Notes of lectures on Physics
Given at the Edinburgh Institution School
Queen this Edinburgh
By Robert Ferguson PHD. Headmaster
in the session 1860 to 1861
By
Thomas Lauder Bruton




Capillary attraction
Instances of it in common life
Water rising in sugar or salt blotting
Paper & c.
When liquids wet a solid the liquid
becomes cupped up at the edges of this
vessel, when the liquid does not wet
the solid it becomes cupped down
For example in A a vessel filled
with water which wets the edges of the
vessel the liquid is cupped up & in B
a vessel filled with mercury which
does not wet the sides the liquid is
cupped down.
The narrower the vessel the more
perceptible is this cupping until
in tubes which have a hair-like
bore the liquid rises or sinks very



3
considerably.
Exp. Two plates of glass close at one end &
Separated at the other when put into 
water. The water rose very considerably 
at the end at which they touched &
scarcely rose at all at the other end
A row of tubes of different sizes fixed in a
Fram AA & having one eve put into a vessel 
of water, the water in the tubes rose to differ-
ent heights according to this size of the 
tube.
When ropes are wetted they shortern beacause
the capillary tubes are filled with water
and the ropes swell in thickness and shorten in length
When a doctor wishes to bandages very
tightly he puts on the bandage dry
& wets it afterwards






Some effects of liquids not wetting
Solids.
The little insects that run on water
Have their limbs greasy or dusty so
That the water does not wet them
& the repulsion of the water is suf-
ficient to counterbalance their
weight so that they do not sink
A needle can float on water for
the same reason.
An exp. Showing capillary attracted.
A piece of cane is put into some turpente
in a small phial & one end set fire to
as long as the cane is in the turpenter
the flame burned up but when the
cane is taken out the cane burns
without flame.





5
A liquid when confirmed in a
close vessel transmits pressure
equally in all directions 
V a close vessel entirely
filled with water
with 2 collars 130 C of
exactly the same size which are
fitted with 2 pistons moving
easily, if a pressure of one lb be
exerted on one piston a pressure
of one lb is exerted on the other
R a close vessel having 
2 collars A & B fitted with
pistons is being 20 times
larger than A if a pressure
of 1 lb be exerted on A, 20lbs pressure
will be exerted on B.
When water is confined in a close
vessel and one square inch be expos-
ed to a certain pressure say 1 lb
every s-q. inch in the vessel is ex-
posed to the same.





6
Bramah's press is a practical
illustration of this principle 
AB is a lever handle with the hinge 
at B. P is a forcing pump. Lifting AB
the value at Q opens & that at R shuts.
Pressing down AB,Q shuts, R opens 
& the water is driven into the close
Chamber C pressing up the piston
S with a force greater than that
exerted on AB in proportion to
the size of the piston S as compare
with that of S’.
To prevent the water getting out
at the side of the piston S there is
a leather collar fixed to C.C. the sides
of the chamber. When the
water is pumped in it press
not only upwards but presses the call




7
also sideways against the piston
so that the more the water presses 
the closer the collar presses on the
piston.
The Brittania bridge over the menai
straits consisting of tubes of iron
honey combed to give greater strength
& lightness, as shown at A, & weigh-
ing 1.00 tons was raised by 2 of
Bramahs presses placed on 2 of
the pillars which were to sup-
port the bridge with 2 men at
each press. On one occasion the 
chains broke & the bridge fell 2 in.
it was calculated that if it had
fallen 1 ft the shock would have
broken the bridge to pieces.
The casting of the press for the
Brittania bridge was the largest 


8
casting ever made being 10 ft 
thick. After standing 72 hours
it was still red hot & it was only
after 10 days that the workmen 
could handle it.
Bramahs press is also used by
bookbinders.
Water rises to its own level
whatever the nature of the
tubes in which it is placed
A a vessel consisting of three tubes
of different shapes, but connected
together at the foot if water
(which may be tinged with
some colour that it may be
better seen) is poured into
one it will stand at the same
height in all.
When two columns of liquid 
Balance each other one of which 



9
is heavier than the other
the heights of the columns
are inversely as their weights 
thus if a column of water bal-
ances a column of mercury
it requires to be 14 times higher
mercury being 14 times heavier
than water
CD a column of water – AB the difference
between the levels of B & D of the mercury
X 14.
The pressure of a column of liquid
is in proportion to the height and
not to the thickness of the column
mountains may be burst by the
pressure of water
If in the mountain
M there be a wide hor-
izontal crack R
& another


10
narrow crack C extend from
R in a perpendicular direction
& if R & C be filled with water by
the rain if C be a sufficient height 
the mountain will burst
If C be 1 sq in & the weight of the
water in it be 60 lbs a weight
of 60 lbs will be exerted on every
sq in in R.
Apparatus for showing that the
hug pressure of a column of water
is in proportion to its height 1 no
to its bulk
T,T,T,” tubes of different sizes & shapes 
but of the same perpendicular 
height & screwing on to a stand
S by means of a collar C fixed to each
tube. G a graduated tube with mer


11
in it. If T,T,T” be filled with
water the mercury will stand 
at the same height in G though 
T contains 3 times as much water as
T’, & T” is longer than either T or T’,
being bent, though its perpendic-
ular height is the same
The hydrostatic bellows consist
of two boards B.B. connected water-
tight by a piece of strong leather
L, into the upper of these two
boards a long tube T with a
funnel sop is fixed.
When water is poured into
T so as to fill the bellows and
rise in the tube T the upper
board rises with force suffic-
ient to lift a considerable 
weight At Dr.R.M.Fer-
gusons lectures Charles 
Cunningham son of Principal 
Cunningham was the weight lifted



12
To illustrate the pressure
of water in all directions
C is a cylinder of glass provided 
with a brass collar B at the lower
end into which a piece of brass
F exactly fits. S is a piece of silk
thread by which F may either
kept fitting into B or allowed
at pleasure to drop which in a
it does by its own weight.
On pulling F into B & then putting
C into a jar of water J, F & till rem
in B although S is let go, being kept
in its place by the upward press
of the water in J.
Fig 2nd B is a cylinder of glass open
At both ends A a loose piece of glass.
If A is laid on the end of B & both put




13
Fig.2
into a vessel of water C, A will not fall
off from B being kept on by the pressure
of the water in C.
A is a glass cylinder open at the top
& closed at the bottom & having a small
tube C fixed in the side & pressing
against a piece of brass B, when
water is poured into A the side
pressure of the water force A away
from B.


14
In a canal C, a side pressure is
exerted by the water in the direction
of the arrows & if the banks are
not sufficiently strong they will
give way.
Archimedes’ Principle 
When a body is immersed in a
fluid it loses as much of it weight
as equals the weight of the quan
tity of fluid it displaces.
B is a balance C is a follow cylinder
of brass into which a solid piece
of brass D exactly fits, into the par
at the other end of the balance
a weight is put which counter
poises C & D. When D is put into
a vessel of water E the pan P & in


15
the weight of D being lessened.
P is now lightened till the balance
is equal & the difference of weight
noted. D is now taken away &
C is weighted; it is then filled with
water & the difference, which is
the weight of water equal in bulk
to D, again noted. If the experiment
has been rightly performed the
differences will be equal.
The specific gravity of a body is
the weight of any portion of it
compared with the weight
of the very same portion of water
at the temperature of 60°Faren-
heit, 60° being the ordinary sum
mer heat
Example.
Weight of a piece of brass in air 79 grams
-in water 69 -
79-69=10 diff. between water in air & in water
G = specific gravity = 49/10 = 7.9




16
Cartesian divers are hollow fegines 
of glass. They are balanced just to
float in a tall glass jar filled to
within ¼ inch of the top with
clear water and covered at the
top with a piece of sheet india 
rubber. If the rubber be pressed
with the finger the air is compressed,
which acting on the
water forces more water into
the figures which are thus
rendered specifically heavier
and sink. On removing the
finger the air again expands 
& the figures rise.
When a body floats on a liquid
it displaces as much of that
liquid as will have its own




17
weight hence bodies that sink
displace their own bulk of water
bodies that float their own weight
By the Archimedean principle
I can ascertain the wt of an am-
ount of water equal in bulk to
that of solid by weighing that
solid in air & then in water
the diff. off the wts being the wt of
the bulk of water required.
For taking the S.G. of a solid lighter
than water you must attach a
sinker to it.
Example. A piece of cork with a
silver sinker
weight of silver in air = 28.3 grams
“  -  “   “    “    water = 25.52 “
wt of water = in bulk to silver 2.78
wt of cork in air = 3. grams
-----“  “+ silver = 31.3 “
“  “   “ in water = 9.4 “
31.3-9.4=21.9 wt of volume of water equal
in bulk to silver + cork





18
But the wt of water equal in bulk
to silver = 2.78
21.9-2.78=19.12=(wt of water=cork in bulk)
But S.G of cork=wt in air
wt of equal volume of water
which is = 3./19.12=.156 S.G of cork
S.G of different bodies
Ag 10.18 53°Fahr
Pt 22.1
Au in coins 19.36
Ng 13.6
Pb 11.44
Cu hammered 9
Brass 8.4
Steel 7.8
Fe malleable 7.79
Fe cast 7.25
In hammered 7.86
--un------- 7.21
diamond 3.5
marble 2.84
Quartz 2.7




19
Bottle glass 2.64
window “ 2.45
flint  “ 3.44
Ice .93
Boxwood 1.33
Ebony 1.23
Heart of oak 1.17
Lime .6
Cork .24
Sulph.acid 1.85
Milk 1.03
Sea water 1.03
Linseed oil .94
Olive oil .92
Oil of Turpentine .87
Alcohol .79
Sulphuric ether .73
That cold water is heavier than hot
is shown by a hollow metal spere
very delicately adjusted so that it
will float in cold water but sink
when the water is warmed.



20
The S.G. of liquids is best ascertained 
by means of the S.G. bottle
The S.G bottle contains at a temperature
of 60°Fahr. 1000 grains of
distilled water. In order to prevent
air bubbles remaining in the
bottle the stopper has a small hole
through it which is also filled with
water, & then the outside of the
bottle & stopper is carefully wiped
Example. To ascertain the S.G. of 
alcohol.
Fill the S.G. bottle with alcohol at
60° & weigh it
wt = 54.5 grams But a gram = 15.4 grains
54.5 grams = 839.3 grains
But the wt of the same quantity of water


21
equals 1000 grains. The S.G. of al-
cohol = 839.3/1000=.8389 S.G of alcohol
The S.G of the strongest alcohol = .79
It is of importance in the excise to
ascertain readily the S.G of a mixture 
of alcohol & water
To ascertain this by the S.G bottle would
occupy too much time they consequ-
ently use for this purpose Araom
eters.These are loaded with mercury
which sink to a certain extent
in the liquids in which they
are put, if the liquids be rare 
these sink very considerably in
them if they be dense they do
not sink so fast.
The Araometers are so graduated
that by means of a table which
accompanies them the S.G is at once
given & the relative proportions
of alcohol & water in the mixture
spirit which contains an equal
mixture of alcohol & water is called


22
proof spirit, mixtures con-
taining a larger quantity
of alcohol are said to be over proof
A mixture of 20 over proof would
require 20 galls. of water to the 100
to make it proof & a mixture of 20
under proof would require 20
galls. of pure spirit to 100 to make
it proof.
Araometer = Hydrometer 
The best graduation for araomet-
ers is Gay Lussac’s
1 is for fluids heavier than water
2 for fluids lighter than water
Examples of taking the S.G by the
araometer.
No 1 in sulphuric acid stands at



23
54. 100/54 = 1.851 = S.G of sulph. Acid
In alcohol no 2 stands at 119
100/119 = .84 = S.G of alcohol.
Nichols arometer for ascertaining 
the wt of gems&c.
This araometer has a standard
point S to which the araometer
is sunk & a perforated bag B
in which the gems&c. are put
Example. A piece of glass.
To sink the araometer requires
5.415 grams. Weight required
when the glass is laid on the
top 3.54. At this time the glass
fell into the water & we proceeded
with suppositious weights.
Supposed wt required with the


24
glass in B 4.
5.415-3.54 = 1.875 wt of glass in air
5.415-4 = 1.415    “    “     “   water
.460  diff of wts
1.875/.460 = 4. S.G of glass
To find the wt of bodies lighter
than water reverse the cup.
Fig 1
Section of ship. m. the metacentric 
or centre of gravity of the displaced 
fluid. G the centre of gravity of the
ship. G must be below M
Fig 2
If the ship be thrown sideways as



25
in Fig 2 but M be above G the force
of the water pressing upward & of
gravity pressing downward
right the ship
Fig 3
If however as in Fig 3 G should be
above m, the waters pressing up
ward & gravity pressing down
ward overturn the ship.
In all ships the centre of gravity
should lie very low & the lower it lies 
the safer the vessel is.
In order to prevent the vessel being
So much laid over by a gust of wind
as to bring G above m the Reel is put
on the vessel which offers a great
resistance to being dragged quickly
through the water sidewise  


26
Pneumatics
There are three states of aggregate
condition in bodies, solid, liquid
& aeriform 
In solid bodies particles are kept
together by the force of cohesion
In gaseous or aeriform bodies instead
of cohesion there is repulsion
and in liquid bodies there is a
balance between repulsion &
cohesion
Example of the repulsion of the
particles of aeriform bodies towards
each other or tendency to fill as
large a space as possiple. If a
bladder half full of air & tied at the
mouth be put under the receiver
of an air pump & the air exhaus-
ted,the air in the bladder will
expand & distend the bladder 
 


27
Air possesses weight
F is a strong glass bottle furnished with
A stopcock. The air is exhausted
the stopcock shut & the bottle weigh
ed,the stopcock is then opened &
the bottle again weighed, the
diff. of the 2 wts being the wt of the
air contained in the bottle
Example of the repulsion of the particles 
of air.
F is a brass framework, W a lead weight
sliding up & down in F, B is a small 
india rubber bag laid under w, when
F is put into a receiver & the air ex
hausted the air in B expands
 


28
with force sufficient to raise w
Heron's fountain consists of an upper
vessel B an under vessel C, the tube
D passes from a basin A into C & P,
passes from the top of C nearly
to the top of B & the tube F ending
in the jet J passes nearly to the
top of B. A little water is poured into
B thro’ S & then water is poured into A,
which passing thro’ D into C compresses 
the air there, which again acting
on that on B compresses it likewise 
& drives the water out at J.
Example of atmopheric pressure.


29
A tin canister with a stopcock & a 
Ittle water in the bottom is put
over a spirit or gas lamp & the water
boiled till steam is seen issuing
briskly from the stopcock which is
then shut & cold water poured
over the canister. The steam being
condensed leaves a vacuum &
there being no resistance to the
pressure of the external atmos-
phere the canister is crushed
The wt of air on a man is 14 tons.
We feel lighter in air than we would
in a vacuum as it deprives us of
as much of our wt as the wt of the 
air we displace.



30
Pipettes or dropping tubes. As long
as the finger is kept on the aperture
at A nothing flows while if the
finger is taken off there is a greater 
or less flow according to the time
the finger is kept off.
A magic pitcher is double & has one hole
which may be stopped with the 
finger at A & another at B. As long
as the finger covers A there is no
flow but whenever it is taken off
the water flows out at B.
The magic filler is on
the same principles 


31
A small glass vessel R open at both
ends has a piece of bladder B tied
over one end & the air exhausted
the pressure of the atmosphere
bursts the bladder
Apparatus for keeping a liquid
at the same level. A is a glass vessel
having a stopcock at S & an aperture
C into which the neck of a florence
flask B filled with the liquid is pull
whenever the liquid in A falls beneath
the mouth of B, that in B runs into
A till the liquid in A again stands
above the mouth of B, & so on till B is empty

 


32
A lamp on the same principle
The shoulder blades & knee pains are 
kept in their place by the pressure
of the air.
A boys sucker is an instance of the
pressure of the air. The shoulder
blades are kept in the same way
as a stone to a sucker
All the joints are kept in position
by the pressure of the air
A german anatomist cut away
all the flesh & ligaments about a
hip joint but still the leg swung
in its place, he then bored a hole at it 

 


33
when the leg at once fellout.
He then put it in again & put his
finger on it. While his finger was
on A the leg staid in but as soon
as he took away his finger the leg
fell out.
H is the handle of a pump P the piston
In pulling up the Handle H, P goes down
the valve at R shuts & that at S opens the
air passing out at S. When H is pull
ed down P goes up the valve S shuts
& R opens water rushing through it to
Fill up the vacuum caused by pull-
ing up P. When P goes down a second
time R closes & S opens water rushing
through it. When P again comes up
it draws up tho water  along with it
The cistern C keeps up a constant stream

 


34
The pump acts theoretically at 34ft
but practically at about 20ft
The ancients accounted for the working
of the pump by saying that
nature had a horror of oral horred a
vacuum. Horror vacui.
A force pump differs from a com-
mon Pump in having no value
In the piston, but one at R in a
bose attached to the side of the pump
The force pump draws up the
water in the same manner
as a common pump but at
the return stroke instead of the
water passing through the piston
it is driven through R & out at A
with a force proportionate to the


 


35
downward pressure of the piston
Water is forced out only at the downward stroke
of the piston
The air cushion or chamber is a
strong vessel having a tube furnished 
with a stopcock passing from
the top almost to the bottom of it
The stopcock is shut & the chamber
fast connected with a force pump
Water is then pumped in till the
air in the chamber is considerably
compressed. The stopcock is then
opened & the water rushes out in
a constant stream the air keeping
up a pressure on the water in the 
chamber between the strokes of the
pump


















































































































































































































































































































































36
A fire engine consists of two force 
pumps & an air chamber. A is connected
to a water pipe.
Torricelli a pupil of Galileo’s first
discovered that the action of the 
pump was due to the pressure
of the atmosphere
The Duke of Tuscany was get-
ting a pump to draw water
from a well 50 ft deep, the
pump was of copper and as
good as they could make it.
However the water would not
rise above 34 ft.
Galileo on being asked the cause
said that nature abhorred a
vacuum as far as 34 ft but no
further. He had however a sus-
























































































































































































































































































































37
picion that it was due to the
pressure of the air
Torricelli reasoned that if it was due
to the pressure of the air, as mercury
is 13.6 times heavier than water,
the air which balanced 34 ft of
water ought to balance 34 ft/13.6
= 30 in. of mercury. He then look
A tube about 3 ft long & closed at one
end, this tube he filled with mercury
& then plunged the open end
into a cistern filled with mercury 
so that no air could get into the
tube, the mercury in the tube
sinking to 30 in. above the level
of the mercury in the cistern at
once confirmed his hypothesis 
The wt of column of mercury whose
Height is 30 in & base 1 sq in is 14½ lbs
& as the air balances a column of mer-
cury of that height. The wt of a col
umn of air whose base is 1 sq in is
equal to 14½ lbs.        
















































































































































































































































































































































38
The air has been compared to wool 
of which if you take one flake in
density is very slight, but if you
take flake after flake & pile them
upon each other to a considerable 
height, the bottom flakes become
much denser the density of
the flakes diminishing as you
get nearer the top of the pile.
Although the atmosphere extends 
to about 80 mils above the sur-
face of the earth yet the air
near the earth is so much
denser than the rest that you
pass ½ of the atmosphere at a 
height of 3 miles
Pascal reasoned if on the surface
of the earth the air can support
so much mercury it will not
support so much on the top
of a high mountain there being
less air above it. The mercury
falls in proportion to the height















































































































































































































































































































































39
of the mountain.
A is a tube filled with mercury &
inverted into a cistern with merc-
ury B which is then sealed up
leaving only a small opening C
Fig 1 is the apparatus in its nat
ural state. When the air in B is
densified by blowing in the merc
ury in A rises to the top of the tube
as in Fig 2. When as in Fig 3 the air
is rarefied by sucking the mercury
falls in A
Puy de Dome was the 1st moun-
tain Whose height was taken by
The barometer.   






































































































































































































































































































































40
The common cistern barometer has
this disadvantage that as the mercury
falls in the tube it rises in the cistern 
the mercury which was in the tube
flowing into the cistern & vice versa
The syphon barometer has not this
disadvantage since the height of the
mercury is always taken from the
level of the mercury in the smaller
limb.
 





































































































































































































































































































































41
In every case you take the height
of the mercury in the tube above
the mercury in the cistern.
In the best cistern barometers such
as mountain barometers the cistern
has a leather bottom which may be
raised or lowered by means of a
screw till the mercury stand at a
standard point which is mark-
ed by a needle A.
The barometer goes between 28 & 31 in.
At the mouth of the La Plate river
the barometers read the different
way
When the east wind blows the barom
 





































































































































































































































































































































42
stands high because the wind is
cold.
When the west wind flows the barr
stands low because the wind is
hot
You cannot tell the weather from one
observation of the baromr but from 
its tendency. A sudden fall indi-
cates a storm.
To take the ht of a mountain by the
barometer. Example. With suppositious
heights of the baromr
At the foot of mountain 29.87 in 62°Fahr.
-------top--------------29.1 in 52°-----
To reduce these heights to the same
pt of the thermometer subtract 32°
the freezing pt.
62°-32°=30°     52°-32°=20°
Mercury expands 1/10000 th part for every
degree of Fahrenheit.
30/10000 of 29.87=.089
20/10000 of 29.1=.058




































































































































































































































































































































 43
29.87-.089=29.078 corrected wts
29.1-.058=29.042  ------------
Subtract the logs of the 2 corrected
wts
log 29.781=1.4739247
29.042=1.4630265/.0108982
fathoms 1000/108.982 approximate wt
Add the 2 temperatures & take the half.
62+52=114/2=57 mean temperature
Correct ht=460+57/492X108.982=56343.694/492=114.51 fathoms
114.51 fathoms=687.06 ft
The aneroid bar. consists of an iron
box with a corrugated top & partially
exhausted of air when the pressure
of the air is greater the top of the box
is forced down & when the pressure
of the air is less the top rises up &
by means of some mechanism these




































































































































































































































































































































44
risings & fallings of the top are
communicated to an index hands
which moves round over a palate m [???ed]
with rain, fair’ & c.
The compressed air fountain consists
of a copper vessel A a basin B & a tube
c which passes nearly to the bottom of
A. There is a jet at the top of c which
being screwed off a syringe is fiaed
on & the air pumped in. The jet
is then screwed on & the compressed
air in A drives out the water with con-
siderable force.




































































































































































































































































































































Miscellaneous notes.
Composition for lining the in-
side of chauffers
Patiently mix fresh Stourbridge
clay with a little horse dung 
& add about 1/6 of a powder made
by pulverizing old crucibles 
The composition must not be
applied too moist & is to be al-
lowed to dry spontaneously.
The cracks must be filled up
with fresh composition. When
quite dry a gentle fire is made
& gradually increased to the
highest pitch by the bellows.
The crucible is supported about
3 in. from the bottom. A piece
of brick on a thin stratum of
sand is a good support.
Luting for crucibles
Sifted Stourbridge clay will
Mixed with a little damp
horse dung to wt a small quan
 

































































































































































































































































































































tity of strong solution of borax 
has been added. It should be
applied with a knife.
Self acting blow pipe
1 has some alcohol in it 2
is a cork to act as a safety
valve. The heat evaporates 
the spirit wts issues at 3 &
acts instead of wind.
Tube retorts. 
H is 2 iron hemispheres lined
with lead or 2 lead ones for
making HFL.
C. to make HCL.
46

































































































































































































































































































































Cement of glass & metal up to
212°F. To cement glass to metal
a mixture of equal parts of red 
& white lead is better than white
Lead alone. If the cemented
pieces placed on a sand bath
for a few days the mixture be-
comes very hard. The glass should 
be roughened & a little tow wrap-
ped round the part where it
is to be applied.
Apparatus for obtaining the electric
Spark in damp rooms
Rub a large porcelain tube 3 ft
long & 1½ in thick with a piece
of the best silk covered with am-
algam. Only half of that portion
Of the silk in contact with the
tube has amalgam on it.
To charge the jar water is 3 in high
& 1 in in diameter hold the tube
in front of the iron wire with water
the jar is mounted & employ     



























































































































































































































































































































brisk friction with the silk,
the amalgam is made by heating
2 parts Hg & 1 part of thin Ln foil
to water 1 part Ln is added while
stirring, it is to be melted & stirred
several times before being applied
to the silk.
a is a Cu. Head made
to slip tightly into
the aperture of the 
glue pot b. A small
tubulature c permits
the passage of a thermometer 
or the addition of any substance
during the progress of the distill
ation the seams of the head
are all brazed the picture of
the haed with the pot is luted  
with almond & linseed meal
If it be desired
to distil with a glass
tube to carry the products into
the condenser I have the Cu. cover
48
 


























































































































































































































































































































attached to the pot It is to be
luted in the same manner as
the head.
If it is wished to distil at a gentle
heat such as 212°F & attach a some
what smaller head to the water 
bath of the glue pot.
Pipettes. 1 is an india
1. rubber ball. Compress
the ball plunge 2
under the liquid
you wish to draw up. Let 1 expand
& the liquid rushes up the tube
Should Cl be inhaled, inhale steam, 
a very little ammonia added to the
HO increases its efficacy 
Safety tube







 


























































































































































































































































































































Pastilles for cutting glass
2½ oz gum arabic & ½ oz gum traga-
canth  dissolved in 5½ oz of HO. Then
¼ oz storan & 
1/4 oz gum benzoin are
dissolved in 1½ oz spirit of urine 
the 2 mixtures are to be worked with
3½ oz powdered charcoal into a
stiff paste oz
½ oz gum tragacanth in powder is dis
solved in HO to an elastic mucilage 
allowing it to macerate for about-
1 hour. Then add ¼ oz benzoin 
dissolved in sufficient & spirit
Rub the 2 fluids in a mortar 
with as much powdered charcoal
as will form a tenacious paste
The pastes formed by either pro
cess are to be formed into sticks 
about the size of quills & slow-
ly dried in the water bath
The benzoin is not essential.
A little linseed oil strengthens them.



 


























































































































































































































































































































Holes may be bored in thick glass by
a bradawl dipped in turpentine 
Pyrotechnical knot 
The champagne knot
Bee hive shelf
Gas lamp. Place a funnel shaped 
tube over a gas jet. The neck of a
broken glass retort will do



 


























































































































































































































































































































To prevent dissipation of heat
from flasks.
Take a tin cone about 7 in D
at the base, 6 in. high &
having a hole cite at the apex 
about 1 in. in D. thro wts the
neck of the flask may pass.
If a flask is in danger of boil-
ing over blow on the part above
the level of the fluid.
To make a retort stand
take a piece of wood about
12 in. long. 6 in. wide & 1 in. thick 
fix the rod about 1½ from one
end.
To heat a retort quickly, cover 
part of it with a cardboard 
cone with a notch in it
to admit the neck.
Table blow pipe. Valve to prevent
The return of air.
Take a piece of tube of about
This D. with a smooth &
 


























































































































































































































































































































level end, & a piece of black
oiled silk of a width rather
more than the external D.
of the tube, or a piece of ribbon 
of the same width wts has 
been rubber with  wax.
Adjust this loosely over the
end of the tube, fold the extrem
ities down on opposite sides
& tie them with a piece of thread
the silk itself not being so tight
but that air may be blown between
the tube & silk. Fix this tube
to a large bladder placed between
boards, or to a bag of cloth air
tight by canutchouc or of oiled
silk. The tube by wts the air
is blown in must have another
valve of the same sort.
Mixture for electrophorous 
Equal parts of common resins shell
lac & venice turpentine are to be 
mixed together & heated in a metallic
































































































































































































































































vessel, the mixture being kept
fused at from 230° to 240° till nearly
all evolution of vapour has ceased
& the fluid is quiet. Allow it
to cool till it thickens & then pour 
it out tranquilly 































































































































































































































































Notes on the Calotype Process
Gun Cotton
1 lb by weight Nitrate of Potass 
1 “ by measure sulphuric Acid
mix and stir well with glass
rods, then get help to put in 
the best carded cotton wool in small
lots and be careful to get the
liquid thoroughly through 
the cotton or the cotton will burn
away strong red coloured
sulphuric fumes. When suffi
ciently cotton has been put in
to take up all the liquid let
the whole lie for about 15 or 






























































































































































































































































20 minutes (except an occasional
stir) & then wash to get
away all the acid from the
cotton otherwise the collodion
will be of no use, then dry &
put aside for use.
By the taste or the use of Lit
mus paper it may be known
if the cotton is free from acid
When acid is left in the cotton
the collodion becomes red in
colour & will not wash easily
and if the cotton is not thor
oughly dry the collodion is
of a blueish tint & does not
 






























































































































































































































































Work well.
Collodion
Is made by dissolving six
grains of Gun Cotton in one
oz of the best rectified spirit
of wine.
Iodizing solution
Iodide of Cadmium ℥ grains
’’  ’’ ’’ Ammonium ℥ ’’ 
’’     ’’ Potassium ℥ ----
Bromide------------ 3 ----
Alcohol             1 oz
oz
Iodide of Cadmium 10 grs
---   --- Potassium 8 ---
Bromide of Cadimium 4 ---
Alcohol oz          1 oz
 

























































































































































































































































Iodide of Ammonium 10 grs
’’     -- Cadmium 10  ---
Bromide      --    3
Alcohol __________ 1 oz
The Iodizer is applied in the
proportion of 2 drams to 6 drams
of collodion for negatives &
1½ drams to 6½ drams of collodion
for Positives
Collodion must be iodized 
at least 24 hours before
working.
To take pictures the glasses 
must be scrupulously clean
Pour on the collodion at one
corner of the glass & run it
 	
 

























































































































































































































































Negative Photographic Formulas
Young-Photographer Galashiels
Iron Developer
Sulphate of iron 18 grains
Acetic acid 20 minims
Alcohol 20 minims
Water 1 ounce
Redeveloper
Equal quantities of these solutions 
Pyrogallic acid 5 grains
Citric acid 2 grs
Water 1 ounce
Nitrate of silver 10 grs
Water 1 ounce
Ioning Bath 
Chloride of gold 1 gr
Water 1 oz
Bicarbonate of soda 3 grs
Water 1 ounce
One ounce of gold solution && 1 of soda solution
to 6 ounces water
 







































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Med. Hist.
MS.
B
71