. 29 Born either in Sicily or at Locri Epizephyrii, in Italy. He is sup- posed to have lived in the fourth century B.C. By some persons he was thought to have been one of the founders of the sect of the Empirici. llv wrote works on Materia Medica and Cookery, and is several times quoted by Pliny and Galen. 30 See end of B. vii. 31 A Greek herbalist, who lived about the beginning of the first cen- tury B.c. He is mentioned by Galen as one of the most eminent writers on Materia Medica. Another physician of the same name is supposed to have lived in the time of Hippocrates. 32 A Greek physician, supposed to have lived in or before the first cen- tury b.c Dioscorides and Saint Epiphanius speak of Petronius and Dio- dotus, making them different persons; and it is not improbable that the true reading in c. 32 of this Book, is " Petronius et Diodotus." 33 See end of B. xii. 34 See end of B. xi. 35 See end of B. xii. 36 It is probable that there were several Greek physicians of this name; but the only one of whom anything certain is known is the physician to Ptolemy Philopater, king of Egypt, in whose tent he was killed by Theo- dotus, the iEtolian, b.c 217. He was probably the first writer on hydro- phobia. Eratosthenes is said to have accused him of plagiarism. 37 See end of B. xii. 38 It is doubtful if the person of this name to whom Pliny attributes a work on the Cabbage, in cc. 34 and 36 of this Book, was the same indi- vidual as Epicharmus of Cos, the Comic poet, born B.C. 540. It has been suggested that the botanical writer was a different personage, the brother of the Comic poet Demologus. 39 Possibly the same person as the Damon mentioned at the end of B. vii. He is mentioned in c. 40 of this Book, and in B. xxiv. c. 120, and wrote a work on the Onion. 40 See end of B. vi. 41 Beyond the mention made of him in c. 73 of this Book, nothing what- ever is known relative to this writer. 42 Beyond the mention made of him in c. 73, nothing is known of him. Some read " Theopolemus." SUMMARY. 303 rus,43 Solo,44 Lycus,45 Olympias40 of Thebes, Philinus,47 Te- trichus,43 Micton,49 Glaucias,60 Xenocrates.61 43 Probably Metrodorus of Chios, a philosopher, who flourished about b. c. 330, and professed the doctrine of the Sceptics. Cicero, Acad. ii. 23, § 73, gives a translation of the first sentence of his work " On Nature." 44 A physician of Smyrna. He is called Solon the Dietetic, by Galen ; but nothing further seems to be known of his history. . 4S See end of B. xii. 46 A Theban authoress, who wrote on Medicine ; mentioned also by Plinius Valerianus, the physician, and Pollux. *7 A Greek physician, a native of Cos, the reputed founder of the sect of the Empirici. He probably lived in the third century b.c From Athenaeus we learn that he wrote a work on Botany. A parallel has been drawn between Philinus and the late Dr. Hahnemann, by F. F. Brisken, Berlin, 1834. 48 See end of B. xix. 49 The Scholiast on Nicander mentions a treatise on Botany written by a person of this name : and a work of his on Medicine is mentioned by Labbe as existing in manuscript in the Library at Florence. 60 A Greek physician of this name belonging to the sect of the Empirici, lived probably in the third or second century B.C. Galen mentions him as one of the earliest commentators on the works of Hippocrates. It is uncertain, however, whether he is the person so often quoted by Pliny. 51 A physician of Aphrodisias, in Cilicia, who lived in the reign of Tiberius. He wrote some pharmaceutical works, and is censured by Galen for his disgusting remedies, such as human brains, flesh, urine, liver, ex- crements, &c. There is a short essay by him still in existence, on tha Aliments derived from the Aquatic Animals. 304 BOOK XXI. AN ACCOUNT OF FLOWEBS, AND THOSE USED FOB CHAPLETS MOBE PARTICULABLY. CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE NATURE OF FLOWERS AND GARLANDS. Cato has recommended that flowers for making chaplets should also be cultivated in the garden ; varieties remarkable for a delicacy which it is quite impossible to express, inas- much as no individual can find such facilities for describing them as Nature does for bestowing on them their numerous tints —Nature, who here in especial shows herself in a sportive mood, and takes a delight in the prolific display of her varied productions. The otherJ plants she has produced for our use and our nutriment, and to them accordingly she has granted years and even ages of duration : but as for the flowers and their perfumes, she has given them birth for but a day—a mighty lesson to man, we see, to teach him that that which in its career is the most beauteous and the most attractive to the eye, is the very first to fade and die. Even the limner's art itself possesses no resources for re- producing the colours of the flowers in all their varied tints and combinations, whether we view them in groups alter- nately blending their hues, or whether arranged in festoons, each variety by2 itself, now assuming a circular form, now running obliquely, and now disposed in a spiral pattern ; or whether, as we see sometimes, one wreath is interwoven within another. CHAP. 2. (2.)—GARLANDS AND CHAPLETS. The ancients used chaplets of diminutive size, called " struppi ;"3 from which comes our name for a chaplet, " stro- 1 See B. xxii. c. 1. 2 " Sive privatis generum funiculis in orbem, in obliquum, in ambitum ; quaedam coronae per coronas currunt." As we know but little of the forms of the garlands and chaplets of the ancients, the exact translation of this passage is very doubtful. 3 According to Boettiger, the word " struppus " means a string arranged as a fillet or diadem. Chap. 3.] THE ART OF MAKING GARLANDS. 305 phiolum." Indeed, it was only by very slow degrees that this last word4 became generalized, as the chaplets that were used at sacrifices, or were granted as the reward of military valour, asserted their exclusive right to the name of " corona." As for garlands, when they came to be made of flowers, they received the name of " serta," from the verb " sero,"5 or else from our word " series."6 The use7 of flowers for gar- lands is not so very ancient, among the Greeks even. CHAP. 3. — WHO INVENTED THE ART OF MAKING GARLANDS : WHEN THEY FIRST RECEIVED THE NAME OF " COROLLA," AND FOR WHAT REASON. For in early times it was the usage to crown the victors in the sacred contests with branches of trees: and it was only at a later period, that they began to vary their tints by the combination8 of flowers, to heighten the effect in turn by their colour and their smell—an invention due to the ingenuity of the painter Pausias, at Sicyon,9 and the garland-maker Gly- cera, a female to whom he was greatly attached, and whose handiwork was imitated by him in colours. Challenging him to a trial of skill, she would repeatedly vary her designs, and thus iu was in reality a contest between art and Nature ; a fact which we find attested by pictures of that artist even still in existence, more particularly the one known as the " Stephane- plocos,"10 in which he has given a likeness of Glycera herself. This invention, therefore, is only to be traced to later than the Hundredth11 Olympiad. Chaplets of flowers being now the fashion, it was not long before those came into vogue which are known to us us 4 Fee makes the word "vocabulum" apply to "corona," and not to " struppus;" but the passage will hardly admit of that rendering. 5 "To bind" or "join together." 8 A " connected line," from the verb " sero." 7 By "quod," Hardouin takes Pliny to mean, the use of the word Bitaprbv, among the Greeks, corresponding with the Latin word " sertum." 8 These chaplets, we learn from Festus, were culled "pancarpiae." The olive, oak, laurel, and myrtle, were the trees first used for chaplets. 9 See B. xxxv. c. 40. 10 The " Chaplet-weaver." See B. :, " to adorn." 13 Or Crocus, the Crocus sativus of Linnaeus, from the prepared stigmata of which the saffron of commerce is made. It is still found growing wild on the mountains in the vicinity of Athens, and is extensively cultivated in many parts of Europe. 320 pliny's natural history. [Hook XXI. use whatever to attempt to propagate it, the produce of a whole bed of saffron being boiled down to a single scruple; it is repro- duced by offsets from the bulb. The cultivated saffron is larger, finer, and better looking than the other kinds, but has much less efficacy. This plant is everywhere degenerating,14 and is far from prolific at Cyrense even, a place where the flowers are always of the very finest quality. The most es- teemed saffron, however, is that of Cilicia, and there of Mount Corycus in particular; next comes the saffron of Mount Olym- pus, in Lycia, and then of Centuripa, in Sicily ; some persons, however, have given the second rank to the Phlegrsean I5 saf- fron. There is nothing so much adulterated16 as saffron : the best proof of its goodness is when it snaps under pressure by the fingers, as though it were friable;17 for when it is moist, a state which it owes to being adulterated, it is limp, and will not snap asunder. Another way of testing it, again, is to apply it with the hand to the face, upon which, if good, it will be found to be slightly caustic to the face and eyes. There is a peculiar kind, too, of cultivated saffron, which is in general extremely mild, being only of middling 18 quality ; the name given to it is " dialeucon."19 The saffron of Cyrenaica, again, is faulty in the opposite extreme; for it is darker than any other kind, and is apt to spoil very quickly. The best saffron everywhere is that which is of the most unctuous quality, and the filaments of which are the shortest; the worst being that which emits a musty smell. Mucianus informs us that in Lycia, at the end of seven or eight years, the saffron is transplanted into a piece of ground which has been prepared for the purpose, and that in this way 14 " Degenerans ubique." Judging from what he states below, he may possibly mean, if grown repeatedly on the same soil. 15 He may allude either to the city of Phlegra of Macedonia, or to the Phlegraean Plains in Campania, which were remarkable for their fertility. Virgil speaks of the saffron of Mount Tmolus in Cilicia. 1B It is very extensively adulterated with the petals of the marigold, as also the Carthamus tinctorius, safflower, or bastard saffron. 17 This is the case ; for when it is brittle it shows that it has not been adulterated with water, to add to its weight. 18 Perhaps the reading here, " Cum sit in medio candidum," is prefer- able ; " because it is white in the middle." , is « White throughout." Chap. 18.] THE NATURE OF ODOURS. 321 it is prevented from degenerating. It is never20 used for chap- lets, being a plant with an extremely narrow leaf, as fine almost as a hair; but it combines remarkably well with wine, sweet wine in particular. Reduced to a powder, it is used to per- fume21 the theatres. Saffron blossoms about the setting of the Vergilise, for a feAv days22 only, the leaf expelling the flower. It is verdant23 at the time of the winter solstice, and then it is that they gather it; it is usually dried in the shade, and if in winter, all the better. The root of this plant is fleshy, and more long-lived24 than that of the other bulbous plants. It loves to be beaten and trodden M under foot, and in fact, the worse it is treated the better it thrives : hence it is, that it grows so vigorously by the side of foot-paths and fountains. (7.) Saffron was already held in high esteem in the time of the Trojan War ; at all events, Homer,26 we find, makes mention of these three flowers, the lotus,27 the saffron, and the hyacinth. CHAP. 18.--THE NATURE OF ODOURS. All the odoriferous28 substances, and consequently the plants, differ from one another in their colour, smell, and juices. It is but rarely29 that the taste of an odoriferous substance is not 20 He contradicts himself here ; for in c. 79 of this Book, he says that chaplets of saffron are good for dispelling the fumes of wine. 21 " Ad theatra replenda." It was the custom to discharge saffron-water over the theatres with pipes, and sometimes the saffron was mixed with wine for the purpose. It was discharged through pipes of very minute bore, so that it fell upon the spectators in the form of the finest dust. See Lucretius, B. ii; 1. 416 : Lucan, Phars. ix. 1. 808—810; and Seneca, Epist. 92. 22 It flowers so rapidly, in fact, that it is difficult to avoid the loss of a part of the harvest. 23 The whole of this passage is from Theophrastus, De Odorib. 24 This statement, though borrowed from Theophrastus, is not consis- tent with fact. The root of saffron is not more long-lived than any other bulbs of the Liliaceae. 25 Because, Dalechamps says, all the juices are thereby thrown back into the root, which consequently bears a stronger flower the next year. 26 II. xiv. 1. 348. 27 See B. xiii. c. 32. 28 All these statements as to the odours of various substances, are from Theophrastus, De Causis, B. vi. c. 22. '•"J He does not say, however, that it is but rarely that a bitter substance is not odoriferous ; a sense in which Fee seems to have understood him, as he says, " This assertion is not true in general, and there are numerous VOL. IV. Y 322 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI, bitter; while sweet substances, on the other hand, are but rarely odoriferous. Thus it is, too, that wine is more odorife- rous than must, and all the wild plants more so than the cul- tivated ones.30 Some flowers have a sweet smell at a distance, the edge of which is taken off when they come nearer; such is the case with the violet, for instance. The rose, when fresh gathered, has a more powerful smell at a distance, and dried,31 when brought nearer. All plants have a more penetrating odour, also, in spring32 and in the morning; as the hour of midday approaches, the scent becomes gradually weakened.33 The flowers, too, of young plants are less odoriferous than those of old ones ;• but it is at mid-age34 that the odour is most pene- trating in them all. The rose and the crocus35 have a more powerful smell when gathered in fine weather, and all plants are more powerfully scented in hot climates than in cold ones. In Egypt, however, the flowers are far from odoriferous, owing to the dews and exhalations with which the air is charged, in consequence of the extended surface of the river. Some plants have an agree- able, though at the same time extremely powerful smell; some, again, while green, have no36 smell at all, owing to the excess of moisture, the buceros for example, which is the same as exceptions; for instance, quassia wood, which is inodorous and yet in- tensely bitter." The essential oil, he remarks, elaborated in the tissue of the corolla, is the ordinary source of the emanations of the flower. 30 Fee remarks that cultivation gives to plants a softer and more aqueous consistency, which is consequently injurious to the developement of tbe essential oil. 31 Theophrastus, from whom this is borrowed, might have said with more justice, Fee remarks, that certain roses have more odour when dried than when fresh gathered. Such is the case, he says, with the Provence rose. Fresh roses, however, have a more pronounced smell, the nearer they are to the olfactory organs. 33 This is by no means invariably the case: in fact, the smell of most odoriferous plants is most powerful in summer. 33 Because the essential oils evaporate more rapidly. 34 "With Littre, we adopt the reading "aetate," "mid-age," and not " aestate," " midsummer," for although the assertion would be in general correct, Pliny would contradict the statement just made, that all plants have a more penetrating odour in spring. This reading is sup- ported also by the text of Theophrastus. 35 Or saffron. 36 This is a just observation, but the instances might be greatly ex- tended, as Fee says. Chap. 18.] THE NATURE OF ODOURS. 323 fenugreek.37 Not all flowers which have a penetrating odour are destitute of juices, the violet, the rose, and the crocus, for example ; those, on the other hand, which have a penetrating odour, but are destitute of juices, have all of them a very pow- erful smell, as we find the case with the two varieties38 of the lily. The abrotonum39 and the amaracus40 have a pungent smell. In some plants, it is the flower only that is sweet, the other parts being inodorous, the violet and the rose, for example. Among the garden plants, the most odoriferous are the dry ones, such as rue, mint, and parsley, as also those which grow on dry soils. Some fruits become more odoriferous the older they are, the quince, for example, which has also a stronger smell when gathered than while upon the tree. Some plants, again, have no smell but when broken asunder, or when bruised, and others only when they are stripped of their bark. Certain vegetable substances, too, only give out a smell when subjected to the action of fire, such as frankincense and myrrh, for ex- ample. All flowers are more bitter to the taste when bruised than when left untouched.41 Some plants preserve their smell a longer time when dried, the melilote, for example; others, again, make the place itself more odoriferous where they grow, the iris42 for instance, which will even render the whole of a tree odoriferous, the roots of which it may happen to have touched. The hesperis43 has a more powerful odour at night, a property to which it owes its name. Among the animals, we find none that are odoriferous, un- less, indeed, we are inclined to put faith in what has been said about the panther.44 37 See B. xviii. c. 39. 38 The white lily and the red lily. See c. 11 of this Book. 39 As to the Abrotonum, see B. xiii. c. 2, and c. 34 of this Book. 40 See c. 35 of this Book. 41 Or in other words, the interior of the petals has a more bitter flavour than that of the exterior surface. 43 Tliny makes a mistake here, in copying from Theophrastus. De Causis, B. vi. c. 25. That author is speaking not of the flower, but of the rain- bow, under the name of " iris." Pliny has himself made a similar state- ment as to the rainbow, in B. xii. c. 52, which he would appear here to have forgotten. 43 The Cheiranthus tristis of Linnaeus, or sad gilliflower, Fee thinks. 44 See B. viii. c. 23. Pliny did not know of the existence of the musk- deer, the Muschus moschiferus of Eastern Asia: and he seems not to have tliought of the civet, (if, indeed, it was known to him) the fox, the weasel, 324 pliny's natural history. [Book XXI. CHAP. 19.—THE IRIS. There is still another distinction, which ought not to be omitted,—the fact, that many of the odoriferous plants never" enter into the composition of garlands, the iris " and the sali- unca, for example, although, both of them, of a most exquisite odour. In the iris, it is the root47 only that is held in esteem, it being extensively employed in perfumery and medicine. The iris of the finest quality is that found in Ulyricum,48 and in that country, even, not in the maritime parts of it, but in the forests on the banks of the river Drilon49 and near Narona. The next best is that of Macedonia,80 the plant being extremely elongated, white, and thin. The iris of Africa61 occupies the third rank, being the largest of them all, and of an extremely bitter taste. The iris of Illyricum comprehends two varieties—one of which is the raphanitis, so called from its resemblance to the radish,52 of a somewhat red colour, and superior M in quality to the other, which is known as the " rhizotomus." The best kind of iris is that which produces sneezing64 when handled. The stem of this plant is a cubit in length, and erect, the flower being of various colours, like the rainbow, to which circum- stance it is indebted for its name. The iris, too, ofPisidia65 is far from being held in disesteem. Persons56 who intend taking and the polecat, the exhalations from which have a peculiar smell. The same, too, with the urine of the panther and other animals of the genus Felis. 45 For some superstitious reason, in all probability. Pliny mentions below, the formalities with which this plant ought to be gathered. 46 See B. xiii. c. 2. The ancient type of this plant, our iris, sword- lily, or flower-de-luce, was probably the Iris Florentina or Florentine iris of modern botany. 47 At the present day, too, it is the root of the plant that is the most important part of it. *° The Iris Florentina, probably, of Linnaeus. 49 Mentioned by Nicander, Theriaca, 1. 43. 50 Probably a variety only of the preceding kind. 51 The most common varieties in Africa are the Iris alata of Lamarck, I. Mauritanica of Clusius, I. juncea, and I. stylosa of Desfontaines. 52 " Baphanus." C. Bauhin identifies the Bhaphanitis with the Iris biflora, and the Bhizotomus with the Iris angustifolia prunum redolens. 63 See c. 38 of this Book. ^ 54 No kind of iris, Fee says, fresh or dried, whole or powdered, is pro- ductive of this effect. 55 Very similar, probably, to that of Illyria. 66 All these superstitions are from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. ix. c. 9. Chap. 21.] THE POLIUM, OR TEUTHRION. 325 up the iris, drench the ground about it some three months be- fore with hydromel, as though a sort of atonement offered to appease the earth; with the point of a sword, too, they trace three circles round it, and the moment they gather it, they lift it up towards the heavens. The iris is a plant of a caustic nature, and when handled, it causes blisters like burns to rise. It is a point particularly recommended, that those who gather it should be in a state of chastity. The root, not only when dried,57 but while still in the ground, is very quickly attacked by worms. In former times, it was Leucas and Elis that supplied us with the best oilM of iris, for there it has long been cultivated; at the present day, however, the best comes from Pamphylia, though that of Cilicia and the northern climates is held in high esteem. CHAP. 20.—THE SALIUNCA. The saliunca59 has a rather short leaf, which does not admit of its being plaited for garlands, and numerous roots, by which it is held together; being more of a herb than a flower, and bo closely matted and tangled that it would almost appear to have been pressed together with the hand—in short, it is a turf60 of a peculiar nature. This plant grows in Pannonia and the sunny regions of Noricum and the Alps, as also the vicinity of the city of Eporedia;61 the smell being so remarkably sweet that the crops of it have been of late quite as profitable as the working of a mine. This plant is particularly valued for the pleasant smell it imparts to clothes among which it is kept. CHAP. 21.--THE POLIUM, OR TEUTHRION. It is the same, too, with the polium,62 a herb employed for a similar purpose among the Greeks, and highly extolled by Musaeus and Hesiod, who assert that it is useful for every pur- pose, and more particularly for the acquisition of fame and honour ;63 indeed, it is a truly marvellous production, if it is 57 This, Fee says, is quite consistent with modern experience. 68 "Irinum." See B. xiii. c. 2. .. 59 Trobably the Valeriana Celtica of Linnaeus. See B. xii. c. 27, where it is mentioned as Gallic nard. m « Csespes." 61 See ■"• U1# C- * • 63 Probably the Teucrium polium of Linnaeus ; the herb poley, or poley- mountain. 6l) By those who carry it on their person. 326 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [T^ook XXI. the fact, as they state, that its leaves are white in the morning, purple at middaj^, and azure 6"* at sunset. There are two varieties of it, the field polium, which is larger, and the wild,64 which is more diminutive. Some persons give it the name of " teuthrion."65 The leaves resemble the white hairs of a human being ; they take their rise immediately from the root, and never exceed a palm in height. CHAP. 22. (8.)—FABRICS WHICH RIVAL THE COLOURS OF FLOWERS. We have now said enough on the subject of the odoriferous flowers; in relation to which, luxury not only glories in having vanquished Nature in the composition of unguents, but has even gone so far as to challenge, in her fabrics, those flowers which are more particularly recommended by the beauty of their tints. I remark that the following are the three princi- pal66 colours; the red, that of the kermes67 for instance, which, beginning in the tints of the rose, reflects, when viewed68 side- ways and held up to the light, the shades that are found in the Tyrian purple,69 and the colours of the dibapha70 and Laconian cloths: the amethystine colour, which is borrowed from the violet, and to which, bordering as it does on the purple, we have given the name of " ianthinum "71—it must, however, be remembered, that we here give a general name to a colour which is subdivided into numerous tints—and a third, properly known as the " conchyliated " colour, but which comprehends 63* This marvel is related by Dioscorides in reference to the Tripoliura, and not the Polium. 64 The Teucrium montanum, probably, of Linnaeus. 65 This name belongs, properly, to the wild or mountain Polium. 66 u principales." The meaning of this term is explained at the end of this Chapter. Bed, yellow, and blue—or else, red, green, and violet, are probably the primary colours of light. 67 See B. ix. c. 65, and B. xvi. c. 12. He alludes to the Coccus ilicis of Linnaeus. 68 See B. xxxvii. c. 40, as to the meaning of the word " Suspectus." This passage, however, as Sillig remarks, is hopelessly corrupt. 68 See B. ix. cc. 60, 63. 70 " Doubly-dyed," or " twice dipped," in purple. See B. ix. c. 63. Littre remarks here that, according to Doctor Bizio, it was the Murex brandaris that produced the Tyrian purple, and the Murex trunculus the amethystine purple. 7i Or " violet-colour." See B. xxxvii. c. 40. 73 For further information on these tints, see B. ix. cc. 64, 65. Chap. 23.] THE AMARANTH. 327 a variety of shades, such, for instance, as the tints of the helio- tropium, and others of a deeper colour, the hues of the mallow, inclining to a full purple, and the colours of the late73 violet; this last being the most vivid, in fact, of all the conchyliated tints. The rival colours being now set side by side, Nature and luxury may enter the lists, to vie for the mastery. I find it stated that, in the most ancient times, yellow was held in the highest esteem, but was reserved exclusively for the nuptial veils74 of females; for which reason it is perhaps that we do not find it included among the principal colours, those being used in common by males and females : indeed, it is the circumstance of their being used by both sexes in com- mon that gives them their rank as principal colours. CHAP. 23.—THE AMARANTH. There is no doubt that all the efforts of art are surpassed by the amaranth,75 which is, to speak correctly, rather a purple ear76 than a flower, and, at the same time, quite inodorous. It is a marvellous feature in this plant, that it takes a delight in being gathered ; indeed, the more it is plucked, the better it grows. It comes into flower in the month of August, and lasts through- out the autumn. The finest of all is the amaranth of Alex- andria, which is generally gathered for keeping; for it is a really marvellous77 fact, that when all the other flowers have gone out, the amaranth, upon being dipped in water, comes to life again : it is used also for making winter chaplets. The peculiar quality of the amaranth is sufficiently indicated by its name, it having been so called from the circumstance that it never fades.78 73 Belonging, probably, Fee thinks, to the Cruciferae of the genera Hesperis and Cheiranthus. 74 " Flammeis " The " flammeum," or flame-coloured veil of the bride, was of a bright yellow, or rather orange-colour, perhaps. 7S The Celosia cristata of Linnaeus. 76 " Spica." Tbe moderns have been enabled to equal the velvety ap- pearance of the amaranth in the tints imparted by them to their velvets. The Italians call it the " velvet-flower." 77 The real fact is, that the amaranth, being naturally a dry flower, and having little humidity to lose, keeps better than most others. 78 From the Greek a, "not," andpapatvtaOai, " to fade." 328 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXL CHAP. 24.--THE CYANOS : THE HOLOCHRYSOS. The name,79 too, of the cyanos80 indicates its colour, and so does that of the holochrysos.81 None of these flowers were in use in the time of Alexander the Great, for the authors, we find, who flourished at a period immediately after his decease, have made not the slightest mention of them; from which circumstance it is very clear that they only came into fashion at a later period. Still, however, who can entertain any doubt that they were first introduced by the Greeks, from the fact that Italy has only their Greek names by which to designate them ? CHAP. 25.--THE PETILIUM : THE BELLIO. But, by Hercules! it is Italy herself that has given its name to the petilium,82 an autumnal flower, which springs up in the vicinity of thorny brakes, and recommends itself solely by its colour, which is that of the wild rose. The petals of it are small, and five in number ; and it is a remarkable cir- cumstance in this plant, that the head of it droops at first, and it is only after it becomes erect that the petals make their ap- pearance, forming a small corolla of various colours, enclosing a yellow seed. The bellio,83 too, is a yellow flower, formed of84 fifty-five filaments circularly arranged, in the shape of a chaplet. These are, both of them, meadow flowers, which are mostly of no use whatever, and consequently without names : even the flowers just mentioned are known sometimes by one name, and some- times by another. 79 Being the Greek for " blue" or " azure." 80 The Centaurea cyanus of Linnaeus; our blue-bell, 81 Meaning " all gold." It has been identified with the Gnaphalium stcechas of Linnaeus, the immortelle of the French, which forms the ingre- dient for their funereal chaplets. 82 Sprengel says that this is the Geum rivale of Linnaeus; but then the Geum is a spring, and not an autumn flower, its blossoms bear no resem- blance to those of the eglantine, and its seeds are not yellow. 83 Generally supposed to be the Chrysanthemum segetum, or golden daisy. ° 84 " Pastillicantibus quinquagenis quinis barbulis coronatur." Pliny is unusually verbose here. Chap. 28.] SHRURS. 329 CHAP. 26.--THE CHRYSOCOME, OR CHRYSITIS. .The chrysocome,85 or chrysitis, has no Latin appellation : it is a palm in height, the flowers forming clusters of a golden colour. The root of it is black, and it has a taste both rough iand sweet: it is found growing in stony and umbrageous 6pots. CHAP. 27. (9.)--SHRUBS, THE BLOSSOMS OF WHICH ARE USED FOR CHAPLETS. Having thus passed in review nearly all the best-known colours, we must now give our attention to the chaplets which are pleasing merely on account of the variety of their mate- rials. Of such chaplets there are two kinds, one composed of flowers, the other of leaves. The flowers so employed, I may say, are those of broom86—the yellow blossom gathered from it—the rhododendron,87 and the jujube,88 also known a& the tree of Cappadocia, which bears an odoriferous flower similar to that of the olive. Among the brambles, too, we find the cyclaminum growing, of which we shall have to speak more at length on a future occasion :89 its flower, which reflects the hues of the purple of Colossae,90 is used as an ingredient in chaplets. CHAP. 28.—SHRUBS, THE LEAVES OF WHICH ARE USED FOR CHAPLETS. The leaves, also, of smilax and ivy are employed in chaplets; indeed, the clusters of these plants are held in the very highest esteem for this purpose : we have already91 spoken of them at sufficient length when treating of the shrubs. There are also other kinds of shrubs, which can only be indicated, by their 85 " Golden locks," or " gold plant;" probably the Chrysocoma linosyris of Linnaeus; though the name appears to have been given to numerous plants. 86 See B. xvi. c. 69, B. xviii. c. 65, B. xix. c. 2, B. xxiv. c. 40; also c. 42 of tbe present Book. 81 The Nerium oleander of Linnaeus. See B. xvi. c. 33, and B. xxiv. cc. 47, 49. m As to the Zizyphum, or jujube, see B. xv. c. 14. The flower, as Pliny says, is not unlike that of the olive ; but Fee remarks, that it may at the present day as justly be called the tree of Provence or of Italy, as in ancient times " the tree of Cappadocia." 89 r, xxv# c 67, 90 See B. v. c. 41. 91 See B. xvi. cc. 62 and 63, and B. xxiv. cc. 47 and 49. 330 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. Greek names, little attention having been paid by the framers of our language to this branch of nomenclature. Most of them grow in foreign countries, it is true ; but still, it is our duty to make some mention of them, as it is of Nature in general that we are speaking, and not of Italy in particular. CHAP. 29.--THE MELOTHRON, SPIRJiA, AND ORIGANUM. THE CNEORUM OR CASSIA ; TWO VARIETIES OF IT. THE MELISSOPnYL- LUM OR MELITTiENA. THE MliLILOTE, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS CAMPANIAN GARLAND. Thus it is, that we find employed for chaplets, the leaves of the melothron,92 spiraea,93 origanum,94 cneorum,95 by Hyginus called " cassia," conyza or cunilago,96 melissophyllon or apias- trum,97 and melilote, known to us by the name of " Campa- nian98 garland," the best kind of melilote99 in Italy being that of Campania, in Greece that of Cape Sunium, and next to that the produce of Chalcidice and Crete : but wherever this plant grows it is only to be found in rugged and wild localities. The name " sertula" or " garland," which it bears, sufficiently proves that this plant was formerly much used in the compo- sition of chaplets. The smell, as well as the flower, closely resembles that of saffron, though the stem itself is white; the shorter and more fleshy the leaves, the more highly it is esteemed. CHAP. 30.—THREE VARIETIES OF TREFOIL : THE MYOPHONUM. The leaves of* trefoil also are employed for making chaplets. There are three varieties : the first being called by the Greeks sometimes "minyanthes,"l and sometimes " asphaltion;" the leave.s of it, which the garland-makers employ, are larger than those of the other kinds. The second variety, known as 92 Or Vitis alba, " white vine," the Bryonia dioica of modern botany. See B. xxiii. e. 16. 93 The Spiraea salicifolia of Linnaeus, or meadowsweet. 94 See B. xx. c. 67, and c. 30 of this Book. 95 The Daphne Cnidium of Linnaeus. See B. xxiii. c. 35-; also B. xii. c. 43. It is altogether different from the Laurus cassia, or genuine cassia. 96 See B. xx. c. 63. 97 See B. xx. c. 45. 98 " Sertula Campana." 99 Most probably, Fee thinks, the Trifolium Melilotus officinalis, a clover, or trefoil. 1 The Psoranthea bituminosa of Linnaeus. It is found on declivities near the sea-coast, in the south of Europe. Chap. 31.] . THYME. 331 tbe " oxytriphyllon,"2 has a pointed leaf; and the third has the smallest leaf of them all. Among these plants there are some which have a tough, 6inewy stem, such as marathron,3 for instance, hippomarathron,4 and the myophonum.5 The um- bels, too, of fennel-giant and the purple flowers6 of the ivy are employed for this purpose ; as also another kind of ivy very similar to the wild rose,7 the colour only of which is attractive, the flower being quite inodorous. There are also two8 varieties used of the cneorum, the black and the white, this last being odoriferous : they are both of them provided with branches, and they blossom after the autumnal equinox.9 (10.) There are the same number of varieties, also, of ori- ganum employed in making chaplets, one of which is destitute of seed, the other, which is also odoriferous, being known as the Cretan10 origanum. CHAP. 31.—TWO VARIETIES OF THYME. PLANTS PRODUCED FROM BLOSSOMS AND NOT FROM SEED. There are also as many varieties of thyme11 employed, the one white, the other dark :12 it flowers about the summer sol- stice, when the bees cull from it. From this plant a sort of augury is derived, as to how the honey is likely to turn out: 2 " Pointed trefoil." Pliny has probably committed an error here, as Dioscorides makes oxyphyllum, minyanthes, and asphaltium to be different names of the same variety. Sprengel, however, identifies this pointed trefoil with the Trifolium Italicum of Linnaeus. 3 The Anethum faeniculum of Linnaeus. See B. viii. c. 41, B. xx. c. 95, and B. xxx. c. 9. 4 See B. xx. c. 96. 5 The " mouse-killer." Probably the Aconitum napellus of Linnaeus. See B. xxvii. c. 2. 6 See B. xvi. c. 62. 7 Fee remarks, that there is no such ivy in existence; he agrees with Dalechamps in the opinion that Pliny has confounded Kiaaog, " ivy," with w'ffroc, the " rock-rose. See B. xvi. c. 62. 8 The Daphne Cnidium and the Daphne Cneorum of Linnaeus. See B. xxiii. c. 35, and B. xv. c. 7. 9 In reality, they blossom in April and May, and mostly a second time in autumn as well, the Daphne Cneorum in particular. 10 See B. xx. c. 69. 11 Under the head " Thymus," Fee thinks that both the Satureia capi- tata of Linnaeus, headed savory, and the Thymus vulgaris, and Thymus zygis of Linnaeus (varieties of thyme), should be included. 12 Fee thinks that in the expression " nigricans," he may allude to the deep red of the stalk of some kinds of thyme, more particularly at the end of summer. It is the Thymus zigis that has a white, downy stem. 332 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. for the bee-keepers have reason to look for a large crop when the thyme blossoms in considerable abundance. Thyme re- ceives great injury from showers of rain, and is very apt to shed its blossom. The seed of thyme is so minute13 as to be imperceptible, and yet that of origanum, which is also ex- tremely minute, does not escape the sight. But what matters it that Nature has thus concealed it from our view ? For we have reason to conclude that it exists in the flower itself; which, when sown in the ground, gives birth to the plant —what is there, in fact, that the industry of man has left untried ? The honey of Attica is generally looked upon as the best in all t^e world; for which reason it is that the thyme of that country has been transplanted, being reproduced, as already stated, with the greatest difficulty, from the blossom. But there is also another peculiarity in the nature of the thyme of Attica, which has greatly tended to frustrate these attempts- it will never live except in the vicinity of breezes from the sea. In former times, it was the general belief that this is the case with all kinds of thyme, and that this is the reason why it does not grow in Arcadia :14 at a period when it was univer- sally supposed, too, that the olive never grows beyond three hundred stadia15 from the sea. But, at the present day, we know for certain that in the province of Gallia Narbonensis the Stony Plains16 are quite overgrown with thyme; this being, in fact, the only source of revenue to those parts, thousands of sheep17 being brought thither from distant countries to browse upon the plant. CHAP. 32.--CONYZA. There are two varieties of conyza, also, employed in making 13 From Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 2, and De Causis, B. i. c. 5. Fee suggests, that the seed, lying at the bottom of the calyx, may have escaped notice, and that in reality, when the ancients imagined they were sowing the blossoms, they were putting the seed in the earth. That, in fact, seems to agree with the view which Pliny takes of the matter. 14 "Which lies in the interior of the Peloponnesus. 15 See B. xv. c. 1. 18 " Lapidei Campi." See B. iii. c. 5. 17 Similar to our practice of depasturing sheep on Dartmoor and other favourite moors and downs. Chap. 33.] THE FLOWER OF JO YE. 333 chaplets, the male18 plant and the female. The difference consists in the leaves, those of the female plant being thinner, more tapering, and narrower, and those of the male being of an imbricated shape, the plant having a greater number of branches. The blossom, too, of the male plant is more vivid than that of the female: in both kinds it is late in making its appearance, not till after the rising of Arcturus. The smell of the male conyza is more powerful than that of the female plant: the latter, however, is of a more pene- trating nature, for which reason it is that the female plant is held in higher esteem for the treatment of the bites of animals. The leaves of the female plant have exactly the smell of honey; and the root of the male has received the name of " libanotis" from some: we have already made mention19 of it on a previ- ous occasion. CHAP. 33.--THE FLOWER OF JOVE. THE HEMEROCALLES. THE HELENIUM. THE PHLOX. PLANTS IN WHICH THE BRANCHES AND ROOTS ARE ODORIFEROUS. Of the following plants, too, it is only the leaves that are employed for chaplets—the flower of Jove,20 the amaracus, the hemerocalles,21 the abrotonum, the helenium," sisym- brium,23 and wild thyme, all of them ligneous plants, grow- ing in a manner similar to the rose. The flower of Jove is pleasing only for its colours, being quite inodorous ; which is the case also with the plant known by the Greek name of "phlox."24 All the plants, too, which we have just mentioned are odoriferous, both in the branches and the leaves, with the sole exception of wild thyme.25 The helenium is said to have 18 Fee takes this to be the Inula viscosa of Desfontairjes, and identifies the other kind with the Inula pulicaria of Linnaeus. See B. xx.cc. 63,64. 19 B. xx. c. 64. 20 Supposed to be the same as the Agrostemma coronaria of Linnaaus. 21 Sprengel identifies it with the Pancratium maritimum of Linnaeus. As described by Dioscorides, however, Fee takes it to be the Lilium Mar- tagon, or Turk's-cap lily. See c. 90 of this Book. '-'- This is different from the Helenium of the Greeks, the Inula Hele- nium of Linnaeus, mentioned in B. xv. c. 7. Sprengel identifies it with the Teucrium Creticum of Linnaeus, the Cretan germander. 23 See B. xx. c. 91. 24 " Flame." Sorengel identifies it with the Agrostemma coronaria of Linnams, making the flower of Jove to be the Agrostemma flos Jovis. 25 Fee remarks, that if this is our Thymus serpyllum, this exception is inexact. 331 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. had its origin in the tears of Helen, and hence it is that the kind grown in the island of Helena26 is so highly esteemed. It is a shrub which throws out its tiny branches along the ground, some nine inches in length, with a leaf very similar to that of wild thyme. CHAP. 34.--THE ABROTONUM. THE ADONIUM : TWO VARIETIES OF IT. PLANTS WHICH REPRODUCE THEMSELVES. THE LEC- CANTHEMUM. The flower of the abrotonum,27 which makes its appearance in summer, has a powerful but agreeable smell; it is of a bright golden colour. Left to range at large, it reproduces itself by layers from the tops of the branches : but when it is propagated by the hand of man, it is better to grow it from the seed than from the roots or slips, though even from the seed it is not grown without considerable trouble. The young plants are transplanted in summer, which is the case also with the adonium.28 They are both of them plants of a very chilly nature, though, at the same time, they are apt to receive in- jury if too much exposed to the sun: when, however, they have gained sufficient strength, they throw out branches like those of rue. The leucanthemum29 has a similar smell to that of the abrotonum : it is a foliated plant, with a white flower. CHAP. 35. (11.)—TWO VARIETIES OF THE AMARACUS. Diocles, the physician, and the people of Sicily have given the name of " amaracus" to the plant known in Egypt and Syria as sampsuchum.30 It is reproduced two ways, from 26 For two islands of this name, see B. iv. c. 20, and c. 23. 27 The female Abrotonum is identified with the Santolina chamaecypa- rissus of Linnaeus: the little-cypress Santoline. The male is the Arte- misia abrotonum of Linnaeus, our southern-wood. 28 Pliny has probably committed an error here in transcribing from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, who, when speaking of the abroto- num, says, " It is transplanted in earthen pots, in the way employed for the gardens of Adonis," these gardens being moveable parterres, laid out in pots or vases. We cannot agree with Hardouin, who looks upon the Adonium as a variety of the Abrotonum, and censures Salmasius for ac- cusing Pliny of committing an error here. 29 The " White flower." See B. xxii. c. 26. 30 See B. xiii. c. 2. The sampsuchum, or amaracus, is generally thought to be the sweet marjoram, or Origanum marjorana of Linnaeus. But Fee identifies it with the Origanum majoranoides of Willdenow, our organy, wild or false marjoram. Chap. 37.] THE MELILOTE. 335 Beed and from cuttings, being more long-lived than the pre- ceding plants, and possessed of a more agreeable smell. The amaracus, like the abrotonum, has a great abundance of seed but while the abrotonum has a single root, which penetrates deep into the ground, those of the other plant adhere but lightly to the surface of the earth. Those of the other plants which love the shade, water, and manure, are generally set at the beginning of autumn, and even, in some localities, in spring. CHAP. 36.--THE NYCTEGRETON, CHENOMYCHE, OR NYCTALOPS. Democritus has regarded the nyctegreton31 as one of the most singular of plants. According to that author, it is of a dark' red colour, has leaves like those of a thorn, and creeps upon the ground. He says that it grows in Gedrosia32 more particularly, and that it is taken up by the roots immediately after the vernal equinox, and dried in the moonlight for thirty days; after which preparation it emits light by night. He states also, that the Magi and the kings of Parthia em- ploy this plant in their ceremonies when they make a vow to perform an undertaking; that another name given to it is " chenomyche,"33 from the circumstance that, at the very sight of it, geese will manifest the greatest alarm ; and that by some persons, again, it is known as the " nyctalops,"34 from the light Which it emits at a considerable distance by night. CHAP. 37.--WHERE THE MELILOTE IS FOUND. The melilote35 is found growing everywhere, though that of Attica is held in the highest esteem. In all countries, how- ever, it is preferred when fresh gathered ; that too, the colour of which is not white, but approaches as nearly as possible to 31 The " night^watcher." According to Sprengel, this is the Caesalpina pulcherrima of Linnaeus. But, as Fee says, that is entirely an Indian plant, and has only been introduced but very recently into Europe. Har- douin identifies it with a plant called " lunaria" by the naturalists of his day, which shines, he says, with the moon at night. 32 The Caesalpina pulcherrima is not to be found in or near Gedrosia (in ancient Persia), but solely on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. 33 From \i)vcg, "geese," and p.i>xog, a "corner;" because geese run into a corner on seeing it. 34 As to the meaning of this word, see B. xxviii. c. 47. 35 See c. 29 of this Book. 336 pliny's natural history. [Book XXI. the colour of saffron. In Italy, however, it is the white kind that is the most odoriferous. CHAP. 38.--THE SUCCESSION IN WHICH FLOWERS BLOSSOM : THE SPRING FLOWERS. THE VIOLET. THE CUAPLKT ANEMONE. THE C3NANTHE. THE MELANION. THE HELICURYSOS. TBE GLADIOLUS. THE HYACINTH. The first of the flowers that announce the approach of spring is the white36 violet; iudeed, in warm localities, it is seen peeping out in the winter even. Next to it comes the violet known as the ion, and the purple violet ; then the flame- coloured flower, the name of which is phlox,37 but only the wild one. The cyclaminum33 blossoms twice a year, in spring and autumn, standing equally in awe as it does of summer and of winter. The narcissus and the lily, in the parts beyond sea, are a little later than the preceding plants : but in Italy, ;ts we have already39 stated, they are in blossom with the rose. In Greece, too, the anemone40 blooms even later; it is the flower of a wild bulb, and is altogether different from the one41 which we shall have occasion to mention among the medicinal plants. Next, after these, come the cenanthe,42 the melanion,43 and, among the wild plants, the helichrysos ;44 then, another kind of anemone, known as the " limonia," 45 and after that the gladiolus,46 accompanied by the hyacinth. Last of all, among the spring flowers, is the rose, which, with the exception in- deed of the cultivated kinds, is also the first to fade. Among 36 This has been thought to be the Cheiranthus incanus, Cheiranthus annus, and Leucoium vernum of modern botany; but Fee is of opinion that it is next to impossible to identify it. See c. 14 of this Book. 37 See c. 33 of this Book. 38 gce B xxv c# 67> 39 In c. 11 of this Book. There is no late variety of the lily known at the present day. 40 Qr " wind flower :" the Anemone coronaria of Linnaeus. 41 A ranunculus. See c. 94 of this Book. 42 Or " vine-blossom." See c. 95 of this Book. 43 Or " black violet," mentioned by Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7. Pliny may probably mean the purple violet, mentioned by him in c. 14 of this Book. " Melanthium" is another reading 44 Not improbably the same as the " holochrysos," mentioned in c. 24 of this Book. « " Meadow" anemone. « « The little sword." See c. 67 of this Book. Chap. 39.] THE SUMMER FLOWERS. 337 the others, the flowers which last the longest, are the hya- cinth, the white violet, and the cenanthe; but to make this last keep any time in flower, it is necessary to gather it re- peatedly, to prevent it from running to seed. The cenanthe grows in warm localities, and has exactly the smell of the vine when in blossom, to which circumstance it is indebted for its name. There are two fabulous stories attached to the hyacinth ;47 according to one of them, it bears the impress of the grief48 which Apollo felt for the youth49 whom he had so tenderly loved; and we learn from the other, that it derives its name from the blood50 of Ajax, the veins being so arranged in the flower as to form the Greek letters AI inscribed upon it. The helichrysos has a flower resembling gold in appearance, a small leaf, and a fine, slender, but hard, stem. According to the Magi, the person who crowns himself with a chaplet composed of this flower, and takes his unguents from a box of gold, of the kind generally known as " apyron," 51 will be sure to secure esteem and glory among his fellowmen. Such are the flowers of spring. CHAP. 39.--THE SUMMER FLOWERS--THE LYCHNIS : THE TIPHYON. TWO VARIETIES OF THE POTHOS. TWO VAKIETIES OF THE ORS1- NDM. THE VINCAPERVINCA OR CHAMJSDAPHNE--A PLANT WHICH IS AN EVER-GREEN. The summer flowers come next, the lychnis 62 the flower of 47 There have been conflicting opinions as to the identification ot the hyacinth of the ancients. Linnasus identifies it with the Delphinium Ajacis: Sprengel and Salmasius with the Gladiolus communis: Sibthorp with the Gladiolus communis triphyllos : Dodonaeus and Porta the Lilium bulbiferum: and Martyn and Fee the Lilium Martagon of Linnaeus, the Turk's-cap lily. From what Pliny says in cc. 39 and 97 of this Book, and in B, xxv. c. 80, it is pretty clear that under the name of hyacinth he has confused the characteristics of two different plants. The hyacinth, too, of Dioscorides, B. iii. c. 5, is a different plant, Fee remarks, being the Hyacinthus comosus of modern botanists. 48 The Greek A I, "Alas!" which the ancients fancied they saw im- pressed on the leaves. 49 See Ovid's Met. B. x. 1. 162—220. M See Ovid's Met. B. xiii. 1. 397, et seq. 51 " Unsullied by fire." w Or " light" flower: the Agrostemma coronaria of Linnreus. VOL. IV. z 338 plinv's natural history. [Book XXI. Jove, and another kind of lily,53 as also the tiphyon61 and tbe amaracus, surnamed that of Phrygia. Put the most remark- able flower of all is the pothos,M of which there are two varieties, one with the flower of the hyacinth,66 and another with a white flower, which is generally found growing about graves, and is better able to stand bad weather. The iris,8' also, blossoms in summer. All these flowers pass away, how- ever, and fade; upon which others assume their places in autumn, a third kind of lily,58 for instance, saffron, and two varieties of the orsinum69—one of them inodorous and the other scented—making their appearance, all of them, as soon as the first autumnal showers fall. The garland-makers employ the flowers of the thorn60 even for making chaplets; the tender shoots, too, of the white thorn are sometimes preserved as a choice morsel61 to tempt the palate. Such is the succession of the summer flowers in the parts beyond sea: in Italy, the violet is succeeded by the rose, the lily comes on while the rose is still in flower, the cyanus6- suc- ceeds the rose, and the amaranth the cyanus. As to the vin- 99 Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, mentions the " cerinthus" next after the flower of Jove: Pliny seems to have taken it for a kind of lily. This flower has not been identified. 54 Sprengel takes this to be the Lavandula spica, or Lavender. 55 Hardouin identifies this with the Lychnis Chalcedonica, or Cross of Jerusalem, with which opinion Fee seems inclined to coincide. Other commentators incline to the opinion that it is the Jasminum fruticans, a plant in which, beyond its smell, there is nothing at all remarkable. The exotic monocotyledon, known as the " Pothos," has no connection with the plant here mentioned. ss This, according to some, is the Lychnis Chalcedonica, the next being the Jasminum fruticans. 57 As known to us, all the varieties of the iris blossom in spring. 58 The purple lily, Fee thinks. 59 If this is the correct reading, which is very doubtful, this plant is unknown. M. Jan has suggested that Pliny, in copying from Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 7, has read opaivbv by mistake for Sptivog, "moun- tainous," the original meaning being, " Two varieties of saffron, one of them growing on the mountains, the other cultivated;" and this last word being rendered by Pliny " hebes," translated above as meaning " inodorous." 60 The Acanthus, probably. See B. xxii. c. 34, and B. xxiv. c. 66. 61 Forskhal speaks of an acanthus in Arabia, the leaves of which are eaten raw. Fee thinks, that these shoots might be eaten without any in- convenience, but doubts if they would make such a tempting morsel as Pliny describes. 63 Or blue-bell. Chap. 41.1 PLANTS SOWN FOR BEES. 339 capervinca,63 it is an evergreen, the branches from which run out like so many strings, the leaves surrounding the stem at each of the knots : though more generally used for the pur- poses of ornamental gardening, it is sometimes employed in chaplets when there is a deficiency of other flowers. Prom the Greeks this plant has received the name of " chamaedaphne." CHAP. 40.—THE DURATION OF LIFE IN THE VARIOUS KINDS OF FLOWKRS. At the very utmost, the white64 violet never lasts longer than three years : should it exceed that period, it is sure to degenerate. The rose-tree will last so long as five years with- out being pruned or cauterized,65 methods by which it is made to grow young again. "We have already stated66 that the na- ture of the soil is of the very greatest importance; for in Egypt, we find, all these plants are perfectly inodorous, and it is only the myrtle that has any particular smell. In some countries, too, the germination of all the plants precedes that in other parts of the world by so long a period as two months even. The rose-beds should be well spaded immediately after the west winds begin to prevail, and, a second time, at the summer solstice : every care, however, should be paid, between these two periods, to keeping the ground well raked and cleaned. CHAP. 41. (12.)—PLANTS WHICH SHOULD BE SOWN AMONG FLOWERS FOR BEES. THE CERINTHA. Bees and beehives, too, are a subject extremely well suited to a description of gardens and garland plants, while, at the same time, where they are successfully managed, they are a source, without any great outlay, of very considerable profit. For bees, then, the following plants should be grown—thyme, apiastrum, the rose, the various violets, the lily, the cytisus, the bean, the fitch, cunila, the poppy, conyza,67 cassia, the me- 61 Linnaeus and other authorities identify this with the Clematis of Dioscorides, theVinca major and minor of modern botany, our periwinkle. Fee, however, is inclined to identify it with the Chamaedaphne, or ground- laurel of B. xv. c. 39, the Ruscus racemosus of Linnaeus. 64 See c. 38 of this Book. 65 This method of cultivation, also mentioned by Theophrastus, is never employed in modern horticulture. M In c. 10 of this Book. «7 See B. xix. c. 50. z 2 340 pliny's NATURAL niSTORY. [Book XXI. lilote, melissophyllum,69 and the cerintha.69 This last is a plant with a white leaf, bent inwards, the stem of it being a cubit in height, with a flower at the top presenting a concavity full of a juice like honey. Bees are remarkably fond of the flowers of these plants, as also the blossoms of mustard, a thing that is somewhat surprising, seeing that it is a well-known fact that they will not so much as touch the blossoms of the olive: for which reason, it will be as well to keep that tree at a distance from them.70 There are other trees, again, which should be planted as near the hives as possible, as they attract the swarm when it first wings its flight, and so prevent the bees from wandering to any considerable distauce. CHAP. 42.--THE MALADIES OF BEES, AND THE REMEDIES FOB THEM. The greatest care, too, should be taken to keep the cornel71 at a distance from the hives; for if the bees once taste the blossoms of it, they will speedily die of flux and looseness. The best remedy in such case is to give them sorb apples beaten up with honey, or else human urine or that of oxen, or pomegranate seeds moistened with Aminean72 wine. It is a very good plan, too, to plant broom about the hives, the bees being extremely fond of the blossoms. CHAP. 43.—THE FOOD OF BEES. In relation to the food of bees, I have ascertained a very singular fact, and one that well deserves to be mentioned. 68 " Honey-leaf." The Melissa officinalis of Linnaeus: our balm- gentle. It is the same as the " apiastrum," though Pliny has erroneously made them distinct plants. 69 " Wax-flower." The Cerinthe major of Linnaeus : the greater honey- wort. 70 See B. xi. c. 8. On the contrary, Virgil says, Georg. iv. 1. 20, that a wild olive-tree should be planted near the hives, to protect them with its shade. Varro says also, De Be Bust. iii. 16, that the bee extracts honey from the olive-tree; but according to Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 64, it is from the leaf, and not the flower of that tree that the honey is ex- tracted. 71 See B. xv. c. 31. Fee is inclined to doubt the correctness of the assertion here made by Pliny. 72 See B. xiv. c. 5. The remedies for the diseases of bees in modern times are of a very similar nature, but attention is equally paid to the proper ventilation of the hives. Chap. 44.j POISONED HONEY. 341 There is a village, called Hostilia, on the banks of the river Padus : the inhabitants of it, when food73 fails the bees in their vicinity, place the hives in boats and convey them some five miles up the river in the night. In the morning the bees go forth to feed, and then return to the boats; their locality being changed from day to day, until at last, as the boats sink deeper and deeper in the water, it is ascertained that the hives are full, upon which they are taken home, and the honey is withdrawn. (13.) In Spain, too, for the same purpose, they have the hives carried from place to place on the backs of mules. CHAP. 44.—POISONED HONEY, AND THE REMEDIES TO BE EMPLOYED BY THOSE WHO HAVE EATEN OF IT. Indeed, the food of bees is of the very greatest importance, as it is owing to this tlrat we meet with poisonous74 honey even. At Heraclia75 in Pontus, the honey is extremely perni- cious in certain years, though it is the same bees that make it at other times. Authors, however, have not informed us from what flowers this honey is extracted ; we shall, therefore, take this opportunity of stating what we have ascertained upon the subject. There is a certain plant which, from the circumstance that it proves fatal to beasts of burden, and to goats in particular, has obtained the name of " aegolethron,"76 and the blossoms of 73 This plan is still adopted on the river Po, the ancient Padus, a3 also at Beauce, in the south of France, where the hives are carried from place to place upon carts. In the north of England it is the practice to carry the hives to the moors in autumn. 74 This has been doubted by Spielmann, but it is nevertheless the truth; the nature of the sugar secreted by the glands of the nectary, being ana- logous to that of the plant which furnishes it. The honey gathered from aconite in Switzerland has been known to produce vertigo and even deli- rium. Dr. Barton also gives a similar account of the effects of the poisonous honey collected from the Kalmia latifolia in Pennsylvania; and Geoffroi Saint Hilaire says that, having eaten in Brazil some honey prepared by a wasp called " lecheguana," his life was put in very considerable danger thereby. Xenophon also speaks of the effects of the intoxicating or mad- dening honey upon some of the Ten Thousand in their retreat. 75 The rhododendrons and rose laurels, Fee says, which are so numerous in these parts, render the fact here stated extremely probable. 76 " Goats' death." Fee says that this is the Bhododendron Ponticum of Linnajus. Desfontaines identifies it with the Azalea Pontica of modern botany. S42 pliny's natural history. [Book XXI. which, steeped in the rains of a wet spring, contract most noxious properties, Hence it is that it is not every year that tnese dangerous results are experienced. The following are the signs of the honey being77 poisonous : it never thickens, the colour is redder than usual, and it emits a peculiar smell which immediately produces sneezing; while, at the same time, it is more weighty than a similar quantity of good honey. Persons, when they have eaten of it, throw them- selves on the ground to cool the body, which is bathed with a profuse perspiration. There are numerous remedies, of which we shall have occasion to speak in a more appropriate place ;7"' but as it will be as well to mention some of them on the pre- sent occasion, by way of being provided for such insidious acci- dents, I will here state that old honied wine is good, mixed with the finest honey and rue; salt meats, also, taken re- peatedly in small quantities, and as often brought up again. It is a well-known fact that dogs, after tasting the excre- tions of persons suffering from these attacks, have been at- tacked with similar symptoms, and have experienced the same kind of pains. Still, however, it is equally well ascertained, that honied wine prepared from this honey, when old, is altogether innoxi- ous ; and that there is nothing better than this honey, mixed with costus,78 for softening the skin of females, or, combined with aloes, for the treatment of bruises. CHAP. 45.--MADDENING HONEY. In the country of the Sanni, in the same part of Pontus, there is another kind of honey, which, from the madness it produces, has received the name of "msenomenon."79 This evil effect is generally attributed to the flowers of the rhodo- dendron,80 with which the woods there abound; and that people, though it pays a tribute to the Romans in wax, derives no profit whatever from its honey, in consequence of these dan- gerous properties. In Persis, too, and in Gaetulia, a district 77 In reality, there are no visible signs by which to detect that the honey is poisonous. 77* B. xxix. c. 31. 7S See B. xii. c. 25. "' Maivdfievov, "maddening." 80 The aegolethron of the preceding Chapter, Fee thinks. If so, the word rhododendron, he says, would apply to two plants, the Nerion oleander or rose laurel (see B. xvi. c. 33), and the Bhododendron Ponticum. Chap. 46.] HONEY THAT FLIES WILL NOT TOUCH. 343 of Mauritania Caesariensis, bordering on the country of the Massaesyli, there are poisonous honeycombs found ; and some, too, only partly so,81 one of the most insidious things that possibly could happen, were it not that the livid colour of the honey gives timely notice of its noxious qualities. "What can we suppose to have possibly been the intention of Nature in thus laying these traps in our way, giving us honey that is poisonous in some years and good in others, poisonous in some parts of the combs and not in others, and that, too, the produce in all cases of the self-same bees ? It was not enough, forsooth, to have produced a substance in which poison might be admi- nistered without the slightest difficulty, but must she herself administer it as well in the honey, to fall in the way of so many animated beings ? What, in fact, can have been her motive, except to render mankind a little more cautious and somewhat less greedy ? And has she not provided the very bees, too, with pointed weapons, and those weapons poisoned to boot ? So it is, and I shall, therefore, without delay, set forth the remedies to counteract the effects of their stings. It will be found a very excellent plan to foment the part stung with the juice of mal- lows82 or of ivy leaves, or else for the person who has been stung to take these juices in drink. It is a very astonishing thing, however, that the insects which thus carry these poisons in their mouths and secrete them, should never die themselves in consequence; unless it is that Nature, that mistress of all things, has given to bees the same immunity from the effects of poison which she has granted against the attacks of serpents to the Psylli83 and the Marsi among men. CHAP. 46. (14.)—HONEY THAT FLIES WILL NOT TOUCH. Another marvellous fact, again, connected with honey in Crete. Upon Mount Carma in that island, which is nine miles in circuit, there is not a fly to be found, and the honey that is made there no fly will touch.84 It is by this cirouin- 81 Fee refuses to credit this : but still such a thing might accidentally happen. „ w These asserted remedies would be of no use whatever, Fee says. S3 See B. vii. c. 2. . M Fee seems to take it for granted that Pliny is speaking here of honey made by other insects than bees; but such does not appear to be the case. 344 pliny's natural history. [Book XXI. stance that honey said to have come from tbat district is usually tested, it being highly prized for medicinal preparations. CHAP. 47.--BEEHIVES, AND THE ATTENTION WHICH SHOULD BE PAID TO THEM. The hives ought to have an aspect due east,88 but never look- ing towards the north-east or the west. The best hives arc those made of bark, the next best those of fennel-giant, and the next of osier: many persons, too, have them made of mirror- stone,86 for the purpose of watching87 the bees at work within. It is the best plan to anoint the hives all over with cow-dung. The lid of the hive should be made to slide from behind, so as to admit of being shut to within, in case the hive should prove too large or their labours unproductive; for, if this is not done, the bees are apt to become discouraged and abandon their work. The slide may then be gradually withdrawn, the increase of space being imperceptible to the bees as the work progresses. In winter, too, the hives should be covered with straw, and subjected to repeated fumigations, with burnt cow- dung more particularly. As this is of kindred88 origin with the bees, the smoke produced by it is particularly beneficial in killing all such insects as may happen to breed there, such as spiders, for instance, moths,89 and wood-worms ;90 while, at the same time, it stimulates the bees themselves to increased acti- vity. In fact, there is little difficulty in getting rid of the spiders, but to destroy the moths, which are a much greater plague, a night must be chosen in spring, just when the mal- low is ripening, there being no moon, but a clear sky: flam- beaux are then lighted before the hives, upon which the moths precipitate themselves in swarms into the flame. 85 Fee remarks here that Pliny is right, and that Columella and Palla- dius are wrong, who would have the hives to look due north. 89 Lapis specularis : a sort of talc, probably. See B. iii. c. 4. B. ix. c. 56. B. xv. c. 1. B. xix. c. 23, and B. xxxvi. c. 45. 87 In B. ix. c. 16, he mentions hives made of horn for this purpose. Glass hives are now made for the purpose, but the moisture which adheres to the interior of the glass prevents the operations of the bees from being watched with any degree of nicety. 88 " Cognatum hoc." He probably alludes to the notion entertained by the ancients that bees might be reproduced from the putrefied entrails of an ox, as wasps from those of a horse. See the story of Aristaeus in B. iv. of Virgil's Georgics. 89 Or butterflies—"papilioncs." 90 "Teredines." Chap. 49.] THE MODE OF PREPARING WAX. 3 15 CHAP. 48.--THAT BEES ARE SENSIBLE OF HUNGER. If it is found that the bees are in want of aliment, it will be a good plan to place at the entrance of the hive raisins or dried figs beaten up,91 as also carded wool soaked in raisin wine, boiled92 must, or hydromel, and sometimes even the raw93 flesh of poultry. In certain summers, too, when long-con- tinued drought has deprived them of the nutriment which they usually derive from flowers, similar food must be pro- vided for them. When the honey is taken, the outlets of the hive should be well rubbed with melissophyllum or broom,94 beaten up, or else the middle of it should be encircled with bands of white vine, to prevent the bees from taking to flight. It is recommended, too, that the honey-pots and combs should be washed with water: this water, boiled, it is said, will make an extremely wholesome vinegar.95 CHAP. 49.—THE METHOD OF PREPARING WAX. THE BEST KINDS OF WAX. PUNIC WAX. Wax is made96 from the honeycombs after the honey has been extracted. For this purpose, they are first cleaned with water, and then dried three days in the shade : on the fourth day they are melted on the fire in a new earthen vessel, with sufficient water to cover them, after which the liquor is strained off in a wicker basket.97 The wax is then boiled again with the same water and in the same pot, and poured into vessels of cold water, the interior of which has been well rubbed with honey. The best wax is that known as Punic98 wax, the next best being that of a remarkably yellow colour, with the smell of honey. This last comes from Pontus, and, to my surprise, it is in no way affected by the poisonous honey which it has •» Honeycombs and rough wax are placed in the hive, when the bees are in want of aliment; also honey and sugar-sirop. 93 "Defrutum :" grape-juice boiled down to one-halt. "» Fee is at a loss to know how this could be of any service as an ali- ment to bees. 9* A mere puerility, Fee says. -...,■ .i. v j i « But extremely weak, no doubt; for after boiling, the hydromel must be subjected, first to vinous, and then to acetous, fermentation. •• The method here described differs but little from that employed at «P«SpOTti!?' 98 0r Carthaginian. 346 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. contained.99 The next in quality is the Cretan wax, which contains the largest proportion of propolis,1 a substance of which we have previously made mention when treating of bees. Next to these varieties comes the Corsican wax, which, being the produce of the box-tree, is generally thought to be possessed of certain medicinal properties. The Punic wax is prepared in the following manner: yellow wax is first blanched in the open air, after which it is boiled in water from the open sea, with the addition of some nitre.2 The flower of the wax, or, in other words, the whitest part of it, is then skimmed off with spoons, and poured into a vessel containing a little cold water. After this, it is again boiled in sea-water by itself, which done, the vessel is left to cool. When this operation has been three times repeated, the wax is left in the open air upon a mat of rushes, to dry in the light of the sun and moon; for while the latter adds to its whiteness, the sun helps to dry3 it. In order, however, that it may not melt, it is the practice to cover it with a linen cloth : if, when it has been thus refined, it is boiled once more, the result is a wax of the greatest possible whiteness. Punic wax is considered the best for all medicinal prepara- tions. Wax is made black by the addition of ashes of pa- pyrus, and a red colour is given to it by the admixture of al- kanet; indeed, by the employment of various pigments, it is made to assume various tints, in which state it is used for making models,4 and for other purposes without number, among which we may mention varnishing walls5 and armour, to protect them from the air. We have given the other par- ticulars relative to bees and honey, when speaking6 of the nature of those insects. We have now stated pretty nearly all that we have to say on the subject of the pleasure garden. 99 In reality, the wax has properties totally different from those of the honey, and it is not always gathered from the same plants. 1 A kind of bee-glue. See B. xi. c. 6. 2 Neither the nitre nor the salt, Fee says, would be of the slightest utility. 3 By causing the aqueous particles that may remain in it, to evaporate. 4 Or " likenesses "—" similitudines." "Waxen profiles seem to have been the favourite likenesses with the Bomans: See the Asinaria of Plautus, A. iv. sc. i. 1. 19, in which one of these portraits is clearly alluded to. Also Ovid, Heroid. xiii. 1. 152, and Bemed. Amor. 1. 723. The "imagines" also, or busts of their ancestors, which were kept in their " atria," were made of wax. 6 To protect the paintings, probably, with which the waUs were decorated. 6 In B. xi. Chap. 51.] THE COLOCASIA. 347 CRAP. 50. (15.)—PLANTS WHICH GROW SPONTANEOUSLY: THE USE MADF, OF THEM BY VARIOUS NATIONS, THEIR NATURE, AND REMARKABLE FACTS CONNECTED WITH THEM. THE STRAW- BERRY, THE TAMNUS, AND THE BUTCHER'S BROOJtt. THE BATIS, TWO VARIETIES OF IT. THE MEADOW PARSNIP. THE HOP. We now come to the plants which grow spontaneously, and which are employed as an aliment by most nations, the people of Egypt in particular, where they abound in such vast quan- tities, that, extremely prolific as that country is in corn, it is perhaps the only one that could subsist without it: so abundant are its resources in the various kinds of food to be obtained from plants. In Italy, however, we are acquainted with but very few of them; those few being the strawberry,7 the tamnus,8 the butcher's broom,9 the sea10 batis, and the garden batis,11 known by some persons as Gallic asparagus; in addition to which we may mention the meadow parsnip12 and the hop,13 which may be rather termed amusements for the botanist than articles of food. CHAP. 51.--THE COLOCASIA. But the plant of this nature that is the most famous in Egypt is the colocasia,14 known as the " cyamos"1S to some. It is gathered in the river Mlus, and the stalk of it, boiled, 7 See B. xv. c. 28. 8 See B. xxiii. c. 17. According to some authorities, it is supposed to be the Delphinium staphis agria of Linnaeus; but Fee and Desfontaines identify it with the Tamus communis of Linnaeus, Our Lady's seal. 9 The Buscus aculeatus of Linnaeus. See B. xxiii. c. 83. 10 In B. xxiL c. 33, this plant is called " halimon." Some authors identify it with the Atriplex halymus, and others, again, with the Crithmum maritimum of Linnaeus. See also B. xxvi. c. 50. 11 Identified by some commentators with the Portulaca sativa or Portu- laca oleracea of Linnaeus. 12 " Pastinaca pratensis." Fee and Desfontaines are undecided whether this is the Daucus carota of Linnaeus, the common carrot, or the Pastiuaca sativa, the cultivated parsnip. 13 "Lupus salictarius," the "willow wolf," literally; the Humulus lupulug of Linnaeus. It probahly took its Latin name from the tenacity with which it clung to willows and osiers. 14 The Arum colocasia of Linnaeus. 15 The " bean." Not, however, the Egyptian bean, which is the Nym- phaea nelumbo of Linnaeus, the Nelumbum speciosum of Willdenow, 348 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI- separates16 into fine filaments when chewed, like those of the spider's web. The head,17 protruding from among the leaves, is very remarkable ; and the leaves, which are extremely large, even when compared with those of trees, are very similar to those of the plant found in our rivers, and known by the name of " personata."18 So much do the people of that country take advantage of the bounteousness displayed by their river, that they are in the habit of plaiting19 the leaves of the colocasia with such skill as to make vessels of various shapes, which they are extremely fond of using for drinking vessels. At the present day, however, this plant is cultivated in Italy.20 CHAP. 52.—THE CICHORIUM. THE ANTHALIUM OR ANTICELLIUM, OR ANTHYLLUM. THE C3TUM. THE ARACHIDNA. THE ARACOS. THE CANDRYALA. THE HVPOCHC3RIS. THE CAUCALIS. THE ANTHRISCUM. THE SCANDIX. THE TRAGOPOGON. THE PAR- / THENIUM OR LEUCANTHES, AMARACUS, PERDICIUM, OR MURALIS. THE TRYCHNUM OR STRTCHNUM, HALICACABUM, CALLIAS, DOR- VCNION, MANICON, PERITTON, NEURAS, MORIO, OR MOLY. THE CORCHORUS. THE APHACE. THE ACYNOPOS. THE EPIPETRON. PLANTS WHICH NEVER FLOWER. PLANTS WHICH ARE ALWAYS IN FLOWEE. In Egypt, next to the colocasia, it is the cichorium that is held in the highest esteem, a plant which we have already spoken21 of under the name of wild endive.22 It springs up after the rising of the Vergiliae, and the various portions of it blossom in succession : the root is supple, and hence is used for making withes even. The anthalium23 grows at a greater 16 These filaments are mentioned also by Martial, Epig., B. viii. Ep. 33, and B. xiii. Ep. 57. But according to Desfontaines, this description applies to the stalks of the Nymphaea lotos, and not of the Arum colocasia. 17 "Thyrsus." 18 Desfontaines has identified this with the Arctium lappa of botanists ; but that is a land plant, and this, Pliny says, grows in the rivers. If the reading here is correct, it cannot be the plant of the same name men- tioned in B. xxv. c. 58. 19 This applies, Desfontaines says, to the Nymphasa nelumbo. 20 Here he returns, according to Desfontaines, to the Arum colocasia. 21 See B. xx. c. 29. 22 " Intubum erraticum." 23 The Cyperus Esculentus of LinnaBus. Chap. 52.] THE EPTPETRON. 349 distance21 from the river ; the fruit of it is round,25 and about the size of a medlar, but without either kernel or rind; the leaves of the plant are similar to those of the cyperus. The people there eat the fruit of it cooked upon the fire, as also of the cetum,26 a plant which has a few leaves only, and those ex- tremely diminutive, though the root is large in proportion.27 The arachidna,28 again, and the aracos have numerous branchy roots, but neither leaves nor any herbaceous parts, nor, indeed, anything that makes its appearance above ground. The other plants that are commonly eaten in Egypt are the chondrylla,29 the hypochoeris,30 the caucalis,31 the anthriscum,32 the scandix, the come, by some persons known as the trago- pogon,33 with leaves very similar to those of saffron, the par- thenium,34 the trychnum,35 and the corchorus ;36 with the aphace37 and acynopos,38 which make their appearance at the equinox. There is a plant also, called the epipetron,39 which 34 Theophrastus, B. iv. c. 10, says that it grows in the sandy soil in the vicinity of the river. 26 It is similar in appearance to the papyrus, and its tubercles are ob- long, or round and fleshy, with an agreeable flavour. 26 The Arachis hypogaea of Linnaeus, the earth pistachio. 27 The root is not large; but the fruit is so close to the earth that Pliny may have confounded it with the real root of the plant. 28 Sprengel identifies this with the Lathyrus amphicarpos, and the aracos with the Lathyrus tuberosus, varieties of the chicheling vetch. Columna thinks that this last was the arachidna. Fee says that the data are altogether insufficient to enable us to form an opinion. 29 The Chondrylla juncea of Linnaeus, according to Fee; but Desfon- taines identifies it with the Lactuca perennis. 3U Desfontaines identifies it with the Hyoseris lucida. Fee says that the opinion is equally as difficult to combat as to support. 31 Fee identifies it with the Caucalis grandiflora of Linnaeus, a native of Greece. Desfontaines mentions the Caucalis Orientalis, an Eastern plant. 32 For this and the Scandix, see B. xxii. c. 38. 33 A chicoraceous plant: the Tragopogon crocifolius of Linnaeus. 31 See c. 104 of this Book. 85 See ce. 3d and 105 of this Book. 36 The Corchorus olitorius of Linnaeus : still cultivated in Egypt. 37 Identified by some, but it is doubtful if with any good reason, with the Leontodon taraxaeum of Linnaeus : our dandelion. 38 The reading is doubtful, and it does not appear to have been iden- tified. 39 Or " stone-plant:" identified with the Sedum anacampse-ros of Lin- naeus : a variety of house-leek. 350 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. never blossoms ;40 while the aphace, on the other hand, as its flowers die, from time to time puts forth fresh ones, and re- mains" in blossom throughout the winter and the spring, until the following summer. CBAP. 53.--FOUR VARIETIES OF THE CNECOS. The Egyptians have many other plants also, of little note; but they speak in the highest terms of the cnecos f a plant unknown to Italy, and which the Egyptians hold in esteem, not as an article of food, but for the oil it produces, and which is extracted from the seed. The principal varieties are the wild and the cultivated kinds ; of the wild variety, again, there are two sorts, one of which is less prickly42 than the other, but with a similar stem, only more upright: hence it is that in former times females used it for distaffs, from which circum- stance it has received the name of " atractylis"43 from some; the seed of it is white, large, and bitter. The other variety44 is more prickly, and has a more sinewy stem, which may be said almost to creep upon the ground; the seed is small. The cnecos belongs to the thorny plants : indeed, it will be as well to make some classification of them. CHAP. 54.--PLANTS OF A PRICKLY NATURE: THE ERYNGE, THE GLYCYRRIZA, THE TRIBULUS, THE ANONIS, THE PHEOS OH STC3BE, AND THE HIPPOPHAES. For some plants, in fact, are thorny, while others, again, are destitute of prickles: the species of thorny plants are very numerous. The asparagus45 and the scorpio46 are essentially thorny plants, having no leaves at all upon them. Some 40 On the contrary, it has a purple flower. 41 It is this, probably, that has caused it to be identified with the Leon- todon taraxacum. 41* The Carthamus tinctorius of Linnaeus, or bastard saffron. The seed of it is a powerful purgative to man, but has no effect on birds : it is much used for feeding parrots, hence one of its names, " parrot-seed." 42 Identified by Fee with the Atractylis of Dioscorides, the Carthamus mitissimus of Linnaeus ; the Ca^duncellus mitissimus of Decandolle. 43 From arpaKToQ, " a distaff." 44 The Centaurea lanata of Decandolle, the Centaurea benedicta of Linnaeus. 45 The Asparagus aphylla of Linnaeus: the leafless asparagus. 46 The Spartium scorpius of Liunaeus : scorpion-grass, or scorpion-wort. Chap. 55.] THE TSETTLE. 351 plants, again, that are prickly have leaves as well, such as the thistle, for instance, the erynge,47 the glycyrriza,48 and the nettle ;49 all these plants being provided with leaves that prick or sting. Some plants have thorns at the base of their leaves, the tribulus50 and the anonis51 for instance; others, again, have thorns, not on the leaves but on the stem, the pheos52 for ex- ample, known as the stcebe to some. The hippophaes83 has thorns at the joints ; the tribulus presents the peculiarity of bearing a fruit that is thorny. CHAP. 55.—FOUR VARIETIES OF THE NETTLE. THE LAMIUM AND THE SCOKPIO. But of all these plants, it is the nettle that is the best known to us, the calyces54 of the blossoms of which produce a purple down: it frequently exceeds two cubits even in height.65 There are numerous varieties of this plant; the wild nettle, known also as the female nettle, does not inflict so bad a sting as the others. Among the several varieties of the wild nettle, the one known as the dog^-nettle, stings the 47 See B. xxii. c. 8. 48 See B. xxii. c. 11. The "sweet-root;" our liquorice. The Gly- cyrrhiza echinata of Linnaeus bears a prickly fruit; it is of this, Fee thinks, that Pliny speaks here. 49 Fee remarks, that though the leaf of the nettle is furnished with numerous stings, or rather prickly hairs, it is quite wrong to look upon them as thorns, which Pliny, in the present instance, (though not in the next Chapber) appears to do. Genuine thorns, he remarks, are abortive branches, which, of course, cannot be said of the fine hairs springing from the nerves of the leaf. See B.xxii. c. 15. 50 Supposed to be the Tribulus terrestris of Linnaeus, a species of thistle : the leaves of this plant, however, are not provided, Fee remarks, with thorns at their base, the fruit alone being spinous. See c. 58 of this Book. 51 See c. 58 of this Book. K The Poterium spinosum of botanists. See B. xxii. c. 13. 63 See B. xxii. c. 13. Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. B. vi. c. 5. identifies this plant with the Stcebe just mentioned. 54 " Acetabulis." Fee complains of the use of this term (meaning a "small cup") in relation to the calyces of the nettle; such not being in reality their form. 83 Probably in allusion to the Urtica dioica, which grows to a greater height than the Urtica urens. See B. xxii. c. 15. 66 " Canina." A variety, probably, of the Urtica urens, the nettle, with 352 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. worst, the stem of it even possessing that property ; the leaves of the nettle are indented at the edge. There is one kind also, which emits a smell, known as the Herculanean57 nettle. The seed of all the nettles is copious, and black. It is a sin- gular fact that, though possessed of no spinous points, the down58 of the nettle is of a noxious nature, and that, though ever so lightly touched, it will immediately produce an itch- ing sensation, and raise a blister on the flesh similar in ap- pearance to a burn : the well-known remedy for it is olive oil. The stinging property of the nettle does not belong to the plant at the earliest period of its growth, but only developes itself under the influence of the sun. The plant first begins to grow in the spring, at which period it is by no means a disagreeable food ;59 indeed, it has become quite a religious ob- servance to employ it as such, under the impression that it is a preventive from diseases the whole year through. The root, too, of the wild nettle, has the effect of rendering all meat more tender that is boiled with it.60 The kind that is innoxious and destitute of all stinging properties, is known as the " la- mium."61 Of the scorpio62 we shall have occasion to speak when treating of the medicinal plants. the exception of the Urtica pilifera, which has the most stinging proper- ties of all those found in Europe, and the leaves of which are the most deeply indented. 57 This has not been identified. They are aU of them either inodorous, or else possessed of a faint, disagreeable smell. 58 This " lanugo," or down, as he calls it. consists of a fine elongated tube of cellular tissue, seated upon a gland of similar tissue. In this gland a poisonous fluid is secreted, and when any pressure is made upon the gland, the fluid passes upwards in the tube. The nettle of the East, known as the Devil's Leaf, is of so poisonous a quality as to produce death. 69 In some parts of the north of England and of Scotland the young plant of the Urtica dioica is eaten as greens, and is far from a disagreeable dish, strongly resembling spinach. It is also reckoned a very wholesome diet, and is taken habitually in the spring, under the impression that it purifies the blood. This notion, we see from the context, is as old as the time of the Bomans. 60 Dalechamps speaks of it as the custom in his time to wrap up fish and game in nettles, under the impression that they would keep the longer for it. 61 The dead nettle, or blind nettle. See B. xxii. c. 16. 68 See B. xxii. c. 17. Chap. 56.] THE ATRACTYLIS. 353 CHAP. 56. (16).--THE CARDUUS, THE ACORNA, THE PHONOS, THE LEUCACANTHOS, THE CHALCEOS, THE CNECOS, THE POLYACAN- THOS, THE ONOPYXOS, THE HELXINE, THE SCOLYMOS, THE CHA- MJSLEON, THE TETRALIX, AND ACANTHICE MASTICHE. The carduus63 has leaves and a stem covered with a prickly down; the same is the case, too, with the acorna,61 the leuca- canthos,65 the chalceos,66 the cnecos,67 the polyacanthos,68 the onopyxos,69 the helxine,70 and the scolymos ;71 the chamseleon,72 however, has no prickles upon the leaves. There is, however, this difference among these plants, that some of them have numerous stems and branches, such as the carduus, for in- stance ; while others, again, have a single stem and no branches, the cnecos, for example. Some, again, such as the erynge,72* are prickly at the head only ; and some blossom in the summer, the tetralix and the helxine, for instance. The scolymos blossoms late, and remains a considerable period in flower: the acorna being distinguished only for its red colour and its unctuous juice. The atractylis would be similar in every respect to the last, were it not that it is somewhat whiter, and produces a juice the colour of blood, a circumstance to which it owes the name of " phonos," 73 given to it by some. 63 He probably means the thistle, but possibly the artichoke, under this name. See B. xix. cc. 19 and 43, and B. xx. c. 99. 64 This is probably the same with the second variety of the " Cnecos," mentioned above in c. 53, the Centaurea Janata, or benedicta. 63 Probably the Carduus leucographus of Linnaeus. 66 According to Dalechamps, this is the Echinops ritro of modern botanv. 67 See c. 93 of this Book. 69 " Many thorns." According to Dalechamps, this is the Carduus spi- nosissiinus angustifolius vulgaris of C. Bauhin, the Cirsium spinosissimum of Linnaeus. 69 Identified by Dalechamps with, the Onopordon Illyricum, or Acan- thium of modern botany. 70 The Acarna gummifera of modern botanists, the flowers of Avhich yield a kind of gum with an agreeable smell. It is quite a different plant from Wall pellitory, mentioned in B. xxii. c. 19, under this name. 71 See B. xx. c. 99, and B. xxii. c. 43. 72 The black chamaaleon is identified by Fee with the Brotera corym- bosa of Willdenow : the white variety, mentioned in B. xxii. c. 21, with the Acarna gummifera of Willdenow, the Helxine above mentioned. Des- fontaines identifies it with the Carlina acaulis. ,:* See B. xxii. c. 8. 73 The Greek for u blood" or " slaughter." vol. iv. a A 354 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. The smell of this plant is powerful, and the seed only ripens at a late period, and never before autumn, although the same may be said of all the prickly plants, in fact. All of them are capable, however, of being reproduced from either seed or root. The scolymos, which belongs to the thistle71 genus, differs from the rest of them in the circumstance that the root of it is boiled and eaten. It is a singular fact that this genus of plants bears blossoms, buds, and fruit the whole of the summer through, without any interruption: when the leaf is dried, the prickles lose their pungency. The helxine is a plant but rarely seen, and in some countries only. It throws out leaves at the root, from the middle of which there is a protuberance in the shape of an apple, covered with leaves of its own: the head of it contains a thick juice of a sweet flavour, the name given to which is " acanthice niastiche.75 CHAP. 57.--THE CACTOS ; THE PTERNIX, PAPPUS, AND ASCALIAS. The cactos,76 too, is a plant that grows only in Sicily, having peculiar characteristics of its own : the root throws out stalks which creep along the ground, the leaves being broad and thorny. The name given to these stalks is "cactos," and they are not disliked as an article of food,77 even when old. The plant, however, has one stem which grows upright, and is known hy the name of " pternix;" it has the same sweet flavour as the other parts, though it will not keep. The seed of it is covered with a kind of down, known as " pappus :"'" when this is removed, as well as the rind79 of the fruit, it is tender, and like the pith of the palm : the name given to it ii "ascalias." 74 "Carduus." 75 " Thorn mastich," or " resin." 76 This is not the Cactus of modern botany, a plant mentioned in the sequel under the name of " Opuntia," but probably the Cinara carduu- cellus. See B. xx. c. 99. 77 Theophrastus says, that when peeled they have a somewhat bitter flavour, and are kept pickled in brine. '8 This name is now given by naturalists to the calyx of Composite. which exists in the rudimentary condition of a membranous coronet, or of downy hairs, like silk. ''■> » Cortex." Chap. 59.] THE ANTHEMIS. 355 CHAP. 58.--THE TRIBULUS : THE ANONIS. The tribulus80 grows nowhere except in marshy places : though held in abomination elsewhere,81 it is employed on the banks of the Nilus and Strymon as an article of food. It always bends towards the water, and has a leaf like that of the elm, with a long stalk. In other parts of the world there are two varieties of this plant; the one83 with leaves like those of the chicheling vetch, the other with leaves protected by prickles. This last variety blossoms also at a later period than the other, and is mostly found in the hedge-rows about farm-houses. The seed of it is black, rounder than that of the other, and enclosed in pods: that of the other variety bears a resemblance to sand. Among the prickly plants there is also another kind, known as the "anonis:"83 indeed, it has thorns upon the branches, to which leaves are attached similar to those of rue, the stem being entirely covered also with leaves, in form resembling a garland. It comes up in land that has been newly ploughed, being highly prejudicial to the corn, and long-lived in the extreme. CHAP. 59.—PLANTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIK STEMS : THE CORONOPUS, THE ANCHUSA, THE ANTHEMIS, THE PHYLLANTHES, THE CREPIS, AND THE LOTUS. Some, again, among the prickly plants have a stem which creeps along the ground, that, for instance, known as the " coronopus."84 On the other hand, the anchusa,84 the root of which is employed for dyeing wood and wax, has an upright stem; which is the case also with some of the plants that are prickly in a less degree, the anthemis,86 for example, the phyl- 10 The Trapa natans of Linnaeus, or water chesnut, a prickly marsh plant of Europe and Asia. Hence our word " caltrop." 61 " Dira res alibi." 82 These two plants have no affinity whatever with the one just men- tioned. The first of these so-called varieties is the Tribulus terrestris of Linnaeus; and the second is identified by Fee, though with some doubt, with the Fagonia Cretica of Linnoaus. ai The Ononis antiquorum of Linnaeus, the Cammock, or rest-harrow. M The Cochlearia coronopus. See B. xxii. c. 22. _ 65 The Anchusa tinctoria, probably, or dyers' alkanet. See B. xxii. c. 23. 64 See B. xxii. c. 26. 356 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. lanthes,87 the anemone, and the aphace :M the crepis,89 again, and the lotus,80 have a foliated stem. CHAP. 60.--PLANTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR LEAVES. PLANTS WHICH NEVER LOSE THEIR LEAVES: PLANTS WHICH RLOSSOM A LITTLE AT A TIME : THE HELIOTROPIUM AND THE ADIANTUM, THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM WHICH WILL BE MENTIONED IN THE FOLLOWING BOOK. The leaves of plants, as well as those of trees, differ from one another in the length of the footstalk, and in the breadth or narrowness of the leaf, and the angles and indentations per- ceptible on its edge. Other differences are also constituted in respect of their smell and blossom. The blossom remains on longer in some of those plants which flower only a little at a time, such as the ocimum,91 the heliotropium,92 the aphace, and the onochilis,93 for example. (17.) Many of these plants, the same as certain among the trees, never lose their leaves, the heliotropium,91 the adian- tum 95 and the polium,96 for instance. 87 It has not been identified with any degree of certainty : the Cen- taurea nigra and the Campanula rapunculus have been named. 88 See B. xxvii. c. 21: also c. 52 of this Book. The- name appears to have been given to both the Leontodon taraxacum and the Lathyms aphaca of modern botany. 89 Theophrastus has Picris in the parallel passage, Hist. Plant. B. vii. e. 9, the Helminthia echioides of Linnaeus. If " Crepis" is the correct reading, that plant has not been identified. 90 The herbaceous kinds are no doubt those alluded to. 91 See B. xix. cc. 31, 36, and 44; and B. xx. c. 48. The ocimum of the Greeks has been identified by some with the Ocimum basilicum of Lin- naeus, our basil. That of the Bomans seems to have been a name given to one or more varieties of leguminous plants of the vetch kind. 92 The Heliotropium Europaeum. See B. xxii. c. 29. 93 This plant has not been identified, but Fe"e is inclined, from what Dioscorides says, B. iv. c. 24, to identify it with either the Lithospcrmum fruticosum, or else the Anchusa Italica of Linnasus. 94 This is not the case, if this plant is identical with the Heliotropium Europaeum, that being an annual. 99 The Adiantum Capillus Veneris of Linnaeus, or the Asplenium trich- omanes of Linnaeus. " Venus hair, or coriander maiden hair; others name it to be well fern."—T. Cooper. The leaves of these plants last the whole of their lives. 95 The Teuerium polium of Linnaeus, our poley; the leaves of which bre remarkably long-lived. Cham. 62.] THE PERDICIUM. 357 CHAP. 61.--THE VARIOUS KINDS OF EARED FLANTS : THE STAN- YOPS ; THE ALOPECUROS J THE STELEPHUROS, ORTYX, OR PLAN- TAGO ; THE THRYALLIS. The eared97 plants form another variety : among them we find the cynops,98 the alopecuros,99 the stelephuros,1 also known to some persons as the ortyx,2 and to others as the plantago, of which last we shall have occasion2* to speak more at length among the medicinal plants, and the thryallis.3 The alopecuros, among these, has a soft ear and a thick down, not unlike a fox's tail in fact, to which resemblance it owes its name. The plant most like4 it is the stelephuros, were it not that it blossoms only a little at a time. In the ckihorium and similar plants, the leaves are near the ground, the buds springing from the root just after the rising of the Vergiliae.5 CHAP. 62---THE PERDICIUM. THE ORNITHOGALE. It is not in Egypt only that the perdicium6 is eaten; it owes its name to the partridge,7 which bird is extremely fond of digging it up. The roots of it are thick and very numerous: and so, too, with the ornithogale,8 which has a tender white stalk, and a root half a foot in thickness, bulbous, soft, and 97 "Spicatae." 98 Fee is in doubt whether to identify it with the Plantago cynops of the south of Europe, and the banks of the Bhine. 99 " Foxtail." According to Dalechamps, it is the Saccharum cylindricum, the Lagurus of Linnaeus; but Fee expresses his doubts as to their identity. 1 Fee inclines to think that it may be the Secale villosum of Linnaeus; though the more recent commentators identify it with the Plantago an- gustifolia. The Saccharum Kavennae has been suggested. 2 Or " quail." 2* In B. xxv. c. 39. 3 Hardouin takes this to be our pimpernel, the Sanguisorba officinalis of Linnaeus. Sprengel inclines to the Verbascum lycbnitis of Linnaeus. 4 " Proxuma." s See B. xviii. c. 66. 6 Supposed by most commentators to be the Parietaria officinalis of Linnaeus; Wall peUitory or parietary. Some, however, have suggested the Polygonum maritimum, or the Polygonum divaricatum of Linnaeus. Fee expresses doubts as to its identity, but remarks that the modern Greek name of pellitory is " perdikaki." See c. 104 of this Book, and B. xxii. c. 20. 7 " Perdix," the Greek name. 8 Probably the Ornithogalum umbellatum of Linnaeus. Sprengel iden- tifies it with the Ornithogalum natans : but that variety is not found iu Greece, while the other is. 358 pliny's natural HISTORY. [Book XXI. provided with three or four other offsets attached to it. It is generally used boiled in pottage.3 CHAP. 63.--PLANTS WHICH ONLY MAKE THEIR APPEARANCE AT THE END OF A YEAR. PLANTS WHICn BEGIN TO BLOSSOM AT THE TOP. PLANTS WHICH BEGIN TO BLOSSOM AT TnE LOWER PART. It is a remarkable thing that the herb lotus10 and the aegi- lops11 never make their appearance above ground till the end of a year after the seed has been sown. The anthemis,12 too, offers the singular peculiarity that it begins to blossom at the top, while in all the other plants which flower gradually, it is at the lower part that the blossom first makes its appearance. CHAP. 64.—THE LAPPA, A PLANT WHICH PRODUCES WITniN ITSELF. THE OPUNTIA, WHICH THROWS OUT A ROOT FROM THE LEAF. In the lappa,13 too, which clings so tenaciously, there is,this remarkable peculiarity, that within it there grows a flower, which does not make its appearance, but remains concealed and there produces the seed, like those among the animals which produce within themselves. In the vicinity of Opus there grows a plant14 which is very pleasant eating to man, and the leaf of which, a most singular thing, gives birth to a root by means of which it reproduces itself. CHAP. 65.--THE IASIONE. THE CHONDRYLLA. THE PICRIS, WHICH REMAINS IN FLOWER THE WHOLE YEAR THROUGH. The iasione16 has a single leaf only, but that so folded and involved, as to have all the appearance of being several in number. The chondrylla16 is bitter, and the juice of the root 9 "Puis." 10 Probably the Melilotus ccerulea of Linnaeus, Fee says. Desfontaines mentions the Melilotus Cretica or Italica. 11 The Avena fatua or sterilis ; the barren oat. See B. xviii. c. 44. 12 See B. xxii. c. 26. 13 The Gallium aparine of Linnaeus. See B. xviii. c. 44. u The Opuntia. The Cactus Opuntia of Linnaeus; the cactus, or Indian fig. 15 Perhaps the Convolvulus sepium of Linnaeus; though Fee dissents from that opinion. See B. xxii. c. 39. !« See c. 52 of this Book. Chap. 68.] THE ASPHODEL. 359 is of an acrid taste. The aphace, too, is bitter, and so is the plant called " picris," n which also remains in flower the whole year through: it is to this bitterness that it is indebted for its name.18 CHAP. 66.—PLANTS IN WHICH THE BLOSSOM MAKES ITS APPEAR- ANCE BEFORE THE STEM. PLANTS IN WHICH THE STEM APPEARS BEFORE THE BLOSSOM. PLANTS WHICH BLOSSOM THREE TIMES IN THE YEAR. The peculiarities also of the squill and saffron deserve re- mark ; for while all other plants put forth their leaves first, and then a round stem, these show the stem before the leaf makes its appearance : in the saffron, however,- tbe blossom is protruded by the stem, but in the squill it is the stem that first makes its appearance, and then the flower emerges from it. This plant blossoms three times in the year, indicating thereby, as previously stated,19 the three seasons for ploughing. CHAP. 67.--THE CYPIROS. THE THESION. Some authors reckon among the bulbs the root of the cypiros, or gladiolus;20 it is a pleasant food, and when boiled and kneaded up with bread, makes it more agreeable to the taste, and at the same time more weighty. Not unlike it in appear- ance is the plant known to us as the " thesion,"21 but it is of an acrid flavour. CHAP. 68.—THE ASPHODEL, OR ROYAL SPEAR. THE ANTHERICUS OR ALBUCUS. Other plants of the bulbous kind differ in the leaf: that of the asphodel22 is long and narrow, that of the squill broad and supple, and the form of that of the gladiolus is bespoken by its name.23 The asphodel is used as an article of food, the seed of it being parched, and the bulb roasted ;24 this last, however, 17 See B. xxii. c. 31. 18 From the Greek irucpbg. 19 In B. xviii. c. 65. 20 " Little sword :" the Gladiolus communis of Linnaeus. See the re- marks on the hyacinthus of the ancients in the Notes to c. 38 of this Book. 21 Sprengel says that it is the Thesium linophyllum of modern botany; an opinion at which Fee expresses his surprise. See B. xxii. c. 31. - The Asphodelus ramosus of Linnaeus. 23 "Little sword." 24 It is no longer employed as an article of food. 360 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Booh XXI. should be cooked in hot ashes, and then eaten with salt and oii. It is beaten up also with figs, and forms, as Hesiod as- sures us, a very delicate dish. It is said, too, that the asphodel, planted before the doors of a farm-house, will act as a preserv- ative against the effects of noxious spells. Homer,25 too, makes mention of the asphodel. The bulbs of it are like moderately-sized turnips, and there is no plant the root of which has more of them, as many as eighty bulbs being often grouped together. Theophrastus, and nearly all the Greek writers, with Pythagoras at the head of them, have given the name of " anthericos " to its stem, which is one cubit, and often two, in length, the leaves being very similar to those of the wild leek ; it is to the root, or in other words, the bulbs, that they have given the name of asphodel. The people of our country call this plant26 " albucus," and they give the name of " royal27 spear " to the asphodel the stem of which bears berries,28 thus distinguishing two29 varieties of it. The albu- cus has a stalk a cubit in length, large, naked, and smooth, in reference to which, Mago recommends that it should be cut at the end of March and the beginning of April, the period at which it blossoms, and before the seed has begun to swell; he says, too, that the stalks should be split, and exposed on the fourth day in the sun, after which, when dry, they should be made up into bundles. The same author states, also, that the Greeks give the name of " pistana" to the aquatic plant known to us as the " sa- gitta ;"30 and he recommends that it should be stripped of its bark, and dried in a mild sun, between the ides of May31 and the end of October. He says, too, that it is usual to cut down to the root, throughout all the month of July, the variety of the gladiolus called "cypiros," which is a marsh-plant also, and at the end of three days to dry it in the sun, until it turns white; but that care must be taken every day to carry it under cover before sunset, the night dews being very injurious to marsh plants when cut. 25 Od. xi. 539, and xxiv. 13. 26 It is difficult to say to what " illud" refers, if, indeed, it is the correct reading. 27 " Hastula regia." 28 « Caulis acinosi." 29 See B. xxii. c. 32. 30 "Arrow." The Sagittaria sagittifolia of Linnaeus; our arrow-head, or adder's tongue. 3i i5ta 0f May. Chap. 09.] THE RUSH. 361 CHAP. 69. (18.)--SIX VARIETIES OF THE RUSH : FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FKOM THE CYPIROS. Mago has likewise given similar recommendations as to the rush known to us as the "mariscus,"32 and which is so exten- sively employed for weaving mats. He says that it should be gathered in the month of June, up to the middle of July, and for drying it he gives the same precepts that have been al- ready M mentioned, in the appropriate place, when speaking of sedge. He describes a second kind, also, which I find is generally called the " marine " rush, and is known to the Greeks as the " oxyschcenos."34 Generally speaking, there are three varieties of this last rush: the pointed rush, which is barren, and by the Greeks is called the male rush and the " oxys :"35 the female rush,36 which bears a black seed, and is called the " melancranis,"37 thicker and more bushy than the preceding one : and a third kind, called the " holoschcenus,"38 which is larger still. Of these varieties, the melancranis grows separately from the others, but the oxys and the holoschcenus will grow upon the self-same clod. The holoschcenus is the most useful for all kinds of basket-work, being of a particularly supple and fleshy nature; it bears a fruit, which resembles eggs attached to one another. The rush, again, which we have spoken of as the male rush,39 is reproduced from itself, the summit of it being bent down into the earth ; the melancranis, however, is propa- gated from seed. Beyond this, the roots of all the varieties of the rush die every year. The rush is in general use for making kipes40 for sea-fishing, 82 The Schoenus mariscus of Linnaeus. 33 Pliny is guilty of a lapsus memoriae here, for he has nowhere given any such advice on the subject. Hardouin refers to B. xviii. c. 67, but erroneously, for there he is speaking of hay, not " ulva" or sedge. _ 34 The "sharp rush." The Juncus acutus of Linnaeus; the pointed bulrush. 35 The " pointed "-rush. The Schoenus mucronatus of Linnaeus. 36 A variety, Fee says, of the Schoenus nigricans of Linnaeus, the black bulrush. 37 The " black head." 33 The Scirpus holoschcenus of Linnaeus, Fee thinks. 39 None of the rushes, Fee remarks, are barren; and when the head is inserted in the ground, it is neither more nor less than a sowing of the seed. Hardouin remarks, however, that by the word '• cacumine." the bulbous root of the rush is meant, and not the point of the stem. 40 " Nassau." Baskets with a narrow mouth. 362 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. the more light and elegant kinds of brisket-work, and the wifks of lamps, for which last purpose the pith is more par- ticularly epiployed.41 In the vicinity of the maritime Alps, the rushes grow to such a vast size, that when split they mea- sure nearly an inch in diameter ; while in Egypt, on the other hand, they are so extremely fine, that the people there make sieves of them, for which, indeed, there can be nothing better. Some authors, again, distinguish another kind of rush, of a triangular shape, to which they give the name of cyperos,42 though many persons make no distinction between it and the " cypiros," in consequence of the resemblance of the names; for our own part, however, we shall observe the distinction. The cypiros, as we have alreadyi3 stated, is identical with the gladiolus, a plant with a bulbous root, the most esteemed being those grown in the Isle of Crete, the next best those of jSaxos, and the next those of Phoenicia. The cypiros of Crete is white, with an odour strongly resembling that of nard; the produce of JSaxos has a more pungent smell, that of Phoenicia but little odour of any kind, and that of JEgypt none at all; for it grow3 in that country as well. This plant disperses hard, tumours of the body—for we shall here begin to speak of the remedies derived from the various flowers and odoriferous plants, they being, all of them, of very considerable utility in medicine. As to the cypiros, then, I shall follow Apollodorus, who forbids it to be taken in drink, though at the same time he admits that it is extremely useful for calculi of the bladder, and recommends it in fomentations for the face. He entertains no doubt, however, that it is pro- ductive of abortion, and he mentions, as a remarkable fact, that the barbarians," by inhaling the fumes of this plant at the mouth, thereby diminish the volume of the spleen. They never go out of the house, he says, till they have inhaled these 41 It has descended in our time to the more humble rushlight; and even that is fast " going out." 42 Fee identifies it with the Cyperus longus and Cyperus rotundus of Linnaeus, the odoriferous or round souchet. 43 In c. 67 of this Book. The bulb, however, of the gladiolus is in- odorous ; for which reason Fee is inclined to think that Pliny, with all hiscare, is describing a cyperus, perhaps the Cyperus esculentus. i4 It would be curious to know who these barbarians were, who thus smoked cypirus as we do tobacco. Fee queries whether they were Ger- mans or Gauls, people of Asia or of Africa. Chap. 70.] THE CYPEROS. 363 fumes, through the agency of which they daily become stronger and stronger, and more robust. He states, also, that the cypi- ros, employed as a liniment with oil, is an undoubted remedy for chafing of the skin, and offensive odours of the arm-pits. CHAP. 70.—THE CYPEROS : FOURTEEN REMEDIES. THE CYPERIS. THE CYPIRA. . The cyperos, as we have just stated, is a rush of angular shape, white near the ground, and black and solid at the top. The lower leaves are more slender than those of the leek, and those at the top are small, with the seed of the plant lying between them. The root resembles a black olive,45 and when it is of an oblong shape, the plant is known as the " cyperis,"46 being employed in medicine to a great extent. The cyperos most highly esteemed is that of the vicinity of the Temple of Jupi- ter Hammon, the next best being that of Rhodes, the next that of Therse, and the worst of all that of Egypt, a circumstance which tends greatly to add to the misunderstanding on the subject, as that country produces the cypiros as well: but the cypiros which grows there is extremely hard, and has hardly any smell at all, while all the other47 varieties of it have an odour strongly resembling that of nard. There is also an Indian plant, called the "cypira,"48 of a totally different character, and similar to ginger in appearance; when chewed, it has exactly the flavour of saffron. The cyperos, employed medicinally, is possessed of certain depilatory properties. It is used in liniments for hang-nails and ulcerous sores of the genitals and of all parts of the body which are of a humid nature, ulcers of the mouth, for instance. The root of it is a very efficacious remedy for the stings of ser- pents and scorpions. Taken in drink, it removes obstructions of the uterus, but if employed in too large doses, it is liable to cause prolapsus of that organ. It acts also as a diuretic, and expels calculi of the bladder; properties which render it ex- tremely useful in dropsy. It is employed topically, also, for 45 This applies more particularly, Fee thinks, to the Cyperus rotundus of Linnaeus. 46 The Cyperus longus of Linnaeus, Fee thinks. 47 Sillig finds a difficulty here which does not seem to exist. It is pretty clear that " caeteris" refers to the other varieties of the cypiros, mentioned in the preceding Chapter. 4S It has not been identified. 364 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. serpiginous ulcers, those of the throat more particularly, being usually applied with wine or vinegar. CHAP. 71.—THE HOLOSCHffiNUS. The root of the rush, boiled down to one third in three hemina? of water, is a cure for cough ; the seed of it, parched and taken in water, arrests looseness of the bowels and the menstrual discharge, though at the same time it causes head- ache. The name given to this rush is holoschcenus; the parts of it nearest the root are chewed, as a cure for the bites of spiders. I find mention made, also, of one other kind of rush, the name of which is " euripice ;"49 the seed, they say, is narcotic, but the greatest care is necessary, not to throw the patient into a lethargy. CHAP. 72.--TEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE SWEET-SCENTED RUSH, OR TEUCHITES. "We will also take this opportunity of mentioning the me- dicinal properties of the sweet-scented rush, which is found in Ccele-Syria, as already stated by us in the appropriate place.50 The most esteemed kind, however, is that which grows in the country of the Nabataei, and is known as the " teuchites ;"51 the next best being the produce of Babylonia, and the very worst that of Africa, which is entirely destitute of smell. This rush is round, and when applied to the tongue, has a pungent, vinous flavour. The genuine kind, when rubbed, gives out an odour like that of the rose, and when broken asunder it is red within. It dispels flatulency, and hence it is very good for the stomach, and for persons when vomiting the bile or blood. It arrests hiccup also, promotes eructations, acts as a diuretic, and is curative of affections of the bladder. A decoction of it is used for female complaints; and in cases of opisthotony, it is applied in plasters with dry resin, these being highly valued for their warming properties. CHAP. 73.—REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE FLOWERS REFORE MEN- TIONED : THIRTY-TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ROSE. The rose is of an astringent and refreshing nature. For 49 Mentioned also by Dioscorides. It has not been identified. 50 B. xii. c. 48. 51 Dioscorides says that it grows in Babylonia. It is a variety, no doubt, of the Andropogon schcenanthus. Chap. 73.] THE ROSE. 365 medicinal purposes the petals, the flowers, and the heads are used. Those portions of the petals which are quite white are known as the unglets.62 In the flower there is the seed, as distinguished from the filaments, and in the head there is the bud,63 as well as the calyx. The petals are dried, or else the juice is extracted from them, by one of the three following methods: Either the leaves are employed whole for the pur- pose, the unglets not being removed—for these are the parts, in fact, that contain the most juice—or else the unglets are first taken off and the residue is then macerated with oil or wine, in glass vessels placed in the sun. Some persons add salt as well, and others alkanet,54 or else aspalathus or sweet- scented rush ; as it is, when thus prepared, a very valuable re- medy for diseases of the uterus and for dysentery. According to the third process, the unglets are removed from the petals, and pounded, after which they are subjected to pressure in a coarse linen cloth, the juice being received in a copper vessel.; it is then boiled on a slow fire, until it has acquired the con- sistence of honey; for this purpose, however, the most odori- ferous of the petals should be selected. (19.) "We have already stated,55 when speaking of the va- rious kinds of wines, how rose wine is made. Rose juice is much used in injections for the ears, and as a gargle for ulcer- ations of the mouth, and for the gums and tonsils; it is em- ployed also for the stomach, maladies of the uterus, diseases of the rectum, and for head-ache. In fevers, it is used, either by itself or in combination with vinegar, as a remedy for sleeplessness and nausea. The petals, charred, are used as a cosmetic for the eyebrows ;56 and the thighs, when chafed, are rubbed with them dried; reduced to powder, too, they are soothing for defluxions of the eyes. The flower of the rose is Boporific, and taken in oxycrate it arrests fluxes in females, the white flux iu particular ; also spitting of blood, and pains in the stomach, if taken in three cyathi of wine, in sufficient quantity to flavour it. As to the seed of the rose, the best is that which is of a saf- fron colour, and not more than a year old; it should be dried, 52 «Ungues," " nails;" in allusion to the white part of the finger- nails. 63 " Cortex." 54 "Anchusam." 55 In B. xiv. c. 19. 56 " In calliblepharum." 366 pliny's natural HisTour. [Book XXI. too, in the shade. The black seed is worthless. In cases of tooth-ache, the seed is employed in the form of a liniment; it acts also as a diuretic, and is used as a topical application for the stomach, as also in cases of erysipelas which are not in- veterate : inhaled at the nostrils, it has the effect of clearing the brain. The heads of roses, taken in drink, arrest looseness of the bowels and haemorrhage. The unglets of the rose are wholesome in cases of defluxion of the eyes; but the rose ia very apt to taint all ulcerous sores of the eyes, if it is not ap- plied at the very beginning of the defluxion, dried, and in combination with bread. The petals, too, taken internally, are extremely wholesome for gnawing pains of the stomach, and for maladies of the abdomen or intestines ; as also for the tho- racic organs, if applied externally even: they are preserved, too, for eating, in a similar manner to lapathum. Great care must be taken in drying rose-leaves, as they are apt to turn mouldy very quickly. The petals, too, from which the juice has been extracted, may be put to some use when dried : powders,57 for instance, may be made from them, for the purpose of checking the per- spiration. These powders are sprinkled on the body, upon leaving the bath, and are left to dry on it, after which they are washed off with cold water. The little excrescences68 of the wild rose, mixed with bears'-grease,69 are a good remedy for alopecy. CHAP. 74.--TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE LILY. The roots of the lily59* ennoble that flower in manifold ways by their utility in a medicinal point of view. Taken in wine, they are good for the stings of serpents, and in cases of poison- ing by fungi. For corns on the feet, they are applied boiled 57 " Diapasmata." 58 "Piiuhe." He alludes to the galls produced by an insect of the Cynips kind, and known as " bedeguar." They are astringent, but no longer employed in medicine. 59 The efficacy of bears'-grease for' promoting the growth of the hair was believed in, we find, so early as Pliny's time. 69* See c. 11 of this Book. The bulbs of the lily contain a mucilage, find roasted or boiled they are sometimes employed, Fee says, to bring in- flammations to a head. Employed internally, he thinks that they would be of no use whatever, and there is nothing in their composition, he says, which would induce one to think that they might be employed to advan- tage in most of the cases mentioned by Pliny. Chap. 75.] THE NARCISSUS. 367 iu wine, not being taken off before the end of three days. A decoction of them with grease or oil, has the effect of making the hair grow again upon burns. Taken with honied wine, they carry off corrupt blood by stool; they are good, also, for the spleen and for hernia, and act as an emmenagogue. Boiled in wine and applied with honey, they are curative of wounds of the sinews. They are good, too, for lichens, leprous sores, and scurf upon the face, and they efface wrinkles of the body. The petals of the lily are boiled in vinegar, and applied, in combination with polium,60 to wounds; if it should happen, however, to be a wound of the testes, it is the best plan to apply the other ingredients with henbane and wheat-meaL Lily-seed is applied in cases of erysipelas, and the flowers and leaves are used as a cataplasm for inveterate ulcers. The juice which is extracted from the flower is called " honey"61 by some persons, and "syrium" by others ; it is employed as an emollient for the uterus, and is also used for the purpose of promoting perspirations, and for bringing suppurations to a head. CHAP. 75.--SIXTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE NARCISSUS. Two varieties of the narcissus arc employed in medicine, the one with a purple62 flower, and the herbaceous narcissus.63 This last is injurious to the stomach, and hence it is that it acts both as an emetic and as a purgative : it is prejudicial, also, to the sinews, and produces dull, heavy pains in the head: hence it is that it has received its name, from " narce,':G1 aud not from the youth Narcissus, mentioned in fable. The roots of both kinds of narcissus have a flavour resembliug that of wine mixed with honey. This plant is very useful, applied to burns with a little honey, as also to other kinds of wounds, and sprains. Applied topically, too, with honey and oatmeal, it is good for tumours, and it is similarly employed lor the extraction of foreign substances from the body. Beaten up in polenta and oil it effects the cure of contu- sions and blows inflicted by stones; and, mixed with meal, 60 Or " Poley." See c. 21 ,of this Book. 61 "Mel." 62 See c. 12 of this Book. 63 The Narcissus pseudo-narcissus of Linnaeus, the meadow narcissus, or daffodil. The opithet " herbaceous," Fee says, applies, not to the flower, but to the leaves, which are larger and greener than in the other kinds.' 61 " Torpor," or "lethargy." 368 PLINY 3 NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. it effectually cleanses wounds, and speedily removes black morphews from the skin. Of this flower oil of narcissus is made, good for softening indurations of the skin, and for warm- ing parts of the body that have been frost-bitten. It is very beneficial, also, for the ears, but is very apt to* produce head-ache. CHAP. 76.--SEVENTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE VIOLET. There are both wild and cultivated violets.65 The purple violet is of a cooling nature: for inflammations they are ap- plied to the stomach in the burning heats, and for pains in the head they are applied to the forehead. Violets, in particular, are used for defluxions of the eyes, prolapsus of the fundament and uterus, and suppurations. Worn in chaplets upon the head, or even smelt at, they dispel the fumes of wine and head- achy ; and, taken in water, they are a cure for quinsy. The purple violet, taken in water, is a remedy for epilepsy, in children more particularly: violet seed is good for the stings of scorpions. On the other hand, the flower of the white violet opens sup- purations, and the plant itself disperses them. Both the white and the yellow violet check the menstrual discharge, and act as diuretics. When fresh gathered, they have less virtue, and hence it is that they are mostly used dry, after being kept a year. The yellow violet, taken in doses of half a cyathus to three cyathi of water, promotes the catamenia; and the roots of it, applied with vinegar, assuage affections of the spleen, as also the gout. Mixed with myrrh and saffron, they are good for inflammation of the eyes. The leaves, applied with honey, cleanse ulcerous sores of the head, and, combined with cerate,66 they are good for chaps of the fundament and other moist parts of the body. Employed with vinegar, they effect the cure of abscesses. CHAP. 77.--SEVENTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE BACCHAB. ONE REMEDY DERIVED FROM THE COMBRETUM. The bacchar that is used in medicine i3 by some.of our writers called the " perpressa." It is very useful for the stings of serpents, head-ache and burning heats in the head, and 65 See c. 14 of this Book. 66 An ointment made of wax aud cil. Chap. 79.] GALLIC NARD. 369 for defluxions of the eyes. It is applied topically for swellings of the mamillae after delivery, as also incipient fistulas87 of the eyes, and erysipelas; the smell of it induces sleep. It is found very beneficial to administer a decoction of the root for spasms, falls with violence, convulsions, and asthma. For an inveterate cough, three or four roots of this plant are boiled down to one-third; this decoction acting also as a purgative for women after miscarriage, and removing stitch in the side, and calculi of the bladder. Drying powders68 for perspiration are prepared also from this plant; and it is laid among gar- ments for the smell.69 The combretum which we have spoken70 of as resembling the bacchar, beaten up with axle-grease, is a marvellous cure for wounds. CHAP. 78.--EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM ASARUM. It is generally stated that asarum71 is good for affections of the liver, taken in doses of one ounce to a semisextarius of honied wine mixed with water. It purges the bowels like hellebore, and is good for dropsy and affections of the thoracic organs and uterus, as also for jaundice. When mixed with must, it makes a wine with strongly diuretic qualities. It is taken up as soon as it begins to put forth its leaves, and is dried in the shade. It is apt however to turn mouldy very speedily. CHAP. 79. (20.)--EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM GALLIC NARD. Some authors, as we have already72 stated, having given the name of " field nard" to the root of the bacchar, we will here mention the medicinal properties of Gallic nard, of which we have 7S already spoken, when treating of the foreign trees, deferring further notice of it till the present occasion. _ In doses of two drachmae, taken in wine, it is good for the stings of serpents; and taken in water or in wine it is employed for inflations of the colon, maladies of the liver or kidneys, and suffusions of the gall. Employed by itself or in combination " "iEgilopiis.'* 68 " Diapasmata." 69 This, as Fee remarks, can hardly apply to the Digitalis purpurea of Linnaeus, with which he has identified it, the smeU of which is disagree- able rather than otherwise. 70 In c. 16 of this Book. 71 The Asarum Europaeum of Linnaeus; our foalfoot, bee B. xu. c. 27. 72 In c. 16 of this Book. 73 In B. xii. c. 26. VOL. TV. B B 370 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. with wormwood it is good for dropsy. It has the property, also, of arresting excessive discharges of the catamenia. CHAP. 80.—FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE PLANT CALLED " PHU." The root of the plant which we have mentioned in the same place under the name of " phu,"71 is given in drink, eithei bruised or boiled, in cases of hysterical suffocation, and for pains of the chest or sides. It acts as an emmenagogue, and is generally taken in wine. CHAP. 81.--TWENTY REMEDIES DERIVED FROM SAFFRON. Saffron does not blend well with honey, or, indeed, with any sweet substance, though very readily with wine or water: it is extremely useful in medicine, and is generally kept in horn boxes. Applied with egg it disperses all kinds of inflamma- tion, those of the eyes in particular : it is employed also for hysterical suffocations, and for ulcerations of the stomach, chest, kidneys, liver, lungs, and bladder. It is particularly useful also in cases of inflammation of those parts, and for cough and pleurisy. It likewise removes itching75 sensations, and acts as a diuretic. Persons who have used the precaution of first taking saffron in drink will never experience surfeit or head- ache, and will be proof against inebriation. Chaplets too, made of saffron, and worn on the head, tend to dispel the fumes of wine. The flower of it is employed topically with Cimo- lian76 chalk for erysipelas. It is used also in the composition of numerous other medicaments. CHAP. 82.--SYRIAN CROCOMAGNA : TWO REMEDIES. There is also an eye-salve77 which is indebted to this plant for its name. The lees78 of the extract of saffron, employed in the saffron unguent known as " crocomagma," have their own peculiar utility in cases of cataract and strangury. These leea 74 B. xii. c. 26. Either the Valeriana Italica, Fee says, or the Vale- riana Dioscoridis of Sibthorpe. The Valeriana phu and the Valeriana officinalis of Linnaeus have been suggested by some commentators. 75 Or " prurigo." 76 See B. xxxv. cc. 18 and 57. 77 " Collyrium." Saffron is still the base of certain eye-salves. 78 Formed, most probably, of all the insoluble substances contained in the oil employed in making the " unguentum crocinum." Chap. 83.] THE IRIS AND THE SALIUNCA. 371 are of a more warming nature than saffron itself; the best kind is that which, when put into the mouth, stains the teeth and saliva the colour of saffron. CHAP. 83.--FORTY-ONE REMEDIES DERTVED FROM THE IRIS : TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE SALIUNCA. The red iris is better than the white one. It is very bene- ficial to attach this plant to the bodies of infants more par- ticularly when they are cutting their teeth, or are suffering from cough; it is equally good, too, to inject a few drops of it when children are suffering from tape-worm. The other pro- perties of it differ but very little from those of honey. It cleanses ulcerous sores- of the head, and inveterate abscesses more particularly. Taken in doses of two drachmae with honey, it relaxes the bowels; and an infusion of it is good for cough, gripings of the stomach, and flatulency : taken with vinegar, too, it cures affections of the spleen. Mixed with oxycrate it is good for the bites of serpents and spiders, and, in doses of two drachmae with bread or water, it is employed for the cure of the stings of scorpions. It is applied also topically with oil to the bites of dogs, and to parts that are excoriated: employed in a similar manner, too, it is good for pains in the sinews, and in combination with resin it is used as a liniment for lumbago and sciatica. The properties of this plant are of a warming nature. Inhaled at the nostrils, it produces sneezing and cleanses the brain, and in cases of head-ache it is applied to- pically in combination with the quince or the strutheum.79 It dispels the fumes of wine also, and difficulties of breathing80 and taken in doses of two oboli it acts as an emetic: applied as a plaster with honey, it extracts splinters of broken bones. Powdered iris is employed also for whitlows, and, mixed with wine, for corns and warts, in which case it is left for three days on the part affected. Chewed, it is a corrective of bad breath and offensive exha- lations of the arm-pits, and the juice of it softens all kinds of indurations of the body. This plant acts as a soporific, but it wastes the seminal fluids : it is used also for the treatment of chaps of the fundament and condylomata, and it heals all sorts of excrescences on the body. 79 A small kind of quince. See B. xv. cc. 10 and 14. 80 "Orthopnoea." B B 2 372 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. Some persons give the name of " xyris"81 to the wild iris. This plant disperses scrofulous sores, as well as tumours and inguinal swellings; but it is generally recommended that when wanted for these purposes it should be pulled up with the left hand, the party gathering it mentioning the name of the pa- tient and of the disease for which it is intended to be employed. While speaking of this subject, I will take the opportunity of disclosing the criminal practices of some herbalists—they keep back a portion of the iris, and of some other plants as well, the plantago for instance, and, if they think that they have not been sufficiently well paid and wish to be employed a second time, bury the part they have kept back in the same place; their object being, I suppose,82 to revive the malady which has just been cured. The root of the saliunca83 boiled in wine, arrests vomiting and strengthens the stomach. CHAP. 84.--EIGHTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE POLIUM. Those persons, according to Musaeus and Hesiod, who are desirous of gaining honour and glory, should rub the body all over with polium,84 and handle and cultivate it as much as possible. They say, too, that it should be kept about the person as an antidote to poison, and that to keep serpents away it should be strewed beneath the bed, burnt, or else carried on the person; decoctions of it in wine, either fresh-gathered or dried, should be used too as a liniment for the body. Medical men prescribe it in vinegar for affections of the spleen, and in wine for the jaundice; a decoction of it in wine is recommended also for incipient dropsy ; and in this way too, it is employed as a liniment for wounds. This plant has the effect of bringing away the after-birth and the dead foetus, and of dispelling pains in various parts of the body : it empties the bladder also, and is employed in liniments for defluxions of the eyes. In- 81 The Iris foetidissima of Linnaeus. It grows near Constantinople, and the smell of it is so like that of roast meat, that it is commonly called, Fee says, the " leg of mutton iris." 82 " Credo." It does not exactly appear that Pliny puts faith in this superstition, as Fee and Desfontaines seem to think; but he merely hazards a supposition as to what are the intentions of these avaricious herbalists. 83 See c. 20 of this Book. 81 See c. 21 of this Book. Fee remarks, that in reality it possesses none of the qualities that are attributed to it. Chap. 86.] MELISSOPHYLLUM. 373 deed, there is no plant known that better deserves to form an ingredient in the medicament known to us as the " alexiphar- macon :M85 though there are some who1 say that it is injurious to the stomach and is apt to stuff the head, and that it produces abortion—assertions which86 others, again, totally deny. There is a superstitious observance also, to the effect that, for cataract, it ought to be attached to the neck the moment it is found, every precaution being taken not to let it touch the ground. The same persons state too that the leaves of it are similar to those of thyme, except that they are softer and more white and downy. Beaten up with wild rue in rain water, it is said to assuage the pain of the sting of the asp; it is quite as astringent too as the flower87 of the pomegranate, and as efficacious for closing wounds and preventing them from spreading. CHAP. 85.—THREE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HOLOCHRYSOS. SIX REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE CHRYSOCOME. The holochrysos,88 taken in wine, is a cure for strangury, and it is employed in liniments for defluxions of the eyes. Mixed with burnt lees of wine and polenta, it is curative of lichens. The root of the chrysocome89 is warming and astringent; it is taken in drink for affections of the liver and lungs, and a decoction of it in hydromel is good for-pains of the uterus. It acts as an emmenagogue also, and, administered raw, draws off the water in dropsy. CHAP. 86.--TWENTY-ONE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM MELIS- SOPHYLLUM. If the bee-hives are rubbed all over with melissophyllum90 85 The " protection against poisons." 86 We have adopted Sillig's emendation of this passage; the words "aiunt, quod alii" being evidently required by the context. > 87 " Cytinus" appears to be a preferable reading here to " cyanus," the "blue-bell." . „, 88 See c. 24 of this Book. Its medicinal properties, Fee says, are next to nothing. . 89 See c. 26 of this Book. If it is the Chrysocoma lmosyris, it has no peculiar medicinal properties, Fee says. All these statements are found in Dioscorides. . ^ , T. . , r i_ . 90 Sec B. xx. c. 45, and c. 41 of this Book. It is a plant of somewhat stimulating'properties, and may possibly be useful, Fee thinks, for nervous affections. 374 pliny'e NATURAL HTSTORY. [Book XXI. or melittaena, the bees will never desert them; for there is no flower in which they take greater delight. If branches9; of this plant are used, the bees may be kept within bounds with- out any difficulty. It is an excellent remedy, also, for the stings of bees, wasps, and similar insects, as also for woundB made by spiders and scorpions ; it is used, too, for hysterical suffocations, in combination with nitre, and for gripings of the bowels, with wine. The leaves of it are employed topically for scrofulous sores, and, in combination with salt, for maladies of the fundament. A decoction of the juice promotes the men- strual discharge, dispels inflammations, and heals ulcerous sores: it is good, too, for diseases of the joints and the bites of dogs, and is beneficial in cases of inveterate dysentery, and for cceliac affections, hardness of breathing, diseases of the spleen, and ulcerations of the thoracic organs. For films on the eyes, it is considered a most excellent plan to anoint them with the juice of this plant mixed with honey. CHAP. 87.--THIRTEEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE MELILOTE. The melilote,92 again, applied with the yolk of an egg, or else linseed, effects the cure of diseases of the eyes. It assuages pains, too, in the jaws and head, applied with rose oil; and, employed with raisin wine, it is good for pains in the ears, and all kinds of swellings or eruptions on the hands. A decoction of it in wine, or else the plant itself beaten up raw, is good for pains in the stomach. It is equally beneficial, too, for maladies of the uterus; and for diseases of the testes, prolapsus of the fundament, and all other diseases of those parts, a de- coction is made of it, fresh-gathered, in water or in raisin wine. With the addition of rose oil, it is used as a liniment for carci- noma. Boiled in sweet wine, it is particularly useful for the treatment of the ulcers known as " melicerides."93 CHAP. 88. (21.)--FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM TREFOIL. The trefoil,941 know, is generally looked upon as being par- 91 " Scopis." He may possibly mean small brooms made of the sprigs of the plant. 9J See c. 29 of this Book. The melilote is possessed of no peculiar energy, but decoctions of it are sometimes employed as a lotion. 93 Sores " resembling a honey-comb." 94 See c. 30 of this Book. Chap. 89.] THYME. 375 ticularly good for the stings of serpents and scorpions, the seed being taken in doses of twenty grains, with either wine or oxycrate; or else the leaves and the plant itself are boiled toge- ther, and a decoction made of them; indeed, it is stated, that a serpent is never to be seen among trefoil. Celebrated authors, too, I find, have asserted that twenty-five grains of the seed of the kind of trefoil which we have95 spoken of as the "minyan- thes," are a sufficient antidote for all kinds of poisons: in ad- dition to which, there are numerous other remedial virtues ascribed to it. But these notions, in my opinion, are counterbalanced by the authority of a writer of the very highest repute : for wc find the poet Sophocles asserting that the trefoil is a venomous plant. Simus, too, the physician, maintains that a decoction of it, or the juice, poured upon the human body, is productive of burning sensations similar to those experienced by persons when they have been stung by a serpent and have trefoil ap- plied to the wound. It is my opinion, then, that trefoil should never be used in any other capacity than as a counter-poison ; for it is not improbable that the venom of this plant has a natural antipathy to all other kinds of poisons, a phaenomenon which has been observed in many other cases as well. I find it stated, also, that the seed of the trefoil with an extremely diminutive leaf, applied in washes to the face, is extremely beneficial for preserving the freshness of the skin in females. CHAP. 89.--TWENTY-EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THYME. Thyme % should be gathered while it is in flower, and dried in the shade. There are two kinds of thyme : the white thyme with a ligneous root, which grows upon declivities, and is the most esteemed of the two, and another variety, which is of a darker colour, and bears a swarthy flower. They are, both of them, considered to be extremely beneficial to the sight, whe- ther used as an article of food or as a medicament, and to be good for inveterate coughs. Used as an electuary, with vine- gar and salt, they facilitate expectoration, and taken with honey, they prevent the blood from coagulating. Applied ex- 95 In c. 30 of this Book. 88 See c. 31 of this Book. Thyme yields an essential oil, possessed of stimulating properties. Most of the assertions here made as to its virtues are quite unfounded. 376 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXX ternally with mustard, they dispel chronic fluxes of the fauces, as well as various affections of the stomach and bowels. Still, however, these plants must be used in moderation, as they are of a heating nature, for which reason it is that they act so astringently upon the bowels. In cases of ulceration of the intestines, the dose should be one denarius of thyme to one sextarius of oxymel; the same proportions, too, should be taken for pains in the sides, between the shoulder-blades, or in the thoracic organs. Taken with oxymel, these plants are used for the cure of intestinal diseases, and a similar draught is admin- istered in cases of alienation of the senses and melancholy. Thyme is given also for epilepsy, when the fits come on, tbe smell of it reviving the patient; it is said, too, that epileptic persons should sleep upon soft thyme. It is good, also, for hardness of breathing, and for asthma and obstructions of the catamenia, A decoction of thyme in water, boiled down to one-third, brings away the dead foetus, and it is given to males with oxymel, as a remedy for flatulency, and in cases of swell- ing of the abdomen or testes and of pains in the bladder. Ap- plied with wine, it removes tumours and fluxes, and, in com- bination with vinegar, callosities and warts. Mixed with wine, it is used as an external application for sciatica; and, beaten up with oil and sprinkled upon wool, it is employed for diseases of the joints, and for sprains. It is applied, also, to burns, mixed with hogs' lard. For maladies of the joints of recent date, thyme is administered in drink, in doses of three oboli to three cyathi of oxymel. For loss of appetite, it is given, beaten up with salt. CHAP. 90.--FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HEMEROCALLES. The hemerocalles OT has a soft, pale green leaf, with an odo- riferous, bulbous root. This root, applied with honey to the abdomen, draws off the aqueous humours and all corrupt blood. The leaves of it are applied for defluxions of the eyes, and for pains in the mamillae, after childbirth. CHAP. 91.—FIVE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HELENIUM. The helenium, which springs, as we have already * stated, 97 See c. 33 of this Book. The Pancratium maritimum, if that plant is identical with it, is but little used, but has a marked action, Fee says, upon the human frame. 98 In c. 33 of this Book. Chap. 92.] THE ABROTONUM. 377 from the tears of Helena, is generally thought to have been produced for improving the appearance, and to maintain un- impaired the freshness of the skin in females, both of the face and of other parts of the body. Besides this, it is generally supposed that the use of it confers additional graces on the person, and ensures universal attraction. They say, too, that, taken with wine, it promotes gaiety of spirit, having, in fact, a similar effect to the nepenthes, which has been so much vaunted by Homer,99 as producing forgetfulness of all sorrow. The juice of this plant is remarkably sweet, and the root of it, taken fasting in water, is'good for hardness of breathing; it is white within, and sweet. An infusion of it is taken in wine for the stings of serpents; and the plant, bruised, it is said, will kill mice. CHAP. 92.--TWENTY-TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ARROTONUM. "We find two varieties of abrotonum1 mentioned, the field, and the mountain kind; this last, it is generally understood, is the female plant, the other the male. They are both of them bitter, like wormwood. That of Sicily is the most esteemed, and next to it, that of Galatia. The leaves of it are sometimes employed, but it is the seed that possesses the most warming 99 Od. iv. 1. 221. This has been supposed by many commentators to have been opium. The origin of the word is vi), " not," and irkp9og, "grief;" and, as Fee says, it would seem to indicate rather a composition than a plant. Saffron, mandragore, nightshade, and even tea and coffee, have been suggested by the active imaginations of various writers. Fee is of opinion that it is impossible to come to any satisfactory conclusion, but inclines to the belief that either the poppy or a preparation from it, is meant. In confirmation of this opinion, it is a singular fact, that, as Dr. Paris remarks (in his Pharmacologia), the Nepenthes of Homer was ob- tained from Thebes in Egypt, and that tincture of opium, or laudanum, has received the name of "Thebaic tincture." Gorraeus, in his " Defini- tiones Medicse," thinks that the herb alluded to is the Inula Campania, or Elecampane, which was also said to have derived its name of " Helenium" from Helen. Dr. Greenhill, in Smith's Dictionary of An- tiquities, inclines to the opinion that it was opium. See the article " Pharmaceutica." 1 See c. 34 of this Book. Both of the plants mentioned share the me- dicinal properties of wormwood, being stimulants, tonics, anthelmintics, and febrifuges. It would be dangerous, however, Fee says, to administer them in most of the cases mentioned by Pliny, nor would they be good for strangury, or affections of the chest. 378 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. properties; hence it is, that it is so beneficial for maladies of the sinews,2 for cough, hardness of breathing, convulsions, rup- tures, lumbago, and strangury. Several handfuls of this plant are boiled down to one-third, and the decoction of it, in doses of four cyathi, is administered in drink. The seed is given, pounded, in water, in doses of one drachma; it is very good for affections of the uterus. Mixed with barley-meal, this plant brings tumours to a head, and boiled with quinces, it is employed as a liniment for inflammations of the eyes. It keeps away serpents, and for their stings it is either taken in wine, or else employed in combination with it as a liniment. It is extremely efficacious, also, for the stings of those noxious insects by which shivering fits and chills are produced, such as the scorpion and the spider called " phalangium,"3 for example; taken in a potion, it is good for other kinds of poison, as also for shivering fits, how- ever produced, and for the extraction of foreign substances ad- hering to the flesh ; it has the effect, also, of expelling intes- tinal worms. It is stated that a sprig of this plant, if put be- neath the pillow, will act as an aphrodisiac, and that it is of the very greatest efficacy against all those charms and spells by which impotence is produced. CHAP. 93. (22.)—ONE REMEDY DERIVED FROM THE LEUCANTHE- MUM. NINE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE AMARACUS. The leucanthemum,4 mixed with two-thirds of vinegar, is curative of asthma. The sampsuchum or amaracus,5—that of Cyprus being the most highly esteemed, and possessed of the finest smell—is a remedy for the stings of scorpions, applied to the wound with vinegar and salt. Used as a pessary, too, it is very beneficial in cases of menstrual derangement; but when taken in drink, its properties are not so powerfully de- veloped. Used with polenta, it heals defluxions of the eyes; and the juice of it, boiled, dispels gripings of the stomach. It is useful, too, for strangury and dropsy; and in a dry state, it promotes sneezing. There is an oil extracted from it, known 2 " Nervis." Pliny had no knowledge, probably, of the nervous system; but Fee seems to think that such is his meaning here. See B. xi. c. 88. 3 See B. xi. cc. 24, 28, and 29. 4 See c. 34 of this Book ; also B, xxii. c. 26. 5 See c. 35 of this Book. Chap. 94.] THE ANEMONE OR PHRENION. 379 as "sampsuchinum," or " amaracinum," which is very good for warming and softening the sinews; it has a warming effect, also, upon the uterus. The leaves are good for bruises, beaten up with honey, and, mixed with wax, for sprains. CHAP. 94. (23.)--TEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ANEMONE OR PHRENION. We have as yet spoken6 only of the anemone used for making chaplets ; we will now proceed to describe those kinds which are employed for medicinal purposes. Some persons give the name of " phrenion" to this plant: there are two species of it; one of which is wild,7 and the other grows on cultivated8 spots; though they are, both of them, attached to a sandy Boil. Of the cultivated anemone there are numerous varieties; some, and these are the most abundant, have a scarlet flower, while others, again, have a flower that is purple or else milk- white. The leaves of all these three kinds bear a strong re- semblance to parsley, and it is not often that they exceed half a foot in height, the head being very similar to that of aspa- ragus. The flower never opens, except while the wind is blowing, a circumstance to which it owes its name.9 The wild anemone is larger than the cultivated one, and has broader leaves, with a scarlet flower. Some persons erroneously take the wild anemone to be the same as the argemone,10 while others, again, identify it with the poppy which we have mentioned11 under the name of "rhoeas:" there is, however, a great difference between them, as these two other plants blossom later than the anemone, nor does the anemone possess a juice or a calyx like theirs; besides which, it terminates in a head like that of asparagus. The various kinds of anemone are good for pains and in- flammations of the head, diseases of the uterus, and stoppage of the milk in females ; taken, too, in a ptisan, or applied as a pessary in wool, they promote the menstrual discharge. The root, chewed, has a tendency to bring away the phlegm, and 8 In c. 38 of this Book. 7 The Anemone coronaria of Linnaeus, Fee thinks. 8 Probably the Adonis aestivalis of Linnaeus, a ranunculus. These plants are of an acrid, irritating nature, and rank at the present day among the vegetable poisons. 9 The " wind-flower," from the Greek avtpoQ, " wind." 10 See B. xxv. c. 26. " Id B- xix. c. 53. 3S0 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. is a cure for tooth-ache: a decoction of it is good, too, for defluxions of the eyes,12 and effaces the scars left by wounds. The Magi have attributed many very wonderful properties to these plants : they recommend it to be gathered at the earliest moment in the year that it is seen, and certain words to be repeated, to the effect that it is being gathered as a remedy for tertian and quartan fevers ; after which the flower must be wrapped up in red cloth and kept in the shade, in order to be attached to the person when wanted. The root of the ane- mone with a scarlet flower, beaten up and applied to the body of any animated being,13 produces an ulcer there by the agency of its acrid qualities; hence it is that it is so much employed as a detergent for ulcerous sores. CHAP. 95. (24.)—SIX REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE C3NANTHE. The cenanthe14 is a plant which is found growing upon rocks, has the leaf of the parsnip, and a large root with nu- merous fibres. The stalk of it and the leaves, taken with honey and black wine, facilitate delivery and bring away the after-birth : taken with honey, also, they are a cure for cough, and act as a powerful diuretic. The root of this plant is cura- tive of diseases of the bladder. CHAP. 96. (25.)--ELEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HELICHRYSOS. The helichrysos is by some persons called the " chrysan- themon.14* It has small, white branches, with leaves of a whitish colour, similar to those of the abrotonum. The clusters, disposed around it, and glistening like gold in the rays of the sun, are never known to fade; hence it is that they make chaplets of it for the gods, a custom which was most faithfully observed by Ptolemaeus, the king of Egypt. This plant grows in shrubberies : taken in wine, it acts as a diuretic and emme- nagogue, and, in combination with honey, it is employed topi- cally for burns. It is taken also in potions for the stings of serpents, and for pains in the loins; and, with honied wine, it 12 As Fee remarks, it would be very dangerous to use it. 13 " Cuique animalium." 14 The (Enanthe pimpinellifolia of Linnaeus. If taken internally, Fee says, it would tend to aggravate the disease so treated, in a very high degree. »* See c. 38. Also B. xxvi. c. 55. Chap. 98.] THE LYCHNIS. 381 removes coagulated blood in the abdominal regions and the bladder. The leaves of it, beaten up and taken in doses of three oboli, in white wine, arrest the menstrual discharge when in excess. The smell of this plant is far from disagreeable, and hence it is kept with clothes, to protect them from the attacks of vermin. CHAP. 97. (26.)--EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE HYACINTH. The hyacinth15 grows in Gaul more particularly, where it is employed for the dye called " hysginum."16 The root of it is bulbous, and is well known among the dealers in slaves : applied to the body, with sweet wine, it retards the signs of puberty,17 and prevents them from developing themselves. It is curative, also, of gripings of the stomach, and of the bites of spiders, and it acts as a diuretic. The seed is administered, with abrotonum, for the stings of serpents and scorpions, and for jaundice. CHAP. 98.—SEVEN REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE LYCHNIS. The seed of the lychnis,18 too, which is just the colour of fire, is beaten up and taken in drink for the stings of serpents, scorpions, hornets, and other insects of similar nature: the wild variety, however, is prejudicial to the stomach. It acts as a laxative to ' the bowels; and, taken in doses of two drachmae, is remarkably efficacious for carrying off the bile. So extremely baneful is it to scorpions, that if they so much as see it, they are struck with torpor. The people of Asia call the root of it " bolites," and they say that if it is attached to the body it will effectually disperse albugo.19 15 Seec. 38 of this Book; also B. xvi. c. 31. 16 From the herb "hysge," used for dyeing a deep red. See B. ix. c. 65, and B. xxi. c. 36. No such colour, Fee says, can be obtained from the petals of either the Lilium Martagon or the Gladiolus communis, with which it has been identified. 17 It has no such effect; and the slave-dealers certainly lost their pains in cosmetizing their slaves with it, their object being to make them look younger than they really were, and not older, as Hardouin 6eems to think. 18 See c. 10 of this Book. 19 White specks in the pupil of the eye, or whiteness of the cornea. 382 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. CHAP. 99. (27.)—FOUR REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE VINCA- PERVINCA. The vincapervinca,20 too, or chamaedaphne,21 is dried and pounded, and given to dropsical patients in water, in doses of one spoonful; a method of treatment which speedily draws off the water. A decoction of it, in ashes, with a sprinkling of wine, has the effect of drying tumours : the juice, too, is em- ployed as a remedy for diseases of the ears. Applied to the regions of the stomach, this plant is said to be remarkably good for diarrhoea. CHAP. 100.--THREE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM BUTCHER'S BE00M. A decoction of the root of butcher's broom22 is recommended to be taken every other day for calculus in the bladder, strangury, and bloody urine. The root, however, should be taken up one day, and boiled the next, the proportion of it being one sextarius to two cyathi of wine. Some persons beat up the root raw, and take it in water: it is generally considered, too, that there is nothing in existence more beneficial to the male organs than the young stalks of the plant, beaten up and used with vinegar. CHAP. 101.—TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE BATIS. The batis,23 too, relaxes the bowels, and, beaten up raw, it is employed topically for the gout. The people of Egypt cultivate the acinos,24 too, both as an article of food and for making chaplets. This plant would be the same thing as ocimum, were it not that the leaves and branches of it are rougher, and that it has a powerful smell. It promotes the catamenia, and acts as a diuretic. CHAP. 102. (28.)--TWO REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE COLOCASIA. The colocasia,25 according to Glaucias, softens the acridity of humours of the body, and is beneficial to the stomach. 20 See c. 39 of this Book. 21 " Ground-laurel." 22 See c. 50, and B. xxiii. c. 83. The medicinal properties of this plant are not developed to any great extent; but it was thought till lately, Fee says, to be an excellent diuretic. 23 See c. 49 andB. xxvi. c. 50. 24 The Thymus acinos of Linnaeus. 25 See c. 51 of this Book. It is an alimentary plant, but eaten raw, it is possessed of some acridity. Chap. 104] THE PARTHENIUM, LEUCANTHES, OR AMARACUS. 383 CHAP. 103. (29.)--SIX REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE ANTHYL- LIUM OR ANTHYLLUM. The people of Egypt eat the anthalium,28 but I cannot find that they make any other use of it; but there is another plant called the " anthyllium,"27 or, by some persons, the "anthyl- lum," of which there are two kinds : one, similar in its leaves and branches to the lentil, a palm in height, growing in sandy soils exposed to the sun, and of a somewhat saltish taste; the other, bearing a strong resemblance to the chamaepitys,28 but smaller and more downy, with a purple flower, a strong smell, and growing in stony spots. The first kind, mixed with rose-oil and applied with milk, is extremely good for affections of the uterus and all kinds of sores : it is taken as a potion for strangury and gravel in the kidneys, in doses of three drachmae. The other kind is taken in drink, with oxymel, in doses of four drachmae, for indura- tions of the uterus, gripings of the bowels, and epilepsy. CHAP. 104. (30.)--EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE PARTHE- NIUM, LEUCANTHES, OR AMARACUS. The parthenium29 is by some persons called the "leucan- thes," and by others the " amaracus." Celsus, among the Latin writers, gives it the names of " perdicium"30 and "mu- ralis." It grows in the hedge-rows of gardens, and has the smell of an apple, with a bitter taste. With the decoction of it, fomentations are made for maladies of the fundament, and for inflammations and indurations of the uterus: dried and applied with honey and vinegar, it carries off black bile, for which reason it is considered good for vertigo and calculus in the bladder. It is employed as a liniment, also, for erysipe- las, and, mixed with stale axle-grease, for scrofulous sores. For tertian fevers the Magi recommend that it should be taken up with the left hand, it being mentioned at the time for whom it is gathered, care being also taken not to look back 26 The Cyperus esculentus of Linnaeus, the esculent souchet. 27 The two varieties are identified with the Cressa Cretica and the Teucrium iva of Linnaeus. The latter plant is said to be a sudorific. 28 See B. xxvi. c. 53. 29 The Matricaria parthenium of Linnaeus. See c. 52. 30 De Be Med. ii. 33. It must not be confounded with the plant of that name mentioned in c. 62 of this Book. 384 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. while doing so : a leaf of it should be laid beneath the patient's tongue, after which it must be eaten in a cyathus of water. CHAP. 105. (31.)—EIGHT REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE TEYCH- NUM OR STRYCHNUM, HALICACABUM, CALL1AS, DORCYNION, MANICON, NEURAS, MORIO, OR MOLY. The trychnon31 is by some called " strychnon;" I only wish that the garland-makers of Egypt would never use this plant in making their chaplets, being deceived as they are by the resemblance in the leaves of both kinds to those of ivy. One of these kinds, bearing scarlet berries with a stone, enclosed in follicules, is by some persons called the "halicacabum,"32 by others the " callion," and by the people of our country, the " vesicaria," from the circumstance of its being highly bene- ficial to the bladder33 and in cases of calculus. The trychnon is more of a woody shrub than a herb, with large follicules, broad and turbinated, and a large berry within, which ripens in the month of November. A third34 kind, again, has a leaf resembling that of ocimum—but it is not my intention to give an exact description of it, as I am here speak- ing of remedies, and not of poisons; for a few drops of the juice, in fact, are quite sufficient to produce insanity. The Greek writers, however, have even turned this property into matter for jesting; for, according to them, taken in doses of one drachma, this plant is productive of delusive and prurient fancies, and of vain, fantastic visions, which vividly present all the appearance of reality: they say, too, that if the dose is doubled, it will produce downright madness, and that any fur- ther addition to it, will result in instant death. This is the same plant which the more well-meaning writers have called in their innocence " dorycnion,"35 from the circum- stance that weapons used in battle are poisoned with it—for it grows everywhere—while others, again, who have treated of it 31 The Solanum nigrum of Linnaeus, or black night-shade. See B. xxiii. c. 108. 32 The Physalis alkekengi of Linnaeus; red night-shade, alkekengi, or winter cherry. Fee remarks, that the varieties of this plant in Egypt are very numerous, and that in many places, till very recently, it was em- ployed as an article of food. 33 " Vesica." 34 The Solanum viUosum of Lamarck. 35 From Sopi, a " spear." Chap. 105.1 THE HALICACABUM. 385 more at length,38 have given it the surname of " manicon."37 Those, on the other hand, who have iniquitously concealed its real qualities, give it the name of " erythron" or "neuras," and others "perisson"—details, however, which need not be entered into more fully, except for the purpose of putting persons upon their guard. There is another kind, again, also called " halicacabum,'' which possesses narcotic qualities, and i3 productive of death even more speeduy than opium : by some persons it is called "morio," and by others "moly."38 It has, however, been highly extolled by Diocles and Evenor, and, indeed, Timaristus has gone so far as to sing its praises in verse. With a wonder- ful obliviousness of remedies really harmless, they tell us, for- sooth, that it is an instantaneous remedy for loose teeth to rinse them with halicacabum steeped in wine : but at the same time they add the qualification that it must not be kept in the mouth too long, or else delirium will be the result. This, how- ever, is pointing out remedies with a vengeance, the employ- ment of which will be attended with worse results than the malady itself. There is a third kind39 of halicacabum, that is esteemed as an article of food ; but even though the flavour of it may be pre- ferred to garden plants, and although Xenocrates assures us that there is no bodily malady for which the trychnos is not highly beneficial, they are none of them so valuable as to make me think it proper to speak more at length upon the subject, more particularly as there are so many other remedies, which are unattended with danger. Persons who wish to pass themselves off for true prophets, and who know too well how to impose 'upon the superstitions of others, take the root of the halicaca- bum in drink. The remedy against this poison—and it is with much greater pleasure that I state it—is to drink large quan- tities of honied wine made hot. I must not omit the fact, too, that this plant is naturally so baneful to the asp, that when the root is placed near that reptile, the very animal which kills others by striking them with torpor, is struck with torpor 36 " Apertius," as suggested by Sillig, is a preferable reading to " par- cius." 37 From pdvia, " madness." 38 The Physalis somnifera of Linnaeus, the somniferous nightshade. 39 The Solanum melongena of Linnaeus. VOL. IV. C C 386 PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY. [Book XXI. itself; hence it is, that, beaten up with oil, it is used as a euro for the sting of the asp. CHAP. 106.—SIX MEDICINES DERIVED FEOM THE COR- CHORUS. The corchorus40 is a plant which is used at Alexandria as au article of food: the leaves of it are rolled up, one upon the other, like those of the mulberry, and it is wholesome, it is said, for the viscera, and in cases of alopecy, being good also for the removal of freckles. I find it stated also, that it cures the scab in cattle very rapidly : and, according to Nicander,41 it is a remedy for the stings of serpents, if gathered before it blossoms. CHAP. 107.—THREE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM THE CNECOS. There would be no necessity to speak at any length of the cnecos or atractylis,42 an Egyptian plant, were it not for the fact that it offers a most efficacious remedy for the stings of veno- mous animals, as also in cases of poisoning by fungi. It is a well-known fact, that persons, when stung by the scorpion, are not sensible of any painful effects so long as they hold this plant in their hand. CHAP. 108. (33.)—ONE REMEDY DERIVED FROM THE PESOLUTA. The Egyptians also cultivate the pesoluta43 in their gardens, for chaplets. There are two kinds of this plant, the male and the female: either of them, it is said, placed beneath the per- son, when in bed, acts as an antaphrodisiac, upon the male sex more particularly. CHAP. 109. (34.)--AN EXPLANATION OF GREEK TERMS RE- LATIVE TO WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. As we have occasion to make use of Greek names very fre- quently when speaking of weights and measures,441 shall here subjoin, once for all, some explanation of them. The Attic drachma—for it is generally the Attic reckoning 40 The Corchorus olitorius of Linnaeus. See B. xxv. c. 92. 41 Theriaca, p. 44. 42 See c. 53 of this Book. 43 It has not been identified. Dalechamps, without any proof, identifies it with the Tussilago petasites of modern botany. 44 See the Introduction to Vol. 111. Chap. 109.] SUMMARY. 387 that medical men employ—is much the same in weight as the silver denarius, and is equivalent to six oboli, the obolus being ten chalci; the cyathus is equal in weight to ten drachmae. When the measure of an acetabulum is spoken of, it is the same as one fourth part of a hemina, or fifteen drachmae in weight. The Greek mna, or, as we more generally call it, " mina," equals one hundred Attic drachmae in weight. Summary.—Remedies, narratives, and observations, seven hundred and thirty. Roman authors quoted.—Cato the Censor,4* M. Varro,46 An- tias,47 Csepio,48 Vestinus,49 Vibius Rufus,50 Hyginus,61 Pompo- uius Mela,52 Pompeius Lenaeus,53 Cornelius Celsus,54 Calpurnius Bassus,55 C. Valgius,56 Licinius Macer,57 Sextius Niger58 who wrote in Greek, Julius Bassus59 who wrote in Greek, Antonius Castor.60 Foreign authors quoted.—Theophrastus,"1 Democritus,62 Orpheus,63 Pythagoras,64 Mago,65 MenanderM who wrote the Biochresta, Nicander,67 Homer, Hesiod,68 Musaeus,69 Sophocles,70 Anaxilaus.71 45 See end of B. iii. 46 See end of B. ii. 47 See end of B. ii. 48 A writer on flowers and chaplets, in the time of Tiberius. Nothing whatever beyond this seems to be known of him. _ 43 C Julius Atticus Vestinus, or, according to some authorities, M. At- ticus Vestinus. He was consul a.d. 65; and, though innocent, was put to death by Nero's order, for alleged participation in the conspiracy ot Biso. » See end of B. xiv. 51 See end of B. in. « See end of B. iii. 53 See end of B. xiv. « See end of B. vii. 55 See end of B. xvi. »6 See end of B. xx. 57 See end of B. xix. « See end of B. xii. 59 See end of B. xx. e° See end of B. xx. See also B. xxv. c. o. « See end of B. iii. «" bee end of B. ii. « See end of B. xx. 64 See end of B. n. « See end of B. viii. 6 See end of B. xix. 67 see end of B viii. See end ot B- V11> » An alleged disciple of Orpheus, and probably as fabulous a personage. Manv worksfnow lost, passed under his name. "9One of the most celebrated of the Greek tragic writers; born b.c 49* Of his 127 tragedies, only seven have come down to us n A l'vthu°orean philosopher, a native ot one of the cities called La- J ° o C 2 388 pliny's NATURAL HISTORY. [Hook XXI. Medical authors quoted.—Mnesitheus72 who wrote on Chaplets, Callimachus73 who wrote on Chaplets, Phanias74 the physician, Simus,73 Timaristus,76 Hippocrates,77 Chrysippus,7" Diocles,79 Ophelion,80 Heraclides,81 Hicesius,82 Dionysius,83 Apol- lodorus M of Citium, Apollodorus ^ of Tarentum, Praxagoras,86 Plistonicus,87 Medius,88 Dieuches,89 Cleophantus,90 Philistio,91 Asclepiades,92 Crateuas,93 Petronius Diodotus,94 Iollas,95 Erasis- tratus,96 Diagoras,97 Andreas,98 Mnesides,99 Epicharmus,1 Da-. mion,2 Dalion,3 Sosimenes,4 Tlepolemus,6 Metrodorus,6 Solo,7 Lycus,8 Oiympias9 of Thebes, Philinus,10 Petrichus,11 Micton,12 Glaucias,13 Xenocrates.14 rissa. Being accused of magical practices, he was banished from the city of Borne by the Emperor Augustus. The explanation of these charges is, that he probably possessed a superior knowledge of natural philosophy. See B. xxv. c. 95. B. xxviii. c. 49. B. xxxii. c. 52, and B. xxxv. c. 50. 72 A physician, a native of Athens in the fourth century B.C. He is supposed to have belonged to the sect of the Dogmatici, and was greatly celebrated for his classification of diseases. He wrote on diet and drink, among other subjects. 73 Probably the same writer that is mentioned at the end of B. iv.; or, possibly, a physician of that name, who was a disciple of Ilerophilus, and lived about the second century b.c. 14 A distinguished Peripatetic philosopher of Eresos in Lesbos, a disciple of Aristotle, and a contemporary of Theophrastus. 75 Of this writer, nothing whatever is known, beyond the mention made of him in c. 88 of this Book, and in B. xxii. c. 32. 76 Nothing whatever is known relative to this writer. 77 See end of B. vii. 78 See end of B. xx. 79 See end of B. xx. 80 See end of B. xx. 81 For Heraclides of Pontus, see end of B. iv. For Heraclides of Ta- rentum, see end of B. xii. b- Sue end of B. xv. 83 See end of B. xii. 64 See end of B. xx. 83 See end of B. xx. 66 See end of B. xx. 87 See end of B. xx. ss See end of B. xx. 8D See end of B. xx. 90 See end of B. xx. 91 See end of H. xx. 93 See end of B. vii. 33 See end of B. xx. 94 See end of B. xx. 95 See end of B. xii. 96 See end of B. xi. 97 See end of B. xii. 98 See end of B. xx. 99 See end of B. xii. 1 See end of B. xx. 2 See end of B. xx. 3 See end of B. vi. * See end of B. xx. 6 See end of B. xx. 6 See end of B