CLAYTON 
FOOD HABITS Clayton* Mary Morris 
#fA four-year study of the food habits and 
physical condition of grade-school children 
in Newport* Maine* Orono* Univ, Maine* 
Maine Agr* exp* station (1944) 
(Maine Agr* Ezper* Station Bull* 
no* 430) 
(Title page was removed at Bindery) FABLE OF CONTENTS 
PAGE 
Introduction , 81 
Previous studies of the food habits and physical condition of 
Maine children 82 
Plan for present study 82 
Purpose 82 
Choice of location 83 
Personnel 83 
Data secured 83 
Order of work 84 
Physical examinations 85 
Examiners 85 
Procedure for examinations 85 
Methods of examination 85 
Results of physical examinations 89 
Physical measurements 97 
Height 99 
Weight 106 
Type of build 112 
Evaluation of the McCloy method for determining normal 
weight and the McCloy weight, fat, and limb 
girth indices *.. 115 
Physical changes during adolescence 117 
Dental examinations 120 
Method of examination 121 
Results of dental examinations 122 
Home visits 133 
Nationality of parents i 133 
Language spoken in the homes 134 
Occupations of chief wage earners 134 
Education of parents 137 
Food production and preservation for family use 137 
Prenatal history 147 
History during infancy 148 
Preschool history 151 
Food habits of grade-school children 153 
Health habits 168 
Illnesses and operations 170 
Discussion 173 
Summary 182 
Conclusions 187 
References 187 
Appendix 192 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
Grateful acknowledgment is made to fellow staff members and 
to the many other persons who took part in this study, especially 
to the superintendents, principals, teachers, and pupils of the 
cooperating schools, to Miss Dorothy Bryant and Dr. Philip W. 
Woods of the State Department of Health and Welfare and to 
Professors Pearl S. Greene, Marion D. Sweetman, and George F. 
Dow of the College of Agriculture of the University of Maine. BULLETIN 430 
A FOUR-YEAR STUDY OF THE FOOD HABITS 
AND PHYSICAL CONDITION OF GRADE- 
SCHOOL CHILDREN IN 
NEWPORT, MAINE1 
Mary M. Clayton 
INTRODUCTION 
The war has brought about certain changes in food production 
and consumption in Maine which no doubt already have had some 
effect on the general health and nutrition of the people. A general 
shortage of certain items, such as meat, might be expected to have 
a detrimental effect unless adequate substitutes are both available 
and consumed in sufficient quantity. However, a number of factors 
have been operating which have probably been favorable. Among 
these can be mentioned the following: increased income for many 
families; increased interest in food values (as a result of educa- 
tional programs and food rationing) ; the availability of nutritious 
new foods, such as the soy products; the enrichment of cereal prod- 
ucts ; an increase in the number and size of home gardens; increased 
food preservation; and the development of the hot school lunch 
program. If the present general interest in health and nutrition 
can be maintained after the war there is reason to expect that nutri- 
tional defects which have been so common in the past may greatly 
decrease. 
The present study gives a report of nutrition surveys of grade- 
school children which were made in four Maine towns between the 
years 1934-40. The results indicate that there is much which 
can be done to improve the health and nutrition of present and 
coming generations of Maine children. 
1 Including comparisons with findings secured in three other Maine 
towns. 82 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
PREVIOUS STUDIES OF THE FOOD HABITS AND 
PHYSICAL CONDITION OF MAINE CHILDREN 
In the fall of 1934 and spring of 1935 the Home Economics 
Department of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station con- 
ducted a survey of the food habits and nutritional status of grade- 
school children in three Maine towns: Mars Hill, Jonesport, and 
Monmouth.2 This feurvey gave evidence of the prevalence of the 
following types of nutritional defects in the three towns studied: 
1. Bone defects resulting from rickets in infancy. 
2. Malocclusion and dental caries. 
3. Inflamed gums and other evidence of vitamin C deficiency 
4. Anemia. 
5. Underweight. 
The prevalence of vitamin C deficiency in a northern Maine 
town was also shown in recent studies by Crane and Woods (1941) 
and Murphy (1941). 
The Experiment Station survey also gave evidence of some 
differences in the frequency of the occurrence of certain types of 
nutritional defects in the children of the different towns. This was 
to be expected, owing to differences in agriculture, industry, trans- 
portation facilities, and climate in the areas of the State represented. 
PLAN FOR PRESENT STUDY 
Purpose 
The present four-year study, made in Newport, Maine, is 
partly a continuation of the survey previously reported (Clayton, 
1940). However, in addition to satisfying the need for similar 
data from a fourth town located in a different type of environment, 
it seemed desirable to follow the food habits and physical condition 
of the same group of children over a period of years, in order to 
determine the effect of such factors as health education and changing 
economic conditions. Also, since several studies have recently been 
2 In Mars Hill the studies were continued in 1935-36 and 1936-37. The 
data secured in all three towns between fall 1934 and spring 1936 have been 
reported by Clayton (1940). Physical Condition of Maine Children 
83 
published in which consecutive physical measurements were made 
on the same groups of children (Meredith, 1935; Boynton, 1936; 
Dearborn et ah, 1938; Jones and Bayley, 1941), the present study 
offered the opportunity to compare data for the growth and develop- 
ment of a group of Maine children with those secured in other 
states. In the present paper some of the findings for Newport will 
also be compared with those for the other three Maine towns and 
emphasis will be given to those which are of special importance to 
the future health of Maine people. 
Choice of Location 
The town of Newport, situated on the southwestern border of 
Penobscot County, was chosen for the following reasons: It is in a 
different area of the State and is of a somewhat different type from 
the towns previously studied; it has a grade school with a sufficiently 
large enrollment (approximately 250) to provide an adequate group 
for study; it is located within convenient traveling distance of Oro- 
no. In 1940 the population of the town of Newport was 2,052, 
Employment opportunities in the village include those offered by a 
shoddy mill, a saw mill, a wood turning factory, and a milk plant. 
Many small farms and several dairies are in the outlying districts. 
During the period when this study was made there was considerable 
unemployment in the town and many families were receiving town 
or W.P.A. assistance. The children attending the grade school 
came from the village and outlying districts. 
Personnel 
The study was carried on by the writer with the assistance of 
George I. PUggins, M.D., of Newport and Walter L. H. Hall, M.D., 
of Old Town; Dorothy Bryant, D.H., Associate Director Division 
of Dental Health, State Department of Health and Welfare, and 
Philip W. Woods, D.D.S., Director, Division of Dental Health, 
State Department of Health and Welfare. 
Data Secured 
The data secured include the results of physical examinations 
(Form 1, Appendix), physical measurements (Form 1, Appendix:), 84 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
dental examinations (Form 2, Appendix), vitamin C studies, infor- 
mation secured at home visits (Form 3, Appendix), and diet rec- 
ords kept by the children at school (Form 4, Appendix). 
Order of Work 
1936- Work at Newport3 was begun in the fall of 1936 
with physical examinations by Dr. Higgins, physical measurements 
by the writer, and dental (teeth and gums) examinations by Miss 
Bryant. Also, for one week in the fall, all of the children above the 
third grade kept diet records at school. Only the physical measure- 
ments were repeated in the spring. 
1937- Physical and dental examinations and physical 
measurements were made in the fall by the same personnel as in 
the fall of 1936. After these were completed, the writer visited 
the home of each child and secured information regarding family 
food production and preservation, and data regarding the past and 
present diets and health of the grade-school children. Gum ex- 
aminations by Miss Bryant and physical measurements were re- 
peated in the spring. Another set of diet records also was secured 
at that time. Six-hour saturation tests for vitamin C deficiency 
were made on a small group of children to test the practicability 
of the method. 
1938- No physical examinations were made in the fall, 
owing to the illness of Dr. Higgins. Howrever, dental examinations 
(teeth by Miss Bryant, gums by Dr, Woods) and physical 
measurements were made as in previous years. Also six-hour sat- 
uration tests were made on a group of 67 children. In the spring 
gum examinations were repeated by Dr. Woods, who also co- 
operated with the writer in making some curative tests (with vita- 
min C) on a group of 23 children with inflamed gums and 3 normal 
controls. Physical measurements were made as in the fall. 
1939- Physical examinations (by Dr. Hall), dental ex- 
aminations (teeth by Miss Bryant, gums by Dr. Woods), and 
3 In 1936-37 studies were also continued in Mars Hill. These included 
observations on physical condition, physical measurements (McCloy, 1936, 
1938), and diet records kept by the children at school for one week. All 
data were secured by the writer. These results will be briefly reported in 
the present publication. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
85 
physical measurements were made in the fall. In the spring gum 
examinations and physical measurements were repeated and diet 
records were secured as in the fall of 1936 and the spring of 1938. 
PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS 
Examiners 
Circumstances prevented the use of the same physician 
throughout the Newport study. Therefore, each year at the time of 
the spring measurements, the writer checked the findings made by 
the physician the previous fall (except in the spring of 1939, when 
she made independent observations). Since the writer’s findings 
provided directly comparable data for the different years, they 
were used instead of those of the physicians in summarizing the 
physical defects. 
Procedure for Examinations 
Since physical measurements were made at the time of the 
physical examinations, the children were asked to urinate before 
being examined in order to bring their weights to a standard level. 
All clothes were removed in improvised dressing rooms and one 
piece examining gowns put on. The outline given in Form 1 
(Appendix) was used for the examinations. The key used to 
describe the conditions found follows Form 1. (See p. 194.) 
Methods of Examination 
Posture. Posture was noted during both standing and walk- 
ing and rated according to age.4 A child was considered to have 
good posture if he appeared to be able to habitually hold himself 
erect, and to have adequately developed and well balanced muscles 
and well aligned bones. 
Nutrition. Nutrition was rated from general appearance 
rather than specific tests. The usual criteria were used in judging, 
4 Certain characteristics of posture, such as protruding abdomen and 
hollow back (lordosis) are normally seen in children below age 6 but are 
considered as postural defects in older children. 86 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
the principal ones being amount of subcutaneous fat, muscular 
development, color and texture of skin and color of mucous mem- 
branes. In most cases the estimates referred to the child’s state 
of nutrition at the time of the examination. However, when he 
was definitely undersized or showed signs of having had rickets 
these findings influenced the ratings given by the examiners, even 
though they were the result of faulty nutrition in the past. The 
condition of the teeth and gums was not considered in the estimate 
of nutrition. 
Vision. Since vision tests were made each year by the room 
teachers these tests were not repeated by the physician or nutri- 
tionist. 
Hearing. Audiometer tests were made each year by the visit- 
ing school nurse. The physician’s judgment of hearing was based 
only on observation and questioning. 
Ears. Examinations were made with an electric auriscope. 
Nasal obstruction. Each nostril was closed in turn to see 
if the child could breathe through the open nostril. 
Mouth. The physician’s examination of the mouth was only 
superficial, since a detailed examination of the teeth and mouth 
was made by the dental hygienist. 
Tonsils. A wooden tongue depressor and electric flash light 
were used. Note was made on the examination card under “Rec- 
ommendations” if the physician thought the tonsils should be re- 
moved. 
Heart and lungs. A stethoscope was used. 
Abdomen. The children were examined in the standing posi- 
tion. 
Height. The height board consisted of a wooden platform 
to the back edge of which a board was attached (by 2 adjustable 
screws). A steel tape measure, graduated in inches, was tacked 
to the center of this board. In obtaining a child’s height he stood 
on the platform with heels, hips, upper part of back, and head 
touching the upright board, his hands hanging loosely and his 
head level. He was not told to “stand tall.” The measurement 
was obtained by the use of a wooden square which was held level, 
and pressed down firmly on the top of the head. A flange on the 
right side of the vertical portion of the square fitted over the edge 
of the height board and helped to keep the square level. Readings 
were made to the nearest % inch. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
87 
IVeight. The children were weighed in their examining 
gowns, allowance being made for the weight of the gown. A nurse’s 
portable platform scale (Continental Scale Works, Chicago) was 
used. The scale was carefully balanced at least twice daily and 
the weight obtained to the nearest ounce. 
Other measurements. For a list of those obtained see p. 115 
and Form 1 (Appendix). The techniques used were those of 
McCloy (1936, 1938). 
Breathing capacity. No measurements were made. 
Hemoglobin. No determinations were made. 
Six-hour vitamin C saturation test. The procedure used for 
this test was a modification of that used by Harris and Abbasy 
(1937). It involved having the children save six-hour urine 
samples and keep diet records on two consecutive days at school. 
On the first day the urine was voided at 8:30 a.m. and dis- 
carded. All urine voided after that time, up to and including 
2:30 p.m., was collected in wide mouthed amber glass liter bottles 
with rubber stoppers. For a preservative, 20 ml. of glacial acetic 
acid and 20 gms. of powdered metaphosphoric acid were put into 
each bottle. Bottles were kept in portable picnic ice boxes between 
collections and until the urine was titrated later in the afternoon. 
On the second day the procedure was the same as on the 
first day, with the exception that after the urine was voided at 
8:30 a.m. 400 mg. of vitamin C was given in tablet form. 
In order to determine the amount of vitamin C excreted each 
day the total volume of urine was measured and 2 to 5 ml. samples 
titrated5 against a standardized solution of purified 2 :6 dichloro- 
benzenoneindophenol (Eastman Kodak Company). For the titra- 
tion the urine was measured into a 20 ml. beaker and the indi- 
cator solution run in until a pink color appeared which persisted 
5 seconds. The appearance of this color was determined by com- 
parison with another measured amount of urine. A 5 ml. burette 
with .02 ml. graduations was used. Merck’s Cebione was used 
in the preparation of the standardized indicator solution. 
5 The urine was acidified before measuring by mixing 15 ml. with 5 ml. 
of 20 per cent acid (18 per cent trichloracetic and 2 per cent metaphos- 
phoric). In recent work this acidification has been found to be unnecessary, 
since the urine is made sufficiently acid by the acetic and metaphosphoric 
acids used as preservatives. Preliminary dilution is sometimes necessary 
when the samples are very high in vitamin C. 88 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 1 
Summary of Physical Defects Found in Newport and Mars Hill 
Grade-School Children • 
Newport 
Mars Hill 
Spring 
1937 
Spring 
1938 
Spring 
1939 
Spring 
1940 
Spring 
1937 
Numbers in groups 
240 
231 
201 
210 
230 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Bosses on skull 
11.7 
11.3 
10.0 
11.0 
4.8 
Defect of spine (more than 
slight) 
5.0 
3.9 
2.5 
2.4 
1.3 
One or more chest defects 
(more than slight) 
23.0 
24.7 
16.4 
11.4 
15.2 
Pronated feet* (more 
than slight) 
43.3 
50.2 
45.8 
41.4 
25.7 
Bowlegs 
9.2 
7.8 
7.5 
4.8 
7.8 
Knockknees 
16.3 
18.2 
13.4 
8.1 
10.4 
Pair posture 
30.0 
31.2 
22.9 
23.8 
23.9 
Poor posture 
6.7 
6.5 
7.0 
6.2 
6.5 
Pair nutrition 
21.7 
14.7 
15.9 
18.1 
30.9 
Poor nutrition 
5.4 
4.8 
3.0 
1.0 
5.2 
Obesity 
.8 
3.0 
2.5 
1.4 
3.0 
Pale skin 
5.4 
8.7 
3.5 
4.8 
5.2 
Rough dry skin 
23.3 
16.5 
10.9 
13.8 
11.7 
Acne 
3.8 
3.9 
5.5 
3.8 
1.7 
Pale mucous membranes 
.8 
6.1 
0.0 
0.0 
.4 
Strabismus 
1.7 
3.5 
3.0 
2.4 
.4 
Eardrum defects) 
3.3 
2.2 
No exam. 
5.7 
No exam. 
Nasal discharge 
34.2 
22.5 
25.9 
23.8 
39.6 
Mouth breathing 
17.1 
11.3 
13.4 
15.2 
16.5 
Cough 
3.3 
6.9 
7.5 
• 4.3 
6.5 
Enlarged or infected tonsils 
23.8 
27.7 
20.4 
21.9 
33.9 
Tonsils removed 
21.3 
24.2 
25.4 
24.8 
24.3 
Enlarged thyroid 
4.2 
3.5 
4.0 
3.3 
No exam. 
Pailed to gain between fall 
and spring examinations 
2.6 
.9 
5.5 
2.9 
6.8 
Underweight by McCloy 
standards (more than 6% 
below standards) 
30.5 
36.4 
37.3 
36.2 
51.5 
* See footnote 9, p. 91. 
f Prom previous fall examination by physician. 
Vitamin C test for cure of inflamed gums. The children who 
were used for these tests had received gum examinations by Dr. 
Woods six days before the tests were begun. The following cri- 
teria6 were used in rating the degree of inflammation found: 
6 For a more complete explanation of the criteria used in judging 
gum inflammation see Crane and Woods (1941, p. 8). 89 
Physical Condition of Maine Children 
-f- Inflammation is limited to the interdental papillae. 
d--+- Inflammation extends through the interdental tissues 
and up into the tissues covering the crest of the 
alveolar ridge. 
-(--(--f- Se\ere inflammation extends through the interdental 
papillae and through all the tissues of the alveolus, 
d—The severe d~d“d“ reaction in the mouth is accom- 
panied by pain in the joints, hemorrhages in the 
skin, lassitude, and possibly other evidence of 
scurvy. 
In certain cases there was localized inflammation around 
individual teeth associated with caries, malocclusion, or heavy 
deposits of calculus. This localized inflammation was not included 
in the -f- to 4-f- rating but each case was described individually. 
Before the tests were begun a visit was made at the home of 
each child chosen for the test and the mother’s permission and 
promise of cooperation secured. Record sheets, on which were 
listed the consecutive days' of the test, were left with the mothers. 
The children were asked to take one 100 mg. vitamin C tablet7 
each day and at the same time to place a check mark on the 
record sheet opposite the proper day. This gave a record of the 
number of tablets taken, which could be compared with the number 
of tablets left in the bottle at the end of the experiment. 
The tests lasted 21 days and gum examinations were repeated 
on the 10th and 21st days. 
Results of Physical Examinations 
The results of the spring physical examinations made in 
Newport in 1937, 1938, 1939, and 19408 and in Mars Hill in 
1937 are briefly summarized in Table 1. The results of the ex- 
aminations made by physicians in Mars Hill, Jonesport, and Mon- 
mouth in the spring of 1935 (Clayton, 1940, p. 15) and by the 
7 The vitamin C tablets for these tests were supplied by the United 
Drug Company of Boston. 
8 As previously stated (p. 85), these examinations were made by the 
nutritionist, who, as far as possible, checked the findings made by the phy- 
sician the previous fall. 90 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
writer in the spring of 1937 are given in Table 2. The results 
will be discussed in the order in which the headings are given on 
the examination card (Form 1, Appendix). 
TABLE 2 
Summary of Physical Defects Found in Grade-School Children in Four 
Maine Tovens 
Mars Hill 
Spring 
1935 
Jonesport 
Spring 
1935 
Monmouth 
Spring 
1935 
Newport 
Spring 
1937 
Total number of children 
examined 
205 
227 
176 
240 
- 
% 
% 
% 
% 
One or more bone defects 
32.2 
47.6 
37.5 
67.5 
Bosses on skull 
2.9 
.9 
1.7 
11.7 
Defect of spine (more than slight) 
6.3 
5.3 
2.8 
5.0 
One or more chest defects 
(more than slight) 
11.7 
13.2 
14.8 
23.0 
Pronated feet* (more than slight) 
14.6 
37.9 
20.4 
43.3 
Bowlegs 
6.3 
7.5 
7.9 
9.2 
Knoekknees 
1.0 
.9 
.6 
16.7 
Pair posture 
30.2 
10.1 
15.3 
30.0 
Poor posture 
6.4 
4.0 
3.4 
6.7 
Pair nutrition 
32.2 
21.2 
18.8 
21.7 
Poor nutrition 
6.3 
1.3 
3.4 
5.4 
Obesity 
2.0 
,4 
2.3 
.8 
Skin lesions 
4.9 
12.3 
12.5 
13.3 
Strabismus 
4.9 
.4 
1.7 
1.7 
Eardrum defects) 
8.4 
7.3 
21.0 
3.3 
Nasal discharge 
3.4 
37.9 
33.5 
34.2 
Mouth breathing 
18.5 
33.5 
38.1 
17.1 
Enlarged or infected tonsils 
29.8 
24.2 
13.1 
23.8 
Tonsils removed 
19.0 
11.0 
25.0 
21.3 
Enlarged thyroid gland 
1.0 
3.9 
5.7 
4.2 
Pailed to gain between fall and 
spring examinations 
7.3 
5.3 
17.0 
2.6 
* See footnote 9, p. 91. 
t From previous fall examination 
by physician 
Bone development. As will be seen from the tables, bone 
defects were found very frequently in the Newport children, but 
the same types of defects were seen in the children from the other 
towns. The majority of the defects were those which may result 
from rickets in infancy. These include bosses on the skull, high, 
narrow chests, flaring ribs, bowlegs, knockknees, and pronated or Physical Condition of Maine Children 
91 
flat feet.9 In Newport, in the spring of 1940, there was an ap- 
parent decrease in the frequency with which these defects occurred 
in the group as a whole. This improvement is difficult to explain. 
It may have been due to chance variations in the group, to the 
prevention of rickets in a greater number of children by the 
adequate use of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus during preg- 
nancy and infancy, or to the fact that when general nutrition is 
good, bone defects resulting from mild rickets may be hidden by 
the soft tissues and may not be noted in the examination. 
Pronated feet occurred almost twice as frequently in the 
Newport children as in the Mars Hill group (Table 1) ; but from 
Table 2 it will be seen that this defect was also very common in 
the Jonesport children. 
It is .difficult to explain the high incidence of pronated feet 
among Maine children. According to Dr. Carl W. Ruhlin,10 
orthopedic surgeon of Bangor, any of the following may be re- 
sponsible for the condition: 
1. Postural changes, as seen in young children. Up until 
about the age of six most children are knockkneed and 
show pronation (Sweet, 1938). This results from the 
effort to maintain body balance. The knockkneed posture 
causes the child to turn his toes out and to support his 
weight on the inside of his feet. 
2. Postural defects which affect body balance. Too much 
weight on the inside of the foot causes stretching of the 
muscles and ligaments and allows the arches to flatten out. 
Bowlegs and knockknees especially, are often responsible. 
3. Nutritional deficiencies, such as insufficient protein or in- 
sufficient vitamin D (sometimes also calcium or phos- 
phorus), resulting in rickets. Either type of deficiency may 
result in pronation by causing weakness of the ligaments 
in the arches of the feet and weakness of the foot and leg 
muscles. 
4. Muscle imbalance. According to Osgood (1942) this usu- 
ally results from underdevelopment of the muscles which 
9 Only a small proportion of the children with pronated feet showed 
the extreme degree of pronation seen in the condition ordinarily called flat- 
foot by the medical profession. 
10 Personal communication. 92 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
raise the arches of the feet. It may also result from fatigue, 
poor muscle tone after illness, unreasonably long hours of 
standing or walking on very hard surfaces, or improper 
shoes. Extreme muscle imbalance may also result from 
paralysis. 
5. Inherited tendency to flatfoot. This is characterized by 
unusual flexibility in all of the joints. 
Pronation, when due to postural changes, usually disappears 
during preadolescence when good posture becomes established. 
Other types may persist. 
TABLE 3 
Association of Knockknees and Bowlegs with Pronation in 
Children in Newport, Maine 
Grade-School 
Girls 
Ages* 
C & 7 
8 & 9 
10 & 11 
12 & 13 
14 & 15 
No. examined 
89 
105 
108 
94 
38 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
Total with pronation 
38 
42.7 
41 
39.0 
54 
50.0 
43 
45.7 
14 
36.8 
Pronation + knockknees 
11 
12.4 
10 
9.5 
10 
9.3 
6 
6.4 
2 
5.3 
Pronation + bowlegs 
1 
1.1 
2 
1.9 
0 
0.0 
2 
2.1 
3 
7.9 
Boys 
Ages* 
6 & 7 
8 & 9 
10 & 11 
12 & 13 
14 & 15 
No. examined 
75 
82 
108 
119 
51 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
Total with pronation 
34 
45.3 
30 
36.6 
43 
39.8 
67 
56.3 
30 
58.8 
Pronation + knockknees 
8 
10.7 
5 
6.1 
4 
3.7 
8 
6.7 
6 
11.8 
Pronation + bowlegs 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
7 
6.5 
9 
7.6 
7 
13.7 
* To nearest birthday. 
It is difficult to determine how much of the pronation shown 
by the Newport children was due to postural changes and how 
much to other causes. The knoekknees associated with postural Physical Condition of Maine Children 
93 
changes might be expected to persist in some cases beyond the 
age of 6 years—possibly to age 8—and to be responsible for the 
delay in the disappearance of pronation. From age 8 up, however, 
the occurrence of knockknees can probably be related to rickets. 
Bowlegs (physiological) are normally seen in infants but should 
straighten when the child begins to walk (Sweet, Watson, and 
Strafford, 1928). If this does not occur rickets is usually re- 
sponsible. 
Table 3 indicates the frequency with which pronation, associ- 
ated with either knockknees or bowlegs, occurred in the Newport 
children during the four years of this study. It will be seen that 
in all age groups there were many cases of pronation not accom- 
panied by either knockknees or bowlegs. Knockknees occurred' 
more often than bowlegs and, in the girls, tended to decrease in 
frequency with increase in age. In the boys there was a decrease 
through age 11 and then an increase. Bowlegs increased in 
frequency with age. 
Uncorrected pronation in children may become progressively 
worse in later life and cause considerable pain and disability. 
Therefore children with this condition should be under the care 
of a competent physician who may prescribe diet, exercise, correc- 
tive shoes, or possibly surgery in extreme cases. Well fitting 
shoes are a particularly important item in foot health and children 
with weak feet should not be permitted to wear sneakers, lumber- 
man’s rubbers, or other very flat shoes. 
Posture. Postural defects were sometimes seen in children 
who appeared to be well nourished, but occurred most often in 
those rated as having fair or poor nutrition. Such children often 
suffer from muscular weakness and fatigue and are therefore 
unable to maintain good posture. In some cases there were actual 
deformities of the bones of the chest or back which prevented the 
child from standing erect. Knockknees or bowlegs were often 
responsible for poor alignment of the legs and feet. 
Table 2 shows that there were more children with good posture 
in Jonesport and Monmouth than in Mars Hill and Newport. In 
Newport postural defects were more often seen in the girls than 
in the boys during all four years, but in Mars Hill there was very 
little sex difference. 
Nutrition. From Table 1 it will be seen that in 1937 there 
were more children in Mars FTill in fair and poor nutritional condi- 94 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
tion than in Newport during any of the four years. Also, it is evi- 
dent that during the last three years in Newport there were fewer 
malnourished children than during the first year. Although the per- 
centage of children in Mars Hill who had fair or poor nutrition 
was quite high in the spring of 1937 (36.1%), there was an im- 
provement over the previous spring when 42.8% of the children 
were found by the writer to have fair or poor nutrition (Clayton, 
1940, p. 15). 
A comparison of the percentage of Newport and Mars Hill 
children who had fair or poor nutrition with the percentage who 
were underweight by the McCloy standards shows that the per- 
centage who were underweight was higher than the percentage 
who were judged to have fair or poor nutrition. This was especially 
true for the girls in both towns. The most plausible explanation 
for this is that the examiner was more lenient in judging the girls 
than the boys. This leniency was probably due to the fact that 
when a large percentage of a group runs below a generally accepted 
standard the tendency is to lower the standard. 
Skin. It will be seen from Table 1 that the percentage of 
children with pale skin, suggestive of anemia, was not very high 
in either Newport or Mars Hill, but that in Newport it was highest 
in the spring of 1938 when the percentage of children with pale 
mucous membranes was also highest. In both towns the girls 
showed pale skin much more often than the boys. Tests made 
in Mars Hill in the spring of 1936 showed 35% of the children to 
be below 80% in hemoglobin (Clayton, 1940), 
The texture of the skin was noted particularly in order to 
detect any unusual dryness or evidence of follicular hyperkeratosis, 
which may occur in vitamin A (or C) deficiency. Table 1 shows 
that in the spring of 1937 almost one-fourth of the Newport children 
had rough, dry skin. Many also had some evidence of follicular 
hyperkeratosis, especially on the arms and legs. However, since 
the majority had been exposed to severely cold weather during 
the winter and were suffering from chapping of the skin it was 
difficult to tell how much of the dryness and roughness had a 
nutritional cause. 
Among the skin lesions noted in Newport (1937-40) and 
Mars Hill (1937) there were a number of cases of scabies, acne, 
and cold sores. One Newport child had psoriasis and another 
icthyosis. The child with icthyosis had eaten no butter for four Physical Condition of Maine Children 
95 
years, so it is probable that the condition was associated with a 
vitamin A deficiency. Very few skin lesions definitely suggestive 
of riboflavin deficiency and none suggestive of niacin deficiency 
were noted. 
Ear drum defects. The ear drum defects noted were per- 
forations and scarring which had resulted from inflammation of 
the middle ear during colds. 
Nasal discharge. It will be noted from Table 1 and 2 that 
nasal discharge, usually accompanying colds, occurred very fre- 
quently in all four towns. 
Mouth breathing. Many of the children with mouth breath- 
ing had nasal discharge and stated that they had colds. In certain 
cases permanent mouth breathing was caused by the presence of 
adenoids; but, since examination (other than noting the presence 
or absence of obstruction to breathing) was not made, it was 
impossible to determine the total number of children who had 
adenoids. 
Coughs. The- majority of children who had coughs either 
said they had colds or were just getting over them. 
Enlarged or infected tonsils. Defective tonsils were extreme- 
ly common in all four towns, but were seen a little more frequently 
in Mars Hill than in the other towns. This defect was least 
frequent in Monmouth. Children in all towns were very apt 
to have tonsillar infection or enlargement along with colds in 
the nose. The lowest percentage of children with tonsils removed 
was in Jonesport, (See Tables 1 and 2.) 
Enlarged thyroid gland. A few cases of simple enlargement 
of the thyroid were seen in all four towns, the lowest percentage 
being in Mars Hill and the highest in Monmouth. The percentage 
for Jonesport (spring 1935) and for Newport (spring 1937-40) 
was about the same, Newport girls were affected more frequently 
than boys. Griffith and Mitchell (1934, p. 1066) state that goiter 
is an expression of iodine starvation and may result from such 
factors as puberty, infections, intoxications, defective utilization 
of iodine, or low iodine intake. 
Failure to gain between fall and spring examinations. Table 
1 shows that in Newport, during three of the four years of this 
study, there were very few children who failed to gain. The 
percentage was highest in the spring of 1939 when it almost 
equaled that for Mars Hill in 1937. In 1939 twenty-five New- 96 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 4 
Illnesses and Operations Betzveen Fall and Spring Examinations as Reported 
by Mars Hill and Nezvport Grade-School Children 
Mars Hill 
Newport 
Numbers in groups 
Spring 
1937 
Spring 
1937 
Spring 
1938 
Spring 
1939 
Spring 
1940 
230 
240 
231 
201 
210 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
Abscess on face 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Adenoidectomy 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Appendectomy 
1 
.4 
2 
.8 
2 
.9 
0 
0.0 
3 
1.4 
Appendicitis 
1 
.4 
2 
.8 
1 
.4 
1 
.5 
4 
1.9 
Asthma 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Backache 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Bronchitis 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Carbuncles 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
1 
.5 
0 
0.0 
Chicken pox 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Colds 
117 
50.9 
112 
46.7 
137 
59.3 
106 
52.7 
126 
60.0 
Cough 
3 
1.3 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Digestive upset 
21 
9.1 
17 
7.1 
30 
13.0. 
14 
7.0 
30 
14.3 
Eyes 
2 
.9 
1 
.4 
3 
1.3 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Eyelids: stys 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
4 
1.9 
Earache 
1 
.4 
9 
3.8 
4 
1.7 
4 
2.0 
7 
3.3 
Fatigue 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Feet, sore 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Glands, cervical 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
4 
1.7 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Headache 
7 
3.0 
5 
2.1 
15 
6.5 
7 
3.5 
8 
3.8 
Heart 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Influenza 
4 
1.7 
14 
5.8 
4 
1.7 
25 
12.4 
6 
2.9 
J aundice 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Kidneys 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
2 
1.0 
0 
0.0 
Legache 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
'1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Leg weakness 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Liver 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Measles 
0 
0.0 
o 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
41 
19.5 
Mouth, ulcers 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Mouth, sore 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Mumps 
• 0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Neck, stiff 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Neuralgia 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Nose bleed 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Pleurisy 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Pneumonia 
0 
0.0 
5 
2.1 
'0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
1 
.5 
Rheumatism 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Rupture 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
Skin (?) 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.5 
0 
0.0 
Skin: Itch 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Throat, sore & tonsillitis 
Tonsillectomy & 
4 
1.7 
9 
3.8 
12 
5.2 
8 
4.0 
8 
3.8 
adenoidectomy 
0 
0.0 
2 
.8 
1 
.4 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
Toothache 
8 
3.5 
0 
2.5 
7 
3.0 
4 
2.0 
4 
1.9 
Whooping cough 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
2 
1.0 
1 
.5 
Worms 
0 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
1 
.4 
1 
.5 
0 
0.0 Physical Condition of Maine Children 
97 
port children had influenza between fall and spring (Table 4). 
This disease apparently caused a greater weight loss than the 
epidemic of measles in 1940. The epidemic of German measles 
at Monmouth in the spring of 1935 was chiefly responsible for 
the failure of 17% of the children to gain weight. 
Underweight by the McCloy standards. Table 1 shows that 
slightly over one-third of the Newport children and about one- 
half of the Mars Hill children were underweight according to 
the McCloy standards. About one-half as many boys as girls 
were underweight in Newport and two-thirds as many boys as 
girls in Mars Hill. This large sex difference may possibly be 
explained as being due to the fact that boys are inclined to eat 
more than girls; so, when the diet is of poor quality the boys 
get more of the essential nutrients than the girls. 
Illnesses betzveen fall and spring examinations. Table 4 
shows that the illnesses most frequently reported by the children 
were colds, influenza, sore throat and tonsillitis, earache, diges- 
tive upsets, headache, and toothache. 
Six-hour vitamin C saturation tests. For a discussion of 
the results of these tests, see p. 130. 
Vitamin C tests for cure of inflamed gums. For a discussion 
of the results of these tests see p. 132. 
PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 
Standing height and weight were two measurements which 
wrere made on all of the children studied in the four Maine towns. 
Therefore, a study of the results of these measurements gives 
opportunity for the consideration of annual differences in the 
averages for the Newport and Mars Hill groups and for compar- 
ing the averages for each of the four towns with each other and 
with the U. S. averages of Collins and Clark (1929), the Iowa 
averages of Meredith (1935) and Boynton (1936), and those 
of Gray and Ayres (1931). See Charts 1, 2, 3, and 4 and Tables 
9, 10, 15, and 16 (Tables in Appendix). 
The 30,000 children studied by Collins and Clark were from 
public schools in various parts of the U. S. and were of native 
white stock. 
The 1243 Iowa City boys studied by Meredith and the 1241 
Iowa City girls studied by Boynton were from the schools of the 98 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 5 
Average Heights of Mars Hill, Maine Girls 
Fall 
aget 
1934-1935 
1935-1930 
19:36-1937 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fail 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
5 
5 
5 
43.4 
44.2 
5 
4 
41.0 
41.8 
3 
3 
42.4 
42.5 
0 
12 
11 
44.1 
45.2 
11 
12 
45.2 
40.3 
8 
9 
45.4 
45.9 
7 
18 
18 
45.5 
40.4 
12 
11 
40.8 
48.2 
15 
14 
46.3 
47.4 
8 
17 
17 
48.1 
48.9 
19 
17 
47.7 
48.8 
15 
16 
49.1 
50.0 
!) 
13 
11 
51.0 
51.0 
18 
17 
50.3 
51.2 
19 
19 
50.0 
50.9 
10 
11 
11 
53.0 
53.9 
11 
11 
53.0 
54.4 
16 
16 
52.3 
53.4 
11 
18 
18 
55.1 
50.2 
15 
15 
54.8 
50.1 
18 
16 
54.2 
55.4 
12 
14 
13 
50.5 
57.5 
14 
13 
57.7 
59.0 
16 
16 
58.0 
58.9 
13 
13 
13 
58.9 
59.7 
7 
6 
00.0 
01.5 
12 
12 
59.2 
60.1 
14 
5 
5 
00.7 
01.3 
5 
5 
00.0 
00.0 
9 
7 
00.6 
GO.5 
15 
— 
— 
— 
1 
1 
04.8 
05.0 
3 
2 
63.8 
04.4 
f To nearest birthday. 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. 
TABLE 6 
Average Heights of Mars Hill, Maine Boys 
Fall 
aget 
1934-1935 
1935-1930 
1930 
-1937 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
5 
5 
5 
43.0 
44.0 
1 
1 
42.9 
43.0 
2 
2 
43.5 
44.5 
6 
9 
9 
44.7 
45.9 
12 
11 
45.4 
40.5 
0 
6 
45.1 
40.3 
7 
7 
7 
47.0 
48.0 
7 
5 
40.0 
47.9 
17 
15 
47.5 
48.0 
8 
15 
13 
48.0 
49.5 
14 
13 
49.7 
51.0 
8 
8 
48.9 
50.1 
9 
9 
9 
50.5 
51.2 
12 
11 
50.8 
52.0 
14 
14 
52.1 
52.8 
10 
15 
14 
53.3 
54.2 
12 
10 
52.7 
54.2 
13 
12 
52.2 
52.9 
11 
6 
6 
55.2 
55.9 
11 
11 
54.7 
55.0 
12 
12 
54.4 
55.3 
12 
8 
8 
57.1 
57.9 
0 
4 
57.9 
58.2 
15 
15 
57.2 
58.1 
13 
10 
9 
59.8 
01.3 
0 
5 
59.1 
00.8 
5 
5 
57.2 
58.0 
14 
2 
2 
00.8 
01.9 
5 
4 
02.4 
04.2 
8 
4 
02.0 
04.5 
15 
1 
1 
03.8 
05.2 
1 
1 
04.0 
05.8 
5 
4 
03.9 
05.9 
t To nearest birthday. 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
99 
State University of Iowa. The Iowa groups were described as 
being “homogeneous as to geographic location, rather superior 
in cultural and socio-economic status, and not widely diverse as 
to racial stock.” 
The boys and girls studied by Gray and Ayres were healthy, 
white, private school children of superior socio-economic status 
from various parts of the U. S. The data include 3110 measur- 
ings on boys and 1473 on girls. These children showed consid- 
erable variability in race ancestry but 46.2 percent of the group 
were classed as “Old Americans” (four grandparents born in 
the U. S.). 
HEIGHT 
Annual Differences in Mars Hill Height Averages 
(1934-37) 
(Girls and boys) Tables 5 and 6 show that for both girls 
and boys the fall height averages for each age group were about 
the same in each of the three years. The averages for spring 
1936 tended to be slightly higher than those for the other two 
years. This was the year when an educational campaign for 
better nutrition was carried on in Mars Hill under the auspices 
of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station (Clayton, 1940, 
p. 5). However, the differences between the averages for spring 
1936 and spring 1935 and 1937 were not statistically significant.11 
Annual Differences in Newport Height Averages 
(1936-40) 
(Girls) Table 7 shows that the fall averages for the girls 
tended to be slightly higher in 1939 than in the other three years 
11 A significant difference is one which would occur, due to chance alone, 
only 5 times out of 100; a highly significant difference is one which would 
occur, due to chance alone, only 1 time out of 100. The significance of the 
average difference between pairs of means (for ages 5 to 15) was expressed 
as a ratio between the observed average difference and the standard error 
of this average difference. Significance was determined by reference to a 
table (Snedecor, 1940, p. 58), with consideration given to the number of de- 
grees of freedom. 100 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Fall 
agef 
1936-1937 
1937-1938 
1938-1939 
1939-1940 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fan 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
FaU 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
5 
7 
6 
in. 
42.1 
in. 
43.5 
8 
8 
in. 
41.9 
in. 
43.2 
■ 7 
4 
in. 
41.1 
in. 
43.4 
5 
4 
in. 
42.9 
in. 
43.8 
6 
17 
17 
43.8 
44.9 
13 
11 
44.4 
45.8 
14 
9 
43.8 
45.3 
13 
12 
43.5 
44.8 
7 
10 
10 
46.7 
47.4 
20 
20 
46.0 
47.2 
13 
11 
46.8 
48.5 
14 
12 
45.7 
46.8 
8 
14 
12 
47.9 
48.8 
9 
9 
48.6 
49.7 
17 
16 
48.2 
49.5 
14 
13 
48.9 
49.9 
9 
20 
19 
50.9 
51.6 
14 
14 
50.3 
51.5 
11 
11 
50.7 
51.8 
17 
16 
50.4 
51.7 
10 
10 
9 
52.0 
53.1 
18 
17 
52.8 
54.5 
16 
15 
53.1 
54.5 
9 
9 
52.6 
53.6 
11 
12 
12 
54.8 
55.8 
13 
13 
54.7 
55.9 
13 
11 
55.6 
57.5 
15 
15 
55.5 
56.7 
12 
19 
18 
57.5 
58.8 
11 
10 
57.2 
58.1 
15 
12 
57.9 
59.5 
12 
11 
58.4 
59.5 
13 
8 
8 
60.6 
61.5 
14 
14 
59.9 
61.1 
11 
8 
59.8 
61.5 
9 
7 
60.0 
60.4 
14 
3 
3 
61.0 
61.5 
4 
4 
61.3 
61.9 
7 
6 
61.2 
61.9 
5 
4 
61.7 
61.5 
15 
2 
2 
61.2 
61.5 
3 
2 
62.3 
61.8 
2 
2 
61.5 
61.6 
3 
2 
61.1 
61.0 
t To nearest birthday. 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. 
TABLE 7 
Average Heights of Newport, Maine Girls Physical Condition of Maine Children 
101 
Pall 
agef 
1936-1937 
1937-1938 
1938-1939 
1939-1940 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
5 
2 
2 
in. 
43.5 
in. 
44.4 
1 
1 
in. 
44.0 
in. 
45.3 
6 
2 
in. 
42.8 
in. 
42.4 
7 
6 
in. 
42.9 
in. 
44.1 
6 
14 
13 
44.8 
46.1 
10 
9 
45.3 
46.2 
8 
8 
45.1 
46.5 
16 
15 
45.0 
46.0 
7 
9 
9 
47.9 
48.7 
15 
13 
47.7 
49.2 
11 
8 
46.9 
48.8 
11 
11 
46.8 
48.6 
8 
16 
14 
48.8 
49.2 
9 
7 
50.1 
51.6 
15 
14 
50.2 
51.3 
10 
9 
49.3 
50.7 
9 
17 
17 
51.0 
61.8 
13 
12 
50.4 
51.3 
8 
8 
52.6 
53.8 
13 
11 
52.2 
53.9 
10 
11 
11 
52.9 
53.6 
21 
20 
53.3 
54.4 
12 
11 
51.9 
53.2 
9 
9 
54.3 . 
55.2 
11 
24 
23 
55.3 
56.0 
8 
5 
54.4 
54.9 
17 
17 
55.1 
56.3 
13 
13 
54.3 
55.4 
12 
17 
17 
56.6 
57.4 
24 
21 
57.3 
58.7 
5 
5 
56.2 
57.5 
18 
18 
57.1 
58.1 
13 
5 
5 
60.0 
61.1 
14 
14 
58.4 
59.9 
19 
18 
59.9 
61.3 
8 
7 
59.9 
61.0 
14 
9 
8 
62.4 
63.4 
5 
5 
60.3 
62.2 
5 
4 
58.4 
59.5 
9 
7 
61.7 
63.0 
15 
2 
2 
66.8 
67.5 
3 
3 
63.1 
64.8 
4 
3 
63.7 
65.1 
1 
1 
61.0 
63.3 
t To nearest birthday. 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. 
TABLE 8 
Average Heights of Newport, Maine Boys Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
102 
but the differences were not significant. The spring averages 
were highest in 1939 and lowest in 1937. The differences between 
the spring averages for these two years were highly significant. 
The low averages for spring 1937 may possibly be associated 
NEWPORT 
FALL 1936,1937 1938,1939 
MARS HILL 
FALL 1934,1935,1936 
JONESPORT 
FALL 1934 
MONMOUTH 
FALL 1934 
-KEY- 
GRAY'S AVG. 
IOWA AVG 
U S. AVG 
MAINE GIRLS 
Chart 1. Height of Maine girls. Fall averages for four towns compared 
with U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s averages. (See Table 9, Appendix.) Physical Condition of Maine Children 
103 
with the prevalance of unemployment during that year and the 
resulting inability of many families to secure adequate food. 
(Boys) Table 8 shows some differences in the fall as well 
NEWPORT 
FALL 1936,1937,1938,1939 
MARS HILL 
FALL 1934,1935,1936 
JONESPORT 
FALL (934 
MONMOUTH 
FALL 1934 
-KEY- 
GRAY’S AVG 
IOWA AVG, 
U S. AVG. 
MAINE BOYS 
Chart 2. Height of Maine boys. Fall averages for four towns compared 
with U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s averages. (See Table 10, Appendix.) 104 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
as the spring averages for the boys in the different years but 
these differences were not significant. 
Fall Height Averages for Each of the Four Towns 
Compared With Each Other 
(Girls) Chart 1 and Table 9 (Appendix) show that the 
Newport four-year averages for the girls tended to be somewhat 
higher than those for the other three towns. The differences be- 
tween the Newport and Jonesport averages were highly significant. 
(Boys) As shown in Chart 2 and Table 10 (Appendix), 
the Newport four-year averages and the Mars Hill three-year 
averages for the boys were very similar. However, when the 
Newport and Mars Hill averages were each compared with those 
for Jonesport and Monmouth the differences had the following 
statistical significance; 
Newport and Jonesport: Newport averages higher. Differences 
highly significant. 
Mars Hill and Jonesport: Mars Hill averages higher. Differences 
significant. 
Newport and Monmouth: Newport averages higher. Differences 
significant. 
Mars Hill and Monmouth: No significant difference. 
The highly significant differences in average height of the 
Newport and Jonesport children may be associated with differences 
in food supply in the two towns. Jonesport is located on the 
seacoast, off the main highway, and, especially during the winter 
months, less food is probably shipped into that town than into 
Newport. Also fewer Jonesport families have home gardens 
and the average family incomes are probably somewhat lower 
and more irregular than those in Newport. 
Fall Height Averages for Each of the Four Towns 
Compared With the U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s Averages 
(Girls) See Chart 1 and Table 9 (Appendix). The fall 
averages for the Newport and Monmouth (except ages 8, 11 
and 13) girls were similar to the U. S. averages; those for Mars Physical Condition of Maine Children 
105 
Hill and Jonesport, however, were lower and the differences were 
highly significant. The averages for the girls in each of the four 
towns were considerably lower than the Iowa City averages of 
Boynton (1936) and those of Gray and Ayres (1931) for private 
school girls. Moreover, the differences were highly significant. 
When the results for the girls in all four towns were averaged 
together and compared with the U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s averages 
the differences were highly significant. 
(Boys) See Chart 2 and Table 10 (Appendix). The fall 
averages for the Newport, Mars Hill, and Monmouth boys were 
similar to the U. S. averages. Those for Jonesport, however, 
were lower and the differences were significant. The averages 
for the boys in each of the four towns were considerably lower 
than those of Meredith (1935) for Iowa City boys and those 
of Gray and Ayres (1931) for private school boys. Again, the 
differences were highly significant. When the results for the 
boys in all four towns were averaged together and compared 
with the U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s averages the differences were 
not significant for the U. S. averages but were highly significant 
for the other two. 
TABLE 11 
Average Weights of Mars Hill, Maine Girls 
Fall 
aget 
1934-1935 
1935-1936 
1936-1937 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
5 
5 
5 
41.5 
42.6 
5 
4 
37.1 
39.3 
3 
3 
40.1 
41.6 
6 
12 
ii 
42.7 
44.9 
11 
12 
43.3 
46.7 
8 
9 
45.3 
45.8 
7 
18 
18 
44.4 
46.1 
12 
11 
48.7 
51.8 
15 
14 
45.5 
47.4 
8 
17 
17 
52.2 
54.9 
19 
17 
50.2 
51.1 
15 
16 
54.2 
56.3 
9 
13 
11 
56.2 
58.7 
18 
17 
58.5 
61.2 
19 
19 
54.9 
57.9 
10 
11 
11 
66.7 
69.3 
11 
11 
63.9 
67.8 
16 
16 
65.6 
67.8 
11 
18 
18 
73.0 
76.9 
15 
15 
73.3 
78.2 
18 
16 
68.1 
71.7 
12 
14 
13 
78.4 
84.2 
14 
13 
64.7 
90.2 
16 
16 
86.9 
92.1 
13 
13 
13 
88.7 
93.0 
7 
6 
95.7 
102.0 
12 
12 
94.1 
97.3 
14 
5 
5 
96.8 
102.1 
5 
5 
102.2 
105.3 
9 
7 
90.3 
89.0 
15 
— 
— 
— 
— 
1 
1 
125.3 
126.0 
3 
2 
116.5 
119.3 
t To nearest birthday. 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. 106 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 12 
Average Weights of Mars Hill, Maine Boys 
Fall 
agef 
• 1934 
-1935 
1935-1936 
1936 
-1937 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
5 
5 
5 
39.9 
40.9 
1 
1 
42.3 
44.0 
2 
2 
40.1 
41.3 
6 
9 
9 
45.3 
47.0 
12 
11 
46.4 
47.4 
6 
6 
44.2 
40.4 
7 
7 
7 
47.0 
50.1 
7 
5 
48.8 
52.1 
17 
15 
50.1 
52.9 
8 
15 
13 
51.4 
53.8 
14 
13 
53.8 
57.2 
8 
8 
52.0 
54.4 
9 
9 
9 
50.4 
58.0 
12 
11 
58.0 
00.2 
14 
14 
60.7 
01.8 
10 
15 
14 
63.3 
05.8 
11 
10 
64.4 
07.0 
13 
12 
02.2 
63.7 
11 
C 
6 
66.0 
67.8 
11 
11 
66.6 
09.7 
12 
12 
07.7 
70.4 
12 
8 
8 
80.4 
83.4 
6 
4 
77.1 
76.7 
15 
15 
75.7 
78.0 
13 
10 
9 
87.3 
94.4 
6 
5 
82.1 
87.4 
5 
5 
79.7 
85.0 
14 
2 
2 
90.9 
98.6 
5 
4 
94.8 
103.2 
8 
4 
97.3 
104.5 
15 
1 
1 
97.8 
103.1 
1 
1 
112.3 
122.2 
5 
4 
102.5 
111.0 
t To nearest birthday. 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. 
Summary for height. The above results would seem to 
indicate that, in general, the Mars Hill and Jonesport girls and 
the Jonesport boys measured in this study tended to be somewhat 
shorter than public school children in other parts of the U. S. 
The groups measured in all four towns were significantly shorter 
than the more highly selected groups studied by Meredith and 
Boynton and Gray and Ayres. 
WEIGHT 
Annual Differences in Mars Hill Weight Averages 
(1934-37) 
(Girls) As shown in Table 11 there was a tendency for the 
average fall and spring weights of the Mars Hill girls to be 
slightly higher in 1935-36 than in the other two years. However, 
the differences were not significant. 
(Boys) Table 12 shows that in general, the fall as well 
as the spring averages for the boys were about the same in 
each of the three years. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
107 
Fall 
aget 
1936-1937 
1937-1938 
1938-1939 
1939-1940 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
5 
7 
6 
lb. 
37.6 
lb. 
41.0 
8 
8 
lb. 
39.4 
lb. 
42.0 
7 
4 
lb. 
35.6 
lb. 
39.1 
5 
4 
lb. 
39.3 
lb. 
40.1 
6 
17 
17 
40.5 
43.5 
13 
11 
40.8 
44.5 
14 
9 
41.9 
46.9 
13 
12 
39.8 
42.0 
7 
10 
10 
46.5 
48.5 
20 
20 
44.4 
47.1 
13 
11 
46.8 
50.5 
14 
12 
45.4 
48.0 
8 
14 
12 
49.3 
51.9 
9 
9 
49.4 
53.3 
17 
16 
48.9 
52.3 
14 
13 
50.9 
54.5 
9 
20 
19 
58.1 
59.9 
14 
14 
55.1 
59.4 
11 
11 
54.4 
57.5 
17 
16 
55.0 
59.4 
10 
10 
9 
59.8 
63.4 
18 
17 
59.3 
67.9 
16 
15 
63.0 
68.3 
9 
9 
59.8 
63.1 
11 
12 
12 
73.0 
76.7 
13 
13 
68.5 
74.9 
13 
11 
72.0 
77.3 
15 
15 
71.1 
76.4 
12 
19 
18 
79.9 
87.9 
11 
10 
79.4 
86.7 
15 
12 
82.5 
89.4 
12 
11 
83.4 
90.0 
13 
8 
8 
91.3 
96.1 
14 
14 
92.7 
99.2 
11 
8 
93.3 
105.5 
9 
7 
95.1 
96.2 
14 > 
3 
3 
101.7 
108.9 
4 
4 
93.2 
99.2 
7 
6 
98.1 
104.7 
5 
4 
107.2 
111.1 
15 
2 
2 
91.0 
94.2 
3 
2 
103.4 
114.1 
2 
2 
99.3 
106.7 
3 
2 
95.6 
100.4 
t To nearest birthday 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. 
TABLE 13 
Average Weights of Newport, Maine Girls Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Fall 
1936-1937 
1937-1938 
1938-1939 
1939-1940 
aget 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Number 
Average 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
Pall 
Spring* 
Fall 
Spring* 
5 
2 
2 
lb. 
38.2 
lb. 
42.3 
1 
1 
lb. 
41.3 
lb. 
45.5 
6 
2 
lb. 
40.9 
lb. 
39.3 
7 
6 
lb. 
40.4 
lb. 
42.5 
6 
14 
13 
44.2 
47.2 
10 
9 
45.7 
48.3 
8 
8 
43.2 
45.7 
16 
15 
45.3 
47.5 
7 
9 
9 
50.8 
53.5 
15 
13 
50.5 
53.5 
11 
8 
49.7 
53.4 
11 
11 
48.6 
51.8 
8 
16 
14 
51.1 
52.3 
9 
7 
57.3 
61.9 
15 
14 
56.3 
59.9 
10 
9 
55.5 
58.5 
9 
17 
17 
57.5 
68.1 
13 
12 
54.9 
58.7 
8 
8 
63.5 
67.7 
13 
11 
62.4 
67.8 
10 
11 
11 
65.3 
68.3 
21 
20 
65.9 
68.8 
12 
11 
60.6 
64.0 
9 
9 
68.8 
73.3 
11 
24 
23 
70.9 
74.3 
8 
5 
68.5 
73.0 
17 
17 
71.7 
75.1 
13 
13 
67.0 
71.0 
12 
17 
17 
77.4 
80.2 
24 
21 
78.2 
85.8 
5 
5 
76.8 
82.4 
18 
18 
78.3 
83.6 
13 
5 
5 
90.2 
97.2 
14 
14 
83.1 
88.7 
19 
18 
91.4 
99.0 
8 
7 
92.6 
98.6 
14 
9 
8 
99.0 
104.1 
5 
5 
93.0 
102.0 
5 
4 
83.4 
87.9 
9 
7 
104.6 
112.4 
15 
2 
2 
121.9 
127.0 
3 
3 
96.8 
105.8 
4 
3 
104.5 
115.5 
1 
1 
101.2 
105.1 
t To nearest birthday. 
* Spring and fall age groups kept the same. 
TABLE 14 
Average Weights of Newport, Maine Boys Physical Condition of Maine Children 
109 
Annual Differences in Newport Weight Averages 
(1936-40) 
(Girls) A comparison of the average fall weights for the 
girls in the different years shows that, except for fall 1939, the 
averages for the different years were quite similar. Those for 
fall 1939 tended especially to be higher than those for fall 1937. 
(See Table 13.) Moreover, the differences were significant. The 
spring averages in the different years showed no significant differ- 
ences, but the averages for spring 1939 tended to be slightly higher 
than those for the other years. 
(Boys) From Table 14 it will be seen that there was some 
tendency for the average weights of the boys to be lower in fall 
1938 and higher in fall 1939 than in the other years. However, 
the differences between the fall averages were not significant. 
There were also no significant differences between the spring 
averages, although those for spring 1940 tended to be slightly 
higher than those for the other years. 
Fall Weight Averages for Each of the Four Towns 
Compared With Each Other 
(Girls) As shown in Chart 3 and Table 15 (Appendix), the 
four-year weight averages for the Newport girls were about the 
same as the three-year averages for Mars Hill, slightly higher 
than those for Jonesport, and slightly lower than those for Mon- 
mouth. However, the differences between the Newport averages 
and those for the other three towns were not significant. The 
averages for the Mars Hill and Monmouth girls were significantly 
higher than those for the Jonesport girls. 
(Boys) Chart 4 and Table 16 (Appendix) show that the 
four-year weight averages for the Newport boys were about the 
same as those for the Monmouth boys and somewhat higher than 
those for Jonesport and Mars Hill. However, only the differences 
between the Newport and Mars Hill averages were significant. 
The differences between the Mars Hill, Jonesport, and Monmouth 
averages were not significant. 110 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
NEWPORT 
FALL 1936,1937,1938,1939 
MARS HILL 
FALL 1934, 1935,1936 
JONESPORT 
FALL 1934 
MONMOUTH 
FALL 1934 
-KEY- 
GRAY’S AVG. 
IOWA AVG. 
U. S. AVG. 
MAINE GIRLS 
Chart 3. Weight of Maine girls. Fall averages for four towns compared 
with U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s averages. (See Table 15, Appendix.) Physical Condition of Maine Children 
111 
NEWPORT 
FALL 1934,(935,1936,1937 
MARS HILL 
FALL 1934,1935,1936 
JONESPORT 
FALL 1934 
MONMOUTH 
FALL 1934 
-KEY- 
GRAY’S AVG 
IOWA AVG. 
U. S. AVG. 
MAIMF ROYS 
Chart 4. Weight of Maine boys. Fall averages for four towns compared 
with U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s averages. (See Table 16, Appendix.) 112 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Fall Weight Averages for Each of the Four Towns 
Compared With the U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s Averages 
(Girls) See Chart 3 and Table 15 (Appendix). The fall 
averages for the Mars Hill and Monmouth girls were very similar 
to the U. S. averages; those for Newport and Jonesport, however, 
were lower and the differences were highly significant. The aver- 
ages for the girls in each of the four towns were considerably lower 
than the Iowa and Gray’s averages and the differences were highly 
significant. When the results for the girls in all four towns were 
averaged together and compared with the U. S., Iowa, and Gray’s 
averages the differences between the Maine and U. S. averages 
were significant. In comparison with the Iowa and Gray’s aver- 
ages the differences were highly significant. 
(Boys) See Chart 4 and Table 16 (Appendix), The fall 
averages for the boys in each of the four towns showed no signifi- 
cant differences from the U. S. averages. In comparison with the 
Iowa and Gray’s averages, however, those for Maine boys were 
considerably lower. The differences were highly significant (ex- 
cept in the comparison between the Monmouth and Iowa averages; 
in this case the differences were significant). When the results 
for the boys in all four towns were averaged together and compared 
with the U. S,, Iowa, and Gray’s averages the differences showed 
no significance in the case of the U. S. averages but high signifi- 
cance for the Iowa and Gray’s. 
Summary for weight. The above results can be summarized 
briefly as follows: The Newport and Jonesport girls measured in 
this study tended to weigh less than public school girls in other 
parts of the U. S. (Collins and Clark, 1929). The average weights 
of the boys in all four Maine towns were about the same as the 
U. S. averages. In comparison with the Iowa City averages of 
Meredith (1935) and Boynton (1936) and the averages of Gray 
and Ayres (1931) for private school children, the average weights 
of the Maine girls and boys in this study were significantly low. 
TYPE OF BUILD 
In Newport (1936-40) and in Mars Hill (1936-37) the neces- 
sary measurements were taken for determining normal weight 
by the McCloy method and the McCloy weight, fat, and limb girth Physical Condition of Maine Children 
113 
indices (McCloy 1936, 1938). See p. 115 and Form 1, Appendix. 
Therefore these individual measurements were available for com- 
parison with those of other groups of children. 
GIRLS 
BOYS 
GIRLS 
BOYS 
- KEY- 
NEWPORT 
IOWA 
AGES-Years 
Chart 5. Comparison of Newport, Maine, children with Iowa City children 
Height for weight and height for chest circumference (xiphoid level). 
(See Table 17, Appendix.) 114 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
As a method for studying the average type of build of the 
Newport children their average height for age and sex was con- 
sidered in relationship to average weight, average chest circum- 
ference (xiphoid level), and average bi-iliac hip width. In Charts 
5 and 6 curves are given which make it possible to compare the 
average build of the Newport children with that of the Iowa City 
children studied by Meredith (1935) and Boynton (1936). Since 
two sets of measurements were made on the Newport group each 
year, those measurements were used (in this study of build) which 
fell nearest to the child’s birthday. 
Height for weight. From Chart 512 it will be seen that if age 
is not considered, the average weight for a given height of the 
Newport children is not far below that of the Iowa children. 
However, when age also is considered the Newport children are 
found to be retarded, as much as one year in some age groups. 
GIRLS 
BOYS 
-KEY- 
NEWPORT 
IOWA 
AGES-Years 
Chart 6. Comparison of Newport, Maine, children with Iowa City children. 
Height for hi-iliac hip width. (See Table 17, Appendix.) 
12 The Newport averages for height, weight, chest circumference 
(xiphoid level), and bi-iliac hip width used in charts 5 and 6 are given in 
Table 17 (Appendix). Physical Condition of Maine Children 
115 
Height for chest circumference (xiphoid level). Chart 512 
shows that the Newport and Iowa curves of height for chest cir- 
cumference are practically superimposed, except in the two lower 
age groups of the boys. This indicates that the Maine and Iowa 
children are proportioned about the same. A study of the size- 
for-age relationship shows, however, that the Newport children 
are both shorter in stature and smaller in chest circumference for 
their age than the Iowa children. 
Height for bi-iliac hip width. Chart 612 shows again that the 
Newport children are proportioned about the same as the Iowa 
City children. When age is considered, however, the Newport 
children are both shorter in stature and narrower in the hips than 
the Iowa City children. 
The question arises as to what the causes may be for this dif- 
ference in size for age of the Newport and Iowa City children. 
Some of the difference may be due to inheritance but it is also 
probable that many of the diets of the Newport children were 
deficient in one or more of the necessary growth factors. Among 
these may be mentioned the following: high quality protein, calcium 
(together with phosphorus and vitamin D), vitamin A, thiamin, 
riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C. 
EVALUATION OF THE McCLOY METHOD FOR DETERMINING 
NORMAL WEIGHT AND THE McCLOY WEIGHT, FAT, 
AND LIMB GIRTH INDICES 
The measurements taken for determining normal weight by 
the McCloy method and the McCloy (1936, 1938 ) weight, fat, and 
limb girth indices13 included the following: standing height, weight, 
chest circumference (xiphoid level), girth of upper arm, girth of 
forearm, girth of thigh, girth of calf, bi-iliac hip width, elbow 
width, knee width, fat-chest front, fat-abdomen, fat-chest back, 
and fat-supra-iliac. 
13 The formulas for these indices are as follows: 
Actual weight _ 1nn 
Weight index: Normal weight °° 
Fat index. Act.ual fa.L x 100 or Actual fat minus normal fat x 100 
Normal fat Normal minus minimum 
Limb girth index: Actual limb girth x m 
Normal limb girth 116 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Relationship between the McCloy indices and the writer’s 
estimates of nutrition. The results of the above measurements, 
made on the Newport children, were used by the writer (Clayton, 
1942) to study the relationship between the McCloy weight, fat, 
and limb girth indices and her own estimates of nutrition. High 
correlations were obtained between the weight and fat indices and 
the nutrition estimates but the correlation between the limb girth 
indices and the estimates of nutrition was low. 
Adequacy of the McCloy weight standards for individual 
children. In the same study an attempt was made to evaluate the 
McCloy weight standards for individual children of varying skele- 
tal builds and varying states of nutrition. For children having 
other than average skeletal builds the McCloy standards seemed 
to be much more adequate than the Baldwin-Wood, which are 
based on age and height only. The McCloy standards appeared to 
be somewhat high, however, for overweight subjects and somewhat 
low for those who were extremely underweight. The conclusion 
was reached that, in spite of these inadequacies, the McCloy stan- 
dards for normal weight are apparently more reliable than any 
others available at present. However, since it is necessary to take 
8 (9, including actual weight) physical measurements in order to 
determine a child’s normal weight by this method, the time and 
labor involved in taking the measurements and in making the 
necessary calculations must be considered in any plan for using 
the method. 
Value of the McCloy weight and fat indices in judging nutri- 
tional status. These indices provide information which can be 
used to determine not only whether a child weighs the correct 
amount for his skeletal build but also whether or not he has a 
normal distribution of muscle and fat. 
Use of normal weight to determine build type. As suggested 
by McCloy (1938, p. 13) a child’s normal weight, determined by 
the McCloy method, may be used to determine his type of body 
build by the use of the following formula: 
3 /Normal wt. in kg. x 100 
\ Ht. in cm. 
This so-called “ponderal index” was used to study the body 
build of the group of 24 Newport boys who were 11 years old 
(nearest birthday) at the time of the 1936 fall examination. The Physical Condition of Maine Children 
117 
average index for the group was 2.27 with a standard deviation 
of ±.05. This average is the same as the one given by McCloy 
for Iowa boys of this age. This again indicates that, in general, the 
Newport and Iowa boys, aged 11 years, have skeletal builds which 
are proportioned about the same. However, a comparison of the 
average height, chest circumference (xiphoid level), and the bi- 
iliac hip width of this 11-year-old group of Newport boys with 
the Iowa averages for boys of the same age given by Boynton 
(1936, pp. 83 and 84), shows that the Newport boys are somewhat 
smaller for their age: 
Av. bi-iliac 
Av. chest cir. 
Boys 
Av. height 
Stand. 
hip width 
Stand. 
(xiphoid level) 
Stand. 
Age 11 
inches 
dev. 
inches 
dev. 
inches 
dev. 
Iowa 
56.4 
±2.40 
8.94 
±.54 
25.86 
±1.56 
Newport 
55.3 
±1.91 
8.74 
±.37 
25.10 
±1.01 
Use of normal weight to determine developmental progress. 
Since a child’s developmental progress is even more important than 
his weight for skeletal build at any particular time, a curve show- 
ing his height and calculated (by the McCloy method) normal 
weight at successive ages could be compared with a height-weight 
curve for well-nourished children, such as the one given in Chart 5 
for Iowa City children. Since normal weight, as determined by 
the McCloy method, is based on skeletal build this comparison 
would give an indication of his progress in skeletal development. 
PHYSICAL CHANGES DURING ADOLESCENCE 
Since the Newport children were examined in four successive 
years, it has been possible to study the physical changes which took 
place in a group of 12 girls and 7 boys during the period of ado- 
lescence. These changes have been summarized in Tables 18 and 
19. All of the girls who were 9 and all of the boys who were 11 
years old at the beginning of the study were included. The stage 
of pubescence which had apparently been reached at the time of 
each fall physical examination has been indicated in the Tables 
as follows: 0 (no development) to 3+ (mature). Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
— ----- 1 ' 
Pall 193G 
Fall 1937 
Pall 1938 
Fall 1939 
Ages 
9 
10 
11 
12 
Hip 
Hip 
Hip 
Bi-iliac 
Wt* 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
width 
Wt* 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
width 
Wt.* 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
width 
Wt.* 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
hip 
index 
deralf 
of 
in- 
in- 
index 
derail 
of 
in- 
in- 
index 
derail 
of 
in- 
in- 
index 
deralf 
of 
width 
index 
pubes- 
cence 
crease 
from 
age 9 
crease 
from 
age 9 
index 
pubes- 
cence 
crease 
from 
age 9 
crease 
from 
age 9 
index 
pubes- 
cence 
crease 
from 
age 9 
crease 
from 
age 9 
index 
pubes- 
cence 
Case 
in. 
in. 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
No. 
1 
46.8 
7.36 
100 
2.36 
0 
3.5 
5.9 
94 
2.38 
0 
7.5 
9.6 
96 
2.36 
0 to + 
12.0 
15.5 
93 
2.35 
+ 
2 
49.4 
7.72 
90 
2.30 
0 
3.3 
4.1 
86 
2.32 
0 
8.3 
9.7 
86 
2.29 
0 
14.2 
16.8 
89 
2.28 
0 
3 
50.0 
8.07 
101 
2.36 
0 
5.0 
10.2 
90 
2.43 
+ 
12.0 
18.0 
100 
2.38 
2+ 
16.0 
22.9 
99 
2.37 
3+ 
4 
50.8 
8.07 
92 
2.32 
0 
3.7 
6.3 
89 
2.34 
0 
9.1 
11.7 
87 
2.31 
0 to + 
15.8 
18.5 
86 
2.31 
-f* to 2 + 
5 
51.5 
8.39 
110 
2.34 
0 
5.6 
6.6 
96 
2.36 
0 
11.9 
12.2 
100 
2.29 
*+* to 2-f* 
16.0 
17.4 
101 
2.26 
3+ 
6 
51.9 
8.50 
108 
2.35 
0 
4.8 
5.6 
102 
2.39 
0 to + 
10.4 
12.5 
105 
2.40 
2+ 
14.7 
24.0 
101 
2.42 
2+ 
7 
51.9 
8.27 
105 
2.30 
0 
6.0 
5.2 
97 
2.34 
+ 
12.0 
14.8 
101 
2.30 
2+ 
15.7 
18.6 
102 
2.28 
3+ 
8 
52.0 
8.27 
99 
2.28 
0 
4.3 
5.7 
99 
2.30 
0 
10.8 
12.9 
102 
2.27 
+ 
17.1 
18.6 
103 
2.24 
2+ 
9 
52.0 
7.83 
94 
2.45 
0 
1.0 
8.5 
100 
2.45 
0 
5.3 
13.6 
100 
2.45 
0 
10.3 
19.1 
101 
2.40 
0 to + 
10 
52.9 
8.78 
82 
2.34 
0 
3.8 
4.9 
82 
2.34 
0 
7.8 
8.1 
77 
2.35 
0 
12.3 
12.6 
81 
2.33 
0 to + 
11 
53.0 
8.90 
107 
2.29 
0 
4.0 
4.4 
98 
2.36 
0 
7.5 
9.3 
104 
2.32 
+ 
10.4 
11.5 
103 
2.32 
+ 
12 
54.3 
8.39 
106 
2.15 
0 
3.0 
6.1 
95 
2.24 
0 
6.2 
8.5 
96 
2.23 
0 
10.6 
13.6 
95 
2.22 
0 
Av. 
51.4 
8.21 
100 
2.32 
4.0 
6.1 
94 
2.35 
9.1 
11.7 
96 
2.33 
13.8 
17.4 
96 
2.32 
* Actual weight x 100 
Vormal weight (MeOloy) x 100 
Normal weight (McCloy 1936, 1938) 
in kg 
An index below 94 indicates underweight. 
An index of 108 or above indicates overweight. 
Ht. in cm. 
This in an index of type of skeletal build. 
A low index indicates a slender type, a high 
index 
a stocky type. 
TABLE 18 
Physical Changes in Newport Girls during Adolescence Physical Condition of Maine Children 
119 
Fall 1936 
Fall 1937 
Fall 1938 
Pall 1939 
Ages 
11 
12 
13 
14 
Hip 
Hip 
Hip 
Bi-iliac 
Wt * 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
width 
Wt* 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
width 
Wt* 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
width 
Wt* 
Pon- 
Stage 
Ht. 
hip 
index 
derail 
of 
in- 
in- 
index 
derail 
of 
in- 
in- 
index 
derail 
of 
in- 
in- 
index 
derail 
of 
width 
index 
pubes- 
crease 
crease 
index 
pubes- 
crease 
crease 
index 
pubes- 
crease 
crease 
index 
pubes- 
cence 
from 
from 
cence 
from 
from 
cence 
from 
from 
cence 
age 11 
age 11 
age 11 
age 11 
age 11 
age 11 
Case 
in. 
in. 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
No. 
1 
52.3 
7.99 
101 
2.31 
n 
2.4 
4.9 
99 
2.33 
0 
4.8 
7.4 
101 
2.31 
0 
6.9 
8.4 
101 
2.25 
0 
2 
53.0 
8.27 
101 
2.29 
0 
3.3 
6.7 
96 
2.33 
0 
7.5 
11.9 
100 
2.33 
0 
12.7 
14.3 
100 
2.29 
0 
3 
53.3 
8.78 
103 
2.39 
0 
4.7 
4.5 
100 
2.39 
0 
9.6 
10.3 
101 
2.39 
2+ 
15.5 
12.1 
100 
2.36 
3+ 
4 
54.0 
8.94 
106 
2.31 
0 
2.8 
— 
104 
2.40 
0 
7.9 
11.5 
105 
2.41 
+ 
16.0 
15.9 
110 
2.38 
3+ 
5 
54.8 
8.19 
90 
2.31 
0 
2.7 
4.3 
92 
2.29 
0 
5.9 
7.2 
94 
2.28 
0 
10.0 
11.1 
95 
2.27 
0 
6 
55.8 
9.29 
101 
2.29 
0 
3.4 
4.7 
95 
2.33 
0 
8.5 
8.9 
96 
2.30 
+ 
15.0 
14.4 
94 
2.34 
3 + 
7 
57.9 
8.78 
100 
2.24 
0 
8.0 
8.1 
93 
2.29 
+ 
14.3 
14.8 
101 
2.26 
3 + 
18.1 
17.9 
102 
2.26 
3 + 
Av. 
54.4 
8.61 
100 
2.31 
3.9 
4.6 
97 
2.34 
8.4 
10.3 
100 
2.33 
13.5 
13.4 
100 
2.31 
* Actual weight x 100 
t i3/ Normal weight (McCloy) x 100 
Normal weight (McCloy 1936, 1938) 
in kg 
An index below 94 
indicates underweight. 
Ht. 
in cm. 
An index of 108 or above indicates overweight. 
See McCloy, 1938, p. 13. 
This in 
an index of type of skeletal build. 
A low 
index indicates 
a slender type, 
a high 
index a stocky type. 
TABLE 19 
Physical Changes in Newport Boys during Adolescence 120 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
The rating of stage of pubescence was based on the following 
physical changes (Adapted from McCloy, 1938, p. 90) : 
Girls 
-)- Beginning pubescence. Slight 
development of breasts. A 
few pigmented pubic hairs. 
4—h Intermediate stage in devel- 
opment of breasts and growth 
of pigmented pubic hair. 
4—|—h Probable sexual maturity. 
Breasts developed. Menstru- 
ation has begun. Full growth 
of pigmented pubic hair. 
Boys 
+ Begining pubescence. Begin- 
ning acceleration in develop- 
ment of genitalia. A few 
pigmented pubic hairs. 
-|—(- Intermediate stage in devel- 
opment of genitalia and 
growth of pigmented pubic 
hair. 
-|—|—h Probable sexual maturity. 
Genitalia developed. Full 
growth of pigmented pubic 
hair. 
Girls. As shown in Table 18, only 3 of the 12 girls in the 
group showed signs of beginning pubescence at age 10. At age 12 
three were mature, 2 did not even show signs of beginning pubes- 
cence, and the other 7 were in intermediate stages. The attainment 
of maturity was accomplished by a gain in height of about 16 per 
cent from age 9. The percentage increase in hip width from age 9 
did not appear to be related to the attainment of maturity. 
Boys. As shown in Table 19, there was 1 boy in the group 
of 7 who was unusually far advanced in physical development for 
his age. He was the tallest of the group and showed evidence of 
beginning pubescence at age 12. At age 13 he showed signs of 
maturity and had gained 14.3 per cent in height from age 11. Dur- 
ing the next year he gained 18.1 per cent (from age 11). The 4 
boys who matured during the period of this study were among the 
tallest in the group (See McCloy, 1938, p. 91) and attainment of 
maturity was accompanied by an increase in height of about 16 
per cent from age 11. The percentage increase in hip width did 
not appear to be related to the attainment of maturity. 
DENTAL EXAMINATIONS 
As was previously stated, Miss Dorothy Bryant, D.H., Asso- 
ciate Director, Division of Dental Health, State Department of 
Health and Welfare, made all of the examinations of the teeth in Physical Condition of Maine Children 
121 
the Newport study. The examinations were made in the fall of 
each year. Miss Bryant also made the gum examinations in the 
fall of 1936, fall of 1937 and spring of 1938. Beginning with the 
fall of 1938 gum examinations were made, both fall and spring, 
by Dr. Philip W. Woods, Director, Division of Dental Health, 
State Department of Health and Welfare. Dr. Woods also ex- 
amined the gums of special groups of children in connection with 
six-hour saturation tests for vitamin C deficiency and vitamin C 
tests for the cure of inflamed gums. 
Method of Examination 
Form 2 (Appendix) was used for recording the Newport 
examinations. No prophylaxis preceded them, since facilities did 
not permit. The child was seated facing the light and each of the 
five tooth surfaces was searched carefully with S.S. White ex- 
plorers (No. 3 double end and No. 5) together with plain mirrors. 
All sound teeth present in the mouth were indicated on the card 
by check marks. Those having defects were described individually 
by the use of the symbols given in Form 2. When necessary, notes 
were made regarding special conditions found. Missing teeth 
were not recorded specifically as such, but teeth known to have 
been extracted were so indicated. 
Cavities were classified as follows and the involved tooth sur- 
faces indicated on the cards : 
1. Superficial, Cavities in which the caries penetrated the 
enamel surface but not beyond. The following were in- 
cluded under superficial cavities but were recorded sepa- 
rately. 
Decalcified areas. White areas of decalcification fol- 
lowing the gingival margin on the buccal or lingual sur- 
face. Such an area was recorded if present, whether 
or not the explorer penetrated the enamel. 
Fissures (and pits). Slight defects in the enamel sur- 
face in which the explorer caught. Such defects are 
considered precarious or predisposed to caries. 
2. Deep. Cavities in which the caries involved the dentine 
only or both dentine and pulp. The following were in- 
cluded under deep cavities but were recorded separately: 122 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Retarded caries, A condition seen in teeth in which 
decay has progressed into the dentine, where it is halted 
by some metabolic process. The exposed surface of 
dentine becomes hard and appears dark in color. 
Retained roots. Remains of teeth in which the crowns 
have been destroyed by caries as far as the gum line. 
Fillings were classified only as deciduous or permanent ac- 
cording to their location. However, the tooth surfaces involved 
were indicated on the cards. 
Results of Dental Examinations 
A summary of the results of the Newport examinations is 
given in Table 20. In this table cavities in both the deciduous and 
permanent teeth are classified only as superficial and deep and are 
calculated as an average per mouth examined. In Table 21 the 
fall 1936 results for Newport are compared with the fall 1934 re- 
sults for the other three towns. In this table decalcified areas and 
fissures are indicated separately so that comparisons may be made 
with results of other surveys in which these defects were not in- 
cluded as superficial cavities. The omission of these in the present 
study would reduce especially the figures for total cavities in the 
permanent teeth. 
Following is an explanation of the terms used in summarizing 
the results: 
“Combined total cavities” is an average per mouth examined, 
including both deciduous and permanent teeth. 
“Combined total fillings” is an average per mouth examined, 
including both deciduous and permanent teeth. 
“Affected teeth” are calculated as an average per mouth exam- 
ined of all teeth present which have been affected by caries, whether 
active or corrected. Retained roots are included. 
“Extracted permanent teeth carious” is an average per mouth 
examined. Only extractions of carious permanent teeth are in- 
cluded, since it was difficult to distinguish between exfoliated and 
extracted deciduous teeth. 
“No caries” is recorded as the percentage of children with no 
caries, fillings, or extractions. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
123 
Av. no. 
Av. no. 
Av. no. 
Av. no. fillings 
Av. no. 
Av. no. 
Av. no. 
cavities 
cavities 
comb. 
Av. no. 
decid- 
perma- 
extracted 
Mai- 
Hypo- 
Inflamed 
Tear 
No. in 
deciduous 
permanent 
total 
af- 
UOUS 
nent 
perma- 
No 
occlu- 
plastic 
gums 
group 
teeth 
teeth 
cavl- 
fected 
teeth 
teeth 
nent 
caries 
sion 
enamel 
ties 
Decid- 
Perma-1 Comb. 
teethf 
abscessed 
abscessed 
teeth 
S* 
D 
Total 
S* 
D 
Total 
uous 
nent | total 
carious 
Fall 
Spring 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Girls 
116 
.7 
4.3 
4.9 
2.1 
2.3 
4.4 
9.3 
.60 
1.07 1.67 
7.8 
.22 
.02 
.18 
3.5 
37.9 
2.6 
8.6 
1936-37 
Boys 
126 
.9 
4.3 
5.1 
2.3 
2.8 
5.1 
10.2 
.06 
1.13 1.19 
7.9 
.19 
.07 
.16 
3.2 
46.8 
3.2 
13.5 
— 
Total 
242 
.8 
4.3 
5.0 
2.2 
2.6 
4.8 
9.8 
.32 
1.10 ; 1.42 
7.9 
.20 
.05 
.17 
3.3 
42.6 
2.9 
11.2 
- 
Girls 
124 
.8 
4.1 
4.8 
1.9 
2.2 
4.2 
9.0 
.55 
1.19 1.73 
7.5 
.27 
.02 
.23 
2.4 
29.0 
.8 
7.3 
29.4 
1937-38 
Boys 
119 
.5 
4.1 
4.6 
1.7 
3.0 
4.7 
9.3 
.23 
1.32 1.55 
7.7 
.12 
.07 
.19 
3.4 
40.3 
4.2 
6.7 
37.4 
Total 
243 
.7 
4.1 
4.7 
1.8 
2.6 
4.4 
9.1 
.39 
1.25 : 1.64 
7.6 
.20 
.04 
.21 
2.9 
34.6 
2.5 
7.0 
33.3 
Girls 
133 
1.0 
3.8 
4.8 
2.5 
2.5 
5.0 
9.8 
.65 
1.47 2.12 
8.0 
.21 
.02 
.18 
1.5 
3.0 
17.3 
21.2 
1938-39 
Boys 
118 
1.0 
4.7 
5.6 
2.1 
3.4 
5.5 
11.1 
.30 
1.33 1.63 
8.4 
.15 
.04 
.20 
3.4 
— 
1.7 
17.8 
20.9 
Total 
251 
1.0 
4.2 
5.2 
2.3 
2.9 
5.2 
10.4 
.49 
1.40 ; 1.89 
8.2 
.18 
.03 
.19 
2.4 
— 
2.4 
17.5 
21.0 
Girls 
125 
.3 
4.4 
4.8 
.9 
3.7 
4.7 
9.4 
.53 
1.54 2.06 
7.9 
.21 
.01 
.12 
6.4 
2.6 
8.8 
15.7 
1939-40 
Boys 
117 
.3 
5.4 
5.7 
1.1 
3.5 
4.6 
10.3 
.40 
1.19 1.59 
7.9 
.13 
.01 
.23 
5.1 
— 
3.4 
12.8 
22.4 
Total 
242 
.3 
4.9 
5.2 
1.0 
3.6 
4.6 
9.8 
.47 
1.37 1.83 
7.9 
.17 
.01 
.17 
5.8 
— 
3.0 
10.7 
18.9 
2 yrs. 
3 yrs. 
4 years 
Total 
978 
.7 
4.4 
5.0 
1.9 
2.9 
4.8 
9.8 
.42 
1.28 ; 1.70 
7.9 
.19 
.03 
.19 
3.6 
38.6 
2.7 
11.7 
24.4 
* Decalcified areas and fissures included. 
t Including retained roots. 
Key to abbreviations: S 
— Superficial 
D—Deep 
TABLE 20 
Summary of Newport Dental Examinations 124 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Average no. cavities 
Average no. cavities 
Av. no. 
Average no. 
Av. no. 
deciduous teeth 
permanent teeth 
com- 
fillings 
Av. no. 
extracted 
No 
Mai- 
Hypo- 
In- 
Town 
Year 
No. in 
bined 
affected 
perm a- 
caries 
occlu- 
plastic 
flamed 
group 
total 
teethf 
nent 
sion 
enamel 
gums 
cavities 
Decid- 
Perm a- 
Comb. 
teeth 
DA 
FS 
8 
D 
Total 
DA 
FS 
S 
D 
Total 
uous 
nent 
total 
carious 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Newport 
1936 
242 
.0 
.1 
.7 
4.3 
5.0 
.1 
1.3 
.8 
2.6 
4.8 
9.8 
.32 
1.10 
1.42 
7.9 
.17 
3.3 
42.6 
2.9 
11.2 
Mars Hill 
1934 
202 
.0 
.3 
.3 
5.2 
5.7 
.0 
2.3 
.0 
4.5 
6.8 
12.5 
.03 
.24 
.25 
10.5 
.26 
.5 
36.1 
3.5 
3.5 
Jonesport 
1934 
236 
.0 
.1 
.2 
4.8 
5.1 
.0 
2.3 
.1 
3.0 
5.4 
10.5 
.16 
.76 
.91 
8.9 
.30 
1.8 
39.8 
1.7 
3.4 
Monmouth 
1934 
199 
.0 
.2 
.0 
4.9 
5.2 
.0 
2.7 
.0 
5.0 
7.8 
13.3 
.05 
.79 
.83 
10.5 
.27 
1.5 
37.7 
3.0 
1.0 
* See Clayton, 1940, pp. 80-81. 
t Including retained roots 
Key to abbreviations: DA 
—Decalcified 
areas 
fs 
—Fissures and pits 
8—Superficial 
D—Deep 
TABLE 21 
Summary of Fall Dental Examinations Made in Four Maine Towns* Physical Condition of Maine Children 
125 
“Malocclusion” is calculated as the percentage of children with 
any of the types of malocclusion listed in Form 2. Overbite was 
included under upper protrusion. 
“Inflamed gums” are recorded as the percentage of children 
with any type of gum inflammation, 
“Abscessed” deciduous or permanent teeth are an average per 
mouth examined of visible fistulas resulting from the specific teeth 
involved. 
“Hypoplastic enamel” is calculated as the percentage of chil- 
dren with visible formative enamel defects in either the deciduous 
or permanent teeth. These defects consist of pits or grooves 
which run parallel to the gum line. 
Comments on the data given in Tables 20 and 21 will be made 
according to the table headings. 
Cavities, deciduous. The average number of cavities in the 
deciduous teeth of the Newport children (for the four years) was 
5 and the variation from year to year was slight. Eighty-eight per 
cent of these were deep cavities and 3.8 per cent had become ab- 
scessed, producing visible fistulas. The fall 1936 total average for 
Newport was slightly lower than that for Mars Hill but similar to 
those for Jonesport and Monmouth. 
Cavities, permanent. The total average number of cavities 
in the permanent teeth of the Newport children (for the four years) 
was 4.8 and 60.4 per cent of these were deep cavities. The average 
for fall 1938 was slightly higher than those for the other three 
years. The Newport total average for fall 1936 was somewhat 
lower than those for the other three towns in 1934 but the differ- 
ences may have been partly due to differences in standards used by 
the different examiners. 
Combined total cavities. The average number of combined 
total cavities in the teeth of the Newport children for the four 
years was 9.8, the average for fall 1938 being slightly higher than 
those for the other three years. The fall 1936 average for Newport 
was lower than those for the other three towns in 1934. Again, the 
differences may have been partly due to the difference in examiners. 
Fillings, deciduous. Very few fillings were found in the de- 
ciduous teeth, the four-year average for Newport being only .42. 
However, even the low fall 1936 average for Newport was higher 
than the 1934 average for the other three towns. This almost 
complete absence of fillings in the deciduous teeth is apparently the 126 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
result of the failure of most parents to realize the importance of 
preserving these teeth until they are naturally exfoliated. Only in 
this way can the children’s mouths be kept healthy and the develop- 
mental spaces held for the permanent teeth. 
Fillings, permanent. The average number of fillings in the 
permanent teeth of the Newport children was also very low in com- 
parison to the average number of cavities. The four-year New- 
port average was 1.28 and that for fall 1936, 1.10. However, even 
these low figures are higher14 than those secured in 1934 in the 
other towns. 
Combined total fillings. The Newport four-year average for 
combined total fillings was 1.7 as against an average of 9.8 for 
combined total cavities. 
Affected teeth. The four-year average for Newport was 7.9. 
This same figure was secured in fall 1936 and is slightly lower than 
those secured in the other three towns in 1934. 
Extracted permanent teeth, carious. The teeth most frequent- 
ly extracted in the Newport children were the six-year molars, the 
four-year average for all permanent teeth being .19. The fall 
1936 average of .17 is slightly lower than the 1934 averages for 
the other towns. 
No caries. More children with no caries, fillings, or extrac- 
tions were found in Newport than in any of the other three towns, 
the figure for Newport being highest in fall 1939. The four-year 
average was 3.6 per cent. 
Malocclusion. Complete records for malocclusion were made 
in Newport only in 1936 and 1937. The average for these two 
years was 38.6 per cent. The average for fall 1936 was 42.6 per 
cent, which is slightly higher than the results secured in the other 
towns. Irregular occlusion was the most common type seen but 
upper protrusion was also very common. Irregular occlusion re- 
sults from underdevelopment of the jaws, usually due to early loss 
or severe decay of the deciduous teeth. Underdevelopment of the 
jaws may also be hereditary or result from poor bone development. 
It seems probable that an improvement in calcium metabolism, be- 
ginning during prenatal life and continued through adolescence, 
14 One of the dentists in Newport made a practice of putting in numer- 
ous small fillings rather than a smaller number of larger ones. This may 
account for the slightly higher average for Newport as compared with the 
other towns. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
127 
might result in better developed jaws and better teeth in Maine 
children. 
Hypoplastic enamel. According to the four-year average, 
only 2.7 per cent of the Newport children showed hypoplastic 
enamel in either their deciduous or permanent teeth. In the fall of 
1936 the average was 2.9 per cent, which was similar to the figures 
secured in Mars Hill and Monmouth. The Jonesport figure was 
slightly lower. According to McCall (1938), hypoplastic enamel 
in the deciduous teeth is chargeable to prenatal systemic distur- 
bance. In the six-year molars the disturbance may be either pre- 
natal or postnatal but in the other permanent teeth the condition 
results after birth. Eliot, Souther, et al (1934) state that the usual 
type of hypoplastic enamel seen in permanent teeth is definitely 
associated with rickets in early life, although in some cases the 
effect of certain severe infectious diseases, such as pneumonia and 
bronchitis, may be superimposed on the effect of rickets. Brucker 
(1943) found that teeth (deciduous or permanent) which are 
visibly hypoplastic are not especially subject to decay. According 
to McCall (1938), however, caries in hypoplastic permanent teeth 
is apt to result when the pits and grooves are of such depth as to 
make self-cleansing and cleansing by the tooth brush difficult. 
McCall also believes that hypocalcification of the enamel of de- 
ciduous teeth makes them more subject to decay. (See Brucker, 
1943, p. 116.) 
Six-year molars. Since the six-year molars are the first per- 
manent teeth to erupt, and also usually the first to decay, studies 
of the condition of these teeth have been made on groups of chil- 
dren in various parts of the U. S. and the results used to indicate 
dental conditions in the particular areas. In a previous study in 
Maine (Clayton, 1940) 80.3 per cent of the grade-school children 
in Mars Hill, Jonesport, and Monmouth were found to have one 
or more of their six-year molars carious, filled, or extracted (pits 
and fissures not counted). This figure is similar to the one secured 
by Davies (See Roberts, 1935, p. 11) for a non-dairy section of 
Massachusetts but is almost twice as high as the one secured by 
Whitacre (1934) for Texas children. In Table 22 the results are 
given for the incidence of caries in the six-year molars of the 
Newport children. The four-year average shows that in 91.2 per 
cent of the children one or more of these teeth were carious, filled, 
or extracted. The percentage of children with these teeth affected 128 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 22 
Incidence of Caries in the Six-year Molars of Grade-school Children 
in Newport, Maine 
Year 
No. in group 
with 4 
6-year molars 
erupted 
No. in group 
with 4 
6-year molars 
sound 
No. in group 
with 1 or more 
6-year molars 
carious,* filled, 
or extracted 
Total 6-year 
molar teeth 
carious, filled, 
or extracted 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
No. 
% 
Girls 
90 
8 
8.9 
82 
91.1 
232 
64.4 
Pall 1936 
Boys 
105 
19 
18.1 
86 
81.9 
271 
64,5 
Total 
195 
27 
13.9 
168 
86.2 
503 
64.5 
Girls 
93 
3 
3.2 
90 
96.8 
288 
77.4 
Pall 1937 
Boys 
99 
6 
6.1 
93 
93.9 
319 
80.6 
Total 
192 
9 
4.7 
183 
95.3 
607 
79.0 
Girls 
105 
6 
5.7 
99 
94.3 
332 
79.1 
Pall 1938 
Boys 
99 
3 
3.0 
96 
97.0 
322 
81.3 
Total 
204 
9 
4.4 
195 
95.6 
654 
80.2 
Girls 
103 
13 
12.6 
90 
87.4 
294 
71.4 
Pall 1939 
Boys 
91 
13 
14.3 
78 
85.7 
259 
71.2 
Total 
194 
26 
13.4 
168 
86.6 
553 
71.3 
4 years 
Total 
785 
71 
11.3 
714 
91.2 
2317 
74.3 
* Fissures and pits omitted. Decalcified areas counted. 
by caries was lowest in the fall of 1936 and highest in 1938. The 
Newport results for all four years are somewhat higher than those 
secured in the other three Maine towns in 1934. 
Gums. The gums were examined chiefly to detect any in- 
flammation possibly related to vitamin C deficiency. It is well 
known, however, that there are a number of other causes for in- 
flammation, such as irregular occlusion, poor oral hygiene, irrita- 
tion from decayed and broken teeth, and infections. 
As shown in Table 20, between fall 1937 and spring 1938 there 
was a sharp increase in the percentage of Newport children who 
had inflamed gums. By the following fall (1938) the number of 
children showing inflammation had decreased about half but the 
fall figure for 1938 was higher than those for the other three years. 
Figures for spring 1939 and 1940 were not as high as those for 
spring 1938 but in each year the spring figures were higher than 
the fall. Since the inflammation of the gums was shown to be Physical Condition of Maine Children 
129 
Increase in vitamin C excretion less than 
Increase in vitamin O excretion more than 
Per cent 
Total 
No. in 
50 mg. on 2nd day of test 
50 mg. on 2nd day of test 
Per cent 
Per cent 
of age 
group with 
of age 
group with 
both low 
Ages 
Condition of gums 
Condition of gums 
of age 
group with 
age 
Local- 
Pale 
Local- 
Pale 
low testf 
abnor. 
test and 
group 
Healthy 
General 
+ to 2+ 
ized* 
with 
Healthy 
General 
-J- to 2-f 
ized* 
with 
gums 
abnor. 
redness 
inflam. 
inflam. 
hyper. 
redness 
inflam. 
Inflam. 
hyper. 
gums 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
42.1 
26.3 
7-11 
19 
3 
0 
1 
2 
2 
8 
0 
3 
0 
0 
42.1 
12-16 
9 
3 
0 
2 
0 
0 
1 
0 
0 
2 
1 
55.6 
55.6 
22.2 
Total Girls 
28 
6 
0 
3 
2 
2 
9 
0 
3 
2 
1 
Boys 
7-11 
23 
5 
2 
2 
0 
1 
8 
0 
4 
0 
1 
43.5 
43.5 
21.7 
12-16 
16 
3 
0 
9 
0 
0 
3 
0 
1 
0 
0 
75.0 
62.5 
56.3 
Total Boys 
39 
8 
2 
11 
0 
1 
11 
0 
5 
0 
1 
No. 
Percent of 
Per cent of 
Per cent of 
Total 
group 
total group 
total group 
group with 
67 
14 
2 
14 
2 
3 
20 
0 
8 
2 
2 
with low 
test 
with abnor. 
gums 
low test and 
abnor. gums 
(boys and 
Per cent 
3.0 
3.0 
girls) 
of total 
group 
20.9 
3.0 
20.9 
3.0 
4.5 
29.9 
0 
11.9 
52.2 
49.3 
31.3 
* Inflammation arom 
id certain teeth, associated with caries, malocclusion, or heavy deposits 
of calculus. 
, 
t Increase less than 50 mg. on 2nd day of test. 
TABLE 23 
Results of Six-hour Vitamin C Saturation Tests as Related to Gum Inflammation 
Newport. Fall 1928 130 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
definitely related to vitamin C deficiency (See p. 132) it appears 
that the winter diets especially must have been low in this vitamin. 
(See p. 156 for comments on diets.) 
The tendency to inflammation of the gums was also shown 
in the other three Maine towns where studies were made (See 
Table 21) but the figures for those towns were lower than those 
for Newport. The differences are no doubt partly due to the fact 
that when the Newport examinations were made more of the cases 
of slight localized inflammation were included. 
Six-hour vitamin C saturation tests. These tests were carried 
out in the fall of 1938 on a group of 67 of the Newport children 
in order to determine whether or not any relationship could be 
shown between the gum inflammation which had been found and 
vitamin C deficiency. The method used in carrying out the test 
was described on p. 87. Gum examinations were made by Dr. 
Woods approximately three weeks before the tests were begun and 
again shortly after they were completed. The criteria used in 
rating the gum inflammation were given on p. 88. The results of 
the tests are given in Table 23. 
In the group of 67 children there were 34 with definitely 
healthy gums and 33 with abnormal gums. The abnormal group 
included 2 boys whose entire gums were redder than usual; one of 
these also showed some hypertrophy. According to Kruse (1942, 
p. 293) this redness is characteristic of the second stage in the se- 
quence of pathological changes produced in the gums by vitamin 
C deficiency. Twenty-two others in the group with abnormal 
gums showed -f- to 2-f- inflammation of the type which is con- 
sidered characteristic of vitamin C deficiency; 4 showed only local- 
ized inflammation around certain teeth (associated with caries, 
malocclusion, or heavy deposits of calculus) and 5 showed gums 
which were pale in color and hypertrophied. Kruse (1942, p. 295) 
states that this pale color, with swelling, indicates beginning subsi- 
dence of the type of acute inflammation which is caused by vitamin 
C deficiency. Dr. Woods also came to this same conclusion at the 
time he made the gum examinations. 
As shown in Table 23, approximately one-half (52.2%) of 
the total group showed an increased excretion of less than 50 mg. 
of vitamin C on the second day of the test (following a 400 mg. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
131 
dose of vitamin C in tablet form).15 Both of the children with un- 
usually red gums were in this group, together with approximately 
two-thirds (63.6%) of those showing + to 2-f- inflammation. 
One-half of those with localized inflammation and three-fifths of 
those with pale, hypertrophied gums were also in this group. 
Of the 34 children with healthy gums 14 showed an increased 
excretion of less than 50 mg. of vitamin C on the second day of 
the test. It thus appears that a child showing gum inflammation is 
very apt to show a low result in the vitamin C saturation test, but 
that the absence of gum inflammation does not necessarily indicate 
good nutrition with respect to vitamin C. 
Since the same amount of vitamin C (400 mg.) was given to 
each subject on the second day of the saturation test, it seemed 
possible that, on account of their larger body size and greater 
activity, the older children might show a smaller increase in excre- 
tion on the second day of the test than the younger children. They 
would thus be falsely rated as being deficient in vitamin C. As 
indicated in Table 23 a higher percentage of the older children did 
show low results in the test. However, since, in the older group of 
boys, there was also a higher percentage who showed both inflamed 
gums and low results in the test it seems probable that the test 
dose used was high enough. The fact that a higher percentage of 
both boys and girls in the older age groups showed low results in 
this test indicates that vitamin C deficiency is particularly apt to 
occur during adolescence when the demand for this vitamin is high. 
In case the saturation test is used in future studies, it may 
seem desirable to base the dosage of vitamin C (on the second day 
of the test) on body weight, according to the method of Harris 
and Abbasy (1937). A uniform dose of 400 mg. of vitamin C 
was used in the present study for the sake of simplicity in handling 
the children. The use of 50 mg, as the dividing line between high 
and low results allowed for considerable range in response in the 
large and small children. 
The diet records secured on the two days of the tests did not 
indicate a very close relationship between the results of the tests 
and the amount of vitamin C in the diets on those two days. How- 
15 Thirty-five and eight-tenths per cent of the group showed an increased 
excretion of less than 10 mg. on the second day of the test. 132 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
ever, in the group of 24 children who showed an increase of less 
than 10 mg. of vitamin C on the second day there were 9 whose 
diets were rated poor in vitamin C and only 4 which were rated 
good. The other 11 were rated fair. 
TABLE 24 
Results of Vitamin C Tests for Cure of Inflamed Gums 
Newport, Spring 1939 
Before therapy 
After therapy 
Condition of gums 
No. cases 
Healthy 
Definite improvement 
No change 
No. 
Per cent 
No. 
Per cent 
No. 
Per cent 
Healthy (controls) 
3 
3 
100 
0 
0 
0 
0 
General redness 
with hypertrophy 
2 
0 
0 
2 
100 
0 
0 
+ inflammation 
10 
3 
30 
4 
40 
3 
30 
++ inflammation 
8 
1 
12.5 
7 
87.5 
0 
0 
+ + + inflammation 
3 
0 
0 
3 
100 
0 
0 
Total 
26 
Vitamin C tests for cure of inflamed gums. This test was 
carried out in March 1939 on a group of 26 Newport children. 
The procedure used was described on p. 88 and a summary of the 
results is given in Table 24. It will be seen from the table that 
the 3 children who served as controls still showed healthy gums 
at the end of the test period of three weeks. Of the 23 others, 4 
showed healthy gums, 16 showed definite improvement, and 3 no 
change at the end of three weeks. Of the 3 who showed no change 
one was a 14-year-old girl who had severe malocclusion. Another 
was a 9-year-old boy in poor physical condition, with extensive 
caries in his deciduous molars. The third was a 7-year-old boy 
who appeared to be in good general condition. His failure to 
respond to the increased intake of vitamin C cannot be explained. 
From these results it seems evident that most of the gum inflam- 
mation seen in the Newport children was of the type which re- 
sponds to treatment with vitamin C, Physical Condition of Maine Children 
133 
HOME VISITS 
Home visits in Newport were made in October, November, 
and December of 1937. Form 3 (Appendix) was used to record 
the following data for each child who was examined at school: 
family history, home conditions, home food production and preser- 
vation, prenatal conditions, early and present diets and health. 
Some difficulty was experienced in securing definite answers to a 
few of the questions, since the mothers often could not remember 
certain facts, especially regarding their own diets during preg- 
nancy and the early diets and health of the children. As far as 
possible various topics will be considered in the same order as they 
are given in Form 3. 
TABLE 25 
Nationality of Parents of Newport Grade-school Children 
Both parents 
American 
1 American 
1 Canadian 
1 American 
1 Italian 
1 American 
1 English 
1 American 
1 Austrian 
(Jewish) 
No. children 
176 
18 
2 
1 
1 
Per cent children 
83.4 
8.5 
1.0 
.5 
.5 
Both parents 
Both parents 
1 Canadian 
1 French 
1 American 
Canadian 
Finnish 
1 ? 
1 ? 
1 ? 
No. children 
5 
2 
1 
1 
4 
Per cent children 
2.4 
1.0 
.5 
.5 
1.9 
Nationality of Parents 
Information regarding the nationality of the parents was not 
secured for 29 of the 240 children whose homes were visited. Of 
the remaining 211 children 83.4 per cent had American parents; 
8.5 per cent had one American and one Canadian parent; and 2.4 
per cent had parents who were both Canadians. (See Table 25.) 
The only foreign countries represented were Italy, England, Aus- 
tria, Finland, and France (one family each). 134 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Language Spoken in the Homes 
English was spoken in all of the homes visited, although in 
one home French also was spoken. 
Occupations of Chief Wage Earners 
Classification of occupations. The occupations of the chief 
wage earners in the Newport families visited were summarized 
under the following headings; 
1. Laborers. Persons doing manual work whose incomes 
were apt to be seasonable or variable, such as farm laborers, truck 
drivers, factory workers, road workers, carpenters, painters, garage 
workers, etc. 
2. Business, professional, and semi-professional people. 
Persons such as doctors, dentists, owners of any business, govern- 
ment employees, salesmen, office workers, etc., whose incomes were 
usually either adequate or at least fairly regular. 
3. Farmers. All persons owning or renting and operating 
farms. 
4. Miscellaneous. Persons not included in the above groups, 
as: persons who were retired, on a pension, not working but on re- 
lief, etc. 
5. Unemployed, with very little or no outside help. 
In Table 26 the summary of occupations for Newport is given 
together with data for the other Maine towns in which similar 
studies were made in 1934-35. 
It will be noted that the figures for Newport are not very 
different from those for Mars Hill, except that there were fewer 
persons unemployed in Newport. It should be explained, however, 
that in Newport 10.6 per cent of those classed as laborers were 
working on W.P.A. projects and 4.6 per cent of these were also 
receiving additional state or town assistance. Another 4.6 per cent 
of the group of laborers were receiving state or town assistance but 
were not working on W.P.A. projects. W.P.A. was not in ex- 
istence early in 1935 when the studies were made in the other 
Maine towns. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
135 
Locality 
Year 
Total 
No. 
families 
Laborers 
Business 
professional, etc. 
Farmers 
Miscellaneous 
Unemployed 
Number 
of 
families 
Per cent 
Number 
of 
families 
Per cent 
Number 
of 
families 
Per cent 
Number 
of 
families 
Per cent 
Number 
of 
families 
Per cent 
Newport 
*1937 
132 
66 
50.0 
38 
28.8 
13 
9.8 
7 
5.3 
8 
6.1 
Mars Hill 
1935 
92 
38 
41.3 
26 
28.3 
10 
10.9 
2 
2.7 
16 
17.4 
Jonesport 
1935 
53 
29 
54.7 
12 
22.6 
1 
1.9 
5 
9.4 
6 
11.3 
West Jonesport 
1935 
48 
35 
72.9 
9 
18.8 
0 
0.0 
1 
2.1 
3 
6.3 
Monmouth 
1935 
43 
11 
25.6 
11 
25.6 
14 
32.6 
5 
11.6 
2 
4.7 
North Monmouth 
1935 
31 
21 
67.8 
5 
16.1 
3 
9.7 
1 
3.2 
1 
3.2 
Monmouth rural 
1935 
20 
7 
35.0 
2 
10.0 
8 
40.0 
0 
0.0 
3 
15.0 
Totals 
419 
207 
49.4 
103 
24.6 ' 
49 
11.7 
21 
5.0 
89 
9.3 
* Last quarter. All others are for first quarter. 
TABLE 26 
Classification of Occupations of Chief Wage Earners in Families of Grade-school Children in Four Maine Towns 136 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Total 
No. 
Did not 
complete 
elementary 
school 
Completed 
only 
elementary 
school 
r 
Completed 
1 
elementary and 
of high 
2 
indicated numb 
school 
3 
er of years 
4 
Completed 
elementary, 
high school 
and college or 
normal school 
Completed 
elementary, 
some high 
school and 
business school 
Per 
Per 
Per 
Per 
Per 
Per 
Per 
Per 
No. 
cent 
No. 
cent 
No. 
cent 
No. 
cent 
No. 
cent 
No. 
cent 
No. 
cent 
No. 
cent 
Fathers 
128 
10 
7.8 
51 
39.8 
5 
3.9 
16 
12.5 
10 
7.8 
27 
21.1 
3 
2.3 
6 
4.7 
Mothers 
132 
13 
9.8 
42 
31.8 
9 
6.8 
20 
15.2 
11 
8.3 
28 
21.2 
7 
5.3 
2 
1.5 
TABLE 27 
Education of Parents of Newport Grade-school Children Physical Condition of Maine Children 
137 
At the time the home visits were made, many housewives, 
whose husbands were in the group of laborers, commented on their 
low family incomes and the difficulty they were having in provid- 
ing adequate meals. Inquiries made by the writer in the spring 
of 1940 indicated that economic conditions in Newport were worse 
during the school year of 1937-38 than during the other three years 
of the study. 
In comparison with Newport there was a higher percentage of 
laborers in Jonesport, West Jonesport, and North Monmouth, 
where many worked in factories. In Jonesport and West Jonesport 
there were canneries where various fish products, such as clam 
chowder and herring, were canned. In North Monmouth there 
were several textile mills, but at the time the home visits were made 
most of the mills were running only part time. In Jonesport, West 
Jonesport, and North Monmouth the women of the families often 
earned some of the living by working part time. 
As is indicated in Table 26, only 9.8 per cent of the Newport 
wage earners were classed as farmers, although 14.5 per cent of 
the families lived outside of the village. Monmouth was the chief 
farming town included in the present study, although there were 
very few farmers in North Monmouth. There was only one farm 
family in Jonesport. This is a seacoast town and the majority of 
families visited lived in the villages along the rocky shore where 
the soil is not well adapted to gardening. 
Education of Parents 
The education completed by the fathers and mothers of the 
Newport grade-school children is summarized in Table 27. About 
28 per cent of both parents had either finished high school or gone 
on to college, normal school, or business school. About 27 per 
cent had finished one, two, or three years of high school and about 
36 per cent had only completed elementary school. 
Food Production and Preservation for Family Use 
Milk supply. In Table 28 information is given regarding the 
milk consumption of the Newport families as compared with the 
families in the other Maine towns where surveys were made. It 138 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Locality 
Year 
Total 
No. 
families 
Families having 
one or more cows 
Av. fresh 
milk con- 
sumption 
per person 
in families 
having cows 
Families 
without cows 
Av. fresh 
milk con- 
sumption 
per person 
in families 
without cows 
Families 
using only 
canned 
milk 
Families* 
using fresh 
milk plus 
supplements 
of skim milk, 
cream, or 
canned milk 
No. 
Per 
cent 
No. 
persons 
Quarts 
No. 
Per 
cent 
No. 
persons 
Quarts 
No. 
Per 
cent 
No. 
Per 
cent 
Newport 
11937 
136 
23 
16.9 
133 
.67 
113 
83.1 
589 
.37 
12 
8.8 
22 
16.2 
Mars Hill 
1935 
90 
20 
22.2 
113 
.67 
70 
77.7 
379 
.21 
9 
10.0 
38 
42.2 
Jonesport 
1935 
53 
7 
13.2 
36 
.71 
46 
86.8 
267 
.21 
10 
18.9 
25 
47.2 
West Jonesport 
1935 
48 
2 
4.2 
11 
1.14 
46 
95.8 
232 
.20 
16 
33.3 
27 
56.3 
Monmouth 
1935 
43 
20 
46.5 
132 
.45 
23 
53.5 
109 
.38 
1 
2.3 
4 
9.3 
North Monmouth 
1935 
31 
17 
54.8 
108 
.76 
14 
45.2 
76 
.42 
0 
0.0 
7t 
22.6 
Monmouth rural 
1935 
20 
8 
40.0 
62 
.80 
12 
60.0 
67 
.32 
1 
5.5 
6 
30.0 
Totals 
421 
97 
23.0 
595 
.66 
324 
77.0 
1719 
.29 
49 
11.6 
129 
30.6 
* Families without cows. 
J Last quarter. All others are for first quarter, 
t One other family used skim milk only. 
TABLE 28 
Milk Supply in Families of Grade-school Children in Four Maine Towns Physical Condition of Maine Children 
139 
will be seen that the average daily milk consumption of the New- 
port families having cows (.67 qt. per person) was the same as the 
average for Mars Hill. The Newport average for families with- 
out cows (.37 qt. per person) was similar to the Monmouth aver- 
age and somewhat higher than the Mars Hill, Jonesport, and West 
Jonesport averages. This average seems low, however, for rural 
communities where milk is produced in considerable quantity. A 
great deal of milk which was being shipped out of the state would 
have been retained for local use if the demand had been sufficient. 
Only 16.2 per cent of the Newport families without cows were 
using supplements of skim milk, cream, or canned milk. Twelve 
Newport families were using canned milk only. 
Fresh milk being consumed in comparison to milk needed. In 
order to determine how the amounts of fresh milk consumed by 
Newport families compared with the amounts considered necessary 
for good nutrition, calculations of the requirements were made, 
based on a daily allowance of 1 quart for children under 5 years, 
3 cups for children between 5 and 15 (inclusive), and 1 pint for 
those 16 and over. In Table 29 the results for Newport are com- 
pared with those previously secured for the other three Maine 
towns. It will be seen that fresh milk consumption in Newport 
was only a little more than half of that which is considered desir- 
able for good nutrition. The total amount used was sufficient to 
adequately supply only the children under 16. The amount of 
fresh milk consumed in the town of Monmouth was much nearer 
to the amount needed than that used in any of the other three 
towns. 
As is shown in Table 28 milk situation in Mars Hill and 
Jonesport is not quite as bad as it appears in Table 29, since more 
families in these two towns were using canned milk and other 
supplements to the supply of fresh milk. It is unfortunate that 
it was impossible to secure accurate information regarding the 
amounts of these supplements which were ordinarily used. From 
the information obtained, however, it was very evident that the 
amount of cream, canned and skim milk used did not by any means 
supply the equivalent of the amount needed in addition to the 
fresh milk already being consumed. 140 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Average 
Average 
Average 
Average 
Average 
Average 
Per cent 
Number 
number 
number 
number 
quarts 
quarts 
quarts 
of total 
Locality 
Year 
families 
in 
children 
children 
fresh milk 
needed 
needed 
milk needed 
visited 
household 
under 5 
between 
consumed 
per day 
for 
which was 
5-15 (incl.) 
per day 
children 
consumed 
Newport 
1937* 
136 
5.3 
.48 
1.9 
1.9 
3.4 
1.9 
57.7 
Mars Hill 
1935 
90 
5.5 
.40 
2.2 
1.7 
3.5 
2.1 
48.6 
Jonesport 
1935 
53 
5.7 
.64 
2.2 
1.6 
3.7 
2.3 
43.2 
West Jonesport 
1935 
48 
5.1 
.38 
2.3 
1.2 
3.3 
2.1 
36.4 
Monmouth 
1935 
42 
5.6 
.45 
2.1 
2.3 
3.6 
2.0 
63.9 
North Monmouth 
1935 
31 
5.9 
.58 
2.3 
3.5 
3.8 
2.3 
92.1 
Monmouth rural 
1935 
21 
6.3 
.95 
2.2 
3.5 
4.2 
2.6 
83.3 
Four Towns 
421 
5.5 
.50 
2.1 
2.0 
3.5 
2.1 
55.9 
* Last quarter. All others are for first quarter. 
TABLE 29 
Fresh Milk Consumed in Comparison to Milk Needed in Families of Grade-school Children in Four Maine Towns Physical Condition of Maine Children 
141 
TABLE 30 
Percentage of Families Having Gardens and Chickens 
Locality 
Tear data 
were 
secured 
Total 
number 
families 
Per cent 
having 
gardens 
Per cent 
having 
chickens 
Newport 
1937* 
136 
80.1 
16.9 
Mars Hill 
1935 
92 
91.4 
37.0 
Jonesport 
1935 
53 
62.3 
32.1 
West Jonesport 
1935 
48 
50.0 
25.0 
Monmouth 
1935 
43 
93.1 
51.2 
North Monmouth 
1935 
31 
100.0 
35.5 
Monmouth, rural 
1935 
20 
100.0 
60.0 
* Last quarter. All others are for first quarter. 
Vegetable gardens and chickens. The percentage of families 
in the different towns who had vegetable gardens and chickens is 
given in Table 30. It will be seen that 80.1 per cent of the New- 
port families had gardens but only 16.1 per cent had chickens. 
Newport was lower than Mars Hill or Monmouth in the percentage 
of families having gardens and lower than any of the other three 
towns in the percentage having chickens. The fact that Newport 
is a more compact village than either Mars Hill or Monmouth may 
partly account for the smaller percentage of families in that town 
who were producing some of their own food. 
In Newport 15.4 per cent of the families were raising one or 
more animals, such as pigs or calves, for use as meat. Similar in- 
formation was not secured for Jonesport and Monmouth, but in 
Mars Hill, in the fall of 1935, 45.416 per cent of the families were 
raising animals for meat. 
Fruits. (See Tables 31 and 32.) Apples were the chief 
fruit, exclusive of berries, raised in the four towns where surveys 
were made. The percentage of families in each town who either 
had trees of their own or secured fruit from relatives was as fol- 
lows: Newport 25.3, Mars Hill 10.8 (1934) and 16.5 (1935), 
Jonesport 4.0, and Monmouth 49.0. In Monmouth in 1934 a 
considerable number of families reported that they also raised 
pears, plums, cherries, and grapes. 
16 See footnotes to Table 31. P. 142. 142 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 31 
Percentage of Nezvport and Mars Hill Families Who Raised * 
Canned, and Stored Specific Foods 
Foods 
Newport—1937-38 
134 families! 
- Mars Hill—1935-36 
121 families! 
Raised 
Canned i 
Stored 
Raised 
Canned | 
Stored 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Fruits 
Apples and crab apples 
25.3 
16.4 
11.9 
16.5 
49.6 
14.1 
Berries, kind unknown 
2.2 
— 
Blackberries 
14.9 
17.2 
— 
— 
_ 
Blueberries 
13.4 
15.7 
— 
19.0 
23.1 
_ 
Cherries 
— 
— 
— 
.8 
— 
Cherries, choke 
1.7 
.8 
— 
Cranberries 
5.2 
3.0 
— 
14.1 
— 
— 
Currants 
2.5 
— 
Gooseberries 
— 
— 
2.5 
5.0 
Grapes 
2.2 
.8 
_ 
— 
— 
— 
Melons 
3.7 
— 
Peaches 
6.7 
— 
3.3 
_ 
Pears 
.8 
5.2 
— 
_ 
3.3 
_ 
Plums 
1.5 
6.0 
— 
5.8 
25.6 
Raspberries 
47.0 
36.6 
— 
9.2 
80.2 
— 
Strawberries 
20.9 
25.4 
- 
63.6 
57.9 
- 
Vegetables 
Beans, shell 
10.5 
11.9 
— 
9.1 
9.9 
Beans, string 
75.4 
73.1 
— 
90.9 
80.2 
— 
Beets 
65.7 
27.6 
32.8 
82.6 
49.6 
38.0 
Beet greens 
65.7 
6.7 
— 
82.6 
28.9 
— 
Broccoli 
3.0 
— 
— 
— 
— 
— 
Brussels sprouts 
1.5 
— 
— 
— 
— 
— 
Cabbage 
26.1 
.8 
— 
46.3 
.8 
47.1 
Carrots 
64.9 
11.2 
46.3 
85.1 
33.9 
63.6 
Cauliflower 
2.2 
— 
— 
6.6 
_ — 
— 
Catsup 
— 
1.5 
I — 
— 
— 
— 
Celery 
3.0 
— 
— 
— 
— 
— 
Chard, Swiss 
25.4 
5.2 
— 
47.1 
28.9 
— „ 
Corn 
. 55.2 
32.8 
— - 
63.6 
29.8 
— 
Cress 
.8 
— 
' — 
— 
— 
— 
Cucumbers 
56.7 
53.7 
— 
69.4 
95.9 
— 
Dandelions 
55.2 
(Pickles) 
17.9 
71.1 
(Pickles) 
14.1 
Endive 
32.8 
10.5 
— 
10.7 
5.0 
— 
Fiddleheads 
— 
— 
_ 
58.7 
13.2 
— 
Greens, unspecified 
3.0 
16.4 
— 
— 
— 
Kale 
.8 
— 
— 
.8 
— 
Kohlrabi 
— 
— 
3.3 
— 
— - 
* Or picked wild. 
114.5 per cent were rural. 
{ 28.1 per cent were rural. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
143 
TABLE 31—(Continued) 
Foods 
Newport—1937-38 
134 families! 
Mars Hill—1935-36 
121 families! 
Raised 
Canned 
Stored 
Raised 
Canned 
Stored 
Vegetables (Cont.) 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Lettuce 
56.7 
— 
81.8 
Onions 
7.5 
— 
— 
33.1 
— 
Parsnips 
8.2 
— 
2.2 
27.3 
— 
15.7 
Peas 
42.5 
28.4 
— 
76.0 
41.3 
_ 
Peppers 
— 
— 
.8 
_ 
Peppergrass 
— 
— 
— 
2.5 
— 
— 
Potatoes 
17.9 
— 
49.3 
40.5 
— 
68.6 
Pumpkin 
16.4 
— 
11.9 
32.2 
3.3 
17.4 
Radishes 
30.6 
— 
— 
57.9 
— 
— 
Rhubarb 
.8 
10.5 
— 
29.8 
30.6 
— 
Rutabagas 
39.6 
— 
29.1 
47.9 
— 
61.2 
Spinach 
21.6 
2.2 
— 
26.5 
8.3 
— 
Squash 
25.4 
— 
21.6 
52.1 
.8 
24.0 
Tomatoes 
71.6 
57.5 
— 
74.4 
31.4 
- 
Miscellaneous 
Meat, fish, chicken 
— 
3.7 
Mincemeat 
— 
11.2 
— 
— 
— 
— 
In Newport raspberries were cultivated to some extent for 
the market and 47 per cent of the families reported that they either 
raised them or picked wild ones. As indicated in Table 31, straw- 
berries, blackberries, blueberries, and cranberries were also picked 
for home use. 
In Mars Hill in 1934 berries were raised or picked wild by 
69.5 per cent of the families. Strawberries, raspberries, blueber- 
ries, high-bush cranberries, currants, and gooseberries were the 
kinds gathered. In 1935 (see Table 31) 63.6 per cent of the fami- 
lies reported that they picked strawberries. These were mostly 
wild. 
Blueberries were plentiful in the vicinity of Jonesport and 
79.2 per cent of the families reported that they picked them and 
one or more of the following other kinds of berries: raspberries, 
strawberries, cranberries (high- and low-bush), blackberries, goose- 
berries, and baked apple (cloud berries). 
In Monmouth the only varieties mentioned were strawberries, 
raspberries, blueberries, and blackberries, which were picked by 
78.7 per cent of the families. 144 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 32 
Percentage of Families in Four Towns Who Canned and Stored 
Specific Foods 
Poods 
Mars Hill 
91 families 
Jonesport 
101 families 
Monmouth 
97 families 
Newport 
134 families 
Summer-1934 
Summer-1934 
Summer-1934 
Summer-1937 
Canned 
Stored 
Canned 
Stored 
Canned 
Stored 
Canned 
Stored 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Fruits 
Apples 
19.8 
2.2 
11.9 
1.0 
10.3 
9.3 
11.9 
11.9 
Berries 
09.2 
— 
79.2 
— 
78.4 
— 
55.9 
— 
Cherries 
— 
— 
— 
— 
1.0 
— 
— 
— 
Crab apples 
— 
— 
— 
— 
4.1 
— 
4.5 
— 
Cranberries 
— 
— 
— 
— 
— 
1.0 
3.0 
— 
Grapes and grape juice 
— 
— 
1.0 
— 
4.1 
— 
.8 
— 
Peaches 
8.8 
— 
0.9 
— 
4.1 
0.7 
— 
Pears 
0.6 
— 
9.9 
— 
49.5 
— 
5.2 
— 
Plums 
15.4 
- 
13.9 
- 
13.4 
— 
0.0 
— 
Vegetables 
Beans, shell 
— 
— 
1.0 
— 
35.0 
1.0 
11.9 
Beans, string 
74.7 
— 
03.4 
— 
80.0 
— 
73.1 
Beets 
42.9 
22.2 
33.7 
17.8 
30.9 
49.5 
27.0 
32.8 
Cabbage 
— 
40.0 
— 
10.8 
_ 
48.5 
— 
19.4 
Carrots 
10.5 
50.4 
11.9 
40.5 
5.2 
72.2 
11.2 
40.3 
Catsup 
— 
— 
1.0 
— 
4.1 
1.5 
Cauliflower 
4.4 
— 
— 
— 
2.1 
Celery 
— 
— ■ 
— 
— 
1.0 
.8 
Corn 
15.4 
— 
8.9 
— 
51.0 
— 
32.8 
Greens 
41.8 
— 
43.0 
— 
50.7 
' 
40.4 
Mixture for soup 
1.1 
— 
— 
— 
Onions 
— 
4.4 
— 
1.0 
2.1 
.8 
Parsnips 
— 
0.7 
— 
2.0 
— 
0.2 
2.2 
Peas 
42.9 
— 
42.0 
_ 
43.3 
28.4 
Peppers 
— 
— 
— 
_ 
1.0 
Pickles 
50.3 
— 
09.3 
— 
84.5 
53.7 
Potatoes 
— 
70.7 
— 
75.3 
— 
83.5 
49.3 
Pumpkin 
1.1 
— 
7.9 
0.9 
4.1 
8.3 
11.9 
Rhubarb 
11.0 
— 
8.9 
— 
9.3 
10.5 
Sauerkraut 
— 
1.1 
— 
— 
.8 
_ 
Rutabagas 
— 
00.0 
— 
57.4 
51.0 
29.1 
Squash 
2.1 
5.0 
4.0 
10.9 
2.1 
11.3 
21.0 
Succotash 
— 
— 
— 
— 
1.0 
Tomatoes 
31.9 
- 
8.9 
- 
79.4 
- 
57.5 
— 
Miscellaneous 
Beef 
1.1 
2.0 
4.1 
Chicken 
3.3 
— 
2.0 
— 
1.0 
2.2 
Coots 
— 
— 
2.0 
_ 
Ducks 
— 
— 
1.0 
— 
— 
— 
— 
- Physical Condition of Maine Children 
145 
TABLE 32—(Continued) 
Foods 
Mars Hill 
91 families 
Jonesport 
101 families 
Monmouth 
97 families 
Newport 
134 families 
Summer-1934 
Summer—1984 
Summer-1934 
Summer-1937 
Canned 
Stored 
Canned 
Stored 
Canned 
Stored 
Canned 
Stored 
Miscellaneous (Cont.) 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Fish, kind unspecified 
_ 
— 
14.9 
— 
2.1 
.7 
Herring 
— 
— 
3.0 
— 
— 
— 
— 
- 
Mackerel 
— 
— 
17.8 
— 
— 
— 
_ 
— 
Meat, kind unspecified 
1.1 
— 
2.0 
— 
11.3 
— 
— 
— 
Mincemeat 
1.1 
— 
5.9 
— 
27.8 
— 
11.8 
_ 
Pork 
— 
_ 
_ 
_ 
2.1 
— 
— 
Veal 
— 
— 
— 
— 
2.1 
— 
— 
— 
Venison 
— 
5.0 
1.0 
.7 
Vegetables. The various kinds of vegetables raised by the 
Newport families in the summer of 1937 and by the Mars Hill 
families in the summer of 193517 are given in Table 31. The kinds 
of vegetables raised by 50 per cent or more of the Newport fami- 
lies were: string beans, beets, carrots, corn, cucumbers, dandelions 
(wild), lettuce, and tomatoes. Those raised by 50 per cent or 
more of the Mars Hill families included the same list plus fiddle- 
heads (wild), peas, radishes, and squash. In Newport less than 
25 per cent of the families raised the following vegetables which 
are important from a nutritive standpoint: spinach, potatoes, green 
peppers, kale, broccoli, and shell beans. In 1935 less than 25 per 
cent of the Mars Hill families raised green peppers, kale, broccoli, 
and shell beans. 
Canning. (Fruits) As is shown in Table 32 berries were 
the kind of fruit canned by the most families in all four towns. 
(The figures in the tables do not include jellies and preserves.) 
Apples, plums, pears, and peaches were also frequently canned. 
17 In Mars Hill in 1935-36 an attempt was made to discover how much 
improvement in the nutritive status of grade-school children could be brought 
about through improvements in the family diets. In order to encourage gar- 
dening and canning, federal seeds were supplied to 33 parents who made 
application. Also an E.R.A. canning center was operated during the summer. 
This was used by approximately 45 families having children in the grade 
school. 146 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Pears were especially popular in Monmouth, no doubt because 
they were available from trees in the locality. 
(Vegetables) The vegetables canned by the most families 
in all four towns were string beans, pickles, and greens. Since 
pickles have very little food value in the diet, except as appetizers, 
it is unfortunate that so many housewives canned them in pref- 
erence to more nutritious vegetables. Beets and peas also were 
canned often in all four towns. Corn was especially popular in 
Monmouth and Newport, shell beans in Monmouth, and tomatoes 
in Mars Hill, Monmouth, and Newport. The supply of ripe toma- 
toes in Mars Hill was fairly limited, since at the time this study was 
made families had not yet learned that, in order to secure sufficient 
ripe fruit during a short growing season, it is necessary to choose 
early varieties (see p. 180) and start the plants in the house. The 
data for Mars Hill, given in Tables 31 and 32, show that more of 
the Mars Hill families canned fruits and vegetables in 1935 than 
in 1934. 
(Meats, poultry, fish, etc.) Meats were not canned by many 
families but mincemeat was canned by 27.8 per cent of the families 
in Monmouth and 11.8 per cent of those in Newport. In Jones- 
port 35.7 per cent of the housewives reported that they had canned 
fish; 5 per cent had canned venison, and 2 per cent coots (a sea 
bird). 
Although the percentage of families, in all four towns, who 
canned certain fruits and vegetables was quite high the quantities 
canned by the majority of housewives were not sufficient to supply 
their families throughout the winter. At the time the home visits 
were made in Mars Hill, Jonesport, and Monmouth, early in 1935, 
many families had only a few jars left which they were saving for 
special occasions. 
In the early spring, nearly all families made use of wild 
greens, such as dandelions and fiddleheads, but when these were 
gone there were no fresh garden vegetables available until the last 
of June. This means that there are long intervals in the late spring 
and early summer when many families have to buy all of the vege- 
tables they use. 
Storage. (Fruits) Apples were practically the only fruit 
stored in any of the four towns. (See Tables 31 and 32.) 
(Vegetables) The chief vegetables stored in all four towns 
were beets, cabbages, carrots, potatoes, and rutabagas. Many New- 
port and Mars Hill (1935) families also stored squash. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
147 
Prenatal History 
As shown in Form 3 (Appendix) information was secured 
for each Newport child regarding the mother’s diet and health 
during pregnancy and conditions prevailing at birth. In Table 33 
this information is summarized separately for each of the four 
towns. 
TABLE 33 
Summary of Prenatal History and Basic Feeding during Infancy 
Town 
Total 
number 
of 
children 
Abnormal 
pregnancy 
Inadequate 
diet during 
pregnancy 
Premature 
birth 
Breast fed 
5 months 
or more 
Breast fed 
9 months 
or more 
Weaned from 
breast after 
12th month 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Newport 
230 
17.3 
79.2 
2.7 
34.4 
28.3 
3.1 
Mars Hill 
143 
20.3 
61.5 
7.9 
43.8 
35.0 
4.4 
Jonesport 
174 
17.2 
77.0 
5.3 
46.6 
38.7 
7.5 
Monmouth 
153 
14.4 
77.1 
8.6 
51.9 
37.7 
5.2 
Character of pregnancies. It will be seen that, according to 
the statements of the mothers in the different towns, between 14.4 
and 20.3 per cent of the pregnancies were abnormal, having been 
accompanied by persistent vomiting, kidney trouble, or other dis- 
turbances. Accurate information regarding diets during preg- 
nancy was difficult to secure but approximately three-fourths of 
the diets were probably inadequate. Lack of sufficient milk was 
the chief dietary defect noted, although lack of sufficient fruits, 
vegetables, and eggs was commonly admitted. 
Vitamin D in prenatal diets. In judging the adequacy of 
the prenatal diets, as reported in the table, vitamin D was not con- 
sidered, since no mother was found in any of the four towns who 
had taken cod liver oil or any similar product containing vitamin 
D. As stated by Park (1940), “the foods that comprise the diet 
of the average person are almost lacking in vitamin D . . .. The 
amount in milk is negligible. Average butter is estimated as 
containing only 80 units per hundred grams, making its potency 
about one one-hundredth that of average cod liver oil. Liver may 148 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
contain a small amount but not enough to have any practical value.” 
Hen’s eggs may contain considerable amounts of vitamin D but 
the amount is extremely variable, since it depends on the amount 
of ultraviolet radiation (from sunlight or an ultraviolet lamp) 
which the birds receive and the amount of vitamin D in their food. 
For these reasons eggs are not considered to be reliable sources of 
the vitamin. Certain kinds of oily fish, such as herring, sardines, 
salmon, and tuna, contain significant amounts of the vitamin but 
are not ordinarily eaten in sufficient amounts to meet vitamin D 
needs during pregnancy. During the summer months it would 
be possible to secure adequate vitamin D from sunlight, but prob- 
ably few women take sufficient advantage of their opportunity to 
secure it. It can be said, therefore, that most of the mothers were 
deficient in vitamin D during pregnancy. 
Standards for calcium and vitamin D during pregnancy and 
lactation. The value of vitamin D in pregnancy and lactation has 
been emphasized by many workers in the field of nutrition. In an 
article in the Journal of the American Medical Association, Jeans 
and Stearns (1938) state that during pregnancy and lactation, 
calcium and vitamin D are the two factors most often deficient in 
the mother’s diet. They emphasize that vitamin D alone does not 
insure adequate retention of calcium unless sufficient calcium is 
present in the diet. During pregnancy from 1.4 to 1.6 grams of 
calcium are needed daily. These are the amounts contained in 
5 and 5.5 cups of milk. If the mother cannot drink sufficient milk 
to secure this amount of calcium, Sullivan (1944) suggests that 
dicalcium phosphate be prescribed by her physician. The same 
author recommends 600 to 1,000 units of vitamin D daily in the 
form of a concentrate from fish liver oil. 
During lactation the drain on the mother is even more severe 
than during pregnancy and Jeans and Stearns (1938) state that 
ample calcium is imperative. They recommend a daily intake of 
at least 2 grams and at least 800 or more units of vitamin D. 
History During Infancy 
Premature births. As shown in Table 33 the percentage of 
premature births was lower in Newport than in the other three 
towns. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
149 
General condition at birth. The mothers of 219 of the New- 
port children gave reports of the general condition of their children 
at birth. The condition of 94.5 per cent of the babies was said to 
have been good; 2.3 per cent were described as “thin.” One baby 
had jaundice; one, club foot; and two, ruptures. 
Basic feeding. Table 33 shows that 34.4 per cent of the 
Newport children were breast fed 5 months or more, 28.3 per cent 
9 months or more, and 3.1 per cent 12 months or more. These 
figures are lower than those secured in the other towns. The ma- 
jority of the Newport babies who were artificially fed received 
modified fresh cow’s milk, although 11.5 per cent received evapo- 
rated, condensed, or dried milk for at least part of their first year. 
When feeding problems occurred, various proprietary infant foods 
were often tried. Many of these are dextrinized or malted cereal 
products, sometimes containing in addition one or more of the fol- 
lowing: lactose, inorganic salts, and powdered cow’s milk. Most 
of them are added to fresh cow’s milk, although a few, which con- 
tain sufficient milk, merely require the addition of water. These 
preparations are relatively expensive, selling for between 69 and 
94 cents a pound. 
Choice of sugar for infant feeding. The sugars commonly 
used in infant feeding are: cane sugar, corn syrup, dextrimaltose, 
and lactose. According to the Council on Foods of the American 
Medical Association (1937) “the choice of sugar for use in infant 
feeding is of relatively minor importance as compared with other 
problems of infant feeding.” There are times, of course, when 
physicians prescribe one carbohydrate preparation in preference to 
another, especially for its laxative or non-laxative effect. It would 
appear, therefore, that unless the physician advises to the contrary 
it would be better to use an inexpensive sugar such as Karo corn 
syrup rather than the more expensive carbohydrate preparations. 
That would leave more money to be spent for orange juice, cod- 
liver oil, and other necessary supplements. 
Substitutes for fresh cow’s milk. In Newport, as well as in 
the other towns, various brands of evaporated and condensed milk 
were used. One Newport child received plain dried milk, 5 evapo- 
rated milk, and 20 condensed milk for at least a part of the first 
year. Condensed milk is ordinarily sweetened, the finished product 
containing 40 to 45 per cent of cane sugar. According to Marriott 
(1935, p. 204) it “is not a suitable food for infant feeding. When 150 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
given in sufficient amount to supply the necessary calories, there 
is too little milk present to provide sufficient protein, mineral salts, 
and vitamins. Such a one-sided diet may lead to rapid increase in 
weight, but infants are as a class flabby and have very poor re- 
sistance to infections.” 
Evaporated or dried milk is much better suited to infant 
feeding, since the amount of sugar added to the formula can be 
properly regulated. Most evaporated and some dried milks are 
now irradiated, which adds vitamin D, not enough, however, to 
completely supply the needs of the infant. 
TABLE 34 
Data on Infant and Preschool Diets 
Supplements during first year 
Preschool diets 
Town 
Total 
number 
of 
Orange 
Tomato 
Orange 
juice, 
Cod liver 
Vege- 
tables 
Average 
amount 
milk 
Cod liver 
oil* 
children 
juice 
juice 
tomato 
juice, 
or both 
oil 
Egg 
including 
potatoes 
Cereals 
daily 
after 
1st year 
daily 
after 
1st year 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
cups 
% 
Newport 
230 
60.4 
25.6 
62.2 
38.7 
69.6 
85.6 
87.4 
3.0 
20.5 
Mars Hill 
138 
64.5 
13.0 
64.5 
29.0 
56.5 
65.8 
70.0 
2.6 
11.3 
Jonesport 
168 
58.3 
8.9 
68.3 
17.3 
45.8 
72.6 
75.0 
2.7 
15.6 
Monmouth 
153 
55.7 
24.2 
58.8 
18.3 
58.1 
79.1 
86.4 
2.8 
5.8 
* Or other vitamin D preparation. 
Supplements during infancy. The mothers in the four towns 
were questioned regarding the foods, other than milk, which the 
babies had received during their first year. Very few remembered 
accurately the month when each food was begun or the amount 
given, but it was possible to secure statements regarding the kinds 
of foods given. A summary of this information is given in Table 
34. It will be seen that the percentage of children who received 
orange juice, tomato juice, or both was about the same in the four 
towns. A higher percentage of the Newport children received cod 
liver oil, egg, and vegetables (including potato), but the percentage 
of children who had cod liver oil was significantly low in all towns. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
151 
Next to potato, carrots were the vegetable most often fed. In all 
four towns cereals and vegetables were the supplements most 
generally used, but very often potato was the chief vegetable fed. 
Need of hr east-fed babies for vitamin D. Some parents, as 
well as physicians, are of the opinion that breast-fed babies do not 
need cod liver oil (or other source of vitamin D) as a preventive of 
rickets. Jeans and Stearns (1938) and other authorities state that, 
since mother’s milk varies in its vitamin D content, and babies in 
their store of vitamin D at birth, it is best to give breast-fed babies 
the same amount as is prescribed for those artificially fed. Jeans 
and Stearns (1938) state that the vitamin D requirement of the 
full term artificially fed baby is between 300 and 400 units a day. 
Premature babies may require twice this amount during the period 
of most rapid growth. 
Feeding problems. In the Newport group 21.5 per cent of 
219 babies were reported to have had feeding problems or frequent 
digestive upsets. Most of the feeding problems were said to be 
due to the failure of breast milk or cow’s milk formulas to agree 
with the children. Three babies could not tolerate orange juice. 
Illnesses during the first year. Following is a summary of 
the illnesses reported for 196 of the Newport babies during their 
first year: 
% 
% 
Abscesses 
.5 
Kidneys 
.5 
x\nemia 
.5 
Measles 
5.6 
Bronchitis 
1.5 
Mumps 
1.0 
Chicken pox 
2.0 
Pneumonia 
3.1 
Colds 
2.6 
Rickets 
.5 
Croup 
.5 
Scarlet fever 
.5 
Ear abscess 
1.0 
Tape worm 
.5 
Intestinal flu 
1.5 
Whooping cough 
6.6 
Jaundice 
.5 
Worms 
.5 
Preschool History 
Food dislikes. The preschool children in all four towns had 
numerous food dislikes and the majority of these were among the 
commonly used vegetables. In Newport 26.5 per cent of the chil- 
dren disliked one or more kinds, the ones most frequently men- 
tioned being carrots, onions, greens, tomatoes, string beans, pota- 152 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
toes, and rutabagas. Meat was disliked by 5.7 per cent and milk 
by 2.6 per cent. 
Foods withheld. Among the Newport children 30 per cent 
had certain foods withheld during their first three years. Those 
most frequently mentioned were dried beans and meat. Corn, 
pickles, and fried meats were also withheld by several mothers. 
Milk consumption. As shown in Table 34 the average daily 
milk consumption of the Newport preschool children was 3 cups; 
35.7 per cent of the group had 2 cups or less. The averages for 
the other three towns were slightly lower. 
Sources of vitamin D. Table 34 also shows that about one 
fifth of the Newport children had received cod liver oil or other 
source of vitamin D regularly during their preschool years; about 
half of the children had received none. The percentage figures for 
the other towns are somewhat lower. A considerable number of 
the children in all four towns had received such preparations as 
Scott’s Emulsion, Father John’s Medicine, and Wampole’s Tonic, 
which cost more than cod liver oil in proportion to their vitamin D 
content. Many mothers stated that their older children would not 
take cod liver oil but few had tried giving any of the vitamin D 
(and A) concentrate preparations in capsule form. 
Standards for vitamin D. Jeans and Stearns (1938) state 
that for children between infancy and adolescence a daily allow- 
ance of from 300 to 400 units of vitamin D is satisfactory. Follis, 
Jackson, Eliot, and Park (1943) also emphasize the importance 
of vitamin D throughout the period of skeletal growth. McBeath 
and Zucker (1938) recommend 800 units daily as a preventive of 
dental caries. During the late fall and winter the sunlight which 
reaches Maine is deficient in the actinic rays which generate vita- 
min D in the skin. Therefore it is advisable to give preschool and 
older children cod liver oil (or a similar source of vitamin D) 
regularly between September and June. Cod liver oil and other 
fish oils are also valuable for their content of vitamin A. 
The question of “sweets.” According to the mothers, 40.3 
per cent of the Newport children had eaten many sweets during 
their preschool years. Dr. H. C. Sherman (1929) gave the fol- 
lowing advice regarding the use of sugar in children’s diets; “Sugar 
should be of all foods the most cautiously used in feeding children 
lest it displace too much of the foods which can do what it cannot 
in supplying the proteins, vitamins, and mineral elements which Physical Condition of Maine Children 
153 
children need so urgently and so abundantly for their healthy 
growth and development.” 
General health and appetite. In Newport 88.8 per cent of 
the preschool children were reported to have had good health and 
88.0 per cent good appetites. 
Illness. The illnesses reported for the preschool years will 
be summarized with those for the school years. See p. 170. 
Food Habits of Grade-school Children 
On the day of the home visit each mother was asked to state 
as nearly as possible what each child had eaten the previous day. 
At the same time questions were asked regarding the type of meals 
which he usually had, his food preferences, the frequency with 
which he ate certain foods, and his health habits, illnesses, etc. 
Foods eaten the day before the home visits. The information 
secured regarding the foods which the children had eaten the day 
before the home visit was probably fairly accurate, since such a 
short time had elapsed. While a record of the foods eaten on a 
single day may, in certain cases, give an incorrect impression of the 
child’s customary diet, the averages obtained from a large number 
of such records give a valuable indication of food habits in a cer- 
tain locality. A summary of the information obtained in Newport, 
together with that for the other three towns, is given in Table 35. 
Consumption of various foods. In the table the data have 
been classified in such a way that it is possible to determine what 
types of foods were consumed most and how consumption varied 
in the different localities. The figures given for milk are not for 
the amounts consumed on the day preceding the visit but are for 
the average daily consumption as stated by the mothers. 
(Milk.) It will be noted that the average daily milk consump- 
tion of the Newport children was 2.2 cups, which is close to the 
average for the four towns. Milk consumption was highest in 
Monmouth and lowest in Jonesport, but even in Monmouth only 
44.3 per cent of the children received 3 or more cups per day. In 
Newport 31.0 per cent of the children received 3 or more cups daily. 
(Fruit.) In all four towns only 53.2 per cent of the children 
had fruit of any kind, the highest consumption being in Newport 
and the lowest in rural Monmouth. The higher fruit consumption 
in Newport may be partly explained as being due to the fact that 154 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
1 
1937-38 
1934—35 
Newport 
Mars Hill 
Jonesport 
West 
Jonesport 
Average 
Jonesport 
and West 
Jonesport 
Monmouth 
North 
Monmouth 
Monmouth 
rural 
All 
Monmouth 
Average of 
four towns 
2 to 2.9 cups milk 
26.8 
27.7 
25.6 
22.9 
24.2 
31.0 
16.0 
24.3 
24.7 
25.8 
3 cups milk or more 
31.0 
26.4 
20.0 
21.8 
20.9 
33.8 
60.0 
43.2 
44.3 
30.4 
Average cups milk per child 
2.2 
2.1 
1.7 
1.9 
1.8 
2.1 
2.9 
2.5 
2.4 
2.1 
Fruit, any kind besides fruit 
pudding or pie 
65.4 
47.3 
42.2 
56.2 
49.4 
46.5 
56.0 
29.8 
45.6 
53.2 
Citrus fruit 
12.6 
18.9 
10.0 
29.2 
19.9 
23.9 
30.0 
2.7 
20.9 
17.6 
Tomatoes 
8.2 
16.2 
3.3 
6.3 
4.8 
14.1 
12.0 
16.3 
13.9 
10.2 
Citrus fruit and/or tomatoes 
20.0 
29.7 
13.3 
31.2 
22.5 
33.8 
38.0 
18.9 
31.6 
25.2 
Raw vegetable, excluding 
tomatoes 
3.5 
0.0 
1.1 
5.2 
3.2 
0.0 
2.0 
2.7 
1.3 
2.2 
♦2 vegetables, not tomatoes, 
potatoes or dried beans 
26.4 
24.3 
24.4 
12.5 
18.3 
22.6 
38.0 
2.7 
22.8 
23.1 
*1 (only) vegetable, not tomatoes, 
potatoes, or dried beans 
31.6 
45.3 
21.2 
19.8 
20.5 
28.2 
18.0 
54.0 
31.0 
31.4 
Baked beans 
15.2 
21.0 
33.3 
11.5 
22.0 
12.7 
22.0 
21.6 
17.7 
18.7 
Baked beans only, as a vegetable, 
besides potatoes and tomatoes 
3.0 
7.4 
13.3 
8.3 
10.7 
7.0 
16.0 
16.2 
12.0 
7.8 
Potatoes, once only 
43.3 
50.8 
* 71.2 
54.2 
62,4 
60.6 
42.0 
43.3 
50.7 
51.4 
Potatoes, twice or more 
48.5 
43.2 
13.3 
29.2 
21.5 
24.0 
30.0 
35.2 
28.5 
36.1 
Meat, poultry, or fish once only 
45.9 
50.7 
73.4 
53.1 
62.9 
53.5 
50.0 
48.7 
51.3 
52.4 
• Not including vegetable pies such as pumpkin and squash. 
TABLE 35 
Percentage of Children Who Were Served Various Foods the Day Before the Home Visit Physical Condition of Maine Children 
155 
1937-38 
1934-35 
Newport 
Mars Hill 
Jonesport 
West 
Jonesport 
Average 
Jonesport 
and West 
J onesport 
Monmouth 
North 
Monmouth 
Monmouth 
rural 
All 
Monmouth 
Average of 
four towns 
Meat, poultry, or fish twice 
or more 
27.7 
35.2 
11.1 
36.4 
24.2 
35.2 
26.0 
13.5 
27.2 
28.2 
Eggs 
29.9 
23.6 
7.8 
20.8 
14.5 
15.5 
32.0 
13.5 
20.2 
22.6 
Cereal, any kind 
85.3 
71.7 
57.8 
65.6 
61.8 
76.1 
70.0 
81.1 
75.4 
74.3 
Whole grain cereal 
72.3 
56.1 
37.7 
46.8 
42.4 
67.6 
56.0 
75.7 
65.8 
59.8 
Hot breads 
25.5 
37.1 
23.4 
37.5 
30.7 
19.7 
28.0 
35.2 
26.0 
29.3 
Doughnuts, cookies, or cake 
80.5 
71.7 
77.8 
94.8 
86.6 
84.6 
94.0 
84.0 
88.0 
81.9 
Doughnuts, cookies, or cake 
twice or more 
49.8 
44.5 
40.0 
52.1 
46.2 
50.8 
46.0 
43.2 
47.5 
47.3 
Puddings and pies 
39.4 
39.9 
30.0 
21.8 
25.8 
43.7 
52.0 
35.2 
44.3 
37.1 
Fruit puddings and pies 
15.2 
11.5 
12.2 
3.1 
7.5 
29.5 
28.0 
21.6 
27.0 
15.1 
Vegetable pies 
9.5 
8.8 
4.4 
1.0 
2.7 
1.4 
0.0 
2.7 
1.3 
5.8 
TABLE 35—(Continued) 156 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
the home visits in that town were made in the late fall and early 
winter when more apples were available. 
The consumption of citrus fruit was quite variable in the dif- 
ferent towns, the percentage range being from 2.7 in rural Mon- 
mouth to 30.0 in North Monmouth. Only 12.6 per cent of the 
Newport children had it. In all four towns oranges were avail- 
able in the village grocery stores at the time the home visits were 
made, but apparently the price was too high for many of the 
families. 
The consumption of tomatoes also was variable and low in all 
towns. Only 8.2 per cent of the Newport children had them. The 
lowest consumption was in Jonesport where fewer families had 
gardens in which they could raise their own crop for canning. 
Considering the citrus fruits and tomatoes in one group, on 
account of their vitamin C content, it will be seen that in all four 
towns only 25.2 per cent had one or the other, or both, the day 
before the home visit. The consumption of other foods which are 
good sources of vitamin C (such as raw cabbage, raw rutabagas, 
and raw salad greens) was negligible, as can be seen in the table. 
(Vegetables.) It is considered desirable that children should 
have at least two vegetables daily besides potato and that, in order 
to supply vitamin A, at least one should be green or yellow. In 
all four towns 23.1 per cent of the children had two vegetables, 
not including tomatoes, potatoes or dried beans and 31.4 per cent 
had only one. However, these figures do not include pumpkin 
and squash used in pies. In Newport only one child had any leafy 
greens (not including 8 who had head lettuce) but 47.2 per cent 
had at least one serving of such green and yellow vegetables as 
peas, string beans, carrots, squash, and pumpkin. This figure in- 
cludes the squash and pumpkin used in pies. The consumption of 
squash and pumpkin was higher in Newport than in the other 
towns owing to the fact that the Newport home visits were made 
during the Thanksgiving season when more of these vegetables 
are used. Rutabagas were eaten by 4.8 per cent of the Newport 
children. This vegetable can be an excellent source of vitamin C 
if eaten raw or cooked for a short time in a small amount of water. 
However, even though yellow in color it is low in vitamin A, 
In Mars Hill the vegetables (besides tomatoes, potatoes, and 
dried beans) eaten most were string beans, carrots, and rutabagas; Physical Condition of Maine Children 
157 
Jonesport children ate mostly onions and rutabagas, while those 
in Monmouth favored string beans, cabbage, carrots, and corn. 
Baked beans were eaten quite generally, the most being used 
in Jonesport. The average for all four towns was 18.7 per cent. 
This figure no doubt would have been higher if diet records for 
Saturdays had been obtained on Sundays. Dried beans are a good 
source of protein, calcium, iron, and vitamin B1. They also con- 
tain riboflavin and niacin but are low in vitamin A and lacking in 
vitamin C. On account of their protein, iron and vitamin B 
(complex) content they can be used to some extent (especially 
during war time) as a substitute for meat, fish, poultry, and eggs. 
However, since the protein of dried beans (except soy bean pro- 
tein) is of rather poor quality they should not be used too fre- 
quently as a substitute for these foods. 
Potatoes were eaten once or more by 87.5 per cent of the 
children in all four towns. As would be expected, the highest 
percentage of those who ate them was in Mars Hill. Considering 
their high nutritive value it is fortunate that they are so widely 
used. In composition they resemble enriched white bread and con- 
tain, in addition, a small amount of vitamin A and considerable 
vitamin C (if cooked to prevent loss). 
(Meat, poultry, and fish.) As shown in Table 35, meat and 
fish were used very generally in all four towns; poultry was used 
much less frequently. Beef was the meat used most and pork next. 
The most pork was used in Mars Hill and the least in Monmouth. 
Frankfurters were especially popular in Jonesport where 12.6 
per cent of the children ate them on the day before the home visit. 
In Newport a number of the families were eating venison at the 
time of the home visits. Several housewives stated that they were 
fortunate to have it, since they could not afford to buy other meat. 
As would he expected, much more fish was used in Jonesport 
than in the other towns. In Mars Hill, Jonesport, and Monmouth 
clams were mentioned most often but in Newport oysters were 
more popular at the time of the home visits. Canned salmon was 
used a great deal in Newport, Mars Hill, and Monmouth. 
(Eggs.) The percentage of children who ate eggs on the 
previous day ranged from 7.8 in Jonesport village to 32.0 in North 
Monmouth. In Newport 29.9 per cent of the children had them. 
(Cereal.) Cereal breakfast foods were used on the previous 158 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
day by an average of 74.3 per cent of the children in all four towns, 
the percentage of those who had them being highest in Newport. 
The figures for whole grain cereal show that 80.5 per cent of those 
who ate breakfast cereal had some kind made from whole grain. 
Approximately half of the cereal used was oatmeal. 
(Flour products.) Home made flour products such as bis- 
cuits, rolls, cookies, cakes, doughnuts, and pies were very popular 
in all four towns. Hot breads were eaten by 29.3 per cent of the 
children and an average of 81.9 per cent had cookies, cake, or 
doughnuts. Moreover, an average of 47.3 per cent of the children 
had them twice or more on the day before the home visit. Practi- 
cally all of the cake, doughnuts, and pies and many of the cookies 
and hot breads were made from white flour, which at that time was 
not enriched. 
(Desserts.) An average of 37.1 per cent of the children in 
all towns had puddings and pies for dessert, 15.1 per cent of which 
contained fruit and 5.8 per cent pumpkin or squash. 
Foods ordinarily eaten. (Breakfasts.) According to the 
reports of the Newport mothers, 89.7 per cent of the children 
ordinarily had good appetites and 84.3 per cent ate a sufficient 
amount of food at breakfast. However, the reports of the kinds 
of foods usually eaten by many of the children for breakfast 
showed a tendency to omit fruit and to include a doughnut or 
cookie along with cereal, toast, and milk or cocoa to drink. Eggs 
also were frequently eaten. Occasionally pie, cake, and baked 
beans were mentioned as items in the breakfasts. 
(Dinners and suppers.) Dinners eaten at noon at home were 
ordinarily fairly substantial meals which included meat or fish, 
potato, bread, another vegetable, and dessert (usually cake, pie, or 
pudding). Suppers, however, were apt to be poorly planned. Very 
often they consisted of hash made from left over vegetables and 
meat, mixed vegetables, or potato only, bread, rolls, or biscuits, 
canned fruit (“sauce”), cake or cookies, and milk. Other dishes 
sometimes served for suppers were: cold meats, baked beans, eggs, 
fish chowders and stews made with milk, soups and stews contain- 
ing meat and vegetables, and escalloped macaroni with cheese 
and/or tomatoes. Freshly cooked vegetables, except potatoes, 
salads made with raw vegetables, creamed vegetable soups (except 
tomato), and fresh fruits were seldom served for suppers. 
(Box lunches eaten at school.) The majority of the lunches Physical Condition of Maine Children 
159 
eaten by the children at school consisted of sandwiches, milk, fruit, 
and cake, cookies, or doughnuts. Very few contained any raw 
vegetables. Many of the children also had candy following their 
lunches. At the time the home visits were made no hot school 
lunches were being served in any of the four towns, although at 
present hot lunches are being served in Newport. 
TABLE 36 
Cooked Vegetables, Besides Potato, Eaten Most hy Neivport 
Grade-school Children 
Vegetable 
No. times 
vegetable 
was 
mentioned 
Per cent 
of group 
of 240 
children 
Vegetable 
No. times 
vegetable 
was 
mentioned 
Per cent 
of group 
of 240 
children 
1. Carrots 
160 
67.1 
10. Greens 
46 
19.2 
2. Tomato 
156 
65.0 
11. Onions 
20 
8.3 
3. Beets 
80 
33.3 
12. Tomato (in soup) 
9 
3.8 
4. String beans 
77 
32.1 
13. Mixed veg. (in soup) 
6 
2.5 
5. Cabbage 
77 
32.1 
14. Parsnips 
5 
2.1 
6. Peas 
74 
30.1 
15. Baked beans 
2 
.8 
7. Rutabagas 
70 
29.2 
16. Lima beans 
2 
.8 
8. Squash 
64 
27.1 
17. Shell beans 
2 
.8 
9. Corn 
53 
22.1 
18. Cauliflower 
1 
.4 
(Cooked vegetables, besides potato, eaten most.) The cooked 
vegetables eaten most by the Newport grade-school children are 
given in Table 36 in the order of the frequency with which they 
were mentioned by the mothers. It is of interest that carrots and 
tomatoes, two of the most nutritious vegetables which are commonly 
available, headed the list. Only 4 of 240 children were said to 
like all cooked vegetables; 123 (51.2 per cent) liked more than 
three kinds; and 31 (12.9) per cent disliked all cooked vegetables 
and ate very few or very little of any kind. 
{Preferred raw vegetables.) The raw vegetables eaten most 
were as follows, in the order of frequency with which they were 
mentioned: cabbage, carrots, lettuce, onions, and rutabagas. How- 
ever, in October, November, and December of 1937 only 10 (4.2 
per cent) were eating a raw vegetable at least once a day, and for 
5 of these the raw vegetable was onions. (In one family onions 160 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
were sliced and allowed to stand in vinegar. The writer considered 
these as pickles rather than raw vegetables since the vinegar would 
cause the rapid loss of the vitamin C in the onions.) Approxi- 
mately 12 per cent of the children had a raw vegetable between 
three and six times a week; 30 per cent had one once or twice a 
week; 26 per cent had one only occasionally, and 26 per cent had 
none. No doubt raw vegetables, especially tomatoes and lettuce, 
were eaten more often during the summer months. 
{Fruits eaten most.) The fruits eaten most were as follows, 
in the order of frequency with which they were mentioned: apples, 
bananas, oranges, grapefruit, and grapes. Only 5 per cent of the 
children had oranges or grapefruit once a day or more; 27.5 per 
cent had them three to six times a week; 13.3 per cent had them 
once or twice a week, and 31.3 per cent had none. The low con- 
sumption of citrus fruits at the time of the home visits (fall 1937) 
was no doubt partly due to the fact that these fruits were rather 
high priced at that time of year and many families were in un- 
usually poor financial circumstances. (Diet records kept for one 
week by the children in the spring of 1938 showed that only 11.2 
per cent of the children had citrus fruit at least once a day.) 
{Cereals eaten most.) The cereals eaten most, in order of 
frequency, were as follows; oatmeal, shredded wheat, cornflakes, 
Cream of Wheat, puffed wheat, Maltex, Wheaties, Ralston, and 
puffed rice. The popularity of cornflakes is rather significant, 
since, at the time this survey was made, this cereal was not enriched 
and the food value was low in comparison to that of oatmeal, 
shredded wheat, and other whole grain cereals. 
{Frequency of eating dark breads.) The results of the New- 
port study indicated that 18.4 per cent of the children ate dark 
bread once a day or more; 34.3 per cent had it between one and six 
times a week, but 27.6 per cent had none. Many of the families 
frequently had homemade Graham rolls and Boston brown bread. 
Purchased dark breads included whole wheat, cracked wheat, and 
rye breads. The low consumption of dark breads was more signifi- 
cant at the time this survey was made than it would be at present, 
since at that time breads, flour, and cereals were not enriched. 
Since these findings indicate a general preference for white bread 
and the frequent use of refined breakfast cereals, it seems impor- 
tant that government regulations providing for the enrichment of 
cereal products should be continued after the war. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
161 
{Favorite desserts.) The desserts mentioned most often 
were pies, puddings, cakes, cookies, and doughnuts. Fresh fruits 
were not often used as desserts but canned fruit was frequently 
served for suppers with cake or cookies. 
(Frequency of eating candy.) According to the statements 
of the Newport mothers 57.1 per cent of the grade-school children 
had candy oftener than twice a week; 28.7 per cent had it once a 
week or less. 
{Milk consumption.) The average daily milk consumption 
(including milk in cocoa) of the Newport children was 2.2 cups. 
Thirty-one per cent received 3 cups or more and 26.8 per cent 1 
cup or less. (For a comparison of the results with those for other 
towns, see Table 35.) 
{Tea, coffee, and cocoa.) Among the Newport children coffee 
was drunk once a day or oftener by 10 per cent of the children but 
very few drank tea. The consumption of cocoa as compared with 
that in the other three towns is given in Table 37. 
TABLE 37 
Percentage of Children Who Drank Cocoa 
Daily 
Less often 
None 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Newport 
27.4 
62.9 
9.7 
Mars Hill 
29.5 
50.0 
20.5 
Jonesport 
18.4 
53.2 
28.4 
Monmouth 
21.9 
48.4 
29.7 
(Source of vitamin D.) Questions regarding the use of cod- 
liver oil or other source of vitamin D during the winter months 
showed that only 10.3 per cent of the Newport children were get- 
ting it regularly. A comparison of data for all four towns is given 
in Table 38. The higher percentage for Jonesport can be explained 
as being due to the fact that physicians in that town were distribut- 
ing cod liver oil supplied by the F.E.R.A. As stated before, many 
mothers in all four towns complained that the children would not 
take plain cod liver oil but few had tried giving any of the vitamin 
D concentrates in capsule form. 162 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 38 
Percentage of Children Taking Cod Liver Oil* 
Newport—1937-38 
Mars Hill—1934-35 
Jonesport—1934-35 
Monmouth—1934-35 
Total 
No. in 
group 
Per cent 
regular 
Per cent 
irregular 
Total 
No. in 
group 
Per cent 
regular 
Per cent 
irregular 
Total 
No. in 
group 
Per cent 
regular 
Per cent 
irregular 
Total 
No. in 
group 
Per cent 
regular 
Per cent 
irregular 
234 
10.3 
4.7 
148 
14.2 
4.0 
180 
22.5 
4.8 
158 
4.4 
3.8 
* Or other vitamin D preparation. 
Diet records kept at school by grade-school children. During 
the four-year Newport study diet records for one week were 
kept at three different times (fall 1936, spring 1938, and spring 
1940) by all children above the third grade. Similar records were 
also secured in Mars Hill in the spring of 1937. Form 4 (Appen- 
dix) was used for the records and the teachers gave time twice 
a day to assist the children in writing down what they had eaten, 
together with approximate amounts or number of servings. In 
Table 39 is given the percentage of children who met or exceeded 
the standard for each food group. The standards for a good diet 
were adapted from Stiebeling and Clark (1939). 
The table indicates that about three-fourths of the children in 
the two towns met the potato standard and over half met the 
standard for meat, fish, or poultry. The percentages for the other 
food groups were lower and decreased in the following order: eggs, 
whole grain products, milk, other fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits 
and/or tomato, and green or yellow vegetables. The very low fig- 
ures for citrus fruit and/or tomato and green or yellow vegetables 
are especially significant, since these foods are needed in the diet to 
supply vitamins C and A. The Newport figures for green and 
yellow vegetables seem particularly low considering the fact that 
on the day before the home visit 47.2 per cent of the children were 
said, by the mothers, to have had a green or yellow vegetable. 
Possibly the discrepancies in the data obtained from the two types 
of records may be partially explained by the differences in time 
when the records were obtained; by the fact that, in some cases, 
the mothers may have mentioned the foods served, and the chil- 
dren only those actually eaten; and by the fact that the figures Physical Condition of Maine Children 
163 
TABLE 39 
Per cent of Newport and Mars Hill Grade-school Children Who Met or Exceeded the Standards for a Good Diet 
Year 
No. In 
group 
No. 
days 
Group 1 
Milk 
Group 2 
*Citrus 
fruit 
and/or 
tomato 
Group 3 
Green 
or 
yellow 
vegetable 
Group 4 
White 
potato 
Group 5 
Other 
fruits 
and 
vegetables 
Group 6 
Eggs 
Group 7 
Meats, 
fish, 
poultry 
Group 8 
Whole 
grain 
products 
Minimum standard 
number servings 
cups 
per day 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
.5 
1 
1 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Newport 
Fall 
1936 
94 
5 to 7 
40.4 
5.3 
9.6 
85.1 
33.0 
40.4 
57.5 
41.5 
Spring 
1938 
125 
5 to 7 
26.4 
16.8 
8.0 
87.2 
15.2 
44.0 
51.2 
39.2 
Spring 
1940 
131 
5 to 7 
29.0 
6.1 
6.1 
68.7 
17.6 
58.0 
60.3 
41.2 
Mars Hill 
Spring 
1937 
126 
5 to 7 
15.9 
13.5 
.8 
72.2 
7.1 
57.1 
61.1 
18.3 
* Also canteloupe, fresh red raspberries, and fresh strawberries. 
Note: Dry legumes, extra green and yellow vegetables, and extra citrus fruits and tomatoes were counted in 
group 5. 
Extra foods in groups 
6 or 7 were counted so as to satisfy both groups as nearly as possible. 164 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
from the children’s records given in Table 39 are based on averages 
for 5 to 7 days. This would probably make them lower than those 
based on the single day’s records given by the mothers. The evi- 
dent tendency of the children to eat more of the group 5 vegetables 
and fruits in the fall and more citrus fruits and eggs in the spring 
can be partly explained on the basis of differences in the availability 
and price of these foods at the two seasons of the year. 
General character of diets. The above information regarding 
the foods eaten by the grade-school children in the four towns indi- 
cates a relatively high consumption of potatoes, dried beans, cereals, 
sugar, and white flour products; a moderate consumption of meat 
and fish, and a relatively low consumption of milk, eggs, fruit 
(especially citrus), and cooked and raw vegetables (exclusive of 
potatoes and dried beans). This type of diet tends to be above 
the average in carbohydrate and low in fat and/or protein, miner- 
als, and vitamins. 
A typical diet. In order to indicate the specific deficiencies 
which characterized many of the diets, a typical diet of a fourteen- 
year-old boy is given in Table 40. This diet includes foods which 
are commonly eaten in Maine and indicates the type of meals which 
many of the grade-school children had on the day before the home 
visit. It is close to the standard in calories, protein, iron, and vita- 
min A but is somewhat high in carbohydrate18 and low in calcium, 
vitamin B^19 riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C. The most evident 
deficiency is in vitamin C. (For comments on vitamin D see p. 161.) 
As shown in the lower part of Table 40, the deficiency in vitamin 
C could be almost completely corrected by the addition of 1 cup of 
tomato juice. The tomato juice would also supply additional vita- 
min A and would bring the riboflavin and niacin up to the standard. 
By retaining the tomato juice and substituting enriched white bread 
for the unenriched the diet could be brought up to the standard in 
all respects except for calcium and a small amount of vitamin C. 
18 According to Chaney and Ahlborn (1939) the commonly accepted 
distribution of the three foodstuffs in the diet of the average American child, 
in terms of the percentage of the total calories, is carbohydrate 50, fat 35, 
and protein 15. 
19 In some families, especially in Mars Hill, pork was used quite exten- 
sively. Since lean pork is high in vitamin B , diets containing sufficient 
amounts of it would not be deficient in this vitamin. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
165 
Height 62 inches 
Weight 103 pounds 
Vitamins 
Poods 
Measure 
as served 
Wt. 
Cal. 
Carb. 
Pro. 
Ca 
Fe 
Ribo- 
A 
Bi 
flavin 
Niacin 
0 
gm. 
gm. 
gm. 
mg. 
mg. 
i.tr. 
mg. 
mg. 
mg. 
mg. 
Breakfast 
Oatmeal 
1% cups 
204.0 
150 
25.2 
6.3 
30.0 
1.82 
trace 
.210 
.057 
.49 
0.0 
Sugar 
2 teaspoons 
8.7 
33 
8.7 
0.0 
0.0 
0.00 
0 
.000 
.000 
.00 
0.0 
Milk, pasteurized 
Vi cup 
122.0 
85 
6.0 
4.1 
145.5 
.30 
235 
.055 
.266 
.13 
1.8 
Cocoa Wz milk) 
1 cup 
254.7 
141 
15.8 
5.1 
151.5 
.46 
235 
.060 
.289 
.16 
1.3 
Toast, white, unenriched 
4 slices 
120.0 
300 
61.3 
10.5 
69.0 
.93 
trace 
.050 
.117 
.72 
0.0 
Butter 
tablespoons 
19.5 
150 
0.0 
.2 
3.0 
.05 
825 
.000 
.000 
.00 
0.0 
Dinner 
Round steak, lean, ground 
1 large cake 
139.0f 
200 
0.0 
27.2 
16.0 
3.85 
37 
.224 
.307 
8.87 
0.0 
Mashed potato 
1 cup 
186.0 
200 
41.8 
4.6 
56.0 
2.00 
400 
.124 
.154 
.67 
10.0 
String beans, canned (solids) 
% cup 
100.0 
36 
6.6 
2.0 
33.0 
.72 
950 
.054 
.132 
.66 
2.3 
Bread, white, unenriched 
2 slices 
60.0 
150 
30.7 
5.3 
34.5 
.47 
trace 
.033 
.059 
.36 
0.0 
Butter 
1 tablespoon 
13.0 
100 
0.0 
.1 
2.0 
.03 
550 
.000 
.000 
.00 
0.0 
Chocolate cake, chocolate frosting 
1 piece 
85.0 
357 
58.6 
3.8 
38.3 
.64 
152 
.040 
.096 
.30 
0.0 
Gum drops 
5 large 
50.0 
160 
43.0 
0.0 
0.0 
.00 
0 
.000 
.000 
.00 
0.0 
Supper 
Potato hash* 
1 cup 
186.0 
200 
41.8 
4.6 
56.0 
2.00 
400 
.093 
.154 
.67 
0.0 
Bread, white, unenriched 
4 slices 
120.0 
300 
61.3 
10.5 
69.0 
.93 
trace 
.057 
.117 
.72 
0.0 
Butter 
2 tablespoons 
26.0 
200 
0.0 
.2 
4.0 
.06 
1100 
.000 
.000 
.00 
0.0 
* Warmed over mashed potato. 
t Raw. 
TABLE 40 
Typical Diet of a Fourteen-Year-0 Id Boy 166 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Foods 
Measure 
as served 
Wt. 
Cal. 
Garb. 
Pro. 
Ca 
Fe 
Vitamins 
A 
Bi 
Ribo- 
flavin 
Niacin 
C 
gm. 
gm. 
gm. 
mg. 
mg. 
I.U. 
mg. 
mg. 
mg. 
mg. 
Milk, pasteurized 
1 cup 
244.0 
170 
12.0 
8.1 
291.0 
.60 
470 
.110 
.531 
.26 
3.6 
Apple sauce 
V2 cup 
139.8 
150 
42.2 
.6 
11.1 
.36 
101 
.038 
.042 
.06 
6.0 
Cookies 
2, 21/4* diam. 
28.0 
100 
14.0 
1.4 
4.0 
.10 
200 
.012 
.018 
.15 
0.0 
Totals 
3182 
469.0 
94.6 
1013.9 
15.32 
5655 
1.160 
2.339 
14.22 
25.0 
National Research Council Standardt 
3200 
85.0 
1400.0 
15.00 
5000 
1.600 
2.400 
16.00 
90.0 
Difference 
-18 
+9.6 
-386.1 
+ .32 
+655 
-.440 
-.061 
-1.78 
-65.0 
Above diet + 1 cup tomato juice 
3242 
477.5 
97.0 
1028.9 
16.82 
7785 
1.390 
2.464 
16.10 
83.0 
Above diet with 1 cup tomato juice and enriched bread 
3242 
477.5 
97.0 
1028.9 
22.82 
7785 
1.964 
3.199 
23.30 
83.0 
Above diet with 1 cup tomato juice, 6 slices of enriched 
bread (instead of 10), and 1 additional pint of milk 
3282 
440.0 
102.7 
1541.9 
21.62 
8725 
1.900 
3.967 
20.94 
90.2 
t Committee on Food and Nutrition, 1941. 
TABLE 40—(Continued) Physical Condition of Maine Children 
167 
By retaining the tomato juice, reducing the enriched bread from 
10 to 6 slices, and adding 1 pint of milk the diet could be made to 
meet the standards for all of the indicated constituents. The re- 
duction in bread and the addition of the extra pint of milk would 
bring down the carbohydrate from 58.9 to 53.6 per cent of the 
total calories and would also supply additional high quality pro- 
tein, fat, vitamins (especially riboflavin), and minerals including 
calcium. 
The above typical diet would have a slightly alkaline reaction 
in the body (owing especially to the large amount of potato) and 
therefore would tend to cause the secretion of a saliva with rela- 
tively high acid neutralizing power. The writer considers this to 
be important from the standpoint of the protection of the teeth 
against the destructive effect of acids produced by the fermentation 
of sugars in the mouth. However, the high carbohydrate content 
of the diet would tend to counteract the potential protective effect 
of the saliva since it would favor high acid production. (Becks, 
Jensen and Millar, 1944). 
The addition of the tomato juice and milk to the typical diet 
would make it even more alkaline in reaction in the body, since 
these foods have a basic ash. With its high potential alkalinity, 
decreased carbohydrate content, and liberal supply of minerals 
and vitamins the improved diet could be expected to give much 
better protection to the teeth than the typical diet. However, in 
order to give the best dietary protection against dental caries it 
would probably be necessary to give vitamin D and to restrict the 
consumption of candy and other sweets (McBeath and Zucker, 
1938) (Koehne et ah, 1934). 
The food value of the above diet was calculated mostly from 
tables given by Taylor (1942), Macleod and Taylor (1944), 
Bowes and Church (1939), Chaney and Ahlborn (1939), Clouse 
(1943), and the Committee on Food Composition of the Food and 
Nutrition Board of the National Research Council (1944). The 
figures given for mineral and vitamin content are necessarily only 
estimates, owing to natural variations in different foods in the raw 
state and to variations which result from the methods of cooking 
and canning used. 168 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Health Habits 
Sleep and activity. Questions answered by the Newport 
mothers regarding hour of retiring, hour of rising, and work out- 
side of school hours indicated that the majority of the children 
were probably getting enough sleep and were not overworked. 
Nearly all appeared to be getting a desirable amount of outdoor 
play and exercise. 
Use of laxatives. Irregularities in bowel movement were 
quite common in Newport, as well as in the other three towns, and 
the use of laxatives was reported as frequent. Information regard- 
ing their use is given in Tables 41 and 42. It will be seen that 61.7 
per cent of the Newport children received them at various time 
intervals. The Mars Hill children showed the highest frequency 
in the use of laxatives and the Monmouth children the lowest. 
TABLE 41 
Frequency in the Use of Laxatives 
No. of 
No. 
Per cent 
1 or 
Occa- 
Town 
children 
using 
using 
1/week 
2/week 
2/week 
3/week 
Daily 
sionally 
in group 
laxatives 
laxatives 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Per cent 
Newport 
240 
146 
61.7 
10.0 
5.0 
1.7 
.8 
.8 
42.5 
Mars Hill 
146 
73 
50.0 
21.2 
2.7 
.7 
2.7 
2.1 
20.6 
Jonesport 
141 
57 
40.4 
16.3 
2.8 
6.4 
1.4 
.7 
12.8 
Monmouth 
128 
54 
42.2 
9.4 
1.6 
1.6 
2.3 
.8 
26.6 
TABLE 42 
Percentage of Children Using Various Kinds of Laxatives 
Town 
No. of 
children 
in group 
Ex-Lax 
True’s 
Elixir 
Oascara 
Sagrada 
Oastoria 
Castor 
Oil 
Agars 
Sennas 
Mineral 
Oil 
Doctor’s 
prescrip- 
tion 
All 
others 
Newport 
240 
18.8 
16.7 
.8 
3.3 
10.4 
.4 
0.0 
5.0 
.4 
18,8 
Mars Hill 
146 
21.9 
3.4 
0.0 
4.1 
2.1 
2.1 
2.1 
1.4 
.7 
21.9 
Jonesport 
141 
17.0 
12.1 
0.0 
.7 
.7 
.7 
.7 
.7 
2.8 
16.3 
Monmouth 
128 
.8 
8.6 
7.0 
3.9 
3.9 
2.3 
0.0 
3.1 
0.0 
18.8 Physical Condition of Maine Children 
169 
Causes of constipation in children. According to Aaron 
(1938, p. 145) the occurrence of constipation in children may be 
due to several causes, among which are organic disease, wrong 
type of diet, nervousness caused by wrong attitude of parents, and 
the use of too many laxatives. 
The type of diet which tends to promote constipation is one 
which is common in Maine and which is low in fruits,20 vegetables, 
and whole grain cereals. These foods supply fiber, organic acids, 
sugars, salts, and vitamin B1( each of which plays a part in the 
normal functioning of the alimentary tract. Fine grinding and 
thorough cooking of whole grain cereals tend to prevent the bran 
from being too irritating to the intestinal tract. 
Robertson (1937) has found that both potassium and calcium 
are necessary to prevent intestinal stasis. Therefore, milk, which 
supplies calcium and which also tends to be low in Maine diets, 
may also be important in preventing constipation rather than caus- 
ing it, as some people believe. Potassium is supplied especially by 
vegetables and whole grain cereals. 
With regard to the attitude of parents upon the frequency 
of constipation in children, Aaron (1938) states that parents who 
worry excessively about the occurrence of constipation in them- 
selves are apt to stress regularity in their children to an unreason- 
able degree. Laxatives are given when unnecessary, with the result 
that constipation is often actually caused by irritation of the lining 
of the colon and changes in the muscular coat. The giving of too 
many laxatives may also cause malnutrition by causing the food to 
pass through the intestine too rapidly. 
Kinds of laxatives used. A wide variety of laxatives was 
used in the different towns, but, as shown in Table 42, certain 
kinds were used much more than others. 
Ex-Lax was the kind most used in Newport, Mars Hill, and 
Jonesport. This contains the drug phenolphthalein which acts as 
an irritant to both small intestine and colon. According to Aaron 
(1938, p. 126) it has been responsible for marked stomach and 
intestinal disturbances and in sensitive persons has caused ulcers 
in the mouth and skin eruptions. He states that the drug and prod- 
ucts containing it should be avoided. 
20 The lower frequency with which laxatives were regularly used in 
Monmouth may be related to the more frequent use of apples in that town. 170 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
In Newport, Jonesport and Monmouth True’s Elixir was 
given to a considerable number of children. This preparation 
contains senna and aloin. These are irritant drugs which act chiefly 
on the colon (Wood and Osol, 1943). 
Cascara Sagrada was used by 7 per cent of the Monmouth 
children. This is a useful drug for treating certain types of occa- 
sional and habitual constipation in adults but Aaron does not recom- 
mend it for children. Its action is on the colon. Many proprietary 
laxatives contain it. 
Senna is also an ingredient of Caldwell’s Syrup of Pepsin and 
Castoria. According to Aaron (1938, p. 125) this drug is more 
powerful than cascara sagrada and it may produce griping and 
considerable irritation. Therefore it is unsuitable for children. 
Castor oil was used by 10.4 per cent of the Newport children. 
Since the action of both castor oil and calomel is quite drastic they 
should never be used except on the advice of a physician. 
Agar is considered by Aaron (1938, p. Ill) as the best of the 
bulk producing laxatives. It is best taken in the granular form 
with water. This laxative is, however, better suited to adults 
than to children. 
Mineral oil, which was used by 5 per cent of the Newport 
children and 3 per cent of those in Monmouth, is a good softening 
and lubricating agent. However, since it acts as a solvent for the 
fat soluble vitamins, its frequent use is objectionable. 
Milk of magnesia is considered a good laxative for children 
when one seems necessary, but, as previously stated, this should 
be very seldom. 
Other habits. The mothers in all four towns were questioned 
regarding the occurrence of such habits as enuresis, thumb sucking, 
and nail biting in the children. Enuresis and thumb sucking were 
not very prevalent but constant nail biting (or picking) was quite 
common in all four towns. According to Griffith and Mitchell 
(1934, p. 891) this habit is observed only in decidedly nervous 
children. 
Illnesses and Operations 
Table 43 gives information regarding the number of children 
in the different towns who had had various diseases and operations. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
171 
TABLE 43 
Number of Children Reported as Having Had Various Diseases 
and Operations 
Newport 
Mars Hill 
Jonesport 
Monmouth 
Total No. records 
1937-38 
1934-35 
1934-35 
1934-35 
234 
• 141 
173 
167 
Contagious or infections 
Chicken pox 
122 
108 
95 
88 
Conjunctivitis 
4 
3 
0 
0 
Diphtheria 
1 
0 
0 
0 
Infantile paralysis 
1 
0 
0 
1 
Influenza 
9* 
3 
10 
8 
Impetigo 
4 
0 
0 
0 
Measles, Germ, measles or both 
201 
90 
110 
83 
Mumps 
119 
62 
63 
31 
Pneumonia 
23 
14 
14 
16 
Rheumatic fever 
0 
2 
1 
0 
Scabies 
4 
0 
0 
0 
Scarletina 
4 
3 
0 
0 
Scarlet fever 
15 
14 
8 
44 
Tuberculosis 
0 
1 
0 
0 
Typhoid 
1 
3 
1 
0 
Whooping cough 
172 
114 
144 
121 
Nervous diseases 
Chorea 
0 
0 
0 
2 
Convulsions 
0 
1 
2 
4 
Other diseases 
Abscesses 
4 
1 
2 
0 
Anemia 
6 
1 
0 
1 
Appendicitis 
4 
3 
2 
3 
Asthma 
1 
0 
0 
1 
Bladder infection 
0 
0 
1 
0 
Blood poisoning 
0 
0 
0 
1 
Bronchitis 
3 
2 
4 
0 
Diabetes 
2 
1 
0 
0 
Digestive disorders 
30 
4 
2 
2 
Eczema 
1 
1 
0 
0 
Infected glands 
1 
0 
0 
4 
Jaundice 
1 
4 . 
2 
0 
Nose bleed 
3 
0 
1 
0 
Otitis 
18 
1 
2 
2 
Psoriasis 
1 
0 
0 
0 
Quinsy 
0 
0 
2 
0 
Rheumatism 
0 
0 
0 
2 
Rickets 
1 
1 
0 
1 
Scurvy 
0 
1 
0 
0 
Stomatitis 
2 
0 
0 
0 
Tonsillitis 
2 
3 
3 
1 
Worms 
8t 
0 
0 
0 
* Includes 5 cases of intestinal flu. 
t Includes 2 eases of tapeworm. 172 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 43—(Continued) 
Total No. records 
Newport 
1937-38 
Mars Hill 
1934-35 
Jonesport 
1934-35 
Monmouth 
1934-35 
234 
141 
173 
167 
Operations 
Appendectomy 
8 
3 
1 
2 
Circumcision 
9 
6 
2 
6 
Club foot 
1 
0 
0 
0 
Cords of heel 
0 
1 
0 
0 
Cords of neck 
o 
1 
0 
0 
Eye 
0 
1 
0 
2 
Glands of neck 
0 
1 
0 
1 
Hernia 
0 
1 
0 
3 
Hip manipulation 
0 
0 
0 
1 
Kidney stones 
1 
0 
0 
0 
Mastoid 
0 
0 
0 
3 
Osteomyelitis 
1 
0 
0 
0 
Rupture 
1 
0 
0 
0 
Tonsils and adenoids 
55 
22 
15 
30 
Tumor 
2 
0 
0 
0 
In some cases the numbers may be low, due to the fact that the 
mothers forgot to mention certain illnesses. 
Illnesses. Among the contagious and infectious diseases 
listed as affecting the greatest number of children were whooping 
cough, measles, chicken pox, mumps, pneumonia, and scarlet fever. 
The number of cases of scarlet fever was especially high in Mon- 
mouth. There were no cases of smallpox, only one of diphtheria, 
and two of infantile paralysis. 
Among the other diseases those often mentioned were absces- 
ses, anemia, appendicitis, bronchitis, digestive disorders, jaundice, 
otitis, and worms. Digestive disorders and otitis were especially 
frequent in Newport. It is of interest that although the school 
examinations of the children showed that anemia and evidence of 
early rickets were quite common, the mothers were apparently un- 
aware of the existence of these conditions. Also, even though a 
significant number of the children showed inflamed gums, the 
condition had apparently been noticed by very few of the parents 
and had been related to a deficiency of vitamin C by none of them. 
Operations. By far the most common operation which the 
children had had was tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy and a con- 
siderable number of others were badly in need of the operation. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
173 
The next most frequent operations were appendectomy and cir- 
cumcision. 
Immunisations. Answers regarding immunization treatment 
for prevention of such diseases as smallpox, diphtheria, scarlet 
fever, typhoid fever, whooping cough, etc., showed that Mon- 
mouth was the only town where a significant number of vaccina- 
tions against smallpox had been made (30 per cent of the group). 
None of the Jonesport children had been vaccinated and only 3 
per cent of the Mars Hill children and 4 per cent of those in 
Newport. 
In Newport, under the auspices of the Parent Teachers Asso- 
ciation, the majority of the children were vaccinated against diph- 
theria by the State Department of Health. This work was begun 
in the spring of 1938 and continued in the fall of 1939. However, 
at the time the home visits were made, only 3 per cent of the group 
had been vaccinated against diphtheria. Also 3 per cent had been 
vaccinated against whooping cough. 
DISCUSSION 
The findings of this study indicate that many of the outstand- 
ing health problems of Maine grade-school children are closely 
related to nutrition. The most serious of these problems are: 
dental caries, a tendency to retarded bone growth, the prevalence 
of bone defects resulting from rickets, and the prevalence of inflamed 
gums resulting from vitamin C deficiency. 
The problem of dental caries is the most complex of all, since 
so many factors may be directly or indirectly responsible for the 
condition. As is generally well known, the immediate cause of 
caries is the action on the teeth of acids produced by bacterial 
action on sugars present in the mouth. The part which nutrition 
can play in the prevention of caries is, first of all, the provision 
during the period of tooth and jaw development, of all of the 
dietary constituents needed for building well-developed jaws and 
well-formed and adequately spaced teeth. Among the dietary 
constituents of special importance are calcium, phosphorus, magne- 
sium, traces of fluorine (See p. 175), and vitamins A, C, and D. 
Following the eruption of the teeth nutrition is especially 
important in its effect on the composition of the saliva. Whether 174 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
or not erupted teeth can be influenced through the blood stream 
is still an unsettled question. Since dental caries is caused by the 
action of acids, a saliva having a high titratable alkalinity tends 
to neutralize these acids and thus protects the teeth to the extent 
that it reaches those parts of the mouth where the acid is being 
produced. (See p. 176 for a discussion of the effect of fluoride in 
reducing the solubility of tooth enamel.) When the jaws are well 
developed and the teeth evenly placed (and kept reasonably clean) 
the saliva has a much better opportunity to reach all of the tooth 
surfaces than when malocclusion is present. Thus the normal 
development of the jaws and teeth is of primary importance. 
Many different factors affect the acid base balance of the body but 
it is well known that foods play a very important part in maintain- 
ing the normal pH of the body cells and fluids. The following 
foods, which have an alkaline reaction in the body, tend to produce 
an alkaline saliva; milk, fruits (except cranberries and prunes), 
and vegetables (except corn). Cereals, meat, and eggs have an 
acid reaction in the body and tend to produce an acid saliva. 
The diets of Maine grade-school children tend to be high in 
acid-forming foods, especially refined cereal products, and especially 
low in base-forming foods such as milk, fruits, and vegetables 
(except potato). Also before bread and flour were enriched, many 
of the diets were low in thiamin. Without sufficient thiamin, 
carbohydrate cannot be completely metabolized in the body and 
lactic and pyruvic acids accumulate in the blood (Chestler et al., 
1944), lowering the alkaline reserve. This condition would also 
tend to produce an acid saliva. The use of enriched bread, whole 
grain products, and pork should correct any wide-spread deficiency 
of this vitamin. 
Since the acids formed in the mouth are produced from car- 
bohydrates, one way to limit their production is to limit the con- 
sumption of carbohydrate. Dr. J. D. Boyd, of the State University 
of Iowa, (1942) states that the child’s diet which he has found 
effective in the prevention of caries contains about half of the 
calories in the form of carbohydrate and about one-third in the 
form of fat.21 This division of calories is similar to that mentioned 
by Chaney and Ahlborn (1939). (See footnote 18, p. 164.) 
21 This diet includes daily the following foods : 1 quart milk; 1 or 2 eggs; 
2 four-ounce servings succulent, leafy, and root vegetables; 2 four-ounce 
servings fruit, one of which should be orange or other raw fruit (tomato Physical Condition of Maine Children 
175 
Potatoes, bread, other cereal products, and sugars are the chief 
sources of carbohydrate in the diet. Since potatoes are base form- 
ing in the body their liberal use as a partial substitute for bread 
and cereals, makes it easier to prevent an overbalance of acid- 
forming foods and yet to supply the necessary amount of carbo- 
hydrate. 
Vitamin D in the form of cod Hver oil (or a vitamin D con- 
centrate) has been found to assist in the prevention of dental caries 
(McBeath and Zucker, 1938). Just how it functions in accom- 
plishing this is not known, but it appears to increase the absorp- 
tion of calcium and phosphorus from the intestine and thus increases 
the calcium and phosphorus content of the body fluids, including 
the saliva. As pointed out by Jeans and Stearns (1938), Sherman 
(1941), and others, vitamin D cannot function unless adequate 
calcium (and phosphorus) is available. In some parts of the 
United States considerable amounts of calcium are available from 
drinking water and from fruits and vegetables grown in the soil 
of the particular locality. Dove (1934) has called attention to 
the fact that the surface waters and soil of Maine are low in cal- 
cium. Therefore, it is probable that Maine people secure a rela- 
tively small proportion of their needed calcium from their drinking 
water or foods22 other than milk. Since the calcium content of 
cow’s milk is high and quite uniform, irrespective of the diet of 
the cow (Sherman, 1941), this food is the most reliable source 
of calcium in the diet. 
Within recent years there has been a great deal of discussion 
in the scientific literature regarding the effect of fluorides on the 
may be used as a substitute) ; 1 serving meat, fish, fowl, or Hver; 1 teaspoon 
cod liver oil; and supplementary foods such as potatoes, starches, bread and 
other cereal products, sweets and fats, in amounts to complete the caloric 
requirements for full activity. 
In a recent paper Boyd (1944) reported the results of studies on diabetic 
children which indicated that when the diets were high in protective factors 
certain changes in the proportion of fat and carbohydrate made no difference 
in the susceptibility of the children to dental caries. However, Boyd’s high 
fat diet contained only 14% of the total calories in the form of carbohydrate 
and the low fat diet only 32% in the form of carbohydrate. 
22 In the production of vegetable and grain crops in Maine calcium is 
ordinarily added to the soil in the form of powdered limestone. However, 
the amount of calcium taken up by growing plants is small compared to the 
amount in milk. 176 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
teeth. A high concentration of fluoride in drinking water (from 
slightly over 1 to 2 parts per million) causes mottled enamel 
(Smith, Lantz, and Smith, 1931), while a concentration of 1 
part per million produces very little mottled enamel and gives 
marked protection against caries (Dean et al., 1941). This pro- 
tective effect appears to be greatest during the period of tooth 
development. Drinking water in several parts of Maine has been 
shown by the Division of Sanitary Engineering of the State De- 
partment of Health and Welfare to be very low in fluorides. 
Therefore, at some future time dental caries may be reduced in 
the State by the carefully supervised addition of small amounts of 
sodium fluoride to public water supplies. However, owing to the 
possible toxic effects of fluorides, this will probably not be done 
until further surveys are made regarding the effects of varying 
amounts of naturally occurring fluorides and fluoride additions 
on the teeth and general health of selected groups of people. 
Another possibility for the reduction of caries has been sug- 
gested by the results of recent experiments on the application of 
dilute fluoride solutions to the surfaces of the teeth. Dr. B. G. 
Biddy (1942) of Tufts College Dental School applied a 1-1000 
solution of sodium fluoride to the teeth (in one quadrant of the 
mouth) of a group of 78 children over a period of two years and 
secured a distinct reduction of caries in the treated teeth. Similar 
results have been secured by other workers (Cheyne and Rice, 
1942; Knutson and Armstrong, 1943). The fluoride is apparently 
absorbed by the tooth enamel, which becomes less soluble in an 
acid solution (Volker, 1943). 
In some parts of the United States fluorides are present in 
the soil and are taken up in small amounts by growing plants 
which are used as food for both humans and animals. It seems 
probable, however, that in Maine, where the surface waters have 
been found to be low in fluorides, the soil would also be low. No 
analyses for the fluoride content of Maine foods have as yet been 
made. 
Bone deformities produced by rickets and undersized hones 
are the types of hone defects which are evident in Maine grade- 
school children. It seems probable that these could be prevented 
by the adequate consumption of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin 
D during pregnancy, infancy, and childhood. While vitamin C 
also is known to be necessary for normal bone structure, no 177 
Physical Condition of Maine Children 
evidence of bone defects due to a deficiency of vitamin C was 
obtained in this study. 
The prevalence of vitamin C deficiency, as indicated by inflam- 
mation of the gums, indicates that the problem of providing foods 
high in vitamin C for all Maine people at all times of the year is 
one of great importance. Potatoes, which are consumed in con- 
siderable quantity, contain significant amounts of vitamin C when 
dug, but during storage at 38° F. for 6 months lose approximately 
40 per cent of their vitamin C content. (Fellers, 1942.) Thus, 
Fellers reports that Green Mountain potatoes, raised in Massa- 
chusetts, contained 16.7 mg. per 100 gms. when dug and 10 mg. 
after 6 months in storage at 38° F. Some methods of cooking 
conserve the vitamin much better than others. For instance, 
Fellers secured a value of 7.3 mg. per 100 gms. for potatoes (after 
6 months in storage) boiled whole in the skin (in salted water). 
The same potatoes baked gave a value of 6.9 mg.; French fried 
6.7 mg. and boiled, peeled, in salted water 5.5 mg. Other common 
methods of cooking gave still lower values and warmed over potatoes 
and potato salad contained practically no vitamin C. In November, 
1939, the writer (Clayton and Folsom, 1940) secured average 
values of 14.9 mg. per 100 gms. for baked Green Mountain 
potatoes raised in Maine but there is no doubt that lower values 
would have been secured later in the season. 
Dove and Murphy (1943) reported high values for a number 
of varieties of Maine potatoes, including Katahdin and Sebago. 
However, these values were obtained soon after digging. Accord- 
ing to Fellers (1942) storage seems to cause a leveling off of the 
differences between varieties in vitamin C content. The question 
of the effect of storage is being investigated further at the Maine 
Station. (See Bui. 426 pp. 304-305.) 
The above data indicate that, if properly cooked, potatoes can 
be a very good source of vitamin C early in the winter. However, 
since loss in storage is so high, other vitamin C containing foods 
must be relied on to a great extent, especially during the late 
winter. 
The data presented in this study indicate that apples are the 
fruit consumed most by grade-school children in the towns where 
surveys were made. The favorite variety of apples for eating raw 
appears to be the McIntosh. Unfortunately, this apple, which 
grows well in Maine climate, is very low in vitamin C. Murphy 178 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
and Dove (1943) published a list of eleven varieties of Maine- 
grown apples, all of which (very soon after harvesting) gave vita- 
min C values in excess of 16 mg. per 100 gms. These included the 
following early and late varieties (Comments by Professor J. H. 
Waring of the Department of Horticulture, University of Maine) : 
Early 
Red Duchess. A red strain of the old variety, Duchess of Ol- 
denburg. Season: latter half of August. Hardy, 
attractive, an excellent cooker, well established 
and adapted to the Maine climate. Available 
commercially to a limited extent but not abun- 
dant at present. 
Red Astrachan. Season; August. Excellent for home and early 
market. Very hardy. More common in Maine 
orchards at present than Duchess and Red Duch- 
ess, 
Early Harvest. Season : early to mid-August. Very little grown 
in Maine. The variety is not very hardy but 
should grow successfully in southern and western 
Maine. 
Late 
Northern Spy Excellent late winter variety. Still planted to 
quite an extent. Bitter pit susceptibility and 
slowness in beginning to bear fruit discourages 
growers from more extensive planting. The 
variety is not sufficiently hardy to be successfully 
grown in central and northern Maine. 
Russet. Both Golden and Roxbury Russets are old, late, 
excellent keeping varieties, but no longer much 
planted in Maine. They might well be used more 
extensively in home orchards. 
According to Wolf (1942) loss in storage varies greatly with 
different varieties. In Wolf’s study- the average percentage loss 
during prolonged storage at 2.5° C was 50. Studies of losses of 
vitamin C in cooking apples indicate that in making apple sauce 
from peeled apples about 25 per cent of the vitamin is lost. Much Physical Condition of Maine Children 
179 
higher percentages are lost in the baking of apples and in making 
apple pie (Curran, Tressler, and King, 1937). 
These findings seem to indicate that if varieties of apples high 
in vitamin C could be raised to a greater extent in Maine the early 
varieties, if eaten raw, could be a very good source of vitamin C 
during the fall months when citrus fruits are expensive. Owing 
to storage losses, the later varieties, even though eaten raw during 
the winter, could be counted on as supplying only a small fraction 
of the vitamin C required for good nutrition. 
Fresh and canned tomatoes and tomato juice have long been 
considered excellent winter sources of vitamin C but, judging from 
work done at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station and else- 
where, there is a great difference in the vitamin C content of differ- 
ent varieties of tomatoes and the products made from them. Also, 
as shown by Murphy (1942) and others, there may be a difference 
in the same variety of tomato at different seasons and in different 
years. However, the tendency of a particular variety to be high 
or low in vitamin C persists from year to year. Murphy and Mon- 
roe (1943) showed that differences in the vitamin C content of 
two varieties of raw tomatoes (Farthest North A and Farthest 
North C) persisted after the tomatoes were canned and that prod- 
ucts made from the variety low in vitamin C lost their vitamin at a 
higher percentage rate than those made from the variety high in 
the vitamin. 
Tomato juice canned in tin retains its vitamin C better than 
that canned in glass (Daniel and Rutherford, 1936; Hauck, 1943; 
and others). The following average results, secured this year in 
the writer’s laboratory, give an example of the loss in vitamin C 
which can be expected when glass jars of tomato juice are stored 
at room temperature: 
Variety; Farthest North C23 
Vitamin C content of raw tomatoes; 23.5 mg. per 100 gms. 
Vitamin C content of canned juice after 1 month storage: 
20.1 mg. per 100 gms.; after 3 months, 15.2 mg.; 
after 6 months, 12.8 mg. 
The effect of storage temperature on the retention of vitamin 
C in canned tomato products has not been studied, but judging 
from the results of a recent study on canned citrus fruits (Ross, 
23 Similar results were secured for canned Farthest North C tomatoes. 180 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
1944), the vitamin C in canned tomato products would he retained 
much better in a cool cellar (50-60° F.) than at room temperature. 
The above findings indicate that if canned tomatoes or juice 
are relied on as the chief source of vitamin C in the diet, the 
amounts consumed in the late winter should be double those con- 
sumed in the fall. Also, particularly when tomatoes are raised for 
home consumption, special consideration should be given to the 
choice of varieties known to he high in vitamin C. Early varieties 
shown by Murphy24 (1942 and personal communication) to be high 
in vitamin C when grown in Maine are; Farthest North C, Comet, 
Early Trellis, Best of All, and Waltham Forcing. The Farthest 
North C tomatoes are small in size but are early and especially good 
for making tomato juice. The other varieties are considerably 
larger. Bonny Best, Stokesdale and Pritchard, three varieties 
popular in Maine, are comparatively low in vitamin C. (Clayton, 
1944, unpublished data.) 
Spinach, fresh, cooked, and canned, is an excellent source of 
vitamin C. An important characteristic of canned spinach is that 
it does not lose its vitamin C on storage. This year, in the writer’s 
laboratory, a value of 33 mg. per 100 gms. was secured for canned 
Nobel spinach after 8 months at room temperature. In canning 
this spinach the stems were removed and all of the blanching water 
used in filling the tin cans. 
Canned rutabaga greens were also found to be high in vitamin 
C, although the effect of storage on the vitamin C content has not 
yet been studied. Rutabaga roots are also an excellent source and 
retain the vitamin very well in cellar storage. 
The above comments indicate that there are a number of fac- 
tors which affect the vitamin C content of foods as they are eaten. 
In order to insure an adequate intake of vitamin C throughout the 
year, Maine families should either make regular use of fresh or 
canned citrus fruits and juices or a combination of these together 
with some of the following, according to the season: 
Apples, raw. For varieties see above list and comments. 
Broccoli (fresh or frozen), raw and cooked (cut in small 
pieces and cooked in a small amount of water or left in 
large pieces and steamed or cooked in a larger amount 
of water). 
24 Elizabeth F. Murphy, Assistant Biologist, Maine Agr. Expt. Sta. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
181 
Brussels sprouts (freshly picked or frozen), cooked (in a 
small amount of water). 
Cabbage, raw and cooked (shredded and cooked in a small 
amount of water or panned using a small amount of fat). 
Cantaloupe, raw. 
Cauliflower (fresh or frozen), raw and cooked (see broccoli). 
Escarole, raw. 
Green beans (freshly picked or frozen), cooked in a small 
amount of water. 
Green pepper, raw. 
Kale, raw or cooked (small curls, steamed or cooked in a 
small amount of water). 
Kohlrabi (freshly picked), cooked. 
Lettuce, raw (large serving). 
Mustard greens (freshly picked), cooked (in a very small 
amount of water) or canned (using all of the blanching 
water to fill cans). 
Onions, raw (not soaked in vinegar). 
Parsnips (higher in vitamin C in the fall), cooked (sliced or 
left whole, in a small amount of water). 
Peas (freshly picked or frozen), cooked (in a small amount 
of water). 
Radishes, raw. 
Raspberries, raw. 
Rose hips, made into jelly or jam. (Hips from Rosa Rugosa 
are especially high in vitamin C.) 
Rutabagas, raw and cooked (steamed or cooked in a small 
amount of water). 
Rutabaga or turnip greens, cooked (in a very small amount of 
water and flavored with a little bacon or salt pork) or 
canned (using the blanching water to fill cans). 
Spinach, raw, cooked (with only the water which clings to 
the leaves), and canned (leaves only, using the blanching 
water to fill the cans). 
Strawberries (fresh or frozen), raw or canned in a medium 
syrup. 
Tomatoes and tomato juice, raw (in season) and canned 
(canned tomatoes and green peppers mixed are especially 
high in vitamin C). For varieties see above list and 
comments. 182 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
SUMMARY 
Physical examinations of approximately 220 Newport grade- 
school children, made fall and spring each year for four years 
(1936-40), showed the following; 
1. Bone defects were very common, many of which were 
apparently the result of rickets in infancy. Similar defects were 
seen in the other three towns where surveys were made (Mars Hill, 
Jonesport, and Monmouth). 
2. In the spring of 1937, 72.9 per cent of the Newport chil- 
dren and 63.9 per cent of those in Mars Hill were rated as having 
good nutrition. In the spring of the next three successive years 
approximately 81 per cent of the Newport children were rated 
“good.” In these ratings the condition of the teeth and gums and 
other defects not plainly visible were not considered. 
3. Approximately one-third of the Newport children (spring 
averages 1937-40) and one-half of the Mars Hill children (spring 
1937) were more than 6 per cent underweight by the McCloy 
standards. More girls than boys were underweight. 
4. Approximately 4 per cent of the Newport children had 
enlarged thyroid glands. Similar findings were secured in Mon- 
mouth and Jonesport. There were fewer cases in Mars Hill. 
5. Newport children, as well as those in the other three towns, 
were particularly subject to colds, which were often accompanied 
by earache, tonsillitis, and enlarged cervical glands. Digestive 
upsets and toothache were also frequently reported. 
Physical measurements, made in Newport (1936-40) and in 
Mars Hill in 1936-37, included height and weight and 12 other 
measurements needed for determining the McCloy weight, fat, and 
limb girth indices. Comparisons of height and weight averages 
for all four towns showed the following: 
Height 
1. The fall height averages for the Newport girls showed no 
significant differences in the different years (1936-40). The spring 
averages were highest in 1939 and lowest in 1937; the differences 
between averages for these two years were highly significant. 
2. The fall and spring height averages for the Newport boys 
showed no significant differences in the different years. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
183 
3. The 4-year fall height averages for the Newport girls 
were higher than those for the girls in the other three towns. The 
differences between the Newport and Jonesport averages were 
highly significant. 
4. There were no significant differences between the 4-year 
fall height averages for the Newport boys and the 3-year fall aver- 
ages for the Mars Hill boys, but the Newport boys tended to be 
taller than those in the other two towns. The differences between 
the Newport and Jonesport averages were highly significant and 
those between Newport and Monmouth significant. 
5. The Mars Hill and Jonesport girls and the Jonesport boys 
tended to be shorter than public school children in other parts of the 
United States. The groups measured in all four towns were signifi- 
cantly shorter than the Iowa City children studied by Meredith and 
Boynton and the private school children studied by Gray and Ayres. 
Weight 
1. The average fall weights of the Newport girls were sig- 
nificantly higher in 1939 than in 1937. The spring averages in the 
different years showed no significant differences. 
2. There were no significant differences between either the 
average fall or the average spring weights of the Newport boys in 
the different years. 
3. The 4-year fall weight averages for the Newport girls 
were not significantly different from the averages for the girls in 
the other three towns. However, the averages for the Mars Hill 
and Monmouth girls were significantly higher than those for the 
Jonesport girls. 
4. The 4-year fall weight averages for the Newport boys 
were significantly higher than those for the Mars Hill boys. The 
differences between the Mars Hill, Jonesport, and Monmouth aver- 
ages were not significant, 
5. The fall weight averages for the Newport and Jonesport 
girls were significantly lower than the U. S. averages but the fall 
averages for the boys in each of the four towns showed no signifi- 
cant differences from the U. S. averages. In comparison with the 
Iowa and Gray’s averages the differences for both girls and boys 
in all four towns were highly significant, the Maine averages being 
lower. 184 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Type of Build 
1. Comparisons of the average height for weight, height 
for chest circumference (xiphoid level), and height for bi-iliac 
hip width of the Newport children with the Iowa City children 
studied by Meredith and Boynton showed that the Newport and 
Iowa children were proportioned about the same but that the 
Newport children were smaller for their age. 
The McCloy Method for Determining Normal Weight 
and the McCloy Weight, Fat, and Limb Girth Indices 
1. The McCloy weight standards, based on 8 physical mea- 
surements, were found very satisfactory for children of average 
build. They appeared somewhat high for overweight subjects and 
somewhat low for those who were extremely underweight. 
2. High correlations were obtained between the McCloy 
weight and fat indices and estimates of nutrition made by the 
writer. Correlations between limb girth indices and nutrition esti- 
mates were low. 
Physical Changes During Adolescence 
1. The attainment of maturity in the Newport girls was 
accompanied by a gain in height of about 16 per cent from age 9. 
In the boys there was a similar percentage gain from age 11. 
Dental examinations of the Newport children, made each fall 
for the four years (1936-40), showed the following: 
1. The average number of cavities in the deciduous teeth 
(for the four years) was 5. The fall 1936 average was slightly 
lower than that for Mars Hill, but similar to those for Jonesport 
and Monmouth. 
2. The average number of cavities in the permanent teeth 
(for the four years) was 4.8. The Newport average for fall 1936 
was somewhat lower than those for the other three towns in 1934, 
but the differences may have been partly due to the difference in 
examiners. 
3. Very few fillings were found in the deciduous teeth, the 
four-year average being only .42. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
185 
4. The average number of fillings in the permanent teeth 
(for the four years) was 1.28. This average is low in proportion 
to the number of cavities. 
5. The permanent teeth most frequently extracted in the 
Newport children were the six-year molars. The four-year aver- 
age for all permanent teeth extracted was .19. 
6. In Newport 91.2 per cent of the children had one or more 
carious, filled, or extracted six-year molars. This figure is some- 
what higher than those secured in the other three Maine towns. 
7. More children with no caries, fillings, or extractions were 
found in Newport than in any of the other three towns, the four- 
year average .being 3.6 per cent. 
8. Irregular occlusion was the most common type of mal- 
occlusion seen in all four towns, but upper protrusion was also 
very common. 
9. Only 2.7 per cent of the Newport children showed hypo- 
plastic enamel in either their deciduous or permanent teeth. 
10. In the Newport children gum inflammation was seen 
more frequently in the spring than in the fall. The fall and spring 
group averages for the last three years of the study were 11.8 and 
24.4 per cent. 
11. Six-hour vitamin C saturation tests and curative tests 
showed that in the majority of the children gum inflammation was 
related to vitamin C deficiency. 
Home visits in Newport were made in the late fall and early 
winter of 1937. Data were secured regarding the family history, 
home conditions, and early history of the children as well as their 
diets and health habits at the time of the visits. 
1. Fresh milk consumption in Newport was only a little 
more than half of that which is considered desirable for good nutri- 
tion. The average consumption per person in families with cows 
was .67 quart; in families without cows it was .37 quart. The 
average milk consumption of Newport families without cows was 
similar to the Monmouth average and somewhat higher than the 
Mars Hill and Jonesport averages. 
2. Approximately 80 per cent of the Newport families had 
gardens but only 16 per cent had chickens. Newport was lower than 
Mars Hill or Monmouth in the percentage of families having gar- 
dens and lower than any of the other three towns in the percentage 
having chi'' :ens. 186 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
3. Apples were the chief fruit, exclusive of berries, raised 
in the four towns where surveys were made. In Monmouth a con- 
siderable number of families also raised pears, plums, cherries, 
and grapes. 
4. Berries were the kind of fruit canned by the most fami- 
lies in all four towns. 
5. The vegetables canned by the most families were string 
beans, pickles, greens, beets, and peas. Only about 9 per cent of 
the Jonesport families and 32 per cent of the Mars Hill families 
canned tomatoes. They were more frequently canned in the other 
two towns. 
6. The quantities of fruits and vegetables canned by the 
majority of housewives were not sufficient to supply their families 
throughout the winter. 
7. Apples, beets, cabbage, carrots, potatoes, rutabagas, and 
squash were the chief foods stored in all four towns. 
8. Approximately three-fourths of the diets of the mothers 
in all towns were probably inadequate during pregnancy. Lack of 
sufficient milk and vitamin D were the most evident dietary defi- 
ciencies. 
9. Approximately one-third of the Newport children were 
breast fed 5 months or more. There were more breast fed babies 
in the other towns. 
10. During their first year somewhat less than two-thirds 
of the children in all four towns had orange juice, tomato juice, or 
both. Between 17 per cent (Jonesport) and 39 per cent (New- 
port) had cod liver oil. More of the Newport babies received eggs 
and vegetables than those in the other towns. 
11. For preschool children in the four towns the averages 
for milk consumption were between two-thirds and three-fourths 
of the standard (1 quart). About one-fifth of the Newport chil- 
dren had cod liver oil, but the numbers were lower in the other 
towns. 
12. At the time of the Newport home visits the diets of 
many of the children were low in milk, citrus fruits and tomatoes, 
green and yellow vegetables, other vegetables, and eggs. They 
tended to be high in refined carbohydrates (sugar and white flour) 
and low in calcium, iron, and vitamins A, Bx, riboflavin, niacin, 
C, and D. The dietary deficiencies in the other towns were similar 
to those in Newport. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
187 
Diet records kept by the Newport and Mars Hill children 
showed the same types of deficiencies which were indicated at the 
time of the home visits. 
CONCLUSIONS 
Efforts toward improving the nutritive condition of Maine 
people should he directed toward increasing food production and 
preservation and toward education in the choice of adequate diets. 
Special emphasis should he given to the importance of the in- 
creased use of milk, fruits, and vegetables (especially those high 
in vitamins A and C), eggs, and whole grain products. Also the 
importance of vitamin D (and milk), especially for women during 
pregnancy and lactation and for infants and children, should re- 
ceive the special attention of parents, teachers, dentists, and 
physicians. 
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1944. Diet in pregnancy. New Eng. J. Med., 230: 167-169. 
Sweet, C. 
1938. The teaching of body mechanics in pediatric practice. J. Am. 
Med. Assoc., 110:419-426. 
, Watson, R. G., and Stafford, H. E. 
1928. Physiologic changes in posture during the first six years of life. 
J. Am. Med. Assoc., 91: 1519-1520. 
Taylor, C. M. 
1942. Food values in shares and weights. The Macmillan Co., New 
York. 
Volker, J. F. 
1943. Observations on the adsorption of fluorides by the enamel. 
J. Dent. Res., 22 : 201. 
Whitacre, J. 
1934. Dental decay among Texas school children. Texas Agr. Expt. 
Sta. College Station, Brazos Co. Bui. 491. 
Wood, H. C., Jr., and Osol, A. 
1943. U. S. Dispensatory. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 
Wolf, J. 
1942. Vitamin C content of German apples. Gartenbauwissenschaft, 
16 : 292-313; Nut. Abs. and Rev., 13:60, 1943. 
Watson, R. G., and Stafford, H. E. 192 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
APPENDIX 
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 
Grade 
' I 
MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
Marne of Parent or Guardian 
Occupation 
| Nose: Obstruction 
Discharge 
Mouth Breathing 
Mouth Hygiene 
Teeth, form 
Caries, temp. 
Caries, perm. 
missing, temp. 
missing, perm. 
approx. 
6 yr. m. 
Gums 
Glands: Tonsils 
Adenoids 
Thyroid 
Ant cerv. 
Post. cerv. 
Other 
Heart 
- Lungs 
Abdomen Masses 
Hernia 
Genitalia 
Cooperation 
Vaccination Scar 
General Condition 
Remarks 
I 
I Recommendations 
I 
Birth Date 
School 
fertn i 
HOME ECONOMICS PROJECT NO 5 
Marne. 
Address 
Date 
Age 
General Appearance 
Bone Development 
Cranium 
Spine 
Chest 
Joints 
Epiphvses 
Feet 
Legs 
Posture 
Nutrition 
Turgor 
Muscle Devel. 
Subcut Tissue 
Skin : color 
texture 
lesions 
Mucous Mcmb. 
Scalp 
Hair 
Nails 
Eyes: Vision 
Pupils 
Reaction I & a 
Musculature 
Conjunctiva 
Lids 
Ears: Hearing 
Discharge 
Drums (r) Physical Condition of Maine Children 
193 
measurements summary 
Date 
Age 
Height 
Weight 
Girth, chest 
Girth, upper arm 
Girth, forearm 
Girth, thigh 
Girth, calf 
Hip width—iliac 
Hip width—trochanteric 
Elbow width 
Knee width 
Fat chest front 
Fal abdomen 
Fat. chest back 
Fat suprailiac 
Total fat 
Hip difference 
Breathing capacity 
Pubescence 
Weight index 
Limb girth index 
Fat index 
Breathing capacity index 
Index of build 
Haemoglobin Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
194 
Key to Physical Examinations 
Use check mark for good or normal wherever possible and indicate devi- 
ations by descriptive words. 
General appearance: Good, fair, poor. 
Bone development: Indicate any marked deviation from the normal size of 
skeleton. 
Cranium: Normal, bosses (parietal or frontal), other abnormalities. 
Spine: Normal, kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis. 
Chest; Normal, flat, pigeon, funnel, beading of ribs, Harrison’s groove. 
Joints: Normal, limber, stiff, deformities. 
Epiphyses: Normal, enlarged. 
Feet: Normal, flat, pronation, talipes, etc. 
Legs : Normal, bowing, knockknees. 
Posture: Good, fair, poor. (For details refer to bone development.) 
Nutrition; 
Turgor; Good, fair, poor. 
Muscle development: Good, fair, poor. 
Subcutaneous tissue: Abundant, average, scant. 
Skin: 
Color: Fair, medium, dark. Clear, sallow, pale. 
Texture: Rough, smooth, dry, oily. 
Lesions: State type. 
Mucous membranes: Normal, pale, scars, ulcers. 
Scalp: Clean, dirty, scaling, dry, oily, pediculi. 
Hair : Normal, oily, dry. 
Nails: Normal, brittle, tough, ridged, scarred, spotted, nail biting. 
Eyes: 
Vision: Right 20/ ; left 20/ . Indicate if child wears glasses. 
Pupils: Regular, irregular. 
Reaction to light and accommodation; Normal, abnormal (describe). 
Musculature: Normal, strabismus (internal or external). 
Conjunctiva: Clear, injected, discharge, scars. 
Lids : Normal, stys, granulations. 
Ears: 
Hearing. 
Discharge. 
Drums: Right 
Left 
Nose: 
Obstruction. Indicate if present. 
Discharge: Slight, moderate, profuse. Indicate if child has an acute 
cold. 
Mouth breathing. Indicate if present. 
“ “ apparently caused by adenoids. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
195 
Mouth; 
Hygiene: Good, fair, poor, very poor. 
Teeth: (See Form 2, Appendix, for form used in detailed dental 
examinations.) 
Form: Normal, grooved, peg-shaped, enamel defects. 
Caries, temp.: Number and description. 
Caries, perm.: Number and description. 
Missing, temp.: Number. 
Missing, perm,: Number. 
Approximation : Good, fair, poor. 
Six-year molars: Describe condition. 
Gums: Normal, spongy, injected, ulcerated. 
Glands: 
Tonsils: Normal, enlarged -f-, H—-|—|—+ + H—j-, removed. 
Adenoids (hypertrophied tissue) : Present, removed. 
Thyroid: Normal, enlarged. 
Anterior cervical; If enlarged describe. 
Posterior cervical: If enlarged describe. 
Other : Indicate and describe. 
Heart: Normal; if abnormal describe as to rhythm, murmurs, etc. 
Lungs : Normal; if abnormal describe. 
Abdomen: 
Masses; Normal; if abnormal describe. 
Hernia : If present indicate type. 
Genitalia : Normal; if abnormal describe. 
Cooperation: Good, fair, poor. 
Vaccination scar: Check if present. 
General condition : Good, fair, poor. 
Remarks: Note here if mentality seems to be below average. 196 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Form 2 
Form 424 
STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND WELFARE 
BUREAU OF HEALTH 
DIVISION OF DENTAL HYGIENE 
AUGUSTA, MAINE 
(Name of Chiffl) 
(Address of Parent or Guardian) 
(Birth Date) 
(Name of Parent olTSuardlan) 
OA— Decalciiicd areas s—SiiDeriiclsl carl,, 0—De c, canes . R—Remrded cart,, . 
AB—At-scctt K—Filling KB— Retained roots G—Gingivitis ; X—Eilractnd . FS—Fuaursov/laZ 
Date of Examination 
1. Type of Examination 
Tongue Depressor 
Mirror and Explorer 
2. Dental Care 
Regular 
Occasional .... 
None _. ... 
3. Home Care 
Regulkr 
Occasional 
None .... ... 
4 Oral Hygiene 
Good .. ... .•>. -. - 
£air e- ■ 
Poor S.-aV 
5. Occlusion s 
Upper protrusion 
Loner protrusion . ... 
Cross bite v; 
Open bite 
Irregular Physical Condition of Maine Children 
197 
* w X— | v d O X/ 
Date of Examination 
6. Habits 
Thumb sucking 
Finger sucking 
Mouth breathing .... 
Lip biting 
Tongue biting .._ 
Cheek biting 
Resting on hand 
Sleeping on hand 
Pacifier 
7. Mucous membrane 
8. Gum Tissue 
9. Anomalies 
lOt Did prophylaxis 
precede examination? 
11. Temperament 
Phlegmatic 
Normal 
Nervous ... - 
Remarks: 
Name of Examiner 
Directions Make all ttcorda *1111 la*. locale defett OB loom draw lino to aide and write aymliol. addlne oumlier ol eramlnalloo. aa—DA 1. Dae eSee* 
mark on Item. Noe 1. I.M.J. 0. t and II: wrlta deacnlitleo .tana la «>aoe oitpoalte oilier Utma. 198 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
Form 3 
MAINE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
Home Economics Project No. 5 Home Visit 
Marne Birth date Date of visit 
Address Newport school Grade 
MElMBERS OF HOUSEHOLD Marne Nationality Age Employment 
Immediate family 
Father 
Mother 
Children (l.&d.) 
Other members 
♦If dead give cause, 
age. and date 
family history and conditions in the home 
Language spoken Education of father Mother 
Type of house Size Care 
FOOD PRODUCTION AND PRESERVATION FOR FAMILY USE 
Cows Other source of milk supply Amount used dally 
Vegetables raised or picked wild 
Fruits raised or picked wild 
Hens Young chickens Animals for meat ~ 
Canning 
Storage 
PRENATAL HISTORY 
Pregnancy: Physical condition Employed? 
Diet: Adequate Inadequate Deficiency of 
Birth; Full term Overtime Premature Delivery; Normal 
Difficult Injuries or malformations Blue baby 
Weight General condition at blrtE 
HISTORY OF FIRST YEAR 
Basic feeding: Breast Duration Mixed Duration 
Bottle Duration Kinds 
Age at weaning Month begun 
Supplements: Orange Juice 
Tomato Juice 
Cod liver oil 
Egg yolk 
Vegetable pulp 
Fruit pulp 
Cereal 
Meat broth 
Other 
Feeding problems 
Health Illnesses Regular gain? 
Dentition: Age of first tooth Regular Retarded Physical Condition of Maine Children 
199 
Form 3» Reverse Side 
PRESCHOOL HISTORY 
Diet; Were any foods particularly disliked? 
Did any foods disagree? 
Were any other foods withheld? ~ ‘ 
Amt. milk per day Cod liver oil Many sweets? 
Health _Illnes8es 
Appetite: Good 'Fair Poor Regular gain? 
PRESENT FOOD AND HEALTHUaBITS 
Meals preceding day 
Breakfast Noon meal Night meal Between meals 
tJsual meals 
Breakfast Moon meal Might meal Between meals 
Appetite; Good Fair Poor Are breakfasts well eaten? 
Have child's eating habits changed since he started to school? 
Cooked veg. besides pot. eaten most 
Tomatoes, how often? 
Raw veg., how often? Kinds 
Fruits eaten most 
Oranges or grapef. how often? 
Meat, how often? Fish Eggs 
Cereals eaten most 
Dark breads how often Kinds 
Favorite desserts Candy, how often? ~ 
Amt. milk Cocoa Coffee Tea 
Source of vlt. D. Seasons Amt, dally 
Health habits; What time does child go to bed? 
Regular about bed time? What time does he get up? 
Lessons besides school work? What after school? 
Laxatives? What? How often? Habits 
Infectious diseases Severity Age 
fcther prolonged Illnesses 
Recent Illnesses 
Immunizations 
Injuries 
Operations 
Physical defects  Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
200 
Form U 
NEWPORT FOOD RECORD - 1940 
Name Age Birthday Grade 
Parent's Name . 
Day 
ToolUr 
Amounts 
Date 
19^0 
Breakfasts 
Dinner 
'Supper 
Between meals Physical Condition or Maine Children 
201 
TABLE 9 
Height of Maine Girls Included in This Study 
Fall Averages for Four Towns Compared with U. S., Iowa, and 
Gray’s Averages 
Agesf 
1936-1939 
(tool.) 
Newport 
1934-1936 
(incl.) 
Mars Hill 
1934 
Jonesport 
1934 
Monmouth 
4 
Maine 
Towns 
U. 8. 
Iowa 
Gray’s 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
5 
27 
43.5 
13 
42.2 
6 
43.2 
2 
41.9 
42.7 
42.3 
43.7 
6 
57 
43.9 
31 
44.8 
15 
43.3 
9 
45.1 
44.3 
44.8 
44.8 
46.5 
7 
57 
46.2 
45 
46.1 
12 
44.8 
11 
46.3 
45.9 
46.7 
47.6 
48.9 
8 
54 
48.5 
51 
48.2 
20 
48.2 
7 
46.2 
47.8 
48.9 
49.9 
51.5 
9 
62 
50.6 
50 
50.4 
10 
51.0 
12 
50.3 
50.6 
50.9 
52.2 
53.5 
10 
53 
52.7 
38 
52.7 
12 
52.7 
13 
53.0 
52.8 
52.9 
54.2 
55.2 
11 
53 
55.2 
51 
54.7 
14 
53.6 
8 
53.0 
54.1 
55.2 
56.5 
57.5 
12 
57 
57.7 
44 
57.4 
17 
55.4' 
8 
57.9 
57.1 
57.5 
59.2 
59.9 
13 
42 
60.0 
32 
59.3 
10 
58.9 
5 
58.1 
59.1 
59.9 
61.4 
61.9 
14 
19 
61.5 
19 
60.5 
5 
59.3 
10 
61.6 
60.7 
61.2 
62.8 
63.0 
t To nearest birthday. 
TABLE 10 
Height of Maine Boys Included in This Study 
Fall Aj’erages for Four Towns Compared with U. S., Iowa, and 
Gray’s Averages 
Agesf 
1936-1939 
(incl.) 
Newport 
1934-1936 
(incl.) 
Mars Hill 
1934 
Jonesport 
1934 
Monmouth 
4 
Maine 
Towns 
D. S. 
Iowa 
Gray’s 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
5 
16 
43.0 
8 
43.1 
7 
41.8 
2 
41.6 
42.4 
__ 
43.3 
43.8 
6 
48 
45.0 
27 
45.1 
14 
45.1 
13 
44.5 
44.9 
45.2 
45.5 
46.7 
7 
46 
47.3 
31 
47.2 
9 
47.0 
10 
47.1 
47.2 
47.0 
48.0 
49.1 
8 
50 
49.6 
37 
49.1 
14 
49.6 
9 
48.2 
49.1 
49.3 
50.4 
51.6 
9 
51 
51.4 
35 
51.3 
17 
50.8 
5 
52.0 
51.4 
51.3 
52.6 
53.5 
10 
53 
53.1 
40 
52.8 
12 
52.3 
15 
53.9 
53.0 
53.2 
54.7 
55.6 
11 
62 
54.9 
29 
54.7 
15 
54.9 
16 
53.9 
54.6 
55.1 
56.4 
57.3 
12 
64 
57.0 
29 
57.3 
11 
55.5 
17 
56.2 
56.5 
56.8 
58.2 
59.2 
13 
46 
59.5 
21 
59.0 
13 
57.6 
18 
59.2 
58.8 
59.1 
60.4 
61.6 
14 
28 
61.1 
15 
62.3 
10 
59.0 
8 
60.3 
60.7 
61.2 
62.8 
63.9 
15 
10 
63.9 
7 
64.0 
5 
61.5 
8 
62.2 
62.9 
62.6 
65.0 
66.3 
f To nearest birthday. 202 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. 1944-45 
TABLE 15 
Weight of Maine Girls Included in This Study 
Fall Averages for Four Towns Compared zvith U. S., Iowa, and 
Gray’s Averages 
Ages! 
1936-1939 
(inch) 
Newport 
1934-1936 
(incl.) 
Mars Hill 
1934 
Jonesport 
1934 
Monmouth 
4 
Maine 
Towns 
U. 8. 
Iowa 
Gray’s 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
5 
27 
37.9 
13 
39.5 
6 
40.5 
2 
39.6 
39.4 
— 
39.3 
43.0 
6 
57 
40.8 
31 
43.6 
15 
41.7 
9 
44.7 
42.7 
43.9 
44.1 
49.3 
7 
57 
45.6 
45 
45.9 
12 
43.1 
11 
48.7 
45.8 
47.6 
50.4 
55. S 
8 
54 
49.6 
51 
52.0 
20 
51.9 
7 
47.7 
50.3 
52.4 
56.4 
61.4 
9 
C2 
55.9 
50 
56.5 
10 
55.8 
12 
61.3 
57.4 
58.1 
62.6 
69.9 
10 
53 
60.6 
38 
65.4 
12 
61.5 
13 
70.6 
64.5 
64.2 
69.6 
77.4 
11 
53 
71.1 
51 
71.4 
14 
65.0 
8 
62.7 
67.6 
72.8 
78.8' 
86.1 
12 
57 
81.2 
44 
as.5 
17 
71.0 
8 
83.2 
79.7 
81.8 
89.5 
96.1 
13 
42 
93.1 
32 
92.2 
10 
85.3 
5 
101.3 
93.0 
92.6 
100.1 
105.4 
14 
19 
100.0 
19 
95.1 
5 
95.7 
10 
103.4 
98.6 
101.0 
110.7 
111.6 
t To nearest birthday. 
TABLE 16 
Weight of Maine Boys Included in This Study 
Fall Averages for Four Towns Compared unth U. S., Iowa, and 
Gray's Averages 
Agesf 
1936-1939 
(inch) 
Newport 
1934-1936 
(incl.) 
Mars Hill 
1934 
Jonesport 
1934 
Monmouth 
4 
Maine 
Towns 
U. S. 
Iowa 
Gray’s 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
No. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
Av. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
lb. 
5 
16 
40.4 
8 
40.3 
7 
36.9 
2 
43.0 
40.2 
— 
41.8 
43.2 
6 
48 
44.7 
27 
45.5 
14 
46.1 
13 
42.8 
44.8 
44.6 
46.0 
48.9 
7 
46 
49.9 
31 
49.1 
9 
50.0 
10 
51.1 
50.0 
48.5 
51.7 
54.2 
8 
50 
54.7 
37 
52.4 
14 
56.5 
9 
51.3 
53.7 
54.0 
58.0 
61.4 
9 
51 
59.0 
35 
58.9 
17 
59.0 
5 
61.9 
59.7 
59.0 
63.8 
68.0 
10 
53 
65.1 
39 
63.3 
12 
62.5 
15 
69.5 
65.1 
65.1 
71.6 
75.8 
11 
62 
70.0 
29 
66.9 
15 
70.4 
16 
70.5 
69.5 
71.6 
77.6 
82.8 
12 
64 
77.9 
29 
77.3 
11 
75.8 
17 
78.2 
77.3 
78.3 
85.1 
89.5 
13 
46 
89.0 
21 
84.0 
13 
88.7 
18 
92.2 
88.5 
87.0 
96.0 
98.5 
14 
28 
96.9 
15 
95.6 
10 
86.7 
8 
93.4 
93.2 
97.2 
107.0 
108.6 
15 
10 
105.3 
7 
103.2 
5 
102.4 
8 
95.7 
101.7 
101.8 
120.9 
123.2 
+ To nearest birthday. Physical Condition of Maine Children 
203 
TABLE 17 
Az’cracje Measurements of Nezvport, Maine Girls and Boys 
Used in Charts 5 and 6 
Ages* 
Height 
Weight 
Chest 
circumference 
(xiphoid level) 
Bi-iliac 
hip width 
Girls 
Boys 
Girls 
Boys 
Girls 
Boys 
Girls 
Boys 
in. 
in. 
lb. 
lb. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
in. 
6 
43.8 
44.9 
41.1 
45.0 
21.1 
22.1 
7.2 
7.4 
7 
40.1 
47.5 
45.0 
49.5 
21.6 
22.7 
7.5 
7.7 
8 
48.4 
49.6 
50.5 
54.8 
22.4 
23.4 
7.9 
8.0 
9 
50.4 
51.3 
56.0 
59.1 
23.1 
23.8 
8.1 
8.2 
10 
52.5 
52.9 
61.5 
64.0 
23.7 
24.6 
8.4 
8.5 
11 
55.2 
55.0 
71.0 
70.8 
24.7 
25.3 
8.9 
8.8 
12 
57.9 
56.7 
84.1 
76.9 
25.7 
26.0 
9.4 
9.0 
13 
60.1 
59.7 
92.2 
90.5 
26.7 
27.5 
9.9 
9.6 
14 
61.3 
61.6 
101.0 
102.3 
27.0 
28.3 
10.3 
9.8 
* To nearest birthday. In most cases two measurements were made 
one was used which was nearest to the child’s birthday. 
in one year. That