HEADS OF LECTURES ON PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY. HEADS OF LECTURES ON PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY. By ANDREW DUNCAN, M.D. PROFESSOR OF THE INSTITUTIONS OF MEDICINE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR G. MUDIE & SON, SOUTH BRIDGE. 1796. PREFACE. ALthough the following Heads of Lectures, have already been re- peatedly presented to the Public, yet they now appear, with considerable alterations. To these alterations, I have chiefly been led, from the im- portant discoveries which have lately been made in the Science of Che- mistry. From the New Chemi- stry, as it has been called, an ex- planation of the Nature and Pro- perties of the Constituent Parts of the Human Body, as well as some of its most important Functions, can now be given on a different, and, I trust, a more satisfactory footing, than when these Heads of Lectures were first published, upwards of twen- ty [6] ty years ago. Still, however, much remains to be discovered, much to be ascertained; and, as far as future exertions on my part, can tend to improve the knowledge of the ani- mal economy, the great basis of ra- tional practice in Medicine, I trust they shall never be wanting. I need not observe, that the fol- lowing pages are meant principally for the use of those who attend my Lectures on the Institutions of Medicine. And if they shall have the effect, of increasing the benefit which my hearers may derive from what is delivered, the principal inten- tion of this publication will be fully answered. EDINBURGH, 8th Oct. 1796. CONTENTS. I. Concerning the Nature and Properties of the different Fluids and Solids of the Ani- mal Body, and the chief Morbid affections to which they are subjected. A. OF THE FLUIDS. 1. Chyle, - 11 2. Blood, - 13 3. Milk, - 19 4. Mucus, - 21 5. Saliva, - 22 6. Succus Gastricus, - 23 7. Succus Pancreaticus, - 24 8. Bile, - 25 9. Synovia, - 26 10. Perspirable Matter, - 27 11. Urine, - 28 12. Tears, [8] 12. Tears, - 29 13. Nervous Fluid, - 30 14. Semen, - 31 15. Lymph, - 33 16. General Conclusions respecting the Hy- grologia corporis humani, - 34 B. OF THE SOLIDS. 1. Animal Solids in General, - 35 2. Muscular Fibre, - 41 3. Cellular Membrane, - 42 4. Vessels, - 42 5. Fat, - 44 6. Bone, - 45 II. Concerning the Principal Functions of the most important Organs of the Human Body. OF THE FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL, - 47 OF PARTICULAR FUNCTIONS: 1. Digestion, - 48 2. Circulation, - 51 3. Nutrition, - 55 4. Secretion, [9] 4. Secretion, - 58 5. Absorption, - 59 6. Excretion, - 61 7. Respiration, 62 8. Animal Heat, - 69 9. Muscular Motion, - 73 10. The External Senses, - 75 11. The Internal Senses, - 76 12. Sleep, - 78 13. Death, - 79 14. The Peculiarities of the Male, - 80 15. The Peculiarities of the Female, - 81 16. Generation - 86 Concerning the Nature and Properties of the different Fluids and Solids of the Animal Body, and the chief Morbid Affections to which they are subjected. A. Of the Fluids. I. Chyle. VESSELS in which chyle is found-— Materials from which it is formed-— matters employed in aliment-—matters fur- nished from the system itself-— Means by which it is formed-— the function of di- gestion-— the action of the mesenteric glands. Sensible qualities of chyle in the mam- malia-—colour-—taste-—specific gravity-— A2 Spontaneous 12 PATHOLOGICAL Spontaneous separation-—Coagulation— Principal constituent parts-—watery part -—oily or hydrocarbo ous matter-—Saccha- rine matte-- coagulable matter, or gluten -—Observations respecting an earthy mat- ter in the chyle-—Accidental impregna- tions of chyle-—lnfluence of extraneous matters in changing its colour-—in chan- ging its other qualities-—Time at which prope chyle is most abundant in the lac- teals-—changes which it undergoes in its passage to the blood-- Causes of its dis- appear n speed y in the blood. View of different morbid affections of the chyle, with observations on the means by which they may be prevented or removed; illustrated by remarks on particular diseases. A. From quantity. a. Superabundance. b. Deficiency. a. a. From want of proper aliment. Atropbia lactantium. b. b. From want of proper assimila- tion. PHYSIOLOGY. 13 tion. Dyspepsia-—Vomitus-—Emeta- tropbia. c. c. From a diseased state of the lac- teal vessels. Tabes mesenterica. B. From quality. a. Depending on the natural consti- tuents of chyle. a. a. Watery part. b. b. Saccharine part. c. c. Coagulable. d. d. Oleaginous. b. Depending on the introduction of fo- reign matter. a, a. Matter introduced with the ali- ment. b. b. Matter furnished by the system. 2. Blood. CONSTITUENT parts of the blood disco- vered by spontaneous separation-— Halitus-—Crassamentum-—Se um. Sensible qualities of the halitus-—varie- ties in different animals-—varieties in dis- ease-—Conjectures respecting the active impregnation 14 PATHOLOGICAL impregnation which it contains-—its qua- lities when condensed. Constituent parts of the remaining mass after the escape of the halitus-—Red par- ticles-—Gluten-—Serosity. RED PARTICLES. Discovery-—Figure-— Formation-—Colour-—Size-—lnflammabili- ty-—Effects of the action of different sub- stances upon them-—Acids-—Alkalines-— Neutrals-—Manner in which they are bro- ken down. GLUTEN-—of the crassamentum-—of the serum-—circumstances in which they dif- fer-—circumstances in which they agree.-— Properties of the gluten in general-—sen- sible qualities-—Taste-—Smell-—Consist- ence-—Colour-—Relation to other substan- ces-—Effects of the action of heat-—of the action of different saline substances-—Ni- trous acid. -—Vitriolic-—Muriatic-—Alka- lies-—Neutrals-—Alcohol-—Analogy of the gluten of the blood to the albumen ovi-— to the cheesy part of milk-—to the gluten of vegetables. SEROSITY-—Circumstances in which it differs from water-—Colour-—Specific gra- vity PHYSIOLOGY. 15 vity-—Taste-—Effects produced by the ac- tion of heat-—of alcohol-—of putrefaction -—Conclusions respecting its constituent parts-—Water-—Gluten-—Salts-—Opinions of different chemists respecting the nature of the salts which the serum contains-— Carbonate of Ammonia-—Carbonate of Soda-—Uncombined Soda. Examination of the constituent parts of the blood by chemical analysis-—Articles obtained by distillation-—Water-—Spirit, improperly so called-—Volatile dry salt— Oil-—Residuum after distillation-—articles obtained from it by burning-—by the loadstone. Observations concerning some peculiar properties of the blood. Of the coagulation of the blood-—differ- ent opinions concerning the cause of this coagulation. Of the heat of the blood-—varieties in different animals-—its connection with the colour of the blood-—its constancy in differ- ent temperatures of the atmosphere. Of the life of the blood-—antiquity of the opinion-—arguments by which it has lately 16 PATHOLOGICAL lately been attempted to be established-— objections which have been urged against these arguments-—general conclusions re- spectingg this doctrine. Of the quantity of the blood.--Varie- ties in different animals of the same spe- cies-—Ground on which calculations have been attempted to be instituted as to the medium quantity-—Proportion which it has been supposed to bear to the solids-— Conjectures of different Physiologists with regard to the medium quantity in the hu- man species-—Proportion which the quan- tity in the arteries has been supposed to bear to that in the veins-—differences be- tween arterial and venous blood. View of the principal morbid affections to which the blood is subjected, of the symptoms by which they may be distin- guished, and of the means by which they may be prevented or removed, illustrated by remarks on particular diseases. I. Morbid affections from changes in quantity. A. Plethora. a. From PHYSIOLOGY. 17 a. From an increase of the real quan- tity of the blood. Plethora vera. b. From an increase of the volume of the blood. Plethora apparens. c. From a diminution of the capacity of the blood-vessels. Plethora relativa. d. From an increase of the quantity of blood in the arteries. Plethora arteriosa. e. From an increase of the quantity of blood in the veins. Plethora venosa. f. From an increase of the quantity of blood in a particular part. Plethora partialis. B, Inanition. a. From a deficiency of blood in the system in general. Inopia sanguinis vera. b. From a deficiency of blood in the arterial system. c. From a deficiency in the venous sy- stem. d. From a deficiency at particular parts. II. Morbid 18 PATHOLOGICAL. II. Morbid affections from changes in quality. A. From changes in the natural contents. a. Red particles. Melanœma. b. Watery part. Aquosa tenuitas. d. Saline impregnation. Scorbutus. e. Glutinous. Hæmorrbœa petechialis. B. From the introduction of foreign mat- ters. a. By the lacteal vessels. b. By the lymphatics of the surface and other parts. c. By the blood-vessels of the lungs, through their coats. d. By blood-vessels at other parts, from wounds. e. Foreign matters generated or increa- sed in the blood. General conclusions respecting the im- portance of attending to morbid affections of the blood in the cure of diseases. I 3. Milk. PHYSIOLOGY. 19 3. Milk. OF the organs furnishing milk-—cir- cumstances under which this secre- tion takes place-—general appearance of milk-—fluids from different parts of the body resembling it-—properties of milk in general-—its constituent parts-—butyra- ceous part, or cream-—coagulable part, or cheese-—watery part, or whey-—saccharine or saline part. Of the butyraceous part-—its sensible qualities-—its general properties-—varie- ties with respect to quantity and quality -—in different genera of animals-—in dif- ferent individuals of the same genus-— in the same individual at different times —varieties connected with the period elapsed from the time of delivery-—with the particular time of the discharge du- ring the drawing of milk-—causes of these varieties. Of the coagulable part-—its general analogy to the gluten of the blood-—par- ticulars in which they differ-—substances producing 20 PATHOLOGICAL producing the coagulation of it, or runnets -—animal runnets-—vegetable runnets-— circumstances in which vegetable and ani- mal runnets differ in their action as coagu- lants-—different opinions respecting the principles on which runnets act-—particu- lars in which the coagulable part of milk, agrees with the gluten of the blood, corre- spondence of both with the gluten, vege- to-animale obtained from wheat and some other vegetables. Of the watery part-—its analogy to the serum of the blood. Of the saline matter resembling sugar, which the serum contains-—varieties in the sugar of milk-—in kind-—in quantity-— varieties in the same animal at different times—in different animals.-- Analogy between blood and milk-— The peculiarities of the human milk. View of different morbid affections of the milk, illustrated by remarks on par- ticular diseases. A. From changes with respect to quantity. a. Defective secretion. The coagulable part of milk. b. Superabundant PHYSIOLOGY. 21 b. Superabundant secretion. Tabes nutricum. c. Obstruction to the discharge after se- cretion. B. From changes with respect to quality. a. By alterations in the natural consti- tuent parts. b. By the introduction of foreign mat- ters. a. a. Furnished by the system itself. a. a. a. Salts of the blood. b. b. b. Sebaceous matter from the glands about the niple. b. b. Introduced by the alimentary canal, or by the absorbents of other parts. 4. Mucus. EXTENT of this secretion over the ani- mal system-—its sensible qualities-— its constituent parts-—water-—coagulable matter-—saline matter. Effects produced on mucus by the action of different sub- stances-—water-—ardent spirit-—oil-—acids -—alkalies-—neutrals-—metallic salts-—Che- mical analysis of mucus. Pathology 22 PATHOLOGICAL Pathology of mucus. A. Diminished secretion. B. Augmented secretion. Catarrbus senilis. Gonorrhœa. C. Vitiated secretion. Coryza. Scarlatina anginosa. 5. Saliva. ORGANS by which it is secreted-— Universality of this secretion in ani- mals-—Quantity in the human species-— Proportion to the hardness of the food-— General properties of saliva-—its sensible qualities-—taste-—smell-—colour-—specific gravity. The chemical relations which it shews to other matters-—Effects of the action of air-—Water-—Oil-—Alkalies-—A- cids-—Ardent spirit-—its action on metals -—Chemical analysis of the saliva.-— General conclusions respecting the con- stituent parts of this fluid-—Water-—Gluten -—Ammoniacal salt-—Phosphate of lime. Use of saliva in the animal system-— The evolution of the taste of sapid bodies -—the preparation of aliment-—The pre- vention of thirst. Pathology PHYSIOLOGY. 23 Pathology of Saliva. A. Defective secretion. Febris. B. Augmented secretion. Ptyalismus. C. Depraved secretion. Icterus. Rabies. 6. Succus Gastricus. CAVITIES in which this fluid is to be met with-—Fluids in other cavities possessing qualities similar to that found in the stomach-—Conjectures and doubts respecting the secreting organs—The dif- ficulty of obtaining the succus gastricus in a pure state-—Means employed for ob- taining it in the greatest purity-—Its sen- sible qualities as obtained in its purest state-—varieties in different animals with respect to the saline impregnation which it contains-—Herbivorous-—Carnivorous-— Omnivorous-—Principal constituents of the human succus gastricus-—water-—gluten-— muriated soda-—Gastric acid, or perhaps Phosphoric 24 PATHOLOGICAL Phosphoric acid, with a small proportion of volatile alkali. Of the use of the succus gastricus-— solution of aliment in the stomach-—cor- rection of putridity in that part of the system-—its effects in the cure of diseases -—from internal use-—from external appli- cation. Pathology of the Succus Gastricus. A. Augmented secretion. Bulimia. B. Diminished secretion. Anorexia. Dyspepsia. C. Depraved secretion. Pica. Malacia. 7. Succus Pancreaticus. OF the organ by which this fluid is secreted-—its resemblance to the salivary glands-—resemblance of the fluid secreted by it to saliva-—circumstances in which it differs from saliva-—its principal constituent parts-—its quantity-—Disputes with regard to its use. I Pathology PHYSIOLOGY 25 Pathology of the succus pancreaticus. Uncertainty on this subject-—erroneous opinions formerly entertained with re- spect to it-—conjectures respecting the ef- fects of deficiency-—of redundancy-—of a depraved condition-—The formation of calculous concretions in the pancreas and its ducts. 8. Bile. ORGANS by which it is secreted-—Dif- ferences between Hepatic and Cystic bile-—Blood from whence the bile is com- monly secreted-—Proofs that it is sometimes formed from arterial blood-—Reasons for be- lieving that in general it is chiefly from ve- nous blood.-—Sensible qualities of the bile -—colour-—taste-- smell-- consistence-— specific gravity-—Chemical relations of bile to other matters-—effects of the action of water-—oil-—alcohol-—neutral salts-—al- kalies-—acids-—Effects produced on bile by heat-—slow evaporation-—distillation.-— Constituent parts of bile-—water-—sa- line matter-—coagulable matter-—resinous B matter 26 PATHOLOGICAL matter giving colour and taste to the bile. Use of the bile-—different ways in which it is subservient to the function of dige- stion-—its influence as a stimulus to the sy- stem-—arguments from which it has been inferred, that it is an excrementitious fluid. Pathology of the bile. A. Defective secretion. B. Obstructed excretion. Icterus. C. Biliary concretions. D. Superabundant secretion. Cholera. E. Secretion morbidly acrid. Typhus icterodes. g. Synovia. Different opinions concerning the sources from whence it has been supposed to be derived-—sensible qualities of the synovia-—chemical affinities. Constituent parts of the synovia-—water --gluten PHYSIOLOGY. 27 -—gluten-—unctuous matter-—saline mat- ter-—quantity in which the synovia is se- creted. Pathology of the synovia-—increased secretion-—diminished secretion-—depra- ved secretion. 10. Perspirable matter. PARTS of the system from which a dis- charge, under the form of insensible perspiration, takes place-—Organs by which this matter is separated and discharged-— Proofs of the reality of this discharge-— circumstances in which it becomes vi- sible-—Nature of the discharge-—its con- tents in ordinary cases-—Water-—Vola- tile saline matter-—matters with which it has been supposed to be accidentally impregnated.--Fetid odorous matters-— peculiar qualities from alimentary matters -—the electric fluid-—carbonic acid gas. Quantity of the discharge under the form of insensible perspiration-—varieties in dif- ferent climates and seasons-—causes of these varieties. B2 The 28 PATHOLOGICAL The analogy between perspirable matter and the halitus of different cavities-—ana- logy between perspirable matter and sweat -—particulars in which they differ. Pathology of the cuticular discharge. A. Morbid increase of the discharge. Ephemera Sudatoria. Ephidrosis. B. Morbid obstruction of the discharge. Diarhœa. Diabetes. 11. Urine. ORGANS by which the urine is secre- ted-—causes producing great va- rieties in this fluid, consistently with a state of health-—the age of the person by whom it is discharged-—the temperature of the body prior to the discharge-—the passions of the mind-—the ingesta-—dis- tinctions of urine, as varied from this source.-—Urina potus-—Urina chyli-—Urina sanguinis. Sensible qualities of this secretion, in what may be considered as its most natural state-—colour-—smell—taste-—specific gra- vity PHYSIOLOGY. 29 vity--heat-—consistence-—spontaneous se- paration. Constituent parts of the urine-—water-— saline impregnation-—Lithic acid-—Phos- phate of ammonia-—phosphate of soda-— Articles obtained from the urine by che- mical analysis, in the way of distillation.-- Purposes for which the urinary discharge is intended. Pathology of the urine. A. Defective secretion. Ischuria. R. Excessive secretion. Diabetes. C. Depraved secretion. Lithiogenesis. 12. Tears. ORGANS by which they are secreted -—sensible qualities of the secretion -—effects of the action of heat-—of air-— of alkalies-—of acids-—Constituent parts of tears-—water-—saline impregnation-—glu- ten-—varieties with respect to the quantity B3 of 30 PATHOLOGICAL of this secretion-—different conjectures as to the causes of these varieties-—use of the natural secretion-—of an augmented flow from particular causes. Pathology of tears. A. Morbid increase of the secretion. Epiphora. B. Morbid diminution. C. Depraved secretion. 13. Nervous Fluid. IMPORTANCE of the functions dependent on the brain and nerves.-- General account of the structure of these parts-— Extent of nerves in the human system-— Arguments rendering it probable that they perform their functions, by being conductors of a fluid-—Conclusions respect- ing the nature of this fluid, from phæno- mena dependent on the nerves-—Different hypotheses as to its origin-—Account of the supposition, that it is not a secreted fluid, but merely attached to the brain and nerves-—objections to this supposition-— arguments PHYSIOLOGY. 31 arguments rendering it probable that it is secreted by the brain-—different conjec- tures respecting the mode in which it is conveyed by the nerves-—lnquiry whether any other fluid be conveyed by the nerves, than that which is subservient to sense and motion-—Examination of different conjectures respecting animal electricity. Pathology of the nervous fluid-—differ- ent morbid conditions to which there is reason to presume it may be subjected-— state most fitted for the communication of impressions-—mobility-—state least fit- ted for the communication of impressions -—torpor. 14. Semen. DIFFICULTIES in the investigation of this fluid-—organs by which it is secreted-—mixed condition in which it is commonly examined-—appearance of the liquor separated from the testes in its pure state-—changes which it undergoes from mixture and stagnation in the ve- siculæ seminales-—opinion that what have B4 been 32 PATHOLOGICAL called vesiculæ seminales are secreting or- gans-—arguments employed in proof of this opinion-—from the variety in the structure of the vesiculæ seminales in dif- ferent genera of animals, and the same- ness of structure in each particular genus -—from the appearance of the fluid they contain in the dead body-—from the state of their contents after castration-—objec- tions to these arguments-—general conclu- sion on this subject. Sensible qualities of the semen in the condition in which it is discharged-—spe- cific gravity-—smell-—effects of exposure to air-—of mixture with water-—of the ac- tion of heat-—of mixture with acids-—with alkalies-—with essential oils-—with ardent spirit-—products obtained from the semen by chemical analysis, in the way of distil- lation. Examination of the semen by micro- scopical observations-—discovery of ver- micular animalcules-—account of their ap- peal acne-—principal controversies respect- ing them-—Different conjectures respect- ing the part of the blood from which the secretion PHYSIOLOGY. 33 secretion by the testes is produced-—dif- ferent opinions respecting the part of the semen on which generation depends-— most remarkable differences in the semen of different animals. Pathology of the semen-—influence of morbid conditions as affecting the func- tion of generation-—as affecting the sys- tem by which the semen is secreted-— Defective secretion--Superabundant se- cretion-—Excessive evacuation-—Means of combating these morbid conditions. 15. Lymph. PECULIARITIES respecting the contents of the valvular lymphatic absorbents -—sources from whence they are derived-— sensible qualities of the lymph in its most pure state-—varieties from accidental im- pregnations-—proofs of the great diversity of such impregnations-—use of the fluid contained in the lymphatics-—morbid changes to which it is subjected-—means of counteracting these. 16. General 34 PATHOLOGICAL General Conclusions. CONCLUSIONS respecting the fluids in general, from the observations of- fered on particular fluids-—The analogy which the different fluids of the animal body have to each other-—General con- stituents of all the fluids-—Watery matter -—Coagulable matter-—Saline matter-— Oily or hydrocarbonous matter-—Peculiar properties derived from these different constituent parts-—qualities from a saline impregnation-—qualities from a hydrocar- bonous impregnation. B. OF PHYSIOLOGY. 25 B. OF THE SOLIDS. I. Animal Solids in General. APPARENT diversity of the solids-— Properties in common to all the solids-—General constituent parts of the solids-—Water-—Earth-—Gluten-—Saline matters-—Aerial matters-—Metallic mat- ters found in some of the solids. Pathology of the Simple Solids. I. Morbi partium solidarum simplicissimi ex in- stitutionibus Pathologiœ, auctore H. D. Gaubio. I. Debilitas. A. Salva cohæsione. a. Laxum, flaccidum in partibus mol- libus. b. Iners in partibus natura elasticis. c. Flexile n ossibus. B. Dissoluta cohæsione. a. Tenerum, Gracile, in mollibus par- tibus. b. Tabidum 36 PATHOLOGICAL b. Tabidum itidem in mollibus. c. Fissile in partibus natura tenacio- ribus. d. Fragile in ossibus. II. Rigiditas. A. Firmitas insuperabilis. a. Tenax, in partibus mollibus. b. Durum, in mollibus quoque. c. Fragile, Vitreum, in ossibus. B. Fragilitas flecti nescia. a. Tenax, in partibus mollibus. b. Durum, in mollibus quoque. c. Fragile, Vitreum, in ossibus. II. A Table of the Diseases of the Simple Solids, by Dr. CULLEN. The Diseases of the Simple Solids are, I. Those of the naturally soft parts, i. Mobility of the parts too great. Debile Gaub. 157. 159. A. With respect to the force of cohe- sion. a. Debility with flexibility. Debile tenerum gracile Gaub. 161. 1. I Debile PHYSIOLOGY. 37 Debile tabidum Gaub. 161. 2. A. from an overplus of water, from original stamina, from weak aliment, from want of aliment, from eak concoction, from increased excretion, from imperfect application. B. from weak cohesion of the con- creting matter, from heat, from vitiated nutritious fluid, from matter externally applied, water, mucilage, oil, &c. C. from extension near to rupture. D. from extension of cellular tex- ture, from erosion of cellular tex- ture, from cutting through some layers of a compound mem- brane, from taking away external compression. E. Emptiness of vessels. b. Debility with fragility. Debile sissile Gaub. 161. 3. from 38 PATHOLOGICAL from want of humidity, from cold, from changes in the concreting matter. B. With respect to flexibility, cohesion remaining. a. Laxity with elasticity. Debile laxum flaccidum Gaub. 160. 1. from all the causes of I. i. A. a. except c. from want of tension. b. Laxity without elasticity or flacci- dity. Debile iners Gaub. 160. 2. from an over plus of water, from long rest in an extended state, from a certain over-stretching. 2. Mobility of the parts too little, or rigidity. Rigidum Gaub. 164. A. Rigidity diminishing flexibility. Rigidum tenax Gaub. 165. 1. a. from an overplus of concreting matter, from original stamina, I from PHYSIOLOGY. 39 from much or very nourish- ing aliment, from vigorous concoction, from vigorous application. b. from increased cohesion of the concreting matter, from cold, from external application of coagulants, astringents, &c. c. from considerable extension. d. from long rest in a contracted state. e. from the condensation of cellu- lar texture. f. from a new growth of cellular texture. g. from the shortening of cellular texture. h. from a new growth of cellular texture joining parts naturally separate. i. from full vessels. k. from vessels becoming solid. B. Rigidity destroying flexibility. Rigidum durum Gaub. 165. 2. from ossification, from 40 PATHOLOGICAL from petrefaction. II. Those of the naturally hard parts. 1. Flexibility. Debile flexile Gaub. 160. 3. A. from deficiency of hardening matter. B. from the softening and washing out of hardened matter. 2. Fragility. A. Spongeous. Debile fragile spongiosum Gaub. 160. 4. a. from erosion of gluten and oil. b. from putrefaction of the same. B. Vitreous. Rigidum fragile vitreum Gaub. 165. 3. a. from too great drying by age. b. from deficiency of oil. III. GENERAL HEADS of the OBSERVATIONS to be offered on the DISEASED STATE of the SIMPLE SOLIDS. A. Diseased state depending on the composition of the solids. a. Morbid PHYSIOLOGY. 41 a. Morbid increase of firmness. b. Morbid diminution of firmness. c. Morbid increase of cohesion. d. Morbid diminution of cohesion. e. Morbid increase of flexibility. f. Morbid diminution of flexibility. g. Morbid increase of elasticity. h. Morbid diminution of elasticity. B. Diseased states depending on the figure of the solids. a. Alterations in the shape of natu- ral parts. b. The growth of preternatural parts. 2. Muscular Fibre. GENERAL characterizing properties of the muscular fibre-—Sensible quali- ties-—Colour-—Weight-— Smell-—Taste-— Cohesion-—Structure-—Figure-—Elasticity -—Flexibility-—Examination of the opi- nion which supposes, that muscular fibres are a continuation of nerves-—Objections to this opinion-—Principles detected in muscular fibres by chemical analysis-—Ob- servations on the pathology of the muscu- lar fibre in its simple state-—Morbid weak- ness-—Morbid strength. C 3.Cellular 42 PATHOLOGICAL 3. Cellular Membrane. OPINIONS at first entertained respect- ing cellular membrane-—Its extent over the system-—its general qualities-— Colour-—Texture-—Cohesion Communi- cation of cells-—Disputes respecting its sensibility—-Different opinions of its ori- gin-—Arguments for supposing it to be produced from the gluten of the blood-— Use of the cellular membrane-—Differen- ces between the cellular or simple and complex membranes of the body-—Patho- logy of the cellular membrane-—Firmness morbidly increased-—Elasticity morbidly diminished. 4. Vessels. ARTERIES. Cohesion and strength of ar- teries-—Changes which gradually take place in the proportional strength of the ar- teries to that of the veins-—Elasticity of the arteries-—Flexibility-—Division into ramifi- cations-—Different views of the division of arteries-—Trunks-—Branches-—Capillaries I --Proportion 43 PHYSIOLOGY. -—Proportion which the area of a trunk bears to that of all its branches-—Different calculations on this subject-—Angles at which branches come off from trunks-— Anastomosis of arteries-—Terminations of arteries-—into veins-—into secretory extremities-—into exhalent extremities-— different kinds of exhalents-—Disputes re- specting the irritability of arteries-—View of an opinion which supposes, that a pe- culiar set of nerves are appropriated to the vascular system-—Pathology of the ar- teries-—morbid dilatation-—morbid con- traction-—ossification. VEINS. Analogy between the veins and the arteries-—comparison of the strength of the veins with that of the arteries-— Proportion between the strength of the vena cava and aorta-—Proportion between the diameters of the veins and arteries-— Valves of the veins-—Beginnings of the veins-—View of the controversy, whe- ther they ever arise from cavities-—Pa- thology of the veins. LYMPHATICS. Observations on the dis- C2 covery 44 PATHOLOGICAL. covery of the valvular lymphatic absorbent vessels-—General appearance of these ves- sels-—Strength-—Valves-—Course-—Termi- nation-—Observations on the lymphatic glands-—Examination of the opinion which supposes, that the lymphatics and blood-vessels anastomose in these glands-— Examination of Mr. Hewson’s opinion re- specting the use and structure of the lym- phatic glands-—Use of the lymphatic sy- stem in general-—Extent of this system of vessels over the human body-—Extent over animal bodies in general-—Pathology of the lymphatics. 5. Fat. CONDITION of the fat, in the human species in the living body-—Places in which it is principally found-—The manner in which it is deposited in cells -—General properties of fat-—changes to which it is subjected in the progress of life -—Chemical analysis-—Conversion of some other animal substances into fat-—Conjec- tures respecting the composition of Fat- Varieties PHYSIOLOGY. 45 Varieties in the quantity of fat-—Causes of these varieties-—Causes producing the removal of fat after it has been deposited -—Different opinions as to the channels by which it is conveyed from the cells of the membrana adiposa-—Uses of the fat-— Arguments brought to prove, that on re- absorption it serves for the nutrition of the system-—Doubts respecting that opi- nion-—Pathology of fat-—Polysarcia. 6. Bone. GENERAL appearance and qualities of bone in the adult-—Account of the progress to this state-—Appearance of the first rudiments of bone in the embryo-— Gradual changes which these undergo-— Different opinions as to the process by which these changes are effected-—Obser- vations on the opinion, that bone is formed by the ossification of arteries-—Account of different opinions respecting the growth of bones-—Opinion which supposes the circulation of an osseous juice-—Opinion which supposes the ossification of succes- C3 sive 46 PATHOLOGICAL sive layers of the periostium-—Observa- tions on the structure of bones-—Observa- tions on the component parts of bones-— Chemical analysis of bones-—Observations respecting the gluten of the bones, and the universality of the same matter over the animal system-—Pathology of the bones-— Osteomalacia-—Caries-—Necrosis. Concerning PHYSIOLOGY. 47 Concerning the Principal Functions of the most important Organs of the Human Body. Of the FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL. OBSERVATIONS on animal life-—on the distinction between the sen- tient and vital principles-—on the powers of living animals more immediately de- pendent on the sentient principle-—on those dependent on the vital principle-— on the powers depending on their com- bined influence-—Sensation-—Causes exci- ting sensation-—Circumstances by which changes are effected in sensations, inde- pendently of their causes-—from differ- ence in the condition of the sentient principle-—a state of excitement-—a state of collapse-—from differences in the con- C4 dition 48 PATHOLOGICAL dition of the nervous fluid-—a state of mobility-—a state of torpor-—Muscular action-—general causes of action-—Voli- tion-—Stimulus-—Diversity of actions in li- ving animals-—voluntary actions-—actions with propensity-—involuntary actions-—ac- tions without consciousness. Of PARTICULAR FUNCTIONS. I. Digestion. OBSERVATIONS on the nature of the function of digestion-—Different opinions respecting the general principle on which this function is to be explained -—Antecedent circumstances to the pro- cess of digestion-—The appetite for aliment of a fluid nature-—Causes inducing it-— Appetite for solid aliment-—Different opi- nions respecting the causes of hunger-— Variety in the substances used as food—- Conditions necessary in all alimentary matters-—Steps in the process of digest- ing these-—Solution-—Chylification. Circumstances tending to solution, to which PHYSIOLOGY. 49 which the aliment is subjected before en- tering the stomach-—Circumstances to which it is subjected after it enters the sto- mach-—Trituration-—The action of different menstrua-—Arguments corroborating the opinion, that a peculiar active menstruum is furnished by the stomach-—Observa- tions on the diversity of this menstruum in different animals—-The fermentation taking place in the stomach-—its influence in dissolving solid food-—in correcting pu- tridity-— general conclusion respecting the means of solution in the stomach. Chylificaion or assimulation-—Inquiry whether all matters nourishing the system assume the form of chyle-—Examination of different opinions respecting the forma- tion of chyle-—Inquiry whether chyle is to be considered as a new product, or as a mixture of parts previously existing in ali- mentary matters-—Arguments by which the latter supposition is rendered probable -—Causes by which an intimate combi- nation may be supposed to be effected. Morbid 50 PATHOLOGICAL Mobid affection of the Functions of Digestion. I. Defective solution of aliment. 1. From the state of action exerted by the stomach. 2. From the state of the menstruum acting upon the aliment. a. As not being supplied in sufficient proportion. b. As being defective in solvent power. c. As undergoing morbid changes, counteracting this power. II. Improper assimulation. 1. From the state of the ingesta. 2. From the degree of heat in the sto- mach. 3. From the muscular action of the sto- mach itself. 4. From different matters acting as as simulating, ferments in the stomach. 2. Circulation. 51 PHYSIOLOGY. 2. Circulation. DISCOVERY of the circulation-—Course of the blood in the human body. Powers by which the blood is moved in the course of circulation-—The action of the heart-—Calculations respecting the force of that action-—Reasons why it is neither attended with volition nor con- sciousness-—The action of the arteries-— Controversy, whether the arteries act from a muscular power, or from simple elasti- city-—Examination of the evidence brought respecting the existence of a muscular coat in the arteries-—Examina- tion of the evidence respecting the irrita- bility of arteries-—Comparison of the power of the heart, with the causes retard- ing the motion of the blood-—Inquiry, how far a proof of the natural action of arteries can be drawn from diseased states. The vibratory or oscillatory motion of the capillary vessels-—Observations on the arguments brought in proof of such a motion-—from the insufficiency of other causes for moving the blood through these vessels 52 PATHOLOGICAL vessels—-from phenomena, particularly in morbid cases-—Inquiry, how far this ac- tion can be considered as peculiar to the capillaries. Observations on the vis a tergo, as it has been called, or the impulse given by one portion of blood to another-—The extent of this action as a cause of the blood’s motion. Effects of the pressure on the blood--ves- sels from voluntary action of muscles-— The means by which this is rendered a cause of the progressive motion of the blood-—The extent to which it operates in the human system. Varieties taking place with respect to the course of the circulation-—in the fœ- tus-—in the liver-—in the brain. Morbid affections of Circulation. I. Affections with respect to the state of motion of the blood, I. Preternatural increase of the celerity of motion. a. From the stimulus exciting the action, PHYSIOLOGY. 53 action, of the heart and arteries being augmented. b. From the irritability of the heart and arteries being augmented. 2. Preternatural diminution of the ce- lerity of motion. a. From the stimulus acting on the heart and arteries being diminish- ed. b. From the want of due irritability in these organs. 3. Preternatural increase of the mo- mentum of the blood. a. From a peculiar irritability in the organs producing the motion of the blood. b. From a determined quantity of blood in motion. c. From a certain degree of tonic power in the moving organs. 4. Preternatural diminution of the mo- mentum of the blood. a. From the want of a proper quan- tity of blood in motion. b. From the want of due irritability in the moving organs. c. From 54 PATHOLOGICAL c. From the want of due tonic power in these organs. 5. Irregularity in the motion of the blood. a. From circumstances producing an irregular supply of blood at the heart. b. From circumstances affecting the condition of irritability in the vas- cular system. 11. Affections with respect to the distribu- tion of the blood. 1. Increased determination to any par- ticular part. a. From causes increasing the irrita- bility of the vessels in the part. b. From causes augmenting the flow of blood in these vessels. 2. Preternatural diminution of the flow of blood to particular parts. a. From causes diminishing the irri- tability or tonic power of the ves- sels leading to the part. From accidents diminishing the flow of blood to the vessels leading into the part. 3. Of 55 PHYSIOLOGY. 3. Of Nutrition. THE sense in which the term nutrition is here to be adopted-—View of the controversy, whether the nutritious fluid be conveyed by the blood-vessels, or by the nerves. Examination of the arguments brought to support the hypothesis, that the nutri- tious fluid is conveyed by the nerves-—Ar- guments in support of this opinion, drawn from the primary existence of the nervous system-—from changes which the solids undergo when communication by the nerves is intercepted-—from the size of the head in infancy-—from the quantity of blood carried to the brain-—from the method of nutrition in the vegetable kingdom-—Answers to these arguments-— Objections to the hypothesis-—from the qualities of the only fluid that can be sup- posed to be conveyed by the nerves-— from the diminution of nutrition while the nervous functions remain entire-— from the growth and nourishment of parts 56 PATHOLOGICAL parts of the system not furnished with nerves. Examination of the opinion which sup- poses, that the nutritious fluid is conveyed by the blood-vessels-—Arguments in sup- port of the probability of this opinion-— from analogy-—from the fitness of the fluid which they convey for the purposes of nu- trition-—from the universality of the san- guiferous system-—from the gradual evo- lution of the different solids-—from the ef- fects arising from the interruption of blood-vessels-—from the nutrition of or- gans by the inosculation of blood-ves- sels, although they be unconnected by any other means. The application of nutritious matter— Growth-—from elongation of vessels-— from extension of fibres-—from accretion of cellular texture-—from deposition of earth, fat, or other matter-—Reparation of waste-—Circumstances counteracting nu- trition, or causes of the decrementum cor- poris. I Morbid PHYSIOLOGY. 57 Morbid Affections of the Function of Nutrition. I. Preternatural diminution of nutri- tion. a. From the want of a due quantity of nutritious matter. b. From the want of necessary qualities in the nutritious matter. c. From an improper application of the nutritious matter. II. Preternatural increase of nutrition. a. From an unusual supply of nutritious matter. b. From a strong disposition to coagu- lation in the nutritious fluid. c. From accidents promoting the appli- cation of the nutritious fluid to the staminal solids. III. Imperfect nutrition. a. From peculiarities in the nature of the nutritious matter. b. From peculiarities in the mode of ap- plication. D 4. Of 58 PATHOLOGICAL 4. Of Secretion. ACCOUNT of the different organs by which the function of secretion is performed-—glands-—vessels--pores-—Con- troversy, whether follicles exist in glands or not--Examination of different hypo- theses respecting secretion-—The supposi- tion, that secreted fluids are pre-existent in the blood, and that glands act as filters -—The supposition, that secretion depends upon a peculiar fermentation-—The sup- position, that it depends on a peculiar ac- tion of the vessels-—The supposition, that it depends on absorption from follicles. General view of the different causes which may be supposed to operate in se- cretion-—Circumstances which may have effect previous to the action of the secret- ing organ-—Circumstances operating in the secreting organ itself-—Circumstances which may have effect posterior to the action of the secreting organ-—fermenta- tion-—absorption-—mixture-—General use of secretion. Morbid 59 PHYSIOLOGY. Morbid Affections of Secretion. 1. From increase. 2. From diminution. 3. From depravation. Causes of Morbid Affections of Secretion. 1. The state of the pabulum furnished for secretion. 2. The state of action of the secreting vessels. 5. Of Absorption. OBSERVATIONS on the vessels by which absorption is performed-—Question, whether the veins of the sanguiferous sy- stem ever act as absorbents-—View of the arguments brought in proof of absorp- tion by veins-—from what is observed to happen with respect to the mesenteric veins-—from what happens with respect to the veins of the penis-—from œdematous swellings being produced by ligatures on veins-—from the supposition that lymphatic absorbents are wanting in many parts of the body, and in some animals-—Objections D2 to 60 PATHOLOGICAL to the hypothesis, that the veins ever act as absorbents-—General conclusion. Arguments proving that the valvular lymphatics are entirely a set of absorbent vessels-—from the analogy of the lacteals-— from the progress of virus in the system, whether venereal, cancerous, or the like -—from the similarity between the con- tents of the lymphatics and those of the cavities from which they arise. Causes producing the motion of fluids in the absorbent system-—The means by which fluids enter absorbents-—The ne- cessity of the continuance of life for their admission-—Different opinions respecting the manner in which the mouths of the lymphatics may be supposed to be affected by life-—The supposition of ampullæ or bags-—The supposition of the erection of villi similar to the papillæ of the tongue -—General conclusion-—The means by which fluids are moved in the lympha- tics after having entered them. Morbid Affections of Absorption. I. Preternatural increase of absorption. a. From PHYSIOLOGY. 61 a. From causes forwarding the admission of fluids into the mouths of the lym- phatics. b. From causes forwarding the motion of fluids through the lymphatics. II. Preternatural diminution of absorption. a. From a diminution of the action of the lymphatic vessels. b. From causes obstructing the passage of fluids through the lymphatics. 6. Of Excretion. REMARKS on the function of excretion in general-—Causes most commonly producing excretion-—Muscular action of the excretory-—The action of the vessels of the secreting organ-—Accidental causes of excretion-—Remarks on the excretion of the feces and urine in particular. Morbid Affections of Excretion. I. Excretion morbidly encreased. a. From unusual stimuli applied to the excreting organ. D3 b.From 62 PATHOLOGICAL b. From an augmentation of the sensi- bility of the excreting organ. a. a. Arising from increased mobility of the nervous power. b. b. Arising from a diminution of the natural coverings of parts. II. Excretion morbidly diminished. a. From the want of a due stimulus to the excreting organ. b. From uncommon insensibility of that organ. III. Depraved excretion. a. From a peculiar state of sensibility in the excretories. b. From preternatural stimuli being ap- plied to excretories. 7. Of Respiration. OBSERVATIONS on different conditions in the function of respiration-—Re- spiration as a voluntary action-—as an ac- tion with propensity-—as an involuntary action-—as an action without conscious- ness. Actions by which the enlargements and diminution Physiology. 63 diminution of the cavity of the thorax are produced-—Circumstances commonly con- sidered as giving rise to the enlargement of the thorax-—the contraction of the dia- phragm-—the elevation of the ribs-—the rarefaction of the air after its admission into the cavity of the thorax-—Circum- stances commonly considered as producing a diminution of the cavity of the thorax -—relaxation of the muscles producing en- largement-—the elasticity of the mediasti- num-—the contraction of the abdominal muscles-—the elasticity of the cartilages and ligaments of the ribs—-the contraction of muscles attached by one extremity to the ribs, and by the other to parts below -—the weight of the ribs-—the elasticity of the lungs-—the contraction of the muscu- lar fibres of the bronchiæ-—Remarks on the opinion which supposes an expansive power of the lungs. A view of different theories of respira- tion-—Examination of the opinion which accounts for the alternate actions of respi- ration--from obstruction to circulation-— from the compression of the phrenic D4 nerves 64 PATHOLOGICAL nerves-—from an uneasy sensation at the end of expiration-—Different accounts of the cause of the first inspiration, by those who have adopted this last hypothesis-— Inquiry how far this hypothesis explains all the different states of respiration-— Reasons for believing that in the ordinary state of respiration the power of the mind has no influence-—Arguments shewing that in this state respiration is exactly si- milar to other spontaneous actions. Explanation of ordinary respiration from an alternate contraction and relaxa- tion of the diaphragm, independently of the influence of the will-—Argu- ments showing that the diaphragm, may be considered as being in a situation analogous to the heart-—Cause of the first contraction of the diaphragm in the new- born infant-—cause of the first relaxation -—cause of subsequent contractions and relaxations-—Principles upon which respi- ration may at pleasure be subjected to the influence of the will, although in its ordinary state it may be considered as an action without sensation or consciousness --Account PHYSIOLOGY. 65 -—Account of some objections which have been urged against this hypothesis-—An- swers to these objections. Observations on the use of respiration -—View of different opinions respecting the use for which it is intended-—to pro- mote circulation through the lungs-— to introduce air into the blood-—to in- troduce nitre into the blood-—to pro- mote the intimate mixture of different parts of the blood-—to condense the blood -—to cool the blood-—to generate heat-— to draw something useful from the air-— to allow the escape of a particular matter from the lungs-—Arguments in proof of this supposition-—from the qualities of the air expired-—from the change which the blood undergoes in point of colour by passing through the lungs-—Answers to objections which have been brought a- gainst this opinion respecting the use of respiration-—from the fœtus in utero existing without respiration-—from want of respiration in fishes-—Farther proof of the hypothesis from this last circumstance -—and from the connection which univer- sally 66 PATHOLOGICAL sally subsists between the degree of respi- ration necessary for life and the colour of the blood in different animals. Morbid Affections of Respiration. I. Those respecting the repetition of action. a. Respiration preternaturally quicken- ed. b. Respiration preternaturally flow. II. Those respecting the sensation excited. a. Painful respiration. b. Difficult respiration. III. Those respecting the manner in which respiration is performed. a. Respiration with uncommon noise. b. Respiration with less noise than in the natural state. CAUSES of difficult RESPIRATION, from the INSTITUTIONES PATHOLOGY of Dr. GAU BIUS, arranged by Dr. CULLEN. Respiratio fit difficilis, I. Ob conditionem aëris, 1. Nimis rari, 2. Nimis PHYSIOLOGY. 67 2. Nimis calidi, 3. Nimis densi. II. Ob angustiam viarum per quas aër tran- sit in pulmones. 1. Faucium, 2. Glottidis, 3. Tracheæ. III. Ob conditionem pulmonis minus apti ad admittendum vel expellendumaërem, propter. 1. Vitium in potentiis motricibus, affec- tis, A. Spasmo vel constrictione, ab a. Aëre nimis frigido, b. Aëre inquinato, c. Causlis variis internis quæ agunt mediate vel immediate. B. Rigiditate ab ossefactis bronchiis. C. Paralysi. D. Actione propter dolorem inhibita. 2. Capacitatem pulmonum imminutam. A. Obstructionem vel obstipationem. a. Humoribus, muco, sero, san- guine, pure, in bronchiis effusis. b. Humoribus, præsertim muco, vel 68 PATHOLOGICAL vel calculo folliculis membranæ mucosæ infarctis. c. Humoribus intra vasa congestis. A. Plethora. B. Inflammatione. C. Scirrho. B. Compressionem externam. a. Tumore pulmonibus innato. b. Tumore partium vicinarum in- tra thoracem. c. Obesitate partium intra thora- cem. d. Humoribus in thoracem effusis. e. Cavitate thoracis imminuta. a. a. Ab ipsius mala formatione. b. b. Ab aucta mole abdominis. A. Ob aquam vel aërem ibi accumulatum. B. Ob viscus quoddam mole auctum. HEADS of the OBSERVATIONS to be offered on the Causes of MORBID RESPIRATION. I. Causes depending on the condition of the air. a. Density. b. Rarefaction. PHYSIOLOGY. 69 b. Rarefaction. c. Heat. d. Coldness. e. Mephitic impregnations. II. Causes depending on the state of the passages or cavities into which the air enters. a. Contraction of passages. b. Rigidity of cavities. c. Compression of cavities. d. Cavities being filled with other mat- ters. III. Causes depending on the state of the organs enlarging or diminishing those cavities. a. Spasmodic affections. b. Paralytic affections. c. Inflammatory affections. 8. Of Animal Heat. A SHORT state of the principal facts re- specting animal heat-—Universality of the power of generating heat over the animal creation-—Extent of heat in differ- ent species of animals-—Uniformity in the same 70 PATHOLOGICAL same species-—Heat of the human species -—its stability in different temperatures of the atmosphere-—Connection between the degree of heat peculiar to different ani- mals, and the colour of the blood-—Va- rieties in heat occurring from disease-— Connection which these varieties, when occurring over the system in general, have with the state of circulation and respira- tion-—Exceptions to this general rule-— Morbid varieties in the heat of particular parts-—Connection of these with the state of circulation at the part. View of different theories respecting the cause of animal heat-—Examination of the opinion which supposes, that animal heat is to be accounted for from mixture -—from putrefaction-—from friction-— from respiration-—from the nervous ener- gy-—An attempt to refute all these opi- nions. Account of the theory of heat in gene- ral, and of animal heat in particular, proposed by Dr. Crawford-—Account of the opinion of Mr. Rigby-—of Mr. John Hunter-—of M. Lavoisier, Seguin, &c. 2 Account PHYSIOLOGY. 71 Account of the hypothesis, that the sen- sible heat, generated by living animals, is produced by the caloric in the blood pas- sing from a latent to an active state; that this transition is the consequence of a che- mical change in the blood, from its hydro- carbons impregnation being evolved; and that this evolution is effected chiefly by the action of the vessels to which the blood is subjected-—Explanation of some particu- lars which may occur as objections to this hypothesis-—Attempt to render it pro- bable from endeavouring to prove the following propositions-—1. That the blood contains both caloric and carbonated hy- drogene. 2. That the carbonated hydrogene evolved in consequence of the action of the vessels, to which the blood is subjected in the course of circulation, produces the transition of caloric from a latent to an active state. 3. That as much sensible heat may be produced by this means as any animal is ever observed to generate. 4. That this hypothesis affords a satisfac- tory explanation of the principal pheno- mena of animal heat, particularly the most intricate 72 PATHOLOGICAL intricate and apparently contradictory phe- nomena.-—Explanation of the general con- nection of the heat of the body with the state of the blood’s motion-—of the excep- tions which occur to this rule-—of the equality of heat over the system-—of the exceptions to this rule in morbid cases -—of the uniformity of heat in the dame animal while in health, although exposed to great diversity of temperature-—of the connection of animal heat with respiration -—of its connection with the colour of the blood in different animals. Observations on the use of the power of generating heat, possessed by living ani- mals-—its influence as preserving the fluids of the system in a proper condition-—its influence on the solids-—its influence on the nervous power. Morbid Affections of Animal Heat. I. Preternatural increase of the heat of the body. a. From an increased action of the blood-vessels. b. From an increase of the hydrocarbo- nous impregnation of the blood. 2 c. From PHYSIOLOGY. 73 c. From an increase of caloric in the blood. d. From a diminution of those excre- tions, which preserve the stability of the fluids. II. Preternatural diminution of the heat of the body. a. From a diminished action of the blood-vessels. b. From a diminution of the hydrocar- bonous impregnation of the blood. c. From the want of a due supply of ca- loric to the blood. d. From an increase of particular excre- tions. 9. Of Muscular Motion. OBSERVATIONS on the phenomena of muscular motion-—Manifest changes which muscles undergo in action-—in length-—in thickness-—in bulk-—in hard- ness-—in colour-—Causes inducing the ac- tion of muscles-—stimuli-—volition-—Cir- cumstances in muscles with which their action is connected-—peculiar configura- tion-—contractile power-—free communi- cation with the sensorium by the inter- E vention 74 PATHOLOGICAL vention of nerves-—Different theories of muscular action-—Account of the thesis which supposes muscular action to proceed from the immediate influence of the mind-—from the figure of muscular fibres-—from fermentation in muscles-— from blood rushing into muscles-—from motions of the nervous fluid. Use of muscular action-—Primary use-— Secondary consequences-—in giving figure to parts-—in giving texture-—in exciting the motion of fluids in the body-—in pre- serving the general health of the system-— in giving greater facility in motion to the moving fibres. Morbid Affections of Voluntary Motion. I. Those in which the influence of the will is counteracted. 1. Spasmodic affections. 2. Convulsive affections. a. From uncommon stimuli. b. From peculiar sensibility. II. Those in which the influence of the will is impaired or lost. a. From causes impeding the course, or altering the condition, of the ner- vous power. b. From PHYSIOLOGY 75 b. From accidents giving uncommon rigidity to the moving fibres. 10. Of the External Senses. REMARKS on the external senses in ge- neral-—Observations respecting the variety in the external senses-—Inquiry how far it may be accounted for from a differ- ence in the nerves themselves-—from a dif- ference in the state of the extremities of the nerves-—from the modification of im- pressions by the apparatus at their extre- mities-—Observations on particular senses -—Sense of touching-—organs employed in touching-—the external objects from which these organs are fitted to receive impressions-—the use of this sense to the system-—Remarks on the principal morbid affections of the sense of touching-—Sense of tasting-—organs employed-—objects from which these organs are fitted to re- ceive impressions-—use of tasting-—Re- marks on the principle morbid affections of the sense of tasting-—Sense of smelling -—organs employed-—external objects from E2 which 76 PATHOLOGICAL which these organs are fitted to receive impressions-—use of smelling-—Remarks on the principal morbid affections of the sense of smelling-—Sense of hearing-— organs employed-—external objects from which these organs are fitted to receive impressions-—use of hearing-—Remarks on the principal morbid affections of the sense of hearing-—Sense of seeing-—or- gans employed-—external objects from which these organs are fitted to receive impressions-—use of vision-—Remarks on the principal morbid affections of the sense of vision. 11. Of the Internal Senses. REMARKS on the functions to be consi- dered under the general title of in- ternal senses-—Observations on the gene- ral agency of the mind over the body-— Inquiry respecting the seat of connection between the mental and corporeal parts of the system-—lnquiry how far a particular configuration of the brain is necessary for this connection-—Conjectures respecting the PHYSIOLOGY. 77 the causes on which the diversity in the mental faculties depends-—Conjectures re- specting the causes of the differences which occur in the mental faculties of the same individual at different times— Observations with regard to particular in- ternal senses-—imagination—-judgment-- memory-—volition. Morbid Affections of the Internal Senses. I. Those depending on imperfect exertion of the mental faculties. II. Those depending on erroneous exer- tion. a. From increased impetus of the circu- lation at the brain. b. From diminished impetus there. c. From compression of the brain. d. From irritation of the brain. Observations on different modifications of delirium-—Delirium ferox-—Delirium mite. E3 12. Of 78 PATHOLOGICAL 12. Of Sleep. ACCOUNT of the phenomena of sleep -—Inquiry respecting its nature-— Examination of the opinion which suppo- ses sleep to depend on the exhaustion of the nervous fluid-—Examination of the opi- nion which supposes it to depend upon compression of the brain-—Examination of the opinion which ascribes sleep to exhaust- ed irritability.-—Objections to these hypo- theses-—Inquiry how far sleep may not be referred to a law of the mind, by which, du- ring its connection with the body, it has a constitutional disposition to alternate states of activity and rest-—Conjectures respecting the manner in which those circumstances act, which either produce sleep, or protract watchfulness-—Observations respecting the animals which remain in a torpid state du- ring the winter-season-—Circumstances in which winter torpor differs from natural sleep--Conjectures as to the difference of the causes on which they depend-—Inquiry how far torpor from cold may be ascribed to 79 PHYSIOLOGY. to a change induced on the state of the nervous fluid-—Observations on the prin- cipal morbid affections of sleep-—Pervigi- lium-—Immodica dormitio-—Somnia-— —Somnambulatio-—Incubus. 13. Of Death. GENERAL observations on the nature of death-—Observations on different causes of death-—injuries to the brain-— lesion of vital functions-—affections of nerves-—age-—Marks indicating death-— cessation of the vital functions-—insensibi- lity and coldness-—stiffness-—putrefaction -—General observations on other marks, as collapse of the eye, and the like-—Ge- neral conclusion respecting the characteri- stics of death. Observations on resuscitation in cases of apparent death-—General principles on which a recovery is to be attempted-— Remarks on different practices which have been recommended-—Account of the plan of procedure which should in general be adopted. E4 14. Of 80 PATHOLOGICAL 14. Of the Peculiarities of the Male. OBSERVATIONS on the secretion of se- men by the testicles-—The state of the semen as it is discharged-—Observa- tions on the use of the semen in genera- tion--effects which it produces in the sy- stem by which it is secreted-—Observa- tions on the influence which it has on the passions of the mind-—on the state of the muscular fibres in general-—on the state of the voice-—on the growth of the beard in men-—on the stature and fatness of the body in different animals-—Observations on morbid affections resulting from altera- tions in the condition of the semen. Remarks on the erection of the penis -—Circumstances on which it immediately depends-—View of different theories on which it has been accounted for-—Inqui- ry whether it proceeds from obstruc- tion to the return of the blood from the cells of the penis, or from an increased flow of the blood into these cells-—Exami- nation of the opinion which supposes that PHYSIOLOGY. 81 that it proceeds from the action of nervous filaments surrounding the veins of the penis-—from an action of the vena ipsius penis-—from an increased action of the small vessels of the penis-—Remarks on some circumstances which have been sup- posed to assist the erection of the penis-— full state of the bladder-—action of the le- vatores ani muscles-—the stimulus of the semen-—the distension of the vesiculæ se- minales-—Observations on different mor- bid affections from the condition of erec- tion-—Defective erection-—Violent erec- tion-—Painful erection-—Impotence in the discharge of semen-—Want of due reten- tion of semen. 15. Of the Peculiarities of the Female. OBSERVATIONS on the menstrual flux-— An account of the phenomena commonly attending menstruation-—A view of different theories on which the menstrual discharge has been attempted to be accounted for. A view of the arguments brought in fa- vour 82 PATHOLOGICAL. vour of the supposition, that the menses depend on general plethora-—Conclusions drawn from the position and structure of the uterus-—from the necessity of a con stant disposition to plethora in female ha- bits-—from a state analogous to the menses being induced in men by habitual blood- lettings-—from the increase and accelera- tion of the menstrual discharge by high and plentiful feeding, sedentary life, the amputation of a limb, or similar circum- stances-—from the diminution of the men- ses by activity, spare diet, and the like— Answers to the different arguments drawn from these facts-—Objections to the hypo- thesis-—from the appearance of the menses with females when they are not in a ple- thoric state, and when there is even ma- nifest proof of a high degree of inanition -—from the frequent existence of a pletho- ric state in females, without any menstrua- tion, when there is no reason to suspect any cause producing obstruction-—from plethora not being removed by menstrua- tion, when that discharge occurs with such a state of the system. Examination 83 PHYSIOLOGY. Examination of the opinion which sup- poses menstruation to depend on partial plethora-—proof that the vessels of the ute- rus, at different times, contain very differ- ent quantities of blood-—Evidence of the existence of partial plethora in the vessels of the uterus previous to menstruation-— from symptoms preceding the discharge -—from diffections near the menstrual period-—Inquiry how far the existence of partial plethora is sufficient to explain all the phenomena of menstruation-—Reasons for believing that it is not a cause fully adequate to the effect-—from the regularity of the discharge in point of time-—from the relief afforded by vicarious evacuations hap- pening at the menstrual period, when the menses are obstructed. Examination of the opinion which sup- poses, that on partial plethora there occurs an hæmorrhagic effort, regulated by the laws of the nervous system-—Objections to this hypothesis-—from circumstances at- tending those evacuations which supply the place of the menses-—from different causes which obstruct menstruation-—from the 84 PATHOLOGICAL the suspension of the menses during preg- nancy and nursing. Some account of a conjecture which supposes, that, with partial plethora, there occurs, at the time of menstruation, a pe- culiar action of the uterus itself, somewhat similar to that which happens in the im- pregnated state, occasioning delivery at the end of a determined period-—Argu- ments in favour of this supposition-—from the analogy of the impregnated uterus-— from the regularity of the menstrual dis- charge-—from the relief in cases of ob- structed menses when evacuations of blood occur naturally—-from the explanation which this hypothesis affords for many of the most intricate phenomena of men- struation-—for the first appearance of the menses-—for the periodical return of that discharge-—for the limitation of it to a certain age-—for the obstruction of it du- ring pregnancy and nursing. Remarks on the use of menstruation in the female economy-—The influence which it has in generation-—Objections to the supposition, that it is intended for the nutrition 85 PHYSIOLOGY, nutrition of the fœtus-—Account of a con- jecture that the menstrual discharge may serve to give a condition to the vessels of the uterus necessary for impregnation-— Arguments in favour of this opinion-— from the effects which hæmorrhage has on other parts-—from the method in which women commonly reckon their pregnancy-—from the existence of a state analogous to the menses in many other animals previous to conception. Morbid Affections of Menstruation. I. Obstruction of the menstrual discharge. a. From the want of proper accumula- tion in the uterus. b. From the want of due periodical con- traction. c. From obstruction to the passage of blood into the cavity of the uterus. II. Preternatural increase of the menstrual discharge. a. From uncommon determination to the uterus. b. From increased action of that viscus. 2 c. From 86 PATHOLOGICAL c. From the want of due resistance to the impetus of blood at the uterus. 16. Of Generation. VIEW of the different stages to which this function may be referred. Coition-—Inquiry whether the semen of the male be thrown into the uterus of the female-—Inquiry respecting the existence of ova in the ovaries of females. Conception-—View of different opi- nions on this subject-—Account of the sup- position of the mixture of male and fe- male semen-—of the mixture of the male semen with the menstrual blood-—of a pe- culiar sensation excited by the stimulus of the male semen on the os tincæ-—of the introduction of an animalcule from the male semen into an ovum from the female-—of the conjunction of organic particles from the male and female semen -—Observations on the experiments and hypothesis of the Count de Buffon on this subject. Pregnancy-—Observations on the 2 growth 87 PHYSIOLOGY. growth of the fœtus-—on the nutrition of the fœtus-—on parts lodged in the uterus connected with the fœtus-—on the changes which the uterus itself undergoes in preg- nancy. Delivery-—Remarks on the signs of ap- proaching delivery-—account of the ac- tions by which delivery is effected-—con- jectures respecting the causes inducing these actions-—Observations on the princi- pal morbid affections occurring in the va- rious stages of generations-—Monsters-— Extra-uterine conceptions-—Super-fœta- tion-—Mola or false conception-—Abor- tion.