5W CaMmTOntmaC 111 fil itrffc't. ''*H&$ 1i!kS$-' itHN NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Bethesda, Maryland THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURAL HISTORY. By WILLIAM SMELLIE, MEHBER OF THE ANTIQUARIAN AND ROYAL SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH, DOVER, N. H. PUBLISHED BY THOMAS & TAPPAN, & SAMUEL BRAGG, JUN. SOLD BY THEM AT THfclR RESPECTIVE BOOK STORES IN PORTSMOUTH AND DOVER ; BV ISAIAH THOMAS, JUN. IN WORCESTER ; BV WRIGHT, GOODENOW AND STOCKWELL, IN BOSTON, AND TROY, N. Y. 1808. / 4 • / ^:f::-) PREFACE. XL VERY Preface, befide occafional or explanatory remarks, fhould contain not only the general defign of the work, but the motives and circumflances which induced the author to write upon that particular fubject If this plan had been univerfally obferved, prefaces would have exhibited a fhort, but a curious and ufeful, hiftory both of literature and of authors. Influenced by this idea, I fhall give a very compendious account of the origin, defign, and progrefs of the following work. About fifteen years ago, in a converfation with the late worthy, refpecta- ble, and ingenious Lord KAMES,upon the too general neglect of natural know- ledge, His Lordfliip fuggefted the idea of compofing a Book on the Philoso- phy of Natural History. In a work of this kind, he propofed that the productions of Nature, whiSh to us aie almoft infinite, fhould, inftead of being' treated of individually, be arranged under general heads ; that, in each of thefe divifions, the known facts, as well as reafonings, fhould be collected and meth- odifed in the form of regular difcourfes; that as few technical terms as poffible fhould be employed ; and that all the ufeful and amufing views arifing from the different fubjects fhould be exhibited in fuch a manner as to convey bqth plea.. fure and information. This tafk His Lordfhip was pleafed to think me not altogether unqualified to attempt. The idea ltruck me. I thought that a work of this kind, if exe- cuted even with moderate abilities, might excite a tafte for examining the vari- ous objects which every where folicit our attention. A habit of obfervation re- fines our feelings. It is a fource of interefting amufement, prevents idle or vic- ious prop endues, and exalts the mind to a love of virtue and of rational enter- tainment. I likewife reflected, that men of learning often betray an ignorance on the mod common fubjects of Natural Hiftory, which it is painful to remark. I have been occafionally employed, fince the period which I have mention- ed, in collecting and digefting materials from the molt authentic fources Thefe materials I have interfperfed with fuch obfervations, reflections, and reafonings, as occurred to me from confidering the multifarious fubjects of which I have 8 PREFACE. ventured to treat. I knew that a deliberate perufal of the numerous writer* from ^riftotle downwards, would require a confiderable portion of time. But the avocations of bufinefs, and the tranflating of a work fo voluminous as the Natural History of the Count de Buffon, rendered my progrefs much flower than I wifhed. I now, however, with much diffidence, fubmit my labours to public opinion. An examination of the Contents, however, will convey a more clear idea of the nature of the work than a multiplicity of words But I thought it proper to prefix a fhort account of the circumflances and motives which induced me to engage in an undertaking fo extenfive, and fo difficult to perform with tolerable fuccefs. With regard to the manner of writing, it is perhaps impoflible for a North Briton, in a work of any extent, to avoid what are called Scotticisms. But I have endeavoured to be every where perfpicuous, and to fhun every fentiment or expreffion which might have a tendency to injure fociety, or to hurt the feel- ings of individuals. Indulgent readers, though they muft perceive errors and imperfections, will naturally make fome allowance for the variety of refearch, and the labour of condenfing fo much matter into fo fmall a compafs. He is a bad author, it has been faid, who affords neither an aphorifm nor a motto. I cannot refrain from mentioning a circumftance which has often made me uneafy. The expectations of fome friends were higher than I was confcious my abilities could reach. UroN the whole, the general defign of this publication is, to convey to the minds of youth, and of fuch as may have paid little attention to the ftudy of Na- ture, a fpecies of knowledge which it is not difficult to acquire. This knowledge will be a perpetual and inexhauftible fource of manly pleafures; it will afford innocent and virtuous amufement, and will occupy agreeably the leifure or va- cant hours of life. CONTENTS, CHAPTER I. page. Of the Dijlinguiping CharaBers of Animals, Plants, and Minerals. The analogies between the plant and animal, ariftng from their fruBure and organs, their growth and nourpment, their dijfemination and decay - - - 13 CHAPTER II. Of the Organs and General StruBure of Animals. A Port view of the external and internal parts of the human body. The filruBure of Quadrupeds, Birds, Fipes, and ItifeBs. How far peculiarities offiruBure are conneBed with pecu- liarities of manners and difpofitions. - 54 CHAPTER III. Of the Refpiration of Animals. Air neceffary to the exigence of all animated beings. The various modifications of the organs employed by Nature for the tranfmiflion of air into animal bodies. - - - - 112 CHAPTER IV. Of the motions of Animals. The caufes and inflruments of animal motion. Animal compared with mechanical mo- tion. - - - - - 14Q 10 CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. page. Of the InflinB of Animals. Divifton of InflinBs. Exam- ples of pure infiinB. Of fuch infiinBs as can accommodate themfelves to peculiar circumflances and fituat ions. Of in" JlinBs improveable by obfervation and experience. Some re~ marks and concluftons from this view of infiinEl - 153 CHAPTER VI. Of the Senfes in General - - - 168 Of Smelling - - - - 169 OfTafiing ' - - - 172 Of Hearing - - - - 175 Of Touch - 181 Of Seeing - - - - 185 CHAPTER VII, Of the Infancy of Animals. Some fpecies continue longery and others porter, in this fate. Different modes of managing infants in different countries. - - 202 CHAPTER VIII. Of the Food of Animals. Their growth and expanfton. The varieties of food ufedby men and other animals. EffeBs of peculiar foods - - - - - 214 CHAPTER IX, Of the Sexes of Animals. The mental and corporeal differen- ces between males and females. Some animals endowed with both fexes in the fame individual - 242 Sect. IL Of the Sexes of plants - - - 251 CHAPTER X. Qf Puberty. Its fymptoms and effeBs in different Animals 269 CONTENTS. 11 CHAPTER XI. page Of Love. Its expreffions and effeBs in different Animals. Pairing. Seafons. Parental AffeBion - - 274 CHAPTER XII. Of the Transformations of Animals. Transformation of the caterpillar tribes. Of frogs, Zsfc. All animals under- go changes in their form and aJpeB. What are the pro- bable intentions of Nature in changing forms - - 291 CHAPTER XIII. Of the Habitations of Animals. Their different modes of conflruBing abodes for warmth and proteBion to them- felves and 'heir offspring. The form and manner of their habitations accommodated to the exigencies of the animal 315 CHAPTER XIV. Of the Hoflilities of Animals. Why animals prey upon one another, but feldom on their own fpecies. Advantages de- rived from this feemingly defiruBive infiitution of Na- ture .......378 CHAPTER XV. Of the Artifices of Animals in catching their prey and ejcop- ing their enemies. Thefe artifices are, in general, pure- ly inftinBive ; but fome animals can vary their mode of attack or defence according to particular circumflances and fituat ions - 403 CHAPTER XVI. Of the Society of Animals. What are the motives and advan- tages of it. Gregarious tribes. Whether man belongs to this tribe. Society of two kinds - - 418 12 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVII. Of the Docilitv of Animals. How far improveable by cul- ture. EffeBs of domefitcation - ' *•"* CHAPTER XVIII. Of the CharaBers and Difpofitions of Animals. Rapacious. Mild. Timid. Bold. Generous - - 467 CHAPTER XIX. Of the Principle of Imitation in Animals. Is the neareft approach to reafoning and language - - 472 CHAPTER XX. Of the Migration of Animals. More general than common- ly believed. The probable motives which induce animals to migrate - - - - - 476 CHAPTER XXI. Of the Longevity and Death of Animals. A comparative view of Animals with regard to the duration of life', and its confequences - - - 506 CHAPTER XXII. Of the Progreffive Scale of Animals. Stops at man, and why. In this world, it appears to be impofftble that a being fu- perier to man could exift. Reafons for this opinion. - 521 THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. Diftinguifcing charaBers of Animals, Plants, and Minerals—The Analogies between the plant and animal, arifingfrom their firuc- ture and organs, their growth and nouripment, their dijfemina- tion and decay. JN ATUR AL Bodies, when viewed as they have a relation to man, are marked with characters fo apparent, that they efcape not the obfervation of the^ moft unenlight- ened minds. In a fyftem where all the conftituent parts have a reciprocal dependence, and are connected by relations fo fubtile as to elude the perception of animals, fuch obvious characters were indifpenfible. Without them, neither the affairs of human life, nor the functions of the brute creation, could be carried on. Characters of this kind are accommo- dated to the apprehenfion of brutes and of vulgar men. But, when the productions of nature are more clofely ex- amined ; when they are fcrutinized by the eye of philofophy, the number of their relations and differences is difcovered to be almoft infinite ; and their fhades of difcrimination are often fo delicate, that no fenfe can perceive them. Nothing 14 THE PHILOSOPHY apparently, is more eafy than to diftinguifh an animal from a plant; and yet the proper distinction has puzzled the moft acute enquiries, and perhaps exceeds the limits of human capacity. « A plant,' fays Jungius, «is a living but not zfentient body, 1 which is fixed in a determined place, and grows, increafes * in fize, and propagates its fpecies*.' In this definition living pov/ers are afcribed to vegetables ; but they are denied the faculty of fenfation. Life, without fome degree of fenfation, is an incomprehenfible idea. An animal limited to the fenfe of feeling alone, is the loweft conception we can form of life. Deprive this being of the only fenfe it poffeffes, and, though its figures fhould remain, we would inftantly conclude it to be as inanimate as a ftone. The life attributed to plants feems to be nothing more than an analogical deduction from theiir growth, nutrition, continuation of their fpecies, and fimilar circumftances. Ludwig defines vegetables to be * natural bodies, always ' endowed with the fame form, but deprived of the power of f local motionf.' Every branch of this definition is, with equal propriety, applicable to precious ftones, falts, and fome animals ; and, therefore, requires no farther attention. Sir Charles Linnaeus, in his Fundamenta Botanica, intends to difcriminate the three kingdoms of nature in two lines. * Stones,' fays he, * grow ; vegetables grow and live ; ani- ' mals grow, live, and feel $..' rJ?his is an affemblage of words, the meaning of which is entirely perverted. The idea of growth implies nutrition and expansion by the intervention of organs. The magnitude of iiones may be augmented by an accretion of new matter. But this is not growth, or ex- panfion of parts. The fecond definition, «that vegetables grow and live,' is equally inaccurate. Inftead of proving » Raii Hiftr Plant, p. 1, f Ludwig, Phil. Bot. p. 1. J Fund. Bot. $ $. OF NATURAL HISTORY. IS the life of plants, Linnaeus takes it for granted, and makes it the characteristic between vegetables and brute matter. The third, ' that animals grow, live and feel,' is not lefs except tionable. Growth, life, and mere fenfation, convey the moft ignoble notions of animated beings. From this definition, we would be led to imagine, that Linnaeus meant to defcribe the condition of a polypus or an oyfter. All animals, it is true, grow, live, and feel j but thefe are only the paffive properties of animals. The definition includes none of thofe inftinctive, intellectual, and active powers which exalt the animal above the vegetable, and fo eminently diftinguifh the different tribes from each other. Thefe and many other abortive attempts have been made to afcertain the precife boundaries between the animal and vegetable. Definitions have been the perpetual aim of moft writers on this fubject. But definitions, when applied to nat- ural objects, muft always be vague and elufory. We know not the principle of animal life. We are equally ignorant of the effential caufe of vegetable existence. It is vain, therefore, to dream of being able to define what we never can know. We may, however, difcover fome qualities comn mon to the animal as well as to the vegetable. Senfation, motion, and Structure of parts, give animals a more extenfive range in their connection with external ob- jects. A certain portion of intellect, joined to the vital prin- ciple, feem to be the moft diftinguifhing properties of ani- mals, and to conftitute their efTence or being. Animals will, determine, act, and have a communication with diftant ob- jects by their fenfes. They have the laws of nature, in fome meafure, at command. They protect themfelves from injury by employing force, fwiftnefs, addrefs, and cunning. But vegetables remain fixed in the fame place, and are fubject to every thing that moves. Animals eat at intervals ; their food requires time for digeftion, and to anfwer the complice- 16 THE PHILOSOPHY ted purpofes of fecretion and nutrition. The Structure of plants is more fimple ; they receive perpetual nourishment without injury. Animals fearch for and feleft particular kinds of food. But plants muft receive whatever is brought to them by the different elements. Animals exift on the furface and in the interior parts of the earth, in the air, in water, in the bodies of men and other animals, in the internal parts "of plants, and even in Stones. But if we except a few aquatics, plants are fixed to the earth by roots. All animals, it has been affirmed, have a heart, or particu- lar fountain for propelling and diftributing their fluids to the different parts of their bodies : but caterpillars, and ma- ny other infects, have no fuch general receptacle. The loco-motive faculty has been confidered as peculiar to animals. But even this character is extremely fufpicious. Oyfters, fea-nettles, the gall-infects, and a variety of other animals, can hardly be faid to enjoy the power of local mo- tion. Many fpecies remain forever fixed to the rocks on which they are produced, and have no motion but that of extending or contracting their bodies. Befides, examples of different kinds of motion are difcoverable in the vegetable kingdom. When the roots of a tree meet with a ftone, or any other obstruction to their motion, in order to avoid it, they change their former direction. They turn from barren to fertile earth, which indicates fomethmg analogous to a fe- lection of food. Like the polypus, plants, when confined in a houfe, uniformly bend toward the window or aperture through which the rays of light are introduced. The fenfitive plant poSfeSTesr the faculty of motion in an eminent degree. The Slightest touch makes its leaves fud- denly Shrink, and, together with the branch, bend down toward the earth. But the moving plant, or hedyfarum movens, of which there are fpecimens in the botanic garden pf Edinburgh, furniihes the moft aftoniShing example of ve- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 17 getable motion. It is a native of^the Eaft Indies. Its mover ments are not excited by the contact of external bodies, but folely by the influence of the fun's rays. The motions of this plant are confined to the leaves, which are fupported by long flexible foot Stalks. When the fun Shines, the leaves move brifkly in every direction. Their general motion however,is upward and downward; but they not unfrequently turn almoft round -, and then their footftalks are evidently twifted, Thefe motions go on inceffantly as long as the. heat of the fun continues ; but they ceafe during the night, and when the weather is cold and cloudy. Our wonder is excited by the rapidity and constancy of the movements pe- culiar to this plant. The frequency, however, of Similar motions in other plants,'renders it probable that the leaves of all vegetables move, or are agitated by the rays of the fun, though many of thefe movements are too flow for our perception. The American plant called diondea mufcipula, or Venus's fly- trap, affords another inftance of rapid vegetable motion. It$ leaves are jointed, and furnifhed with two rows of Strong prick- les. Their furfaces are covered with a number of minute glands, which fecrete a Sweet liquor, and allure the approach of flies. When thefe parts are touched by the legs of a fly, the two lobes of the leaf initantly rife up, the rows of pric- kles lock themfelves faft together, and fqueeze the unwary animal to death. If a ftraw or a pin be introduced between the lobes the fame motions are excited. When a feed is fown in a reverfed pofition, the young root turns downwards to enter the earth, and the ftem bends upward into the air. Confine a young ftem to an inclined pofition, and its extremity will foon aSTume its former per- pendicular direction. Twift the branches of any tree in fuch a manner that the inferior furfaces of the leaves are turn- ed towards the fky, and you will, in a Short time, per- IS THE PHILOSOPHY ceive that all thefe leaves refume their original pofition. Thefe motions are performed fooner or later, in proportion to the degree of heat, and the flexibility of the leaves. Many leaves, as thofe of the mallow, follow the courfe of the fun. In the morning, their fuperior furfaces are prefented to the eaft ; at noon, they regard the fouth; and, when the fun fets, they are directed to the weft. During the night, or in rainy weather, thefe leaves are horizontal; and their inferior Surfaces are turned toward the earth. What has been denominated the Sleep of plants, affords an inftance of another fpecies of vegetable motion. The leaves of many plants fold up during the night •- but at the ap- proach of the fun, they expand with renewed vigour. The common appearances of moft vegetables are fo changed in the night, that it is difficult to recognize the different kinds, even by the affiftance of light. The modes of folding in the leaves, or of Sleeping, are ex- tremely various. But it is worthy of remark, that they all difpofe themfelves fo as to give the beft protection to the young Stems, flowers, buds, or fruit. The leaves of the tam- arind tree contract round the tender fruit, and protect it from the nocturnal cold. The caffia or fenna, the glycine, and many of the papilionaceous plants, contract their leaves in a fimilar manner. The leaves of the chickweed, of the afclepias, atriplex, &c. are difpofed in oppofite pairs. During the night, they rife perpendicularly, and join fo clofe at the top, that they conceal the flowers. The leaves of the fida or althea theophrifti, of the ayenia, and Oenothera, are placed alternately. Though horizonal, or even depending, during the day, at the approach of night they rile, embrace the ftem, and protect the tender flowers, The leaves of the folanuhi, or nightfhade, are horizontal du- ring the day ; but, in the night, they rife and cover the flowers. The Egyptian vetch erects its leaves during ths OF NATURAL HISTORY. 19 night, in fuch a manner that each pair feem to be one leaf only. The leaves of the white lupine, in the State of Sleep, hang down, and protect the young buds from being-injured by the nocturnal air. Thefe and fimilar motions are not peculiar to the leaves of plants. The flowers have alfo the power of moving. Du- ring the night, many of them are inclofed in their calixes. Some flowers, as thofe of the German fpurge, geranium Striatum, and common whitlow grafs, when afleep, hang their mouths toward the earth, to prevent the noxious effects of rain or dew. The caufe of thofe movements which constitute the Sleep of plants, has been afcribed to the prefence or abfence of the fun's rays. In fome of the examples I have given, the mo- tions produced are evidently excited by heat. But plants kept in a hot-houfe, where an equal degree of heat is pre- ferved both day and night, fail not to contract their leaves, or to Sleep, in the fame manner, as when they are expofed to the open air. This fact evinces, that the Sleep of plants is rather owing to a peculiar law, than to a quicker or fjower motion of their juices. A Stomach and brain have been reckoned eSTential charac- teristics of the animal ; and plants are faid to pcifefs nothing analogous to thefe organs. But the polypus has no Stomach; or rather, like vegetables, its whole body may be considered as a ftomach. Its internal cavity contains no vifcera ; and, when this animal is turned outfide in, it ftill continues to live, and to digeft its food, in the fame manner as if it had receiv- ed no injury. The mode by which plants are nourished is extremely analogous. They imbibe food by the roots, the trunk, the branches, the leaves, and the flowers. Inftead, therefore, of having no Stomach, their whole Structure is ftomach. . * ith regard to the brain, the polypus, and many ether infects, are deprived of that organ. Hence neither 20 THE PHILOSOPHY Stomach nor brain are effential characters which difcrimmate the animal from the vegetable. But all animals are endowed with fenfation, or at leaft with irritability, which laft has been confidered as a distinct- ive character of animal life. Senfation implies a diftinct per- ception of pleafure and pain. We infer the existence of fenfation in organized bodies, when we perceive that they have organs Similar to our own, or when they act, in certain circumflances, in the fame manner as we act. If an organ- ised being has eyes, ears, and a nofe, we naturally conclude that it enjoys the fame fenfations as thefe organs convey to us; If we fee another being, whofe Structure exhibits nothing analogous to our organs of fenfation, contracting with rapid- ity when touched, directing its body uniformly to the light, feizing fmall infects with tctitacula, or a kind of arms, and conveying them into an aperture placed at its anterior end, we hefitate not to pronounce that it is animated. Cut off its arms, deprive it of the faculty of contracting and extending its body, the nature of this being will not be changed ; but we will be unable to determine whether it poffeffes any portion of life. This is nearly the condition of the fmall fections of a polypus, before their heads begin to grow. The wheel-animal, the eels in blighted wheat, and the fnails record- ed in the philofophical tranfactions, afford inftances of every appearance of fenfation,or even of irritability,beingfufpended, not for months, but for feveral years, and yet the life of thefe animals is not extinguished ; for they uniformly revive upon a proper application, of moifture. Thefe and Similar facts Show, that we are entirely ignorant of the effence and properties of life. What life really is, feems too fubtile for our understanding to conceive, or our fenfes to difcern. If we have no other criterions to distinguish life, than motion, fenfation, and irritability, the animals juft mentioned continued for years in a State which every man OF NATURAL HISTORY. 21 would pronounce to have been perfectly dead. It is poSIible, therefore, that life may exift in many bodies which are com- monly thought to be as inanimate as Stones. Hence it would be rafh to exclude plants from every fpecies of fenfation. The degrees of fenfation decreafe imperceptibly from man to the fea-nettle, gall-infects, and what are called the moft im- perfect animals. Every vegetable, as well as the fenfitive plant, Shrinks when wounded. But, in moft of them, the motion is too Slow for our perception. When trees grow near a ditch, the roots which proceed in a direction that would neceSfarily bring them into the open air, inftead of continuing this noxious progrefs, Sink below the level of the ditch, then Shoot acrofs, and regain the foil on the oppofite Side. When a root is uncovered, without expofing it to much heat, and a wetfpunge is placed near it, but in a different direction from that in which the root is proceeding, in a Short time the root turns towards the fpunge. In this man- ner the direction of roots may be varied at pleafure. All plants make the Strongest efforts, by inclining, turning, and even twifting their Stems and branches, to efcape from dark- nefs and Shade, and to procure the influences of the fun. Place a wet fpunge under the leaves of a tree, they foon bend downward, and endeavour to apply their inferior furfaces to the fpunge. If a vefTel of water be placed within fix inches of a growing cucumber, in twenty-four hours the cucumber alters the direction of its branches, bends either to the right or left, and never ftops till it comes into contact with the water. When a pole is placed at a confiderabe distance from an unfupported vine, the branches of which are pro- ceeding in a contrary direction from that of the pole, in a Short time, it alters its courfe, and ftops not till it clings around the pole. Facts of this kind excite our wonder j but they by no means prove that vegetables live, or that they are endowed C 22 THE PHILOSOPHY with fenfation,which implies a diftinft perception of pleafure' and pain. There is an inferior fpecies of fenfation, which is distin- guished by the term irritability. This term denotes that pow- er by which mufcular fibres, efren after they are detached from the body, contraft upon the application of any Stimulate ing fubftance, whether folid or fluid. The heart of a frog when pricked with the point of a pin continues to beat, or to contract and dilate, for feveral hours after it has been cut out of the animal's body. The heart ofa viper or of a turtle beats distinctly from twenty to thirty hours after the death of thefe animals. The periftalric motion of the inteftines is produced by their irritability. When the inteftines of a dog, or any other quadruped, are fuddenly cut into different por- tions, all thefe portions crawl about like worms, and contract upon the flighteft touch. Though irritability be unquestion- ably a vital principle, yet it is equally certain that mufcular fibres, when feparated from the body to which they belong, have no diftinct perception of pleafure or pain. Their re- gular contraction and dilatation are evident fymptoms of life, which, in many cafes, may lead us to attribute living powers to fubftances that enjoy neither life nor fenfation. Hence,* though all plants were irritable, this circumftance Would not prove that they are poSTeSfed of life. The contraction and dilatation of the fenfitive plants, and tlfe various motions of |he leaves, branches, flowers, and roots of vegetables formerly mentioned, feem to indicate that moft plants are endowed with irritability. Perhaps all vegetables have more or lefs of this quality. The heart, inteftines, and diaphragm, are the moft irritable parts of animal bodies ; and, to difcover whe- ther this quality refides in all plants, experiments fhould be made chiefly on their leaves, flowers, buds, and the tender fibres of the roots. OF NATURAL HISTORY. ■23 From this narration of facts, it appears, that plants make a very near approach to animals ; and that this fimilarity, as well as the difficulty of fixing the precife boundaries by which thefe two great kingdoms of nature are limited, are direct confequences of the organization of vegetables. It is owing to their organic Structure alone, that plants-and animals are capable of affording reciprocal nourifhment to each other. This organic Structure, though greatly diversified in the dif- ferent fpecies of animals and vegetables, evinces that nature in the formation of both, has actedupon the fame general plan. May we not prefume,therefore, as plants as well as animals are compofed of a regular fyftem of organs, that the vegetable part of the creation is not entirely deprived of every quality which we are apt to think peculiar to animated beings ? I mean not to insinuate, that plants can perceive pleafure or pain. But, as many of their motions and affections cannot be explained upon any principle of mechanifmi I am inclined s to think, that they originate from the power of irritability, which, though it implies not the perception of pleafure and pain, is the principle that regulates all the vital or involun- tary motions of animals. To afcertain this point, would re- quire a fet of very nice experiments. I Shall mention one, which might be performed with tolerable eafe. It was form- erly remarked, that plants kept in a hot houfe, where the degree of heat is uniform, never fail tofleep during thenight. This is direct evidence, that heat alone is not the caufe of their vigilance. But they are deprived of light. Let, there- fore, a Strong artificial light, without increasing the heat, be thrown upon them. If, notwithftanding this light, the plants are not roufed, but continue to Sleep as ufual, then it may be prefumed that their organs, like thofe of animals, are not on- ly irritable, but require the reparation of fome invigorating influence which they have loft while awake, by the agita- tions of the air and the fun's rays, by the act of growing, or fry fome other latent caufe. 24 THE PHILOSOPHY It is almoft unneceffary to mark the distinction between vegetables and minerals. The transition from the animal to the plant is effected by fhades fo imperceptible, as to elude the moft acute obfervers. But, between the plant and the mineral, there is a vaft chafm in the chain of being, which may be the fource of great difcoveries. In bodies purely mineral, not a veftige of organization can be difcovered. The fibrous Structure of the afbeftos has been regarded as an ap- proach towards organization, and as the link which connects the mineral to the vegetable kingdom. But this is one of thofe ftrained analogies which are too often employed by theoretical writers. Though the afbeftos is compofed of a kind of threads or fibres, thefe fibres are not tubular ; neU ther are they interwoven, like that regular tifliie or fabric which fo remarkably diftinguifhes organized from brute mat- ter. Of courfe, the magnitude of the afbeftos can only be increafed by the appofition of new matter, and not by any developement or expansion of parts. But though, in the mineral kingdom, nature ceafes to organize, She continues to. arrange. The regular configuration of falts, chryftals, and other pre- cious Stones, has been considered by fome authors as the re- fult of an organic procefs. But the uniform figure of falts and chryftals may be the effect of certain laws of attraction peculiar to each fpecies. None of thefe particles can be re- garded as a germ or bud. They are only the elements or conftituent parts, which, when applied to each other, form a whole. They never expand or grow, like the embrios of animals or plants. They remain for ever in the fame State without diminution or increafe, except when feparated by force, or magnified by an accumulation of frefh matter. The chryftalline juice is not aSTimulated by veSfels : It is prepared by a chymical operation of nature. The bodies of plants and animals are machines, exceedingly elaborate, and more OF NATURAL HISTORY. CIS or lefs complicated. Thefe machines, by means of different organs, have the power of converting other animals and ve- getables into their own fubftance. By this aSfimulation, all their dimenfions are increafed ; and their various parts uni- formly preferve the fame proportions with regard to each other, and continue to perform their respective functions. Befides, organized bodies not only multiply their fpecies, but fome of them poffefs the power of reproducing fuch parts as are forcibly abstracted from them. In thefe and many other qualities common to the animal and vegetable, there is not the fmalleft analogy to be found in the mineral kingdom. Between the moft regular foffils, as falts and chryftals, and the moft imperfect animal or ve- getable, the distance is immenfe. Figured foffils are not more organized than a column or a portico. In the formation of the former, nature, in that of the latter, man, is the artift. When no Similarity is to be discovered in thofe foffils which are nearly uniform in their configuration, we are not to ex- pect it in the more loofe and irregular parts of brute matter. Here,nature, regardlefs of fymmetry, conjoins heterogeneous materials of which She compofes irregular maSTes. Many Stones, flints, and other concretions, afford examples of this kind. More art, it muft be acknowledged, appears in the for- mation of metals: but their Structure exhibits no veftiges of organization, ANALOGIES. HAVING Shown the extreme difficulty of fixing the boun- daries which feparate the animal from the vegetable king- dom, I proceed to the more pleafing tafk of enumerating fome of thofe beautiful analogies which fubfift between them. To render this fubject the more agreeable and inftru&ive, in- stead of bringing together an unconnected mafs, I Shall trace the analogies between the animal and plant, under the ar- rangement of firuBure and organs, growth and nouripmcnt, dif fanination and decay. 26 THE P4I1LGS0FI1Y STRUCTURE and ORGANS. IN all organized bodies, a fimilarity of Structure feems to be unavoidable. The bodies of men and quadrupeds confift of a feries of connected bones, which run from the head to the rump. This feries is known by the name of the back- bone, from each Side of which, a number of arched bones pro- ceed. Some of thefe join the breaft-bone by means of car- tilages, and form a vaulted cavity, which contains and de- fends the heart, and other vifcera proper to the cheft. The bones of the pelvis, and of the four extremities, are joined to the back-bones by articulations and membranes. By the fame contrivance, the cranium is fixed to the upper end of the back bones. Into different proceffes and portions of all thefe bones, a great number of mufcles, or bundles of flefhy fibres are inferted. Thefe mufcles are the instruments which give rife to all the varieties of animal motion. The bones of the head, or cranium, contain the brain and cerebellum, a prolongation of which runs through the whole extent of the canal in the back-bone, and is known by the term Jpinal mar~ row. From the brain and fpinal marrow proceed all the nerves, or instruments of fenfation. Thefe nerves, the ram- ifications of which are infinitely various and minute, are dis- tributed upon the heart, lungs, blood veSfels, bowels, and mufcles, till they terminate on the Skin, or external covering of the body. The heart is the fountain, or general receptar cle of the blood. The contraction of the heart propels the blood through the arteries, which are likewife diftributed,by numerous and complicated ramifications, over every part of the body, and terminate in the veins, which again collect the whole arterial blood into one cavity, and reconvey it to the heart. This circulatory procefs goes on during life. Befide the organs already mentioned, there are others, termed fecretory, becaufe they feparate peculiar fluids from OF NATURAL HISTORY. 27 the general mafs of circulating blood. The ftomach and in- teftines are furniShed with a vaft number of fmall tubes, call- ed laBeal duBs, which feparate and abforb the nutritious parts of the aliment, and reject all the groffer and ufelefs particles. Thefe ducts, after innumerable communications with each Other, unite into one large tube, distinguished by the name Of the thoracic duB, which is the general refervoir of the chyle, or fecreted liquor. This chyle, which is a mild fluid, paSfes from the thoracic duct to the fubclavian vein ; and by this Vein it is conveyed to the heart, where it mingles with the blood, and is circulated through the body, for the nourish- ment of its different parts. It is of no moment, for our pre- fent purpofe, to be more particular, especially as this fubjedt will be afterwards more fully handled. I Shall therefore juft mention, that there are particular organs or glands for fecre- ting various fluids, which are neceffary to the exiftence of the larger animals, as the kidneys for the fecretion of urine ; the liver for the fecretion of gall ; the ftomach for the fecre- tion of the gaftric juices ; the falivary glands for the fecre- tion of faliva, 8cc. From this Sketch of the Structure of man and of quadru- peds, very little attention is neceflary to perceive, that na- ture purfues a fimilar plan in the formation of birds and fifhes. In that numerous clufs of animals distinguished by the name of infeBs, there is a great variety of form and Structure. In many of thefe, nature feems to depart from her general mode of operation. But, upon a more accurate examination, this feeming departure will appear to be only an extenfion of that univerfal plan which She obferves in the formation of all animated beings. Some infects, the lobfter, and all the cruftaceous and fhell animals, have their bones on the out- fide of their bodies. To thefe bones the mufcles and other instruments of motion are attached. Many fpecies have no bones ; but their bodies confift of a fucceflion of rings inca- 28 THE THILOSOPHY led into each other. By contracting and dilating thefe rings, all the movements of this kind are performed. The head, in fome fpecies, changes its form every moment. It contracts or dilates, appears or difappears, at the pleafure of the animal. Thefe motions are permitted by the flexibility of the mem- branes, or coverings of the head. In other fpecies, the form of the head is permanent, owing to the hardnefs of the cover- ings, which are fcaley or cruftaceous, and approaches nearer to that of the more perfect animals. Many infects are deftitute of particular organs. Some want eyes, ears, brain, and noftrils. Other have an acute fenfe of Smelling, though we know not the form nor Situation of the organ. The inferior fpecies of infects have no internal lungs, but receive air by lateral pores, and fometimes by long tubes, or tracheae, which protrude from different parts of the body. Many infects have no heart, or general refervoir for the re- ception and propulsion of the blood. But we difcover by the microfcope, that their blood circulates by the pulfation of ar- teries, and that their different fluids are fecreted by glands. In a word, nature, in the Structure and functions of animals, defcends, by degrees almoft imperceptible, from man to the polypus, a being which, ever Since its oeconomy and proper- ties were difcovered by M. Trembley, has continued to afton- iSh both philofophers and naturalists. The Structure of the polypus, which inhabits freSh water pools and ditches, is ex- tremely Simple. Its body confifts of a fingle tube, with long tentacula, or arms, at one extremity, by which it feizes fmall worms, and conveys them to its mouth. If has no proper head, heart, ftomach, or inteftines of any kind. This Sim- plicity of Structure gives rife to an equal Simplicity in the oeconomy and functions of the animal. The polypus, though it has not the distinction of fex, is extremely prolific. When about to multiply, a fmall protuberance or bud appears on the furface of its body. This bud gradually fwells and ex- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 29 tends. It includes not a young polypus, but is the real ani- mal in miniature, united to the mother as a fucker to the pa- rent tree. The food taken by the mother paffes into the young by means of a communicating aperture. When the Shooting polypus has acquired a certain growth, this aperture gradually clofes, and the young drops off, to multiply its fpe- cies in the fame manner. As every part of a polypus is ca- pable of fending off Shoots, it often happens, that the young before parting from the mother, begin to Shoot •, and the parent animal carries feveral generations on her own body. There is another Angularity in the hiftory of the polypus. When cut to pieces in every direaion fancy can fuggeft, it not only continues to exift, but each fedtion foon becomes an animal of the fame kind. What is Still more furprifing, when inverted as a man inverts the Singer of a glove, the polypus feems to have fuffered no material injury ; for it foon begins to take food, and to perform every other natural funaion. Here we have a wonderful inftance of animal duaility. No divifion, however minute, can deprive thefe worms of life. What infallibly deftroys other animals, ferves only in the polypus, to multiply the number of individuals. M. Trem- bley, in the courfe of his experiments, difcovered, that dif- ferent portions of one polypos could be ingrafted on another. Two tranfverfe feaions brought into contaa quickly unite, and form one animal, though each feaion belongs to a differ- ent fpecies. The head of one fpecies may be ingrafted on the body of another. When a polypus is introduced by the tail into another's body, the two heads unite, and form one individual. Purfuing thefe Strange operations, M. Trembley gave fcope to his fancy, and, by repeatedly fplitting the head and part of the body, formed hydras more complicated than ever Struck the imagination of the moft romantic fabulifts. D 30 THE PHILOSOPHY This Short account of the general ftrufture of animals was a neceffary preparation for perceiving more clearly their con- neaion with the vegetable kingdom. The Struaure of plants, like that of animals, confifts of a feries of veffels difpofed in a regular order. Thefe veffels are deftined to perform the different funaions neceffary to the nourifhment, growth, and diffemination of the plant. In trees, and moft of the larger vegetables, three diftina parts are to be obferved ; the bark, the wood, and the pith. The bark likewife confifts of three parts-; the Skin, the body, and the liber, or inner circle ; which laft, about the end of au- tumn, affumes the fame texture and firmnefs with the wood. The lubftance of the bark is compofed of a number of lon- gitudinal fap and air veffels, which have the appearance of fine threads, running from the root to the trunk and branch- es. Befide thefe veffels, the bark is furnifhed with a paren- chymatous or pulpy fubftance, in which there are a vaft va- riety of folliculi, or fmall bladders. The bark is conneaed to the wood by tranfverfe infertions of the parenchyma. The wood confifts of two diftina fubftances ; the one is denfe, and compaa, and constitutes what is termed the lig- neous body; the other is porous, moift, and pulpy, and is therefore called the parenchymatous part of the wood. A portion of wood is placed alternately between a Similar por- tion of parenchyma. Thefe alternate portions proceed from the edges of the pith, as radii from the center of a circle, widening proportionally as they approach the circumference. Both of them, however, like the bark, are furnifhed with numberlefs fap and air veffels. The pith or heart is bounded on all fides by the wood and is compofed of the fame materials : It is nothing but a vaft congeries of air and fap veffels, interwoven with the parenchyma and bladders, not unlike the tiffue of gauze or lace. This texture is common to every part of the trunk, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 31 being only more clofe and compaa in the bark and wood than in the pith. It is well known that the pith of plants dimin- ishes in proportion to their age. The reafon is obvious ; every year the ring of veffels, which lies contiguous to the wood, dries, condenfes, and becomes wood. The leaves of vegetables confift of a fine fkin,which inclo- fes the parenchyma or pulp. This Skin, like that of animals, is an organic body, furniShed withan immenfe number of par- enchymatous and ligneous fibres, and interwoven in a manner precifely fimilar to that of the trunk and branches. When the Skin is removed, the pulp appears, and is every where interfperfed with Small cylindrical fibres, wound up into mi- nute bladders. A large nerve runs along the middle of every leaf, and continually fends off branches, which gradually de- creafe in magnitude, till they reach the edge or difc. This principal nerve is a colleaion of fmall tubes, which, at proper distances, go off, and are distributed over the leaf in a man- ner precifely fimilar to the distribution of the nerves over the human body. With regard to flowers and fruits, their general texture is the fame with that of the parts already defcribed, differing only in various proportions of the ligneous veffels and paren- chymatous or pulpy fubftance. That vegetables are poffeffed of fecretory glands, is apparent from the almoft infinite va- riety of their taftes, odours, and colours. Thefe fenfible qualities differ even in different parts of the fame plant. But the glandular fecretion of vegetables is moft confpicuous in the flowers and fruit. Many flowers fecrete a neaareous fluid, which is more grateful to the palate than the fineft honey. The glands of fome fruits, as thofe of the lemon and orange, fecrete liquors of very different qualities.. The vef- fels of the rhind contain ah acrid effential oil, while thofe of the parenchyma or pulp fecrete an agreeable acid. 32 THE PHILOSOPHY This Similarity in the general Struaure of animals and plants is Strongly corroborated by the analogous parts in both being deftined to anfwer the fame purpofes. The oeconomy and funaions of vegetables, as well as thofe of animals, are the refults of a vafcular texture. Each of thefe claffes of beings have veffels deftined to the perform- ance of fimilar offices. In man and quadrupeds, the fluids are circulated by the pulfation of the heart and arteries. The juices of plants do not circulate ; but they are raifed from the root to the trunk, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit by the fap-veffels. The afcenfion of the fap has been afcribed to capillary attraaion. But, though no motion is perceptible in the fap-veffels fimilar to the pulfation of arte- ries ; yet, both the propulfion of the fap, which moves with great force, and the fecretion of different fluids by different parts of the fa me plant, imply an aaion in thefe veffels. In animals, the gall, the urine, the faliva, are all concoaed from the general mafs of blood by the aaion of particular veffels. Fluids of thefe different qualities exift not in the blood itfelf; (hey are created by an incomprehensible operation of the veffels peculiar to their refpeaive glands. In plants, the fap afcends, and different fluids are fecreted from it by glandular veffels. Here the fame effeas are produced both in the an- imal and the plant. We muft, therefore, attribute them to the fame caufe, namely, the aaion of veffels. Befides, the fap, which is the blood of plants, moves with a force often equivalent to the weight of the atmofphere. M. Bonnet remarks*, that he has feen, by means of coloured liquors, the vegetable fap move three inches in an hour ; and Dr. Hales, in his Statics, has Shown, that the leaves are the prin- cipal organs of tranfpiration. He likewife considers them to be the instruments which raife the fap. But it has Since been difcovered, that coloured liquors rife equally high in * Ocuvres, torn. i. p. 140. M OF NATURAL HISTORY. 88 branches deprived of leaves, and that they do not rife at all in dried plants. Hence the fap of vegetables is not taken up in the fame manner as a fpunge imbibes water, but is for- ced to afcend by an unknown aaion of the veffels. The fpring of the tracheae may put in motion the air they con- tain, and that air may have fome influence on the general movement. But, by whatever powers the fap is moved, the existence of the motion is certain ; and it is equally certain, that this movement of the fap produces the fame effeas inthe vegetable, that the force of the heart and arteries does in the animal. The motion of the fap in vegetables, is not properly a cir- culation fimilar to that of the blood in the more perfea ani- mals. It afcends and defcends in the fame veffels ; and thefe motions are evidently affeaed by heat and cold. The fap rifes copioufly in a warm day, and defcends during the night, nearly in the fame manner as the mercury rifes and falls in the thermometer. But, though the analogy here fails with regard to man and the larger animals, yet it holds in the ta- enia, the polypus, and many other infeas, which exhibit not the fmalleft veftiges of circulation in their juices. The pith, or medullary fubftance of plants, has fome re- femblance to the brain and fpinal-marrow of animals. When the texture of the brain or fpinal-marrow is destroyed, life is extinguished ; and, when the pith of plants is deftroyed or dried up by age, they no longer retain the power of vegeta- ting. The leaves of plants are analogous to the lungs of an- imals. It is by the lungs that the perfpiration of animals is chiefly effeaed : and plants difcharge moft of their fuperflu- ous moifture by the leaves. They expofe a large furface to the aaion of the fun, which produces a tranfpiration fo copi- ous, that fome plants throw out fifteen or twenty times more in a given period, than is difcharged from the human body. When a plant is deprived of its leaves in fummer, inftead of 34 THE PHILOSOPHY ripening its fruit, it is in great danger of dying for want of thofe organs which carry off the fuperfluous juices that anfe from the root. A plant, in this Situation, may be considered as labouring under an afthma, or dying of a fuffocation. Befide the leaves, plants tranfpire by the pores of the Skin. But the quantity emitted in this manner is not nearly equal to that which iffues from the leaves. The fame thing hap- pens with regard to man and quadrupeds. Though they like- wife perfpire through the Skin, yet by much the greater quan- tity of perfpirable matter is difcharged by the lungs. Befide throwing out fuperfluous or noxious matter by the leaves, plants, by the fame organs, abforb from the atmofphere, and perhaps from the Sun's rays, fome unknown matter, which is neceffary to their exiftence. The lungs of animals likewife derive, from the fame fources, a particular matter or princi- ple, without which life could not long be continued. Another analogy between the Struaure of plants and an- imals merits obfervation. The round bones of animals con- fift of concentric Strata or plates, which can be eafily fepara- ted ; and the wood of plants confift of concentric layers of hardened veffels, which feparate when macerated in water. A tree acquires an additional ring every year ; and, by coun- ting thefe rings, a pretty exaa estimation of its age may be attained. Thebranches of plants have been considered as analogous to the arms or tentacula of animals. But this is one of thofe ftrained analogies which fhould be carefully avoided. The great ufe of branches is evident. By producing an amazing number of leaves, a large furface is expofed to the air and fun, to anfwer the important purpofes of tranfpiration and abforp- tion. If there is any thing in plants analogous to the arms or tentacula of animals, it muft be confined to fuch fpecies as twift themfelves around poles or trees, as the ivy, the vine, the convolvulus, &c. and to fuch asfupport their trunks on OF NATURAL HISTORY. 35 other bodies by means of little hooks, as the goofe-grafs, and many other kinds. All thefe analogies, it may be remarked, are confined to large animals and large vegetables; but they hold not inthat numerous tribe of plants called graffes. Inftead of being filled with wood and pith, their Stems are perfeaiy hollow ; and, to fortify thefe plants, Nature has beftowed on them Strong joints or knots, which are placed at regular distances in each fpecies. But, though fome of the analogies which fubfift be- tween the larger animals and vegetables exift not in the fmal- Ier plants, this circumftance, inftead of infringing, confirms the general plan of nature. To difcover the analogies be- tween tubular plants and animals, we muft examine the Struc- ture of the minuter tribes of animated beings. The graffes have neither pith nor wood internally ; and the polypus, the taenia, and many other infeas, have no bones, heart, or in- teftines, but are Simple tubes, perfeaiy refembling the empty Stems of the gramineous plants. Befides, the ligneous, or at leaft the herbaceous part of thefe plants, is placed on the out- Side, fimilar to the cruftaceous and Shell animals, whofe bones are Situated externally. Another analogy muft not be omit- ted. The fucculent vegetables, fuch as the houfe-leek, the muShroom tribes, and many fea-plants, confift almoft entirely of a pulpy or parenchymatous fubftance, and may be crufhed to a jelly by the Slighteft preffure. The texture of worms, caterpillars, and of all the foft infeas, is extremely fimilar to that of the fucculent vegetables. II. GROWTH and NOURISHMENT. THE fecond fource of analogies between the plant and an- imal is derived from the modes of their growth and nourish- ment. Many ingenious theories have been invented, with a view to explain the myfterious operation by which the growth 36 THE PHILOSOPHY and nourifliment of animals and vegetables are effeaed. But I fhall confine myfelf, at prefent, to fuch remarks as are pure- ly analogical, and may be fully underftood without a minute knowledge of the different ways by which growth and nour- ishment have been fuppofed to be accomplished. Animals,like vegetables, gradually expand from an embryo or gelatinous State, and, according to their kinds, arrive foon- er or later at perfeaion. This expansion and augmentation of fubftance is the idea conveyed by the word growth. With- out fome nutritious matter taken into the body, and aflimila- ted, by the aaion of veffels, to the fubftance of the being that receives it, growth cannot take place. Moifture is the chief food of plants. But the food of animals, in general, va- ries with the fpecies. This faa led fome philofophers to con- clude, that every plant extraaed from the foil a food peculiar to its own nature. It was, however, afterwards difcovered, by repeated experiments, that vegetables can grow, and ac- quire a very considerable degree of bulk and weight, without exhaufting a perceptible quantity of the earth in which they are planted. Thefe experiments are a fuSficient proof, that moifture constitutes the chief nourishment of plants. They likewife indicate, that vegetables,however di- versified in their figure, denfity, and fibrous ?.rrangement,are more fimple in their texture than animals. But, notwith- standing thefe feeming differences in the nourifhment of plants and animals, Nature fails not to obferve the famecourfe in both kingdoms. The food of the animal, before it is con- verted into' nourifliment, muft go through the intricate procefs of digeftion. But, after the food has been con- verted into chyle, and the chyle into blood, this blood be- comes a common fluid, from which all nourishment and all animal fluids are derived. Here the analogy is apparent. Moifture is to the plant precifely what blood is to the animal. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 37 Each of them extraas its nourifliment from a common fluid 5 and, in both, this fluid is changed, by the aaion of veffels, into the various juices peculiar to the different fpecies. When growth firft commences, the embryos of plants and animals are in fimilar circumstances. Soon after conception, the foetus is inclofed in its membranes, and is nourifhed, till mature for birth, by blood which it receives from the uterus and placenta. In the fame manner, the embryo of a plant is inclofed in the membranes of the feed ; and its fibrous roots are fpread over the lobes or pulpy part. After the feed is fown, and vegetation commences, the embryo is nourished by moifture, which the lobes abforb from the earth, and convey it to the minute tubes of the feminal root. In many plants, thefe lobes rife above the furface of the ground, in the form of leaves, and continue to nourish and protea the tender plume or ftem, till it acquires Strength fuSficient to fupport the affaults of the air and weather. A plant, in this Situation, may be faid lo have two roots ; one, the fibres of which are diffufed through the fubftance of the lobes, or feminal leaves, and another attached to the foil. The nourishment thus conveyed to vegetables by the fem- inal leaves, is extremely analogous to that of animals by the milk of the mother. The texture of young animals is fo lax and unelaftic, that the food fuited to maturer years would foon put a period to their exiftence. But Nature has provi- ded againft this inconveniency. She has endowed females with a fet of veffels deftined for the fecretion of a mild liquor, fo far concerted and animalized as to be adapted to the ten- der and flaccid condition of their young. A fimilar provi- sion of nourishment is afforded to the young vegetable. For fome time after the plume and radicle have begun to Shoot, their texture is fo extremely tender, that they are unable to fupport each other without fome foreign aid. This aid is af- forded them bv the feminal leaves. Thefe leaves abforb dews, E 38 THE PHILOSOPHY air, and other fine fluids, which are concoaed and affimilated in the veffels of the feminal root, and then conveyed, in a kind of vegetable form, to the feeble veffels of the plume. Hence it is apparent, that the nourifhment of young animals by milk, and of young vegetables by feminal leaves, is the fame institution of nature, and effeaed by fimilar instruments. Plants, like animals, pafs gradually from an embryo, or in- fant State, to that of puberty. At this period of their exift- ence, they have acquired that firmnefs of texture, and that evolution of parts, which constitute the perfeaion of their natures, and enable them to produce beings every way fimilar to themfelves. In both kingdoms, the age of puberty arrives later or more early, according to the difference of fpecies. Some animals live a few months only. Many of the infea tribes are produced, grow to maturity, propagate their kind, and die in the courfe of a Single feafon. Others, as fevtra! flies, beetles, &c. exift two years. Thus animals have a pro- grefEve duration of life. The dormoufe lives Six years, the hare feven or eight, the bear twenty or twenty five, the cam- el forty or fifty, the rhinoceros feventy or eighty, the ele- phant two hundred ; and fome birds and fifhes are fuppofed to exift during three or four centuries. The fame progreffive duration takes place among vegetables. Some plants are an- nual, as moft of the efculent kinds ; others, as the hedge- parfley, the wild carrot, the parfnip, the fox-glove, the fcurvy grafs, &c. are biennial ; others exift three, five, feven, ten, twenty, thirty, Sixty, and a hundred years ; and the oak, like the elephant and thofe birds and fifhes which are famed for longevity, continues to adorn the foreft for feveral centuries. The manner by which the nutritious particles are extraa- ed from food, is very fimilar in the animal and the plant. In the animal, this operation is performed by the laaeal veffels, which are distributed over the internal furface of the ftomach and inteftines. In the plant, the fame office is performed by OF NATURAL HISTORY. 39 the veffels of the root and leaves. Hence animals are orga- nized beings nourished by roots fituated within their bodies j and plants are organized bodies which abford their nourifh- ment by roots placed externally. Befides, in all viviparous animals, the foetus is nourished, not by food taken in at the mouth, but by veffels attached to the placenta. Thefe veffels perform the fame office to the foetus, that roots do to vege- tables. Warmth and moifture are favourable to the produaion of large and juicy plants ; and the animals that feed upon thefe fucculent and rich vegetables, are likewife larger than thofe which inhabit cold countries, where the plants are fmaller, more rigid, and contain fewer nutritive particles. Some plants grow in particular climates only. The tubus arBicus, a fpecies of bramble, fo common in Norway and Ca- nada, hardly endures the climate of Upfal, in Sweden. But the alfine media, or chickweed, and feveral graffes, are diffu- fed over almoft the whole globe. In the fame manner, fome animals, as the camel, the rhinoceros, and the elephant, are produced in warm climates only ; while others, as the rein- deer, glutton, and marmot, are confined to the colder regions of the earth ; and man, in the animal, like fome graffes in the vegetable kingdom, is univerfal, and inhabits every climate. Some plants, as well as fome animals, are amphibious, as the rufh and the frog ; others are parafites, and feed on the juices they extraa from the different fpecies to which they adhere. The miffeltoe, for example, feeds upon the oak ; moft trees afford nourishment to certain moffes and fungous plants; and every animal is fed upon by fmaller kinds. The growth of plants, like that of animals, may be accele- rated or retarded by promoting or checking their perfpira- tion, and by excluding them from proper exercife and air. When men, or other animals, are confined to Situations which prevent the free accefs of pure air, their growth is 40 the ruiLOSoriiY retarded ; and their fickly colour indicates a defea of vigour. Plants, when placed in fimilar circumflances, are always weak, dwarfiSh, and unnaturally coloured. But exercife is equally neceffary to the health and vigour of plants, as it is to thofe of animals. The exercife of animals is effected by various kinds of fpontaneous motion. Plants are likewife exercifed by motion ; but that motion is not voluntary -, it is commu- nicated to them by the aaion of the air. The agitation which they receive from the winds enables them to extend their roots, prevents them from a growth too rapid, and, of courfe, Strengthens their whole fabric. It is owing to the want of this agitation, that plants brought up in houfes, or in other confined fituations, fhoot out to an unnatural length; that their items and branches are always flender and weak ; and that they ripen not their fruit like thofe which are expo- fed to the open air. To conclude this branch of the fubjea, plants and animals are fo nearly allied, that their growth and nourishment are not only effeaed by fimilar instruments, but fome parts of an- imal bodies evidently partake of a vegetable nature. Thus, the hairs, the nails, the beaks, and the horns, are a fpecies of vegetables, as appears from their comparative total infenfibil- ity, as well as from the mode of their growth and repro- duction. III. DISSEMINATION and DECAY. WE fhall next take an analogical view of the diffemination and decay of the animal and vegetable. The power of reproduaion is peculiar to the plant and animal. Each of them is capable of producing beings every way fimilar to the parent. But the modes by which this An- gular effea is accomplished, are very different in appearance. It is our prefent purpbfe to remove this apparent difference, and to fhow that animals and vegetables multiply their fpecies in a manner extremely analogous. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 41 Animals have long been divided into viviparous and ovipa- rous. The one clafs produce their young alive, the other lay eggs, which muft be hatched either by the heat of the fun, or by that of the mother. This division, though very comprehensive, is not perfea. Several animals have lately been difcovered which are neither viviparous nor oviparous ; and there are animals which unite both thefe modes of mul- tiplication. The viviparous AaCs comprehends men, quadrupeds, and fome SiShes, reptiles, and infeas. The oviparous includes birds, fome reptiles, and moft of the infea tribes. But the armed polypus, or hydra of Linnaeus, inftead of being either viviparous or oviparous, multiplies its fpecies, as formerly remarked, by fending off Shoots from the body of the parent. Another fpecies, called the bell-polypus, or hydrafientorea of Linnaeus, multiplies by fplitting longitudinally. In twenty- four hours, thefe divisions, which adhere to a common pedicle, refplit, and form four diftina animals. Thefe four, in an equal time, again fplit; and thus they proceed doub- ling their numbers daily, till they acquire a figure* fomewhat refembling a nofegay. The young afterwards feparate from the parent ftock, attach themfelves to the roots or leaves of aquatic plants, and each individual gives rife to a new colony. The funnel-Shaped polypus multiplies by fplitting tranf- verfely. Of the individuals, accordingly, which proceed from this division, one has the old head and a new tail, and the other a new head and the old tail. The fuperior division fwims off, and fixes itfelf to fome other fubftance ; but the inferior division remains attached to the former pedicle. The dart-millepes affords another example of multiplica- tion by fpontaneous feparation. This infea divides, about two-thirds below the head, into two diftina and perfea ani- nials ; and it feems to poffefs no other mode of continuing the fpecies. 42 THE PHILOSOPHY The multiplication of the various animalcules which ap- pear in infufions of animal and vegetable fubftances, long oc- cupied the attention, and eluded the refearches of philofo- phers. This difcovery of the increafo of fome larger animals by fpontaneous divifion, gave rife to the conjeaurc, that thefe microfcopic animalcules might multiply their numbers in a fimilar manner. This conjeaure was communicated to M. de Sauffure in a letter from Bonnet, who received an anfwer, dated at Genoa, September 28, 1769, to the following purpofe. « What you propofe as a doubt,' fays M de Sauffure, «I * have verified by incontestable experiments, namely, that 1 infufion-animalcules multiply by continued divisions and < fubdivifions. Thofe roundifh or oval animalcules that * have no beak or hook on the fore part of their bodies, * divide tranfverfely. A kind of ftriaure, or Strangulation f begins about the middle of the body, which gradually in- f creafes, till the two parts adhere by a fmall thread only. t Then both parts make repeated efforts, till the divifion is * completed. For fometime after feparation, the two animals f remain in a feemingly torpid State. They afterwards be- ( gin to fwim about brifkly. Each part is only one half the f Size of the whole ; but they foon acquire the magnitude ' peculiar to the fpecies, and multiply by fimilar divisions.' ( To obviate every doubt,' continues our author, «I put a ( Single animalcule into a drop of water, which fplit before c my eyes. Next day I had five, the day after, Sixty, f and, on the third day, their number was fo great, that it was * impoffible to count them*. f Another fpecies, with a beak or horn on the fore part of t its body, which I obtained from an infufion of hemp-feed, ( multiplied likewife by divifion, but in a manner Still more t Angular than the former. This animalcule, when about to * La Palingenefie Philofophique, par C. Bonnet, torn p. 428. 479. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 43 1 divide, attaches itfelf to the bottom of the infuSion, contraas 1 its body, which is naturally oblong, into a fpherical form, < fo that the beak entirely difappears. It then begins to ' move briSkly round, fometimes from right to left, and < fometimes from left to right, the centre of motion being f always fixed. Towards the end, its motion accelerates, f, and, inftead of a uniform fphere, two crofs-like divisions f begin to appear. Soon after, the creature is greatly agi- ' tated, and Splits into four animalcules perfeaiy fimilar, ' though fmaller than that from which they were produced. 1 Thefe four increafe to the ufual Size, and each, in its turn, 1 fubdivides into other four*.' &c. The beauties of nature have been juftly celebrated in the uniformity of her produaions. This uniformity was early remarked, and gave rife to the ancient divifion ofanimals into viviparous and oviparous, which continued to be adopt- ed as an univerfal maxim till within thefe hundred years. Before this period, it was believed by philofophers, that all animals were either brought forth alive,or hatched from eggs. Among the ancients, indeed, and even down to the time of the celebrated Redi, this maxim included chiefly the more perfea animals ; for, with regard to moft of the infea tribes, they imagined that thefe were produced by putrefaaion, and the admixture of particular kinds of matter. But Redi, by a feries of unquestionable experiments, exploded the doarine of the equivocal generation of infeas ; and then the maxim, without further investigation, was extended to the whole animal kingdom. Redi's experiments and remarks turned the attention of philofophers to the minuter tribes of animals. In the courle of a few years, accordingly, feveral eminent men arofe. Reaumur, Bonnet, Trcmbley, Ellis, Spalanzani, and a multitude of other writers, opened new views with re- * Idem, p. 430, 4 4t THE PHILOSOPHY gard to the manners and oeconomy of animated beings*. M. Bonnet has furnifhed inconteftible evidence, that feveral fpe- cies of the puceron, or vine-fretter, are both oviparous and viviparous. In fummer, thefe infeas bring forth their young alive ; but, in autumn, they depofit eggs upon the bark and branches of trees. Here the intention of nature is apparent. The puceron is unable to furvive the winter colds; and, there- fore, though viviparous during the warm months, the fpecies could not be continued without this wife provision. The puceron, it Should appear, is naturally difpofed to produce live young. The foetus is inclofed in a membrane, which, like that of the larger animals, burfts before exclufion. But, when the cold feafon commences, the general texture of the ani- mals, as well as the membranes inclofingthe foetus, becomes more firm and tenacious ; and this, perhaps is the phyfical reafon why they are viviparous in fummer, and oviparous in autumn. Many other flies are known to be viviparous. Upon further examination, all thefe will probably be difcov- ered to be alfo oviparousf. The puceron exhibits another phaenomenon Still more Angular. The maxim, that multiplication prefuppofed im- pregnation by fexual embraces, was formerly thought to be univerfal. Neither Should the reception of this maxim be regarded as a matter of wonder; for it was founded on a very general and Strong analogy* But the following faas Show, that nature, though uniform in many Steps of her progrefs, is not invariably limited to the fame mode of operation. On the 20th day of May, M. Bonnet took a young puceron, the moment after dropping from the womb of its mother, and fhut it up in a glafs veffel, to prevent all poSIibility of communication with any individual of the fpecies. A fprig of the tree on which the animal was produced, fupplied it • Traite d'Infe&ologie, par C. Bonnet, torn. i.p. 194.—202. f See Reaumur, torn, 8. edit, i2mo, p. J53. et flq. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 45 with nourilhment. The creature changed its Skin four times, namely, on the 23d, 26th, 29th, and 31ft days of the fame month. After a minute detail of circumstances, M. Bonnet informs us, that his imprifoned puceron grew with rapidity ; that, on the 1ft day of June, it brought forth ; and that, from this day to the 21ft, it produced no lefs than 95 young, all full of life and vigour*. He frequently repeated this ex- periment, and it was always followed with the fame event. M. Bonnet, fufpeaing that a Single impregnation might influence both the mother and her immediate offspring, re- folved to obviate every difficulty. For this purpofe, he con- fined, in feparate glaffes, young of the fuccefiive births, as they dropped from their mothers. Each of thefe, however, were equally fertile, though he continued the experiment to the ninth generation from the original parentf. Faas of this kind, which feem to interrupt the ordinary current of nature, Should irJpire philofophers with caution. They fhould create reverence for fuch of *-er operations as are already known ; but tht;y Should likewife check that rafh Spirit which foo frequently diaws unlimited conclusions, be- fore the Subject be fully investigated. Of all induaions regarding the hiftory of nature, the neceffity of fexual com- merce for multiplying the fpecies appeared to be the moft general and the moit legitimate. The oeconomy of the pu- ceron, however, demonstrates, that even this law is not indif- penfable, and that nature has the power of changing her Steps, and of accomplishing the fame purpofes by various means. Having enumerated the different modes by which animals - multiply their fpecies, I Shall next Show, that the multiplica- tion of vegetables is extremely analogous. The viviparous, as well as the oviparous animals, are fup- pofed to proceed from eggs, with this difference, that the * Bonnet,Traite d'lnfc&ologie, torn. i. p. 39.; and Reaumur, torn. 13,p, 353. f Bonnet, 1 raite d'Infedologie, torn. 1. p. 74, ct feq. F 46* -THE THlLOSOPHf young of the viviparous are hatched in the uterus previous to their exclufion. Many Striking anologies fubfift between the eggs of ani- mals and the feeds of plants. When placed in proper cir- cumflances, they both produce young every way fimilar to the parents. To accomplish this wonderful effea, the egg re- quires impregnation and heat. Moifture, warmth, and foil, or fome fimilar matrix, are neceffary for the exclufion of the young plant. This analogy has been extended much farther by Linnaeus, and other fupporters of the fexual fyftem of plants. They maintain, that impregnation is equally indif- penfable to the vegetation of the feed, as to the fertility of the egg. But, as this doarine will be difcuffed when we come to treat of fexes in general, we Shall here difmifs it without farther remark. Eggs are not only analogous to feeds, in their general def- tination of reproducing individuals, and continuing the fpe- cies, but there is a great fimilarity in the ftruaure and ufes of their refpeaive organs. The internal parts of the egg are covered with a cruft or fhell, and two membranes. Befide thefe, the yoke is includ- ed in a feparate membrane. When the two firft membranes are removed, the white appears every way investing the yoke. In the white, or rather on the membrane of the yoke, a fmall cicatrice is difcernible, in the centre of which is the punBum fattens, or embryo of the future animal. After two or three days incubation, this punBum faliens becomes red, and Shoots out blood-veffels, which are difperfed through the yoke, in the fame manner as the veffels of a foetus are distributed over the placenta. A feed is likewife covered with a fhell, or cruftaceous membrane. Another membrane invefts the whole ker- nel, or pulpy lobes of the feed. Each lobe, like the yoke of the egg, is involved in a feparate membrane. In OF NATURAL HISTORY. 47 every feed there is alfo a fmall cicatrice, or aperture, through which the young plant iffues. Immediately under this ci- catrice, the plume, or future plant, is difcernible, refembling the punBums faliens of the egg. The branches of the radicle proceed from this plume, and are difperfed through the fub- ftance of the lobes, in the fame manner as the blood-veffels iffue from the punBum faliens of the egg, and are diftributed over the yoke. It is by the pulp of the lobes that the radicle and plume are nourifhed,till the one Shoots down into the foil, and the other mounts above the furface. In feeds, there is nothing analogous to the white of an egg. Such a provision would have been fuperfluous ; for the earth, in which the feeds are to germinate, muft always be moift, otherwife the young plant could not receive nourishment, after iffuing from the feed. Beiides, the eggs of fifhes have no white, becaufe they are perpetually moiftened with water. The analogies arising from the multiplication of animals and plants, by means of eggs and feeds, are the moft com- mon, and the moft obvious. Eggs and feeds are evidently organs formed on the fame plan, and deftined by Nature to anfwer the fame general intention : But the multiplication of plants, as well as that of animals, is not confined folely to one mode. The young of viviparous animals, though they probably originate from fmall eggs, are not brought forth till they have acquired a certain age and firmnefs of texture. It may be thought, that there is no multiplication of plants which has any refemblance to that of viviparous animals. We fhould reflea, however, that plants can multiply by buds. Now, a bud has no analogy, either in texture or appearance, to a feed. Buds arife from the Stems or branches of vege- tables. One objea in their formation is to produce leaves and branches, as well as to extend the length of the trunk or ftem. But they are likewife endowed with the faculty of 48 THE PHILOSOPHY reproducing new individuals. In this refpea, trees and drubs may be confidered as viviparous plants ; becaufe they produce out of their own bodies an organ, which, though difT fering in every view from a feed, is brought forth alive, and, when properly cherifhed, is converted into a being perfeaiy fimilar to the parent, and capable of continumg its fpecies. The embryo of a bud commences its exiftence under the bark. Here it remains, for fome time, inclofed in membra- nous coverings, and attached to the bark by minute fibres, which convey to it a nourifhment fuited to its condition. When arrived at a certain Size and confiftence, it pierces the bark, and Shoots out into the open air. If allowed to re-» main on the parent, it foon burfts through its membranes, and, in time, gives rife to a new branch : But, when detach- ed from the parent, and placed in proper circumflances, it becomes a new individual of the fame fpecies. Bulbous rooted plants furnifh a Still Stronger analogy be- tween the increafe of viviparous animals and that of vegeta- bles. In the end of autumn, if the coats of any bulbous , root be carefully diffeaed, the entire plant in minature will appear in the centre of the root. In fpring, this fmall plant, like a foetus inclofed in the uterus, pierces the coats of which the root confifts, and gradually grows till it flowers, ripens its feeds, and dies at the approach of winter, when a new plant is again formed in the old root. Here we have an example of the multiplication of plants Similar to that of the puceron ; but the order of time is reverfed. The puce- ron is viviparous in fummer, and oviparous in autumn ; but bulbous-rooted plants may be confidered as oviparous in fummer, and viviparous in autumn. The fame analogy is to be traced in thofe roots which have what are called eyes, like the potatoe. Thefe eyes are all plants in minature, which live in that State during the winter, and, when committed to the foil, come to maturity in fummer. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 4t There are Still other modes of multiplying common to the animal and vegetable. Many plants are multiplied by fuckers, flips, and cuttings. The animal kingdom furnifhes examples of all thefe modes of multiplication. The fuckers of plants have an exaa anal- ogy to the Shoots of a polypus. When feparated from the parent, the fucker becomes a perfea plant, and the fhoot of the polypus a perfea animal. Plants are capable of multi- plication by flips and cuttings : And the portions of a poly- pus, however fmall, or when cut in any direaion, repro- duce, and become perfea animals of the fame fpecies. But fome fpecies of the polypus, the dart-millepes, and Several animalcules which appear in infufions of animal and vegetable fubftances, multiply by fplitting, or fpontaneous feparation. Here the analogy between the animal and vege- table might be fuppofed to fail. The water-lentil, however, a fmall plant, which covers the furface of ftagnating pools, multiplies its fpecies by detaching tlun films from the under fide of the leaf. Thefe films or tender leaves produce roots, and vegetate into a regular plant. We muft not difmifs this iubjea till another analogy be unfolded. All animals have feafons peculiar to their respec- tive kinds. Some of the larger animals produce in the fpring, others in fummer, others in autumn, and others in winter. With regard to the infea tribes, their feafons are Still more various. Every month, every week of the year, gives birth to different fpecies. The Seafons of plants are diversified in a fimilar manner. The growth of different vegetables is diftributed over the whole year. Particular tribes fpring up at the fame uniform periods. In this beau- tiful diverfity of arrangement, the intentions of Nature are evident. If all plants were to rufh forward at the fame time, they would infallibly choke each other. The furface &f the earth could not afford them room. Nature has. there.- 30 THE PHILOSOPHY fore wifely ordained, that the earth fhould always be cover- ed with plants : But fhe has alfo ordained, that particular tribes Should die at Stated periods, to make way for the ex- iftence of others. The fame inconvenience would happen if the produaion of all aaimals, and particularly that vaft number of fpecies, and that immenfe profufion of individu. als, to which the infea tribes give birth, were to take place at one period. The air would be fo crowded with noxious creatures, that neither man nor the larger animals could poffi. bly exift. Befides, the fpecies which feed upon particular plants, if they were produced at a time when thefe plants did not flourish, would infallibly perifh for want of food. In Lapland, where the duration of heat is extremely fhort, the whole infeas which inhabit that dreary and barren region are produced in a few weeks. Though the number of fpe-, cies,. compared with thofe of the more prolific climates, be very limited, the inconvenience is feverely felt. But every natural evil is accompanied with fome advantage. The rein- deer, upon which the exiftence of the Laplanders chiefly de- pends, are tormented by the fwarms of flies. To avoid their numberlefs enemies, thefe animals leave the vallies, and afcend the mountains, where the cold is too great for the flies to follow. In thefe lofty regions, the rein-deer feed during the hot feafon, and return to the vallies after the cold has deftroyed the myriads of infeas. This forced migration has too good effeas : It both preferves the health of the rein-deer, and the vegetables in the vallies, which otherwife would have been prematurely exhaufted. The operation of engrafting was long thought to be pecu- liar to the vegetable kingdom. But M. Trembley found, that feveral fpecies of the frefh-water polypus could fuccefs- fully undergo this wonderful procefs. Since his time, it has been difcovered, that the aBinia, or fea-nettle, is likewife capable of being engrafted to an individual of the fame or of OF NATURAL HISTORY. SI a different fpecies. In all thefe inftances, the portions of the divided animals grow together, and become diftina in- dividuals. Having traced the general analogies between the Struaure and oeconomy of the animal and vegetable, from the rudi- ments of their exiftence till they have acquired full maturi- ty, and performed the neceffary office of multiplying their fpecies, we proceed to the laft and only melancholy branch of this fubjea, the unavoidable decay and death of every fuc- ceffive individual in both kingdoms. It is an invariable law of Nature, that all organized bodies fhould have a constant tendency to diffolution. But the periods of their exiftence vary according to the fpecies. Previous to aaual refolution, plants as well as animals are fubjea to a number of analogous affeaions and difeafes. When over-heated, plants Show evident marks of languor and fatigue : Their leaves become flaccid, their Items and branches bend toward the earth, their juices evaporate, and their whole texture affumes the appearances of weaknefs and decay. The application of too great a degree of cold makes the flowers, the leaves, the bark, and even the woody fibres, fhrivel and contraa in their dimensions. When deprived of proper light and air, their colours fade, and they foon ac- quire a lurid and Sickly afpea. They are likewife fubjea to be Starved for want of nourifliment. The growth of plants, as well as that of animals, is checked by fcanty fupplies of food. When the foil or Situation is unkindly, vegetables are always weak and dwarfish, and their prolific powers are di- minished. They may alfo be poifoned by the abforption of fluids hoftile to their constitution. Befide thefe general af- feaions, common to the plant and animal, vegetables are in- jured and often killed, by particular difeafes. Some difeafes attack the leaves only, and produce Spots of various colours, rugofities, puftules, galls, &c. Others are 52 THE PHILOSOPHY peculiar to the flowers and fruit, and often occafion barren- nefs for a feafon ; and fometimes this Sterility continues dur- ing the exiftence of the plant. Others affault the vifcera, or internal organs, and gave rife to obftruaions, tumors, and a gradual refolution and corruption of the whole fabrick. Many of the difeafes of plants are produced by the infect tribes. Their wounds an J depredations are not confined to particular parts, but extend from the root to the ftem, branch- es, leaves, flowers, and fruit. Infeas not only injure the fubftance of plants, but, by feeding on their juices, deprive them of a part of their nourifhment, and occafion various dif- eafes or changes in their organization. Other difeafes of plants derive their origin from change of climate, from iniaf- mata or noxious vapours in the atmofphere, and from im- proper culture. When wounded by external injuries, vege- tables difcharge their blood in copious ftreams. If the wound be not mortal, the fibres on all fides gradually fhoot out and clofe the fraaure by a callous fubftance. From this general enumeration, it is obvious, that the difeafes of plants are not only Similar to thofe of animals, but proceed from the fame caufes. In both kingdoms, fome difeafes are only partial or fuperficial, and are cured either by Nature, or by the afliftance of art. Others are mortal, and fucceeded by a total putrefaaion or decomposition of the individual. But, though plants Should efcape the raumberlefs difeafes which daily threaten them, they have no defence againft the flower approaches of old age, and its unavoidable confequence, death. In progrefs of time, the veffels gradually harden and lofe their tone. The juices no longer move with equal celerity as in youth. They are not abforbed with the fame precision. They at laft Stagnate and corrupt. This corrup- tion is foon communicated to the veffels in which the juices are contained, and produces a total ceffation of all the vital funaions. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 53 The life of animals is diversified by a number of fucceSfive changes. Infancy, youth, manhood, old age, are charaaer- ifed by imbecility, beauty, fertility, dotage. All thefe vicif- Situdes are confpicuous in the vegetable world. Weak and tender in infancy, beautiful and vigorous in youth, robuft and fruitful in manhood, and, when old age approaches, the head droops, the fprings of life dry up, and the tottering vegetable, like the animal, returns to that duft from which it fprung. Upon the whole, by taking a retrofpeaive view of the ex- treme difficulty of afcertaining the boundaries which distin- guish the animal from the vegetable, and of the Similarities in their ftruaure and organs, in their growth and nourish- ment, in their diffemination and decay, it is apparent, that both thefe kingdoms constitute the fame order of beings, and that Nature, in the formation of them, has operated upon one great and common model. G 54 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II. Of the organs and generalfiruBure of Animals—A port view of the external and internal parts of the human body—Thisfiruc* ture compared with thofe of Quadrupeds, Birds, Fipes, and In- feBs—How far peculiarities of firuBure are conneBed with peculiarities of manners and difpofitions. IN treating of this fubjea, it is not intended to dive into the depths of anatomical refearch. On the con- trary, I Shall exhibit Short views only of the general Struc- ture and organization of the various claffes of animated beings, from man, who is the moft perfea animal of which we have any knowledge, down to the infea tribes. Con- fidering man, therefore, as the Standard of animal perfeaion, we fhall inftitute frequent comparifons, and mark peculiar diftinaions between him and the brute creation, both with re- gard to form, manners and fagacity. By following this plan, I hope I fhall be enabled to render a fubjea which at fir ft fight, may have a forbidding afpea, both, interesting and a- greeable. STRUCTURE OF MAN. The bones may be regarded as the bafis upon which the human body is conftruaed. The fpine, or back-bone, con- fifts of a number of vertebrae, or fmall bones, conneaed to- gether by cartilages, articulations, and ligaments. In the centre of each vertebrae there is a foreman, or a hole, for the lodgement and continuation of the fpinal marrow, which ex- tends from the brain to the rump. From thefe vertebrae the arched bones called ribs proceed •, and feven of them join the breaft-bone on each Side, where they terminate in cartilages, and form the cavity of the thorax, or cheft. This cavity contains the heart and lungs ; and the oefophagus, or OF NATURAL HISTORY. 55 gullet, paffes through it to reach the ftomach. The five lower ribs, with a number of mufcles, form another cavity termed the abdomen, or belly, in which are contained the ftomach, the bowels, the omentum, or cawl, the liver, the gall-bladder, the fpleen, the pancreas, and the kidneys. The cheft and abdomen are feparated from each other by the diaphragm, or midriff. The lower part of this laft cavity contains the bladder of urine, and the reaum, or termination of the in- teftines. Befide thefe, in females, the pelvis includes the uterus and its appendages. This part of the cavity is form- ed by the os facrum, or termination of the back-bone, and the two offa innominata. The bones of the cranium and face are very numerous. They are conneaed together by means of futures, articula- tions, and membranes. The bones of the cranium include the brain and its two membranous coverings, called the pia and dura mater, and the medulla oblongata, of which laft the fpinal marrow is a prolongation. The bones of the upper and under jaw form another cavity for the reception of the tongue and organs of fpeech. The only remaining bones are thofe of the upper and lower extremities. The Shoulder and collar bones articulate with the top of the arm and the breaft-bone. The arm-bone, or os humeri, is joined to the two bones of the fore-arm, call- ed ulna and radius, and thefe laft to the bones of the carpus, or wrift, by means of articulations and firm membranes. To the bones of the wrift, thofe of the metacarpus and fingers are attached in a Similar manner. With regard to the lower extremities, the thigh-bone ar- ticulates above with the hip-bone, and below with the leg- bone and the rotula, or knee-pan. The leg, like the fore- arm, is compofed of two bones, the tibia and fibula, which articulate with each other, and with the tarfal, or heel-bones of the foot; and to thefe laft the metatarfal bones, and thofe of the toes, are joined. 56 THE PHILOSOPHY From this outline, fome idea may be formed of the human Skeleton. The other parts of which our bodies are compof- ed fhall be mentioned in the fame curfory manner. The mufcular part of the human fabric confifts of numer- ous bundles of flefhy fibres. Each bundle or diftina muScle, is inclofed in a cellular membrane, by which means they may be raifed, or feparated from one another by the hand of the anatomift. They are inferted, by Strong tendinous ex- tremities, into the different bones of which the Skeleton is compofed, and, by their contraaion and diftenfion, give rife to all the movements of the body. The mufcles, therefore, may be confidered as fo many cords attached to the bones ; and Nature has fixed them according to the moft perfea principles of mechanifm, fo as to produce the fitteft motions in the bones or parts for the movement of which they are intended. The heart is a hollow mufcular organ of a conical fhape, and confifts of four diftina cavities. The two largeft are Called ventricles, and the two fmalleft auricles. The heart is inclofed in the pericardium, a membranous bag, which like- wife contains a quantity of water, or lymph. This water lu- bricates the heart, and facilitates all its motions. The heart is the general refervoir of the blood. By the contraaions and dilations of this mufcle, the blood is alternately thrown out of, and received into, its feveral cavities. When the heart contraas, the blood is propelled from the right ventri- cle into the lungs through the pulmonary arteries, which, like all the other arteries, are furnifhed with valves that play eafily forward, but admit not the blood to regurgitate toward the heart. The blood, after circulating through the lungs, returns into the left ventricle of the heart by the pulmonary vein. At the fame inftant, the left ventricle drives the blood into the aorta, a large artery which fends off branches to Supply the head and arms. Another large branch of the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 57 aorta defcends along the infide of the back-bone, and detach- es numerous ramifications to nouriSh the vifcera and inferior extremities. After ferving the moft remote extremities of the body, the arteries are converted into veins, which, in their return toward the heart, gradually unite into larger branches, till the whole terminate in one great trunk called the vena cava, which difcharges itfelf into the right ventricle of the heart, and completes the circulation. Befide the heart, the thorax or cheft contains the lungs, or organs of refpiration. They are divided into five lobes, three of which lie on the right, and two on the left fide of the thorax. The fubftance of the lungs is chiefly compofed of infinite ramifications of the trachea or windpipe, which, after gradually becoming more and more minute, terminate in little cells or veficles, which have a free communication with one another. At each infpiration, thefe pipes and cells are filled with air, which is again difcharged by refpiration. In this manner, a circulation of air, which is neceffary to the exiftence of men and other animals, is constantly kept up as long as life remains. The instruments and procefs of digeftion fall next to be confidered. The ftomach is a membranous and mufcular bag furnifhed with two orifices : By the one it has a com- munication with the oefophagus, or gullet, and by the other with the bowels, which begin at the ftomach and terminate at the anus. In the ftomach and inteftines there are im- menfe numbers of minute veffels called laBeals, the mouths of which are constantly open for the reception of the nutri- tious particles. After being moiftened and lubricated by the faliva, the food is received into the ftomach, where it is Still farther diluted by the gaftric juice, which has the power of diflblving every kind of animal and vegetable fubftance. When the food has remained fome time in the ftomach, it is reduced to a grnyifh pulp, nixed with fome chylous or 58 THE PHILOSOPHY milky particles. The thinner and more perfeaiy digefted parts of the food gradually pafs through the pylorus, or lower aperture of the ftomach, into the inteftines, where they are (till farther attenuated and digefted by the bile and pancrea- tic juices. While the food is in this fluid ftate, it receives the denomination of chyle, and is continually abforbed by the mouths of the laaeal veins. Thefe veffels arife, like net- work, from the inner fervice of the inteftines, gafs obliquely through their coats, and, running along the mefentery, unite, as they advance, into larger branches, and at laft terminate in the thoracic dua, or general receptacle of the chyle. Be- fide the laaeals, there is another fyftem of veffels called lymphatic, or abforbent veins : They are minute pellucid tubes, and generally lie clofe to the large blood-veffels. The lymphatics from all the lower parts of the body gradually unite as they approach the thoracic dua, into which they pour a colourlefs fluid by three or four large trunks ; and the lymphatics from all the fuperior parts of the body like- wife difcharge their lymph into the fame dua as it runs up- ward to terminate in the left fubclavian vein. By this cu- rious and beautiful machinery, the chyle and lymph, which confift of the nutritious matters extraaed from the food, enter the circulating fyftem, are converted into blood, and afford that constant fupply of nourishment which the per- petual wafte of our bodies demands. We fhall next give a Sketch of thofe important organs by which we are enabled to multiply and continue the fpecies. The circulation of the blood, and the mode by which the quantity of it is continually kept up by frefh fupplies of chyle, are effeas which, in fome meafure, correfpond with our ideas of the machinery employed. The organs of gener- ation exhibit a Still more complex fpecimen of exquifite mechanifm. But the machinery employed, without the aid of experience, could never fuggeft the moft diftant idea of the effea to be produced. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 59 In the male, the organs of generation confift of the teftes, the feminal veffels, and the penis. The teftes are two glan- dular bodies which poffefs the power of converting the blood into femen. They are originally formed and lodged in the abdomen 5 and it is not till after birth that they commonly pafs into the groin, and from thence fall into the fcrotum, which is a mufcular bag prepared for their reception and defence. The teftes of the hedgehog and of fome other quadrupeds remain in the abdomen during life. Inftances of the fame kind fometimes happen in the human fpecies. Each tefticle is compofed of the Spermatic artery and vein. The blood paffes very Slowly through the fpermatic artery, and produces an infinite number of convolutions in the fub- ftance of the tefticle, where it depofits the femen, which is taken up by the femeniferous tubes. Thefe tubes at length unite, and, by an immenfe number of circumvolutions, form a kind of appendix to the tefticle, commonly known by the term epidydymis. The tubes of the epidydymis, after termi- nating in an excretory dua called vas deferens, afcend toward the abdominal rings, and depofit the femen in the feminal veficles, which are two foft convoluted bodies Situated be- tween the reaum and bladder, and unite at their lower ex- tremity : From thefe refervoirs the femen is occasionally difch arged through the Short canals which open into the urethra. The penis is a cavernous and fpungy fubftance perforated longitudinally by a canal called urethra, which, by communicating with the bladder and feminal veffels, anfwers the double purpofe of difcharging both the urine and femen. With regard to the female organs, the uterus and its ap- pendages merit a principal attention. The uterus is a hol- low mufcular body Situated between the reaum and bladder, and, when not in an impregnated ftate, refembles a pear, with the thickest end turned toward the abdomen. The en- 60 THE PHILOSOPHY trance into the cavity of the uterus forms a fmall protuber- ance, which has been compared to the mouth of a tench, and from this circumftance it has received the name of os tincae. The uterus is conneaed to the fides of the pelvis by two broad ligaments, which fupport it in the vagina in a pendu- lous fituation. From each fide of the bottom of the uterus the two Fallopian tubes arife, pafs through the fubftance of the uterus, and extend along the broad ligaments till they reach the edge of the pelvis ; from whence they are reflea- ed backward, and turning over behind the ligaments, their extremities hang loofe in the pelvis. Thefe extremities, be- caufe they have a ragged appearance, are called fimbriae, or morfus diaboli: Each Fallopian tube is about three inches long. Their cavities are at firft very fmall, but become gra- dually larger, like a trumpet, as they approach the fimbriae. Near the fimbriae of each tube, about an inch from the uter- us, are fituated the ovaria, or two oval bodies, about half the Size of the male tefticle. They are covered with a produc- tion of the peritoneum, and hang loofe in the pelvis. In their fubftance there are feveral minute veficles filled with lymph. The number of thefe veficles feldom exceeds twelve in each ovarium. In mature females, thefe veficles become exceedingly turgid ; and a yellow coagulum gradual- ly forms in one of them, which increafes till its coat difap- pears. It then changes into a hemifpherical body called cor- pus luteum, which is defcribed as being hollow and containing within its cavity very minute eggs, each of which, it is fup- pofed, may be impregnated, and produce a foetus. After impregnation, one of thefe eggs, as we are informed by anat- omists, is abforbed by and paffes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus, where it is nourished till mature for birth. We fhall conclude this fubjea with a concife account of the instruments of fenfation. The organs hitherto defcribed convey nothing more than the idea of an automaton, or felf- ' OF NATURAL HfSTORY. 61 moving machine. But fenfation, or the perception of plea- iure and pain, is effeaed by organs of a peculiar kind. Thefe organs are all comprehended under the general appellation of the brain and nerves. Befide the bones of the cranium, the brain is inverted with two membranes, called dura and pia mater, becaufe they were fuppofed by the Arabians to be the lource of all the other membranes of the body. Under the denomination of brain are comprehended three diftina parts, the cerebrum, the cere- bellum, and medulla oblongata. The cerebrum is a foft medul- lary mafs, Situated in the anterior part of the Skull, and divid- ed, by a portion of the dura mater, into two hemifpheres. It confifts of two fubftance.;, the cortical, which is greyifh, and the medull.'.ry, which is fofter, and of a very white colour. The cerebellum is divided into two lobes, and its fubftance is firmer and more compaa than that of the cerebrum. It is likewife compofed of the cortical and medullary fubftances. The reunion of the medullary fubftances of the cerebrum and cerebellum, at the bafis of the fkull, forms the medulla oblongata, of which the fpinal marrow is a continuation. The brain of the human fpecies is proportionally much iarger than that of quadrupeds. The brain and fpinal marrow are fuppofed to be the origin of all the nerves or instruments of fenfation. The nerves are, in general, cineritious, Shining, inelaftic cords. But they differ from each other in fize, colour, and confidence. From numberlefs experiments and obfervations, it is unques- tionable, that the nerves are the instruments both of fenfa- tion and of animal motion. But, how thefe effeas are pro- duced by the nervous influence is a difcovery ftiil to be made. The inquiry, however, has given rife to feveral ingenious conjeaures and hypothefes. Some phyfiologifts have main- tained, that the nerves are folid cords, which may be divided into an infinite number of minute filaments; and that, by H 65 THE PHILOSOPHY the vibrations of thefe cords, the various impreffions and modifications of feeling are conveyed to the brain. Others, with more plaufibility, have fuppofed, that the nerves are affemblages of fmall tubes; that a fubtile fluid, fometimes called animalfpirits, is fecreted in the brain and fpinal mar- row ; and that by the influence or motions of this fluid all the fenfations of animals are tranfmitted to the fenforium, or general repository of ideas. But it is needlefs to dwell upon a fubjea covered with darknefs, and which all the efforts of human powers will probably never bring to light. Anatomifts have defcribed forty pair of nerves. Ten of them proceed from the medulla oblongata of the brain, and thirty from the fpinal marrow. Thefe nerves, by fending off innumerable ramifications, are diftributed, like a net- work, over every part of the body, till they terminate, in the form of a minute papillae, upon the Skin. That the nerves are the immediate instruments of fenfation, as well as of muf- cular motion, has been proved by a thoufand uncontro- vertible experiments. When the trunk of the fciatic nerve is cut, the thigh and leg on that fide inftantly lofe all motion, and all fenfe of pain, below the incifion, and neither time nor art can ever reftore the power of feeling or of moving. But the parts between the incifion and the fpinal marrow, which is a continuation of the brain, retain their uS'ual de- grees both of motion and of fenfation. From this experi- ment, it is evident, that the nerves are the organs by which fenfation and motion are effeaed, and that, for thefe im- portant purpofes, an uninterrupted conneaion between any particular nerve and the brain, or fpinal marrow, is indif- penfible. This Sketch of the human fabric requires an apology to anatomical readers, who muft be fenfible of its many imper- feaions. To perfons who have not Studied that curious and ufeful fcience, I imagined a general view of the ftruaure of OF NATURAL HISTORY. <5S man, if properly compofed, might enable them to acquire more diftina ideas of the many feeming deviations from the common plan obferved by Nature in the formation of the in- ferior and more imperfea animals. OF THE STRUCTURE OF QUADRUPEDS. Having delineated the ftruaure and organs of the human fpecies, it is worthy of remark, that the intellea, or fagacity, of inferior animals augments or diminishes in proportion as the formation of their bodies approaches to, or recedes from, that of man. Quadrupeds, accordingly, are more intelligent than birds ; the fagacity of birds exceeds that of fifhes ; and the dexterity and cunning of fifhes are Superior to thofe of moft of the infea tribes. The fame gradation of mental pow- ers is exhibited in different fpecies of the fame claffes of ani- mals. The form of the ourang outang makes the neareft approach to the human ; and the arts he employs for his de- fence, the aaions he performs, and the fagacity he difcovers, are fo aftoniShing, that fome philofophers have confidered him as a real human being in the moft debafed Stage of fo- ciety. Next to the ourang outang, the organs of the differ- ent fpecies of apes and monkeys have the greateft refem- blance to thofe of man ; and their powers of imitation, their addrefs in procuring their food, and in managing their young, their ingenuity, and their fagacious manners, have contributed to the amufement, and excited the admiration of mankind in all ages and nations. The fame relation be- tween form and intellea may be traced in the dog, the cat, the fow, the horfe, the Sheep, and the other fpecies of quadrupeds. With regard to the general ftruaure and figure of quad- rupeds, a great variety is exhibited in the different kinds. But when examined in detail, it is apparent, that they, as well as man, are all formed upon one primitive and general 64 THE PHILOSOPHY defign. Befide the organs of fenfation, of circulation, of di- gestion, and of generation, without which moft animals could neither Subfift nor multiply, there is, even among thofe parts that chiefly contribute to variety in external form, fuch a wonderful refemblance as neceSfarily conveys the idea of an original plan upon which the whole has been executed. For example, when the parts constituting a horfe are compared with the human frame, inftead of being Struck with their difference, we are aftomfhed at their Singular and almoft pe-rfea refemblance. Take the Skeleton of a man, fays Buf- fon, incline the bones of the pelvis; Shorten thofe of the thighs, legs, and arms ; join the phalanges of the fingers and toes; lengthen the jaws by fhortening the frontal bones ; and, laftly, extend the fpine of the back. This Skeleton would no longer reprefent that of a man ; It would be the Skele- ton of a horfe. For, by lengthening the back-bone and the jaws, the number of the vertebrae, ribs, and teeth, would be increafed ; and it is only by the number of thefe bones, and by the prolongation, contraaion, and junaion of others, that the Skeleton of a horfe differs from that of a man. The ribs, which are effential to the figure of animals, are found equally in man, in quadrupeds, in birds, in fifhes, and even in the tur- tle. The foot of the horfe, fo apparently different from the hand of a man, is compofed of Similar bones ; and, at the extremity of each finger, we have the fame fmall bone, re- fembling the Shoe of a horfe, which bounds the foot of that animal. Raife the Skeletons of quadrupeds, from the ape-kind to the moufe, upon their hind-legs, and compare them with the Skeleton of a man, the mind will be inftantly Struck with the uniformity of ftruaure and defign obferved in the formation of the whole group. This uniformity is fo con- stant, and the gradations from one fpecies to another are So imperceptible, that to difcover the marks of their difcrimina- tion requires the moft minute attention. Even the bones of {he tail will make but a Slight impreffion on the obferver. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 61 The tail is only a prolongation of the os coccygis, or rump- bone, which is Short in man. The orang outang, and true apes, have no tail ; and, in the baboons, and feveral other quadrupeds, the tail is exceedingly Short. Thus, in the creation of animals, the Supreme Being feems to have em- ployed only one great idea, and, at the fame time, to have di- versified it in every poflible manner, that men might have an opportunity of admiring equally the magnificence of the execution and the Simplicity of the defign. In quadrupeds, as well as in man, the bones are conneaed by articulations and membranes ; and the different move- ments of thefe bones are performed by the operation of muf- cles. The number, difpofition, and form of the mufcles with a few exceptions arifing from the figure and deftination of parts peculiar to particular animals, are nearly the fame in men and in quadrupeds. The circulation of their blood, the fecretion of their fluids, and the procefs of digeftion, are carried on by organs perfeaiy fimilar to thofe of the human body. In the external covering, a fmall difference takes place. Quadrupeds are furniShed with a thick covering of hair, or wool, to defend them from the injuries of the weather. Being destitute of art fufficient to make garments, Nature has fupplied that defea, by giving them a coat of hair, which varies in thicknefs according to the feafon of the year and the difference of climate. In Ruffia, Lapland, Kamtfchatka, and all the northern regions, the furs of ani- mals are very thick and warm. But, in Turkey, Africa, and the fouthern parts of Afia and America, moft quadrupeds are thinly clad, and fome of them, as the Turkish dog, are total- ly destitute of hair. The Skin of quadrupeds is difpofed nearly in the fame man- ner as the human, only it is more elaftic. Immediately un- der the Skin, there is a thin mufcular fubftance, called panni- tuius carnofus, which is common to all quadrupeds, except the 66 THE PHILOSOPHY hog and armadillo kinds. This fubftance, which is peculiar to quadrupeds, chiefly covers the trunk, and, by fuddenly fhaking and Shrivelling the Skin, enables thefe animals to drive off infeas, or other offenfive bodies. The fubftance of the nerves, or organs of fenfation, is the fame in the quadruped and in man. They originate from the brain and fpinal marrow, and are diftributed over all the internal and external parts of the body, in the fame manner as in the human frame. Thus it appears, that, in general ftruaure and organiza- tion, the brute creation is nearly allied to the human fpecies. Some differences, however, merit attention ; becaufe a Slight variation in ftruaure, efpecially of the internal organs, is often accompanied with great diverfities in difpofitions, food, and manners. Some animals feed upon flefh, others upon vegetables, and others upon a mixture of both. The difpoSitions of fome fpecies are fierce ; and their manners convey to us the ideas of cruelty and of barbarifm ; the difpofitions and manners of other fpecies are foft and placid, and excite in us ideas of mildnefs, complacency, and innocence. The ferocity of the tyger and hyaena forms a perfea contraft to the gentlenefs and inoffenfive behaviour of the Sheep and the ox. This opposition of manners has given rife to the diftinaion pf animals into rapacious and mild, carnivorous and herbivo- rous. In the ftruaure of thefe animals, whofe charaaers are fo oppofite, fome differences have been difcovered, which indicate the intentions of Nature in forming them, and fully juftify the feeming cruelty of their condua. In all the carnivorous tribes, the ftomach is proportionally fmaller, and the inteftines fhorter, than in thofe animals which feed upon vegetables. As animals of the former kind live folely on flefh, the fhortnefs and narrownefs of their in- teftines are accommodated to the nature of their food. Ani- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 67 mal food is more eafily reduced to chyle, and becomes fooner putrid, than vegetable. Of courfe, if its juices were allow- ed to remain long in the inteftines, inftead of nourishing the body, they would produce the moft fatal diftempers. Be- fide this accommodation of the inteftines to the nature of their food, carnivorous animals are furniShed with the neceffary instruments for feizing and devouring their prey. Their heads are roundifh, their jaws ftrong, and their tufks very long and Sharp. Some of them, as the lion, the tyger, and the whole cat-kind, are provided with long retraaile claws. Thus both the internal and external ftruaure of this clafs of animals indicate their deftination and manners. The rapid digeftion of their food is a confequence of the Strength and Shortnefs of their inteftines ; and the intolerable cravings of their appetite neceffarily create a fiercenefs and rapacity of difpofition. Nothing lefs than blood can fatiate them. Their cruelty, and the devastation they make among the weaker and more timid tribes, are effeas refulting folely from the ftruaure and organs with which Nature has thought proper to endow them. Hence, if there be any thing reprehenfible in the manners and difpofitions of carnivorous animals, Na- ture alone is to blame ; for all their aaions are determined by the irrefiftible impulfes of their organization. But, even in this feemingly cruel arrangement, Nature muft not be raSh- ly accufed. When wecometo treat ofthe hostilities of animals, I hope tobeable to Show, that Nature, in the formation of rapa- cious creatures, has aaed with her ufual wifdom, and that beings of this kind have their ufes in the general fyftem and oeconomy of the univerfe. As to the herbivorous tribes, or thofe animals whichfeed upon grain and herbage, a flight variation of organs produces the greateft effeas upon their difpofition and manners. The in- teftines of this tribe are very long, capacious, and convoluted. Vegetable food) especially herbage, contains a fmaller quan- 68 THE PHILOSOPHY tity of nutritive matter than the fleSh of animals ; neither i» it fo eafily reduced to chyle. A large quantity, therefore, as well as a longer detention in the ftomach and inteftines, is neceffarv for the nourishment of thefe creatures. Several quadrupeds comprehended under this order ruminate or chew the cud. Thefe are furniShed with no lefs than four ftomachs. The food after maftication, is thrown into the firft ftomach, where it remains fome time ; after which, the animal forces it up again into the mouth, and gives it a fec- ond chewing. It is then fent direaiy into the fecond Sto- mach, and gradually paffes into the third and fourth ; and, laStly, it is tranfmitted through the convolutions of the in- teftines, and the dregs, or faeces, are thrown out of the body. By this machinery, herbivorous animals are enabled to de- vour large quantities of vegetable aliment, to retain it long in their bowels, and confequently to extraa from it nutritive matter fufficient for their growth, fupport, and multiplica- tion. Here the quantity compenfates the quality of the nu- triment. It is true, that the horfe, the afs, the hare, and fome other animals which live upon herbage and grain, have only one Stomach. But, though the horfe and afs have one ftomach only, their inteftines are furnifhed with facs or pouches fo large, that they may be compared to the paunch of ruminat- ing animals ; and hares, rabbits, the Guiney-pig, &c. have blind guts fo long and capacious, that they are equivalent to a fecond ftomach. The hedgehog, the wild boar, the fquir- rel, &c. whofe ftomach and inteftines are of a mean capacity, eat little herbage, but live chiefly upon feeds, fruits, and roots, which contain, in fmall bounds, a greater quantity of nutritive matter than the leaves or Stems of plants. The external form of herbivorous animals, like that of the rapacious, is accommodated to their difpofitions and the oe- conomy they are obliged to obferve. That they might be OF NATURAL HISTORY. 69 enabled to reach the furface of the earth with eafe, the legs of the larger kinds are proportionally Short ; their head and neck long ; and the mufcles and tendons of the neck are en- dowed with prodigious Strength. Without thefe peculiari- ties of ftruaure, they could not fupport the prone pofture of the head in the tedious operation of browfing large quantities of herbage. The arrangement and form of their teeth like- wife indicate the deftination of the ruminating tribes. They have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw ; and they are totally deprived of tufks, or canine teeth. This laft circumftance, joined to their want of claws, Shews that they are not intend- ed to prey upon other animals. Horns are the only weapons of defence with which they are provided. From the nature of their food, therefore, and the internal and external con- figuration of their bodies, it is evident, that animals of this defcription muft be humble in their deportment and mild in their difpofition. This order of animals, accordingly, have uniformly been celebrated for gentlenefs of manners, fub- miSIion, and timidity. Man has availed himfelf of thofe dif- pofitions, by reducing almoft the whole of this tribe to a do- mestic State. But, in all this gracioufnefs of afpea and traaa- bility of temper, the animals themfelves have no merit. Their motions and aaions are neceffary refults of the organs which Nature has beftowed on them. It is obvious, there- fore, that the diverfity of taftes and difpofitions exhibited by different animals, arifes not folely from any fuperior agreea- blenefs of particular kinds of foodfo their palates, or to a pe- culiar bias of their minds to benevolence and peace, but from a phyficalcaufe depending on the ftruaure of their bodies. From what has been advanced, it follows, that man, whofe ftomach and inteftines are proportionally of no great capaci- ty, could not live upon herbage alone. It is an inconteftible faa, however, that he can live tolerably well upon bread, herbs, and the fruits, roots, and feeds of plants; for we know I 70 THE PHILOSOPHY whole nations, as well as particular orders of men, who are prohibited by their religion from eating any animal fubftance. But thefe examples are not fufficient to convince us, that the health, vigour, and multiplication of mankind would be im- proved by feeding folely upon pot-herbs and bread. Be- fides, his ftomach and inteftines are of a mean capacity be- tween thofe of the carnivorous and herbivorous animals. From this circum Stance alone we are warranted to conclude, that Nature intended him to feed partly on animal and part- ly on vegetable fubftances ; and daily experience teaches us, that men fed in this manner are larger, Stronger, and more prolific, than thofe who are confined to a vegetable diet. If man had no other fources of fuperiority over the other ani- mals than thofe which originate from the ftruaure of his body, his difpofitions ought to be a medium between thofe of the carnivorous and herbivorous tribes. When confider- ed merely as an animal, this appears to be really the cafe. Vulgar and uninformed men, when pampered with a variety of animal food, are much more choleric, fierce, and cruel in their tempers than thofe who live chiefly on vegetables. Animal food heats the blood, and makes it circulate with ra- pidity. In this fituation, every objea capable of exciting ap- petite or paflion operates with redoubled force. The weak mind yields to the impulfe, and gives vent to every fpecies of outrage which can debafe human nature. In the formation of his body, man has fome advantages over particular animals. But thefe advantages are inconsid- erable, and none of them, perhaps, are peculiar to the fpecies. The ftruaure of all animals is nicely adjufted to their defti- nation, and the Station they occupy in the general fcale of Being. The body of man is erea, and his attitude is faid to be that of command. His majeftic deportment, and the firmnefs of his movements, announce the fuperiority of his rank, His arms are not mere pillars for the fupport of his OF NATURAL HISTORY. 71 body. His hands tread not the earth j neither do they lofe, by friaion and preffure, that exquifite delicacy of feeling for which Nature had originally intended them. His arms and hands, on the contrary, are formed for purpofes of a more noble kind. They are deftined for executing the commands of his will, for laying hold of bodies, for removing obstacles, for defending him from injuries, and for feizing and retain- ing objeas of -pleafure. The features of this piaure are exaa delineations ; but they are not the exclufive privilege of man. The orang outang walks erea, and he derives equal advantages from his hands and arms as the human fpecies. Some apes have likewife the power of walking erea, with the additional faculty of employing their hands and arms as legs. They can walk, run, or leap, by the in- strumentality either of two or of four extremities, as their fituation or neceffities may require. It is not, therefore, the fabric of man's body that entitles him to claim a fuperio- rity over the other animals. The formation of their bodies is adjufted with equal fymmetry and perfeaion to the rank they hold in the general fyftem of animation. Many of them excel us in magnitude, Strength, fwiftnefs, and dexteri- ty in particular movements. Their fenfes are often more acute ; they feize their prey, or procure herbage, fruits, and feeds of trees, with more facility than man, when limited to the powers of his animal nature. Hence the great fource of man's fuperiority over the brute creation muft be derived from his mental faculties alone. Brutes enjoy the fame in- ftinas, the fame appetites, and the fame propensities, as ap- pear in the constitution of the human mind. But the in- ftinas of brutes, though they are exerted with great certain- ty and precision, are much circumfcribed with regard to ex- tenfion and improvement. Like man, they derive advan- tages from experience. But the conclufions they draw from this fource are always feeble and extremely limited. Neither 72 THE PHILOSOPHY do they poffefs the inestimable faculty of tranfmitting the knowledge acquired by individuals from generation to gener- ation. By means of their fenfes, they learn to distinguish their enemies, or hurtful objeas, at a diltance ; and they know how to avoid them. Experience teaches them to dif- criminate objeas of pleafure from thofe of pain ; and they aa according to the feelings excited by thefe objeas. Some animals can even accommodate their inftimSts to particular circumstances and Situations. The feelings of brutes are often more exquifite than ours. They have fenfations ; but their faculty of comparing them, or of forming ideas, is much circumfcribed. A dog or a monkey can imitate fome human aaions, and are capable of receiving a certain degree of inftruaion. But their progrefs foon ftops : Nar ture has fixed the boundaries of mental as well as of corpo- real powers ; and thefe boundaries are as various as the num- ber of diftina fpecies. Our wonder is equally excited by the fagacity of fome animals, and by the Stupidity of others. This gradation of mental faculties originates from the num- ber or paucity of inftinas beftowed on particular fpecies, joined to the greater or fmaller power of extending or modi- fying thefe inftinas by experience and obfervation. Man is endowed with a greater number of inftinas than any other animal. The fuperiority of his rank, however, does not proceed from this fource alone. Man enjoys beyond every other animal the faculty of extending, improving, and modi- fying the different inftinas he has received from Nature. It is this faculty which enables him to compare his feelings, to form ideas, and to reafon concerning both. The bee makes cells, and the beaver conftruas habitations of clay. The order of their architeaure, however, is invariably the fame. Man likewife builds houfes : But he is not forced, by an ir- refiftible inftina, to work always on the fame plan. His habitations, on the contrary, vary with the fancy of the in- dividuals who defign and conftrua them. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 78 Upon the whole, the dignity of man's rank depends not upon the ftruaure of his organs. It is from the powers of his intellea alone that he is entitled to claim a fuperiority over the brute creation. Thefe powers enable him to form ideas, to abftraa, to reafon, to invent, and to reach all the heights of fcience and of art. The remarks formerly made are applicable to quadrupeds in general. But, before concluding this branch of the fub- jea, we Shall point out a few peculiarities in the ftruaure of particular fpecies. Befide the four ftomachs common to ruminating animals, the camel and dromedary have a fifth bag, which ferves them as a refervoir for holding water. This bag is capable of containing a very large quantity of that neceffary element. When the camel is thirfty, and has occafion to macerate his dry food in the operation of ruminating, by a fimple con- traaion of certain mufcles, he makes part of this water af- cend into his ftomach, or even as high as the gullet. This Singular conftruaion enables him to travel fix, eight, or even twelve days in the fandy deferts, without drinking, and to take at once a prodigious quantity of water, which remains in the refervoir pure and limpid; becaufe neither the humours of the body, nor the juices that promote digeftion, can have accefs to it. Befide this Singularity of ftruaure, the camel has two large fleShy bunches on his back, and the dromedary, or fwift camel, one bunch; and the feet of both are covered with a very tough, but flexible fubftance. The conformation of thefe animals enables them to travel with heavy loads through the fandy deferts of the Eaft, where the horfe or the afs would inevitably perifh; becaufe Nature has not provided them with refervoirs for holding and preferving water, which are indiSpenfible in countries where none of that element can be procured but in particu- lar places, that are often diftant many days journey from 74 THE PHILOSOPHY each other. When we confider the ftruaure of the camel and dromedary, we cannot be deceived with regard to their deftination. The four ftomachs indicate a vegetable diet, and the fame docility and gentlenefs of manners which charaaerife the whole ruminating tribes. From the addi- tion of a fifth bag, or refervoir for the reception and prefer. vation of water, we Should expea to find fome peculiarity of difpofition. In this conjeaure we are not deceived. Of all animals which man has fubjugated, the camel and drome- dary are the moft abjea Slaves. With incredible patience and fubmiffion they traverfe the burning fands of Africa and Arabia, carrying burdens of amazing weight. Inftead of dif- covering fymptoms of reluaance, they fpontaneoufly lie down on their knees till their mafter binds the unmerciful load. Arabia, and fome parts of Africa, are the drieft and moft barren countries in the world. Both the constitution and ftruaure of camels are nicely adapted to the foil and climate in which they are produced. The Arabians confid- er the camel as a gift fent from heaven, a facred animal, without whofe afliftance they could neither fubfift, traffick, nor travel. The milk of the camel is their common food, They alfo eat its flefh j and of its hair they make garments. In poffeffion of their camels, the Arabs want nothing, and have nothing to fear. In one day they can perform a jour- ney of fifty leagues into the defert, which cuts off every ap- proach from their enemies. All the armies in the world would perifh in purfuit of a troop of Arabs. An Arab, by the affiftance of his camel, furmounts all the difficulties of a country which is neither covered with verdure, nor fupplied with water. Notwithftanding the vigilance of his neigh- bours, and the fuperiority of their ftrength, he eludes their purfuit, and carries off, with impunity, all that he ravages from them. When about to undertake a depredatory expe- dition, an Arab makes his camels carry both his and their OF NATURAL HISTORY. li own provisions. When he reaches the confines of the defert, he robs the firft paffengers who come in his way, pil- lages the folitary houfes, loads his camels with the booty, and, if purfued, he accelerates his retreat. On thefe occa- sions he difplays his own talents as well as thofe of his camels. He mounts one of the fleeteft, conduas the troop, and oblig- es them to travel day and night, without almoft either Stop- ping, eating, or drinking ; and, in this manner, he often performs a journey of 300 leagues in eight days. Another order of quadrupeds deferves our notice. Thofe which have been distinguished by the appellation of amphib- ious, are capable of remaining a long time under water. They live chiefly upon fifhes, and, without this faculty of continuing a considerable time under water, they would be unable to procure their food. To this tribe belong the feal, the walrus, the manati, the fea-lion, &c. The feal and wal- rus are more nearly allied to land-quadrupeds than to the cetaceous animals 5 becaufe they have four diftina legs, though nothing but the feet projea beyond the Skin. The toes of the feet are all conneaed by membranes, which enable thefe animals to fwim in queft of their prey. They differ from terreftrial quadrupeds by the Singular faculty of living with equal eafe either in air or inwater. This pecu- liarity of economy and manners prefuppofes the neceffity of fome deviation from the general ftruaure of quadrupeds j and Nature has accomplished this purpofe by a very fimple artifice. In man, and in all land-quadrupeds, the lungs of the foetus have no motion, and receive no more blood than is requisite for their growth and nourifhment. But, immediately after birth, the young animals refpirc, and the whole mafs of blood circulates through their lungs. To carry on the cir- culation in the foetus State, another paffage was neceSIary. The blood in the right auricle of the heart, inftead of pafEng 76 THE PHILOSOPHY into the pulmonary artery, and, after circulating through the lungs, returning into the left auricle by the pulmonary vein, paffes direaiy from the right to the left auricle through an aperture called the foramen ovale, which is fituated in the partition of the heart that feparates the cavities of the two auricles. By this contrivance, the mafs of blood, without deviating into the lungs, enters the aorta, and is diftributed over every part of the body. In man, and the other terref- trial animals, the foramen ovale of the heart, which permits the foetus to live without refpiration, clofes the moment af- ter birth, and remains Shut during life. Animals of this con- ftruaion can neither live without air, nor remain long under water without being fuffocated. But, in the feal, walrus, and other amphibious animals, the foramen ovale continues open during life, though the mothers bring forth.on land, and refpiration commences immediately after birth. By means of this perpetual aper- ture in the feptum or partition of the heart, which allows a direa communication of the blood from the vena cava to the aorta,thefe animals enjoy the privilege of refpiring, or not,at their pleafure. This Angularity in the ftruaure of the heart, and the confequent capacity of living equally on land and in water, muft neceffarily produce fome peculiarities in the manners and difpofitions of amphibious animals. The feal, accord- ingly, whofe hiftory is beft known, may be confidered as holding the empire of the Silent ocean. To this dignity he is entitled by his voice, his figure, and his intelligence, which render him fo fuperior to the fifhes, that they feem to belong to another order\of beings. Though his oeconomy be very different from that of our domeftic animals, he is fufcepti- ble of a fpecies of education. He is reared by putting him frequently in water. He is taught to give a Salute with his head and his voice. He approaches when called upon. His OF NATURAL HISTORY. 77 fenfes arc equally acute as thofe of any quadruped ; and, of courfe, his fenfations and intellea are equally aaive. Both are exhibited in the gentlenefs of his manners, his focial dif- pofition, his affeaion for the female, his anxious attention to his offspring, and the expreffive modulation of his voice. Befides, he enjoys advantages which are peculiar to him. He is neither afraid of cold nor of heat. He lives indifferently or> herbs, flefh, or fifh. He inhabits, without inconvenience, water, land, or ice. When afliftance is neceffary, the feals understand and mutually aSIift one another. The young diftinguiSh their mother in the midft of a numerous troop. They know her voice ; and, when She calls, they never fail to obey. Before difmiffing this branch of the fubjea, the elephant muft not be paffed over in Silence. His ftruaure is uncom- mon, and fo are his talents. The elephant is the largeft and moft magnificent animal that at prefent treads the earth. Though he daily devours great quantities of herbage, leaves, and branches of trees, he has but one fiomach, and does not ruminate. This want, however, is fupplied by the magni- tude and length of his inteftines, and particularly of the co- lon, which is two or three feet in diameter by fifteen or twenty in length. In proportion to the fize of the elephant, his eyes are very fmall; but they are lively, brilliant, and ca- pable of a pathetic expreflion of fentiment. He turns them Slowly, and with mildnefs, towards his mafter. When he fpeaks, the animal regards him with ;'i eye of friendship and attention. He feems to reflea with deliberation, and never determines till he has examined, without rsaiTion or precipita- tion, the orders which he is defired to obey. The dog, whofe eyes are very expreffive, is too prompt and vivacious to allow us to diftinguiSh with eafe the fucceSfive Shades of his fenfations. But, as the elephant is naturally grave and moderate, we perceive in his eyes the order and fucceSfion of K 7s THE PHILOSOPHY his thoughts. His ears are very large, and much longef, even in proportion to his body, than thofe of the afs. They lie flat on the head, and are commonly pendulous ; but he can raife and move them with fuch facility, that he ufes them as a fan to cool himfelf, and to defend his eyes from duft and infects. His ear is likewife remarkably fine ; for he delights in the found of mufical instruments, and moves in cadence to the trumpet and tabour. But, in the ftruaure of the elephant, the moft Singular organ is his trunk or probofcis. It is compofed of mem- branes, nerves, and mufcles ; and it is at once an instrument of feeling and of motion. The animal can not only move and bend the trunk, but he can contraa, lengthen, and turn it on all fides\ The extremity of the trunk terminates in a pro- tuberance that Stretches out on the upper Side in the form of a finger ; by means of which he lifts from the ground the fmalleft pieces of money ; he feleas herbs and flowers, and picks them up one by one •, he unties the knots of ropes, opens and fhuts gates by turning the keys or pufhing back the bolts. In the middle of the protuberance or finger, there is a cavity in the form of a cup, and, in the bottom of the cup are the apertures of the two organs of fmelling and refpiration. This hand of the elephant poffeffes feveral ad- vantages over that of the human. It b more flexible, and equally dexterous in laying hold of objeas. Befides, he has his nofe in his hand, and is enabled to combine the power of his lungs with the aaion of his finger, and to attraa fluids by a ftrong fhaion, or to raife heavy bodies by applying to them the edge of his trunk, and making a vacuum within by a vigorous infpiration. Hence delicacy of feeling, acutenefs of fmelling, facility of movement, and the power of fuaion, are united at the extremity of the elephant's trunk. Of all the instruments which Nature has beftowed on her moft favourite produaions, the trunk of the elephant feems to be OF NATURAL HISTORY. 79 the moft complete, as well as the moft admirable. It is not only an organic instrument, but a triple fenfe, whofe united funaions exhibit the effeas of that wonderful fagacity which exalts the elephant above all other quadrupeds. He is not fo fubjea, as fome other animals, to errors of vifion ; be- caufe he quickly rectifies them by the fenfe of touch ; and, by ufing his trunk as a long arm, for the purpofe of touch- ing remote objeas, he acquires, like man, clear ideas of dis- tances. But other animals, except fuch as have a kind of arms and hands, can only acquire ideas of distances by trav- ersing fpace with their bodies. Delicacy of feeling, the flexi* bility of the trunk, the power of fbaion, the fenfe of fmel- ling, and the length of the arm, convey ideas of the fub- ftance of bodies, of their external form, of their weight, of their falutary or noxions qualities, and of their distances. Thus, by the fame organs, and by a Simultaneous aa, the ele- phant feels, perceives, and judges of feveral things at one time. It is by virtue of this combination of fenles and faculties in the trunk that the elephant is enabled to per- form fo many wonderful aaions, notwithftanding the enor- mity of his maSs and the disproportions of his form. The thicknefs and rigidity of his body; the fliortnefs and Stiff- nefs of his neck ; the fmallnefs of his head ; the largenefs of his ears, nofe, and tuSks; the minutenefs of his eyes, mouth, genitals, and tail; his Straight, clumfy, and almoft inflexible limbs; the fhortnefs and fmallnefs of his feet ; the thicknefs and callofity of his Skin; all thefe deformities are the more obvious and difagreeable, becaufe they are model- led on a large fcale, and moft of them are peculiar to the elephant. From this Singular conformation, the animal is fubjected to many inconveniences. He moves his head with difficul- ty, and cannot turn back without making a large circuit. For this reafon, the hunters attack him behind, or on 80 THE PHILOSOPHY the flanks, and avoid the effeas of his rage by circular movements. He cannot feize any objea on the ground with his mouth, becaufe his neck is too Stiff to allow his head to reach the earth. He is therefore obliged to lay hold of his food, and even of his drink, with his nofe, and then convey them to his mouth. It is likewife a confe- quence of this ftruaure, that the young elephants are faid to fuck "with their nofe, and afterwards pour the milk into their gullet. OF THE STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. From the figure and movements of the feathered tribes, we Should be led to imagine that the ftruaure of their organs was extremely different from that of quadrupeds. Their oeconomy and manner of living required fome varia- tions in their frame. But thofe variations are by no means fo many or fo great as might be expeaed. Inftead of hairs, their bodies are covered with feathers, which, befide the beautiful variety of their colours, protea this clafs of ani- mals from the affaults of rain and cold. They have only a pouple of legs; but Nature has furnifhed them with two ad- ditional inflruments of motion, by which they are enabled to rife from the furface of the earth, and to fly with amazing rapidity through the air. The wings are articulated with the breaft-bone, and their motions are performed by mufcles of remarkable Strength. Many birds are continually pafling through hedges and thickets. To defend their eyes, there- fore, from external injuries, as well as from too much light when flying in oppofition to the rays of the fun, they are furnifhed with a membrane called membrena niBitans, which, like a curtain, can at pleafure be drawn over the whole eye. This covering is neither opaque nor pellucid ; but, being fomewhat tranfparent, it allows as many rays to enter as ren- der any objea juft viable, and enable them to direa their OF NATURAL HISTORY. 81 progrefs through the air. It is by the instrumentality of this membrane that the eagle looks at the fun. The feath- ers of all birds are inferted into the Skin in fuch a manner that they naturally lie backward from the head ; and allow the rain to run off their bodies, and, by turning their heads in oppofition to the wind, prevent the wind from rumpling their feathers and retarding their flight. Befide this provir fion, the rump of birds terminates in a large gland, which fecretes an oily fubftance. When the feathers are too dry, or any way difordered, the animals fqueeze this gland with their bills, extraa the oil, and with it they befmear and drefs the feathers. By this means the admiffion of water is total- ly prevented. Birds have no feparate ribs ; but the breaft- bone, which is very large, joins the back-bone, and fupplies their place. With regard to the external figure of birds, the form of their bodies is nicely adapted to their manners and the mode of life they are deftined to purfue. By ftriking the air with their wings, they move forward in that element, and their tail ferves them as a rudder to direa their courfe. Their breaft-bone, inftead of being flat, rifes gradually from the fpine and terminates in a fiiarp ridge or keel, which enables them to cut the air with greater facility. For the fame pur- pofe, the heads of birds are proportionally fmaller than thofe of quadrupeds, and moft of them terminate in light fharp- pointed beaks. They are likewife deprived of external ears, and of protuberant noftrils. Their tails, inftead of verte- brae, mufcles, and Skin, confift entirely of feathers. They have no pendulous fcrotum, no bladder, no flefhy uterus. Neither have they an epiglottis, though many of them pof- fefs great powers of modulation, and fome of them may even be taught to articulate words. To lighten their beaks, they are deprived of lips and teeth; and their abdomen or belly is proportionally fmall and narrow. 82 THE PHILOSOPHY From this general view of the external figure and Struc- ture of birds, it is apparent, that Nature has defigned them for two diftina kinds of motion. They can, at pleafure, either walk on the furface of the earth, or mount aloft, and penetrate the airy regions with prodigious fwiftnefs. Some peculiarities in the internal ftruaure of birds deferve our notice. Like quadrupeds, the feathered tribes are divided into granivorous and carnivorous ; and their manners and difpo- tions correfpond withtheirinternalandexternal conformation. In the granivorous clafs, the oefophagus or gullet runs down the neck, and terminates in a pretty large membranous fac, called the ingluvies, or craw, where the food is macerat- ed, and partly diffolved by a liquor fecreted from glands ipread over the furface of this fac. Some birds, as the rooks and the pigeon kind, have the power of bringing up the food from this fac into their mouths, and feeding their young with it in a half digefted form. After macerating for fome time, the food paffes through the remainder of the gul- let into another fpecies of ftomach denominated ventriculus fuccenturiatus, which is a continuation of the gullet. Here the food receives a farther dilution. From this fecond ftomach, the food is tranfmitted to the gizzard, or true ftomach, which confifts of two very Strong mufcles, covered externally with a tendinous fubftance, and lined with a thkk firm membrane. The remarkable Strength of the gizzard was formerly fuppofed to affift the digeftion of granivorous birds by attrition. But this notion has of late been entirely exploded ; for Doaor Stevens, and, after him, Spalanzani, have demonstrated, by unequivocal experiments, that digef- tion is performed Solely by the diSIblving powers of the gaftric juices.* The other inteftines are proportionally larger, and much longer than thofe of the carnivorous birds. See Stevens Differt. Med. Inaug. De Alimcntorum Cpncoftjooe, Edin. £777, and Spalanzani, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 8S The ftruaure of the heart, in granivorous birds, is nearly the fame with that of quadrupeds. The lungs hang not loofe in the cavity of the thorax, but are fixed to the back-bone : Neither are they divided into lobes, as in man and ether animals whofe fpines admit of confiderable motion. They are red, fpongy bodies, covered with a membrane that is pervious, and communicates with the large veficles or air-bags which are fpread over the whole abdomen. Thefe veficles, when diftended with air, render the bodies of birds Specifically light. They likewife fupply the place of a diaphragm, and Strong abdominal mufcles. They produce the fame effeas on the vifcera as thefe muf- cles would have done, without the inconveniency of giving an additional weight to the body. Birds have no bladder of urine : But a blueifh-coloured canal, or ureter, is fent off from each kidney, and terminates in the reaum. Their urine is difcharged along with the faeces. It is a whitifh fubftance, and turns chalky when ex- pofed to the air. The tefticles of the male are fituated on each fide of the back-bone, and are very large in proportion to the Size of the animal. From the tefticles proceed two feminal duas, which at firft are Straight, but afterwards acquire a convolut- ed form, as in the epidydymus of man. Thefe duas termi- nate in the penis, of which the cock has too, one on each fide of the common cloaca. They are very fmall and Short; and, from this circumftance, they long efcaped the notice of anatomifts. In the female, the clufter of yolks, being analogous to the human ovaria, are attached to the back-bone by a membrane. This membrane is very thin, and continues down to the uterus. The yolk, after feparating from its ftalk, paffes into a canal called the infundibulum, where it receives a gelatinous liquor, which, with what it farther acquires in the uterus, 84 THE PHILOSOPHY compofes the white of the egg. The uterus is a large bag, fituated at the end of the infundibulum, and is full of wrink- les on the infide. Here the egg receives its laft covering, or Shell, and is puShed out of the vagina at an aperture pla- ced immediately above the anus. From this defcription of the ftruaure of granivorous birds, the analogy between them and the herbivorous quadrupeds is confpicuous. In both, the number of their ftomachs, the length and capacity of their inteftines, and the quality of their food, are very fimilar. But this analogy is not confin- ed to ftruaure and organs: It extends to manners and dif- pofitions. Like the herbivorous quadrupeds, this order of birds are distinguished by the gentlenefs and complacency of their tempers. Contented with the feeds of plants, or fmall infeas, the Stronger never wage war with the weaker. Their chief attention is occupied in procuring food, in hatch- ing and rearing their young ; and their vigilance is kept perpetually aaive in eluding the fnares of men and other rapacious animals. The whole are a timid race, and many of them are fo traaable that they may eafily be rendered domeftic. Man, accordingly, ever attentive to his intereft, has not failed to derive advantage from the innocence and Stupidity of thefe animals. Of the gallinaceous and duck kind, which are the moft prolific, and confequently the moft profitable, he has chiefly feleaed the hen, the goofe, the duck, the turkey, and the peacock. In this feleaion he has difcovered his fagacity ; for, inftead of pairing, thefe birds are polygamous, one male being fufficient to fertilize a num- ber of females, which is a great faving in the article of food. With regard to carnivorous birds, their general confor- mation is nearly the fame with thofe of the granivorous kind. They have the fame number of ftomachs ; but all of them are fmaller and weaker. Their inteftines are alfo much Shorter. To enable them to procure food, they are OF NATURAL HISTORY. 85 obliged to fly quickly, and continue long on the wing. Their wings, accordingly, are proportionally longer, and they have more Strength in their mufcles. For the purpofe of feizing and devouring prey, Nature has beftowed on them Strong hooked bills, and long Sharp claws or pounces. They have alfo large heads, Short necks, Strong brawny thighs, and Sharp-Sighted eyes. Like rapacious quadrupeds, birds of prey are capable of enduring hunger for a great length of time. This faculty is, perhaps, acquired partly by habit ; becaufe the obtaining of their food is often very precarious. The females are larger, Stronger, and more beautiful both in Shape and plumage, than the males. For this reafon, the male hawks are called tercels or thirds, becaufe they are fuppofed to be one third lefs than the females. Nature feems to have beftowed this fuperiority of Size and Strength upon the female, becaufe She is obliged to procure food both for herfelf and for her pro- geny. The analogy between the ftruaure of rapacious birds and carnivorous quadrupeds is obvious. Both of them are pro- vided with weapons which indicate deftruaion and rapine. Their manners, are alfo fierce and unfocial. They never, if the vulture be excepted, herd together in flocks, like the in- offenfive granivorous tribes. When not on the wing, they conceal themfelves on the tops of fequeftered rocks, or in the depths of the forefts, where they fpend their time in fullen folitude. Thofe of them which feed upon carion, as the raven, have the fenfe of fmelling fo acute, that they fcent dead carcaffes at amazing distances. Befide thefe great divisions of birds into granivorous and rapacious, whofe manners and difpofitions perfeaiy coincide with the ftruaure of their bodies, there are other tribes to whom Nature has given peculiar organs. In all thefe devia- tions from the common ftruaure, a Singularity in the mode 86 THE PHILOSOPHY of living, and the oeconomy of the animal, is the invariable* refult. Like the amphibious animals, a number of fowls live chiefs ly in the water, and feed upon fifhes and aquatic infeas. To enable them to fwim and to dive in queft of food, their toes are conneaed together by broad membranes or webs. By Stretching their toes, and Striking the water backward with thefe webs, their bodies are moved forward, and they employ their tail as a rudder to direa their courfe. With- out thefe additional instruments, fowls could not fwim ; and, accordingly, fuch birds as are not provided with webs never take to the water. But thofe furniShed with webs have fuch a Strong propensity to water, that, when restrained from their favourite element, they difcover the greateft uneafineSs, and, when their liberty is reftored, they fly in a direa courfe either to the fea, a river, or a lake. There is another tribe of aquatic birds, fome of which feed upon fifhes and infeas, and others live principally by fucking certain juices from mud. Both thefe kinds frequent marlhy places, or the margins of lakes and rivers. They do not fwim, but wade, in queft of food. This Singularity in their manners required a correfpondent variation in their form and ftruaure. To enable them to wade in waters and in mires, Nature has provided them with long legs, naked of feathers for a considerable Space above the knees. Their toes are not, like thofe of the fwimmers, conneaed by con- tinued membranous webs. Moft of them have likewife very long necks and bills, to enable them to fearch for and apprehend their food. To thefe tribes belong the crane, the herons, the bittern or miredrum, the Stork, the fpoon-bill, the woodcock, the fnipe, and many other fpecies. Having given a general idea of the ftruaure and oecono- my of birds, we Shall next make a few remarks on the form and manners of fifties. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 87 OF THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANS OF FISHES. It is one great and benevolent intention of Nature, that no part of the univerfe Should be deprived of inhabitants. The earth, the air, the waters, are full of living beings, who are not only confcious of their exiftence, but enjoy de- grees of happinefs proportioned to their natures, and the purpofes they are deftined to anfwer in the general fcale of animation. The different elements in which they live necef- farily required a variety in their form, their food, and their manners. The inhabitants of the earth and air have alrea- dy been partially defcribed : Thofe of the waters are next to be confidered. The bodies of moft fifhes are covered with a Strong, thick, fkin, in which numberlefs fcales are inferted in an imbricated form, or like tiles on the roofs of houfes. Many of them, and particularly thofe which are Shaped like the cod, the trout, and the haddock, have a longitudinal line on each fide. In thefe lines there are a number of fmall duas or apertures, which throw out a mucous fubftance that lubri- cates their Skins, and feems to anfwer the fame purpofes as the mucous glands or duas placed in moft of our internal organs. Fifhes are destitute of hands and feet. Their progreffive motion, therefore, is performed in a manner different from that of quadrupeds and birds. Their inflruments of mo- tion are fins, or machines confifting of a number of elaftic beams, conneaed to one another by firm membranes. Their tails are of the fame texture. Their fpine is remarkably flexible toward the posterior part of the body, and here the Strongest mufcles are likewife inferted. They have a power of contraaing and dilating their tails at pleafure; by which means, and by the affiftance of the fins, they move forward in the fame manner as a boat with oars on its fides and a rudder at its ftern. Fifhes have no neck : As they feek 88 THE PHILOSOPHY their food in a horizontal pofition, and can move their bodies either upward or downward, a long neck would necef- farily have impeded their motion through the water. The form of fifhes is extremely various; and, if their hiftory were fufficiently known, the conneaion between their ftruaure and their manners would be equally apparent as in the other tribes with which we are better acquainted. Some fifties are long and cylindrical, as the fea-ferpent, and all the eel-Shaped fpecies. The eel-kind, from their figure, are enabled to trail their bodies along the bottom, and to conceal themfelves below the fand or mud. Others are lefs cylindrical, and proportionally Shorter, as the mackrel, the cod, the herring, the Silmon, &c. Thefe, from the num- ber and pofition of their fins, as well as from the Shape of their bodies, are deftined for quicker motion, and for trav- elling to great distances in queft of food, or for fpawning in fhoals or in rivers. Others, as the flounder, the Skate, the turbet, torpedo, &c. are broad and compreffed. Thefe, like the eel-kind, frequent muddy bottoms. Others are triangu- lar, quadrangular, round, &c. Befide thofe which approach to regular figures, the variations and compositions are fo nu- merous, that the forms of fifhes are much more diversified than thofe of quadrupeds or birds. To defend themfelves againft their enemies, many fiShes are armed with Strong, fliarp fpines or prickles. For the fame purpofe, and like- wife for wounding or killing their prey, fome have a large horn on their front, and others a fword, or rather a faw, which are tremendous weapons. The more timid and de- fencelefs tribes are endowed with the faculty of rapid mo- tion ; and fome of them have fins fo large and flexible, that, when hard purfued, they are enabled to leave their natural element, to dart through the air to considerable distances, and difappoint the defigns of their enemies. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 89 Fifhes are as much diversified in fize as in figure. The ocean produces the largeft animals which now inhabit this globe. The enormous maffes of the whale and walrus tribes far exceed thofe of the elephant, rhinoceros, or river-horfe, the largeft terreftrial animals of which we have any proper knowledge. From the immenfe bones, however, found in Siberia and many parts of Europe, we are induced to believe, that land animals have formerly exifted whofe fize muft have been much larger than that of the prefent elephant. This animal, whofe fpecies is now fuppofed to be extinguished, is known among naturalists by the denomination of the mam- mouth. Near the river Ohio, fome prodigious bones and teeth have lately been difcovered, which indicate an animal of incredible magnitude. With regard to internal ftruaure, fifhes like land-animals, are furnifhed with a back-bone and ribs, which run from the head to the tail. To thefe, the bones of the head, and the fins, all the mufcles and instruments of motion, are attached. The mouths of moft fiShes are furnifhed with teeth ; but in fome, as the mullet, Sturgeon, &c. the teeth are wanting. In fome, the teeth are fituated on the jaw-bones, in others, on the tongue and palate. The teeth of fifhes are principally defigned for laying hold of and detaining their prey, which they generally fwallow entire. For this purpofe, the teeth are commonly ferrated, or bent inward, like tenter-hooks. By this ftruaure, fmall fiShes are eafily forced downwards, and their return is at the fame time prevented. In fiShes, the organ of fmelling is large ; and they have a power of contraaing and dilating, at pleafure, the entry into their noSe. It was formerly doubted whether fifties were endowed with the fenfe of hearing. But that doubt is now fully re? ©0 THE PHILOSOPHY moved •, becaufe it has been found, that, like other animals, they have a complete organ of hearing, and that water is a proper medium for the conveyance of found. Befides, in the in the Skate, and fome other genera, the learned and inge- nious Dr. Monro, Profeffor of Anatomy in the College of Edinburgh, has lately difcovered an aperture which leads di- reaiy to the internal parts of the ear. The gullet of fiShes is fo Short that it is hardly to be dis- tinguished from the ftomach, which is of an oblong figure. The guts are very Short, making only three convolutions, the laft of which terminates in the common vent for the faeces, urine, and femen. From this ftruaure of the ftomach and inteftines, analogy would lead us to conclude, that fifhes live chiefly upon animal food. Experience, accordingly, teaches us, that almoft all fiShes prey upon the fmaller kinds, and even devour their own young. The liver is proportion- ally large, of a whitifh colour, and fituated on the left fide. The gall-bladder lies at a confiderable diftance from the liver, and difcharges the gall into the gut. In fifhes, the organs of generation are two bags fituated in the abdomen, and uniting near the anus. In the male, theie bags are filled with a thick whitifh fubftance called the milt, and in the fe- male with an infinite number of minute eggs called the roe. At the feafon of fpawning, the bags, of both male and fe- male are greatly diftended ; but, at other times, the male organs can fcarcely be distinguished from thofe of the fe- male. The fwimming bladder is an oblong, white, membranous bag, which contains nothing but a quantity of elaftic air. It lies clofe to the back-bone, and has a pretty ftrong mufcu- lar coat. By contraaing this coat, and, of courfe, condenf- ing the air it contains, fome fiShes are enabled to render their bodies fpecifically heavier than water, and to Sink to the bottom ; and, when the mufcular fibres ceafe to aa, the, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 91 air dilates, and makes their bodies fpecifically lighter. By this curious piece of mechanilm, the animals have the power of finking to the bottom, or of riling to the furface. Ac- cording to the different degrees of contraaion and dilation of this bladder, fifhes can, at pleafure, keep themfelves high- er or lower in the water. Hence flounders, foles, Skate, and other fifties which have no fwimming bladder, always grovel at or near the bottom. It is likewife a confequence of the relaxation of this bladder, that dead fifties which are furniSh- ed with it uniformly rife to the furface. The air-bag, in fome fifhes, communicates, by a dua, with the gullet, and, in others, with the ftomach. At the upper end of the air- bag, there are red-coloured glandular bodies conneaed with the kidneys. From the kidneys the ureters proceed down- ward to their infertion in the urinary bladder, which lies in the lower part of the abdomen, and the urethra terminates in the anus. Fifties have a membranous diaphragm, or midriff, that forms a fack in which the heart is contained. The heart is of a triangular figure. It has only one auricle, one ventri- cle, and one great artery. This artery, inftead of fupplying all the parts of the body, as in the frog, is diftributed entire- ly on the gills. All the branches terminate there, and be- come at laft fo fmall that they efcape the naked eye. The branchiae, or gills, lie in two large flits on each fide of the head, and are analogous to the lungs of land-animals. The figure of the gills is femicircular, and on each fide of them are immenfe numbers of fibrils refembling fringes. The gills are perpetually fubjeaed to an alternate motion from the preffure of the water and the aaion of the mufcles. They are covered with a large flap, which allows an exit to the water neceffarily taken in by the animals every time their mouths are opened. The blood is again coined by a vaft number of fmall veins? which, inftead of going back a 92 THE PHILOSOPHY fecond time to the heart, immediately unite, and form an aorta defcendens, which fends off branches to fupply all the parts of the body, except the gills. From the extremities of thefe branches the blood is colleaed by veins, and return- ed to the heart nearlyin the fame manner as in other animals. The organs by which the nutritious part of the food of fiShes are extraaed and conveyed to the general mafs of blood, and known by the names of laaeal, abforbent, and lymphatic veffels, are fo analogous to thofe of men and quad- rupeds, that it is unneceffary to defcribe them. For the fame reafon, no defcription Shall be given of the nerves, which, as in other animals, proceed from the brain and fpinal marrow, and are distributed over every part of the body. Having finished this Sketch of the ftruaure and organs ot fifhes, it is almoft needlefs to remark, that, though they live in a different element, and vary greatly from land animals in figure, Nature, in the formation of their bodies, in the mode of their nutrition, refpiration, and fenfation, has aaed upon the lame great and general plan. We are now to take a view of the ftruaure of infeas, a numerous clafs of animals, moft of whom recede farther from the common mode of animal organization than any of the other claffes. OF THE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. In the firft chapter, a few obfervations were made con- cerning the ftruaure and organs of infeas, in order to fhow more clearly the analogies between animals and vegetables. Thefe it is unneeeffary to repeat. We fhall therefore pro- ceed to a more particular examination of the ftruaure of in- feas, and to trace the conneaion between that and their manners. Infeas exhibit fuch an immenfe variety in figure, colour, and difpofition of parts, that Naturalists have found it necef- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 93 fary to arrange them into different tribes or families. Thefe tribes are distinguished from one another by certain peculi- arities in the ftruaure of their bodies. The moft general divifion of inSeas is derived from the circumftance of their having or wanting wings, and from the number and fubftances of which thefe instruments of motion are compofed. They are distinguished from all other ani- mals by many peculiarities of form. None of the other claffes have more legs than four. But moft infeas have fix ; and many of them have eight, ten, fourteen, Sixteen, eighteen, and even a hundred, legs. Befide the number of legs, in- feas are furniShed with antennae or feelers. Thefe feelers, by which infeas grope and examine the fubftances they meet with, are compofed of a great number of articulations or joints. Linnaeus, and other Naturalifts, maintain, that the ufes of thefe feelers are totally unknown. But the flighteft attention to the manner in which fome infeas employ their feelers will fatisfy us of at leaft one uSe they derive from thefe organs. When a wingiefs infea is placed at the end of a twig, or in any fituation where it meets with a vacuity, it moves the feelers backward and forward, elevates, depref- fes, and bends them from Side to Side, and will not advance farther, left it Should fall. Place a Stick, or any other fub- ftance, within reach of the feelers ; the animal immediately applies them to this new objea,examineswhether it is fufficient to fupport the weight of its body, and inftantly proceeds in its journey. Though moft infeas are provided with eyes, yet the lenfes of which they confift are fo fmall and convex, that they can fee diftinaiy but at fmall diftances, and, of courfe, muft be very incompetent judges of the vicinity or remote- nefs of objeas. To remedy this defea, infeas are provided with feelers, which are perpetually in motion while the ani- mals walk. By the fame inftruments, they are enabled te walk with fafety in the dark. M -")•* THE PHILOSOPHY No other animals but the infea tribes have more than tw<* eyes. Some of them have four, as the phalangium ; others, as the fpider and fcorpion, have eight eyes. In a few infetts, the eyes are fniooth ; in all the others, they are hemispheri- cal, and confift of many thouSand diftina lenfes. The eyes are abfolutely immoveable : But this defea is fupplied by the vaft number of lenfes, which, from the diverfity of their pofitions, are capable of viewing objeas in every direaion. By the fmallnefs and convexity of thefe lenfes, which pro- duce the fame effea as the objea glafs of a microfcope, in- feas are enabled to fee bodies that are too minute to be pep ceived by the human eye. Another peculiarity deferves our notice. No animal, ex-1 cept a numerous tribe of four-winged infeas, have more than two wings. With regard to fex, quadrupeds, birds, and fifties, are dif- ringuiShed into males and females. But the bee and the ant. furnifh examples of neuters, which are abfolutely barren : And the earth-worm, and feveral Shell infeas, are herma- phrodite, each individual poffeffing the prolific powers o£ both male and female. It is likewife remarkable, that all winged infeas undergo: three metamorphofes or changes of form : The egg is dis- charged from the body of the female in the fame manner as in other oviparous animals. By a wonderful inftina, thefe feemingly Stupid creatures uniformly depofit their eggs on fuch animal or vegetable fubftances as furnifh proper' food for the worm or caterpillar, that is to be hatched by the heat of the fun. The worm or caterpillar, is the firft ftate. The bodies of caterpillars are foft and moift. They have no wings, and are totally deprived of the faculty of generation. After continuing for fome time in this reptile ftate, they are transformed into a chryfalis, which is drieif' and harder than the caterpillar. The chryfalis of fome OF NATURAL HISTORY. 0$ infeas are naked, and thofe of others are covered with a Silken web, fpun by the animals before their change is com- pleted. In this ftate, many of them lie motionlefs, and feemingly inannimate, during the whole winter. When the fpring or fummer heats return, they burft from their laft prifon, and, from vile reptiles, are transformed into beauti- ful flies. Ip this perfea ftate they are exceedingly aaive, fly about in queft of their mates, and, after propagating their fpecies, the females depofit their eggs, and the fame circle of animation and chahge perpetually goes round. Hence the ftruaure and figure of the fame individual ani- mals are three-fold, which renders the knowledge of infeas extremely complicated, as we muft be acquainted with them in the feveral forms they fuccefllvely affume. There is another peculiarity in the ftruaure of infeas. They are deprived of bones. But that defea is fupplied, in fome, by a membranous or mufcular Skin, and, in others, by a cruftaceous or horny covering. In this circumftance, infeas refemble the Shell-animals, whofe bones constitute the external parts of their bodies. In general, the bodies of infeas are compofed of a head, trunk, and abdomen. The head is commonly attached to the trunk by a joint or articulation. Befide eyes, feelers, and mouth, the heads of fome infeas are furnifhed with palpi fixed to the mouth ; and they are either four or fix in number. Each of them confifts of two, three, or four joints, and are often mistaken for the antennae or feelers. Thefe instruments feem to ferve the animals inftead of hands ; for they employ the palpi to bring the food to their mouths, and to keep it fteady while eating. It is afferted by Lin- naeus, and other Naturalifts, that the heads of infeas are def- titute of brains, noftrils and ears. The minutenefs of the animals under confideration may have hitherto prevented us from distinguishing thefe organs. If they want a brain, it 96 THE PHILOSOPHY is certain that their fenfe of feeing is acute ; and we know that they are amply fupplied with nerves, which prodi»> o the fame effeas as the brain in larger animals. If they are deprived of noftrils, the flighteft attention muft convince us, that fome of them poffefs the fenfe of fmelling in a very high degree. Upon any other fuppofition, how Should the dif- ferent fpecies of flies, the moment they efcaj>e from the chryfalis ftate, diftinguiSh, and direaiy approach, the differ- ent animal and vegetable fubftances Nature has deftined for their refpeaive nourifhment ? A piece of meat is no fooner expofed to the air than it is covered with SieSh flies, upon which they both feed and depofit their eggs. Without this fenfe, how fhould wafps, and other flies, be allured from considerable diftances into bottles encrufted with honey or molaffes ? Thefe, and fimilar aaions, cannot be effeas of fight ; for the distance, the minutenefs, and frequently the pofition of the food, render it impoffible for the eye to dis- cover thofe {ubftanoes to which they inftantly refort. With regard to hearing, it is more difficult to determine whether infeas be endowed with this fenfe. We can judge of it, not by the knife of the Anatomist, but by the affeaions and motions of the animals themfelves. Several trials I haye made on houfe-flies incline me to think that thefe animals poffefs a fenfe of a nature Similar, at leaft, to that of hearing. At the distance of three or four feet, a fmart Stroke, even upon a Stone wall, alarms and puts them to flight. But this may partly be attributed to the vibration in the wall, or the concuffion of the air, produced by the Stroke. To obviate this difficulty, at the fame distance of between three and four feet, I Struck the air repeatedly with a bookbinder's folder, without giving the fmalleft alarm to the flies. But, when I Struck the folder againft the boards of a book, which I held in my hand, and made a fmart noife, the animals were inftantly alarmed, and flew off at the fecond Stroke. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 97 The fame effea is produced in a room juft light enough to render the animals vifible. Thefe trials, which I have often repeated, feem to indicate that flies, if they are really depriv- ed of ears, are endowed with an analogous fenfe, though we are ignorant of its fituation. Naturalifts have limited the fenfes of infeas to thofe of feeing and feeling. But the above remarks render it more than probable that flies poffefs likewife the fenfes of fmelling and of hearing : Neither Should the fenfe of tafte be denied them ; for, though they may be affifted by fmelling to dil- cover and felea their food, we cannot fuppofe that Nature has denied them the pleafure which other animals fo univer- fally derive from eating. Befides, an agreeable fenfation, fimilar to that of tafte, muft accompany an aaion which re- moves the pain arifing from hunger. The mouth of infeas is generally placed in the under part of the head ; but, in fome, it is Situated in the breaft. The jaws, inftead of being horizontal, are often tranfverfe, and furnifhed with teeth. The greater number of winged infeas are provided with a probofcis or trunk, an instrument by which they extraa the juices from animal or vegetable fubftances. The probofcis of infeas is a machine of a very complicated nature. In butterflies, the probofcis is Situated precifely between the two eyes. Though fome of them ex- ceed three inches in length, they occupy but a fmall fpacc. When a butterfly is not in queft of food, the probofcis \s rolled up in a Spiral form, fimilar to that of a watch-fpring, each fucceSfive ring covering the one which precedes. The fubftance of the probofcis has fome refemblance to that cf horn. It tapers from the bafe to the extremity. It is com- pofed of two fimilar and equal parts, each of which is con- cave, and, when joined, form three diftina tubes. Reaumur has rendered it probable, that thefe tubes enable the animals to extraa the juices of plants, to conduct air into {heir £8 THE PHILOSOPHY bodies, and to convey the fenfation of fmelling. Hence the probofcis of infeas is an instrument which ferves them for a mouth, a nofe, and a wind-pipe. The upper part of the trunk or body of infeas is called the thorax, and the under part the abdomen or belly. The abdomen contains the Stomach and other vifcera. It con- fifts of feveral rings or fegments, and is perforated with fpi- racula, or tubes, which fupply the want of lungs. The ab- domen is terminated by the tail, which, in fome infeas, is armed with a Sting, a foreceps, a briftle, or a kind of claw with a moveable thumb. The legs are compofed of .three parts, conneaed to each other by joints, and reprefent the thighs, fhanks, ankles, and feet of larger animals. The wings of infeas are fo diversified in number, confift- ence, and colour, that Linnaeus has made them the founda- tion of the feveral orders or divifions into which he divides this numerous clafs of animals. Some infeas are furnifhed with four, and others with two wings, and fome of them are entirely destitute of thefe instruments of motion. The four-winged infeas are arranged into five orders. The firft order Linnaeus distinguishes by the name of coleop- tera, or thofe infeas whofe upper pair of wings confift of a hard, cruftaceous, or horny fubftance. Thefe cover and deT fend the under pair, which are of a more foft and flexible texture. This order comprehends the whole of what is prop- erly called fcarabaei, or the beetle tribe. Like other wing? ed infeas, all the beetles live for fome time in the form of caterpillars, or grubs. As a farther confirmation of the conneaion of manners with form and ftruaure, it is here worthy of remark, that the fame animals, when in the ftate of caterpillars, live in a different manner, and feed on fubftances of a very different kind from thofe they confume after their transformation into OF NATURAL HISTORY. 99 flies, The caterpillars of the garden-beetle, cock-chafer, &c. lead a folitary life under ground, and confume the roots of plants. Thofe of others feed upon putrid carcaffes, every kind of flefh, dried Skins, rotten wood, the dung of men and quadrupeds, and the fmall infeas called pucerons, or vinefret- Urs. The devourers of the puceron contribute to .cure fuch plants as happen to be infeaed with the phthiriafis, or loufy difeafe. But, after their transformation into flies, many of the fame animals, which formerly fed upon dung and putrid carcaffes, are nourished by the pureft neaareous juices ex- traaed from fruits and flowers. The creatures themfelves, with regard to what may be termed individual animation, have fuffered no alteration. But the fabrick of their bodies, their inftruments of motion, and the organs by which they take their food, are materially changed. This change of Struc- ture, though the animals retain their identity, produces the greateft diverfity in their manners, their oeconomy, and the powers of their bodies. In the caterpillar State, thefe ani- mals are extremely voracious, and, in many instances, acquire > greater magnitude than they poffefs after transformation ; but they are incapable of multiplying their fpecies, and of re- ceiving nourishment from the fame kinds of food. Befides, many caterpillars, previous to their transformation, live even in a different element. The ephemeron fly, when in the caterpillar ftate, lives no lefs than three years in the water, and extraas its nourishment from earth and clay. After transformation, this animal feldom exifts longer than one day, during which the fpecies is propagated, and myriads of eggs are depofrted on the furface of the water. Thefe eggs produce worms or caterpillars, and the fame procefs goes per- petually round. Linnzeus's fecond order of infeas, or hemiptera, have like- wife four wings. But the upper pair, inftead of being hard and horny, rather referable fine vellum. They cover the 100 THE PHILOSOPHY body horizontally, and do not meet in a direa line, forming a ridge or future, as in the beetle tribe. The whole of this order are furnifhed with a probofcis or trunk for extraaing their food. This order comprehends feveral genera or kinds, Some of which we Shall mention in a curfory manner.—The Mattel) or cockroach, is an animal which avoids the light, and is particu- larly fond of meal, bread, putrid bodies, and the roots of plants. It frequents bakers Shops and cellars, and flies the approach of danger with great fwiftnefs.—The head of the mantis, or camel-cricket, appears, from its continual nodding motion, to be Slightly attached to the thorax. This infea is regarded by the Africans as a facred animal ; becaufe it fre- quently affumes a praying or fupplicating pofture, by refting on its hind feet, and elevating and folding the firft pair. The gryllus comprehends a number of fpecies, fome of which are called grafshoppers, others locufts, and others crickets. The larvae, or caterpillars of the grylli, have a great refemblance to the perfea infeas, and, in general, live under ground. Many of thefe infeas feed upon the leaves of plants. Others, which live in houfes, prefer, bread, and every kind of farina- ceous fubftance.—The fulgora, or fire-fly : The foreheads of feveral of this genus, especially of thofe that inhabit China, and other hot climates, emit a very lively fhining light during the night, which often alarms thofe who are unacquainted With the caufe of the appearance.—The cicada, frog-hopper, or fiea-locuft : The larvae, or caterpillars, of Some of this ge- nus, difcharge a kind of froth or faliva from the anus and pores of the body, under which they conceal themfelves from the rapacity of birds and other enemies.—The papa or wa- ter fcorpion, frequents Stagnant waters. It lives chiefly on a- quatic infeas, and is exceedingly voracious.—The cimex or bug : Many fpecies of this genus feed upon the juices of plants, and others upon the blood of animals. Some of them OF NATURAL HISTORY. 101 are found in waters, and others frequent houfes, among which, though it wants wings, is the bed-bug, a peftiferous infea, which is too well known, and too generally diffufed. The bugs differ from other infeas by their foftnefs; and moft of them emit a very foetid fmell. The aphis,puceron, or vine-freiter: Thefe infeas are very common, and are generally termed the lice of the plants which they infeft: The puceron, as remark- ed in the firft- chapter, is viviparous in fummer, and ovipa- rous in autumn. Numbers of them are devoured by the ants, on account, as is fuppofed, of a fweet liquor with which their bodies are perpetually moiftened. Chermes : The lar- vae or caterpillars of this infect: have fix feet, and are gen- erally covered with a hairy or woolly fubftance. The winged infeas leap or fpring with great agility, and infeft a number of different trees and plants : The females, by means of a tube at the termination of their bodies, infert their eggs under the furface of the leaves, and the worms, when hatched give rife to thofe tubercles, or galls, with which the leaves of the afh, the fir, and other trees, are fometimes almoft entirely covered. The third order or tribe of four-winged infeas confifts of three genera only. But the fpecies comprehended under them are exceedingly numerous. All butterflies and moths belong to this order. Their wings are covered with a fari- naceous powder, or rather with a kind of fcalcs or feathers, difpofed in regular rows, nearly in the fame manner as tiles are laid upon the roofs cf houfes. The elegance, the beauty the variety of colours exhibited in their wings, are produced by the difpofition and different tinaures of thefe minute feathers. The infeas of this order, on account of their beau- ty and eafy prefervation, have always been the favourites of colleaors, and particularly of thofe of the female fex. When the feathers are rubbed off, the wings appear to be nothing 102 The philosophy more than a naked, and often a tranfparent membrane. The feelers of the papilio, or butterfly, are thickeft at their extremi- ty, and often terminate in a kind of capitulum, or head. Their wings, when fitting, or at reft, are erea, their extremi- ties join each other above the body, and the animals fly a- bout, in queft of food and of their mates, during the day. The moths are divided into two genera, the one called fphinx, or haw!; moth, and the other phalaena, or moth. The feelers of the fphinx are thicker in the middle tb^n at the ex- tremities, and their form, in fome meafure, refembles that of a prifm. The wings are, in general, defleaed, their outer margins declining towards the fides. They fly about early in the morning, and after fun-fet; and, by means of their probofcis, like the butterflies, they fuck the juices of plants. The phalaena, or moth : The feelers, of this genus are feta- ceous, and taper from the bafe to the point. When at reft, their wings are commonly defleaed ; and they fly during the night. Previous to their transformation, the caterpillars of the whole of this genus fpin webs for covering and pro- teaing the animals while in the chryfalis ftate. From a fpe- cies of this tribe mankind have derived one of the greateft articles of luxury and of commerce which now exifts in the world. That feemingly contemptible, that difgufting reptile known by the appellation of thefilk -worm, in its paffage from the caterpillar to the chryfalis ftate, produces thofe fplendid materials which adorn the thrones of Princes, and add digni- ty and luftre to female beauty*. The wings of the fourth order, diftinguifhed by the name of neuroptera, are membranaceous, naked, and fo interfperfed with delicate veins, that they have the appearance of beauti-' ful net-work. Their tail has no fting ; but that of the male is frequently furnifhed with a kind of forceps or pincers. To this order belongs the libella, or dragon-fly, an infea of very fplendid and variegated colours. It is a large and well * See Chap. XI, concerning the TransformaV'-"- "f Arlnialj. OF NATURAL HISTORY, 103 known fly, and frequents rivers, lakes, pools, and Stagnating waters, in which the females depofit their eggs. Their mode of generating is fingular. Different fpecies of them appear from the beginning of fummer to the middle of autumn. They generally fly in pairs and in a Straight line, the male pur- fuing the female. The organs of the male are fituated in his breaft : When he overtakes her, with the forceps in his tail he lays hold of her by the neck, while She, by an inftinaive impulfe, makes the lower end of her body approach the male organs. In this united fituation they form a kind of ring, have the appearance of a double animal, and fly along till the purpofe is accomplished. Under the fame order is com- prehended thephryganea, or fpring-fiy : The larvae or cater- pillars of this genus live in the water, and are covered with a filken tube. They have a very fingular afpea; for, by means of a gluten, they attach to the tubes in which they are inclofed fmall pieces of wood, fand, gravel, leaves of plants, and not unfrequently live teftaceous animals, all of which they drag along with them. They are very commonly found in falads of the water-crefs ; and, as they are often entirely covered with green leaves, they have the appearance of ani- mated plants. They are in great requeft among fifhermen, by whom they are diftinguifhed by the name offione, or cod- bc'.t. The fly, or perfea infea, frequents running waters, in which the females depofit their eggs. The fifth order is termed hymenoptera. In general, the in- feas belonging to this order have four membranaceous and naked wings. In fome of the genera, however, the neuters, and, in others, the males, or even the females, have no wings. Their tails except in the male fex, are armed with a fting___ The female of the cynips, an infea belonging to this order, inferts her eggs into the leaves of the oak,and the caterpillars produced from them giva rife to tht galls employed in the composition of ink. This order likewife includes the 104 THE PHILOSOPHY wafp, the bee, and the ant. Many of the wafp kind, like the bees, live in fociety, make combs in which the females depofit their eggs, and feed their caterpillars with an inferior fpecies of honey. Others of them conftrua a feparate neSt for each individual egg. The bee is an infea too well known to require a particular defcription. The males have no fting; but the females, and the drones, or neuters, have a very Sharp pointed Sting concealed in their abdojnen. The female of the honey bee is much larger than the male, or the neuter. Her feelers contain fifteen articulations. Her abdomen is compofed of feven fegments, and is much longer than her wings. The feelers of the male contain only eleven articula- tions. The neuters are much fmallar than the males or fe- males, and their feelers confift of fifteen articulations. The fting, with which the male and female ants are armed, is con- cealed within the abdomen. The males and females of the ant are furnifhed with wings, but the neuters are deprived of thefe instruments of motion. The ants live in focieties which are compofed of males, females, and neuters, The males are much fmaller than the females and neuters. Soon after the males and females propagate the fpecies, they all die. Some of the neuters, however, furvive the winter ; but they remain in their habitation without movement, or discovering any Signs of life. From thefe circumstances in the hiftory of ants, it is apparent, that the induftry and fa- gacity fo long and fo univerfally afcribed to thefe little ani- mals could be of no ufe either to themfelves or their proge- ny. The female, after depositing her eggs, takes no farther care of her offspring. But, what is fingular, the important office of feeding the larvae, or caterpillars, after the eggs are hatched, is left entirely to the neuters. This affeaionate and afliduous attentionof the neuters to a progeny neither begot nor brought forth by them, is fo aftonifhing, fo con- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1Q3 trary to the general oeconomy of Nature, that no reafon- ing or theory can account for a faa fo uncommon, till far- ther difcoveries fhall be made in the hiftory of thefe fur- prifing animals. What is Still more fingular, after the cater- pillars are transformed into the chryfalis ftate, the neuters are inceffantly and anxioufly employed in preferving the chryfales from humidity when the weather is wet, and in ex- posing them to the warmth of the fun when it is fair. Thefe chryfales are larger than the animals themfelves, and yet they carry them off with eafe and rapidity. The fixtb order of infeas is termed diptera, or two-wing- ed infeas. The different fpecies of this order, befide wings, are furniShed with what is called a halter or a poifer, which is fituated under each wing, and is terminated by a capitu- lum, or knob. This order comprehends ten genera and a mul- titude of fpecies. The caterpillars of the oefirus, or gadfly, lie concealed in the Skins of cattle, where they are nourish- ed during the whole winter. The perfea infeas are frequent wherever horfes, cows, or fheep, are grazing. Some of them depofit their eggs in the fkins of cows or oxen ; others depofit them in the inteftines of horfes, to which they get accefs by the anus ; and others in the noftrils of fheep. In thefe habitations, the caterpillars refide till they are full grown, when they throw themfelves down to the earth, and generally pals the chryfalis ftate under the firft ftone they meet with. The mufca, or common/^ : The mouth of this infea confifts of a foft, flefhy probofcis, with two lateral lips. The caterpillars of fome of this genus devour the pucerons; others confume all kinds of putrid flefh; others are found in cheefe; others in the excrements of different animals ; and many of them live in the water, and prefer that which is moft corrupted and muddy. The mouth of the culex, or gnat confifts of a flexible fheath, inclofing four briftles, or pointed flings. The feelers of the female gnat are plain like 106 THE PHILOSOPHY a thread ; but thofe of the male are beautifully feathered. The worms or caterpillars of this genus are commonly found in Stagnant waters. The gnats generally frequent woods and marfhy places. The females, in particular, are very trouble- fome, and fting feverely. The feet of the hippobofca or horfe- fly, are armed with a number of nails or crotchets. In fome fpecies, the wings crofs each other ; in others, they are open. The horfe-flies frequent woods and marfhy grounds, and are extremely incommodious to birds and quadrupeds, whofe blood is the only food of thefe infeas. The feventh order of infeas Linnaeus denominates aptera, becaufe neither males nor females are furnifhed with wings. This order comprehends thirteen genera, and a great num- ber of fpecies, many of which are very offenfive and noxious to the human fpecies. The pediculus, or loufe, has fix legs, two prominent eyes, and its mouth contains a fting or fucker, by which it extraas blood and other juices from the bodies of animals. Though almoft every different animal is infefted with a peculiar fpecies of lice, fpecific charaaers of very few of them have hitherto been afcertained. Lice are of various forms. Some of them are oval, others oblong, and others long and Slender. They are oviparous animals, and their eggs are large in proportion to the fize of their bodies. Be- fore they arrive at maturity, they change their fkin feveral times. They are fuppofed to be hermaphrodites. This cir- cumftance, if true, may partly account for their prodigious multiplication. Swammerdam, who diffeaed a great num- ber, affures us, that he never found one without an ovary, nor ever difcovered the organs peculiar to the male fex. If this ftruaure be univerfal, the loufe is an hermaphrodite of a very peculiar kind ; becaufe it muft be capable of foecun- dating itfelf. Several fpecies of worms are hermaphrodites; but, inftead of foecunding themfelves, they are obliged to im- pregnate each other. The fitlex, ox flea, has likewife Six legs, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 107 the articulations of which are fo exceedingly elaftic, that the animal is enabled by their means, to fpring to furprifing dif- tances. It has two fine eyes, and its body is covered with cruftaceous fcales. The flea is the only infea belonging to this order which undergoes a transformation fimilar to that of the former orders: All the other winglefs infeas are pro- duced in a perfea ftate either by the mother, or from eggs. The caterpillars of the flea have forked tails, and are very fmall and lively. They may be nourifhed in boxes, and fed with flies, which they greedily devour. Before changing in-* to the chryfalis ftate, they live fourteen or fifteen days in the form of caterpillars. Aranea, or fpider : This genus comprehends a great many fpecies. The fpider has eight feet, and an equal number of immoveable eyes. The chief prey of the fpider is flies, animals whofe motions are ex- tremely quick and defultory. To enable the fpider to ob- ferve their movements in every direaion, She is furnifhed with eight eyes, the pofition of which merits attention : Two of them are placed on the top of the head, other two on the front, and two on each fide. The mouth is armed with two crotchets, by which it feizes and kills its prey. Round the anus there are feveral mufcular inflruments, Shaped like nipples or teats. Each of thefe contain about a thoufand tubes or outlets for threads fo extremely minute, that many hundreds of them muft be united before they form one of thofe vifible ropes of which the fpider's web is compofed. The figure of the web varies according to the fpecies, or the Situation the animal choofes for its abode. After the web is completed, fome fpecies refide in the center, and others occupy the extremity of their habitations, where they lie in ambulh, with aftoniShing patience, till an ill-fated fly is accidently entangled. The fpider, from the vibration of the threads, perceives his prey, rufhes forth from his cell, kiftantly feizes it with his fangs, devours its vitals, and after- ids THE PHILOSOPHY Wards rejeas the exhaufted carcafe. Spiders prey upon all weaker infeas, and even upon their own fpecies. The fcorpion ; this venomous infea is a native of warmer cli- mates than thofe of the north of Europe. It has eight feet, and two claws, the laft of which are fituated on the fore part of the head. Like the fpider, the fcorpion has eight eyes, three of which are placed on each fide of the breaft, and the other two on the back. The tail is long, jointed, and termi- nates in a Sharp crooked fting. The venom of the fcorpion is more deftruaive than that of any other infea ; and is fometimes fatal in Africa and other hot regions. The Up divifion of infeas is termed vermes or worms, by Linnaeus. This clafs comprehends not only all the infeas commonly called worms, but all the teftaceous animals, and the zoophites, or plant-animals. The ftruaure of feveral genera belonging to this clafs is extremely fingular. After giving a few examples, we fhall haften to the conclusion of the prefent fubjea. The body of the gordius, or hair-worm, is long, Shaped like a thread or hair, fmooth, and round. A fpecies of the hair-worm is very common in our frelh waters, and is per- feaiy harmlefs. In Scotland, it is a vulgar and fooliSh no- tion, that the hair of a horSe's tail, when thrown into the water, is converted into this worm. Though inoffenSive in this country, the hair-worm of Africa, and of both the In- dies, is extremely noxious. It is of a pale yellowifh colour, and is frequently met with among the grafs, efpecially when covered with dew. It often infinuates itfelf into the naked feet or limbs of children and unwary perfons, where it pro- duces an inflamation, which is fometimes fatal. It may be extraaed by tying a thread round its head, and then pulling it gently out of its abode. But this operation requires great caution ; for, if the animal is broken, the part which remains does not die, but, in a fhort time, regains what it had loft, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 109 and becomes equally entire and troublefome as if it had re- ceived no injury. The lumbricus or earth-worm : The body of this worm is cylindrical, confifts of many rings, and the middle is encompaffed with an elevated belt. It is likewife furni'hed with Sharp prickles, which the animal can erea or deprefs at pleafure. Through certain perforations in the Skin, it occasionally emits a flimfy fluid, which lubricates its bo'dy, and facilitates its paffagc into the foil. The inteftines of this worm are always filled with a fine earth, which feems to constitute its only nourifhment. Earth-worms, like fnails, are hermaphrodite. The parts of generation are placed-near the neck, and they mutually impregnate each other. This operation is performed on the furface of the ground ; and, while thus employed, they will allow themfelves to be crufh- ed to pieces rather than part. The females depofit their eggs in the earth, where they are hatched. Thefe worms, like the polypus, when cut through the middle, reproduce, and each portion becomes a diftina individual. According to the different periods of their growth, their colour varies ; I but, in general, it is a dufky red. The fepid, or cuttle-fifi, though comparatively a large ani- mal, fome of them being two feet long, is ranked by Linnae- us under the clafs of worms. The ftruaure of the cuttle filh is remarkable. Its body is cylindrical, and, in fome of the fpecies, is entirely covered with a flefhy Sheath ; in oth- ers, the Sheath reaches only to the middle of the body. The fepia has eight tentacula, or arms, befide two feelers, as they are called, which are much longer than the arms. Both the feelers and arms are furnifhed with ftrong cups, or fuckers, Shaped like the cup of an acorn, by means of which the ani- mal feizes its prey, and firmly attaches itfelf to rocks, or to the bottom of the fea. It has two large and prominent eyes. What is ftill more fingular, it is furnifhed with a hard, ftrong, horney beak, precifely Similar, both in texture and O 110 The philosophy fubftance, to the bill of a parrot. With this bill, the cuttle* fifh is enabled to break the Shells of limpets, and other Shell-animals, upon which it chiefly feeds. In the beU ly, there is an aperture through which the animal, when pur- fued by its enemies, emits a fluid as black as ink, tinges the water, and often efcapes by this ingenious ftratagem. The Ancient Romans frequently ufed this black fluid as ink in writing. The males and females copulate by a mutual em- brace. The female depofits her eggs upon fea-plants in par- cels refembling bunches of grapes. At the inftant they drop from the mother, the eggs are white ; but the male im- mediately coats them over with a black liquor. The male perpetually accompanies the female. When the female is attacked, he braves every danger, and often refcues her at the hazard of his own life. The bone of the cuttle-fifh is very light, and, when pulverized, it is employed by different artifts in making moulds. The medufa is an animal which has the appearance of a lifelefs mafs of jelly floating on the furface of the ocean. Its body is roundifh, flattened underneath, and the mouth is Situated in the centre of the under part. There are many fpecies of this feemingly moft imperfea, defencelefs, and ab- jea part of animated nature. They are, however, furnifh- ed with tentacula, by which they feize infeas and the fmall fry of fifties, convey them to their mouths, and devour them. Although the fport of the waves, and the prey of every fifh that approaches them, they are gregarious animals, and, par- ticularly in warm climates, fometimes collea in fuch num- bers as to have the appearance of whitifh rocks under the Surface of the ocean. WE have thus given a Short Sketch of the ftruaure of animals, from man down to the infea tribes, and fhall now conclude with a few remarks. OF NATURAL HISTORY. Ill In all the variety of animated beings whofe general Struc- ture has been exhibited, the intelligent reader will eafily per- ceive, that the bodily forms of the different kinds are exaaiy adapted to the rank they hold in the creation, and that their oeconomy and manners are ftriaiy and invariably conneaed with their ftruaure and organs. If a new animal appears, and if its figure be uncommon, it may with fafety be pro- nounced, that its manners are equally uncommon. Change the external or internal form of an animal; diminifh the number of ftomachs in the ruminating tribes ; or give to the horfe a parrot's bill ; and the fpecies will be annihilated. The comparative power, or ftrength, of animals depends not on ftruaure alone. Mental faculties, and docility, or the capacity of receiving inftruaion, feem to be the greateft fources of animal power. Hence man's unlimited empire over all other creatures. The inventions of language, of arms, of writing, printing, and engraving, have been the chief means of extending his influence, and of his acquiring the dominion of the earth. By thefe arts, men tranfmit the improvements, the inventions, and the acquisitions, of one age to another. By thefe arts, the difpofitions of men are foftened, their manners become more and more civilized, humanity is gradually extended and refined, and the groffer animofities yield to external politenefs and decorum at leaft, if the feelings themfelves be not blunted. How far this pro- grefs of fcience, and the peaceful arts of life, by the accumu- lation of ages, may proceed, it is impoffible to determine. But the time, it is to be hoped, is not very remote, when the fiercer contentions of nations will ceafe, when felfiSh- nefs and venality, which at prefent feem to be infcparable from commercial States, will give way to generofity of tem- per, and uprightneSs of condua. 112 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER III. Of the Refpiration of Animals—Air neceffary to the exiftence of all animated beings—The various modifications of the organs employed by Nature for the tranfmiffion of Abr into animal bodies. IT is foreign to the defign of this chapter to mention the different kinds of air; to unfold its compofi- tion; or to recapitulate the innumerable benefits derived from it in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, in the arts of life, and in the texture and cohefion of inanimate bodies. For our purpofe, it is fufficient to obferve, that by air is meant that common elaftic fluid which pervades this globe, and which by its weight, its preffure in all direaions, and its compreflibility, infinuates itfelf into every vacuity, and is neceffary to the exiftence of every animal and vegetable being. In man, and the larger land animals, air is taken into the body by the lungs. When an animal infpires, the external air paffes through the apertures of the mouth and nofe into the trachea or wind-pipe, and thence direaiy into the lungs. This air, by infinuating itfelf into the numerous cells of the lungs, neceffarily inflates them, and, when retained for a fecond or two, produces an uneafy fenfation. To remove this difagreeable feeling, the animal inftinaively, by the ex- ertion of particular mufcles deftined by Nature for that purpofe, forces out the air, and thus removes the offending caufe. The lungs, after the air is thrown out, inftead of be- ing inflated, collapfe ; and, if a frefli fupply is not foon tak- en in, a fimilar uneafy fenfation is fell, which obliges the animal again to infpire. This alternate reception and rejec- tion of air goes on during the life of the animal, and is dif- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 113 turmifhed by the general name of refpiration. But, when treating more accurately of the fubjea, the aa of taking air into the lungs is called infpiration, and the aa of throwing it out is termed expiration. That the refpiration of air is indifpenfible to the exiftence of land animals, has been proved by innumerable experi- ments made with the air-pump. Mice, rats, rabbits, cats, dogs, &c. when placed in an exhaufted receiver, inftantly become reftlefs, and difcover fymptoms of pain. Their bodies fwell, and their life is foon extinguished. Indeed, our own feelings are fufficient to afcertain this faa. No perfon can remain long either in a ftate of infpiration or ex- piration without being fuffocated. But the alternate motions of infpiration and expiration, joined to the circulation of the blood through the lungs, may be confidered as the more mechanical effeas of refpiration* Though thefe operations are abfolutely neceffary to the ex- iftence of animals, yet the air itfelf has been fuppofed to im- part fome vital principle to the blood, without which life could not be continued. The ingenious Doaor Crawford, in his treatife on Animal Heat, has rendered it probable, that the refpiration of air is the caufe of that vftal warmth without which no animal can exift. After mentioning a well known faa, that all bodies, whether animate or inanimate, contain a certain quantity of fire as a principle in their compofition, the Doaor remarks, that this quantity, in different bodies, varies according to their nature or texture ; that this fire, when in a latent or quiefcent ftate, is termed abfolute heat; that, when fubftances of different textures have a given quantity of heat thrown in- to them, their temperature will be difcovered to be different by the thermometer; for the fame quantity of heat which raifes one body to a certain degree, will raife another to a 114 THE PHILOSOPHY greater or a lefs •, and this different difpofition of bodies, is called their capacity of containing abfolute heat. Doaor Crawford next endeavours to prove by experi- ments, that, when phlogifton is added to any body, its ca-. pacity of containing abfolute heat is diminished ; and that, when phlogifton is abftraaed from the fame body, its capaci- ty of receiving abfolute heat is augmented. Hence he in- fers, that heat and phlogifton feem to conftitute two oppo- fite principles in nature. By the aaion of heat upon bodies, the force of their attraaion to phlogifton is diminished ; and, by the aaion of phlogifton, a part of the abfolute heat, which exifts in every fubftance as an element, is expelled. (Hence,' fays the Doaor, ' animal heat feems to depend * upon a procefs fimilar to a chemical eleaive attraaion. (The air is received into the lungs, containing a great quanr (tity of abfolute heat. The blood is returned from the ex- ' tremities, highly impregnated with phlogifton. The at- «traaion of the air to the phlogifton is greater than that of f the blood. This principle will therefore leave the blood to c combine with the air. By the addition of the phlogifton, ' the air is obliged to depofit a part of its abfolute heat; and, f as the capacity of the blood is, at the fame moment, in- c creafed by the feparation of the phlogifton, it will inftantly < unite with that portion of heat which had been detached ' from the air. f We learn from Doaor Prieftley's experiments with ref? f pea to refpiration, that arterial blood has a ftrong attrac- «tion to phlogifton : It will, confequently, during the cirr ' culation, imbibe this principle from thofe parts which re- < tain it with the leaft force, or from the putrefcent parts of f the fyftem : And hence the venous blood, when it returns * to the lungs, is found to be highly impregnated with phlog- f ifton. By this impregnation, its capacity for containing ' heat is diminifhed. In proportion, therefore, as the blood, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 115 c which had been dephlogifticated by the procefs of refpira- ' tion, becomes again combined with phlogifton, in the f courfe of the circulation, it will gradually give out that heat s which it had received in the lungs, and diffufe it over the f whole fyftem.*' The Doaor afterwards proceeds to affign a reafon why the heat of animals is always equal. * As animals,' fays he, * are continually abforbing heat from the air, if there were ' not a quantity of heat carried off, equal to that which is ' abforbed, there would be an accumulation of it in the ani- 1 mal body. The evaporation from the furface, and the cool- «ing power of the air, are the great caufes which prevent 1 this accumulation. And thefe are alternately increafed < and diminished, in fuch a manner as to produce an equal f effea. When the cooling power of the air is diminifhed ' by the fummer heats, the evaporation from the furface is < increafed ; and when, on the contrary, the cooling power < of the air is increafed by the winter colds, the evaporation « from the furface is proportionally diminifhed f,' This theory, though not fupported by mathematical evi- dence, is not only ingenious, but feems to make a nearer ap- proach to truth than any that has hitherto been invented J. Refpiration, befide being the probable caufe of the equable continuation of heat in animals, produces many other faluta- ry and ufeful effeas in the oeconomy of animated bodies. There is a moft intimate conneaion between the aa of ref- piring and the circulation of the blood. When refpiration is, for a fhort time, interrupted by the fumes of burning ful- • Crawford on Animal Heat, pag. 73. f Ibid. pag. 84. \ If the reader is dcfirous of feeing fome pertinent remarks on DocTror Crawford's Theory of Animal Heat, he may confult Doctor Gardiner's Obfer- vations on the Animal Oeconomy, and on the Caufes and Cure of Difeafes, an ingenious and ufeful performance, lately publilhed, and which merits much more attention from Philofophers and Phyficiant than it has hitherto received. 116 THE PHILOSOPHY phur, by rriephitic air, or by remaining fome minutes under water, the aaion of the heart ceafes. But, in many cafes of this kind, the motion of the heart may, and frequently has been renewed, by blowing air into the lungs, and by the ap- plication of Stimulating fubftances to different organs of the body. In perfons feemingly dead from a temporary fufpen- fion of refpiration, if the lungs can be excited to aa, the mo- tion of the heart inftantly commences, the circulation of the blood is reftored, and life is recovered. This intimate con- neaion between refpiration and the aaion of the heart, is one of thofe aftoniShing faas in the animal oeconomy, the caufes of which will perhaps forever elude the keeneft re* fearches of the human intellea. All we know is, that cer- tain funaions are indifpenfible to the exiftence of animals, and that, if any of them are fuSpended for a few feconds, life is extinguished ; namely, the aaion of the brain and nerves, the circulation of the blood, refpiration, and a pro- bable refult of refpiration, animal heat. Thefe funaions, I from their importance in the fyftem, have received the ap- j pellation of vital funBions. There are other funaions of the body, called natural, which are no lefs neceffary to life, as the digeftion and concoaion of aliment, the various fecre- tions and excretions. But they are distinguished from the vital funaions, becaufe fome of them may be fufpended for a considerable time without materially injuring the body. Refpiration commences inftantly after birth, and is inftinc- tively continued during life. In the foetus ftate, as formerly mentioned*, refpiration is unneceffary, becaufe the circula- tion of the general mais of blood is carried on through a dif- ferent channel. In the aa of infpiration, we are confcious of making a certain effort ; but in the aa of expiration we fcarcely perceive any exertion whatever. * See above, page 66i OF NATURAL HISTORY. 117 Befide the circulation of the blood, and the continuation of the vital warmth, refpiration gives rife to many other im- portant funaions in the animal oeconomy. All animals who refpire, befide a watery vapor, exhale great quantities of me- phytic or corrupted effluvia, which, if retained in the lungs, or breathed by other animals, would foon prove fatal. The mufcles of refpiration, of which we have the command, are employed in many other operations of the body, befide the mere aa of breathing air. All animals furnifhed with lungs exprefs their wants, their affeaions and averfions, their pleafures and pains, either by words, or by founds, peculiar to each fpecies. Thefe different founds are produced by ftraitening or widening the glottis and wind-pipe, or, in general, the paffage through which the air paffes in refpira- tion. The inferior animals are by this means enabled to exr prefs themfelves, though not by articulate founds, in fuch a manner as to be perfeaiy intelligible to every individual of a fpecies. On man alone, Nature has beftowed the faculty of fpeaking, or of expreffing his various feelings and ideas, by a regular, extenfive, and eftablifhed combination of arti- culate founds. To have extended this faculty to the brute creation, would not, it is probable, have been of any ufe to them ; for, though fome animals can be taught to articulate, yet, from a defea in their intellea, none of them feem to have any idea of the proper meaning of the words they utter. Speech is performed by a very various and complicated ma- chinery. In fpeaking, the tongue, the lips, the jaws, the whole palate, the nofe, the throat, together with the muf- cles, bones, &c of which thefe organs are compofed, are all employed. This combination of organs we are taught to ufe when fo young that we are hardly confeious of the la- borious taSk, and far iefs of the manner by which we pro- nounce different letters and words. The mode of pronounc- ing letters and words, however, may be learned by attentive- 118 THE PHILOSOPHY ly obferving the different organs employed by the fpeaker. By this means we are enabled to correa various defeas of fpeech, and even to teach the dumb to fpcak ; for dumbnefs is feldom the effea of imperfeaion in the organs of fpeech, but generally arifes from a want of hearing ; and it is im- poflible for deaf men to imitate founds which they never heard, except they be taught to ufe their organs by vifion and by touching. When about to laugh, we make a very full infpiration, which is fucceeded by frequent, interrupted, and fonorous expirations. When the titillation is great, whether it arifes from the mind or body, thefe convulsive expirations fome- times interrupt the breathing to fuch a degree as to endan- ger fuffocation. Moderate laughing, on the contrary, pro- motes health : By agitating the whole body, it quickens the circulation of the blood, gives an inexpreffible chearfulnefs to the countenance, and banifhes every kind of anxiety from the mind. In weeping, we employ nearly the fame organs as in laugh- ing. It commences with a deep infpiration, which is fuc- ceeded by Short, broken, fonorous, and difagreeable expira- tions. The countenance has a difmal afpea, and tears are poured out. Weeping originates from grief, or other pain- ful fenfations either of body or mind : When full vent is given to tears, grief is greatly alleviated. Both laughing and weeping have been reckoned peculiar to man. But this notion feems not to be well founded. Though the other animals exprefs not their pleafures or pains in the fame manner as we do, yet all of them exhibit their pleafant or painful feelings by fymptoms or cries, which are perfeaiy underftood by the individuals of each fpecies, and, in many instances, by man. A dog, when hurt, complains in the bit- tereft terms ; and, when he is afraid, or perhaps melancholy, he expreffes the fituation of his mind by the moft deplora- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 119 ble howlings. A bird, when Sick, ceafes to fing, droops the wing, abstains from food, affumes a lurid afpea, utters me- lancholy, weak cries, and exhibits every mark of depreffed fpirits. By this means, animals intimate the affiftance they require, or foften thofe who maltreat them. Their plain- tive cries are fometimes fo affeaing as to difarm their ene- mies, or procure the aid of their equals. On the*other hand, when animals are pleafed or careffed, they difcover, by their countenance, by their voice, by their movements, une- quivocal fymptoms of chearfulneSs and alacrity of mind. Thus the expreffions of pleafure and pain by brute animals, though not uttered in the precife manner with thofe of the human fpecies, are perfeaiy analogous, and anfwer the fame intentions of Nature. By refpiration, and the inflruments employed in the per- formance of it, the larger animals are not only brought forth, but are enabled to extraa milk from the breafts of the mother. By refpiration, odors are conveyed to the nofe ; coughing, fneezing, yawning, fighing, Singing, vomiting, and many other funaions in the animal oeconomy, are at leaft partly accomplished. After this general view of the refpiration of man and of quadrupeds, we proceed, according to the method laid down, to give fome account of the fame funaion in the other claffes of animals. With regard to birds, though, like other land-animals, they refpire by means of lungs, Nature has enabled them to tranfmit air to almoft every part of their bodies. The lungs of birds are fo firmly attached to the diaphragm, the ribs, the fides, and the vertebrae, that they can admit of very lit- tle dilatation or contraaion. Inftead of being impervious, the fubftance of the lungs, as well as of the diaphragm, to which they adhere, is perforated with many holes or paffag- 120 THE PHILOSOPHY es for the tranfmiffion of air to the other parts of the body*. To each of thefe perforations a diftina membranous bag is joined. Thefe bags are extremely thin and tranfparent. They extend through the whole uf the abdomen, are attach- ed to the back and fides of that cavity, and each of them re- ceives air from their refpeaive openings into the lungs. The cells in birds which receive air from the lungs are found not only in the foft parts, but in the bones. That ingenious and accurate anatomift, Mr. John Hunter of London, rem irks, that the bones of birds whi:h receive air are of two kinds : f Some, as the Sternum, ribs, and vertebrae, have their inter- s nal fubftance divided into innumerable cells, whilft others, (as the os humeri and the os femoris, are hollowed out into 1 one large canal, with fometimes a few bony columns run- * ning acrofs at the extremities. Bones of this kind may be * distinguished from thofe that do not receive air by certain < marks : 1. By their lefs fpecific gravity : 2. By being lefs * vafcular, and therefore whiter : 3. By their containing lit- f tie or no oil, and confequently being more eafily cleaned, * and, when cleaned, appearing much whiter than common * bones : 4. By having no marrow, or even any bloody pul- e locomotive faculty. But this is a vulgar error. It is almoft unneceffary to mention, that the exte- rior part of mufcles confifts of two Shells hinged together, which the animals can open or Shut at pleafure. Every per- fon muft likewife have obferved, in the ftruaure of the ani- mal itfelf, a SleShy protuberance of a much redder colour, and denfer confiftence, than the other parts of the body. This mufcular protuberance, which confifts of two lobes, has been denominated a trunk, or tongue : But it is an instru- ment by which the creature is enabled to perform a pro- greffive, though a very Slow motion ; and, therefore, in de- ferring its manner of moving, I fhall call thefe two lobes the animal's tentacula, or feet. When inclined to remove from its prefent Situation, the river-mufcle opens its Shell, thrufts out its tentacula, and, while lying on its fide in an horizontal pofition, digs a fmall furrow in the fand. Into this furrow, by the operation of the fame tentacula, the animal makes the Shell fall, and thus brings it into a vertical pofition. We have now got our muf- cle on end ; but how is he to proceed ? He Stretches forward, his tentacula, by which he throws back the fand, lengthens the furrow, and this fulcrum enables him to proceed pn his journey. 146 THE PHILOSOPHY With regard to marine mufcles, their progreffive motion is performed in the fame manner, and by the fame inftru* ments. When not in motion, they are all firmly attached to rocks, or fmall ftones, by many threads of about two inche6 in length, which ferve the double purpofes of an anchor and cable, without this provision of Nature, thefe animals muft become the fport of the waves, and the fpecies would foon be annihilated. But, how does the creature fpin thefe threads ? A cylindrical canal extends from the origin to the extremi- ty of the tentacula. In this canal an extremely glutinous fubftance is fecreted, which the animal, by the operation of certain mufcles, has the power of forcing out, and of attach- ing it, in the form of ftrong threads, to ftones or other folid bodies. More than a hundred and fifty of thefe cables are often employed in mooring a Single mufcle *. The fub- ftance of the threads is exceedingly vifcous, indigestible in the human Stomach, and is probably the caufe of thoSe fatal confequences which fometimes happen to inattentive eaters. In Scotland, thefe threads are called the beards of mufcles, and fhould be carefully pulled off before the animals are thrown into the ftomach. Other bivalved fhell-fifhes, the fpecies of which are nu- merous, perform a progreffive or retrograde motion by an in- ftrument that has no fmall refemblance to a leg and foot. But the animals can, at pleafure, make this leg affume almoft every kind of form, according as their exigencies may re- quire. By this leg they are not only enabled to creep, to fink into the mud, or difengage themfelves from it, but to per- form a motion, which no man could fuppofe fhell-fifhes were capable of performing. When the tellina, or limpin, is about to make a fpring, it puts the fhell on the point or fummit, as if with a view to diminish friaion. It then Stretches out the leg as far as poffible, makes it embrace a portion of the fhell, * Oeuvres de Bonnet, torn. 5. pag. 361. 4to edit, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 147 and, by a fudden movement, Similar to that of a fpring let loofe, it Strikes the earth with its leg, and aaually leaps to a considerable distance *. The fpout-fifti f has a bivalved fhell, which refembles the handle of a razor. This animal is incapable of progreffive motion on the furface ; but it digs a hole or cell in the fand, fometimes two feet in depth, in which it can afcend and de- fcend at pleafure. The instrument or leg by which it per- forms all its movements is fituated at the centre. This leg is fleShy, cylindrical, and pretty long. When neceffary, the animal can make the termination of the leg affume the form of a ball. The fpout-fiSh, when lying on the furface of the fand, and about to Sink into it, extends its leg from the infe- rior end of the Shell, and makes the extremity of it take on the form of a Shovel, Sharp on each fide, and tetminating in a poipt. With this instrument the animal cuts a hole in the fapd. After the hole is made, it advances the leg ftill far- ther into the fand, makes it affume the form of a hook, and with this hook, as a felcrum, it obliges the fhell to defcend into the hole. In this manner the animal operates till the fhell totally difappears. When it choofes to regain the fur- face, it puts the termination of the leg into the Shape of a ball, and makes an eSfort to extend the whole leg ; but the ball prevents any farther defcent, and the mufcular effort neceffa- rily pufhes the fhell upward till it reaches the furface, or top of the hole. It is amazing with what dexterity and quick- nefs thefe feemingly awkward motions are performed. It is remarkable that the fpout-fiSh, though it lives in fait water, abhors fait. When a little fait is thrown into the hole, the animal inftantly quits his habitation. But it is ftill more remarkable, that, if you feize the animal with your hand, and afterwards allow it to retire into its cells you may Strew as much fait upon it as you pleafe, but the £Sh will never * Oeuvresde Banner, torn. 5. pag, 341. 4to edit. f The name of the animal in Scotland. In England it is called razcr-fifli. 148 THE PHILOSOPHY again make its appearance. If you do not handle the ani- mal, by applyiug fait, you may make it come to the furface as often as you incline ; and fifhermen often make ufe of this ftratagem. This behaviour indicates more fentiment and recolleaion than one fhould naturally expea from a fpout-fifh. ^ The fcallop, another well known bivalved Shell-fifh, has the power of progreffive motion upon land, and likewife of fwimming on the furface of the water. When this animal happens to be deferted by the tide, it opens its fhell to the full extent, then fhuts it with a fudden jerk, by which it often rifes five or fix inches from the ground. In this manner it tumbles forward till it regains the water. When the fea is calm, troops, or little fleets of fcallops, are often obferved fwimming on the furface. They raife one valve of their Shell above the furface, which becomes a kind of fail, while the other remains under the water, and anfwers the purpofe of an anchor, by Steadying the animal, and preventing its being Overfet. When an enemy approaches, they inftantly Shut their Shells, plunge to the bottom, and the whole fleet difap- pears. By what means they are enabled to regain the fur- face, we are Still ignorant. With regard to the locomotive faculty of the oyfter, the following faas are recorded in the Journal de Phyftque by the Abbe Dicquemare. Like many other bivalved fhell-fifh, the oyfter has the power of fquirting out water with a con- siderable force. By thus fuddenly and forcibly ejeaing a quantity of water, the animal repulfes fuch enemies as en- deavour to infinuate into its Shell while open. By the fame operation, if not firmly attached to rocks, to ftones, or to one another, the oyfter retreats backwards, or Starts to a Side in a lateral direaion. Any perfon may amufe himfelf with the fquirting and motions of oyfters, by putting them in a plate fituated in a horizontal pofition, and which contains as much OF NATURAL HISTORY. no fea-water as is fufficient to cover them. The oyfter has been reprefented by many authors as an animal deftitute not only of motion, but of every fpecies of fenfation. The Abbe Dic- quemare, however, has Shown, that it can perform movements perfeaiy confonant to its wants, to the dangers it apprehends, and to the enemies by which it is attacked. Inftead of being deftitute of all fenfation, oyfters are capable of deriving knowledge from experience. When removed from fitua- tions which are constantly covered with the fea, devoid of ex- perience, they open their Shells, lofe their water, and die in a few days. But, even when taken from fimilar fituations, and laid down in places from which the fea occasionally re- tires, they feel the effeas of the fun's rays, or of the cold air, or perhaps apprehend the attacks of enemies, and accor- dingly learn to keep their Shells clofe till the tide returns. Condua of this kind plainly indicates both fenfation and a degree of intelligence. The progreffive motion of the fea-urching, or fea-egg, a well known multivalved Shell-fiSh, merits our attention. This animal, of which there are feveral fpecies, is round, oval, or Shaped like a bias-bowl. The furface of the fhell is divided into beautiful triangular compartments, and covered with numberlefs prickles ; from which laft circumftance it has re- ceived the appellation of fea-urchin, or fea-hedge-hog. Thefe triangles are feparated by regular belts, and perforated by a great number of holes. Each hole gives lodgment to a flefhy horn fimilar to thofe of the fnail, and fufceptible of the fame movements. Like the fnail, the fea-urchin ufes its horns when in motion ; but their principal ufe is to fix the animal to rocks, ftones, or the bottom of the ocean. By means of the horns and prickles, which proceed from almoft every point of the fhell, the fea-urchin is enabled to walk either on its back or on its belly. The limbs it moft generally employs are thofe which furround the mouth. But, when it choofes, 150 THE PHILOSOPHY it can move forward, by turning on itfelf like the wheel of a coach. Thus the Sea-urchin furnifhes aa example of an ani- mal employing many thoufand limbs in its various move- ments. The reader may try to conceive the number of muf- cles, of fibres, and of other apparatus, which are requisite to the progreffive motion of this little animal. The motion of that fpecies of medufa, or fea-nettle, which attaches itfelf to rocks, and to the larger fhell-fifh, is extremely flow. The fea-nettles affume fuch a variety of figures, that it is rmpoflibie to defcribe them under any de- terminate Shape. In general, their bodies have a refemblance to a truncated cone. The bafe of the cone is applied to the yock or other fubftance to which they adhere. With regard to colour, fome of them are red, fome greenifh, fome whitish, and others are brown. When the mouth, which is very large, is expanded, its margin is furrounded with a great number of fleShy filaments, or horns, fimilar to thofe of the fnail. Thefe horns are difpofed in three rows around the mouth, and give the animal the appearance ef a flower. Through each of thefe horns the fea-nettle fquirts water, like fo many jets-d'eau. What is peculiar in the ftruaure of thefe creatures, the whole interior part of their body or eone, is one cavity or ftomach. When fearching for food, they extend their filaments, and encangle any fmall animals they encounter. When they meet with ihei_- prey, they in- ftantly fwallow it, and Shut their mouths clofe like a purfe. Though f'ie animal Should not exceed an inch, or an inch and a half, in diamete", as it i? all mouth and ftomach, it fwallows large whelks and mufcles. Thefe fhell-animals foux'u.ies remain many days in the ftomach before tuey are ejeae 1. Their murifying parts are at laft, however, ex- traaed ; but how does the fea-nettle get quit of the fhell ? The creature has no other aperture in its body but the mouth, and this mouth is the instrument by which it bcth receives OF NATURAL HISTORY. 151 nourishment, and difcharges the excrement, or unprofitable part of its food. When the Shell is not too large, the fea-r ;.t- tle has the power of turning its infide out, ar.d by this Strange manoeuvre the fhell is thrown out of the body, and the ani- mal refumes its former ftate. But, when the Shell prefents itfelf in a wrong pofition, the animal cannot difcharge it in the ufual manner ; but, what is extremely fingular, near the bafe of the cone, the body of the creature fplits, as if a large wound had been made with a knife, and through this gafh the fhell of the mufcle, or other Shell, is ejeaed. With regard to the progreffive motion of the fea-nettle, it is as Slow as the hour-hand of a clock. The whole external part of its body is furniShed with numerous mufcles. Thefe mufcles are tubular, and filled with a fluid, which makes them projea in the form of prickles. By the instrumentali- ty of thefe mufcles, the animal is enabled to perform the very Slow motion juft now mentioned. But this is not the only means by which the fea-nettle is capable of moving. When it pleafes, it can loofen the bafe of the cone by which it is attached to the rock, reverfe its body, and employ the filaments round its mouth as fo many limbs. Still, however, its movements are imperceptibly Slow. For thefe faas feve- ral authors might be quoted ; but we fhall refer the reader folely to M. de Bonnet *. Before we conclude this chapter, we fhall juft mention a mode of flying which is peculiar to certain infeas. The mafon-bee, which is one of the folitary fpecies, has received that appellation, becaufe it conftruas a neft with mud or mortar. Externally, this neft has no regular appearance ; and is, therefore, generally regarded as a piece of dirt acci- dentally adhering to a wall. This habitation, however un- feemly in its exterior afpea, is furnifhed with regular cells, and often gives rife to great conflias. When the real * Oeuvres de Bonnet, 4to edit. torn, j, pige 345. 153 THE PHILOSOPHY proprietor is abroad in queft of materials to finifh the neft, a Stranger takes poffeffion. At meeting, a battle always en- fues. This battle is fought in the air. Sometimes they fly with fuch rapidity and force againft each other, that both parties fall to the ground. But, in general, like birds of prey, the one endeavours to rife above the other, and to give a downward blow. To avoid the Stroke, the under- moft, inftead of flying forward or laterally, is frequently ob- ferved to fly backward. This retrograde flight is likewife performed occafionally by the common houfe-fly, and fome other infeas, though we are unable to perceive what Stimu- lates them to employ this uncommon movement. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 153 CHAPTER V. Of the IrfiinB of Animals—Divifion of InfiinBs—Exampls of Pure InflinB—Of fuch InfiinBs as can accommodate them- felves to peculiar circumflances and fituations—Of IttftinBs improveable by obfervation and experience—Seme remarks and conclufions from this view of InflinB. JYlANY theories have been invented with a view to explain the inftinaive aaions of animals; but none of them have received the general approbation of Philofophers. This want of fuccefs in the investigation of a fubjea fo curious and fo interesting muft be owing to the operation of fome pow- erful caufes. Two of thefe caufes appear to be a want of at- tention to the general oeconomy and manners of animals, and mistaken notions concerning the dignity of human na- ture. From perufing the compositions of moft authors who have written upon animal inftina, it is evident, that they have chiefly derived their ideas, not from the various mental qualities difcoverable in different fpecies of animals, but from the feelings and propensities of their own minds. Some of them, at the fame time, are fo averfe to allow brutes a participation of that intellea which man poffeffes in fuch an eminent degree, that they confider every animal aaion to be the refult of pure mechanifm. But the great fource of error on this fubjea is the uniform attempt to diftinguifh inftinaive from rational motives. I fhall, however, endea- vour to Show that no fuch diftinaion exifts, and that the reafoning faculty itfelf is a neceffary refult of inftina. The proper method of investigating fubjeas of this kind, is to collea and arrange the faas which have been difcover- ed, and to Confider whether thefe faas lead to any general conduSions. This method I have adopted ; and Shall there- 154 THE PHILOSOPHY fore exhibit examples of pure inftinas; of fuch inftinas as can accommodate themfelves to peculiar circumflances and fituations ; and of inftinas improveable by obfervation and experience. In the laft place, I Shall draw fome conclu- fions. I. Of Pure InfiinBs. By pure inftinas, I mean thofe, which, independent of all inftruaion or experience, inftantaneoufly produce certain aaions when particular objeas are prefented to animals, or when they are influenced by peculiar feelings. Of this clafs the following are examples. In the human fpecies, the inftina of fucking is exerted immediately after birth. This inftina is not excited by any fmell peculiar to the mother, to milk, or to any other fub- ftance ; for infants fuck indifcriminately every thing brought into contaa with their mouths. The defire of fucking, therefore, is innate, and coeval with the appetite for air. The voiding of urine and excrement, fneezing, retraaion of the mufcles upon the application of any painful flimulus, the moving of the eye-lids, and other parts of the body, are likewife effeas of original inftinas, and effential to the ex- iftence of young animals. / The love of light is exhibited by infants at a very early period. I have remarked evident fymptoms of this attach- ment on the third day after birth. When children are far- ther advanced, marks of the various paffions gradually appear. The paffion of fear is difcoverable at the age of two months. It is called forth by approaching the hand to the child's eye, and by any fudden motion or unufual noife. I once insti- tuted a courfe of experiments to afcertain the periods when the various paffions, principles, or propensities, of the hu- man mind are unfolded, and to aiark the caufes which firft produced them. But, in lefs than five months after the 0F NATURAL HISTORY. 155 birth of the child, the bufinefs became too complicated and extenfive for the time I had to beftow on fubjeas of this nature. The brute creation affords innumerable examples of pure inftinas. When caterpillars are Shaken off a tree in every direaion, all of them inftantly turn toward the trunk, and climb up, though they had never formerly been on the furface Of the ground. Young birds open their mouths upon hearing any kind of noife, as well as that of their mother's voice. They have no apprehensions of harm; neither do they offer to ufe their wings till they acquire more Strength and experience. The lion's cub is not ferocious till he feels force and aaivity for deftruaion. Infeas invariably depofit their eggs in fituations moft fa- vourable for hatching and affording nourifhment to their future progeny. Butterflies,-and other infeas, whofe off- fpring feed upon vegetables, uniformly fix their eggs upon fuch plants as are moft agreeable to the palate and constitu- tion of their young. Water infeas never depofit their eggs on dry ground. I have feen butterflies which had been transformed in the houfe exhibit marks of the greateftuneafi- nefs becaufe they could not find a proper nidus for their eggs; and, when every other refource failed, they pafted the eggs on the par.es of the window. Some fpecies of animals look not to future wants. Others, as the bee and the beaver, are endowed with an inftina which has the appearance of forefight. They conftrua magazines, and fill them with provisions. The common bees attend the female, or queen, do her many little fervices, and even feed her with honey from their trunks*. When deprived of the female, all their la- • Reaumur, lamo edit. vol. 9. page 300. 156 THE PHILOSOPHY bours ceafef, till a new one is obtained, whom they treat with muchrefpea, and renew their ufual operations p Tliey make cells of three different dimensions, for holding work- ers, drones, and females ; and the queen-bee, in depofiting her eggs, distinguishes the three difterent kinds, and never puts a royal or a drone egg into the cells deftined for the re- ception of the working Bees. What is equally fingular, the number of thefe cells is proportioned to that of the different bees to be produced. One royal cell weighs as much as one hundred of the common kind §. When there are feveral females in a hive, the bees work little till they have deftroy- ed all the females but one. If more than a Angle female were allowed to remain in a hive, a greater number of eggs would be laid than the working bees are able to make cells for receiving them. The wood-piercing bee, which is one of the folitary fpe- cies, gnaws with amazing dexterity and perfeverance, a large hole in old timber. After laying her eggs in the cells, fhe depofits fuch a quantity of glutinous matter as nouriflies the worms produced from thefe eggs till the time of their trans- formation into flies. She then paftes up the mouth of the hole, and leaves her future offspring to the provifion fhe has made for them. The bees of that fpecies which build cylindrical nefts with rofe-leaves, exhibit a very peculiar inftina. They firft dig a cylindrical hole in the earth. When that operation is finish- ed, they go in queft of rofe-buShes ; and, after feleaing leaves proper for their purpofe, they cut oblong, curved, and even round pieces, exaaiy fuited to form the different parts of the cylinder||. The folitary wafp digs holes in the fand. In each hole She depofits an egg. But how is the worm, after it is hatched, to be nourished ? Here the inftina of the mother merits f Ibid. pas;c 3*0. J Ibid, page 340. ^ Ibid. torn. 10. page 124. |J Reaumur, torn. J1. page 13?. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 157 attention. Though She feeds not upon flefh herfelf, and certainly knows not that an animal is to proceed from the egg, and far lefs that this animal muft be nourished with other animals, fhe colleas ten or twelve fmall green worms, which fhe piles one above another, rolls them up in a circular form, and fixes them in the hole in fuch a manner that they cannot move. When the wafp-worm is hatched, it is amply ftored with the fodd Nature has deftined for its fupport. The green worms are devoured in fucceffion* ; and the num- ber depofited is exaaiy proportioned to the time neceffary for the growth and transformation of the wafp-worm into a fly, when it iffues from the hole, and is capable of procuring its own nourifhmentf. There are many other instances of ichneumon wafps and flies, which, though they feed not themfelves upon worms, lay up provisions of thefe animals for the nourifh- ment of their young ; and each kind is adapted to the conftitution of the worm that is to proceed from their eggs |. Birds of the fame fpecies, unlefs when restrained by pecu- liar circumftances, uniformly build their nefts of the fame materials, and in the fame form and fituation, though they in- habit very different climates. When removed by neceffity from their eggs, they haften back to them with anxiety. They turn and fhift their eggs, which has the effea of heat- ing them equally. Ducks and geefe cover up their eggs till they return to the neft. A hen Sits with equal ardour upon eggs of a different fpecies, or even upon artificial eggs. I have often contemplated with wonder an inftina of the fwal- low. When her offspring are very young, like other fmall birds, She carries their excrements out of the neft. But, after they are older, fhe attaches herfelf to the fide of the neft, and, by fome geftures and founds, folicits the young to void • Reaumur, torn. \2. page 18. f Ibid, page 22 —ji, | Reaumur, torn, n. pajj. 38 15$ THE PHILOSOPHY their excrements: One of them immediately turns round", elevates its hind parts above the edge of the neft, makes the proper effort, and the mother, before the dung is half pro- truded from the anus, lays hold of it with her bill, drags it out, carries it off, and drops it at a diftance from the neft. In all thefe operations, men recognife the intentions of Nature ; but they are hid from the animals who perform them. The fpider, the dermeftes, and many infeas of the beetle kind, exhibit an inftina of a very uncommon nature. When put in terror by a touch of the finger, the fpider runs off with great fwiftnefs : But, if he finds, that, whatever direaion he takes, he is oppofed by another finger, he then feems to def- pair of being able to efcape, contraas his limbs and body, lies perfeaiy motionlefs, and counterfeits every fymptom of death. In this fituation I have pierced fpiders with pins, and torn them to pieces, without their difcovering the fmalleft mark of pain. This fimulation of death has been afcribed to a ftrong convulfion, or ftupor, oecafioned by terror. But this folution of the phaenomenon is erroneous. I have repeated- ly tried the experiment, and uniformly found, that, if the objea of terror be removed, in a few feconds the animal runs off with great rapidity. Some beetles, when counter- feiting death, fuffer themfelves to be gradually roafted, with- out moving a Single joint. It is unneceffary to give more examples of pure inftinas. I fhall therefore proceed to the fecond clafs, namely, If Of Infiincis which can accommodate themfelves to peculiar circumflances and fituations. To this clafs many human inftinas may be referred. But, as thefe inftinaive propenfities are likewife highly im- proveable by experience and obfervation, examples of them will fall more naturally to be given under the third clafa. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 159 Thofe animals are moft perfea whofe Sphere of knowledge extends to the greateft number of objeas. When interrupt- ed in their operatons, they know how to refume their la- bours, and to accomplish their purpofes by different means. Some animals have no other power but that of contracting or extending their bodies. But the falcon the dog, and the fox, purfue their prey with intelligence and addrels. The oftrich has been accufed of unnaturalnefs, becaufe fhe leaves her eggs to be hatched by the heat of the fun. In Senegal, where the heat is great, She negleas her eggs during the day, but fits upon them in the night. At the Cape of Good Hope, however, where the degree of heat is lefs, the oftrich, like other birds, Sits upon her eggs both day and night. Rabbits dig holes in the ground for warmth and protec- tion. But, after continuing long in a dome Stic ftate, that refource being unrieceffary, they feldom employ this art *. Bees, when they have not room enough for their opera- tions, augment the depth of their honey-cells f. The fe- male bee, when the cells are not fufficiently numerous to re- ceive her eggs, lays two or three in each cell. But, a few days after, when the cells are increafed, the working bees re- move all the fupernumerary eggs, and depofit them in the new canftruaed cells J. When a wafp, in attempting to tranfport a dead compan- ion from the neft, finds the load too heavy, he cuts off its head, and carries it out in two portions ||. In countries infefted with monkeys, many birds/which, in other climates, build in bulhes and the clefts of trees, fufpend their nefts upon flender twigs, and, by this ingenious device, elude the rapacity of their enemies. The nymphs of water-moths, commonly called cod-bait, cover themfelves, by means of gluten, with pieces of wood, • Gazette Liter, torn. j. pag, 328. tR"umur, torn. 10. pa- 2.) \ Ibid. pag. 240, g Ibid. torn. 11. pag, :4i, *' 160 THE PHILOSOPHY Straw, fmall Shells, or gravel. It is neceffary that they Should always be nearly in equilibrium with the water in which they live. To accomplish this purpofe, when their habitations are too heavy, they add a piece of wood, when too light a bit of gravel *. I had a cat that frequented a clofet, the door of which was faftened by a common iron latch. A window was fituated near the door. When the door was Shut, the cat gave her- felf no uneafinefs. As foon as She tired of her confine- ment, fhe mounted on the fole of the window, and with her paw dexteroufly lifted the latch and came out. This praaiff She continued for years. ^ Thefe examples, I hope, are fufficient. III. The third clafs comprehends all thefe InfiinBs which gre im- proveable by experience and obfervation. The fuperiority of man over the other animals feems to depend chiefly on the great number of inftinas with which his mind is endowed. Traces of every inftina he poffeffes are difcoverable in the brute creation. But no particular fpecies enjoys the whole. On the contrary, moft animals are limited to a fmall number. This appears to be the rea- fon why the inftinas of brutes are Stronger, and more Steady in their operation, than thofe of man. A being aauated by a great variety of motives muft neceffarily reafon, or, in other words, hefitate in his choice. Its condua, therefore, muft often waver ; and he will have the appearance of being infe- rior to another creature who is Stimulated to aaion by a fmaller number of motives. Man, accordingly, has been confidered as the moft vacillant and inconfiftant of all ani- mals. The remark is juft ; but, inftead of a cenfure, it is an encomium on the fpecies. The aaions of a dog, or a mon- key, for the fame reafon, are more various, whimfical, and uncertain, than thofe of a fheep or a cow. * Bonnet, torn. 4. page. 309.----Reaumur, torn. 5. pag. 215. 0F NATURAL HISTORY. 164. Molt human inftinas receive improvement from experi-, ence and obfervation, and are capable of a thoufand modifi- cations. This is another fource of man's fuperiority over the brutes. When we are Stimulated by a particular inftina, in- stead of inftantly obeying the impulfe, another inftina arifes in opposition, creates hesitation, and often totally ex- tinguishes the original motive to aaion. The inftina of fear is daily counteraaed by ambition or refentment; and, in fome minds, fear is too powerful for refentment, or any other inftina we poffefs. The inftina of anger is often re- strained by the apprehenfion of danger, by the fenfe of pro- priety, by contempt, and even by compaffion. Sympathy, which is one of our moft amiable inftinas, frequently yields to anger, ambition, and other motives. The inftina or fenfe of morality is too often thwarted by ambition, refent- ment, love, fear, and feveral of what I call modified or com- pounded inftinas, fuch as avarice, envy, &c. The following are examples of modified, compounded, or. extended inftinas. Superftition is the inftina of fear extended to imaginary objeas of terror. Devotion is an extenfion of the inftina of love to the Firft Caufe, or Author of the Univerfe. Reverence or refpea for eminent charaaers is a fpecies of devotion. Avarice is the inftina of love direaed to an improper objea. Hope is the inftina of love direaed to future good. Envy is compounded of love, avarice, ambition, and fear. Benevolence is the inftina of love diffufed over all ani: mated beings. Sympathy is the inftina of fear transferred to another perfon, and reffeaed back upon ourfelves. 16S THE PHILOSOPHY In this manner, all the modified, compounded, or extend- ed paffions and propenfities of the human mind, may be trac- ed back to their original inftinas. The inftinas of brutes are likewife improved by observa- tion and experience. A young dog, like a child, requires both time and art to unfold and perfea his natural inftinas. If negleaed by man, he learns from his companions how to aa in particular fituations : But, when he enjoys both thefe fources of information, his talents are improved to a degree that often excites our aftoniShment. The fame remark ap- plies to all docile animals, as the elephant, the horfe, the cam- el, &c. Every man's recolleaion will fupply him with many examples of the improveable talents of brutes ; and, there- fore, it is unneceffary to be more explicit. Having exhibited instances of pure inftina, of inftinas which accommodate themfelves to peculiar circumftances and fituations, and of inftinas improveable by obfervation and experience, I Shall now hazard a few remarks. From the examples I have given, it appears that inftina is an original quality of mind, which, in many animals, may be improved, modified, and extended, by experience; that fome inftinas are coeval with birth ; and that others, as fear, anger, the principle of imitation, and the power of reafoning, or balancing motives, are gradually unfolded, according to the exigencies of the animal. One of the Strongest inftinas ap- pears not till near the age of puberty ; but, by bad example, and improper fituations, this inftinaive defire is often pre- maturely excited. The minds of brutes, as well as thofe of men, have original qualities, deftined for the prefervation of the individual and the continuation of the fpecies. The call- ing forth of thefe qualities is not extina, but the exertion or energy of inftina. Inftinas exift before they aa. What man or brutes learn by experience, though this experience be founded on inftina, cannot with propriety be called in- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 163 ftinaive knowledge, but knowledge derived from experience and obfervation. Inftina fhould be limited to fuch aaion9 as every individual of a fpecies exerts without the aid either of experience or imitation. Hence inftina may be defined, ' Every original quality of mind which produces particular ' feelings or aaions, when the proper objeas are prefented ' to it.' Thefe qualities or inftinas vary in'partieular fpecies. Some are endowed with many, and others with few. In fome they are Stronger, in others weaker ; and their Strength or weaknefs feems to be exaaiy proportioned to their num- ber. The difference of talents among men who have had the fame culture, arifes from a bluntnefs, or abfolute depriva- tion of fome original or modified inftinas. Tafte, or love of particular objeas, whether animated, inanimated, or artifi- cial, is in fome men fo obtufe, that we often fay it is entirely wanting. Infeas have fewer inftinas than men or quadru- peds ; but the exertions of infeas are fo uniform and fteady, that they excite the admiration of every beholder. Senfation implies a fentient principle or mind. Whatever feels, therefore, is mind. Of courfe, the loweft fpecies of ani- mals are endowed with mind : But the minds of animals have very different powers ; and thefe powers are expreffed by pe- culiar aaions. The ftruaure of their bodies is uniformly adapted to the powers of their minds. We never fee a ma- ture animal attempting aaions which Nature has not enabled it to perform, by beftowing on it proper inflruments. A bee c )lleas the materials of honey and wax, but attempts not to gv.'w rotten wood, like the wafp. Neither does peculiarity 01 ixuaure prompt the aaions of brutes. Calves pufh with tiieir heads long before their horns are grown. This, and fi- milar examples, Shew, that the inftinas of brutes exift pre- via '.;f to the expansion of thofe instruments which Nature in- tended they Should employ. 164 THE PHILOSOPHY This view of inftina is fimple, removes every objeaion to the exiftence of mind in brutes, and unfolds all their adhons, by referring them to motives perfeaiy fimilar to thofe by which man is aauated. There is, perhaps, a greater differ- ence between the mental powers of fome animals than be- tween thofe of man and the moft fagacious brutes. Inftinas may be confidered as fo many internal fenfes, of which fome animals have a greater, and others a fmaller number. Thefe fenfes, in different fpecies, are likewife more or lefs duaile ; and the animals poffefling them are, of courfe, more or lefs fufceptible of improving, and of acquiring knowledge. The notion that animals are machines, is perhaps too ab- furd to merit refutation. Though no animal is endowed with mental powers equal to thofe of man, yet there is not a facul- ty of the human mind, but evident marks of its exiftence are to be found in particular animals. Senfes, memory, im- agination, the principle of imitation, curiofity, cunning, in- genuity, devotion, or refpea for fuperiors, gratitude, are all difcoverable in the brute creation. Neither is art denied to them. They build in various Styles ; they dig ; they wage war; they extraa peculiar fubftances from water, from plants, from the earth ; they modulate their voices fo as to commu- nicate their wants, their fentiments, their pleafures and pains, their apprehenfions of danger, and their profpeas of future good. Every fpecies has its own language, which is perfea- iy underftood by the individuals. They afk and give affift- ance to each other. They fpeak of their neceffities ; and this branch of their language is more or lefs extended, in propor- tion to the number of their wants. Geftures and inarticulate founds are the Signs of their thoughts. It is neceffary that the fame fentiments Should produce the fame founds and the fame movements ; and, confequently, each individual of a fpecies muft have the fame organization. Birds and quadru- peds, accordingly, are incapable of holding difcourfe to each OF NATURAL HISTORY. 165 oiher, or communicating the ideas and feelings they poffefs in common. The language of gefture prepares for that of articulation ; and fome animals are capable of acquiring a knowledge of articulate founds. They firft judge of our thoughts by our geftures; and afterwards acquire the habit of conneaing thefe thoughts with the language in which we exprefs them. It is in this manner that the elephant and the dog learn to obey the commands of their mafters. Infants are exaaiy in the fame condition with brutes. They understand fome of our geftures and words long before they can articulate. They difcover their wants by geftures and inarticulate founds, the meaning of which the nurfe learns by experience. Different infants have different modes of expreffing their wants. This is the reafon why nurfes know the intentions of infants, though they are perfeaiy un- intelligible to ftrangers. When an infant, accordingly is transferred from one nurfe to another, the former inftruas the latter in the geftures and inarticulate language of the child. The idea of a machine implies a felea combination of the common properties of matter. The regularity of its move- ments is a proof that they are totally diftina from animal or fpontaneous motion. A machine has nothing analogous to fenfation, which is the loweft charaaeriftic of an animal. An animated machine, therefore, is an abfurd abufe of terms. It confounds what Nature has distinguished in the moft unam- biguous manner. The inftinas of brutes are, in general, Stronger, and lefs fubjea to restraint, than thofe of man. The reafon is plain : They have not an equal number of in- ftinas to curb, counterbalance, or moderate their motives to particular aaions. Hence they have often the appearance of aaing by mere impulfe ; and this circumftance has led fome philofophers to confider brutes as machines. But they re- flea not that children, favages, and ignorant men, aa nearly W 166 THE PHILOSOPHY in the fame manner. It is fociety and culture which foftea and moderate the paffions and aaions of men, as well as thofe of docile animals. Brutes, like men, learn, to fee objeas in their proper po- fition, to judge of diftances and heights, and of hurtful, pleafureable, or indifferent bodies. Without fome portion of reafon, therefore, they could never acquire the faculty of making a proper ufe of their fenfes. A dog, though pref- fed with hunger, will not feize a piece of meat in prefence of his mafter, unlefs it be given to him : But, with his eyes, his movements, and his voice, he makes the moft humble and expreffive petition. If this balancing of motives be not reafoning, I know not by what other name it can be called. Animals, recently after birth, know not how to avoid danger. Neither can they make a proper ufe of their mem- bers. But experience foon teaches them what is pleafant and what is painful, what objeas are hurtful and what falu- tary. A young cat, or a dog, who has had no experience of leaping from a height, will without hefitation, precipitate itfelf from the top of a high wall. But, after perceiving that cer- tain heights are hurtful, and other's inoffenfive, the animal learns to make the diftinaion, and never afterwards can be prevailed upon to leap from a height which it knows will be produaive of pain. Young animals examine every objea they meet with. In this inveftigation they employ all their organs. The firft pe- riods of their life are dedicated to ftudy. When they run about, and make frolickfome gambols, it is Nature fporting with them for their inftruaion. In this manner they im- prove their faculties and organs, and acquire an intimate knowledge of the objeas which furround them. Men who, from peculiar circumftances, have been prevented from mingling with companions, and engaging in the different amufements and exercifes of youth, are always awkward in OF NATURAL HISTORY. 16-T their movements, cannot ufe their organs with eafe or dexte- rity, and often continue, during life, ignorant of the moil common objeas. From the above faas and reafoning, it feems to be ap- parent, that inftinas are original qualities of mind ; that eve- ry animal is poffeffed of fome of thefe qualities ; that the in- telligence and refources of aminals are proportioned to the number of inftinas with which their minds are endowed j that all animals are, in fome meafure, rational beings; and that the dignity and fuperiority of the human intellea are neceffary refults, not of the conformation of our bodies, but of the great variety of inftinas which Nature has been pleaf- ed to confer on the fpecies. 168 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER VI. Of the Senfes. JN O animal of which we have any knowledge is endowed with more than the five external fenfes of fmelling, tafting, hearing, touch, and feeing; and no animal, how- ever, imperfea, is deftitute of the whole. Without organs of fenfation, in a fmaller or greater number, animal or intel- leaual exiftence is to us an inconceivable idea. Hence the notion of the ancients, and of a very few moderns, that this earth, as well as all the heavenly bodies, are intelligent be- ings, though they have not the veftige of any inftrument of fenfation, or of any thing analogous to our ideas of animation, except mechanical motion, is too abfurd even to be ferioufly mentioned. Upon this interesting fubjea, as it comprehends every fource of information, and every motive to aaion in man, as well as in the inferior animals, it is not furprifing that fo much has been written, and that fo many different theories have been invented, and fubmitted to public infpeaion. Some of thefe theories fliall be taken notice of in a curfory manner, and others, as unworthy of attention, fhall be paffed over in Silence. Our obfervations on the different inflruments of fenfation fliall proceed in the following order, namely, of the fenfes of fmelling, of tafting, of hearing, of touch, and of feeing. In general, it may be remarked, that all fenfation is conveyed to the mind by an unknown influence of the nerves. If the optic, olfaaory, or any nerve diftributed over an organ of fenfation, be cut, or rendered paralytic, the animal inftantly lofes that particular fenfe. This is a faa univerfally eftab- liShed by experiment. But that the nerves, which are per-; OF NATURAL HISTORY. 16$ feaiy fimilar in every part of the body, fhould, when distri- buted over the eye, the ear, the tongue, the nofe, convey to the mind feelings fo different, is the moft myfterious part of this fubjea. When M. de Bonnet tells us, that every organ of fenfe probably confifts of fibres fpecifically different; and that thefe fibres are particular fenfes endowed with a peculiar manner of aaing, correfponding to the perceptions they ex- cite in the mind ; he means to reafon ; but he does no more than give a circumlocution for the faa. OF SMELLING. IN man, and many other animals, the organ by which the fenfe of fmelling is conveyed to the mind, has received the general appellation of nofe, or noftrils. The more immediate inftrument of this fenfation is a foft, vafcular, porous mem- brane, covered with numerous papillae, and is known by the name of membrana pituitaria, or membrana Schneideriana. This membrane is totally covered with infinite ramifications and convolutions of the olfaaory nerves. Thefe nerves are al- moft naked, and expofed to the aaion of the air which paf- fes through the nofe in performing the funaion of refpira^ tion. But Nature, ever attentive to the eafe and conveni- ence of her creatures, has furniShed the noftrils with a num- ber of glands, or fmall arteries, which Secrete a thick infipid mucus. By this mucus, the olfaaory nerves are defended from the aaion of the air, and from the painful ftimuli of acrid odours. The odours perceived by fmelling are extremely various. Some of them convey to us the moft delightful and refresh- ing fenfations, and others are painful, noxious, and difguft- ing. All bodies in Nature, whether folid or fluid, whether animated or inanimated, continually fend forth to the air certain effluvia or emanations from their refpeaive fubftan- ces. Thefe effluvia float in the atmofphere, and aa' upon 170 THE PHILOSOPHY the olfaaory nerves of different animals, and fometimes of different individuals of the fame fpecies, in fuch a manner as to produce very different fenfations. What is pleafant to the noftrils of one animal is highly offenfive to thofe of another. Brute animals felea their food chiefly by employ- ing the fenfe of fmelling, and it feldom deceives them. They eafily diftinguiSh noxious from falutary food ; and they care- fully avoid the one, and ufe the other for nourifhment. The fame thing happens with regard to the drink of animals. A cow, when it can be obtained, always repairs to the cleareft and frefheft Streams ; but a horfe, from fome inftinaive im- pulfe, uniformly raifes the mud with his feet, and renders the water impure, before he drinks. In the feleaion of food, men are greatly affifted, even in the moft luxurious State of fociety, by the fenfe of fmelling. By fmelling we often rejea food as noxious, and will not riSk the other teft of tafting. Viauals which have a putrid fmell, as equally offenfive to our noftrils as hurtful to our constitutions, we avoid with abhorrence ; but we are allured to eat fubftances which have a grateful and favoury odour. The more frequent and more acute difcernment of brutes in the exercife of this fenfe, is entirely owing to their freedom, and to their ufing natural produaions alone. But men in fociety, by the arts of cookery, by the unnatural affemblage of twenty ingredients in one difh, blunt, corrupt, and de- ceive both their fenfes of fmelling and of tafting. Were we in the fame natural condition as the brutes, our fenfe of fmelling would enable us to diftinguiSh, with equal certainty, noxious from falutary food. Brutes, as well as men, prefer particular foods to others. This may be confidered as a fpecies of luxury; but it fhould likewife be considered, that all the articles they ufe are either animal or vegetable fub- ftances in a natural ftate, neither converted into a thoufand forms and qualities by the operation of fire and water, nor having their favour exalted by Stimulating condiments. Do- 0? NATURAL HISTORY. 171 meftic animals are nearly in the fame condition with luxuri- ous men. A pampered dog fnuffs and rejeas many kinds of food, which, in a natural State, he would devour with eagernefs. It is not unworthy of remark, that, in all animals, the organs of fmelling and of tafting are uniformly fituated very near each other. Here the intention of Nature is evi- dent. The vicinity of thefe two fenfes forms a double guard in the felection of food. Were they placed in distant parts of the body, they could not fo readily give mutual aid to one another. But affiftance in the choice of food is not the only ad- vantage that men and other animals derive from the fenfe of fmelling. Every body in nature, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, when expofed to the air, continually fends forth emanations, or effluvia, of fuch extreme fubtlety, that no eye can perceive them. Thefe effluvia, or volatile particles, dif- fufe themfelves through the air, and moft of them are re- cognized, by the organ of fmelling, to be either agreeable or difagreeable. To give fome idea of the inconceivable mi- nutenefs of thefe particles, and of the amazing fenfibility of the noftrils of animals, the odour of muSk has been known to fill a large fpace for feveral years without lofing any per- ceptible part of its weight. Thus, the air we breathe is per- petually impregnated with an infinity of different particles which Stimulate the olfaaory nerves, and give rife to the fenfation of fmell. When our fenfes are not vitiated by un- natural habits, they are not only faithful monitors of danger, but convey to us the moft exquifite pleafures. Even the fenfe of fmelling is always produaive either of pleafure or pain. The fragrance of a rofe, and of many other flowers, is not only pleafant, but gives a refrefhing and delightful Stimulus to the whole fyftem, and may be confidered as a fpecies of wholefome nourifhment; while the odours pro- 172 THE PHILOSOPHY ceedingfrom hemlock, and from many other noxious vege* table, animal, and mineral fubftances, are highly offenfive to our noftrils. Hence we are naturally compelled to embrace the one clafs of fenfations and to avoid the other. Some animals, as the dog, the fox, the raven, &c. are en- dowed with a moft exquifite fenfe of fmelling. A dog fcents various kinds of game at considerable diftances ; and, if the faa were not confirmed by daily experience, it could hardly gain credit, that he can trace the odour of his maf* ter's foot through all the winding Streets of a populous city. If we judge from our own feelings, this extreme fenfibility in the nofe of a dog is to us perfeaiy incomprehenfible. The fenfe of fmelling, like that of fome other fenfes, may be perverted or corrupted by habit. The fnuffing, chew- ing, and fmoaking tobacco, though at firft difagreeable, be- come, by the power of habit, not only pleafant, but almoft indifpenfible. The fame remark is applicable to the praaice of fwallowing ardent fpirits, the moft deleterious of all poif- ons, becaufe the moft extenfively employed. How the nat- ural ftate of the nerves, and of the fenfations conveyed by them, Should be fo completely changed, we are totally ignor- ant. The constitution of the nerves often varies in differ- ent individuals of the fame fpecies. An odour which is dif- guftful to one man is highly grateful to another. I knew a gentleman who was in the daily habit of lighting and put- ting out candles, that he might enjoy the pleafure of their ftnell. Few men, I fuppofe, would envy him. OF TASTING. THE tongue and palate are the great instruments of this fenfation. With much wifdom and propriety the organ of tafte is fituated in fuch a manner as enables it to be a guar- dian to the alimentary canal, and to affift the organ ot fmell in distinguishing falutary from noxious food. The tongue, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 173 like the other instruments of fenfation, is amply fupplied with nerves. The terminations of thefe nerves appear on the furface of the tongue in the form of papillae or minute nipples, which are always ereaed on the application of fapid or ftimulating fubftances. This elevation and extention of the papillae, by bringing larger portions of the nerves into contaa with the fubftances applied to the tongue, give ad- ditional Strength to the fenfation, and enable us to judge with greater accuracy concerning their nature and qualities. Befide the nervous papillae, the tongue is perpetually moift- ened with faliva, a'liquor which, though infipid itfelf, is one great caufe of all taftes. The faliva of animals is a very pow- erful folvent. Every fubftance applied to the tongue is partially diffolved by the faliva before the fenfation of tafte is excited. When the tongue is rendered dry by difeafe, or any other caufe, the fenfe of tafte is eithep vitiated or totally annihilated. In fome men, the fenfe of tafte is fo blunt, that they can- not diftinguiftv with any degree of accuracy the different fpecies of that fenfation. In others, whether from Nature or from habit, this fenfe is fo acute, that they can perceive the niceft diftbaions in the favour of folids and of liquids. The fenfations conveyed to the mind by tafte, like thofe of all the fenfes, are either agreeable, difagreeable, or indiffer- ent. The pleafures arifing from this fenfe are not only great, but highly ufeful to every animal. The fenfe itfelf, however, is comparatively grofs ; for, in fmelling, hearing, and feeing, fenfations are excited by emanations or undulations proceed- ing from bodies at great diftances from the animals who per- ceive them. But, in tafting, the objea muft be brought in- to aaual contaa with the tongue before its qualities can be difcovered. How this proportionally grofs fenfe Should have been feleaed, and figuratively applied to the general perception of every thing beautiful and fublime, whether in. If 4 The philosophy Nature or in art, it is difficult to determine. The inquiry, however, would not be incurious, whether men who have an obtufe fenfe of tafting material fubftances are likewife deficient in the perception of beauty and deformity. Though the fenfe of tafte varies in fome individuals, yet, like figurative tafte, the flandard of agreeable and difagreea- ble, of pleafant and painful, is almoft univerfally diffufed over mankind and the brute creation. Every horfe, and every ox, when in a natural ftate, eat and rejea the fame fpecies of food. But men in fociety, as well as domeflic ani- mals, are induced by habit, by neceffity, or by imitation, to acquire a tafte for many difhes, and combinations of fub- ftances, which, before the natural difcrkninating fenfe is per- verted, would be rejeaed with difguft. Some individuals of the human fpecies have an averfion to particular kinds of food, which are generally agreeable. This averfion may be either original or acquired. I knew a child, who, from the moment he was weaned, could never be induced to take milk of any kind. Thefe original aver- sions muft be afcribed to fome peculiar modification in the ftruaure of the organ, or in the difpofition of its nerves. But, in general, difguft at particular foods is produced by furfeits, which injure the ftomach, and create, in that exqui- fitely irritable vifcus, an infuperable antipathy to receive nourifhment which formerly gave it fo much uneafinefs to digeft. Brute animals, efpecially thofe which feed upon herbage, and are not liable to be corrupted by example or neceffity, diftinguifh taftes with wonderful accuracy. By the applica- tion of the tongue, they inftantly perceive whether any plant is falutary or noxious. To enable them, amidft a thoufand plants, to make this difcrimination, their nervous papillae, and their tongues, are proportionally much larger than thofe of man. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 175 OF HEARING. THE fenfation of hearing is conveyed to the mind by un- dulations of air Striking the ear, an organ of a very delicate and complex ftruaure. In man and quadrupeds, the exter- nal ears are large, and provided with mufcles by which they can erea and move them from fide to Side, in order to catch the undulations produced in the air by the vibrations of fono- rous bodies, or to diftinguiSh with greater accuracy the fpe- cies of found, and the nature and fituation of the animal or objea from which it proceeds. Though the human ears, like thofe of quadrupeds, are furnifhed with mufcles, evi- dently intended for fimilar movements, yet, I know not for what reafon, there is not one man in a million who has the power of moving his ears. When we liften to a feeble found, we are confcious of an exertion ; but that exertion, and the motions produced by it, are confined to the internal parts of the organ. The canals or paffages to the internal parts of the ear are cylindrical, fomewhat contorted, and hecome gradually fmaller till they reach the membrana tympani, which covers what is called the drum of the ear. This membrane, which is extremely fenfible, when aaed upon by indulations of air, however excited, conveys, by means of a complex apparatus of bones, nerves, &c. die fenfation of found to the brain or fentient principle. That air is the medium by which all founds are propagat- ed, has been established by repeated experiments. The found of a bell, fufpended in the receiver of an air-pump, gradually diminishes as the air is exhaufted, till it almoft en- tirely ceafes to be heard. On the other hand, when .the quantity of air is increafed by a condenfer, the intenfity of the found is proportionally augmented*. Mr. HauSkbee, in a paper published in the Philofophical Tranfaaions, has prov- ed, that founds aaually produced cannot be tranfmitted 176 THE PHILOSOPHY through a vacuum, or a fpace deprived of air. «I took, fays he, « a ftrong receiver, armed with a brafs hoop at the 1 bottom, in which I included a bell as large as it could well 1 contain. This receiver I fcrewed Strongly down to a brafs * plate with a wet leather between, and it was full of common * air, which could nowife make its efcape. Thus fecured, it ' was fet on the pump, where it was covered with another * large receiver. In this manner, the air contained between * the outward and inward receivers was exhaufted. Now * here I was fure, when the clapper fhould be made to ftrike «the bell, there would be aaually found produced in the in- ' ward receiver ; the air in which was of the fame denfity as * common air, could fuffer no alteration by the vacuum on ' its outflde, fo ftrongly was it fecured on all parts. Thus, all ' being ready for trial, the clapper was made to ftrike the 1 bell; but I found that there was no tranfmiffion of it ' through the vacuum, though I was fure there was aauaj * found produced in the inward receiver.' To enable us to understand the manner in which founds are propagated through the air, philofophers have had re- courfe to the undulations produced by a ftone thrown into a pond of Stagnating water. Thefe undulations affume the form of circular waves, which fucceffively proceed from the place where the ftone Struck the water, as from a center, and continually dilate, and become greater and greater as they recede from that center, till they reach the banks of the wa- ter, where they either vanifh or are refleaed. Now, as air is likewife a fluid, fimilar undulations, though to us invisible, are produced in it by the vibrations of fonorous bodies, and are alfo propagated to great diftances in fucceffive waves or rings. Thefe undulations of the air, when they come into contaa with our organs of hearing, make fuch a tremulous impreffion upon them as excites in our minds the fenfation of found. This analogy, though not altogether perfea, is OF NATURAL HISTORY. 177 fufficient to illuftrate thofe invisible motions of the air by which founds are conveyed from one place to another, and to give an idea of echoes, or refleaed undulations of that fluid. The celerity with which founds, or undulations of air, move, has been exaaiy computed. All founds, whether acute or grave, ftrong or weak, move at the rate of 11 ¥2 feet in a fecond of time. Hence, whenever the lightning of thunder, or the fire of artillery, are feen, their aaual dif- tances from the obferver may be eafily afcertained by the vibrations of a pendulum. This velocity, it is true, may be a little augmented or diminished by favourable or by con- trary winds, and by heat or cold. But the difference, even in high winds, is fo trifling, that, for any ufeful purpofe, it fcarcely merits attention. Infants hear bluntly, becaufe the bones of their ears are foft and cartilaginous ; and, of courfe, the tremulations excited in them by the motions of the air are comparatively weak. Young children, accordingly, are extremely fond of noife. It roufes their attention, and conveys to them the agreeable fenfation of found ; but feeble founds are not perceived, which give infants, like deaf perfons, the appearance of inatr tention, or rather of Stupidity. The force or intenfity of found is augmented by refleaion from furrounding bodies. It is from this caufe that the hu- man voice, or any other noife, is always weaker, and lefs diftinaiy heard, in the open air than in a houfe. The modifications of found are not lefs various than thofe of taftes or odours. The ear is capable of diftinguifhing Some hundred tones in found, and probably as many degrees of Strength in the fame tones. By combining theSe, many thoufand fimple founds, which differ either in tone or in ftrength, are perceived and diftinguifhed by the ear. A violin, a flute, a French-horn, may each of them give the 178 THE PHILOSOPHY fame tone ; but the ear eafily makes the diftinaion. The immenfe variety of fenfations, arifing from the organs of fmelling, of tafting, and of hearing, enables animals to judge concerning the nature and fituation of external objeas. By habit we learn to know the bodies from which particular fpecies of founds proceed. Previous to all experience, we could not diftinguifh whether a found came from the right or the left, from above or below, from a greater or a fmaller diftance, or whether it was the found of a coach, of a drum, of a bell, or of an animal. By catching cold, I once had a temporary deafnefs in my left ear. I was furprifed to find that I had loft the faculty of perceiving the fituation from which founds proceeded. If a dog barked on the left, I thought the noife came from the right. This circumftance excited my curofity : But, upon recolleaion, 1 knew that my left ear was deaf; and that every found I heard was per- ceived folely by the right; and, confequently, I difcovered the caufe of the deception. Hearing enables us to perceive all the agreeable fenfa- tions conveyed to our minds by the melody and harmony of founds. This, to man at leaft, is a great fource of pleafure &nd of innocent amufement. But fome men are almoft total- ly deftitute of the faculty of distinguishing mufical founds, and of perceiving thofe delightful and diversified feelings excited by the various combinations of mufical tones. Moft pien derive pleafure from particular fpecies of mufic. But a mufical ear, in a reftriaed fenfe, is by no means a general qualification. An ear for mufic, however, though not to be acquired by ftudy, when the faculty itfelf is wanting, may be highly improved by habit and culture. Buffon, after exam- ining a number of perfons who-ffad no ear for mufic, fays, that every one of them heard worfe in one ear than in the Other ; and afcribes their inability of distinguishing mufical pxpreffion to that defea. But a mufical ear feems to have t OF NATURAL HISTORY. 179 no dependence on acutenefs or bluntnefs of hearing, whether in one ear or in both ears. There are many examples of people who may be faid to be half deaf, and yet are both fond of mufic, and Skilful praaitioners. An ear for mufic, like a genius for painting, or poetry, is a gift of Nature, and is born with the poffeffor. Befide the innumerable pleaSures we derive from mufic and agreeable founds, the extenfion and improvement of ar- tificial language muft be confidered as objeas of the greateft importance to the human race. Without the fenfe of hear- ing, mankind would forever have remained mute. I men- tion artificial, or improved language, becaufe, from a thouf- and obfervations which every perfon muft have made, it is perfeaiy apparent, that, if deftitute of a natural language, neither man nor the brute creation* could poflibly have ex- ifted and continued their fpecies. As brutes, without in- formation or experience, are capable of communicating to each other, by particular founds and geftures, their pleafures and pains, their wants and defires, it would be the higheft abfurdity to fuppofe that the great Creator fhould have de- nied to man, the nobleft animal that inhabits this globe, the fame indifpenfible privilege. Without a bafis there can be no fabric. Without a natural no artificial language could poflibly have exifted. This point is clearly demonstrated, in a few words, by that moft ingenious, candid, and pro- found philofopher, Dr. Thomas Reid, Profeffor of Moral Philofophy in the Univerfity of Glafgow. «If mankind,' fays Dr. Reid, < had not a natural language, they could nev- * er have invented an artificial one by their reafon and inge- < nuity. For all artificial language fuppofes fome compaa * or agreement to affix a certain meaning to certain Signs ; ' therefore, there muft be compaas or agreements before * the ufe of artificial Signs ; but there can be no compaa or • Concerning the language of Beafts, I fhall, perhaps, be more explicit in 3 foture work. 180 THE PHILOSOPHY ' agreement without figns, nor without language ; and there* ' fore.there muft be a natural language before any artificial f language can be invented*.' Let any man try to overturn this argument, which is founded, not upon metaphyfical con- jeaure, but upon the folid bafis oifaB and uncontrovertible reafoning. The elements, or conftituent parts of the natural language of mankind, the Doaor reduces to three kinds; modulations of the voice, geftures, and features. l By means f of thefe,' fays he, < two favages, who have no common ar- f tificial language, can converfe together ; can communicate ' their thoughts in fome tolerable manner; can afk and re- 1 fufe, affirm and deny, threaten and fupplicate ; can traffic, ' enter into covenants, and plight their faith.' I can perceive only one plaufible objeaion to this reafon- ing. If, it may be faid, man were endowed with a natural language, this language muft be univerfal; from what fource, then, can the great diverfity of languages in different na- tions, and tribes of the human race be derived ? The folu- tion of this queftion depends not upon metaphyfical argu- ments, but upon faa and experience. I have had consider- able opportunities of obferving the behaviour of children. Infants, when very young, have nearly the fame modes of ex- prefling their pleafures and pains, their defires and aversions. Thefe they communicate by voice, gefture, and feature ; and every infant, whatever be the country, climate, or language, uniformly expreffes its feelings almoft in the fame manner. But, when they arrive at nine or twelve months of age, a dif- ferent fcene is exhibited. They then, befide the general expreffions of feeling and defire, attempt to give names to particular objeas. Here artifice begins. In thefe attempts, previous to the capacity of imitating articulate founds, every individual infant utters different founds, or rather gives differ- * Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind, on the Principle* of Common Senfe, page 93. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 181 Crtt rtames, to Signify the fame objeas of its defire or averfion. Befide this natural attempt towards a nomenclature, infants, during the period above mentioned, (for the time varies ac- cording to the health and vivacity of the child), frequently make continued orations. Thefe orations confift both of ar- ticulate and inarticulate founds, of which no man can give an idea in writing. But moft men, and every woman who has nurfed children, will perfeaiy underftand what I cannot exprefs. From the faa, that children aaually utter differ- ent founds, or give different names to denote the fame ob- jeas, I imagine, arifes all that diverfity of languages, which, by exhaufting time and attention, retard the progrefs and im- provement both of Art and Science. If any number of chil- dren, or of folitary favages, Should chance to affociate, the names of objeas would foon be fettled by imitation and con- font. By obfervation and experience the number of names would be augmented, as well as the qualities or attributes of the objeas themfelves ; and, in the progrefs of time, a new and artificial language would be gradually formed. While this operation is going on in one corner of a country, twenty fimilar affociations and compaas may be forming, or already formed, in different nations, or in different diftrias of the fame nation, all of which would give birth to feparate artificial languages. OF TOUCH. THE fenfations of fmelling, tafting, hearing, and feeing, are conveyed to us by partial organs, which are all confined to the head. But the fenfe of touching, or of feeling, is not only common to thefe organs, but extends over almoft every part of the body, whether external or internal. Though every fenfation may be comprehended under the general ap- pellation of feeling, yet what is called the fenfe of touch is properly reftriaed to the different fenfations excited by l82i THE PHILOSOPHY bodies applied to the fkin, and particularly to the tips of the fingers. With regard to fenfation in general, it is worthy of re- mark, that the eyes, the ears, the noftrils, the tongue and palate, the palms of the hands, efpecially towards the points of the fingers, are more amply fupplied with nerves than any other external parts of the body. The terminations of the nerves on the furface of the Skin are foft and pulpy, and form minute protuberances refembling the nap of freeze- eloth, though greatly inferior in magnitude. Thefe protur- berances have received the denomination of nervous papillae* They might be called animal feelers; for they are obvioufly the immediate instruments of fenfation. If an objea be pre* fented to the eye, or any other organ of fenfation, certain feelings are excited, which are either agreeable or difagreea- ble, according to the real or imaginary qualities which we confider as belonging to that objea. The feelings thus ex- cited inftantly produce a change in the fenfitive organs by which they are occasioned. If the objea be poffeffed of dif- agreeable qualities, averfion is the neceffary confequence. But, if beauty and utility are perceived in the objea, pleaf- ant emotions fpring up in the mind, which naturally induce a fimilar tone or difpofition in the organs fuited for the en- joyment of thefe qualities. When examining or enjoying any objea, it is natural to inquire, what are the changes produced in the nervous papil- lae, or organs of fenfation ? If an objea poffeffed of agreea- ble feelings is perceived, the nervous papillae inftantly extend themfelves, and, from a ftate of flaccidity, become compara- tively rigid like briftles. This extenfion of the papillae is not conjeaural : It is founded on anatomical obfervation, and, in fome cafes, may be feen and felt by perfons of acute and diScerning fenSations. When a man in the dark inclines to examine any fubftance, in order to difcover its figure or OF NATURAL HISTORY. 183 ether qualities, he perceives a kind of rigidity at the tips of his fingures. If the fingers are kept long in this ftate, the rigidity of the nervous papillae will give him a kind of pain or anxiety, which it is impoffible to defcribe. The caufe of this pain is an over-diftenfion of the papillae. If a Small in- fea creeps on a man's hand, when the papillae are flaccid, its movements are not perceived : But if he happens to direa his eye to the animal, he immediately extends his papillae, and feels diftinaiy all its motions. If a body be prefent, which, in the common ftate of the nerves, has fcarcely any fenfible odour, by extending the papillae of the noftrils, an agreeable, diSagreeable, or indifferent fmell will be perceived. When two perfons are whifpering, and we wiSh to know what is faid, we Stretch the papillae, and the other organs of hearing, which are exceedingly complex. If a found is too low for making an impreffion on the papillae in their natural ftate of relaxation, we are apt to overstretch the organ, which produces a painful or irkfome feeling. When we examine a mite, or any very minute objea, by the naked eye, a pain is propagated over every part of that organ. Several caufes may concur in producing this pain, fuch as the dilating of the pupil,and the adjusting the chryftalline lens; but the chief caufe muft be afcribed to the preternatural intumefcence and extenfion of the papillae of the retina, the fubftance of which is a mere congeries of nervous terminations. This circum- ftance confirms a former remark, that the immediate organs of fenfation were more copioufly fupplied with nervous pa- pillae than thofe parts whofe ufes require not fuch exquifite fenfibility ; for a diftinaion in this refpea is obfervable even among the fenfitive organs themfelves. They are fur- niShed with nerves exaaiy proportioned to the fubtility of the objeas whofe impreffions they are fitted to receive. The eye poffeffes by far the greateft number. The particles of light are fo minute, that, had not this wife provifion been ebferved in the conftruaion of the eye, it could never have 184 THE PHILOSOPHY been able to diftinguiSh objeas with fuch accuracy as at pre- fent it is capable of performing. When an infipid body, or a body which conveys but a very feeble fenfation of tafte, is applied to the tongue, we are confcious of an effort which that organ makes in order to difcover the quality of the body thus applied. This effort is nothing but the ftretching of the nervous papillae, that they may enlarge the field of con- taa with the body under examination. The pleafure or pain produced by the fenfe of touch de- pends chiefly on the friaion, or number of impulfes, made upon the papillae. Embrace any agreeable body with your hand, and allow it to remain perfeaiy at reft, and you will find the pleafure not half fo exquifite as when the hand is gently moved backward and forward upon the furface. Ap- ply the hand to a piece of velvet, and it is merely agreeable : Rub the hand repeatedly on the furface of the cloth, and the pleafant feeling will be augmented in proportion to the number of impulfes on the papillae. When a man is pinch- ed with hunger, the fight or idea of palatable food raifes the whole papillae of his tongue and ftomach. From this cir- cumftance he is highly regaled by eating. But, if he eats the fame fpecies of food when the ftomach is lefs keen, the pleafure in the one cafe is not to be compared with what is felt in the other. The caufe is obvious : His defire was not fo urgent; the objea, of courfe, was lefs alluring ; and therefore he was more remifs in ereaing his papillae, or in putting them in a tone fuited to fuch eminent gratification, The fame obfervations are applicable to difagreeable or painful objeas of contaa. If the hand is laid upon a gritty ftone, or a piece of rufty iron, the feeling is difagreeable ; but if it is frequently rubbed upon the furface of thefe bodies, the feeling becomes infufferably irkfome. It is by the fenfe of touch that "men, and other animals, are enabled to perceive and determine many qualities of ex- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 18J ternal bodies. By this fenfe we acquire the ideas of hard- nefs and foftnefs, of roughnefs and Smoothnefs, of heat and cold, of preffure and weight, of figure, and of distance. The fenfe of touch is more uniform, and liable to fewer decep- tions, than thofe of fmelling, tafting, hearing, and feeing ; becaufe, in examining the qualities of objeas, the bodies themfelves muft be brought into aaual contaa with the or- gan, without the intervention of any medium, the varia- tions of which might miflead the judgment. OF SEEING. OF all the fenfes, that of Seeing is unquestionably the no- bleft, the moft refined, and the moft extenfive. The ear in- forms us of the exiftence of objeas at comparatively fmall diftances ; and its. information is often imperfea and falla- cious. But the organ of fight, which is moft admirably con- ftruaed, not only enables us to perceive thoufarids of objeas at one glance, together with their various figures, colours, and apparent pofitions, but, even when unarmed, to form ideas of the fun and planets, and of many of the fixed Stars ; and thus conneas us with bodies fo remote,, that imagina- tion is loft when it attempts to form a conception of their immenfe magnitude and diftances. This natural field of vifion, however, great, has been vaftly extended by the in- vention of optical instruments. When aided by the telef- cope, the eye penetrates into regions of fpace, and per- ceives Stars innumerable, which, without the affiftance of art, would to us have no exiftence. Our ideas of the beauty, magnitude, and remotenefs or vicinity of external objeas, are chiefly derived from this delicate and acute inftrument . Tafte alone, and Tafte united with Smelling and Hearing. When limited to tafte alone, the ftatue would acquire the fame mental powers as with fmelling or hearing. Tafte OF NATURAL HISTORY. 197 would contribute more to his happinefs and mifery than fmelling or hearing ; becaufe favours, in general, affea us more than fmells, or even harmonious founds. When tafte is united with fmelling and hearing, the ftatue, after learning to know them feparately, would be enabled to diftinguiSh thefe fenfations, even when tranfmitted to him at the fame time ; and therefore his exiftence would in fome meafure be tripled. The union of thefe fenfes would ftill farther extend and diverfify the train of his ideas, augment the" number of his defires, and make him contraa new habits. 5. Of Sight alone. Sight and all fenfations are internal, and belong to the mind. The difficulty is to conceive how we refer thefe fen- fations to external objeas or caufes. Our ftatue would con- sider light and colour as modes of his own exiftence ; but could have no idei that they belonged to bodies diftina from himfelf. At firft he would not be able to distinguish one colour from another ; but he would foon acquire the habit of confidering one colour at a time, and thus learn to dif- tinguiSh them. By fight alone he could have no idea of figure, fituation, extenfion, or motion. 6. Sight united with Smell, Hearing, and Tafte. This union would augment our Statue's mode of exiftence, extend the chain of his ideas, and multiply the objeas of his attention, of his defires, and of his enjoyments. But he would ftill continue to perceive himSelf alone, and could have no idea of external objeas. He would fee, fmell, tafte, and hear, without knowing that he had eyes, nofe, mouth, or ears, nor even that he had a body. With the fame colour before his eyes, if a fucceSfion of fmells, favours, and founds, were prefented to him, he would confider himfelf as a colour A A 19$ THE PHILOSOPHY fucceflively odoriferous, favoury, and fonorous. If the fame odour were1 conftantly prefent with him, he would confider himfelf as a favoUry, fonorous, and coloured odour. 7. Of Touching alone. The fmalleft degree of fentiment, or feeling, which a man Hmited to the fenfe of touching could have, would arife from the aaion of different parts of the body, and particularly from the motion of refpiration. This the Abbe calls the fundamental fentiment, becaufe with it life commences. As foon as this fundamental fentiment has undergone any change, the ftatue is confcious of his own exiftence. When not Struck by any external body, and placed in a temperate tranquil air, of an equal degree of heat, he would only re- Cognife his exiftence by the confufed impreffion refulting from the motion of refpiration. He cannot diftinguiSh the different parts of his body, and confequently has no idea of extenfion. Different feelings perceived at the fame time convey a confufed fenfation only. But, when heat and cold are felt in fucceSfion, he distinguishes them, and retains in his memory the idea of each fenfation. Touching different parts of his body, and of external objeas, gradually unfolds the ideas of extenfion, folidity, foftnefs, hardnefs, diftance, &c. Hence he no longer confounds himfelf with his modifications. He is no longer heat or cold ; but he perceives heat in one part and cold in another. By means of the hand, he diftin- guifhes his own perfon from external objeas. When he touches the parts of his body, each part returns a fenfation. But, when he touches another body, he feels that it exifts, but returns no fenfation; and hence he learns that there are bodies which constitute no part of himfelf. Children derive the greateft happinefs from motion. Even falls do not deter them. A bandage on their eyes ^ould give them lefs pain than a restraint on the ufe of their OF NATURAL HISTORY. 199 limbs. Motion, befide many other advantages, gives them the moft lively confcioufnefs of their own exiftence and pow- ers. If exercife be pleafant to children, it would be ftill more fo to our ftatue •, for as yet he not only knows no ob- ftacle to interrupt his movements, but he will foon expe- rience all the pleafures to be derived from motion. The ftatue at firft loves every body that does not hurt him. Pol- iftied and fmooth furfaces will be agreeable to him ; and he will be delighted to find that he can at pleafure enjoy warmth or coolnefs. He will receive peculiar pleafure from objeas, which, from their figure and magnitude, are moft accommodated to the form of his hand. At other times, the difficulty of handling objeas, on account of their fize or weight, will give him pleafure by furprife ; and this pleafure will be augmented by the fpace he difcovers around them, which will render the motion of his body from one place to another extremely agreeable. Solidity and fluidity, hard- nefs and foftnefs, motion and reft, will be pleafant fenfations ; for the more he contrafts them, the more they will attraa his attention and extend his ideas. But the habit he acquires of comparing and judging is the greateft fource of his pleafures. He no longer touches objeas folely for the pleafure of hand- ling them. He wifhes to know their relations, and he feels as many agreeable fenfations as he forms new ideas. Touching expofes him more frequently to pain than the Other fenfes. But pleafure is always within his reach, and pain is felt only at intervals. His defires confift chiefly of the efforts of his mind to recal the moft agreeable ideas. But that kind of defire of which the fenfe of touch renders him capable, includes motion, or the power of fearching for fenfations. Hence his enjoyments are net limited to the ideas prefented by the imagination, but extend to all the ob- jeas he can reach; and his defires, inftead of being concen- trated into modes of his exiftence, as in the other fenfes, 200 THE PHILOSOPHY lead him always to external bodies, which are the objeas of his love, hatred, and other paffions. By motion he acquires the idea of fpace. Repeated expe- rience of difcovering new fenfations renders him capable of curiofity. But pain repreffes his defire of moving, and makes him diffident. Hence he learns to move with caution ; and the fame chance that led him to lay hold of a ftick, will teach him to ufe it for exploring what may be hurtful to him. Pleafure and pain are the Sources of all his ideas, the num- ber of which acquirable by our ftatue is almoft infinite. He learns to compare his different fenfations, and to diftinguiSh different bodies. He acquires the 'idea of figure, and be- comes capable of reffeaion and abftraaion. He acquires likewife the ideas of number, of duration, of fpace, and of immenfity. 8. Of Touch united with Smelling. On this fuppofition, the ftatue would perceive himfelf to be two different beings, one that he could touch, and anoth- er which he could not. When chance made him lay hold of an odorous body, he would find that its fmell was ftronger or weaker, in proportion as he brought the body nearer, or removed it farther from his face. This experiment frequent- ly repeated will give him the idea that fmell proceeds from, or is a quality of bodies. By the fame means he difcovers the organ of fmelling. From this fource his ideas concern- ing the qualities of bodies are greatly extended. 9. Hearing, Tafte, and Touching, united. At firft our ftatue is totally occupied with this new fenfe, and believes himfelf to be the Singing of birds, the noife of a cafcade, &c By the exercife, however, of handling fono- rous bodies, or of letting them fall, he perceives that found is produced by impulfe or collision, gradually difcovers this new organ, and that noife is a property of bodies even at a diftance. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 201 10. Of Sight uni'ed with all the other Senfes. The eye conveys no idea of diftance, of magnitude, of figure, or of fituation, without the affiftance of touching. Either from chance, or from the pain occafioned by too ftrong a ligl-., the ftatue carries his hand to his eyes. The colours of objeas inftantly difappear. He removes his hand, and the colours return. Hence he learns that colours are not modes of his exiftence, but that they feem to be fomething existing in his eyes, in the fame manner as he feels at the ends of his fingers the objeas he touches. The Abbe, in the fame ingenious manner, Shews how, by experience and habit, hf motion and touching, we acquire a facility in correaing the errors of vifion. But our limits permit us not to follow him an farther, 202 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER VII. Of Infancy. JDY the term Infancy, in this chapter, is gener- ally meant that portion of life which commences at birth, and terminates at that period when animals have acquired the power of felf-prefervation, without any affiftance from their parents. This period varies greatly in different ani- mals. Of courfe, when different Species are mentioned, the term infancy muft have very different limitations with regard to time. The ftate of infancy, in the human fpecies, continues lon- ger than in any other animal. Infants, immediately after birth, are indeed extremely helplefs, and require every affift- ance and attention from the mother. Moft writers, however, on this fubjea feem to have exaggerated not only the imbe- pility, but the miferies of the infant ftate. * An infant,' fays Buffon, «is more helplefs than the young of any other animal: ' Its uncertain life feems every moment to vibrate on the f borders of death. It can neither move nor fupport its bo- 4 dy : It has hardly force enough to exift, and to announce, * by groans, the pain which it fuffers; as if Nature intended * to apprife the little innocent, that it is born to mifery, and * that it is to be ranked among human creatures only to par- ' take of their infirmities and of their affliaions*.' This humiliating piaure is partly juft, and partly mifre- prefented. Though infants remain longer in a ftate of im- becility than the young of other animals, they are by no means more helplefs. The inftant after birth, they are capa- ble of fucking whatever is prefented to their mouths. When in the fame condition, the young of the opoSIum, of hares, rabbits, rats, mice, &c. can do more. They can • Buffcn, vol. a, page 369. Tranflat. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 2Q$ neither move nor fupport their bodies. Befides, many quad- rupeds are deftitute of the fenfe of feeing for feveral days after birth. But the faculty of vifion is enjoyed by infants the moment after they come into the world. This faculty, in a few hours, becomes a great Source of pleafure and amufe- ment to them ; but it is denied, for fome days, to manv other fpecies of animals. The young of moft birds are equally weak and helplefs as human infants. The former have no other powers but thofe of refpiration, opening their mouths to receive food from the parent, and ejeaing the ex- crement, after the food has been properly digefted. If in- fants really fuffer more pain and mifery than other animals m the fame ftate, Nature feems not to merit that feverity of cenfure which She has fometimes received. Man in fociety, like domeftic animals, by luxury, by artificial modes of living, by unnatural and vicious habits, debilitate their bodies, and tranfmit to their progeny the feeds of weaknefs and difeafe, the effeas of which are not felt by thofe who live more agree- ably to the general oeconomy and intentions of nature. The children of favages, for the fame reafon, whether in the hun- ting or Shepherd ftate, are more robuft, more healthy, and Hable to fewer difeafes than thofe produced by men in the more enlightened and refined Stages of fociety. Even under the fame governments, and in the fame ftate of civilization, a fimilar gradation of imbecility and difeafe is to be obferved. The children of men of rank and fortune are, in general, more puny, debilitated, and difeafed, than thofe of the pea- fent or artificer. Still, however, children, in their progrefs from birth to maturity, have innumerable fources of pleafure, which alleviate, if they do not fully compenfate, the pain which muft unavoidably be endured, whether in a more nat- ural or more artificial ftate of mankind. If luxury and civil- ization debilitate the constitutions of children, they give rife to many real enjoyments which are totally unknown to the 204 THE PHILOSOPHY favage. His wants are fewer ; but his gratifications are more than proportionally diminifhed. Though the period of human infancy be proportionally long, it is too often increafed by improper management. In this, and many other countries of Europe, infants have no fooner efcaped from the womb of their mothers, and have enjoyed the liberty of ftretching their limbs, than they are again condemned to a more cruel and unnatural bondage. The head is fixed in one pofition ; the legs are fettered ; the arms are bound down to the fides; and the little innocents are laced with bandages fo Strait that they cannot move a fin- gle joint. The restraint of fwaddling bands muft be pro- duaive of pain. Their original intention was to prevent the head and limbs from being distorted by unnatural or hurtful pofitions. But it was not confidered, that the efforts made by infants to difentangle themfelves, have a greater tendency to distort their members than any poftures they could affume, if they enjoyed a greater degree of liberty. But, if the ef- forts for liberty made by infants fettered in this cruel manner be hurtful, the ftate of inaaivity in which they are forced to remain, is, perhaps, equally noxious. Infants, as well as all young animals, are extremely prone to motion. It promotes the growth and expanfion of their organs. It likewife invig- orates all their members, and facilitates the circulation and fecretion of their different fluids. But, when infants are de- prived of exercife, or of the power of performing their nat- ural movements, the oppofite effeas are produced. The want of exercife retards their growth and weakens their con- stitution. Thofe children, therefore, who are allowed full freedom of motion will always be the moft healthy and the moft vigorous. We are, however, happy to remark, that, by the efforts of philofophers and phyficians, the praaice of employing tight bandages has of late become lefs general, efpecially among intelligent midwives and mothers. But, t© OF NATURAL HISTORY. 205 eradicate long established prejudices, and to diffufe more en- lightened and falutary notions through a whole country, can- not be effected without a great length of time and vigorous exertions. From what caufes or circumftances particular modes in the management of infants originate, it is difficult to determine. But it is certain that favages, and ruder nations, in their treat- ment of infants, often difcover more difcernment, and pro- priety of condua, than are to be found in the moft polifhed Stages of fociety. The negroes, the favages of Canada, of Virginia, of Brafil, and the natives of almoft the whole of South America, inftead of ufing fwaddling-bands, lay their infants naked into hammocks, or hanging beds of cotton, or into cradles lined with fur. The Peruvians leave the anns of their infants perfeaiy loofe in a kind of fwathing- bag. When a little older, they are put, up to the middle, in a hole dug out of the earth, and lined with linen or cotton. By this contrivance, their arms and head are perfeaiy free, and they can bend their bodies, and move their arms and head, without the fmalleft danger of falling, or of receiving any injury. To entice them to walk, whenever they are able to Step, the breaft is prefented to them at a little diftance. The children of negroes, when very young, cling round, with their knees and legs, one of their mother's haunches, and grafp the breaft with their hands. In this pofition they adhere fo firmly, that they fupport themfelves without any affiftance, and continue to fuck without danger of falling, though the mother moves forward, or works at her ufual la- bour. Thefe children, at the end of the fecond month, be- gin to creep on'their hands and knees ; and, in this fituation, they acquire, by habit, the faculty of running with furprifing quicknefs. Savages are remarkably attentive to the cleanlinefs of their children. Though they cannot afford to change their furs B B 20f> THE PHILOSOPHY fo frequently as we do our linen, this defea they fupply by other fubftances of no value. The favages of North Ameri- ca put wood-duft, obtained from decayed trees, into the bot- tom of the cradle,, and renew it as often as it is neceffary. Upon this powder the children are laid, and covered with Skins. This powder is very foft, and quickly abforbs moif- ture of every kind. The children in Virginia are pllced naked upon a board covered with* cotton, and furnifhed with a proper hole for tranfmitting the excrement. This praaice is likewife almoft general in the eaftern parts of Europe, and particularly in Turkey. It has another advantage : It pre- vents the difmal effeas which too often proceed from the negligence of nurfes. Many northern nations plunge their infants, immediately after birth, into cold water, without receiving any injury. The Laplanders expofe their new-born infants on the fnow till they are almoft dead with cold, and then throw them into a warm bath. During the firft year, this feemingly harSh treatment is repeated three times every day. After that pe- riod, the children are bathed in cold water thrice every week. It is a general opinion in northern regions, that cold bathing renders men more healthy and robuft; and hence they inure their children, from their very birth, to this habit. In the ifthmus of America, the inhabitants, even when covered with fweat, plunge themfelves with impunity into cold water. The mothers bathe in cold water, along with their infants, the moment after delivery ; yet much fewer of them die of child-bearing, than in nations where a praaice of this kind would be confidered as extremely hazardous. With regard to the food of infants, it fhould confift, for the firft two months, of the mother's milk alone. A child may be injured by allowing it any other nourifliment before the end of the firft month. In Holland, in Italy, in Tur- key, and over the whole Levant, children, during the firft OF NATURAL HISTORY. 207 year, are not permitted to tafte any other food. The Cana- dian favages nurfe their children four or five years, and fometimes fix or feven. In cafes of neceffity, the milk of quadrupeds may fupply that of the mother. But, in fuch cafes, the child fliould be obliged to fuck the animal's teat« for the degree of heat is always uniform and proper, and the milk, by the aaion of the mufcles, is mixed with the faliva, which is a great promoter of digeftion. Several robuft peas- ants have been known to have had no other nurfes than ewes. After two or three months, children may be gradually accuf- tomed to food fomewhat more folid than milk. Before the teeth fhoot through the gums, infants are incapable of mafti- cation. During that period, therefore, it is obvious that Na- ture intended they fhould be nouriflied folely by foft fub- ftances. But, after they are furnifhed with teeth, it is equal- ly obvious, that they fliould occafionally be allowed focd of a more folid texture. The bodies of infants, though extremely delicate, are lefs affeaed by cold than at any other period of life. This effeft may be produced by the Superior quicknefs in the pulfation of the heart and arteries which takes place in fmall animals. The pulfe of an infant is more frequent than that of an adult. The pulfe of a horfe, or of an ox, is much Slower than that of a man ; and the motion of the heart, in very fmall animals, as that of a linnet, is fo rapid that it is impof- fible to count the Strokes. The lives of children, during the firft three or four years, are extremely precarious. After that period, their exiftence becomes gradually more certain. According to Simpfon's tables of the degrees of mortality at different ages, it ap- pears, that, of a certain number of infants brought forth at the fame time, more than a fourth part of them died in the firft year, more than a third in two years, and at leaft one half at the end of the third year. Mr. Simpfon made this 208 THE PHILOSOPHY experiment upon children born in London. But the mor- tality of childjen is not nearly fo great in every place ; for M. Dupre de S. Maur, by a number of experiments made in France, has Shown, that one half of the children born at the fame time are not extina in lefs than feven or eight years. To treat of the difeafes of children, or to enter minutely into the caufes which contribute to the great mortality of mankind in earlier infancy, is no part of our plan. In gener- al, thefe caufes are to be referred to unnatural praaices in the management of children, introduced by fuperftition, by ignorance, and by foolifh notions arifing from over -refine- ment, from prejudice, and from hypothetical fyftems, while the oeconomy and analogy of Nature, in the condua and fituation of the inferior animals, are almoft totally negleaed. Every animal, except the human fpecies, brings forth its young without any foreign aid. But incredible numbers of children, as well as of mothers, are daily maimed, enfeebled, and destroyed, by the ignorance and barbarity of midwives and accoucheurs. An infant is no fooner brought into the world than it is crammed with phyfic. Nature's medicine for cleanfing the bowels of infants is the milk of the mother. But midwives abfurdly imagine that drugs will anfwer this purpofe much better. All other animals that give fuck nurfe their own offspring: But we too frequently delegate this tender and endearing office to ftrange women, whofe consti- tutions, habits of life, and mental difpofitions, are often total- lv different from thofe of the genuine parent. Infants, re- cently after birth, frequently fuffer from giving them, inftead of the mother's milk, wine-whey, wator-gruel, and fimilar unnatural kinds of nourishment. In this period of their ex- iftence, however, very little food, but a great deal of reft, is neceffary for promoting their health, and fecuring their eafe and tranquility ; for infants, when not teazed by officious cares, fleep almoft continually during feveral weeks OF NATURAL HISTORY. 209 .ifter birth. Young animals are naturally fond of being in the open air ; but our infants, particularly in large towns, are almoft perpetually Shut up in warm-*apartments, which both relaxes their bodies and enervates their minds. The great agility, ftrength, and fine proportions of favages, are refults of a hardy education, of living much in the open air, and of an unreftrained ufe of all their organs the moment after they come into the world. In young animals, as well as in infants, there is a gradual progrefs, both in bodily and mental powers, from birth to maturity. Thefe powers are unfolded fooner or later, ac- cording to the nature and exigencies of particular Species. This progrefs, in man, is very flow. Man acquires not his full ftature and ftrength of body till feveral years after the age of puberty : And, with regard to his mind, his judg- ment and other faculties cannot be faid to be perfeaiy ripe before his thirtieth year. In early infancy, though the impreflions received from new objeas muft be ftrong, the memory appears to be weak. Many caufes may concur in producing this effea. In this period of our exiftence, almoft every objea is new, and, of courfe, ingroffes the whole attention. Hence the idea of any particular objea is obliterated by the quick fucceSfion and novelty of others, joined to the force with which they aa upon the mind. Halfer afcribes this want of recolleftion to a weaknefs of memory ; but it feems rather to proceed from a confufion which neceffarily refults from the number and ftrong impreffions of new objeas. The memory ripens not fo much by a gradual increafe in the ftrength of that faculty, as by a dimunition in the number and novelty of the objeas which folicit attention. In a few years children are enabled to exprefs all their wants and defires. The number of new objeas daily diminifhes, and the impreffions made by thofe with which they are familiar become comparatively 510 THE PHILOSOPHY fmall and uninteresting. Hence their habits of attention, and the ardour of their minds, begin to relax. Inftead of a general and undiftinguifhing gratificatien of their fenfes, this is the period when it is neceffary to ftimulate children, by various artifices, to apply their minds Steadily to the ex- amition of particular objeas, and to the acquifition of new ideas from more complicated and refined fources of informa- tion. The great bafis of education is a habit of attention. When this important point is gained, the minds of children may be molded into any form. But that reftleffnefs, and appetite for motion, which Nature, for the wifeft purpofes, has implanted in the constitution of all young animals, fhould not be too feverely checked. Health and vigour of body are the fureft foundations of Strength and improvement of mind. With regard to the duration of infancy, from man to the infea tribes, it feems, in general, to be proportioned, not to the extent of life, but to the fagacity or mental powers of the different claffes of animated beings. The elephant re- quires 30 years, and the rhinoceros 20, before they come to perfea maturity, and are enabled to multiply their fpecies. But thefe years mark not the period of infancy ; for the ani- mals, in a much Shorter time, are capable of procuring their own food, and are totally independent of any aid from their parents. The fame remark is applicable to the camel, the horfe, the larger apes, &c. Their ages of puberty are four, two and a half, and three years. But, in thefe quadrupeds, the terminations of infancy are much more early. The fmaller quadrupeds, as hares, rats, mice, &c. are mature at the end of the firft year after birth; and the Guiney pig and rabbit require only five or fix months. There is a gra- dation of mental powers, though not without exceptions, from the larger to the more minute quadrupeds ; for the dog and fox, whofe fagacity is very great, come to maturity OF NATURAL HISTORY. 211 •n one year, and their ftate of infancy is Short. But, of all animals, the infancy and helplefs condition of men are the moft prolonged ; and the Superiority and duaility of his mind will not be questioned. The infant ftate of birds is very Short. Moft of the feath- ered tribes arrive at perfection in lefs than fix months ; and tl.eir fagacity is comparatively limited. With regard to fifhes, if the whale and feal kind, who fuckle their young, be excepted, they receive no aid from their parents. FiShes no Sooner efcape from the eggs of their mother, than they are in a condition to procure nourish- ment, and to provide, in fome meafure, for their own fafety. Of the fagacity of fifhes, owing to the .element in which they live, we have very little knowledge. But their general charaaer is ftupidity, joined to a voracious and indiicrimi- nating appetite for food. In oppofition to an almoft general law of Nature which fubfifts among other animals, fiShes de- vour, without diftinaion, every fmaller or weaker animal, whether it belongs to a different fpecies, or to their own. In animals of a much higher order, voracity of appetite is feldom accompanied with ingenuity or elegance of tafte. When the principal attention of an animal is engroffed with any fenfuai appetite, it is a fair conclufion that the mental powers are weak,, becaufe they are chiefly employed upon the groffeft of all objeas. If this obfervation be juft, fiShes muft be ranked among the moft Stupid animals of equal mag- nitude and aaivity. The infant ftate of infeas is a various and complicated fubjea. After they efcape from the egg, they undergo fo many changes, and affume fuch a variety of forms, that it is difficult to determine the period of their exiftence which correfponds to the condition of infancy in the larger animals. Different fpecies remain longer or Shorter in the form of worms, caterpillars, or grubs, before they are changed 212 THE PHILOSOPHY into chryfalids, arid afterwards into flies. When young, like other animals, they are fmall and feeble : But, even in their moft helplefs condition, with a very few exceptions, Nature is their only nurfe. They require no aid from their parents, who, in general, are totally unacquainted with their progeny. But, as formerly obferved, when treating of inftina, the mothers uniformly depofit their eggs in fituations which af- ford both proteaion and nourifhment to their young. The parent fly, according to the fpecies, invariably, unlefs restrain- ed by neceffity, depofits her eggs upon particular plants, in the bodies of other animals, in the earth, or in water. Whenever, therefore, an infea receives exiftence in its pri- mary form, all its wants are fupplied. Though the mother, after the worms iffue from the eggs, takes no charge of her offspring, and frequently does not exift at the time they come forth, yet, by an unerring and pure inftina, She uniformly places them in fituations where the young find proper nour- ifliment, and every thing neceffary to their feeble condition. To this general law, by which infeas are governed, there are feveral exceptions. Bees, and fome other flies, not only conftrua nefts for their young, but aaually feed, and moft anxioufly protect them. From what has been faid concerning the infancy of ani- mals, one general remark merits attention. Nature has uni- formly, though by various modes, provided for the nourish- ment and prefervation of all animated beings while they are in an infantine ftate. Though the human fpecies continues long in that ftate, the attachment and folicitude of both parents, inftead of abating, in proportion to the time and la- bour beftowed on their progeny, conftantly augment, and commonly remain during life. The reciprocal affeaion of parents and children is one of the greateft fources of human happinefs. If the love of children were not ftrong, and if it did not increafe with time the labour, the conftant OF NATURAL HISTORY. 213 attention, the anxiety and fatigue of mothers would be infufferable. But here Nature, whofe wifdom is always confpicuous, makes affeaion brave every difficulty, and footh every pain. If a child be fickly, and require uncommon care, the exertions of the mother are wonderfully fupported: Pity unites with love ; and thefe two paffions become fo Strong, that hardfhips, and fatigue of every kind, are fuffer- ed with chearfulnefs and alacrity. With regard to the inferior tribes of animals, Nature has not been lefs provident. To quadrupeds and birds fhe has given a Strong and marked affeaion for their offspring, as long as parental care is neceffary. But, whenever the young begin to be in a condition to protea and provide for them- felves, the attachment of the parents gradually fubfides ; they become regardlefs of their offspring, at laft banifh them with blows, from their prefence, and, after that period, feem to have no knowledge of the objeas which fo lately engrof- fed all the attention of their minds, and occupied all the in- dustry and labour of their bodies.—Here the dignity and fu- periority of man appears in a confpicuous light. Inftead of lofing the knowledge of his offspring after they arrive at ma- turity, his affeaion expands, and embraces grandchildren, and great-grandchildren, with equal warmth as if they had immediately originated from himfelf. C c 2T4 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER VIII. Of the Growth, and Food, of Animals. IT is a law of Nature, that all organized bodies, whether animal or vegetable, require food, in order to ex- pand and Strengthen their parts when young, and to preferve health and vigour after they have arrived at maturity. The food of animals is digefted in the ftomach and inteftines: By this procefs it is converted into chyle, and abforbed by the laaeal Veffels, in the manner defcribed in Chap. 2. page 48. But how this chyle, or nutritious matter, after ming- ling with the general mafs of blood, contributes to the growth, and repairs the wafte of animal bodies, is a myftery which probably never will be unfolded by human fagacity. It has, however, like many other fecrets of Nature, given rife to feveral ingenious theories and conjeaures, fome of which fhall be Slightly mentioned. Buffoh considers the bodies of animals and vegetables as what he calls internal moulds. He fays, that the matter of nutrition is not applied by juxta-pofition, but that it pene- trates the whole mafs ; that each part receives and applies thofe particles only which are peculiar and neceffary to its own nature ; and that, by this means, the whole parts of the body are gradually and proportionally augmented. This nu- tritive matter, he remarks, is organic, and fimilar to the body itfelf; and hence the fize of the body is increafed, without any change in its figure or fubftance. The matter ejefted by the different excretions he confiders to be a fepa- ration of the dead from the vivifying and organic parts of nourifhment, which are diftributed over the body by an aaive power : This power fimilar to that of gravity, pen- etrates the internal fubftance of the body, and attraas the organic particles, which are thus puflied on through all its* €>1> NATURAL HISTORY. 213 parts. As thefe organic particles are fimilar to the body it- felf, their union with the different parts augments its fize, without changing its figure. To unfold an embryo or germ, nothing more is requifite than that it contain, "m miniature, a body fimilar to the fpecies, and be placed in proper cir- cumftances for the acquifition of frefh organic particles to increaie its Size and unfold its members. Hence nutrition, developement, and reproduaion, are all effeas of the fame caufe. This account of the nutrition and growth of organic bodies has the appearance of an ingenious theory. But an atten- tive reader will eafily perceive, that it contains no other in- formation, than that animals and vegetables are nourished and grow by the intervention of the nutritious particles of food. This is a faa univerfally known and admitted. Jhit we are ftill as ignorant as ever of the mode by which this myfterious operation is performed. Other authors have fuppofed that the brain is a large gland ; that the nerves diftributed over the whole body are the duas or canals of this gland ; and that the principal ufe of the brain is to fecrete nutritious matter, and to tranfjait it by the nerves to the various parts of the fyftem, in order to expand the different organs of which it is compofed, or to repair the wafte they may have fuffered from labour and other caufes. This theory prefuppofes that the nerves are tubular, and contain a fluid : But both of thefe circumftances have hith- erto eluded the refearch of the ableft anatomists. Beiides, the learned and indefatigable Doaor Monro, in his Nerv:torh the malt and female chnacters in the fame indi- vidual. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 25? nant to every idea of found philofophy. Befides, the re- verfe has been proved by Dr. Alfton, Camerarius, and Tour- nefort. Thefe gentlemen reared female plants of the fpi- nage and hemp in fuch fituations, and with fuch fcrupulous precautions, to prevent any fuppofed impregnation by means of the wind, or of infeas, that it is difficult to conceive the poffibility of any communication between the males and fe- males. Thefe females, however, produced fertile feeds in the greateft abundance. Since thefe experiments were made, it has been difcover- ed, that male flowers are fometimes found lurking on the female plants of the fpinage and hemp : And this difcovery the fexualifts think fufficient to account for the fuccefs of Dr. Alston's experiments. But, inftead of folving the diffi- culty, this circumftance feems to involve it in ftill deeper ob- fcurity: for, that the pollen iffuing from the antherae of a male flower or two fhould rife, fall, and turn round in every direaion, fo as to light precifely on the ftigmata of all the fuperior, inferior, and circumjacent female flowers, appears to exceed the common powers of human faith. Befides, this circumftance would feem to indicate, that there is no fteadinefs in what is called vegetable fexes. We are even told, that trees, which had continued many years under the charaaer of females, but, from fome ftrange metamorphofis, had fuddenly dropped their female forms, and affumed the more robuft features peculiar to the male part of the crea- tion ! It was hinted above, that all the dioicous, monoecious, as well as moft of the hermaphrodite flowers, being impregnat- ed by means of the wind, feemed not to accord with the rules of philofophizing •, we fhall now examine that doarine more clofely. The pollen is allowed to be too large to get admiffion into the ftigmata, though laid upon them with the greateft dex- 259 THE PHILOSOPHY terity. This difficulty the fexualifts imagine to be removed, when they tell us, that moifture makes the pollen Split, and difcharge a fubtle aura, and that this aura impregnates the feeds. But, though the pollen Should explode by the appli- cation of moifture, and difcharge a fubtle aura, this explo- sion could never effea the purpofes of impregnation : For, when the pollen was lying on the ftigma, the aura muft ne- ceffarily blow off, inftead of being abforbed by that part of the plant. Is not the fuppofition fingular, and even contra- diaory, that a plant Should be impregnated by a fubftance forcibly blown away from the female ? This reafoning proceeds upon the admiffion, that the pol- len is laid with dexterity upon the ftigma. But it will re- ceive additional force, when I defy all the naturalifts in the univerfe to produce an inftance of a Single grain of pollen being ever feen on any part of a female plant, even when at no great diftance from a male, far lefs upon the ftigmata of each feparate flower. Granting, however, the pollen to be carried off from the male by the wind, yet, as the fuppofed fecundating aura it contains is much lighter than air, and is difcharged by the flighteft moifture, it can never fall down upon the distant females, but rnuft rife and diSfipate in the higher regions of the atmofphere. It may alfo be difcharg- ed by the application of rain or dew6 before the pollen is car- ried off by the wind from the male flowers : And, if the winds blow in a direaion contrary to the Situation of the fe- male plants for a few critical hours, the females muft be ren- dered barren, at leaft for a feafon. It is an eftablifhed faa, that coleworts, turnips, &c. when growing in gardens, fometimes produce new varieties. Thefe varieties the fexualifts uniformly hold up as instances of hy- brids, or mongrels, from fortuitous commixtures of different males and females. This conclusion, however, feems to be precipitate. It is well known to nurferymen and gardeners, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 259 that, from feeds of the fame individual plants, varieties fometimes appear. If thefe varieties chance to have any qualities fuperior in value to the original plants, their feeds, Shoots, or flips, are colleaed, and the new kind is propagat- ed with diligence. That the beauty of flowers, and the magnitude and flavour of fruits are improveable by particu- lar modes of culture, and even by unknown accidents, is an undeniable truth : That thefe improved qualities, in what- ever manner procured, continue in the kind unlefs allowed to degenerate by negligence, is not lefs true. But there is nothing fo wonderful in thefe phenomena as to require the moft un- bounded Stretches of fancy to account for them. Are not the beauty, ftrength, and magnitude of animals, equally im- proveable by culture ? Does not an ox, tranfported from the comparatively barren mountains of Scotland, to the rich pastures of Yorkshire, affume qualities very different from thofe he originally poffeffed ? Why, then, Should an incon- fiderable change in the constitution of a colewort, or a tur nip, excite furprife ? Plants are liable to be diversified bv numberlefs accidents. Perpetually fixed to the fame local fituation, they muft receive, indifcriminately, fuch nourifli- ment as is transmitted to them by the earth and air. When different kinds happen to grow very near each other, and. as they have not the choice of rejeaing fuch food as is pre- sented to them, may not exudations from the one be abforb- ed by the roots of the other ? May not the matter which tranfpires fo copioufly from the leaves and flowers of- one plant be conveyed to, and abforbed by, thofe of a different kind ? And may not this foreign nourifhment occafional- ly introduce fome changes in the colour, texture, or flavour, of the leaves, flowers, or fruit ? Nay, is it not reafonable to fuppofe, that folutions of various mineral fubftances, the aaion of particular manures, and a thoufand other circum- ftances, may often induce fuch changes ? Why, then, fhould we have recourfe to unnatural and ftrained analo- 260 THE PHILOSOPHY gies, when the phenomena may be folved upon the princi- ples of found philofophy ? The learned Dr. Hope, late Profeffor of Botany in the Univerfity of Edinburgh, who was a Strenuous fupporter of vegetable fexes, thought he had almoft eftabliShed the theo- ry by the following experiment upon the lychnis dioica, of which two varieties are natives of Scotland, the one bearing white, and the other red flowers. The Doaor, about twelve years ago, raifed a white female and a red male under the fame glafjs-bell, which was funk fo far in the foil as to prevent all communication with other vegetables. The bell termi- nated in a tube, which, for the occafional introduaion of a little frefh air, was fluffed with mofs. The feeds of the white female were fown next feafon ; and, inftead of white, the plants produced red flowers, in confequence, it was imagined, of the influence of the male upon the female. He likewife afferted, that the red kind, when left to Nature, never brought forth white flowers, nor the white kind red flowers. Upon this experiment we have to remark, 1. That noth- ing is more dangerous, or more fallacious in philofophy, than the affumption of general pofitions without an accurate in- vestigation. The Doaor advanced, for example, that the red and white lychnis, when in a natural ftate, never change their colours. This pofition is neither capable of admiffion nor denial ; becaufe no experiment, nor inquiry, feems ever to have been made on the fubjea : Yet it is affumed as a premife to the conclufion, that the change of the white into a red lychnis was occafioned by the influence of the red male upon the white female. 2. That hybrids, or mules, uniformly participate of both the fpecies or varieties by which they are engendered. A jack- afs and mare never produce a fimple afs or horfe, but a mule, or mixture of the two. It fliould feem, however, that this OF NATURAL HISTORY. 261 red lychnis transfufed its own individual qualities, without allowing a fingle particle of the female to appear. This is contrary to every analogy. If the change had originated from fexual commixture, the progeny ought not to have been completely red, but pied, or a mixture of red and white. To whatever caufe, therefore, this change may be attributed, it can never be afcribed to any thing analogous to generation. 3. That colour is a delicate and fluauating quality. It depends fo much on light, air, health, and perhaps fome un- known catifes, that botanifts, with great propriety, have re- jeaed it as a fpecific charaaer. Sufpeaing that caufes of this nature might change the colour of the white lychnis un- der confideration, I examined the condition of fome plants then fubjeaed to the fame trials in our Botanic Garden. The flowers both of the red and white lychnis were then in full blow under the bell, the glafs of which was thick, and of a darker green than our common beer-bottles. The light, of courfe, tranfmitted to the plants was lurid and ob- fcure. They were alfo deprived of a free circulation of air. Under thefe unnatural circumftances, the plants had a fickly afpea. The flowers of the red variety, inftead of a vivid red, were almoft perfeaiy white. Here we have nearly an equal change made upon the fame plant, without the poffi- bility of its being effeaed by the intercourfe of fexes. If plants are thus deprived of proper light and air, it cannot be furprifing to fee changes produced in the colour of their immediate defcendents. The contaminated air efcaping from the plants themfelves, and from the foil under the bell, may be fufficient to produce this eSfea. I formerly men- tioned, that the colour and other qualities of plants grow- ing near each other, may be changed by abforbing the mat- ter of tranfpiration and exudation. The argument is appli- cable with the peculiar force to plants imprifoned fo clofely, I i 262 THE PHILOSOPHY and having fo little accefs to frefh air. In this fituation, they muft, of necefiity, feed upon each other. Confine a man and a woman for years in a fmall ill-aired cell, and ob- ferve their afpea, and that of their progeny. Their ap- pearance will be very different from that of children pro- duced by healthy parents, and enjoying the benefit of the fun's rays, and of the open air. 4. That, independently of all thefe arguments, the experi- ment is; incomplete.! Even on the fuppofition of the exift- ence of fexes in plants, the conclufion drawn from it cannot be admitted. The fame change, for inftance, might have happened, if, inftead of a white female and red male, a white female had been imprifoned with a red female. In this cafe there could be no commixture of fexes ; and yet, it is highly probable, that both would have ripened their feeds, and that thefe feeds would have produced plants dif- ferently coloured from the fame varieties growing in a natur- ral ftate. Till thefe indifpenfible parts of the experiment, therefore, be tried, nothing can be concluded in favour of the fexual fyftem. 5. That flowers growing from the fame root, fruits upon the fame tree, or raifed from feeds of the fame individual plant, often vary in colour, fize, figure, and texture. Thefe varieties are a;/x:rent to the moft Superficial obfervers; but they can never, with any degree of propriety, be afcribed to the influence of fex. The caufes of fuch variations are rather to be looked for in the expofure of the plants with regard to light and air, the nature of the foil, the mode of culture, accidental injuries from dews, from ekarical fire, from the poifon or wounds of infeas, and from the abforp- tion of mineral folutions. In a word, if we are to hope for an explanation of thefe, and other minute changes in the ap- pearances of plants, recourfe muft be had to chemical and OF NATURAL HISTORY. 263 philofophical principles, and not to an hypothetical com- merce of fexes. The difeourfe was concluded with the following fentiment ; But I aim not at complete refutation ; for experiments are ftill to be made. I only wiSh to render the fexual commerce of plants fufpicious, that the minds of men maybe freed from the fetters of a fyftem, which has, perhaps, too long received the general affent of Europe; and that the oecono- my of the vegetable kingdom may again be open to impar- tial investigation. To remove the poffibility of male influence being convey- ed by means of the wind, or of infeas, about ten or twelve years ago, I thought, if a female plant could ripen her feeds within doors during the winter, the experiment would infal- libly determine the controverfy. With this view, I confin- ed a female lychnis, which is a native plant of this country, and gave her fuch a degree of heat as made her produce flowers three months before any male flowers of the fame fpecies were blown in Britain. The flowers and the young feed had every appearance of health and vigour. But the plant itfelf, as ufually happens to vegetables when forced to grow in unnatural fituations, was feeble, Slender, and double the common length it acquires in the fields. I waited the event. My expeaations, however, were difappointed ; for the flowers dropped long before the feeds were ripened. The plant was kept three years in the fame fituation ; but ftill the flowers dropped, and no ripe feeds were produced. As the health of plants like that of animals, depends upon many circumftances, as expofure to the open air, to light, to the agitations of the wind, which to them anfwers the invig- orating purpofe of exercife, to noaurnal dews, to natural rains, inftead of artificial waterings, &c. I refolved to place the female lychnis in a fituation where fhe might enjoy ail thefe advantages, and at the fame time be removed from 264 THE PHILOSOPHY every fufpicion of a conneaion with male influence. For- this purpofe, I applied to my learned and ingenious friend Dr. Daniel Rutherford, now Profeffor of Botany in the Uni- verfity of Edinburgh, who, at that time, had a fmall garden, or rather a little area, in the heart of the city,.which was furrounded with houfes of five and fix ftories high, and dif- tant from any male lychnis about an English mile. Dr. Rutherford received this female lychnis into his garden. The firft fummer after her admiffion, being enfeebled by her former three years confinement, She dropped her flowers, without producing fertile feeds. During three or four fuc- ceeding years, however, fhe remained in the fame Situation; and She not only ripened her feeds, but thefe feeds vegetatr ed, without the poffibility of any male impregnation ; for the Doaor, after the young plants were in a ftate of difcrimi- nation, uniformly extirpated all the males, and never could difcover the veftige of a Single male upon the female plants. Her female progeny, however, continued to bear fertile feeds for feveral fucceSfive generations. If, after this, and fome experiments formerly mentioned, any fexualift choofes to have recourfe to the wind, and to infeas, he may enjoy his theory; but few men of penetration will join him in opinion. But, if thefe faas and reafonings fhould not be fufficient to convince every believer in the fexual fyftem of plants that the hypothefis has no foundation in Nature, Spalanzani, a late ingenious Italian naturalift, has, by a number of expe- riments, removed the poffibility of any rational doubt on the fubjea. Spalanzani, in order to make a complete inveftigation of this fubjea, performed a number of experiments on what are called hermaphrodite, monoecious and diokous plants. Hermaphrodite plants comprehend all thofe which have ftamina and piftils, or the male and female organs, in the fame flowers. To difcover whether the pollen had any in- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 265 fluence upon the fertility of the feeds, Spalanzani forced op- en the petals, or flower-leaves, fome time before they began to expand. He then cut off all the ftamina, or male parts, before he fuppofed foecundating duft was ripe, leaving the female part to its fate. The refult was, that, in many of the plants, the feeds did not ripen, or even acquire their full Size; in others, they grew to the natural fize ; but after be- ing committed to the ground, they did not germinate. Above thirty years ago, a fimilar fet of experiments were made, in the Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, by the late Dr. Alfton, the then Profeflor of Botany. But, whether Dr. Alston's experiments were performed with greater dex- terity than thofe of Spalanzani, it is impoflible to determine. The event, however, was the reverfe ; for Dr. Alfton's plants, which were treated in the fame manner with thofe of Spalanzani, not only ripened their feeds, but thefe feeds, when fown, were found to be as fertile as if no fuch opera- tion had been performed. But no experiments of this kind can be made with any degree of certainty upon hermaphro- dite plants ; becaufe they are impraaicable, without wound- ing and injuring the tender flowers. By forcing open the petals fome days before they would naturally unfold, the in- terior parts of the flowers are prematurely expofed to the aaion of the air, of dews, and of the fun's rays. Befides, no man can determine what changes the young feeds may undergo, what injury they may fuSfer, by an unnatural de- privation of the ftamina. In every flower treated in this rough manner, an extravafation of fap muft unavoidably b« produced. If a pregnant animal is wounded, and in a part too fo intimately conneaed with the foetus, what reafon have we to expea a fertile and well-proportioned offspring ? Spalanzani next proceeded to trials on the monoecious plants, or thofe which bear both male and female flowers feparately on the fame individual. In fpring 1777, he few- 266 THE PHILOSOPHY ed two fpecies of the pumpion, which belong to this diviiiun of plants, in a fituation removed from every fufpicion of for- eign conneaion by means of the wind or of infeas. l In the ' beginning of June,' fays he, «two individuals, for I had ord- « ered two only to be raifed, were juft beginning to put « forth a few flower-buds towards the bottom of the ftalk. ' At this early period, the male flowers may be eafily diftin- < guiShed from the female. The former alfo denominated ( barren by botanifts, have a Slender Stalk j while the ftalk ' of the latter, where it joins the calyx, forms a tumor, con- < fifting of the immature fruit. I paid daily vifits to thefe «two individuals, and very carefully watched the progrefs of 1 both forts of flowers. That there might be no fufpicion < of the pollen exerting any influence upon the females, the ' males were destroyed at their firft appearance. As fruit, 1 when a fmall quantity only is left upon a plant, is fooner ' ripe, and grows to a larger fize, becaufe it receives a great- ( er quantity of nutritious juice, I left on each of my two in- i dividuals two flowers only. The buds that made their ap- « pearance afterwards were taken away, along with the male 1 flowers. Meanwhile my four gourds grew rapidly. Find- < ing that, towards the middle of September, they had at- * tained the ufual Size, I gathered one, in order to infpea the {internal parts. The flefli was too foft, becaufe the fruit was 1 not thoroughly ripe ; but, in colour, ftruaure, and tafte, it * refembled fruit produced by plants which had their male f flowers. The feeds were in a great number, and, as well * internally as externally, were perfeaiy formed. At the * end of the month, the other three gourds were quite ripe. *1 therefore gathered them, and put the feeds of each into c a feparate box, that I might be able to examine them at 1 pleafure. The lobes filled the whole infide of the feeds, f and had all the charaaers of perfea maturity. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 267 'Thus far,' continues our author, «there is a perfea t agreement with the obfervations made on the feeds of fome ' hermaphrodite plants, which feemed, notwithftanding they t were deprived of the efficacy of the pollen, to have acquir- < ed the fame degree of perfeaion as thofe impregnated in < the ufual manner. But, as they did not grow, however « perfea they might be in appearance, becaufe they had not « been vivified by the pollen, I imagined, that, for the fame c reafon* the feeds of my three gourds would not grow. It « was, however, proper to make the experiment. I therefore c dried one hundred and fifty in the fun, and afterwards f planted them in three pots, fifty in each, taken from fepa- « rate gourds. But the latenefs of the feafon, it being the c 10th of Oaober, the conftant rain, and the collnefs occa- c fioned by it, circumftances unfavourable to vegetation, c obliged me to place my pots in a ftove, which, though it ' was not heated, was kept warm by a contiguous chimney. ' The event did not by any means correfpond to my expeBation. I * took it for granted, that none of the feeds would germinate j ( and yet they almoft all came up very well *.' Here it is pleafant to obferve candour and fair experiment triumphing over deep prejudice. From the above, and many other paffages, it is evident that Spalanzani was a keen fex- ualift, and that he expeaed his experiments, inftead of over- throwing, would confirm his faith ; but, like a true philofo- pher, he candidly, though with reluaance, unhinges his fa- vourite opinion. «I referved the remainder of the feeds,' continues Spalan- zani, * for another experiment to be made the following f fpring. Before it can be afferted that fruaification has < been complete, it is neceffary, according to the deter- < mination of botanifts, not only that the feeds fhould grow, ' but that they fhould alfo be capable of bringing produaive * Sp-il.inzani's Diff.-rtations, vol. z. p. 276. ike. 268 THE PHILOSOPHY * feeds, or, in other words, of perpetuating the fpecies. That ' I might learn whether the feeds of my three gourds enjoy- ( ed this prerogative, caufed fome of them to be planted in 1 the fame place in May 1778 ; and, when they were grown f to fome fize, they were, as in the foregoing experiment, « carefully Stripped of all their male flowers, one female * flower only being left on each individual. Thefe flowers 1 were furnifhed with fmall gourds, which grew ripe towards «the beginning of autumn, and the feeds they produced grew 1 juft as well as the former *.' With regard to dioicous plants, or thofe which produce male flowers on one individual and female flowers on another, they are by far the moft unexceptionable fubjeas for deter- mining the exiftence or non-exiftence of fexes in plants. Accordingly, Bonnet, Fourgeroux, and Spalanzani, &c. about the year 1770, placed female plants of this defcription in fituations fo ftriaiy guarded againft the poffibility of foecun- datingduft being conveyed to the females either by the air or by infeas, that the fuppofition of male influence bafiles all the powers of imagination. Thefe females, however, uniformly produced ripe feeds ; and thefe feeds were as pro- lific as if they had been furrounded with males. From the faas and arguments above related, and many others which might be adduced, it appears, that this beauti- ful theory, derived from a mistaken analogy, has no founda- tion in Nature. I would not have dwelt fo long on this fub- jea, if I had not fincerely wiShed that the minds of men might be emancipated from the fetters of a fyftem which has too long received the almoft univerfal affent of the literary world ; and that the oeconomy of the vegetable kingdom may again be open to impartial inquiries. * Spalanzani's Differtations, vol. % p,278, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 269 CHAPTER X. Of the Puberty of Animals. I HE puberty of animals commences at that period wf their exiftence when Nature endows them with the pow- er of multiplying the fpecies. This period is as various as the different tribes of animals. In fome it arrives fooner, in others later; but, in every animal, it is accompanied with feme remarkable changes in constitution and affeaions. From infancy to puberty there is a gradual increafe of fize ; but, immediately after that period, in both fexes, the growth of the body makes a hidden fpring, and acquires redoubled ftrength and aaivity. The growth of animals, however, does not always ftop at the age of puberty. Men, quadru- peds, and fifhes, continue to grow for fome time after then* capacity of multiplying. But moft birds and infeas feem to acquire their full dimenlions before they arrive at the age of puberty. Before puberty, the voice of a man, like that of a woman, is Shrill and feeble. But, after that period, it becomes rough and ftrong. This effea is produced by fome unaccountable and hidden change in the organs of fpeech, which is not confined to the human fpecies ; for the voice of a horfe or a bull is deeper after than before puberty. In eunuchs, no fuch alteration of voice is to be obferved ; for their voice, though Shrill and piercing, can never produce a low or deep note. At this period, too, that distinguishing charaaeriftic of man, the beard, begins to appear, together with other external and internal changes, which it is unneceffary to relate. But eunuchs are totally deftitute of beards. Thefe two faas indicate a conneaion which merits the attention of phi- lofophers. K K 270 THE PHILOSOPHY With regard to the female fex, they are by no means ex- empted from conftitutional changes when they arrive at the age of puberty. The alteration in the tone of their voice, if it does happen, is hardly perceptible. Neither are their faces deformed by a beard, which, according to our prefent ideas, would have a difgufting effea. At this period, how- ever, their mammae fwell, and a periodical evacuation takes* place, which produces wonderful revolutions in their consti- tution and affeaions. In both fexes, the mental changes are not lefs remarkable than the corporeal. The powers of the mind expand, the force of genius is felt, and very differ- ent objeas folicit attention : Inftead of peurile amufements, ambition, a warm and unaffeaed friendship, a generofity and unfufpicious demeanour, both in words and aaions, are the almoft univerfal charaaeriftics of this period of human life* I mention it with pleafure, that, as far as my obfervation ex- tends, in youth, unlefs they are corrupted by example, by neglea, or by other caufes, all men are honeft, friendly, gen- erous, and humane. If this remark be true, Nature is fully exculpated. But, when a young man enters into the bufinefs of life, his candour and ingenuoufnefs foon meet with a~ Shock. This is the painful reverfe. Inftead of liberality and integrity of condua, he has to encounter with felfifh- nefs, chicane, and too often with direa villany. This un- happy difcovery turns his thoughts into a different current, contraas the noble opennefs of his heart, renders him fufpi- cious and guarded, and, if he Shall chance to retain his in- tegrity, he is obliged to affume, at leaft, the appearance of jealoufy and deceit. I by no means intend this to be the univerfal charaaer of mankind ; I only lament that it is too general. In every race of mankind of which we have any know- ledge, the females arrive fooner at puberty than the males. But the age of puberty differs in different countries. This OF NATURAL HISTORY. 27 i difference feems to originate from two caufes, the tempera- ture of the climate, and the quality of the food. Children of citizens, and of opulent parents, who are fed with rich and nourifhing viauals, arrive fooner at this ftate. Children, on the contrary, brought up in the country, or whofe parents are poor, require two or three years longer ; becaufe their food is not only coarfe, but too fparingly given. In the fouthern regions of Europe, and in large cities, the females arrive at puberty about the age of twelve, and the males about fourteen. But, in northern climates, and in the coun- try, girls hardly come to maturity till they are fourteen, and boys not before fixteen. In the warmeft regions of Afia, Africa, and America, the age of puberty in females com- mences at ten, and fometimes at nine. After puberty, the Count de Buffon remarks, * marriage « is the natural ftate of man. A man ought to have but one < wife, and a woman but one hufband. This is the law of * Nature j for the number of females is nearly equal to that * of the males. Such laws as have been enaaed in oppofi- « tion to this natural principle, have originated folely from f tyranny and ignorance. Reafon, humanity, and juftice, * revolt againft thofe odious feraglios, in which the liberty * and the affeaions of many women are Sacrificed to the « brutal paflion of a fingle man. Does this unnatural pre- ' eminence render thofe tyrants of the human race more ' happy ? No ! Surrounded with eunuchs, and with women * who are ufelefs to themfelves and to other men, they are 1 tormented with the conftant appearance of that accumulat- 1 ed load of mifery they have created.' All animals, as well as thofe of the human fpecies, under- go, at the age of puberty, fimilar changes in the form cf their bodies, and in the difpofitions of their minds. From mild, placid, and gentle, they become bold, reftlefs, and un- governable. Their bodies are then, in ftrength and fymme- 272 THE PHILOSOPHY try, perfeaiy accommodated to the new fentiments which Nature, for wife purpofes, excites in their minds. In the deer kind, the horns of the males appear not till they are fit for multiplying the fpecies. At this period, the creft, the wattlfes, and the plumage of the male gallinaceous birds acquire additional beauty, and their courage and ftrength are greatly augmented. The pigeon, inftead of being queru- lous, timid, and voracious, whenever the age of puberty ar- rives, feels emotions of a very different kind. Confcious of the new vigour he has acquired, he aSIumes a bold and im- portant air. He Struts about with a majeftic pride, and im- mediately addreffes, with all the gaity of a lover, fome fav- orite female, whom he folicits with the moft afliduous gal- lantry and attention. After the coy female gives her affent, their after condua exhibits fuch a mutual and ardent affec- tion, and fuch a conftant fidelity, as afford no inconfiderable pattern to the human fpecies. With regard to fifhes, we are totally ignorant of the pe- riods when the different tribes of them acquire the power of multiplying. From the element they inhabit, from the ra- pidity of their motions, and from their defultory and wander- ing mode of living, we are equally ignorant of many other important parts of their oeconomy and manners. This con- tinues to be an ample field for future investigation, and high- ly worthy of the attention of naturalifts. The oeconomy and manners of infeas are more open to infpeaion. Thofe of the winged tribes undergo many chang- es, both in figure and ftruaure, before they arrive at the age of puberty. They firft efcape from the eggs in the form of minute caterpillars. In this ftate they are exceedingly vora- cious, and grow with rapidity to their full fize ; but they are deftitute both of the power and of the organs necefiary for the multiplication of the fpecies. They are next form- ed into chryfalids : In this ftate, their bodies are covere.« OF NATURAL HISTORY. 273 with a kind of cruft or Shell, from which the animals have again to efcape, as from a fecond egg. In this imprifoned condition, they remain during a longer or Shorter period, according to the fpecies, or to the feafon of the year in which they are transformed. After their transformation in- to flies, they burft this cruft or fhell, and appear in the forna of flies, furnifhed with wings, legs, feelers, &c. of all which they were deftitute in their former ftate. When transform- ed into flies, caterpillars have arrived at the age of puberty. They are now perfea animals, and endowed with the faculty pf tranfmitting a numerous progeny to posterity. 974 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER XI. Of Love. JL HE great intention of Nature, in endowing ah. moft every animal with a fexual attachment, is the multipli- cation and continuation of the refpeaive fpecies. But, with regard to man, and, in an inferior degree, to all pairing ani- mals, love is the fource of many other fbcial and important advantages. Love, or a ftrong affeaion for a particular wo- man, is to young men, perhaps, one of the greateft incen- tives to virtue and propriety of condua. In northern coun- tries, it feldom rifes to that degree of frenzy, which, in warm- er climates, not only engroffes the whole attention, but often totally unhinges the powers of the mind. In northern re- gions, however, it occupies more gently the imagination, gives a chearfulnefs and alacrity to the bufinefs or Studies of life, and, if reciprocal, diffufes over the mind and body a pla- cid happinefs, and a tranquility of difpofition, which greatly contribute to the health and vigour of both. A young man ?n love, thinks that the eyes of his favourite continually be- hold him. Through this amiable medium he views all his aaions, and even his thoughts. His affeaion and venera-* tion are fo great, that he is in fome meafure, deterred from regarding any other woman, and, what is of more import- ance, from indulging any loofe or irregular appetite. The difpofitions and affeaions of the female are the fame with thofe of the male. Her attention is completely engroffed ; and fhe never thinks or dreams of any man, but of him who is the objea of her affeaion. A young man and a young woman in love exhibit the moft innocent and the moft amia- ble piaure of human nature. Aauated by no interested OF NATURAL HISTORY. . 275 motives, and regardlefs of future contingencies, they obey the fupreme command of Nature. How much is it to be lamented, that, from the cruel, but perhaps unavoidable infti- tutions and cuftoms of civil focieties, it is fo often not only prudent, but neceffary, to check, and even to overcome, this powerful law of Nature ? Many are the advantages that mankind derive from fo- ciety and regular governments, and we fhould chearfully fubmit to thofe hardfhips and inconveniences to which they give rile. But every man, however fubmiffive to the laws of his country, muft regret that neceffity which makes them oppofe any of the laws of Nature, and efpecially the almoft irrefiftible law of love. In the prefent ftate of fociety, it muft be acknowledged, early marriages, among people iu the ordinary and dependent ranks of life, are extremely hazardous. When both parties are induftrious and oeconomical, fuch marriages are not only the moft natural, but are produftive of the greateft happi- nefs and cordiality. But the reverfe is dreadful! Children, Straitened circumftances, refentment of parents, whether real or affeaed, too often produce all the complicated miferies to which mankind, in their loweft ftate of degradation, can be fubjeaed. Among this order of men, therefore, it is of the higheft importance that the law of Nature fhould yield, for fome time at leaft, to the institutions of fociety, and to thofe prudential motives which parents learn from expe- rience to be ingredients effential to the comfort and happi. nefs of life. Men of fortune and of opulence have it in their power to obey the laws of Nature and of love ; and fome exam- ples, though few in number, occafionally happen of rich men aaing a disinterested part in their matrimonial engagements. Inftead of following the diaates of Nature, many men of fortune and independence, difregarding the high privilege 276 THE PHILOSOPHY they enjoy, facrifice their tafte, their paSfion, and often their" happinefs during life, at the Shrine of Gold. To accomplish this fordid end, they often embrace deformitv, difeafe, ignor- ance, peevifhnefs, and every thing that is difgufting to hu- man nature. Let fuch individuals fuffer their punifhment. But what are the confequences to the public ? Men of rank, in all nations and governments, not only regulate, in a great meafure, the manners of their inferiors, but are the natural guardians of the ftate. For thefe important purpofes, their minds Should be noble, generous, and bold ; and their bodies fhould be ftrong, mafeuline, fit to encounter the fatigues of war, and to repel every hoftile affault that may be made up- on their country. But, when men of this defcription, what- ever be their motives, intermarry with weak, deformed, puny, or difeafed females, their progeny muft of neceffity degen- erate. The ftrength, beauty, and fymmetry of their ances- tors are, perhaps, for ever loft. What is ftill more to be re- gretted, debility of body is almoft univerfally accompanied with weaknefs of mind. Thus, by the avarice, ambition, or .inattention, of one individual, a noble and generous race is completely deftroyed. By reverfing this condua, it is true, the breed may again be mended •, but, to repair a fingle breach, many generations, endowed with prudence and cir- cumfpeaion, will be requifite. A fucceffive degeneration, however, is an infallible confequence of imprudent or inter- efted marriages of this kind. One $)uny race may for fome time be fucceeded by another, till at laft their conftkut;ons become fo feeble that the animals lofe the faculty of multi- plying their fpecies. This gradual degeneration is one great caufe of the total extinaion of confpicuous arfd noble families. That it Should be fo, is a wile and beneficent insti- tution of Nature ; for, if fuch debilitated races were conti- nued, a univerfal degeneration would foon take place, and mankind would be unable to perform the duties, or to under- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 277 go the labours of life. Nature firft chaftifes, and at laft ex- tirpates, all thofe who aa contrary to her eftabliShed laws. Befide the pleafures refulting from fociety, and from mu- tual attachment in man, and in pairing animals, the natural love of offspring is a fource of the moft engaging endear- ments. The innocence and helplefs condition of infants call forth our pity and proteaion. When a little farther ad- vanced, their beauty, their fmiles, and their fprightlinefs, ex- cite the moft agreeable emotions. In their progrefs from infancy to manhood, we obferve with pleafure the unfolding of their mental powers. They imitate our aaions long be- fore they can exprefs their defires, or their wants, by lan- guage. Their attempts in the acquifition of language are extremely curious and amufing. Their firft fyftem of gram- mar confifts entirely of fubftanttve nouns. It is long before they learn the ule of adjeaives or of copulatives, and ftill longer before they employ the verb. Their fpeeches are Short, aukward, and blundering •, but they are animated, and uttered with aftoniShing force and vivajfity of expreffion in their eyes, and in the geftures of their bodies. At this period of life, children are folely aauated by Nature and imitation. After they acquire words fufficient for convey- ing the few ideas they poffefs, they begin to reafon, or rath- er to employ the language of reafoning ; for, at this period of life, children, when they mean*to give a reafon why they fhould have any indulgence or gratification, almoft univer- fally argue againft themfelves, and employ a reafon why their defires fhould not be granted. This ridiculous mode of reafoning excites laughter, and affords pleafure and amufe- ment to the parents. It likewife Shows, that our firft at- tempt toward reafoning is principally, if not folely, the eSfea of imitation ; for the reafoning power, at this period, is not fully unfolded, becaufe many human inftinas, or mental qualities, have not yet been called forth into aaion. But 278 THE PHILOSOPHY here I muft Stop. To do juftice to this interesting fubjea would require volumes. The love of offspring, which, though not univerfal, is per- haps the ftrongeft and moft aaive principle in human na- ture. It overcomes the fenfe of pain, and fometimes even the principle of felf-prefervation. A remarkable and a me- lancholy example of the ftrength of parental affeaion was lately exhibited, and, for the honour of our fpecies, deferves to be recorded. In the beginning of January 1786, the Halfewell Eaft Indiaman, Captain Richard Peirce, was un- fortunately wrecked on the coaft of Dorfetfhire. Befide fe- veral other ladies, Captain Peirce had two of his own daugh- ters on board. When the Ship was in the extremity of dan- ger, fome of the company, by fwimming, and other feats of aaivity, got upon a rock. In this dreadful fituation, Cap- fain Peirce afked Mr. Rogers, his third mate, if any plan could be devifed for faving the ladies ? Mr. Rogers repli- ed, «It is impoSIible ! but you may fave yourfelf.' Upon which the Captain, addrefling himfelf to his daughters, and enfolding them in his arms, faid, «Then, my dear children, < we Shall not part •, we Shall periSh together !■' Mr. Rogers quitted the Ship and reached the rock : An univerfal Shriek of defpair was heard, in which the voices of female diftrefs and horror were lamentably diftinguifhable. In a few mo> ments all was huflied ; the Ship, with every perfon on board, had then gone to the bottom. Parents chearfully fubmit to the hardeft labour, and expofe themfelves to the greateft dangers in order to procure nourishment to their young, or to protea them from injury. A bitch, during the operation of diffeaion, licked her young, whofe prefence feemed to make her forget the moft excruciating tortures ; and, when they were removed, She uttered the moft dolorous cries. Certain fpecies of fpiders kiclofe their eggs in a Silken bag fpun and wove by them- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 27S felves. This bag they fix to their back, and carry it along with them wherever they go. They are extremely nimble in their motions. But, when the bag is forced from a fpider of this kind, her natural agility forfakes her, and She falls into a languid State. When the bag is again prefented to her, She inftantly feizes it, and carries it off with rapidity. The young fpiders no fooner efcape from the eggs than they dex- teroufly arrange themfelves on the back of the mother, who continues for fome time to carry them about with her, and to fupply all their wants. Another fpecies of fpider attaches her bag of eggs to her belly. This fpider is likewife very. agile, and fo ferocious and determiued in the proteaion of her eggs, that fhe has been known to naffer death rather than relinquish them. The deer fpontaneoufly prefents herfelf to be chafed by the dogs, to prevent them from attacking her fawn. When the fox perceives that her young have been disturbed in her abfence, fhe carries them off, one after another, and conceals them in a new retreat. Wafps feed their young, when in the worm or caterpillar ftate, in the fame manner as pigeous and other birds that difgorge. The pigeon, after fwallowing grain, retains it for fome time in her ftom- ach, till it is foftened and macerated : She then difgorges, and throws it into the mouths of her young. J In the fame « manner,' fays Reaumur, « I have obferved a female wafp « fwallow a large portion of an infea: In a Short time after- ' wards, fhe traverfed the difterent cells of her neft, difgorg- « ed the contents of her ftomach, and diftributed food in this ' half digefted form to her young worms*.' All animals, man perhaps not excepted, acquire a double portion of force and courage after they bring forth. A cow, at leaft in a domeftic ftate, is a placid and phlegmatic ani- mal : But, whenever She produces a calf, a wonderful change is exhibited : She inftantly becomes vigilant, aaive, • Reaumur, torn. u. page 230, i2mo, edit. 280 THE PHILOSOPHY and even ferocious, in the defence of her young. A lioneft deprived of her cubs prefents the moft dreadful piaure of anxiety, rage, and rapacity. Defcending lower in the fcale of animation, the fame change is to be remarked. A do- mestic hen is a timid, indocile, and obstinately Stupid crea- ture. Though chaced, harraffed, and even put in danger of her life, fifty times in a day, fhe never learns to avoid a garden, or any particular place which fhe is accuftomed to frequent, or' to which fhe is led by her appetite for food. But, the moment her chickens are hatched, inftead of her ufual timidity, fhe becomes as bold as a lion. When fhe thinks her young are in danger^ fhe briftles up her feathers, affumes a fiercenefs in her eye, makes an alarming noife, and attacks, in the moft furious manner, and without diftinaion, every animal that comes near her. By the fuddenneSs of her onfets, fhe often alarms men, and aaually intimidates and beats off dogs and other animals that could devour her in an inftant. Though feveral of the infea tribes difcover a ftrong attach- ment to their young, yet all thofe which undergo transforma- tions, and do not form focieties, muft be completely ignor- ant of the exiftence of their progeny ; becaufe, in general, the parents die before the young are hatched. Nature, how- ever, has endowed thofe fpecies with an inftina which produ- ces all the effeas of parental affection : They uniformly depo- fit their eggs in fubftances which afford to the young, immedi- ately after their efcape from the egg, a nourifhment adapted to their refpeaive conftitutions, and a comfortable and fafe proteaion from injury. Thus nature, ever attentive to the continuation and happinefs of her produaions, however feemingly insignificant in the fcale of being, often employs very different means to accomplish the fame beneficent pur- pofes. Nature has unquestionably attached pleafure to all the ne- eeffary funaions of animals. But this pleafure cannot be OF NATURAL HISTOftT. 281 confidered as the original caufe of any particular aaion ; for the experiment muft be made before the animal can difcover whether the refult is to be agreeable or difagreeable. The truth is, that Nature has beftowed on the minds of all ani- mated creatures a number of laws or inftinas perfectly ac- commodated to the fpecies, and which irrefiftibly compel them to perform certain actions. The effeas of thefe laws we perceive : But the caufes, or the modes by which they operate on animal minds, are infcrutable. We may and muft admire, but we can never penetrate the myfteries of Nature. Bonnet, and fome other naturalifts, imagine they are ex- hibiting the caufes of that ftrong and mutual attachment be- tween parents and tkeir offspring, when they tell us, that, in man, and quadrupeds, and birds, the mother is fond of her young, becaufe their natural aaions give rife to agreeable fenfations; that, from the Structure of the mammae, a gen-r tie, but pleafant fenfation, is excited by the aaion of fuck? ing •, that the mother is often incommoded by too great a quantity of milk, and that fucking relieves her; that the young love their mother, becaufe She feeds, proteas, and corner municates to them a cherifhing warmth j that, among the feathered tribes, and particularly thofe which fit upon their young, by the gentle motions of the little ones, an agreeable fenfation is excited in the belly of the mother, which is then frequently deprived of feathers. All thefe fources of recip- rocal pleafure may be true : But ftill they are only effeas, and not original caufes, of filial and parental affeaion; for thai mutual attachment exifts the moment after the young ani- mals come .into the world, and, of courfe, previous to all ex- perience of titillation, of heat, of habit, or of any other cirr cumftances that may, perhaps, contribute to ftrengthen or prolong the exertion of the primary caufe, which muft re- main forever concealed from human penetration, 282 THE PHILOSOPHY In moft animals, except the human fpecies, parental and filial affeaion ceafe whenever the young are able to provide for themfelves. The pleafures derived from fucking, and from other circumftances formerlv mentioned, mi *ht for fome time remain ; but the young grow large, unwieldyj petulent, and enter into competitions for food, which not only contribute to alienate the affeaion of the parents, but even to excite refentment and averfion. Thefe, however, are only fecondary caufes. The purpofes of Nature are ful- filled. The ardour of affeaion, which was indifpenfably neceffary to the proteaion and rearing of the young, being now no longer ufeful, is fo totally extinguished, that neither the parents nor the offspring are capable of recognizing one another. This temporary and amiable inftina is obliterated, and never revives till the fervours of love are again felt, and a new progeny appear. Marriage or pairing, though by no means an univerfal in- ftitution of Natnre, is not unfrequently exhibited in the ani- mal creation. With regard to man, both male and female are inftinaively impelled to make a feleaion. The force of this natural impulfe is ftrongly felt by every young and un- eorrupted individual. When not reftrained by neceffity, or other powerful motives, men and women would intermarry long before it would be prudent in civilized or artificial ftates of fociety. This univerfal, and almoft irrefiftible impulfe of feleaion, is to me the Strongest argument in fa- vour of monogamy, or the union of pairs, among the- human fpecies. The fame impulfe, or law of Nature, takes place among many other animals, as the partridge tribes, the fwallow, the linnet, and, in general, all the fmall birds. The afliduity, at- tention, mutual affeaion, laborious vigilance, and fteadfaft fidelity of pairing animals, are truly admirable, and to inge- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 283 nuous minds, afford the moft exemplary admonitions to vir- tue and conjugal attachment. Belide this forcible impulfe of feleaion implanted by Na- ture in man, and in every other pairing animal, fome other facts defcrve to be noticed. In all pairing animals, including, of courfe, the human race, the males and females produced are nearly equal. This is a plain indication that Nature deftined thefe animals to pair, or to maray. Injuftice, jeal- oufy, animofity, and every animal calamity, would enfue, if this order of Nature were encroached upon in creatures who are endowed with the inftina of fexual feleaion. It is not incurious to remark, that human institutions often contradia the laws of Nature. The dunghill cock and hen, in a natural ftate, pair. In a domeftic ftate, however, the cock is a jealous tyrant, and the hen a proftitute. But, even in this unnatural fociety, a feleaion is fometimes to be ob- ferved. The fame phenomenon is exhibited among man- kind, when placed in certain fituations. Like domeftic poultry, the Turks, and fome Afiatic and African nations, influenced by an accurfed government, and by an execrable religion, rebel againft the law of love, and of reciprocal at- tachment. In thefe countries, a rich man not only engroff- es, but imprifons and tortures, as many beautiful women as his fortune enables him to fupport. Deftitute of all thofe endearments which arife from mental communication, from parental tendernefs and affeaion, from mutual confidence and folace, he is, while young, perpetually tormented with jealous apprehenfions. As he advances in life, his jealoufy and his terror augment. Though his females are ferupu- loufly guarded from every intrufion, by fervile and mutilat- ed wretches, his fears increafe with his years and debility, till a premature and comfortlefs old age puts a period to his infignificant and lifflefs exiftence. In general, it is to be remarked, that all thofe fpecies of ani- mals, whofe offspring require, for fome time, the induftry and 2&4 THE PHILOSOPHY fupport of both parents, are endowed with the inftina of fe lection, or of pairing. With regard to the feathered tribes, pairing is almoft univerfal. A diftinaion, however, as to the duration and circumftances of their pairing is to be ob- ferved. The young of all the fmall birds, as well as of moft of the larger kinds, continue for fome weeks in a weak and helplefs condition. The mother is not, like quadrupeds, provided with organs fitted to fecrete milk; of courfe, She is unable to nourish them out of her own body. She is therefore obliged to go abroad in queft of food for them. But the proge- ny are fo numerous, that all her induftry, if not afnfted by the father, would be ineffeaual for their fupport and protec- tion. In all birds whofe young are in this condition, the males and females not only pair, but each of them is endow- ed with the ftrongeft parental affeaion. Both are equally anxious and induftrious in procuring food for their mutual offspring. This parental care and attachment uniformly con- tinues till the young are fledged, and have acquired fufficient ftrength to provide for themfelves. Eagles, and feme other birds of prey, continue faithfully in pairs for years,and perhaps during life. Thefe faas afford a ftrong argument in favour of marriage among mankind. No animal remains fo long in the infant and helplefs ftate as the children of men ; and bo mother could, with her own induftry, poflibly fuckle and procure nourishment for a numerous family. Here, as in the feathered tribes, the affiftance of the father becomes indifpenfible. On this fubjea, a curious inftina merits attention. The male of moft birds not only feleas a fe- male, but, with great afliduity, brings food to her when fitting on her eggs, and often relieves her, by fitting on them himfelf. There are other fpecies of pairing birds, whofe young, as foon as they are hatched, are capable of eating their food when prefented to them, and of courfe, require lefs labour OF NATURAL HISTORY. 265 from the parents. In thefe fpecies, accordingly, the male pays no attention to the progeny, becaufe it is unneceffary ; but the mother carefully leads them about to places where proper food is to be had, proteas them from injuries, and communicates heat to them by covering them with her wings. Quadrupeds, efpecially thofe which feed upon grafs, do not paii ; becaufe, while the female gives fuck to her young, fhe herfelf is feeding. Befide, the young of this tribe, very foon after birth, can eat grafs and other vegetables. The Count de Buffon remarks, that the roe-deer, though they feed upon grafs, are to be excepted from this rule ; for they paif and have annually but one litter. Lions, tigers, wolves, and Other rapacious quadrupeds, do not pair. - The whole labour Of procuring food is devolved upon the female, which often Shortens her own life, as well as that of her offspring. In relation to man, this is a fortunate circumftance, for, if beafts of prey paired, a dangerous multiplication of thofe destruc- tive fpecies would be the confequence. But pairing is effen- tially neceffary to birds of prey; becaufe, during the procefs of incubation, the female would not have time fufficient for procuring food ; which, in thefe animals, requires both pa- tiende and addrefs. Some quadrupeds, particularly thofe which lay up provifions for the winter, as the beaver, pair. As foon as the young beavers are produced, the males aban- don the ftock of provifions to the females, and go in queft of food for themfelves. But they by no means relinquifh their mates ; but frequently return and vifit them while they are fuckling their young. If man, and fome of the pairing animals be excepted, the feafons of love are limited to particular times of the year. Thefe feafons, though various, are admirably adapted to the nature and oeconomy of the different fpecies. In all ani- mals of this kind, the feafons of love, and the times of fe- M M 288 THE PHILOSOPHY male geftation, are fo contrived by Nature, that the offspring when brought forth, are amply fupplied with the particular fpecies of food upon which they principally live. Though the times of geftation vary confiderably among fuch quadru- peds as feed upon grafs, the refpeaive females uniformly bring forth early in fummer, when the grafs is tender and luxuriant. The mare comes in feafon in fummer, carries eleven months, and is delivered in the beginning of May. Sheep and goats come in Seafon in the end of Oaober or be-» ginning of November. They carry five months, and pro- duce when the grafs begins to fpring. It is worthy of ob- fervation, that, though the times of geftation in the fame fpecies, and in all latitudes, never alter, yet the feafons of love, and times of delivery, vary with the climate. In Italy, fheep come in feafon in the months of June or July. The females, as ufual, carry five months, and bring forth in No- vember or December, the very period when grafs, in that climate, is in its beft ftate for pafture •, for, in April, it is burnt up, and fheep have nothing to browfe upon but Shrubs. The rutting feafon of the Stag is in the end of September and beginning of Oaober, and the female brings forth in May or the beginning of June. Thefe animals inhabit the higheft mountains of Scotland, where the grafs, of courfe, does not begin to fpring fo early as in the lower parts of that country. Beavers come in feafon about the end of au- tumn, and bring forth in January, when their Store-houfes are full of provifions. The young of pairing birds are pro- duced in the fpring, when the weather begins to be comfort- ably warm, and their natural food abounds. In a word, the bringing forth, or hatching, of all animals, not excluding the infea tribes, uniformly takes place at thofe feafons of the year when the nature of the weather, and the food peculiar to the fpecies, are beft adapted to the constitution of their •ffspring, Caterpillars of every kind are never hatched till OF NATURAL HISTORY. g.g7 the various plants on which they feed though they grow in different months, have put forth their leaves. We fhall conclude this fubjea, by giving a Table of the Relative Fecundity, &c. of Animals, which, in a fhort com- pafs, Solves a number of questions with regard to the natural hiftory of quadrupeds. It is taken from the eighth volume of the Tranflation of Buffon, to whofe authority moft read- ers will be inclined to give great weight. NAMES, Elephant Rhinoceros Hippopotamus Walrus Camel Dromedary Horfe Zebra Afs Buffalo Ox Stag Rain-deer Lama Man Large Apes Mouflon . Saiga Roebuck - Chamois Goat Goat TABLE OF THE RELATIVE FECUNDITY OF ANIMALS. Sheep Age at which Males can engender, and Females produce. MALE. Years, 15 or JO 4 4 2 2 3 2 2 3 '4 3 FEMALE Years. 30 lj or 30 if - 2 3 12 3 7 months - Times of gefta- tion, * years 9 months 1 year nearly idem 11 months 11 ditto. 11 do. and more 9 months 9 ditto. 8 do. and more 8 months 9 mouths 5 ditto. 5 ditto. 5 ditto, 5 ditto. 5 ditto. 5 ditto, Numb of young produced at a litter. 1 in 3 or 4 years, 1 1 - 1 - - 1 - 1 1, fometimes 2 1, rarely z 1; rarely 2 1 - - 1,rarely 2 1, rarely 2 1, rarely 2 1, fometimes 2 1, fometimes 2 1, fometimes 2 twice a year in hot climates' 1, fometimes % 1,2. fometimes 3 1, 2, rarely 3, 1, 2, rarely 3, & never above 4 1, iometimes 2 twice a year Age at which Males ceafe to engen- der, and Females to produce. *a GO 09 MALE. Years. lives 200 lives 70 or 80 lives 40 or 50 lives 40 or 50 at 2j or 30 at 25 or 30 at 25 or 30 lives 15 or 18 at 9 lives 30 or 3$ lives 16 at ia at 8 lives 15 or 20 lives 12 or 15 lives fto at 7 at 8 FEMALE. Years. at 18 or 20 at 18 or 20 at 25 or 30 at 9 at 12 at 10 or 12 H M s o en O at 7 at 10 or 14 NAMES. Seal Bear - Badger Lion - Leopard & Tig er 2 Wolf - , 2 Age at which Males can engender, and Females produce. MALE. i FEMALE. Years. Years. Doc in a natural ate 9 or io months Ifatis Fox Jackal Cat in a natural I before i ftate Martin - - Pine,Weafel - Polecat . Weafel - ift year Ermine - - idem Squirrel - I ikying Squirrel w 9 or io months before I ill year k!em - Times of gefta-« Numb, of young Age at which Males ceafe to engen- tion. 1 produced at a der, and Females to produce. litter. MALE. 1 Years. FEMALE, Years. feveral months a or 3 ditto. 1, 2, 3>4t»nd never above 5 ' lives 20 or 25 - 3 or 4 - - 3 or 4 once a year lives 20 or 25 - 4 or 5 once a year 73 days or mere 5, 6,to9,once a year at 15 or 30 at IS or 20 5S 1*. 63 days, - 3i4, 5> 6 at jy at 15 a 63 days, 6 and 7 In feafon in win- 3. 4.t0 6 at 10 or 11 at 10 or 11 ter,, and produ- £ ces in April M - -. - ■i, 3, or 4 , 3 56 days 4, 3> or 6 at 9 at 9 < j6 days, it is faid 3,4, and 6 at 8 or 10 at 8 or 10 'idftn. 3,4, and 6 at 8 or 10 at 8 or 1© idem 3.4.«dj gener, during life prod, during life - 3,4, ^d 5 idem idem - idem idem idem copulates in 3»M idem - idem March and produces in H May ex 3 0x4 NAMES. Hedgehog Dormice - Muik Rats . Opoffums - Hogs Armadillos Hare - Rabbit Ferret Rati Field Mice Moufe Brown Rat •uinea Pig Age at which "Males can engender, and Females produee. MALE. Years. i - - ift year I year or 9 mos. ift year , 5 or 6 months ift year idem idem idem idem 5 or 6 weeks FEMALE. Years, 1 ift year . 1 year or 9 mos. ift year 5 or 6 months ift year idem idem idem idem 5 or 6 weeks Times of gefta- tion. 40 day* 4 months , 30 or 31 dayi idem 40 days 5 or 6 weeks 1 month, or. s weeks • idem 3 weeks Numb, of young produced at a litter. 3, 4, and 5 3,4, and 5 ' 4, 5»or 6 4, 5t 6, and 7 io, 13, 15, to 20, twice a year 4 feveral times a -year z> 3> 4» feveral times a year 4, 5, to 8, fever- al times a year S, 6, to 9, twice a year <5 or 6 feveral times a year 9 or 10 feveral times a year 5 or 6 feveral times a year 12 to 19 thrice a year 8 times a year; ift litter, 4 or 5 j 2d, 5 or 6; and the others, 7,8, toil Age at which Males teaTe to engen- der, and Females to produce. MALE FEMALE, Years. Years. lives 6 at 15 lives 7 or 8 idem during life idem idem idem lives 6 or 7, and produces dur- ing life 8 at 15 X t« •w a >-. t-» o en O a •4 OF NATURAL HISTORY. in CHAPTER XII. Of the Transformation of Animals. I HE transformation of caterpillars, and of dif- ferent kinds of worms, into winged infects, has long excited the attention, as well as the admiration of mankind. But the truth is, that every animal, without exception, undergoes changes in ftru&ttre, mode of exiftence, and external appear- ances. Mmkind, from their embryo ftate, to their final diffolution, affume many different forms. Some weeks after" conception, the rudiments of a human being are to be per- ceived. As pregnancy advances, the approaches to the per- fect figure become gradually more diftinguifhable, till the period of birth. While in the foetus ftate, the head is di£ proportionally large, when compared with the other parts of the body ; nourifhment is conveyed to it by very differ- ent channels •, and refpiration is not neceffary, becaufe the circulation of the blood is not carried on in the fame manner as after birth. Even after birth, the form, fymmetry, and organs of the animal are by no means complete. The head continues for fome time to be difproportionally large ; the hands and feet are not properly fhaped ; the legs are crook- ed ; the hair on the head is fhort and fcanty ; no teeth as yet appear ; and there is not a veftige of a beard. In a few months, however, the fymmetry of all the parts is evidently improved, and the teeth begin to fhoot. The growth of the whole body, as well as the ftrength and beauty of its form gradually advance to perfection till the fixth or feventh year, when another change takes place. At this period, the firft fet of teeth are fhed, and are replaced by new ones. From boyhood to puberty, the fize of the body, and of its differ- ent members, increafe. When the age of puberty arrives. 492 THE PHILOSOPHY feveral important changes are produced in the fyftem of both males and females. The beard now makes its appear-" ance ; the dimenfions of the body, in moft individuals, are fuddenly augmented ; and both fexes become capable of multiplying the fpecies. From this period, to the age of twenty-five or thirty, the mufcles fwell, their interftices are1 filled with fat, the parts bear a proper proportion to each other, and man may now be confidered as a perfect animal. In this ftate of bodily perfection and vigour, he generally remains till he reaches his fiftieth year. Then a new but a gradual change begins to appear. From the fiftieth year to the age of feventy or eighty, the powers of the body decline in their ftrength and activity. The mufcles lofe their fpring and their force. The vigour of manhood is no longer felt; and the withered decrepitude of old age is fucceeded by death, its unavoidable confequence. The mind of man undergoes changes as well as his body. The tafte, the appetites, and the difpofitions, are in perpetual fluctuation. How different is the tafte of a child from that of a man ? Fond of gewgaws and of trifling amufe ments, chil- dren frolic away their time without much thought or reflec- tion. When advancing toward puberty, their difpofitions and defires fuffer a gradual mutation. New inftincts are un- folded, and a fenfe of propriety begins to be perceived. They defpife their former occupations and amufements ; and different fpecies of objects folicit and obtain their attention. Their powers of reflection are now confiderably augmented ; and both fexes acquire a modefty and a fhynefs with regard to each other. This aukward, but natural bafhful- riefs, by the intercourfe of fociety, as well as by the impulfes of Nature, vanifhes foon after puberty, when the ftate of manhood and of gallantry commences. From this period, to the age of twenty-five or thirty, men's minds affume a bold, enterprifing, and active tone. They engage in the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 29S bufinefs of life, look forward to futurity, and have a defire of marrying and of eftablifhing families. All the focial appe- tites are in vigour •, folid and manly friendfhips are formed ; and man goes on for fome time to enjoy every kind of happi- nefs which his nature is capable of affording. I wifh the next change had no exiftence. At fifty or fixty, the mental Dowers, in general, like thofe of the body, begin to decline, till feeble and tremulous old age arrives, and death clofes the mutable fcene of human life. With regard to quadrupeds, both before and after birth, they undergo fimilar, and many of them greater, changes of form than thofe of the human fpecies. Their mental pow- ers, likewife, their difpofitions and manners, as well as the objects of their attention, vary according to the different ftages of their exiftence. Many of them come into the world blind, and continue for fome time before they receive the fenfe of feeing. How many changes are exhibited in the dog from birth till all his members are completely form- ed, and all his inftincts are unfolded and improved by expe- rience and education ? The deer-kind acquire not their magnificent and beautiful horns before the age of puberty; and even thefe are annually caft off and renewed. Similar changes take place in quadrupeds of every denomination ; with examples of which every man's experience and recol- lection will readilv fupply him j and, therefore, it is unnecef- fary to be more particular. Neither are Birds, in their progrefs from birth to maturi- ty, exempted from changes. Like quadrupeds, many birds are blind for fome time after they are hatched. In this con- dition, how different are their form and appearances from thofe of the perfect animals ! At firft, they are covered with a kind of down inftead of feathers. Even after the feathers fhoot, they are often of a colour different from that which they acquire when full grown. The beautifully variegated N N ^'4- THE PHILOSOPHY colours of the peacock's tail appear not till he arrives at hfe third year *. Birds that have crefts, or wattles, live a con- fiderabie time before they acquire thefe ornaments, or marks of diftinction. All birds annually molt, or caft their fea- thers, in the fame manner as quadrupeds fhed their hair, the new pufhing out the old. Frogs, and many other amphibious animals, undergo great ehanges in their form and ftrudture. When it firft efcapes from the egg, a frog appears in the form of a tadpole, an animal with a' large roundifh head, and a compreffed or flat tail, but totally deftitute of feet and legs. In this ftate it re- mains a confiderabie time, when the two fore-feet begin to fhoot, and have an exact refemblance to the buds of trees. As thsir growth advances, the toes and legs are diftinguifha- ble. The fame procefs goes on with the hind-legs, only they are fomewhat later in making their appearance. Dur- ing the growth of the legs-, the blood being drawn into dif- ferent channels, the tail fuffers a gradual mortification, till at laft it totally vanifhes, and the tadpole is metamorphofed into a quadruped. Tadpoles never come out of the water ; but, after their transformation into frogs> they become am- phibious, and occafionally frequent both land and water. The cruftaceous tribes, as lobfters, crabs, &c. befide the dif- ferent appearances they affume while growing to perfection, eaft their fhells every year. When this change is about to happen, they retire into the crevices of rocks, or fhelter themfelves below detached ftones, with a view to conceal and defend their bodies from ihe rapacious attacks of other fifties. After the fhells are caft, the animals are exceeding- ly weak and defencelefs. Inftead of their natural defence of hard fhells and ftrong claws, they are covered only with a thin membrane or fkin. In this ftate they become an eafy prey to almoft every fifh that fwims. The fkin, however, * Linnaei Amoen. Acad, vol, 4. p. 368, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 293 gradually thickens and grows harder, till it acquires the ufual degree of firmnefs. By this time the animals have refumed their former ftrength and activity; they come out from their retirements, and go about in queft of food. Serpents, and many other reptiles, caft their fkins an- nually. The beauty and luftre of their colours are then highly augmented. Before cafting, the old fkins have a tarnifhed and withered appearance. The old fkins, like the firft fet of teeth in children, are forced off by the growth of the new. We come now to give fome account of the transformations of infeBs, which are both various and wonderful. All wing- ed infects, without exception, and many of thofe which are deftitute of wings, muft pafs through feveral changes before the animals arrive at the perfection of their natures. The appearance, the ftructure, and the organs of a caterpillar, of a chryfalis, and of a fly, are fo different, that, to a perfon un- acquainted with their transformations, an identical animal would be confidered as three diftinct fpecies. Without the aid of experience, who could believe that a butterfly, adorn- ed with four beautiful wings, furnifhed with a long fpiral probofcis or tongue, inftead of a mouth, and with fix legs, fhould have proceeded from a difgufting, hairy caterpillar, provided with jaws and teeth, and fourteen feet ? Without experience, who could imagine that a long, white, fmooth, foft worm, hid under the earth, fhould be transformed into a black, cruftaceous beetle, having wings covered with horny elytra, or cafes ? Upon this branch of the fubjedt, we fhall, firft, give an ex- ample or two of the moft common transformations of In- fects ; and, fecondly, defcribe fome of the more uncommon kinds. Befide their final metamorphofis into flies, caterpillars un- dergo feveral intermediate changes. All caterpillars caft or 296 THE PHILOSOPHY change their fkins oftener or more feldom, according to th$ fpecies. Malpighius informs us, that the filk-worm, pre- vious to its chryfalis ftate, cafts its fkin four times. The firft fkin is caft on the 10th, 11th, or 12th day, according to the nature of the feafon ; the. fecond in five or fix days after j the third in five or fix days more ; and the fourth and laft in fix or feven days after the third. This changing of fkin is not only common to all caterpillars, but to every infect whatever. Not one of them arrives at perfection without calling its fkin at leaft once or twice. The fkin, after it is caft, preferves fo entirely the figure of the caterpillar in its head, teeth, legs, colour, hair, &e. that it is often miftaken for the animal itfelf. A day or two before this change hap- pens, caterpillars take no food : They lofe their former ac- tivity, attach themfelves to a particular place, and bend their bodies in various directions, till at laft they efcape from the old fkin, and leave it behind them. The inteftinal canal of caterpillars is compofed of two principal tubes, the one in- ferted into the other. The external tube is compact and flefhy ; but the internal one is thin and tranfparent. Some days before caterpillars change into the chryfalis ftate, they void, along with their excrement, the inner tube which lined their ftomach and inteftines. When about to pafs in- to the chryfalis ftate, which is a ftate of imbecility, caterpil- lars feledt the moft proper places and modes of concealing themfelves from their enemies. Some, as the filk-worm, and many others, Ipin filken webs or cods round their bodies, which completely difguife the animal form. Others leave the plants upon -which they formerly fed and hide themfelves in the little cells which they make in the earth. The rat-tailed worm abandons the water upon the approach, of its metamorphofis, retires under the earth, where it is changed into a chryfalis, and, after a certain time, burfts. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 291 from its feemingly inanimate condition, and appears in the form of a winged infect. Thus the fame animals pafs the firft and longeft period of their exiftence in the water, anoth- er under the earth, and the third and laft in the air. Some caterpillars, when about to change into a chryfalis (fate, cover their bodies with a mixture of earth and filk, and con- ceal themfelves in the loofe foil. Others incruft themfelves, with a filky or glutinous matter, which they pufh out from their mouths, without fpinning it into threads. Others re- tire into the holes of walls or of decayed tree*. Others fuf- pend themfelves to the twigs of trees, or to other elevated bodies, with their heads undermoft. Some attach them- felves to walls, with their heads higher than their bodies, but in various inclinations •, and others choofe a horizontal pofition. Some fix themfelves by a glutert, and fpin. a rope round their middle to prevent them from falling. Thofq which feed upon trees attach themfelves to the branches, in? ftead of the leaves, which are lefs durable, and fubject to a. greater variety of accidents. The colours of the caterpillars. give no idea of thofe of the future flies. In general, the figure of chryfalids approaches to that of a cone, efpecially in their pofterior part. When under this form, the infect feems to have neither legs nor wings. It is incapable either of walking or of crawling. It takes no nourifhment, becaufe it has no organs fuited to that pirrpofe \ yet, in fome fpecies, life is continued for feveral months be- fore their laft metamorphofis takes place. In a word, it feems to be a lifelefs mafs. But, upon a more attentive ob- fervation, it poffeffes the power of bending upwards and downwards the pofterior part of its body. The fkin, or ex- terior covering, of thofe which do not fpin cods, feems to be of a cartilaginous nature. It is commonly fmooth and Alin- ing. In fome fpecies, however, the fkin of the chryfalis is pore or lefs covered with hair, and other rugofities. Though 2S>8 "FHE PHILOSOPHY chryfalids differ both in figure and colour, their appearances are by no means fo various as thofe of the caterpillars from which they are produced. The colour of fome chryfalids is that of pure gold, from which circumftance the whole have received their denomination. For the fame reafon they are called aureliae in Latin. Some are brown, others green ; and, indeed, they are to be found of almpft every colour and fhade. The life of winged infects confifts of three principal pe- riods, which prefent very different fcenes to the ftudent of Nature. In the firft period, the infect appears under the form of a worm or caterpillar. Its body is long, cylindrical, and confifts of a fucceffion of rings, which are generally membranous, and encafed within each other. By the aid of its rings, or of crotchets, or of feveral pairs of legs, it crawls about in queft of food ; and its movements are, in fome fpe- cies, remarkably quick. Its head is armed with teeth, or pincers, by which it eats the leaves of plants or other kinds of food. In this ftate, it is abfolutely deprived of fex, and, con- fequently, of the power of multiplication. Its blood moves from the tail toward the head. It refpires either by ftigma- ta or fmall apertures placed on each fide of its body, or by one or feveral tubes fituated on its pofterior part, which have the refemblance of fo many tails. In the fecond period, the infect appears under the form of a nymph, or that of a chry- falis. When an infect, after throwing off the fkin of the caterpillar, exhibits all its external parts, only covered with foft and tranfparent membranes, it is called a nymph. But, when to thefe membranes is added a common and cruftace- ous covering, it receives the name of a chryfalis. While in the ftate of a nymph, or that of a chryfalis, infects, in gener- al, are totally inactive, and feem not to poffefs any powers of life. Sunk into a kind of deep fleep, they are little affected with external objects. They can make no ufe of their eyes, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 29$ their mouth," or any of their members ; for they are all im* prifoned by coverings more or lefs ftrong. No cares occu- py their attention. Deprived of the faculty of motion, they remain fixed in thofe fituations which they have chofen for their temporary abode, or where chance has placed them, till their final metamorphofis into flies. Some of them, how- ever, are capable of changing place ; but their movements are flow and painful. Their blood circulates, but in a con- trary direction from what takes place in the caterpillar ftate ; for it proceeds from the head toward the tail. Refpiration continues to go on, but the organs are differently fituated. In the caterpillar, the principal organs of refpiration were placed at the pofterior part of the body; but now thefe fame organs are to be found at the anterior part of the ani- mal. In the third period, the infect has acquired that per- fect organization which correfponds to the rank it is to hold in the fcale of animation. The bonds of the nymph, or of the chryfalis, are now burft afunder, and the infect commenc- es a new mode of exiftence. All its members, formerly foft, inactive, and folded up in an envelope, are expanded, ftrengthened, and expofed to obfervation. Under the form of a worm or caterpillar, it crawled ; under thofe of a nymph, or chryfalis, its power of motion was almoft annihi- lated ; under the laft form, it is furnifhed with fix fpringy legs, and two or four wings with which it is enabled to fly through the air. Inftead of teeth or pincers, with which it divided a grofs aliment, it has now a trunk by which it ex- tracts the refined juices of the moft delicate flowers. Inftead of a few fmooth eyes which it poffeffed in the worm or cat- erpillar ftate, the new infect is furnifhed with both fmooth and convex eyes, to the number of feveral thoufands. The internal parts of the infect have likewife undergone as many changes as the external. The texture, the propor- tions, and the uumber of the vifcera, are greatly altered. $00 THE PHtLOSOPHY Some have acquired an additional degree of confiftence j Others, on the contrary, are rendered finer and more deli- cate. Some receive a new form, and others are entirely an- nihilated. Laftly, fome organs in the perfect infect, which feemed formerly to have no exiftence, are unfolded, and be- come vifible. The moft important of this laft kind are the organs of generation. The caterpillar, the nymph, and the chryfalis, were of no fex. But, after transformation, both v fexes are diftinguifhable, and the animals are capable of mul- tiplying their fpecies. We fhall now give fome examples of transformations which deviate from the common mode. Some infects hold a middle rank between thofe which preferve their original figure during life, and thofe that fuf- fer transformations. Their exiftence is divided into two periods only. They walk in the firft, and fly in the fecond. Thus their only metamorphofis confifts of the addition of wings, the growth and expanfion of which are performed without any confiderabie alteration in the figure of their bodies. There is not a law eftablifhed among organized bodies which feems to be fo univerfal, as that all of them grow, or augment in fize, after birth, till they arrive at maturity. If a hen were to bring forth an egg as large as her own body, and if this egg, when hatched, were to produce a bird of equal dimenfions with either of the parents, it would be con- fidered as a miracle. But the fpider-fly, fo denominated from its figure, affords an example of a fimilar prodigy. This fly actually lays an egg, from which a new fly is hatch- ed that is as large and as perfect as its mother. This egg is roundifli, is at firft white, and afterwards affumes a fhining black colour. Upon a more accurate examination, however, this production was found to be an egg only in appearance. When the envelope is removed, inftead of a gelatinous fub- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 301 ftance, the new infect, furnifhed with all its members, is difcovered. But this difcov ery does not render the fact the lefs wonderful. All winged infects undergo their different transformations after being expelled from the bodies of theii mothers, and receive great augmentations of fize before their metamorphofis into the nymph or chryfalis ftate, after which their growth ftops. But the fpider-fly affords an inftance of an infect transformed in the belly of its mother, and which grows no more after it efcapes from its envelope. This fact is fully authenticated by Reaumur*, Bonnetf, and other naturalifts. The worm from which the tipula or crane-fly is produced is perfectly fmooth. Immediately before its firft transfor- mation it retires under ground. After this metamorphofis, the furface of the nymph is fnrnifhed with a number of prickles. By means of thefe prickles, the nymph, when about to be transformed into a fly, raifes itfelf in its hole till the cheft of the infect is above ground. The fly then burfts its prifon, mounts into the air, and leaves its former cover- ing behind in the earth. Many fpecies of flies depofit their eggs in the leaves and different parts of plants. Soon after the egg is inferted into the leaf, a fmall tubercle begins to appear, which gradually increafes in magnitude till the animal is hatched, and has paffed through its different transformations. Thefe tuber- cles are known by the name of galls, and are very different in their form, texture, colour, and fize. Galls of every kind, however, derive their origin from the flings of infects, which generally belong to the clafs of flies. The female fly, by means of her fting, makes incifioas in the leaves or branches of a tree, and in each incifion fhe lays an egg. This egg is at firft extremely minute ; but it foon acquires • Reaumur, vol. 12. page 412. edit. iamo. f Oeuvres dc Bonnet, voL 4. page 28. edit, 8vo. O o 302 THE PHILOSOPHY a confiderabie bulk, and the gall has arrived at its full fize! before the worm is hatched. This gall feems to be analo- gous to the membranes which inveft a foetus, and expand in all directions in proportion to its growth. That the eggs of oviparous animals grow while in the ovarium is univerfally known ; but it is fingular that the eggs of gall-flies fhould grow after being feparated from the body of the mother. Thefe eggs muft undoubtedly be furnifhed with external vef- fels, or a kind of roots, by which they extract juices from the internal cavity of the gall. Malpighius afcribes the origin of galls to a corrofive liquor introduced by the fly into the wound. But Reaumur, to account for the growth of a gall, thinks it unneceffary to have recourfe to any fuppofed poifonous fluids, and attributes it to the fuperabundant nutri- cious juices derived to that particular part by the continual action of the abforbent veffels of the egg, joined to its heat, which may be compared to a little fi:e placed in the center of the tumour. Whether thefe caufes are fufficient to explain the growth of galls, we fhall fubmit to the judgment of the reader. But, that the eggs depofited by the flies augment in fize ; that worms proceed from them ; that thefe worms are nourifhed, and live a certain time imprifoned in the galls; that they are there transformed into nymphs or chryfalids; and, laftly, that they are metamorphofed into the winged infects, which, by gnawing an aperture through the gall, take their flight in the air ; are known and inconteftible facts, of the truth of which every man may eafily fatisfy himfelf. Examine the common oak-galls, or thofe of any other tree ; if any of them happen to have no a'perture, cut them gently open, and you are certain to find an egg, a worm, a chryfalis or a fly : But in fuch as are perforated by a cylindrical hole, not a veftige of an animal is difcoverable. The galls which make an ingredient in the compofition of ink are thick, and their OF NATURAL HISTORY. 303 texture is very ftrong and compact: That the fmall animals they contain fhould be able to pierce through fuch a rigid fubftance is truly wonderful. In the general order of Nature among oviparous animals, each egg includes one embryo only. A fingular fpecies of eggs, however, difcovered by the celebratad Mr. Folks, late Prefident of the Royal Society of London muft be excepted. He found great numbers of them in the mud of fmall rivulets. In fize they equalled the head of an ordinary pin. They were of a brown colour, and their furface was crufta- ceous, through which, by employing the microfcope, feveral living worms were diftinctly perceptible. By dexteroufly breaking the fhell, he diflodged them •, and he found with furprife, that eight or nine worms were contained in, and proceeded from the fame egg. They were all well formed, and moved about with great agility. Each of them was in- clofed in an individual membranous covering, which was ex- tremely thin and tranfparent. It were to be wifhed that the transformations of thefe extraordinary animals had been traced- Some caterpillars, when about to transform, make a belt pafs round their bodies. This belt is compofed of an affem- blage of filken threads fpun by themfelves, the ends of which they pafte to the twigs of bufhes, or other places where they choofe to attach their bodies. They likewife fix their hind legs in a tuft of filk. After transformation, the chryfalids remain fixed in the fame manner as before their metamor- phofis. The belt is loofe, and allows the chryfalis to per- form its flow and feeble movements. The whole moth-kind, as well as the fikworm, immedi- ately before their transformation into the chryfalis ftate, cov- er their bodies with a cod or clue of filk, though the nature of the filk, and their mode of fpinning, are very different. The cods of the filk-worm are compofed of pure filk. Their 30* THE PHILOSOPHY figure is generally oval, which neceffarily refults from that of the animal's body upon which they are moulded. When fpinning, they twift their bodies into the form of an S. The cod is produced by numberlefs circumvolutions and zigzags of the fame thread. The filk is fpun by an inftrument fitua- ted near the mouth of the infect. The filky matter, before it is manufactured by the fpinning inftrument, appears under the form of a gum almoft liquid, which is contained in two large refervoirs comtorted like the inteftines of larger ani- mals, and which terminate at the fpinning inftrument by two parallel and flender conduits. Each conduit furnifhes mat- ter for one thread. The fpinning inftrument, as is evident when viewed by the microfcope, unites the two threads in- to one. Thus a thread of filk, which has the appearance of being fingle, is in reality double, and fpun with great dexteri- ty. Some writers, who delight in the marvellous, afcribe forefight to the filk-worm in fpinning its cod. The filk- worm, it muft be acknowledged, acts as if it forefaw the ap- proaching event. But the truth is, that, when the animal has acquired its full growth, its refervoirs of filk are com- pletely filled. It then feems to be ftrongly flimulated to evacuate this glutinous matter. Its different movements and attitudes, while difcharging the filk, produce thofe oval bun- dles which clothe and ornament vaft numbers of the human fpecies. Another fpecies of caterpillar conftructs its cod in the form of a boat with the keel uppermoft ; but it confifts not entirely of pure filk. The animal, with its teeth, detaches fmall triangular pieces of bark from a bufh or a tree. Thefe pieces of bark it paftes upon its body by means of a gluti- nous or filky fubftance, and they conftitute a principal part of its cod. Another fpecies works alfo in wood, though not with equal art as the former. Its cod is compofed entirely of fmall ir- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 803 regular fragments of dried wood. Thefe fragments the ani- mal has the addrefs to unite together, and to form of them a kind of a box which covers and defends its whole body. It accomplifhes this purpofe by moiftening, for fome moments, the pieces of wood in its mouth, and then attaches them tov each other by a glutinous fubftance. Of this mixture the. caterpillar forms a cod, the folidity of which is nearly equal to that of wood. The moft folitary of all infects are thofe who live in the internal parts of fruits. Many of them undergo their meta- morphofis in the fruit itfelf, which affords them both nourifh-, ment and a fafe retreat. They dig cavities in the fruit, which fome of them either line with filk, or fpin cods. Others leave the fruit, and retire to be transformed in the earth. The metamorphofis of infects has been regarded as a hid- den operation, becaufe they often burft their fhell or filky covering quickly, and immediately appear furnifhed with wings. But, by more attentive obfervation, it has been dif- covered that the transformation of caterpillars is a gradual procefs from the moment the animals are hatched till they arrive at a ftate of perfection. Why, it may be afked, do caterpillars fo frequently caft their fkins ? The new fkin, and other organs, were lodged under the old ones, as in fo many tubes or cafes, and the animal retires from thefe cafes, becaufe they have become too ftrait. The reality of thefe encafements has been demonftrated by a fimple experiment. When about to molt or caft its fkin, if the foremoft legs of a caterpillar are cut off, the animal comes out of the old fkin deprived of thefe legs. From this fact, Reaumur conjectur- ed, that the chryfalis might be thus encafed, and concealed under the laft fkin of the caterpillar. He difcovered that the chryfalis, or rather the butterfly itfelf, was inclofed in the body of the caterpillar. The probofcis, the antenae, the 306 THE PHILOSOPHY limbs, and the wings, of the fly are fo nicely folded up, that they occupy a fmall fpace only under the two firft rings of the caterpillar. In the firft fix limbs of the caterpillar are encafed the fix limbs of the butterfly. Even the eggs of the butterfly have been difcovered in the caterpillar long before its transformation. From thefe facts it appears, that the transformation of in- fects is only the throwing off external and temporary cover- ings, and not an alteration of the original form. Caterpil- lars may be confidered as analogous to the foetufes of men and of quadrupeds. They live and receive nourifhment in envelopes till they acquire fuch a degree of perfection as enables them to fupport the fituation to which they are ulti- mately deftined by Nature. One would not readily believe that the excrements of a butterfly fhould be capable of exciting confternation in the minds of the people. Bu^ this event has frequently happen- ed in different places and nations. Among many other prodigies which have terrified nations, fhowers of blood have been enumerated by hiftorians. Thefe fhowers of blood were fuppofed to portend great and calamitous events, as \yars, the deftruction of cities, and the overthrow of empires. About the beginning of July, in the year 1608, one of thefe pretended fliowers of blood fell in the fuburbs of Aix, and for feveral miles round. This fuppofed fhower of blood, M. de Reaumur remarks, would probably have been tranf- mitted to us as a great and a real prodigy, if Aix had not then been poffeffed of a philofopher, who, amidft other fpe- cies of knowledge, did not neglect the operations and oecon- omy of infects. This philofopher was M. de Peirefc, whofe life is written by Gaffendi. This life contains a number of curious facts and obfervations. Among others, M. de Peirefc difcovered the caufe of the pretended fhower of blood at Aix, which had created fo general an alarm. About the be- of Natural history. 307 ginning of July, the walls of a church-yard adjacent to the city, and particularly the walls of the fmall villages in the neighbourhood, were obferved to be fpotted with large drops of a blood-coloured liquid. The people, as well as fome theologians, confidered thofe drops as the operation of for- cerersyor of the Devil himfelf. M. de Peirefc, about that time, had picked up a large and beautiful chryfalis, which he laid in a box. Immediately after its transformation into the butterfly ftate, M. de Peirefc remarked, that Lt had left a drop of blood-coloured liquor on the bottom of the box, and that this drop, or ftain, was as large as a French fou. The fed ftains on the walls, on ftones near the highways, and in the fields, were found to be perfectly fimilar to that on the bottom of M. de Peirefc's box. He now no longer hefitat- ed to pronounce, that all thofe blood-coloured ftains, where- ever they appeared, proceeded from the fame caufe. The prodigious number of butterflies which he, at the fame time, faw flying in the air, confirmed his original idea. He like- wife obferved, that the drops of the miraculous rain were never found in the middle of the city ; that they appeared only in places bordering upon the country ; and that they never fell upon the tops of houfes, or upon walls more elevat- ed than the height to which butterflies generally rife. What M. de Peirefc faw himfelf, he fhowed to many perfons of knowledge, or of curiofity, and eftablifhed it as an incontef- tible fact, that the pretended drops of blood were, in reality, drops of a red liquor depofited by butterflies. To the fame caufe M. de Peirefc attributes fome other fhowers of blood related by hiftorians ; and it is worthy of remark, that all of them are faid to "have happened in the warm feafons of the year, when butterflies are moft nume- rous. Among others, Gregory of Towers mentions a fhow- er of blood which fell, in the time of Childebert, in differ* ent parts of Paris, and upon a certain houfe in the territory 308 THE PHILOSOPHY of Senlis ; and, about the end of the month of June, anoth- er likewife fell under the reign of King Robert. M. de Reaumur remarks, that almoft all the butterflies which proceeded from different fpecies of hairy caterpillars in his poffeflion, voided at leaft one, and often feveral large drops of excrement, which had the colour of blood. The hairy caterpillar that feeds upon the leaves of the elm-tree, after its transformation, emits drops, the colour of which is of a more deep red than that of blood j and, after being dried, their colour approaches to that of carmine. From another caterpillar of the elm, which is larger, and much more com- v mon than the former, proceeds a butterfly, that, immediately after its transformation, emits a great quantity of red excre- ment. This fpecies of caterpillar, in particular years, is fo numerous, that it lays bare the whole trees in certain diftricts. Myriads of them are transformed into chryfalids about the end of May or beginning of June. When about to undergo their metamorphofis, they often attach themfelves to the Walls, and even enter into the country houfes. If thefe but- terflies were all brought forth at the fame time, and flew in the fame direction, their number would be fufficient to form fmall clouds, to cover the ftones, &c. of particular dif- tricts with blood-coloured fpots, and to convince thofe who wifh to fright themfelves, and to fee prodigies, that a fhower of blood had fallen during the night. Some of thofe hairy caterpillars which live in fociety upon nettles, likewife emit an excrementitious matter of a red colour. A thoufand ex- amples of the fame kind might be enumerated. Hence the notion of miraculous or portentous fhowers of blood fhould be forever banifhed from the minds of men. I would not have faid fo much upon this fubject, if I had not confidered it to be the duty of every man, when it is in his power, to remove popular prejudices, efpecially when OF NATURAL HISTORY. 309 they have a direct tendency to terrify the minds.of men, and to cherifh ignorance and fuperftition. We not only read of fhowers, but, what feems to be more unaccountable, of fountains running occafionally with blood inftead of water. Sir David Dalrymple, one of the Senators of the College of Juftice in Scotland, a gentleman not more diftinguifhed by his learning and deep refearch, than by his fcrupulous integrity and propriety of conduct, relates, in his Annals of Scotland*, upon the authority of Hoveden and Benedictus Abbas, that, in the year 1184, < A fountain near ' Kilwinningf, in the fhire of Air, ran blood for eight days « and eight nights without intermiffion. This portent had ' frequently appeared, but never for fo a long fpace. In the c opinion of the people of the country, it prognofticated the < effufion of blood. Benedictus Abbas, and R. Hoveden, ' relate the ftory of this portent with perfect credulity. Be- ' nedictus Abbas improves a little upon his brother ; for he f is pofitive that the fountain flowed vriihpure blood.' If Kil- winning, like Aix, had poffeffed fuch a philofopher as Peirefc, the rednefs of the water, if ever it did appear, would have received a moft fatisfactory explanation. Transformations are not peculiar to animals. All orga- nized bodies pafs through fucceffive changes. Plants, of courfe, are not exempted from mutation. What an amaz- ing difference between an acorn and a ftately oak ? The feeds of plants may be compared to the chryfalids of butter- flies. The feed, like the chryfalis, contains, in miniature, all the parts of the future plant. Thefe parts require only time, and other circumftances neceffary to vegetation, for their complete evolution. How different are the feed- leaves from thofe of the plume ? Befide the general chang- es arifing from growth, plants undergo a number of meta- • Vol. i. page 298. f A Scottilh village. P P 310 THE PHILOSOPHY morphofes from other caufes. In northern climates, if we exeept a few evergreens, trees, during winter, are entirely ftripped of their leaves. Inftead of the pleafant emotions excited by the variety of figures, movements, colours, and fragrance of the leaves, flowers, and fruit, during the fpring and fummer, nothing is exhibited in winter but the bare ftems and branches. In this ftate, the trees of the foreft have a lugubrious appearance, and remind us of death and of fkeletons. Very different are the emotions we feel in the fpring, when the buds begin to burft, and the leaves to expand. When fummer approaches, another beautiful change takes place. The flowers, with all their fplendour of colours, and fweetnefs of flavours, are then highly de- lightful to our fenfes. After performing the office of cher- iihing and protecting the tender fruit for fome time, the flowers drop off, and a new change is exhibited. When the flowers fall, the young fruit appear, and gradually grow to maturity, perpetually prefenting varieties in their magnitude, colour, odour, and flavour. When the fruit or feeds are fully ripe, they are gathered for the ufe of man, drop down upon the earth, or are devoured by birds and other animals. After this change happens, to which all the others were only preparatory, the leaves begin to fhed, winter commences^ and the fame feries of metamorphofes go on during the ex- iftence of the plant. The changes juft now mentioned are annual, and are ulti'- rhately intended to fupply mett and other animals with food. But plants are fubjected to changes of form from caufes of a more accidental nature. Varieties or changes in the figure of plants are often produced by foil, by fituation, by culture, and by climate. A plant is compofed of the bark, the liber or inner circle, the wood, and the pith. The calyx or cup, the carolla or flower leaves, the ftamina, and piftils, are only expanfions of OF NATURAL HISTORY. 31J the bark, the liber, the wood, and the pith. The petals of all flowers, in a natural ftate, are fingle. But, when trans- planted into gardens, many of them, efpecially thofe which are furnifhed with numerous ftamina, as the anemone, the poppy, the peony, the ranunculus, the daify, the marigold, the rofe, &c, double, or rather multiply their flower-leaves without end. This change from fingle to double, or mon- ftrous flowers, as they are called, is produced by too great a quantity of nutricious juices, which prevents the fubftance of the liber from condenfing into wood, and transforms the fta- mina into petals; and it not unfrequently happens, that, when thefe double flowering plants are committed to a poor foil, they become drier, are reduced to their natural ftate, and produce fingle flowers only. Plants which inhabit the valleys, when tranfported to the tops of mountains, or other elevated fituations, not only become dwarfifh, but undergo fuch changes in their general ftructure and appearance, that they are often thought to belong to a different fpecies, though they are, in reality, only varieties of the fame. Similar changes are produced when Alpine or mountain plants are cultivated in the valleys. From culture and climate, likewife, plants undergo many changes. But this fubjea is fo generally known, that to en- large upon it would be entirely fuperflous. We fhall only remark, that the older botanifts, when they perceived the fame fpecies of plants growing in a different foil, or in a dif- ferent climate, affume fuch different appearances, confidered and enumerated them as diftinct fpecies. But the modern botanifts, to prevent the unneceffary multiplication of fepa- rate beings, have~endeavoured to reduce all thofe varieties arifing from fortuitous circumftances to their original fpecies. From thefe facts, and many others which might be men- tioned, it appears, that, in both the animal and vegetable kingdoms, forms are perpetually changing. The mineral S12 THE PHILOSOPHY kingdom is not lefs fubject to metamorphofes •, but thefe be- long not to our prefent fubject. Though forms continually change, the quantity of matter is invariable. The fame fub- ftances pafs fucceflively into the three kingdoms, and confti- tute, in their turn, a mineral, a plant, an infect, a reptile, a fifh, a bird, a quadruped, a man. In thefe transformations, organized bodies are the principal agents. They change or decompofe every fubftance that either enters into them, or is expofed to the action of their powers. Some they affimu- late, by the procefs of nutrition, into their own fubftance ; others they evacuate in different forms ; and thefe" evacua- tions make ingredients in the compofitions of other bodies, as thofe of infects, whofe multiplication is prodigious, and affords a very great quantity of organized matter for the ndvvi foment and fupport of almoft every animated being. Thi.j, rrom the apparently vileft and moft contemptible fpe- cies of matter, the richeft productions derive their origin. The moft beautiful flowers, the moft exquifite fruits, and the moft ufeful grain, all proceed from the bofom of corrup- tion. The earth is continually bellowing frefh gifts upon us ; and her powers would foon be exhaufted, if what fhe perpetually gives were not perpetually reftored to her. It is a law of Nature, that all organized bodies fhould be decom- pofed, and gradually transformed into earth. While under- going this fpecies of tliffolution, their more volatile particles pafs into the air, and are diffufed through the atmofphere. Thus animals, at leaft portions of them, are buried in the air, as well as in the earth, or in water. Thefe floating particles foon enter into the compofition of new organized beings, who are themfelves deftined to undergo the fame revolutions. This circulation of organized matter has continued fince the commencement of the world, and will proceed in the fame courfe till its final deftruction. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 313 With regard to the intentions of nature in changing forms, a complete inveftigation of them exceeds the powers of hu- man refearch. One great intention, from the examples above enumerated, cannot efcape obfervation. In the animal world, every fucceffive change is a new approach to the perfection of the individuals. Men, and the larger animals, fome time af- ter the age of puberty, remain ftationary, and continue to. multiply their fpecies for periods proportioned to their ref- pective fpecies. When thofe periods terminate, they gradu- ally decay till their final diffolution. The fame obfervation is applicable to the infect tribes, whofe transformations ftrike us with wonder. The caterpillar repeatedly moults or cafts off its fkin. The butterfly exifted originally in the body of the caterpillar; but the organs of the fly were too foft, and not fufficiently unfolded. It remains unfit to encounter the open air, or to perform the functions of a perfect animal, till IB fome time after its transformation into a chryfalis. It then, burfts through its envelope, arrives at a ftate of perfection., multiplies its fpecies, and dies. All the changes in the vege- table kingdom tend to the fame point. In the procefs of growing, they are perpetually changing forms till they pro- duce fruit, and then they decay. Some plants, like caterpil- lars, go through all their transformations, death not excepted, in one year. But others, like man and the larger animals, befide the common changes produced by growth and the evo- lution of different organs, continue for many years in a ftate of perfection before the periods of decay and of diffolution arrive. But thefe perennial plants undergo, every year, all the viciflitudes of the annuals. They every year increafe in magnitude, fend forth new leaves and branches, ripen and diffeminate their feeds, and, during winter, remain in a tor- pid ftate, or fuffer a temporary death. Thefe annual chang- es in trees, &c. have fome refemblance to thofe of animal^ which produce at certain ftated feafons only, 314 THE PHILOSOPHY The diftribution of life to an immenfity of fucceffive indl, viduals feems to be another intention of Nature in chang- ing forms, and in the diffolution of her productions. Were the exiftence of individuals perpetual, or were it prolonged for ten times the periods now eftablifhed, life would be de- pied to myriads of animated beings, who enjoy their prefeqt limited portion of happinefs. y OF NATURAL HISTORY. 313 CHAPTER XIII. Of the Habitations of Animals. JVlANY animals, as we'll as thofe of the human fpecies, are endowed by Nature with an architectonic facul- ty. This faculty is beftowed upon them for a number of wife and ufeful purpofes. It enables them to conftruct pro- per habitations for concealing themfelves, for defending them againft the attacks of their enemies, for fheltering and cher- ifhing their young, and for protecting them from the injuries Of the weather. All animals of the fame fpecies, when not reftrained by acci-* dental caufes, uniformly build in the fame ftyle, and ufe the fame materials. From this general rule man is to be except- ed. Poffeffed of a fnperior number of inftindts, of which the reafoning faculty is a refult*, he can build in any ftyle, and employ fuch materials as his tafte, his fancy, or the pur- pofes for which the fabric is intended, fhall direct him. A cottage or a palace are equally within the reach of his pow-* ers. In treating of this fubject, we mean not to trace the progrefs of human architecture, which, in the earlier ftages of fociety, is extremely rude, but to confine ourfelves to that of the inferior tribes of animated beings. With regard to quadrupeds, many of them employ no kind of architecture, but live continually, and bring forth their young, in the open air. When not under the imme- diate protection of man, thefe fpecies, in rough or ftormy weather, fhelter themfelves among trees or bufhes, retire un- der the coverture of projecting rocks, or the fides of hills oppofite to thofe from which the wind proceeds. Befide thefe arts of defence, to which the creatures are prompted by • See Chap. V. Of Inftinft. £lG THE PHILOSOPHY inftinct and experience, Nature furnifhes them, during the winter months, with* a double portion of long hair, which protects them from cold, and other affaults of the weather. Of the quadrupeds that make or choofe habitations for themfelves, fome dig holes in the earth, fome take refuge in the cavities of decayed trees* and in the clefts of rocks, and fome actually conftruct cabins or houfes. But the artifices they employ, the materials they ufe, and the fituations they feletl, are fo various, and fo numerous, that our plan necef- farily limits U9 to a few of the more curious examples. The Alpine marmot is a quadruped about fixteen inches in length, and has a fhort tail. In figure, the marmots have fome refemblance both to the rat and to the bear. When tamed, they eat every thing prefented to them, as flefh, bread, fruit, roots, pot-herbs, infects, &c. They delight in the regions of froft and of fnow, and are only to be found On the tops of the higheft mountains. Thefe animals remain In a torpid ftate during winter. About the end of Septem- ber or the beginning of October, they retire into their holes, and never come abroad again till the beginning of April. Their retreats are formed with much art and precaution. With their feet and claws, which are admirably adapted to the purpofe, they dig the earth with amazing quicknefs, and throw it behind them. They do not make a fimple hole, or a ftraight or winding tube, but a kind of gallery in the form bf a Y, each branch of which has an aperture, and both ter- minate in a capacious apartment, where feveral of the ani- mals lodge together. As the whole operation is performed on the declivity of a mountain, this innermoft apartment is alone horizontal. Both branches of the Y are inclined. One of the branches defcends under the apartment, and follows the declivity of the mountain. This branch is a kind of aqueduct, and receives and carries off the excre- ments of the animals j and the other, which rifes above the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 317 principal apartment, is ufed for coming in and going out. The place of their abode is well lined with mofs and hay, of which they lay up great ftore during the fummer. They are fecial animals. Several of them live together, and work in common when forming their habitations. Thither they retire during rain, or upon the approach of danger. One of them ftands centinel upon a rock, while the others gambol upon the grafs, or arc employed in cutting it, in order to make hay. If the centinel perceives a man, an eagle, a dog, Or other dangerous animal, he alarms his companions by a loud whiftle, and is himfelf the laft that enters the hole. As they continue torpid during the winter, and, as if they forefaw that they would then have no occafion for victuals, they lay up no provifions in their apartments. But, when they feel the firft approaches of the fleeping feafon, they fhut up both paffages to their habitation j and this operation they perform with fuch labour and folidity, that it is more eafy to dig the earth any where elfe than in fuch parts as they have thus fortified. At this time they are very fat, weighing fometimes twenty pounds. They continue to be plump for three months ; but afterwards they gradually de- cline, and, at the end of winter, they arc extremely emaciat- ed. When feized in their retreats, they appear rolled up in the form of a ball, and covered with hay. In this ftate, they are fo torpid that they may be killed without feeming to feel pain. The hunters felect the fatteft for eating, and keep the young ones for taming. Like the dormice, and all the other animals which fleep during winter, the marmots are revived by a gradual and gentle heat: And it is remarkable, that thofe which are fed in houfes, and kept warm, never become torpid, but are equally active and lively during the Whole year. We fhall now give a fhort account of the operations and architecture of the beaver. This amphibious quadruped is 318 THE PHILOSOPHY about three feet in length, and its tail, which is of an oval figure, and covered with fcales, i9 eleven inches long. He ufes his tail as a rudder to direct his courfe in the water. In places much frequented by man, the beavers neither affo- ciate nor build habitations. But, in the northern regions of both Continents, they affemble in the month of June or July, for the purpofes of uniting into fociety and of build- ing a city. From all quarters they arrive in numbers, and foon form a troop of two or three hundred. The opera- tions and architecture of the beavers are fo well defcribed by the Count de Buffon, that we fhall lay it before our readers nearly in his own words. The place of rendezvous, he re- marks, is generally the fituation fixed upon for their eftablifh- ment, and it is always on the banks of waters. If the waters be flat, and feldom rife above their ordinary level, as in lakes, the beavers make no bank or dam. But in rivers or brooks, where the water is fubject to rifings and fallings, they build a bank, which traverfes the river from one fide to the other, like a fluice, and is often from 80 to 100 feet long, by 10 or 12 broad at the bafe. This pile, for animals of fo fmall a fize, appears to be enormous, and prefuppofes an in- credible labour*. But the folidity with which the work is conftructed is ftill more aftonifhing than its magnitude. The part of the river where they erect this bank is generally fhallow. If they find on the margin a large tree, v/hich can be made to fall into the river, they begin, by cutting it down, to form the principal bafis of their work. This tree is often thick- er than a man's body. By gnawing it at the bottom with their four cutting teeth, they in a fhort time accomplifh their pur- pofe, and always make the tree fall acrofs the river. They next cut the branches from the trunk to make it lie level. Thefe operations are performed by the joint induftry of the »5 hole community. Some of them at the fame time traverfe * The largeft beavers weigh, only 50 or 60 pounds. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 319 the banks of the river, and cut down fmaller trees, from the fize of a man's leg to that of his thigh. Thefe they cut to a certain length, drefs them into flakes, and firft drag them by land to the margin of the river, and then by water to the place where the building is carrying on. Thefe piles they fink down, and interweave the branches with the larger flakes. In performing this operation many difficulties are to be furmounted. In order to drefs thefe flakes, and to put them in a fituation nearly perpendicular, fome of the beavers muft elevate, with their teeth, the thick ends againft the margin of the river, or againft the crofs tree, while oth- ers plunge to the bottom, and dig holes with their fore-feet to receive the points, that they may ftand on end. When fome are labouring in this manner, others bring earth, which they plafh with their feet, and beat firm with their tails. They carry the earth in their mouths, and with their fore- feet. They tranfport earth in fuch quantities, that they fill with it all the intervals between the piles. Thefe piles con- fift of feveral rows of flakes, of equal height, all placed oppo- fite to each other, and extend from one bank of the river to the other. The flakes facing the under part of the river are placed perpendicularly ; but thofe which are oppofed to the ftream flope upward to fuftain the preffure of the water ; fo that the bank, which is ten or twelve feet wide at the bafe, is reduced to two or three at the top. Near the top, or thinneft part of the bank, the beavers make two or three Hoping holes, to allow the furface-water to efcape. Thefe they enlarge or contract in proportion as the river rifes or falls ; and, when any breaches are made in the bank by Hid- den or violent inundations, they know how to repair them when the water fubfides. Hitherto all thefe operations were performed by the unit- ed force and dexterity of the whole community. They now feparate into fmaller focieties, who build cabins or houfe. S20 THE PHILOSOPHY Thefe cabins are conftructed upon piles nea*%the margin of the river or pond, and have two openings, one for the ani- mals to the land, and the other for throwing themfelves into the water. The form of thefe edifices is either round or oval, and they vary in fize from four or five to eight or ten feet in diameter. Some of them confift of three or four ftories. Their walls are about two feet thick -, and are raif- ed perpendicularly upon planks, or plain flakes, which ferve both for foundations and floors to their houfes. When they confift of but one ftory, they rife perpendicularly a few feet only, afterwards affume a curved form, and terminate in a dome or vault, which anfwers the purpofe of a roof. They are built with amazing folidity, and neatly plaftered with a kind of ftucco both within and without. In the application of this mortar the tails of the beavers ferve for trowels, and their feet for plafhing. Their houfes are impenetrable to rain, and refift the moft impetuous winds. In their conftruc- tion, they employ different materials, as wood, ftone, and a kind of fandy earth, which is not liable to be diffolved in water. The wood they ufe is generally of the light and ten- der kind, as alders, poplars, and willows, which commonly grow on the banks of rivers, and are more eafily barked, cut, and tranfported, than the heavier and more fblid fpecies of timber. They always begin the operation of cutting trees, at a foot or a foot and a half above the ground ; they la- bour in a fitting pofture ; and, befide the convenience of this pofture, they enjoy the pleafure of gnawing perpetually the bark and wood, which are their favourite food. Of thefe provifions they lay up ample ftores in their cabins to fupport them during the winter. Each cabin has its own magazine, which is proportioned to the number of its inhabitants, who have all a common right to the ftore, and never pillage their neighbours. Some villages are compofed of twenty or twenty-five cabins. But thefe large eftablifhments are not OF NATURAL HISTORY. $n frequent ; and the common republics feldom exceed ten or twelve families, of which each have their own quarter of the village, their own magazine, and their feparate habitation. The fmalleft cabins contain two, four, or fix, and the larg- eft eighteen, twenty, and fometimes thirty beavers. As to. males and females, they are almoft always equally paired. Upon a moderate computation, therefore, the fociety is often compofed of 150 or 200, who all, at firft, labour jointly in raifing the great public building, and afterwards, in felect tribes or companies, in making particular habitations. In this fociety, however numerous, an univerfal peace is main- tained. Their union is cemented by common labours ; and it is perpetuated by mutual conveniency, and the abundance of provifions which they amafs and confume together. A fimple tafte, moderate appetites, and an averfion to blood and carnage, render them deftitute of the ideas of rapine and, of war. Friends to each other, if they have any foreign enemies they know how to avoid them. When danger ap- proaches, they advertife one another, by ftriking their broad tail on the furface of the water, the noife of which is heard, at a great diftance, and refounds through all the vaults of their habitations. Each individual, upon thefe occafions, confults his own fafety ; fome plunge into the water ; oth- ers conceal themfelves within their walls, which can be pene- trated only by the fire of heaven, or the fteel of man, and which no animal will attempt either to open or to overturn. Thefe retreats are not only fafe, but neat and commodious. The floors are fpread over with verdure : The branches of the box and of the fir ferve them for carpets, upon which they permit not the fmalleft dirtinefs. The window that faces the water anfwers for a balcony to receive the frefh air, and for the purpofe of bathing. During the greater part of the day, the beavers fit on end, with their head and the an- terior parts of their body elevated, and their pofterior parts 322 THE PHILOSOPHY funk in the water. The aperture of this window is fuffici- ently raifed to prevent its being flopped up with the ice, which, in the beaver climates, is often two or three feet thick. When this accident happens, they flope the fole of the window, cut obliquely the flakes which fupport it, and thus open a communication with the unfrozen water. They often fwim a long way under the ice. The continual habit of keeping their tail and pofterior parts of their body in the water, appears to have changed the nature of their flefh •, for that of their anterior parts, as far as the reins, has the tafte and confiftence of the flefh of land-animals j but that of the tail and pofterior parts has the odour and all the other qualities of fifh. The tail, which is a foot long, an inch thick, and five or fix inches broad, is a genuine portion of a fifh attached to the body of a quadruped : It is wholly covered with fcales, and below the fcales with a fkin perfectly fimilar to that of large fifhes. In September, the beavers collect their provifions of bark and of wood. Till the end of winter, they remain in their cabins, enjoy the fruits of their labours, and tafte the fweets of domeftic happinefs. This is their time of repofe, and their feafon of love. Knowing and loving one another, each couple unite, not by chance, but by tafte and a real felection. The females bring forth in the end of winter, and generally produce two or three at a time. About this period they are left by the males, who retire to the country to enjoy the pleafures and the fruits of the fpring. They return occafionally, however, to their cabins j but dwell there no more. The mothers continue in the cabins, and are occupied in nurfing, protecting, and rearing their young, which in a few weeks are in a condition to follow their dams. The beavers affemble not again till autumn, unlefs their banks or cabins be injured by inundations ; for, when accidents of this kind happen, they fuddenly collect their forces? and repair the breaches that have been made. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 323 This account of the fociety and operations of beavers, however marvellous it may appear, has been eftablifhed and confirmed by fo many credible eye-witneffes, that it is impof- fible to doubt of its reality. The habitation where moles depofit their young merits a particular defcription ; becaufe it is conftructed with pecu- liar intelligence, and becaufe the mole is an animal with which we are well acquainted. They begin by railing the earth, and forming a pretty high arch. They leave parti- tions, or a kind of pillars, at certain diftances, beat and prefs the earth, interweave it with the roots of plants, and render it fo hard and folid, that the water cannot penetrate the vault, on account of its convexity and firmnefs. They then elevate a little hillock under the principal arch ; upon the latter they lay herbs and leaves for a bed to their young. In this fituation they are above the level of the ground, and, of courfe, beyond the reach of ordinary inundatiqns. They are, at the fame time, defended from the rains by the large vault that covers the internal one, upon the convexity of which laft they reft along with their young. This internal hillock is pierced on all fides with Hoping holes, which de- fcend ftill lower, and ferve as fubterraneous paffes for the mother to go in queft of food for herfelf and her offspring. Thefe by-paths are beaten and firm, extend about twelve or fifteen paces, and iffue from the principal manfion like rays from a centre. Under the fuperior vault we likewife find remains of the roots of the meadow faffron, which feem to be the firft food given to the young. From this defcriptiori *■ it appears, that the mole never comes abroad but at confider- abie diftances from her habitation. Moles, like the beavers, pair ; and fo lively and reciprocal an attachment fubfifts be- tween them, that they feem to difrelifh all other fociety. In their dark abodes they enjoy the placid habits of repofe and of folitude, the art of fecuring themfelves from injury, of al- 324 THE PHILOSOPHY moft inftantaneoufly making an afylum or habitation, and of procuring a plentiful fubfiftence without the neceffity of go- ing abroad. They fhut up the entrance of their retreats, and feldom leave them, unlefs compelled by the admifiion of water, or when their manfions are demolifhed by art. The nidification of Birds has at all times defervedly called forth the admiration of mankind. In general, the nefts of birds are built with an art fo exquifite, that an exact imita- tion of them exceeds all the powers of human fkill and in- duftry. Their ftyle of architecture, the materials they em- ploy, and the fituations they felect, are as various as the dif- ferent fpecies. Individuals of the fame fpecies, whatever re- gion of the globe they inhabit, collect the fame materials, ar- range and conftruct them in the fame form, and make choice of fimilar fituations for erecting their temporary habitations; for the nefts of birds, thofe of the eagle-kind excepted, after the young have come to maturity, are forever abandoned by the parents. To defcribe minutely the nefts of birds would be a vain at- tempt. Such defcriptions could not convey an adequate idea of their architecture to a perfon who had never feen one of thofe beautiful and commodious habitations, which even aftonifh and excite the amazement of children. The different orders of birds exhibit great variety in the materials and ftrudture of their nefts. Thofe of the rapaci- ous tribes are in general rude, and compofed of coarfe mate- Hals, as dried twigs, bents, &c. But they are often lined with foft fubftances. They build in elevated rocks, ruinous and fequeftered caftles and towers, and in other folitary re- tirements. The aiery or neft of the eagle is quite flat, and not hollow, like thofe of other birds. The male and female commonly place their neft between two rocks, in a dry and inacceflible fituation. The fame neft, it is faid, ferves the eagle during Ufe. The ftrudture is fo confiderabie, and com- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 325 i>ofed of fuch folid materials, that it may laft many years. Its form refembles that of a floor. Its bafis confifts of flicks about five or fix feet in length, which are fupported at each end, and thefe are covered with feveral layers of rufties and heath. An eagle's neft was found in the Peak of Derby- fliire, which Willoughby defcribes iu the following manner: < It was made of great fticks, refting one end on the edge of < a rock, the other on a birch tree. Upon thefe was a layer ' Of rulhes, and over them a layer of heath, and on the heath < rufhes again ; upon which lay one young, and an addle egg; < and by them a lamb, a hare, and three heath pquts. The ' neft was about two yards fquare, and had no hollow in it.' But the butcher-birds, or fhrikes, which are lefs rapacious than eagles and hawks, build their habitations in fhrubs and bullies, and employ mofs, wool, and other foft materials. The birds belonging to the order of Pies in the ingenious Mr. Pennant's Genera of Birds, are extremely.irregular in conftru-Sling their nefts. The common magpies build their nefts in trees, and their ftrucmre is admirably contrived for affording warmth aud protection to the young. The neft js not open at the top : It is covered, in the moft dexterous manner, with an arch or dome, and a fmall opening in the fide of it is left, to give the parents an opportunity of pafling in and out at their pleafure. To protect their eggs and young from the attacks of other animals, the magpies place, all round the external furface of their neft, fharp briars and thorns. The long-tailed titmoufe, or ox-eye, builds nearly like the-wren, but with ftill greater art. With the fame ma- terials as the reft of the ftructure, the titmoufe builds an afch over the top of the neft, which refembles an egg wett- ed upon one end, and leaves a fmall hole in the fide for a paflage. Both eggs and young, by this contrivance, are de- fended from the injuries of the air, rain, cold, &c. That the young may have a foft and warm bed, fhe lines the in- R R 32« THE PHILOSOPHY fide of the neft with feathers, down, and cobwebs. The fides and roof are compofed of mofs and wool interwoven in the moft curious and artificial manner. In treating of inftinct, it was mentioned, that, in warm climates, many fmall birds fufpended their nefts on tender twigs of trees, to prevent them from being deftroyed by the monkeys. In Europe, there are only three birds which build penfile nefts, namely, the common oriola, the parus penduli- nus, or hang-neft titmoufe ; and another penfile neft, belong- ing to fome unkown bird, was lately difcovered by Mr. Pen- nant, near the houfe of Blair in Athole, in the north of Scot- land. ' In a fpruce fir-tree,' Mr. Pennant remarks, * was a ' hang-neft of fome unknown bird, fufpended at the four 1 corners to the boughs. It was open at top, an inch and a 1 half diameter, and two deep; the fides and bottom thick; f the materials mofs, worfted, and birch bark, lined with * feathers*.' • Mr. Pennant, in his Indian Zoology, gives the following cnrious account of the manner in which the motacilla futoria, or taylor bird, builds its neft. ' Had providence,' Mr. Pen- nant remarks, * left the feathered tribes unendowed with * any particular inftinct, the birds of the torrid zone would c have built their nefts in the fame unguarded manner as ' thofe of Europe ; but there the leffer fpecies, having a cer- ' tain prefcience of the dangers that furround them, and of ' their own weaknefs, fufpend their nefts at the extreme * branches of the trees : They are confcious of inhabiting a < climate replete with enemies to them and their young ; c with fnakes that twine up the bodies of the trees, and apes ' that are perpetually in fearch of prey ; but, heaven-in- ' ftructed, they elude the gliding of the one, and the activity 1 of the other. The brute creation are more at enmity with * one another than in other climates ; and the birds are • Pennant's Tour, vol. i, page 104. 3d edition. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 327 « obliged to exert an unufual artifice in placing their little 1 broods out of the reach of an invader. Each aims at the « fame end, though by different means ; fome form their « penfile neft in fhape of a purfe, deep and open at top, oth- «ers with a hole in the fide, and others, ftill more cau- «tious, with an entrance at the very bottom, forming their « lodge near the fummit*. But the taylor-bird feems to « have greater diffidence than any of the others : It will 1 not truft its neft even to the extremity of a flender «twig, but makes one more advance to fafety by fixing «it to the leaf itfelf. It picks up a dead leaf, and fur- ' prifing to relate, fews it to the fide of a living onef, < its flender bill being its needle, and its thread fome fine « fibres, the lining feathers, goffamer, and down. Its eggs « are white, the colour of the bird light yellow ; its length 1 three inches; its weight only three fixteenths of an ounce; f fo that the materials of the neft, and its own fize, are not 1 likely to draw down a habitation that depends on fo flight ' a tenure %.' Birds of the gallinaceous or poultry kind lay their eggs on the ground. Some of them fcrape a kind of a hole in the earth, and line it with a little long grafs or ftraw. It is a fingular, though a well attefted fact, that the cuckow makes no neft, and neither hatches nor feeds her own young, * The hedge-fparrow,' fays Mr.Willoughby, * is the cuckow's * nurfe, but not the hedge-fparrow only, but alfo ring-doves, ' larks, finches. I myfelf, with many others, have feen a ' wag-tail feeding a young cuckow. The cuckow herfelf ' builds no neft; but having found the neft of fome little '.* bird, fhe either devours or deftroys the eggs fhe there finds, • This inftinct prevails alfo among the birds on the banks of the Gambia, in Africa, which abounds with monkeys and fnakes : others, for the fame end, make their neft in noles of the banks that overhang that vaft river ; Pur- chas, vol,2,page 1576. f A neft of this bird is preferved in the Britifli Mufeum. t Pennant's Indian Zoology, page 7. 328 THE PHILOSOPHY *• and, in the room thereof, lays one of her own, and fo for- « fakes it. The filly bird returning, fits on this egg, hatches ' it, and, with a great deal of care and toil, broods, feeds, and f cherifhes the young cuckow for her own, until it be grown * up and able to fly and fhift for itfelf. Which thing feems < fo ftrange, monftrous, and abfurd, that for my part I cannot c fufficiently wonder there fhould be fuch an example in Na- * ture -, nor could I ever have been induced to believe that ( fuch a thing had been done by Nature's inftinct, had I not « with mine own eyes feen it. For Nature, in other things, 4 is wont conftantly to obferve one and the fame law and or- * der, agreeable to the higheft reafon and prudence; which in « this cafe is, that the dams make nefts for themfelves, if need c be, fit upon their own eggs, and bring up their own young ' after they ate hatched*.' This oeconomy, in the hiftory of the cuckow, is not only fingular, but feems to con- tradict one of the moft univerfal laws eftablifhed among ani- mated beings, and particularly among the feathered tribes, namely, the hatching and rearing of their offspring. Still, however, like the oftrich in very warm climates, though the cuckow neither hatches nor feeds her young, fhe places her eggs in fituations where they are both hatched and her off- fpring brought to maturity. Here the ftupidity of the one animal makes it a dupe to the rapine and chicane of the other; for the cuckow always deftroys the eggs of the fmall bird before fhe depofits her own. Moft of the pafferine or fmall tribes build their nefts in hedges, fhrubs, or bufhes ; though fome of them, as the lark and the goat-fucker, build upon the ground. The nefts of fmall birds are more delicate in their ftructure and contriv- ance than thofe of the larger kinds. As the fize of their bodies, and likewife that of their eggs, are fmaller, the mate- rials of which their nefts are compofed are generally warmer. • Willoughby's Ornithology, page 98. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 32$| Small bodies retain heat a fhorter time than thofe which are large. Hence the eggs of fmall birds require a more conftant fppply of heal than thofe of greater dimenfions. Their nefts, accordingly, are built proportionally warmer and deep- er, and they are lined with fofter fubftances. The larger birds, of courfe, can leave their eggs for fome time with im- punity •, but the fmaller kinds fit moft affiduoufly j for, when the female is obliged to go abroad in queft of food, the neft is always occupied by the male. When a neft is finifh-r ed, nothing can exceed the dexterity of both male and fe- male in concealing it from the obfervation of man, and of other deftructive animals. If it is built in bufhes, the pliant branches are difpofed in fuch a manner as to hide it entirely from view. To conceal her retreat, the chaffinch covers the outfide of her neft with mofs, which is commonly of th^i fame colour with the bark of the tree on which fhe builds. The common fwallow builds its neft on the tops of chim- neys -, and the martin attaches hers to the corners of win- dows, or under the eaves of houfes. Both employ the fame materials. The neft is built with mud well tempered by the bill, and moiftened with water to make it more firmly co- here ; and the mud or clay is kept ftill firmer by a mixture of ftraw or grafs. Within it is neatly lined with feathers, Willoughby, on the authority of Bontius, informs us,«That, * on the fea coaft of the kingdom of China, a fort of fmall ' party-coloured birds, of the fhape of fwallows, at a certain ' feafon of the year, viz. their breeding time, come out of {the midland country to the rocks ; and from the foam or ( froth of the fea-water dafhing and breaking againft the ' bottom of the rocks, gather a certain clammy, glutinous « matter, perchance the fperm of whales, or other fifhes, of ' which they build their nefts, wherein they lay their eggs, ' and hatch their young. Thefe nefts the Chinefe pluck < from the rocks, and bring them in great numbers into the 330 THE PHILOSOPHY * Eaft Indies to fell ; which are efteemed by gluttons great * delicacies, who, diffolving them in chicken or mutton broth, c are very fond of them, preferring them far before oyfters, 1 mufhrooms, or other dainty and lickerifh morfels which < moft gratify the palate. Thefe nefts are of a hemifpherical * figure, of the bignefs of a goofe-egg, and of a fubftance re- f fembling ifing-glafs*.5 Moft of the cloven-footed water-fowls, or waders, lay their eggs upon the ground. But the fpoon-bills and the common heron build large nefts in trees, and employ twigs and other coarfe materials ; and the ftorks build on churches, or on the tops of houfes. Many of the webb-footed fowls lay their eggs likewife on the ground, as the terns, and fome of the gulls and merganfers. But ducks pull the down from their own breafts to afford a warmer and more comfortable bed for their young. The auks, the guillemots, and the puffin? or coulternebs, lay their eggs on the naked fhelves of high rocks. The penguins, for the fame purpofe, dig large and deep holes under ground. It is not unworthy of remark, that birds uniformly pro- portion the dimenfions of their nefts to the number and fize of the young to be produced. Every fpecies lays nearly a determined number of eggs. But, if one be each day ab- ftracted from the neft, the bird continues to lay daily more till her number is completed. Dr. Lifter, by this practice, made a fwallow lay no lefs than nineteen eggs. The habitations of InfeBs are next to be confidered. On this branch of the fubject, we fhall firft give fome examples of abodes conftructed by folitary workers, and next of thofe habitations which are executed by affociated numbers. In feveral preceding parts of this work, and particularly jn the chapter upon Inftinct, the reader will find fome in- ftances of the fkill and induftry exhibited by infects for the • Willoughby's Ornithology, page 2jj. OF NATURAL HISTORY. ,331 convenient lodging and protection of their young. Thefe it is unneceffary to repeat. We fhall therefore proceed to give fome examples of a different kind. There are feveral fpecies of bees diftinguifhed by the ap- pellation of folitary, becaufe they do not affociate to carry on any joint operations. Of this kind is the mafon-bee, fo called becaufe it builds a habitation compofed of fand and mortar. The nefts of this bee are fixed to the walls of houfes, and, when finifhed, have the appearance of irregular prominences arifing from dirt or clay accidentally thrown againft a wall or ftone by the feet of horfes. Thefe prominencies are not fo remarkable as to attract attention ; but, when the exter- nal coat is removed, their ftructure is difcovered to be truly admirable. The interior part confifts of an affemblage of different cells, each of which affords a convenient lodgement to a white worm, pretty fimilar to thofe produced by the honey-bee. Here they remain till they have undergone all their metamorphofes. In conftructing this neft, which is a work of great labour and dexterity,- the female is the fole operator. She receives no affiftance from the male. The manner in which the female mafon-bees build their nefts is the moft curious branch of their hiftory. After choofing a part of a wall on which fhe is refolved to fix an habitation for her future progeny, fhe goes in queft of proper materials. The neft to be conftrudled muft confift of a fpecies of mortar, of which fand is the bafis. She knows, like human builders, that every kind of fand is not equally proper for making good mortar. She goes, therefore, to a bed of fand and felects, grain by grain, the kind which is beft to anfwer her purpofe. With her teeth, which are as large and as ftrong as thofe of the honey-bee, fhe examines and brings together feveral grains. But fand alone will not make mortar. Recourfe muft be had to a cement fimilar to the flacked lime employed by mafons. Our bee is unac- 832 THE PHILOSOPHY quainted with lime, but fhe poffeffes an equivalent in her own body. From her mouth fhe throws out a vifcid liquor, with which fhe moiftens the firft grain pitched upon. To this grain fhe cements a fecond, which fhe moiftens in the fame manner, and to the former two fhe attaches a third, and fo on, till fhe has formed a mafs as large as the fhot ufually em- ployed to kill hares. This mafs fhe carries off in her teeth to the place fhe had chofen for erecting her neft, and makes it the foundation of the firft cell. In this manner fhe la- bours inceffantly till the whole cells are completed, a work which is generally accomplifhed in five or fix days. All the cells are fimilar, and nearly equal in dimenfions. Before they are covered, their figure refembles that of a thimble. She never begins to make a fecond till the firft be finifhed. Each cell is about an inch high, and nearly half an inch in dia- meter. But the labour of building is not the only one this female bee has to undergo. When a cell has been raifed to one half or two thirds of its height, another occupation com- mences. She feems to know the quantity Of food that will be neceffary to nourifh the young that is to proceed from the egg, from its exclufion till it acquires its full growth, and paf- fes into the chryfalis ftate. The food which is prepared for the fupport of the young worm confifts of the farina or pow- der of flowers, diluted with honey, which forms a kind of pap. Before the cell is entirely finifhed, the mafon-bee col- lects from the flowers, and depofits in the cell, a large quan- tity of farina, and afterwards difgorges upon it as much honey as dilutes it, aud forms it into a kind of pafte, or fyrup. When this operation is performed, fhe completes her cell, and, after depofiting an egg in it, covers the mouth of it with the fame mortar fhe ufes in building her neft. The egg is how inclofed on all fides in a walled habitation hermetically fealed. A fmall quantity of air, however, gets admiflion to the worm, otherwife it could not exift. Reaumur difcovered b* NATURAL HISTORY. 333 thaj the air actually penetrated through this feemingly com- pact mafonwork. As foon as the firft cell is completed, the mafon-bee lays the foundation of another. In the fame neft fhe often con- structs feven or eight cells, and fometimes only three or four. She places them near each other, but not in any re- gular order. This induftrious animal, after all her cells are conftructed, filled with provifions, and fealed, covers the whole with an envelope of the fame mortar, which, when dry, is as hard as a ftone. The neft now is commonly of an oblong or roiindifh figure, and the external cover is com- pofed of coarfer fand than that of the cells. As the nefts are almoft as durable as the walls on which they are placed, they are often, in the following feafon, occupied and repair- ed by a ftranger bee. Though inclofed with two hard walls, when the fly emerges from the chryfalis ftate, it firft gnaws with its teeth a paffage through the wall that fealed up the mouth of its cell, afterwards, with the fame inflruments, it pierces the ftill ftronger and more compact cover which in* vefts the whole neft j at laft it efcapes into the open air, and, if a female, in a fhort time, conftructs a neft of the fame kind with that which the mother had made. To all thefe facts, Du Hamel, Reaumur, and many other naturalifts of credit and reputation, have been repeatedly eye-witneffes. From the hardnefs of the materials with which the mafon- bee conftructs her neft, from the induftry and dexterity fhe employs to protect her progeny from enemies of every kind, one fhould naturally imagine that the young worms were in perfect fafety, and that their caftle was impregnable. But, notwithftanding all thefe favourable precautions, the young of the mafon-bee are often devoured by the inftinctive dex- terity of certain fpecies of four-winged infects, diftinguifhedt by the name of ichneumon flies. Thefe flies, when the ma* ion-bee has nearly completed a cell, and filled it with par- \ 334 THE PHILOSOPHY vifions, depofit their own eggs in her cell. After the egg* of the ichneumon flies are hatched, their worms devour not only the provifions laid up by the mafon-bee, but even her progeny whom fhe had laboured fo hard, and with fo much art and ingenuity, to protect. But the mafon-bee has an ene- my ftill more formidable. A certain fly employs the fame ftratagem of infinuating an egg into one of her cells before it is completed. From this egg proceeds a ftrong and rapa- cious worm, armed with prodigious fangs. The devaftations of this worm are not confined to one cell. He often pierces through each cell in the neft, and fucceffively devours both the mafon-worms, and the provifions fo anxioufly laid up for their fupport by the mother. This ftranger worm is after- wards transformed into a fine beetle, who is enabled to pierce the neft, and to make his efcape. The operations of another fpecies of folitary bees, called wood-piercers, merit attention. Thefe bees are larger than the queens of the honey-bee. Their bodies are fmooth, ex- cept the fides, which are covered with hair. In the fpring, they frequent gardens, and fearch for rotten, or at leaft dead wood, in order to make an habitation for their young. When a female of this fpecies, for fhe receives no affiftance from the male, has felected a piece of wood, or a decayed tree, fhe commences her labour by making a hole in it, which is generally directed toward the axis of the tree. When fhe has advanced about half an inch, fhe alters the direction of the hole, and conducts it nearly parallel to the axis of the wood. The fize of her body requires that this hole fhould have a confiderabie diameter. It is often fo large as to ad- mit the finger of a man, and it fometimes extends from twelve to fifteen inches in length. If the thicknefs of the wood permits, fhe makes three or four of thefe long holes in its interior part. M. de Reaumur found three of thefe pa- rallel holes in an old efpalier poft. Their diameters exceed- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 335 ed half an inch. This labour, for a fingle bee, is prodigious; but, in executing it, fhe confumes weeks, and even months. Around the foot of a poft or piece of wood where one of thefe bees are working, little heaps of timber-duft are always found lying on the ground. Thefe heaps daily increafe in magnitude, and the particles of duft are as large as thofe produced by a hand-faw. The two teeth with which the animal is provided are the only inflruments fhe employs in making fuch confiderabie perforations. Each tooth confifts of a folid piece of fhell, which in fhape refembles an auger. It is convex above, concave below, and terminates in a fharp but ftrong point. Thefe long holes are defigned for lodgings to the worms that are to proceed from the eggs which the bee is foon to depofit in them. But, after the holes are finifhed, her la- lour is by no means at an end. The eggs muft not be min- gled, or piled above each other. Every feparate worm muft have a diftindt apartment, without any communication with the others. Each long hole or tybe, accordingly, is only the outer walls of a houfe which is to confift of many cham- bers ranged one above another. A hole of about twelve inches in length fhe divides into ten or twelve feparate ap- artments, each of which is about an inch high. The roof of the loweft room is the floor of the fecond, and fo on to the uppermoft. Each floor is about the thicknefs of a French crown. The floors or divifions are compofed of particles of wood cemented together by a glutinous fubftance from the animal's mouth. In making a floor, fhe commences with gluing an annular plate of wood-duft round the internal cir- cumference of the cavity. To this plate fhe attaches a fec- ond, to the fecond a third, and to the third a fourth, till the whole floor is completed. The undermoft cell requires only a roof, and this roof is a floor to the fecond, 8?c. 336 THE PHILOSOPHT We have hitherto defcribed the wonderful affidulty of this animal in conftructing her cells. But this operation, though great, and feemingly fuperior to the powers of a creature fo fmall, is not her only labour. Before roofing in the firft cell, fhe fills it with a pafte or pap, compofed of the farina of flowers moiftened with honey. The quantity of pafte is equal to the dimenfions of the cell, which is about an inch high, and half an inch in diameter. Into this pafte, which is to nourifh the future worm, fhe depofits an egg. Immediately after this operation, fhe begins to form a roof, which not only inclofes the firft cell, but ferves as a floor to the fecond. The fecond cell fhe likewife fills with pafte, depofits an egg, and then covers the whole with another roof. In this manner fhe proceeds, till fhe has divided the whole tube into feparate cells. A fingle tube frequently contains from ten to a dozen of thefe cells. When the cells are all inclofed, the bufinefs of this laborious bee is finifhed, and fhe takes no more charge of her future progeny. The attention and folicitude beftowed by many other animals, in rearing their young, are exerted after birth. But, in the wood- piercing bee, as well as in many other infects, this inftinctive attachment is reverfed. All her labours and all her cares are exerted before fhe either fees her offspring, or knows, that they are to exift. But, after the defcription that has been given of her amazing operations, fhe will not be confid- ered as an unnatural mother. With aftonifhing induftry and perfeverance, fhe not only furnifhes her young with fafe and convenient lodgings, but lays up for them ftores of pro- vifions fufficient to fupport them till their final metamorpho- fis into flies, when the new females perform the fame almoft incredible operations for the protection and fuftenance of their own offspring. When the young worm is hatched, it has fcarcely fufficient fpace to turn itfelf in the cell, which is almoft entirely filled with the pappy fubftance formerly / OF NATURAL HISTORY. 33? mentioned. But, as this fubftance is gradually devoured by the worm, the fpace in the cell neceffarily enlarges in propor- tion to the growth and magnitude of the animal. We are informed by M. de Reaumur*, that Mr. Pitot furnifhed him with a piece of wood, not exceeding an inch and a half in diameter, which contained the cells of a wood- piercing bee. He cut off as much of the wood as was fuffi- cient to expofe two of the cells to view, in each of which was a worm. The aperture he had made, to prevent the in- juries of the air, he clofed, by patting on it a bit of glafs. The cells were then almoft entirely filled with pafte. The two worms were exceedingly fmall, and, of courfe) occupied but little fpace between the walls of the cells and the mafs of pafte. As the animals increafed in fize, the pafte* daily di- minifhed. He began to obferve them on the 12th day of June ; and, on the 27th of the fame month, the pafte in each cell was nearly confumed, and the worm, folded in two, occu- pied the greater part of its habitation. On the 2d of July^ the provifions of both worms were entirely exhaufted ; and, befide the worms themfelves, there remained in the cells. only a few fmall, black, oblong grains of excrement. The five or fix following days they failed, which feemed to be a neceffary abftinence, during which they were greatly agitat- ed. They often bended-4:heir bodies, and elevated and de- preffed their heads. Thefe movements were preparatory to the great change the animals were about to undergo. Be- tween the 7th and 8th of the fame month, they threw off their fkins, and were metamorphofed into nymphs. On the 30th of July, thefe nymphs were transformed into flies fimi- lar to their parents. In a range of cells, the worms are of different ages, and, of courfe, of different fizes. Thofe in the lower cells are older than thofe in the fuperior ; be- caufe, after the bee has filled with pafte and enclofed its firft/ * Tom. n, page 58. xamo edition. ,. »• 333 THE PHILOSOPHY cell, a confiderabie time is requifite to collect provifions, and to form partitions for every fucceffive and fuperior cell. The former, therefore, muft be transformed into nymphs and flies before the latter. Thefe circumftances are apparently forefeen by the common mother ; for, if the undermoft worm, which is oldeft, and fooneft transformed, were to force its way upward, which it could eafily do, it would not only difturb, but infallibly deftroy all thofe lodged in the fu- perior cells. But Nature has wifely prevented this devaftar tionj for the head of the nymph, andconfequentlyof thefly, is always placed in a downward direction. Its firft inftinctive movements muft, therefore, be in the fame direction. That the young flies may efcape from their refpective cells, the moth- er digs a hole at the bottom of the long tube, which makes a communication with the undermoft cell and the open air. Sometimes a fimilar paflage is made near the middle of the tube. By this contrivance, as all the flies inftinctively en- deavour to cut their way downward, they find an eafy and convenient paffage ; for they have only to pierce the floor of their cells, which they readily perform with their teeth. Another fmall fpecies of folitary bees dig holes in the earth to make a convenient habitation for their young. Their nefts are compofed of cylindrical cells fixed to one another, and each of them, in figure, refembles a thimble. Their bottom, of courfe, is convex and rounded. The bot- tom of the fecond is inferted into the entry of the firft ; and the entry of the fecond receives the bottom of the third. They are not all of the fame length. Some of them are five lines long, others only four, and their diameters feldom ex- ceed two lines. Sometimes only two of thefe cells are join- ed together; and, at other times, we find three or four, which form a kind of cylinder. This cylinder is compofed pf alternate bands of two different colours: Thofe of the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 33* narroweft, at the juncture of two cells, are white, and thofe of the broad eft are of a reddifh brown. The cells confift of a number of fine membranes, formed of a glutinous and tranfparent fubftance from the animal's mouth. Each cell our bee fills with the farina of flowers diluted with honey, and in this pafte fhe depofits an egg. She then covers the cell, by gluing to its mouth a fine cellular fubftance taken from the leaves of fome plant •, and in this manner fhe pro- ceeds till her cylindrical neft is completed. The worms which are hatched from the eggs feed upon the pafte, fo carefully laid up for them by the mother, till they are trans- formed into flies fimilar to their parents. Among wafps, as well as bees, there are folitary fpecies, which carry on no joint operations. Thefe folitary wafps are not lefs ingenious^in conftructing proper habitations for their young, nor lefs provident in laying up for them a ftore of nourifhment fufficient to fupport them till they are tranf- formed into flies, or have become perfect animals*. But, to give a detailed defcription of their operations would lead us into a prolixity of which the plan of our work does not admit. On this fubject, however, it cannot efcape obfervation, that all the fagacity and laborious induftry exerted in the various inftances of animal architecture above defcribed, have one uniform tendency. They are defigned for the multiplica- tion, protection, and nourifhment of offspring. But many of them are fo artful, and require fuch perfevering labour, that the human mind is bewildered when it attempts to account for them. If we attend to the operations of quadrupeds, of birds, and of infects, moft of them, like pregnant women, feem to know, from their own feelings, and forefight, not only their prefent condition, but what futurity is to produce. To folve this problem, recourfe has been had by Des Cartes, ky Buffon, and by other philofophers, to conformation of * See page li$. 340 THE PHILOSOPHY body and mechanical impulfe* Their reafonings, however, though often ingenious, involve the fubject in tenfold obfcur- ity. We can hardly fuppofe that the animals actually fore- fee what is to happen, becaufe, at firft, they have not had even the aid of experience ; and, particularly in fome of the infect tribes, the parents are dead before their young are produced. Pure inftincts of this kind, therefore, muft be re- ferred to another fource. In a chain of reafoning concern- ing the operations of Nature, fuch is the conftitution of our minds, that we are under the neceffity of reforting to an ulti- mate caufe. What that caufe is, it is the higheft prefump- tion in man to pretend to define. But, though we muft for- ever remain ignorantof the caufe, we are enabled to trace,and even to underftand, partially, fome of the effects ; and, from thefe effects, we perceive the moft confummate wifdom, the moft elegant and perfect contrivances to accomplifh the mul- tifarious and wonderful intentions of Nature. In contemplat- ing the operations of animals, from man down to the feem- ingly moft contemptible infect, we are neceffarily compelled to refer them to pure inctincts, or original qualities of mind, Variegated by Nature according as the neceffities, preferva- tion, and continuation of the different fpecies require. Let any man try to proceed a flep farther, and, however he may deceive himfelf, and flatter his own vanity, he muft find, at laft, that he is clouded in obfcurity, and that men who have a more correct and unprejudiced mode of thinking will brand him with abfurdity, and of acting in direct oppofition to the Conftitution and frame of the human mind. I fhall now give fome examples of the operations of affb- ciating infects, who conftruct habitations by exerting a com- mon and a mutual labour. The fkill and dexterity of the honey-bees, difplayed in the confirmation of their combs or nefts, have at all times called forth the admiration of mankind. They are compofed of OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3*1 cells regularly applied to each others fides. Thefe cells are uniform hexagons or fix-fided figures. In a bee-hive, every part is arranged with fuch fymmetry, and fo finely finifhed, that, if limited to the fame materials, the moft expert work- man would find" himfelf unqualified to conftruct a fimilar habitation, or rather a fimilar city. Moft Natural Hiftorians have celebrated bees for their wifdom, for the perfection and harmony of their republican government, and for their perfevering induftry and wonderful oeconomy. All thefe fplendid talents, however, the late in- genious Count de Buffon has endeavoured to perfuade us, are only refults of pure mechanifm. But this is not the proper place to enter into a difcuflion of this point. It will fall more naturally to be treated of when we come to de- fcribe the focieties eftablifhed among different gregarious animals. We fhall therefore, at prefent, confine ourfelves chiefly to the mode in which bees conftruct their habita- tions. In the formation of their combs, bees feem to refolve a problem which would not be a little puzzling to fome geo- meters, namely, a quantity of wax being given, to make o£ it equal and fimilar cells of a determined capacity, but of the largeft fize in proportion to the quantity of matter employed, and difpofed of in fuch a manner as to occupy in the hive the leaft poffible fpace. Every part of this problem is com- pletely executed by the bees. By applying hexagonal cells to each other's fides, no void fpaces are left between them ; and, though the fame end might be accomplifhed by other figures, yet they would neceffarily require a greater quantity of wax. Befides, hexagonal cells are better fitted to receive the cylindrical bodies of thefe infects. A comb confifts of two ftrata of cells applied to each other's ends. This arrange- ment both faves room in the hive, and gives a double entry into the cells of which the comb is compofed. As a farther T T 342 THE PHILOSOPHY faving of wax, and preventing void fpaces, the bafes of the cells in one ftratum of a comb ferve for bafes to the oppofite ftratum. In a word, the more minutely the conftrudtion of thefe cells are examined, the more will the admiration of the obferver. be excited. The walls of the cells are fo extremely thin, that their mouths would be in danger of fuffering by the frequent entering and iffuing of the bees. To prevent this difafter, they make a kind of ring round the margin of each cell, and this ring is three or four times thicker than the walls. It is difficult to perceive, even with the affiftance of glafs- hives, the manner in which bees operate when conftrucling their cells. They are fo eager to afford mutual affiftance, and, for this purpofe, fo nv>ny of them crowd together, and are perpetually fucceeding each other, that their individual operations can feldom be diftindtly obferved. It has^ how- ever, been plainly difcovered, that their two teeth are the on- ly inflruments they employ in modelling and polifhing the wax. With a little patience and attention, we perceive cells juft begun : We likewife remark the quicknefs with which a bee moves its teeth aga-nft a fmall portion of the cell. This •portion the animal, by repeated ftrokes on each fide, fmooths, renders compact, and reduces to a proper thinnefs of con- fiftence. While fome of the hive are lengthening their hexagonal tubes, others are laying the foundations of new ones. In certain circumftances, when extremely hurried, they do not complete their new cells, but leave them imper- fect till they have begun a number fufficient for their prefent exigencies. When a bee puts its head a little way into a cell, we eafily perceive it fcraping the walls with the points of its teeth, in order to detach fuch ufelefs and irregular fragments as may have been left in the work. Of thefe fragments the bee forms a ball about the fize of a pin-head, comes out of the cell, and carries this wax to another part of the work where it is needed. It no fooner leaves the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 343 cell than it is fucceeded by another bee, which performs the fame office, and in this manner the work is fucceffively carried on till the cell is completely polifhed. The cells of bees are defigned for different purpofes. Some of them are employed for the accumulation and pre- fervation of honey. In others, the female depofits her eggs, and from thefe eggs worms are hatched, which remain in the cells till their final transformation into flies. The drones 1 or males are larger than the common or working bees ; and the queen, or mother of the hive, is much larger than either. A cell deftined for the lodgment of a male or female worm muft, therefore, be confiderably larger than the cells of the fmaller working bees. The number of cells deftined for the reception of the working bees far exceeds thofe in which the males are lodged. The honey-cells are always made deeper and more capacious than the others. Wrhen the honey col- lected is fo abundant that the veffels cannot contain it, the bees lengthen, and of courfe deepen the honey-cells. The'.r mode of working, und the difpofition and divifion of their labour, when piit into an empty hive, do much hon- our to the fagacity of bees. They immediately begin to lay the foundations of their combs, which they execute with furprifing qulchnefs and alacrity. Soon after they begin to conftruct one comb, they divide into two or three companies, each of which, in different parts of the hive, is occupied with the fame operations. By this divifion of labour, a greater number of bees have an opportunity of being employ- ed at the fame time, and, confequently, the common work is fooner finifhed. The combs are generally arranged in a di- rection parallel to each other. An interval or ftreet between the combs is always left, that the bees may have a free paf- fage, and an eafy communication with the different combs in the hive. Thefe ftreets are juft wide enough to allow two bees to pafs one another. Befide thefe parallel ftreets, 244 THE PHILOSOPHY to fhorten their journey when working, they leave feveral round crofs paffages, which are always covered. Hitherto we have chiefly taken notice of the manner in which bees conftruct and polifh their cells, without treating of the materials they employ. We have not marked the dif- ference between the crude matter collected from flowers and the true wax. Every body knows that bees carry into their hives, by means of their hind thighs, great quantities of the farina or duft of flowers. After many experiments made by Reaumur, with a view to difcover whether this duft contain- ed real wax, he was obliged to acknowledge, that he could never find that wax formed any part of its compofition. He at length difcovered, that wax was not a fubftance produced by the mixture of farina with any glutinous fubftance, nor by trituration, or any mechanical operation. By long and attentive obfervation, he found that the bees actually eat the farina which they fo induftrioufly collect; and that this fari- na, by an animal procefs, is converted into wax. This di- geftive procefs, which is neceffary to the formation of wax, is carried on in the fecond ftomach, and perhaps in the intef- tines of bees. After knowing the place where this operation is performed, chymifts will probably allow, that it is equally difficult to make real wax with the farina of flowers, as to make chyle with animal or vegetable fubftances, a work which is daily executed by our own ftomach and inteftines, and by thofe of other animals. Reaumur likewife difcover- ed, that all the cells in a hive were not deftined for the re- ception of honey, and for depositing the eggs of the female, but that fome of them were employed as receptacles for the farina of flowers, a fpecies of food that bees find neceffary for the formation of wax, which is the great bafis and raw material of all their curious operations. When a bee comes to the hive with its thighs filled with farina, it is often met near the entrance by fome of its companions, who firft tak^, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 345 off the load, and then devour the provifions fo kindly brought to them. But, when none of the bees employed in the hive are hungry for this fpecies of food, the carriers of the farina depofit their loads in cells prepared for that pur- pofe. To thefe cells the bees refort, when the weather is fo bad that they cannot venture to go to the fields in queft of frefh provifions. The carrying bees, however, commonly enter the hive loaded with farina. They walk along the combs beating and making a noife with their wings. By thefe movements they feem to announce their arrival fo their companions. No fooner has a loaded bee made thefe move- ments, than three or four of thofe within leave their work, come up to it, and firft take off its load, and then eat the ma- terials it has brought. As a farther evidence that the bees actually eat the farina of flowers, when the ftomach and in- teftines are laid open, they are often found to be filled with this duft, the grains of which, when examined by the mi- crofcope, have the exact figure, colour, and confiftence of farina, taken from the antherae of particular flowers. After the farina is digefted, and converted into wax, the bees pof- fefs the power of bringing it from their ftomachs to their mouths. The inftrument they employ in furnifhing mate- rials for conftructing their waxen cells is their tongue. This tongue is fituated below the two teeth or fangs. When at work, the tongue may be feen by the affiftance of a lens and a glafs-hive. It is then in perpetual motion, and its motions are extremely rapid. Its figure continually varies. Some- times it is more fharp, at others it is flatter, and fometimes it is more or lefs concave, and partly covered with a moift pafte or wax. By the different movements of its tongue the bee continues to fupply frefh wax to the two teeth, which are employed in raifing and fafhioning the walls of its cell, till they have acquired a fufficient height. As foon as the moift pafte or wax dries, which it does almoft inftantane- 348 THE PHlLOSOrHY oufly, it then affumes all the appearances and qualities of common wax. There is a ftill ftrongcr proof that wax is the refult of an animal procefs. When bees are removed into a new hive, and clofely confined from the morning to the even- ing, if the hive chances to pleafe them, in the courfe of this day feveral waxen cells will be formed, without the poffibili- ty of a fingle bee's having had accefs to the fields. Befides, the rude materials, or the farina of plants, carried into the hive, are of various colours. The farina ol fome plants em- ployed by the bees is whitifh ; in others it is of a fine yel- low colour j in others it is almoft er^'reiy red; and in oth- ers it is green. The combs conftructed with thefe differ- ently coloured materials are, however, uniformly of the fame colour. Every comb, efpecially when it is newly made, is of a pure white colour, which is more or lefs rarnifhed by age, the operation of the air, or by other accidental circumftances. To bleach wax, therefore, requires only the art of extract- ing fuch foreign bodies as may hr.vc Irifhiuated themfelves into its fubftance and changed its original colour. Bees, from the nature of their conftitution, require a warm habitation. They are iil:ew;fe extremely felicitous to prevent infects of any kind from p;ettirg admittance into their hives. To accomplish both thefe purpofes, when they take poffeffion of a new hive, they caretilly examine every part of it, and, if they difcover any fmall holes or chinks, they immediately pafte them firmly up with a refinous fub- ftance which differs conflderably from wax. This fubftance was not unknown to the ancients. Pliny mentions it under the name of propolis, or bee-glue. Bees ufe the propolis for rendering their hives more clofe and perfect, in preference to wax, becaufe the former is more durable, and more pow- erfully refifts the viciflitudes of weather than the latter. This glue is not, like wax, procured by an animal procefs. The bees collect it from different trees, as the poplars, the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 84"? birches, and the willows. It is a complete production of Nature, and requires no addition or manufacture from the animals by which it is employed. After z bee* as procured a quantity .afficient Lc fill the cavities in its two hind thighs, it repairs to the hive. Two of its companions inftantly draw out the propolis, and apply it to fill up fuch chinks, holes, or other deficiencies, as they find in their habitation. But this is not the only ufe to which bees apply the propo- lis. They ?re extremely felicitous to remove fuch infects or foreign bcdies as happen to get admiffion into the hive. When fo hVht as not to exceed their powers, they firft kill the infect w>Ji their flings, and then drag it out with their teeth. But it fometimes happens that an ill-fated fnail creeps into the hive. It is no fooner perceived than it is attacked on all fides and ftunj to death. But how are the bees to carry out a burden of fuch weight ? This labour they know would be in vain. They are perhaps apprehenfive that a body fo large would diffufe, in the courfe of its putrefaction, a difagreeable cr noxious odour through the hive. To pre- vent fuch hurtful confequences, immediately after the ani- mal's death, they embalm it, by covering every part of its body with propolis, through which no effluvia can efcape. When a fnail with a fhell gets entrance, to difpofe of it gives much lefs trouble and expence to the bees. As foon as this kind of fnail receives the firft wound from a fling, it natural- ly retires within its fhell. In this cafe, the bees, inftead of pafting it all over with propolis, content themfelves with gluing all round the margin of the fhell, which is fufficient to render the animal forever immoveably fixed. But propolis, and the materials for making wax, are not the only fubftances thefe induftrious animals have to collect. As formerly remarked, befide the whole winter, there are many days in fummer in which the bees are prevented by the weather from going abroad in queft of provifions. They 348 THE PHILOSOPHY are, therefore, under the neceffity of collecting, and amaffing in cells deftined for that purpofe, large quantities of honey. This fweet*"*nd balfamic liquor they extract, by means of their probofcis or trunk, from the nectariferous glands of flowers. The trunk of a bee is a kind of rough cartilaginous tongue. After collecting a few fmall drops of honey, the animal with its probofcis conveys them to its mouth and fwallows them. From the oefophagus or gullet, it paffes in- to the firft ftomach, which is more or lefs fwelled in propor- tion to the quantity of honey it contains. When empty, it has the appearance of a fine white thread : But, when filled with honey, it affumes the figure of an oblong bladder, the membrane of which is fo thin and tranfparent, that it allows the colour of the liquor it contains to be diftinctly feen. This bladder is well known to children .who live in the coun- try. They cruelly amufe themfelves with catching bees, and tearing them afunder, in order to fuck the honey. A fingle flower furnifhes but a fmall quantity of honey. The bees are, therefore, obliged to fly from one flower to anoth- er till they fill their firft ftomachs. When they have ac- complifhed this purpofe, they return directly to the hive, and difgorge in a cell the whole honey they have collected. It not unfrequently happens, however, that, when on its way to the hive, it is accofted by a hungry companion. How the one can communicate its neceffity to the other, it is perhaps impoflible to difcover. But the fact is certain, that, when two bees meet in this fituation, they mutually ftop, and the one whofe ftomach is full of honey extends its trunk, opens its mouth, which lies a little beyond the teeth, and like ru- minating animals, forces up the honey into that cavity. The hungry bee knows how to take advantage of this hofpitable invitation. With the point of its trunk it fucks the honey from the other's mouth. When not flopped on the road, the bee proceeds to the hive, and in the fame manner offers its honey to thofe who are at work, as if it meant to prevent OF NATURAL HISTORY. 349 the neceffity of quitting their labour in order to go in queft of food. In bad weather, the bees feed upon the honey laid up in open cells; but they never touch thefe refervoirs when their companions are enabled to lupply them with frefh honey from the fields. But the mouths of thofe cells which are deftined for preferving honey during winter, they always cover with a lid or thin plate of wax. Though not ftrictly connected with the prefent fubject, we cannot refrain from giving fome account of the ingenious Mr. Debraw's difcoveries concerning the fex of bees, and the manner in which their fpecies is multiplied*. It was almoft univerfally believed, both by ancients and moderns, that bees, like other animals, propagated by an actual intercourfe of the male and female, though it never could be perceived by the moft attentive obfervers. Pliny remarks, that apium coitus vifus eft nunquam; and even the indefatigable Reaumur, not- withftanding the many minute refearches and experiments he made concerning every part of the oeconomy of bees, and though he reprefents the mother, or queen-bee, as a perfect Meffalina, could never detect an actual intercourfe. From this fingular circumftance, Maraldi, in his obfervations upon beesf/, conjectured that the eggs of bees, like thofe of fifhes, were impregnated after they were depofited in the cells by the mother. He was farther confirmed in this opinion, by uniformly obferving that a whitifh liquid fubftance furround- ed each egg which turned out to be fertile; but that thofe eggs round which no' fuch fubftance was to be found were al- ways barren. The working bees, or thofe which collect from flowers the materials of wax, have generally been confidered as belonging to neither fex. But Mr. Schirach, a German Naturalift, in his Hiftory of the Queen of the Bees, maintains, that all the common bees are females in a difguifed or barran • See Philofophical Tranfaclions, ann. 1777, Part I. page if, f Hift.de l'Acad. de Scien, ann, 1712. U u $5& tm PHILOSOPHY ftate; that the organs which diftinguifh the fex, and parti-' cularly the ovaria, are either obliterated, or, on account of their minutenefs, have not hitherto been difcovered j that, in the early period of its exiftence, every one of thefe bees is capable of becoming a queen-bee, if the community choofe to nurfe it in a certain manner, and to raife it to that dif- tinguifhed rank ; and that the queen-bee lays only two kinds of eggs, namely, thofe that are to produce drones or males, and thofe from which the working bees are to proceed. The conjecture of Maraldi concerning the impregnation of the eggs after they are depofited in the cells, as well as the ' obfervations of Mr. Schirach concerning the fex of the work- ing bees, have been completely verified by the experiments of Mr. Debraw. Both Maraldi and Reaumur had long ago' difcovered, that, in every hive, befide the large drones, there are males or drones as fmall as the working bees. By means of glafs-hives, Mr. Debraw obferved, that the queen-bee begins to depofit her eggs in the cells on the fourth or fifth day af- ter the bees begin to work. On the firft or fecond day af- ter the eggs are placed in the cells, he perceived feveral bees finking the pofterior parts of their bodies into each cell, where they continued but a fhort time. After they had re- tired, he faw plainly with the naked eye a fmall quantity of whitifh liquor left in the bottom of each cell that contained an egg. Next day he found that this liquor was abforbed in- to the egg, which, on the fourth day, is hatched.' When the worms efcape from the eggs, they are fed for eight or ten days with honey by the working bees. After that pe- riod they fhut up the mouths of the cells, where the worms continue inclofed for ten days more, during which time they undergo their different transformations. 11 immerfed,' fays Mr. Debraw, f all the bees in water j; f and, when they appeared to be in a fenfelefs ftate, I gently * prefled'every one of them between my fingers, in order to OF NATURAL HISTORY. 35 J ' diftinguifh thofe armed with flings from thofe that had « none, which laft I might fufpect to be males. Of thefe I « found fixty-feven, exactly of the fize of common bees, * yielding a little whitifh liquor on being preffed between < the fingers. I killed every one, and replaced the fwarm < in a glafs-hive, where they immediately applied again to the « work of making cells ; and, on the fourth or fifth day, ve- « ry early in the morning, I had the pleafure to fee the queen- « bee depofiting her eggs in thofe cells, which fhe did by * placing the pofterior part of her body in each of them. I ' continued to watch moft part of the enfuing days, but ( could difcover nothing of what I had feen before. The ' eggs, after the fourth day, inftead of changing in the man- f ner of caterpillars, were found in the fame ftate they were * in the firft day.' The next day about noon, the whole fwarm forfook the hive, probably becaufe the animals per- ceived, that, without the affiftance of males, they were un- qualified to multiply their fpecies. To fhow the neceffity of the eggs being fecundated by the male influence, Mr. De- braw relates an experiment ftill more decifive. ' I took,' fays he, * the brood-comb, which, as I obferved ' before, had not been impregnated; I divided it into two « parts ; one I placed under a glafs-bell, No. 1. withhoney- ' comb for the bees food j I took care to leave a queen, but ' no drones, among the common bees I confined in it. The ' other piece of brood-comb I placed under another glafs- ' bell, No. 2. with a few drones, a queen, and a number of 1 common bees proportioned to the fize of the glafs. The ' refult was, that, in the glafs No. 1. no impregnation hap- < pened ; the eggs remained in the fame ftate they were in * when put into the glafs ; and, upon giving the bees their < liberty on the feventh day, they all flew away, as was found * to be the cafe in the former experiment: Whereas, in the «glafs No. 2. I faw, the very day after the bees had been 352 THE PHILOSOPHY ' put under it, the impregnation of the eggs by the drones * in every cell containing eggs % the bees did not leave their f hive on receiving their liberty ; and, in the courfe of twen- ' ty days, every egg underwent all the above mentioned np- ( ceffary changes, and formed a pretty numerous young col- f ony, in which I was not a little ftartled to find two queens.' The appearance of a new queen in a hive where there was no large or royal cell, made Mr. Debraw conjecture that the bees are capable, by fome particular means, of transforming a common fubject into a queen. To afcertain the truth of this conjecture, he provided himfelf with four glafs-hives, into each of which he put a piece of brood-comb taken from an old hive. Thefe pieces of brood-comb contained eggs, worms, and nymphs. In each hive he confined a fufficient number of common bees, and fome drones or males, but took care that there fhould be no queen. ' The bees,' Mr. Debraw remarks, * finding themfelves ' without a queen, made a ftrange buzzing noife, which laft- « ed near two days, at the end of which they fettled, and be- « took themfelves to work. On the fourth day, I perceived f in each hive the beginning of a royal cell, a certain indica- c tion that one of the inclofed worms would foon be converted into a f queen. The conftruction of the royal cell being nearly ac- ' complifhed, I ventured to leave an opening for the bees * to get out, and found that they returned as regularly as 1 they do in common hives, and fhewed no inclination to * leave their habitation. But, to be brief, at the end of twen- «ty days, I obferved four young queens among the new pro- < geny.' To thefe experiments of Mr. Debraw, it was objected, that the queen-bee, befide the eggs which fhe depofits in the royal cells, might likewife have laid royal or female eggs in the common cells ; and that the pieces of brood-comb, fo fuccefsfully employed in his experiments for the production^ OF NATURAL HISTORY. 353 of a queen, had always happened to contain one of thefe roy- al eggs, or rather one of the worms proceeding from them. Put this objeaion was afterwards removed by many other accurate experiments, the refults of which were .uniformly the fame; and the objectors to Mr. Debraw's difcovery can- didly admit, that, when the community ftands in need of a queen, the working-bees poffefs the power of raifing a com- mon fubjea to the throne •, and that every worm of the hive is capable, under a certain courfe of management, of becom- ing the mother of a numerous progeny. This metamorpho- fis feems to be chiefly accomplifhed by a peculiar nourifh- ment carefully adminiftered to the worm by the working- bees, by which, and perhaps by other unknown means, the female organs, the germs of which previoufly exifted in the embryo, are expanded, and all thofe differences in form and fize, that fo remarkably diftinguifh the queen from the work- ing-bees, are produced. It is always a fortunate circumftance when difcoveries, which at firft feem calculated folely to gratify curiofity, are capable of being turned to the advantage of fociety. Mr. Debraw, accordingly, has not failed to point out the advan- tages that may be derived from his refearches into the oecon- omy and nature of bees. By his difcovery, we are taught an eafy mode of multiplying, without end, fwarms, or new colonies, of thefe ufeful infeas. Befide the great increafe of honey, if this difcovery were fufficiently attended to, con- fiderabie funis annually expended in importing wax into this kingdom from the Continent might be faved. The praaice of this new art, Mr. Schirach informs us, has already extend*- ed itfelf through Upper Lufatia, the Palatinate, Bohemia, Bavaria, Silefia, and Poland. In fome of thefe countries, it has excited the attention, and acquired the patronage of gov- ernment. The Emprefs of Ruffia, who never lofes fight of a fingle article by which the induftry, and, of courfe, the 354 THE FHlLOSdPHY happinefs of her fubjeas can be augmented, has fent a proper perfon to Klein Bautzen to be inftruaed in the general prin- ciples, and to learn all the minutiae of this new and importr ant art. Wafps, like the bees, affociate in great numbers, and con. firua, with much dexterity and fkill, a common habitation. There are many fpecies Of wafps, fome of which unite into focieties, and others fpend their lives in perfea folitude. But, in this place, we fhall confine our attention to the ope- rations of the common affociating wafp, an infea fo welj known, even to children, that it requires no defcription. Though bees, as well as wafps, are armed with a fting, yet the former may be regarded as a placid and harmlefs race. Bees are continually occupied with their own labours. Their chief care is to defend themfelves ; and they never take nourifhment at the expence of any other animal. Wafps, on the contrary, are ferocious animals, who live entirely on ra- pine and deftruaion. They kill and devour every infea that is inferior to them in ftrength. But, though warlike and rapacious in their general manners, they are polifhed and peaceable among themfelves. To their young they difcover the greateft tendernefs and affeaion. For their proteaion and conveniency no labour is fpared; and the habitations they conftrua do honour to their patience, addrefs, and fagacity. Their architeaure, like that of the honey-bee, is fingular, and worthy of admiration ; but the materials employed fur- nifh neither honey nor wax. Impelled by an inftinaive love of pofterity, they, with great labour, fkill, and affiduity, con- ftrua combs, which are likewife compofed of hexagonal or fix-fided cells. Though thefe cells are not made of wax, they are equally proper for the rece ption of eggs, and for affording convenient habitations to the worms which pro-r ceed from them till their transformation into wafps. OF NATURiL History. $53 In general, the cells of the wafps are formed of a kind of paper, which with great dexterity, is fabricated by the ani- mals themfelves. The number of combs and cells in a wafp's neft is always proportioned to the number of individuals affo- ciated. Different fpecies choofe different fituations for build- ing their nefts. Some expofe their habitations to all the in- juries of the air ; others prefer the trunks of decayed trees j and others, as the common kind, of which we are principal- ly treating, conceal their nefts under ground. The hole which leads to a wafp's neft is about an inch in diameter* This hole is a kind of gallery mined by the wafps, is feldom in a ftraight line, and varies in length from half a foot to two feet, according to the diftance of the neft from the furface of the ground. When expofed to view, the whole' neft ap- pears to be of a roundifh form, and fometimes about twelve or fourteen inches in diameter. It is ftrongly fortified all round with walls or layers of paper, the furface of which is rough and irregular. In thefe walls, or rather in this exter- • v nal covering, two holes are left for paffages to the combs. The wafps uniformly enter the neft by one hole, and go out by the other, which prevents any confufion or interrup- tion to their common labours. Wc are now arrived at the gates of this fubterraneous ci- ty, which, though fmall, is extremely populous. Upon re- moving the external covering, we perceive that the whole in- terior part confifts of feveral ftoreys or floors of combs, which are parallel to each other, and nearly in a horizontal pofition. Every ftorey is compofed of a numerous affem- blage of hexagonal cells, very regularly conftruaed with a matter refembling afh-coloured paper. Thefe cells contain neither wax nor honey, but are folely deftined for containing the eggs, the worms which are hatched from them, the nymphs, and the young wafps till they are able to fly, Wafps nefU are not always compofed of an equal number of 356 THE PHILOSOPHY combs. They fometimes confift of fifteen, and fometimes of eleven only. The combs are of various diameters. The firft, or uppermoft, is often only two inches in diameter, while thofe of the middle fometimes exceed a foot. The loweft are alfo much fmaller than the middle ones. All thefe combs, like fo many floors or ftoreys ranged parallelly above each other, afford lodging to prodigious numbers of inhabitants. Reaumur computed, from the number of cells in a given portion of comb, that in a medium fized neft, there were at leaft 10,000 cells. This calculation gives an idea of the aftonifhing prolific powers of thefe infeas, and of the vaft numbers of individuals produced in a fingle feafon from one neft ; for every cell ferves as a lodging to no lefs than three generations. Hence a moderately fized neft gives birth annually to 30,000 young wafps. The different ftoreys of combs are always about half an inch high, which leaves free paffages to the wafps from one part of the neft to another. Thefe intervals are fo fpacious, that, in proportion to the bulk of the animals, they may be compared to great halls, or broad ftreets. Each of the larg- er combs is Supported by about fifty pillars, which, at the fame time, give folidity to the fabric, and greatly ornament the whole neft. The leffer combs are fupported by the fame ingenious contrivance. Thefe pillars are coarfe, and of a roundifh form. Their bafes and capitals, however, are much larger in diameter than towards the middle. By the one end they are attached to the fuperior comb, and by the oth- er to the inferior. Thus between two combs there is al- ways a fpecies of ruftic colonade. The wafps begin at the top and build downward. The uppermoft and fmalleft comb is firft conftruaed. It is attached to the fuperior part of the external covering. The fecond comb is fixed to the bottom of the firft ; and in this manner the animals proceed till the whole operation is completed. The conneaing pil- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 357 iars are compofed of the fame kind of piper as the reft of the neft. To allow the wafps entries into the void fpaces, roads are left between the combs and the external envelope or covering. Having given a general idea of this curious edifice, it is next natural to inquire how the wafps build, and how they employ themfelves in their abodes. But, as all thefe myfte- ries are performed under the earth, it required much induf- try and attention to difcover them. By the ingenuity and perfeverance of M. de Reaumur, however, we are enabled to explain fome parts of their internal oeconomy and man- ners. This indefatigable naruralift contrived to make wafps, like the honey-bees, lodge and work in glafs-hives. In this operation he was greatly affifted by the ardent affeaion which thefe animals have to their offspring ; for he found, that, though the neft was cut in different directions, and though it was expofed to the light, the wafps never deferted it, nor relaxed in their attention to their young. When placed in a glafs-hive, they are perfeaiy peaceable, and nev- er attack the obferver, if he calmly contemplates their ope- rations •, for, naturally, they do not fting, unlefs they are irritated. Immediately after a wafp's neft has been tranfported from its natural fituation, and covered with a glafs-hive, the firft operation of the infeas is to repair the injuries it has fuffered. With wonderful aaivity they carry off all the earth and foreign bodies that may have accidentally been eonveyed in- to the hive. Some of them occupy themfelves. fixing the neft to the top and fides of the hive by pillars of paper fimi- lar to thofe which fupport the different ftories or ftrata of combs ; others repair the breaches it has fuftained; and others fortify it by augmenting confiderably the thicknefs of its external cover. This external envelope" is an operation peculiar to wafps. Its conftruaion requires great labour ; W w 35$ THE PHILOSOPHY' for it frequently exceeds an inch and a half in thicknefs, and is compofed of a number of ftrata or layers as thin as paper, between each of which there is a void fpace. This cover is a kind of box for inclofing the combs, and defending them from the rain which occafionally penetrates the earth. For this purpofe it is admirably adapted. If it wefe one folid mafs, the contaa of water would penetrate the whole, and reach the combs. But, to prevent this fatal effea, the ani- mals leave confiderabie vacpities between each vaulted layer, which are generally fifteen or fixteen in number. By this ingenious piece of architeaure, one or two layers may be moiftened with water, while the others are not in the leaft affeaed. The materials employed by wafps in the conftruaion of their nefts are very different from thofe made ufe of by the honey-bee. Inftead of colleaing the farina of flowers, and digefting it into wax, the wafps gnaw with their two fangs, which are ftrong and ferrated, fmall fibres of wood from the fafhes of windows, the pofts of efpaliers, garden doors, &c. but never attempt growing or green timber. Thefe fibres, which, though very flender, are often a line, or a twelfth part of an inch long. After cutting a certain number of them, the animals coflea them into minnte bundles, tranfport them to their neft, and, by means of a glutinous fubftance furnifhed from their own bodies, form them into a moift and duaile pafte. Of this fubftance, or papier mache, they conftrua the external cover, the partitions of the neft, the hexagonal cells, and the folid columns which fupport the feveral layers or ftories of combs. The conftruaing of the neft occupies a comparatively fmall number of labourers. The others are differently em- ployed. Here it is neceffary to remark, that the republics of wafps, like thofe of the honey-bees, confift of three kinds ©f flies, males, females, and neuters. Like the bees, alfo, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 359 the number of neuters far furpafles thofe of both males and females. The greateft quantity of labour is devolved upon the neuters; but they are not, like the neuter bees, the on- ly workers ; for there is no part of their different operations which the females, at certain times, do not execute. Neither do the males, though their induftry is not comparable to that of the neuters, remain entirely idle. They often occupy themfelves in the interior part of the neft. The greateft part of the labour, however, is performed by the neuters. They build the neft, feed the males, the females, and even the young. But, while the neuters are employed in thefe different operations, the others are abroad in hunting par- ties. Some attack with intrepidity live infeas, which they fometimes carry entire to the neft •, but they generally tranfport the abdomen or belly only. Others pillage butch- ers flails, from which they often arrive with a piece of meat larger than the half of their own bodies. Others refort to gardens, and fuck the juices of fruits. When they return to the neft, they diftribute a part of their plunder to the fe- males, to the males, and even to fuch neuters as have been ufefully occupied at home. As foon as a neuter enters the neft, it is furrounded by feveral wafps, to each of whom it freely gives a portion of the food it has brought. Thofe who have not been hunting for prey, but have been fucking the juices of fruits, though they feem to return empty, fail not to regale their companions ; for, after their arrival, they ftation themfelves upon the upper part of the neft, and dif-r charge from their mouths two or three drops of a clear li* quid, which are immediately fwallowed by the domeftics, The neuter wafps, though the moft laborious, are 'the fmalleft ; but they are extremely aaive and vivacious. The females are much larger, heavier, and flower in their move- ments. The males are of an intermediate fize between that of the females and neuters. From thefe dtffererices in fize, 360 THE PHILOSOPHY it is eafy to diftinguifh the different kinds of thofe wafpi which build their nefts below the ground. In the hive of the honey-bee, the number of females is always extremely fmallm, but, in a wafp's neft, there are often more than three hundred females. During the months of June, July, and Au- guft, they remain conftantly in the neft, and are never feen abroad except in the beginning of fpring, and in the months of September and Oaober. During the fummer, they are totally occupied in laying their eggs and feeding their yoang. In this laft operation, they are affifted by the other wafps ; for the females alone, though numerous, would be infuffi- cient for the laborious tafk. A wafp's neft, when complet- ed, fometimes confifts of fixteen thoufand cells, each. of which contains an egg, a worm, or a nymph. The eggs are white, tranfparent, of an oblong figure, and differ in fize, according to the kind of wafps which are to proceed from them. Some of them are no larger than the head of a fmall pin. They are fo firmly glued to the bottoms of the cells, that it is with difficulty they can be detached without break-. ing. Eight days after the eggs are depofited in the cells, the worms are hatched, and are confiderably larger than the eggs which gave birth to them. Thefe worms demand the principal cares of the wafps who continue always in the neft, They feed them, as birds feed their young, by giving them, from time to time, a mouthful of food. It is aftonifhing to fee with what induftry and rapidity a female runs along the cells of a comb, and diftributes to each worm a portion of nutriment. In proportion to the ages and conditions of the worms, they are fed with folid food, fuch as the bellies of infeas, or with a liquid fubftance difgorged by the moth- er. When a worm is fo large as to occupy its whole cell, it is then ready to be metamorphofed into a nymph. It then refufes all nourifhment, and ceafes to have any conneaion with the wafps in the neft. It fhuts up the mouth of its cell OF NATURAL HISTORY. 36i with a fine filken cover, in the fame manner as the filk-worm and other caterpillars fpin their cods. This operation is completed in three or four hours, and the animal .remains in the nymph ftate nine or ten days, when, with its teetlyt deftroys the external cover of the cell, and comes forth in the form of a winged infea, which is either male, female, or neuter, according to the nature of the egg from which it was hatched. In a fhort time, the wafps newly transformed re- ceive the food brought into the neft by the foragers in the fields. What is ftill more curious, in the courfe of the firft day after'their transformation, the young wafps have been obferved going to the fields, bringing in provifions, and diftributing them to the worms in the cells. A cell is no fooner abandoned by a young wafp, than it is cleaned, trim- med, and repaired by an old one, and rendered, in every ref« pea, proper for the reception of another egg. As formerly mentioned, wafps of different fexes differ greatly in fize. . The animals know how to conftrua cells proportioned to the dimenfions of the fly that is to proceed from the egg which the female depofits in them. The neu- ters are fix times fmaller than the females, and their cells are built nearly in the fame proportion. Cells are not only adapted for the reception of neuters, males, and females, but it is remarkable that the cells of the neuters are never intermixed with thofe of the males or females. A comb is entirely occupied with fmall cells fitted for the reception of neuter worms. But male and female cells are often found in the fame comb. The males and females are of equal length, and, of courfe, require cells of an equal deepnefs, But the cells of the males are narrower than thofe of the fe-f males, becaufe the bodies of the former are never fo thick as thofe of the latter. This wonderful affemblage of combs, of the pillars which fupport them, and of the external envelope, is an edifice 362 THE PHILOSOPHY which requires feveral months labour, and ferves the animals one year only. This habitation, fo populous in fummer, is almoft deferted in winter, and abandoned entirely in fpring ; for, in this laft feafon, not a fingle wafp is to be found in a neft of the preceding year. It is worthy of remark, that the firft combs of a neft are always accommodated for the recep- tion of the neuter or working wafps. The city, of which the foundation has juft been laid, requires ^number of work- men. The neuter or working wafps are accordingly firft produced. A cell is no fooner half completed than an egg of a neuter is depofited in it by the female. Of fourteen or fifteen combs inclofed in a common cover, the four laft only are deftined for the reception of males and females. Hence it uniformly happens, that, before the males and females are capable of taking flight, every wafp's neft is peopled with fev- eral thoufand neuters or workers. But the neuters, who are firft produced, are likewife the firft that perifh ; for not one of them furvives the termination even of a mild winter. It was remarked by the ancient naturalifts, that fome wafps lived one year only, and others two. To the former Arif- totle gives the appellation of operarii, which are our workers or neuters, and to the latter matrices, which are our females. The female wafps are ftronger, and fupport the rigours of winter better than the males or neuters. Before the end of winter, however, feveral hundred females die, and not above ten or a dozen in each neft furvive that feafon. Thefe few females are deftined for the continuation1 of the fpecies. Each of them becomes the founder of a new republic. When a queen-bee departs from a hive in order to eftablifh a new one, fhe is always accompanied with feveral thoufand induftrious labourers, ready to perform every neceffary operation. But the female wafp has not the aid of a fingle labourer ; for all the neuters are dead before the beginning i»f the fpring. The female alone lays the foundation of a OF NATURAL HISTORY. 36i new republic. She either finds or digs a hole under the earth, builds cells for the reception of her eggs, and feeds the worms which proceed from them. Whenever any of thefe neuter worms are transformed into flies, they immedi- ately aflift their parent in augmenting the number of cells and combs, and in feeding the young worms, which are daily hatching from the eggs. In a word, this female wafp, which in fpring was perfeaiy folitary, without any proper habitation, and had every operation to perform, has, in autumn, feveral thoufands of her offspring at her devo- tion, and is furnifhed with a magnificient palace, or rather city, to protea her from the injuries of the weather and from external enemies. With regard to the male wafps, it is uncertain whether any of them furvive the winter. But, though not fo indo- lent as the males of the honey-bee, they can be of little affift- ance to the female ; for they never engage in any work of importance, fuch as conftruaing cells, or fortifying the ex- ternal cover of the neft. They are never brought forth till towards the end of Auguft ; and their fole occupation feems to be that of keeping the neft clean : They carry out every kind of filth, and the carcaffes of fuch of their companions as happen to die. In performing this operation, two of them , often join, and, as mentioned in another place, when the load is too heavy, they cut off the head, and tranfport the dead animal at two times. In the beginning of fpring, when the female wafp has built her fubterraneous habitation, which is foon to be peopled with thoufands of flies, fhe has no occafion for the males ; becaufe, in the month of September or Oaober, fhe had been previoufly impregnated. The males and females are produced at the fame time, and they are nearly equal in num- ber. Like the male honey-bees, the male wafps are deftitute of flings, but the females and neuters have ftings, the poifon- 364 THE PHILOSOPHY ous liquor of which, when introduced into any part of the human body, excites inflammation, and creates a confiderabie degree of pain. The habitations and the oeconomy of the common ant are exceedingly curious. But, as they are fo well known, and fo obvious to infpeaion and examination, we fhall not de* tain the reader with a defcription of them. To fupply this defe^l, we fhall give fome account of the truly wonderful operations of the termites, which are generally called white* ants*, though they belong to a different genus of infeas. Thefe animals infeft Guinea, and all the tropical regions, where, for their depredations of property, they are greatly dreaded by the inhabitants ; from which circumftance they have received the name of Fatalis or DeflruBor. The following abridged account of the termites, and of the wonderful habitations they build, is feleaed from an excel- lent defcription of them in a Letter from Mr. Henry Smearh- man, of Clement's Inn, to Sir Jofeph Banks, which was publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaaionsf. Though the nefts, or rather hills, conftruaed by the termites, are men- tioned by many travellers, their defcriptions and obferva- tions are by no means fo accurate as thofe of the ingenious Mr. Smeathman. Of thefe infeas there are feveral fpecies; but they all refemble each other in form, and in their man- ner of living. They differ, however, as much as birds, in the flile of their architeaure, and in the feleaion of the ma- terials of which their nefts are compofed. Some build on the furface, or partly above and partly below the ground, and others on the trunks or branches of lofty trees. Before defcribing the nefts or hills, it is neceffary to give fome idea of the animals themfelves, and of their general * In the windward parts of Africa, they are denominated bugga, buggs; in the Weft-Indies, wood lice, wood ants, or white-ants. They .ere likewife cal- led piercers, eaters, or cutters, becaufe they cut almoft every thing in pieces, f Vol. 71. part 1. page 139, or NATURAL HISTORY. 365 oeconomy and manners. We fhall confine ourfelves to that fpecies called termites bellicoft, or fighters becaufe they are larg- eft, and beft known on the coaft of Africa. The republic of the termites bellkofi, like the other fpecies Of this genus, confifts of three ranks, or orders of infeas : 1. The working infeas, which Mr. Smeathman dlftinguifhes by the name o'f labourers; 2. The fighters, or foldiers, which perform no kind of labour •, and, 3. The winged, or perfeB infeBs, which are male and female, and capable of multiply- ing the fpecies. Thefe laft Mr. Smeathman calls the nobility or gentry ; becaufe they neither labour nor fight. The no- bility alone are capable of being raifed to the rank of kings and queens. A few weeks after their elevation to this ftate, they emigrate, in order to eftablifh new empires. In a neft or hill, the labourers, or working infeas, are al- ways moft numerous : There are at leaft one hundred labour- ers to one of the fighting infeas or foldiers. When in this ftate, they are about a fourth of an inch in length, which is rather fmaller than fome of our ants. From their figure, and fondnefs for wood, they are very generally known by the name of wood-lice. The fecond order, or foldiers, differ in figure from that of the labourers. The former have been fuppofed to be neuters, and the latter males. But, in faa, they are the fame infeas. They have only undergone a change of form, and made a nearer approach to the perfea ftate. They are now much larger, being half an inch in length, and equal in fize to fifteen of the labourers. The form of the head is likewife greatly changed. In the labourer ftate, the mouth is evidently formed for gnawing or holding bodies : But, in the foldier ftate, the jaws being fhaped like two fharp awls a little jagged, are deftined folely for piercing or wounding. For thefe purpofes they are very well calculated j for they are as hard as a crab's claw, and placed in a ftrong hornv Xx 366 THE PHILOSOPHY head, which is of a nut-brown colour, and larger than the" whole body. The figure of the third order, or that of the infea in its perfea ftate, is ftill more changed. The head, the thorax, and the abdomen, differ almoft entirely from the fame parts in the labourers and foldiers. Befide, the animals are now furnifhed with four large, brownifh, tranfparent wings, by which they are enabled, at' the proper feafon, to emigrate and to eftablifh new fettlements. In the winged or perfea ftate, they have likewife acquired the organs Of generation, and are greatly altered in their fize as well as in their figure. Their bodies now meafure between fix and feven tenths of an inch, their wings, from tip to tip, above two inches and a half, and their bulk is equal to that of thirty labourers, or two foldiers. Inftead of aaive, induftrious, and rapacious little animals, when they arrive at their perfea ftate, they be- come innocent, helplefs, and daftardly. Their numbers are great ; but their enemies are ftill more numerous. They are devoured by birds, by every fpecies of ants, by carnivo- rous reptiles, and even by the inhabitants of many parts of Africa. This laft faa is attefted by Pifo, Margrave, De Laet, Konig, MoOr, Sparman, and by many other travellers, as well as by Smeathman. After fuch devaftation, it is fur- prifing that a fingle pair fhould efcape fo many dangers. «Some, however,' fays Mr. Smeathman, f are fo fortunate ; < and being found by fome of the labouring infeas, that are « continually running about the furface .of the ground under * their covered galleries, are eleBed Kings and Queens of new < ftates; all thofe who are not fo eleaed and preferved cer- ' tainly perifh. The manner in which thefe labourers pro- «tea the happy pair from their innumerable' enemies, not « only on the day of the maffacre of almoft all their race, but * for a long time after, will, I hope', j'uftify me in the ufe of • fihe term eleBion. The little induftrious creatures immedi- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 367 ' ately inclofe them in a fmall chamber of clay fuitable to * their fize, into which, at firft, they leave but one fmall en- * trance, large enough for themfelves and the foldiers to go (in and out, but much too little for either of the royal pah: 1 to make ufe of; and, when neceffity obliges them to make * more entrances, they are never larger ; fo that, of courfe, * the voluntary fubjeBs charge themfelves with the talk of pro- ' viding for the offspring of their fovereigns, as well as to work ' and to fight for them, until they have raifed a progeny ca- f pable at leaft of dividing the talk with them. 1 It is not till this, probably, that they confummate their 1 marriage, as I never faw a pair of them joined. The btifi- * n§ls of propagation, however, foon commences; and the (labourers having conftruaed a fmall wooden nurfery, carry ' the eggs and lodge them there as fall as they can obtain ' them from the queen. 1 About this time a moft extraordinary change begins to ' take place in the queen, to which I know nothing fimilar, « except in the pulex penetrans of Linnaeus, the jigger of the < Weft-Indies, and in the different fpecies of coccus, cochineal. ' The abdomen of this female begins gradually to extend f and enlarge to fuch an enormous fize, that an old queen will « have it increafed fo as to be fifteen hundred or two thoufand < times the bulk of the reft of her body, and twenty or thirty * thoufand times the bulk of a labourer, as I have found by « carefully weighing and computing the different ftates. The ' lkin between the fegments of the abdomen extends in eve, < ry direaion ; and at laft the fegments are removed to half < an inch diftance from each other, though, at firft, the < length of the whole abdomen is not half an inch. I conjec- «ture the animal is upwards of two years old when the abdo- * men is increafed to three inches in length : I have fome- proyement. / OF NATURAL HISTORY. 403 CHAPTER XV. Of the Artifices of Animals. IT will be recolleaed, that many inftances of the dexterity and artifices employed by different animals in va- rious parts of their manners and oeconomy, have been occa- fionally mentioned in feveral of the foregoing chapters. This circumftance, to avoid repetitions, will neceffarily ren- der the prefent chapter proportionally fhort. The artifices praaifed by animals proceed from feveral motives, many of which are purely inftinaive, and others are acquired by experience and imitation. Their arts, in general, are called forth and exerted by three great and im- portant caufes, the love of life, the defire of multiplying and continuing the fpecies, and that ftrong attachment which every animal has to its offspring. Thefe are the fources from which all the movements, all the dexterity, and all the fagac- ity of animals originate. The principle of felf-prefervation i9 inftinaive, and ftrongly impreffed upon the minds of all ani- mated beings. It gives rife to innumerable arts of attack and defence, and not unfrequently to furprifing exertions of fagacity and genius. The fame remark is applicable to the defire of multiplication, and to parental affeaion. Upon this fubjea we fhall, as ufual, give fome examples of animal artifice, which may both amufe and inform fome readers. When a bear, or other rapacious animal, attacks cattle, they inftantly join and form a phalanx for mutual defence. In the fame circumftances, horfes rank upon lines, and beat off the enemy with their heels. Pontopidon tells us, that the fmall Norwegian horfes, when attacked by bears, inftead of ftriking with their hind-legs, rear, and, by quick and re- peated ftrokes with their fore-feet, either kill the enemy, or 404 THE PHILOSOPHY oblige him to retire. This curious, and generally fuccefsful "defence, is frequently performed in the woods, while a trav- eller is fitting on the horfe's back. It has often been re- marked, that troops of wild horfes, when fleeping either in plains or in the foreft, have always one of their number" awake, who aas as a centinel, and gives notice of any ap- proaching danger. Margraaf informs us, that the monkeys in Brazil, while they are fleeping on the trees, have uniformly a centinel to warn them of the approach of the tiger or other rapacious animals ; and that, if ever this centinel is found fleeping, his companions inftantly tear him in pieces for his neglea of duty. For the fame purpofe, when a troop of monkeys are committing depredations on the fruits of a garden, a centi- nel is placed on an eminence, who, when any perfon ap- pears, makes a certain chattering noife, which the reft un- derftand to be a fignal for retreat, and immediately fly off and make their efcape. The deer-kind are remarkable for the arts they employ in order to deceive the dogs. With this view the ftag often returns twice or thrice upon his former fteps. He endea- vours to raife hinds or younger flags to follow him, and to draw off the dogs from the immediate objea of their purfuit. If he fucceeds in this attempt, he then flies off with re- doubled fpeed, or fprings off at a fide, and lies down on his belly to conceal himfelf. When in this fituation, if by any means his foot is recovered by the dogs, they purfue him with more advantage, becaufe he is now confiderably fa- tigued. Their ardour increafes in proportion to his feeble- nefs ; and the fcent becomes ftronger as he grows warm. From thefe circumftances the dogs augment their cries and their fpeed ; and, though the ftag employs more arts of efcape than formerly, as his fwiftnefs is diminifhed, his doub- lings and artifices become gradually lefs effeaual. No other OF NATURAL HISTORY. 405 i ofource is now left him but to fly from the earth which he treads, and go into the waters, in order to cut off the, fcent from the dogs, when the huntfmen again endeavour to put them on the track of his foot. After taking to the water, the flag is fo much exhaufted that he is incapable of run- ning much farther, and is foon at bay, or, in other words, turns and defends himfelf againft the hounds. In this fitua- tion he often wounds the dogs, and even the huntfmen, by blows with his horns, till one of them cuts his hams to make him fall, and then puts a period to his life. The fallow-deer is more delicate, lefs favage, and approaches nearer to the domeftic ftate than the ftag. The males, during the rutting feafon, make a bellowing noife, but with a low and interrupt- ed voice. They are not fo furious as the ftag. They never depart from their own country in queft of females ; but they bravely fight for the poffeffion of their miftreffes. They affociate in herds, which generally keep together. When great numbers are affembled in one park, they commonly form themfelves into two diftina troops, which foon become hoftile •, becaufe they are both ambitious of poffeffing the fame part of the inclofure. Each of thefe troops has its own chief or leader, who always marches foremoft, and he is uni- formly the oldeft and ftrongeft of the flock. The others follow him ; and the whole draw up in order of battle, to force the other troop, who obferve the fame condua, from the beft pafture. The regularity with which thefe combats are conduaed is fingular. They make regular attacks, fight with courage, and never think themfelves vanquifhed by one check ; for the battle is daily renewed till the weaker are completely defeated, and obliged to remain in the worft paf- ture. They love elevated and hilly countries. When hunted, they run not ftraight out, like the ftag, but double, and endeavour to conceal themfelves from the dogs by va- rious artifices, and by' fubftituting other animals in their 1-06 THE PHILOSOPHY place. When fatigued and heated, however, they take the' Water, but never attempt to crofs fuch large rivers as the ftag. Thus, between the chace of the fallow-deer and of the flag* there is no material difference. Their fagacity and inftinas, their ftiifts and doublings, are the fame, only they are more frequently praaifed by the fallow-deer. As he runs not fo far before the dogs, and is lefs enterprifing, he has oftener Occafion to change, to fubftitute another in his place, to double, return upon his former tracks, &c. which renders the hunting'of the fallow-deer more fubjea to inconvenien- cies than that of the ftag. The roe-deer is inferior to the flag and fallow-deer both in ftrength and flature ; but he is endowed with more grace- fulnefs, courage, and vivacity. His eyes are more brilliant and animated. His limbs are more nimble ; his movements are quicker, and he bounds with equal vigour and agility. He is likewife more crafty, conceals himfelf with greater ad- drefs, and derives fuperior refources from his inftinas. Though he leaves behind him a ftronger fcent than the ftag, which increafes the ardour of the dogs, he knows how to evade their purfuit, by the rapidity with Which he commenc- es his flight,and by his numerous doublings. -.He delays not his arts of defence till his ftrength begins to fail him ; for he no fooner perceives that the firft efforts of a rapid flight nave been unfuccelsful, than he repeatedly returns upon his former fleps •, and, after confounding, by thefe oppofite mo- tions, the direaion he has taken, after intermixing the pref- ent with the paft emanations of his body, he, by a great bound, rifes from the earth, and, retiring to a fide, lies down flat on his belly. In this immoveable fituation, he often al- lows the whole pack of his deceived enemies to pafs very near him. , The roe-deer differs from the ftag in difpofition, manners, and in almoft every natural habit. Inftead of affo- chiting in herds, they live in fepatate families. The two OF NATURAL HISTORY. 407 parents and the young go together, and never mingle with ftrangers. They are conftant in their amours, and never unfaithful like the ftag. The females commonly produce two fawns, the one a male and the other a female. Thefe young animals, who are brought up and nourifhed together, acquire a mutual affeaion fo ftrong, that they never depart from each other. This attachment is fomething more than love •, for, though always in company, they feel the rut but once a year, and it continues only fifteen days. At this pe- riod the father drives off the fawns, as if he intended that they fhould yield their place to thofe which are to fucceed, in order to form new families for themfelves. After the rutting feafon, however, is paft, the fawns return to their mother, and continue with her fome time longer ; after which they feparate forever, and remove to a diftance from the place of their nativity. When about to bring forth, the female feparates from the male •, and, to avoid the wolf, her rnoft dangerous enemy, conceals herfelf in the deepeft re- ceffes of the foreft. In a week or two the fawns are able to follow her. When threatened with danger, fhe hides them in a clofe thicket ; and, fo ftrong is her parental affeaion, that, in order to preferve her offspring from deftruaion, fhe prefents herfelf to be chafed. Hares poffefs not, like rabbits, the art of digging retreats in the earth. But they neither want inftina fufficient for their own prefervation, nor fagacity for efcaping their ene- mies. They form feats or nefts on the furface of the ground, where they watch, with the moft vigilant attention, the ap- proach of any danger. In order to deceive, they conceal them- felves between clods of the fame colour with that of their own hair. When purfued, they firft run with rapidity, and then double, or return upon their former fteps. From the place of ftarting, the females run not fo far as the males ; but they double more frequently. Hares hunteoLjin the place 408 THE PHILOSOPHY where they were brought forth, feldom remove to a great diftance from it, but return to their form ; and, when chaf- ed two days fuccefiively, on the fecond day they perform the fame doublings they had praaifed the day before. When hares run ftraight out to a great diftance, it is a proof that they are ftrangers. Male hares, efpecially during the moft remarkable period of rutting, which is in the months of Jan- uary, February, and March, fometimes perform jonrnies of feveral miles in queft of mates ; but, as foon as they are ftarted by dogs, they fly back to the place of their nativity. * I have feen a hare,' Fouilloux remarks, * fo fagacidus, that, ' after hearing the hunter's horn, he ftarted from his form, « and, though at the diftance of a quarter of a league, went * to fwim in a pool, and lay down on the rufhes in the mid- *■ die of it, without being chafed by the dogs. I have feen a hare < after running two hours before the dogs, pufh another from ' his feat, and take poffeffion of it. 1 have feen others fwim < over two or three ponds, the narroweft of which was eighty < paces broad. I have feen others, after a two hours chace, * run into a fheep-fold and lie down among them. I have < feen others, when hard pufhed, run in among a flock of « fheep, and would not leave them. I have feen others, af- ' ter hearing the noife of the hounds, conceal themfelves in the f earth. I have feen others run up one fide of a hedge and ' return by the other, when there was nothing elfe between ' them and the dogs. I have feen others, after running half « an hour, mount an old wall, fix feet high, and clap down ' in a hole covered with ivy. Laftly, I have feen others 1 fwim over a river, of about eighty paces broad, oftener t than twice, in the length of two hundred paces.' The fox has, in all ages and nations, been celebrated for craftinefs and addrefs. Acute and circumfpea, fagacious and prudent, he diverfifies his condua, and always referves fome art frr unforefeen accidents. Though nimbler than OF NATURAL HISTORY. 40fi the wolf, he trufts not entirely to the fwiftnefs of his courfe. He knows how to enfure fafety, by providing himfelf with an afylum, to which he retires when danger appears. He is not a vagabond, but lives in a fettled habitation and in a do- meftic ftate. The choice of fituation, the art of making and rendering a houfe commodious, and of concealing the aven- ues which lead to it, imply a fuperior degree of fentiment and reffeaion. The fox poffeffes thefe qualities, and em- ploys them with dexterity and advantage. He takes up his abode on the border of a wood, and in the neighbourhood of cottagfes. Here he liftens to the crowing of the cocks and the noife of the poultry. He fcents them at a diftance. He choofes his time with great judgment and difcretion. He conceals both his route and his defign. He moves forward with caution, fometimes even trailing his body, and feldom makes a fruitlefs expedition. When he leaps the wall, of? gets in underneath it, he ravages the court-yard, puts all the fowls to death, and then retires quietly with his prey, which. he either conceals under the herbage, or carries off to his. kennel. In a fhort time he returns for another, which he carries off and hides in the fame manner, but in a different place. In this manner he proceeds, till the light of the fun^ or fome movements perceived in the houfe, admonifh him, that it is time to retire to his den. He does much mifchief to the bird-catchers. Early in the morning he vifits their nets and their bird-lime, and carries off fucceflively all the birds that happen to be entangled. The young hares he hunts in the plains, feizes old ones in thfir feats, digs our the rabbits in the warrens, finds out the nefts of partridges, quails, &c. feizes the mother on the eggs, and deftroys a prodigious number of game. Dogs of all kinds fpontane- oufly hunt the fox. Though his odour be ftrong, they often prefer him to the ftag or the hare. When purfued he rum to his hole ; and it is not uncommon to fend in terriers to i 410 THE PHILOSOPHY detain him till the hunters remove the earth above, and either kill or feize him alive. The moft certain method? however, of deftroying a fox is to begin with fhutting up the hole, to flation a man with a gun near the entrance, and then to fearch about with the dogs. When they fall in with him, he immediately makes for his hole. But, when he comes up to it, he is met with a difcharge from the gun. If the fhot miffes h}m, he flies off with full fpeed, takes a wide circuit, and returns again to the hole, where he is fired up- on a fecond time ; but, when he difcovers that the entrance Js fhut, he darts away ftraight forward, with the intention of never revifiting his former habitation. He is next purfued by the hounds, whom he feldom fails to fatigue ; becaufe, with much cunning, he paffes through the thickeft part of the foreft, or places of the moft difficult accefs, where the dogs are hardly able to follow him ; and, when he takes to j:he plains, he runs ftraight out, without either flopping or doubling. But the moft effeaual way of deftroying foxes is to lay fnares baited with live pigeons, fowls, &c. The fox js an exceedingly voracious animal. Befide all kinds of flefh and fifhes, he devours, with equal avidity, eggs, milk, cheefe, fruits, and particularly grapes. He is fo extremely fond of honey, that he attacks the nefts of wild bees. They at firft put him to flight by numberlefs flings ; but he retires for the fole purpofe of rolling himfelf on the ground and qf crufhing the bees. He returns to the charge fo often, that lie obliges them to abandon the hive, which he foon uncov- prs, and deypurs#hoth the honey and the wax. Some time before the female brings forth, fhe retires, and feldom leaves her hole, where flie prepares a bed for her young. When fhe perceives that her retreat is difcovered, and thafe her young have been difturbed, fhe carries them off, one by one, into a new habitation. The fox fleeps in a round form, like the dog ; but, when he only repofes himfelf, he lies on his OF NATURAL HISTORY. iH belly with his hind-legs extended. It is in this fituation thafi he eyes the birds on the hedges and trees. The birds have fuch an antipathy againft him, that they no fooner perceive him than they fend forth fhrill cries to advertife their neigh- bours of the enemy's approach. The jays and blackbirds, in particular, follow the fox from tree to tree, fometimes two or three hundred paces, often repeating the watch-cries. The Count de Buffon kept two young foxes, which, when at liberty, attacked the poultry ; but, after, they were chain- ed, they never attempted to touch a fingle fowl. A living hen was fixed near them for whole nights ; and, though deftitute of viauals for many hours, in fpite of hunger and of opportunity, they never forgot that they were chained, and gave the hen no difturbance. In Kamtfchatka, the animals called gluttons employ a fingu- lar ftratagem for killing the fallow-deer. They climb up a tree, and carry with them a quantity of that fpecies of mofs of which the deer are very fond. When a deer approaches near the tree, the glutton throws down the mofs. If the deer ftops to eat the' the mofs, the glutton inftantly darts down up- on its back and, after fixing himfelf firmly between the horns, tears out its eyes, which torments the animal to fuch a degree, that, whether to put an end to its torments, or to get rid of its cruel enemy, it ftrikes its head againft the trees till it falls down dead. The glutton divides the flefh of the deer into convenient portions, and conceals them in the earth to ferve for future provifions. The gluttons on the river Lena kill horfes in the fame manner*. There are feveral fpecies of rats in Kamtfchatka. The moft remarkable kind is called tegulchitch by the natives. Thefe rats make neat and fpacious nefts under ground. They are lined with turf, and divided into different apartments, in which the rats depofit ftores of provifions for fupporting them during the winter.. It is worthy of remark, that the * Gazette Literaire, vol. i. page 481. \\'2 THE PHILOSOPHY rats of this country never touch the provifions laid up for winter, except when they cannot procure nourifliment any where elfe. Thefe rats, like the Tartars, change their habi- tation?. Sometimes they totally abandon Kamtfchatka for feveral years, and their retreat greatly alarms the inhabitants, which they confider as a prefage of a rainy feafon, and of a bad year for hunting. The return of thefe animals is, of courfe, looked upon as a good omen. Whenever they appear, the happy news is foon fpread over all parts of the country. They always take their departure in the fpring, when they affemble in prodigious numbers, and traverfe riv- ers, lakes, and even arms of the fea. After they have made a long voyage, they frequently lie montionlefs on the fhore, as if they Were dead. When they recover their ftrength they recommence their march. The inhabitants of Kamt- fchatka are very felicitous for the prefervation of thefe ani- mals. They never do the rats any injury, but give them every affiftance when they lie weakened and extended on the ground. They generally return to Kamtfchatka about the month of Oaober •, and they are fometimes met with in fuch prodigious numbers that travellers are obliged to ftop two hours till the whole troop paffes. The track of ground they travel in a fingle fummer is not lefs wonderful than the regularity they obferve in their march, and that inftinaive impulfe which enables them to forefee, with certainty, the changes of times and of feafops. With regard to Birds, their artifices are not lefs nume- rous nor lefs furprifing than thofe of quadrupeds. The eagle and hawk kinds are remarkable for the fharpnefs of their fight and the arts they employ in catching their prey. Their movements are rapid or flow, according to their intentions, and the fituation of the animals they with to devour. Rapa- cious birds uniformly endeavour to rife higher in the air than their prey, that they may have an opportunity of dart- ing forcibly down upon it with their pounces. To counter- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 413 ift thefe artifices, Nature has endowed the fmaller and more innocent fpecies of birds with many arts of defence. When a hawk appears, the fmall birds, if they find it convenient, conceal themfelves in the hedges of brufh-wood. When deprived of this opportunity, they often, in great numbers, feem to follow .tfehawk, and to expofe themfelves unneceA farily to danger, while, in faa, by their numbers, their per- petual changes or direaion, and their uniform endeavours to rife above him, they perplex the hawk to fuch a degree, that he is unable to fix upon a fingle objea ; and, after exerting all his art and addrefs, he is frequently obliged to relinquifh the purfuit. When in the extremity of danger, and after employing every other artifice in vain, fmall birds have been often known to fly to men for proteaion. This is a plain indication that thefe animals, though they in general avoid the human race, are by no means fo much afraid of man as of rapacious birds. The ravens often frequent the fea-fhores in queft of food. When they find their inability to break the fhells of muf- cles, &c. to accomplifh this purpofe they ufe a very ingeni- ous ftratagem : They carry a mufcle, or other fhell-fifh, high up in the air, and then dafh it down upon a rock, by which means the fhell is broken, and they obtain the end they had in view. The wood-pecker is furnifhed with a very long and volu- ble tongue. It feeds upon ants and other fmall infeas. Na- ture has endowed this bird with a fingular inftina. It knows how to procure food without feeing its prey. It attaches it- felf to the trunks of branches of decayed trees ; and, where- ever it perceives a hole or crevice, it darts in its long tongue, and brings it out loaded with infeas of different kinds. This operation is certainly inftinaive •, but the inftina is affifted by the inftruaion of the parents ; for the young are no foon- er able to fly, than the parents, by the force of example, D d d 414 THE PHILOSOPHY teach them to refort to trees, and to infert their tongues in- difcriminately into every hole or fiffure. Ofthe oeconomy of Pipes, as formely remarked, our know- ledge is extremely limited. But, as the ocean exhibits a perpetual and a. general fcene of attack and defence, the arts of affault and of evafion muft, of courfe, be exceedingly various. For the prefervation of fome fpecies of fifhes, Na- ture has armed them with ftrong and fharp pikes. Others, as the perch-kind, are defended with ftrong bony rays in their fins. Others, as the univalve fhell-fifh, retire into their fhells upon the approach of danger. The bivalves and multivalves, when attacked, inftantly fhut their fhells, which, in general, is a fufficient proteaion to them. Some uni- valves, as the limpet-kind, attach themfelves fo firmly, by excluding the air, to rocks and ftones, that, unlefs quickly furprifed, no force inferior to that of breaking the fhell can remove them. The flying-fifh, when purfued, darts out of the water, and takes refuge in the air, in which it is for fome time fupported by the operation of its large and pli- able fins. The torpedo is furnifhed with a remarkable ap- paratus for felf-prefervatron : It repels every hoftile attempt by an elearical ftroke) which confounds and intimidates its enemies. Several fifhes, and particularly the falmon kind, when about to generate, leave the ocean, afcend the rivers, depofit their eggs in the fand, and, after making a proper ni- dus for their future progeny, return to the ocean from whence they came. Others, as the herring-kind, though they fel- dom go up rivers, affemble in myriads from all quarters, and approach the fhores, or afcend arms of the fea, for the pur- pofe of propagating the fpecies, and cherifhing their off- spring. When that operation is performed, they leave the coafts and difperfe in the ocean, till the fame inftinaive im- pulfe forces them to obferve a fimilar cond ua next feafon, This migration of falmons, herrings, and many other fifhes, from the ocean to the rivers or fhores, is of infinite advantage OF NATURAL HISTORY. 41£ to mankind. They fupply us occafionally, and in fome coun- tries, as Great-Britain and particularly Scotland, with abund- ance of nourifhing and luxurious food ; and, if our fifheries were once put upon a proper footing, they would foon ctonfti- tute one of the moft powerful incentives to induftry, and be- come a great and important fource of national ftrength and profperity. The infeB tribes, though comparatively diminutive, are not deficient in artifice and addrefs. With much art the fpider fpins his web. It ferves him the double purpofe of an habitation, and of a machine for catching his food. With incredible patience and perfeverance he lies in the center of his web for days, and fometimes for weeks, before an ill-fat- ed fly happens to be entangled. One. fpecies of fpider, which is fmall, of a blackifh colour, and frequents cottages or out-houfes, I have known to live during the whole win- ter months without almoft the poffibility of receiving any nourifhment •, for, during that period, not a fly of any kind could be difcovered in the apartment. If they had been fixed in a torpid ftate, like fome other animals, the wonder of their furviving the want of food fo long would not have been fo great. But in the fevereft weather, and through the whole courfe of the winter, they were perfeaiy aaive and lively. Neither did they feem to be in the leaft emaciated. The formico-leo, or ant-lion, is a fmall infea, fomewhat re- fembling a wood-loufe, but larger. Its head is flat, and arm- ed with two fine moveable crotchets or pincers. It has fix legs, and its body, which terminates in a point, is compofed of a number of membranous rings. In the fand, or in finely pulverifed earth, this animal digs a hole in the form of a fun- nel, at the bottom of which it lies in ambufh for its prey. As it always walks backward, it cannot purfue any infea. To fupply this defea, it lays a fnare for them, efpecially for the ant, which is its favourite food. It generally lies concealed under the fand in the bottom of its funnel or trap, and fel- 416 THE PHILOSOPHY dom exhibits more than the top of its head. In digging a funnel, the formica-leo begins with tracing a circular furrow in the fand, the circumference of which determines the fize of the funnel, which is often an inch deep. After the firft furrow is made, the animal traces a fecond, which is always concentric with the firft. It throws out the fand, as with a fhovel, from the fucceffive furrows or circles, by means of its fquare flat head and one of its fore-legs. It proceeds in this manner till it has completed its funnel, which it does with furprifing promptitude and addrefs. At the bottom of this artful fnare it lies concealed and immoveable. When an ant happens to make too near an approach to the margin of the funnel, the fides of. which are very fteep, the fine fand gives way, and the unwary animal tumbles down to the bottom. The formica-leo inftantly kills the ant, buries it under the fand, and fucks out its vitals. It afterwards pufhes out the empty fkin, repairs the diforder introduced into its fnare, and again lies in ambufh for a frefh prey. We formerly took fome notice of that fpecies of fpider which carries her eggs in a bag attached to her belly. A fpider of this kind was thrown into the funnel of a formica- loe. The latter inftantly feized the bag of eggs, and endeav- oured to drag it under the fand. The fpider from a ftrong love of offspring, allowed its own body to be carried along with the bag. But the flender filk by which it was fixed to the animal's belly broke, and a feparation took place. The fpider immediately feized the bag with her pincers, and exert- ed all her efforts to regain the objea of her affeaions. But thefe efforts were ineffeaual *, for the formica-leo gradually funk the bag deeper and deeper in the fand. The fpider, however, rather than quit her hold, allowed herfelf to be bu- ried alive. In a fhort time, the obferver removed the fand, and took out the fpider. She was perfeaiy unhurt; for the formica-leo had not made any attack upon her. But, f© OF NATURAL HISTORY. 417 ftrong was her attachment to her eggs, that, though fre- quently touched with a twig, fhe would not relinquifh the place which contained them*. When arrived at its full growth, the formica-leo gives up the bufinefs of an enfnaring hunter. He deferts his former habitation, and crawls about for fome time on the furface of the earth. He at laft retires under the ground, fpins a round filken pod, and is foon transformed into a Hy. • Oouvres de Bonnet, vol. 4, page aoj. 8»o edit. Amfterdona 1 fi%. / 418 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER XVI. Of the Society of Animals. JL HE affociating principle, from which fo many advantages are derived, is not confined to the human fpecies, but extends, in feme inftances, to every clafs of animals. It is remarked by Buffon, and fome other authors, that the ftate of Nature, which had long occupied the attention and refearches of philofophers, was rejeaed by them after the difcovery was made. In the eftimation of the authors alluded to, the favage ftate is the ftate of Nature. The firft natural condition of mankind is the union of a male and a fe- male. Thefe produce a family, who, from neceffity, or, in other words, from parental and filial affeaion, continue toge- ther, and affift each other in procuring food and fhelter. This family, like moft families in eftablifhed civil focieties, feel their own weaknefs, and their inability to fupply their w^nts without more powerful refources than their feeble ex- ertions. When this wandering and defencelefs family acci- dentally meet with another family in the fame condition, Na- ture, it is faid, teaches them to unite for mutual fupport and proteaion. The affociation of two families may be confider- ed as the firft formation of a tribe or nation. When a num- ber of tribes happen to unite, they only become a larger or or more numerous nation. A ngle pair, it is true, if placed in a fituation where plenty of food could be procured with- out much labour, might, in a fucceffion of ages, produce any indefinitive number. This is precifely the fituation in which Mofes has placed our firft parents. He has added another cir- cumftance highly favourable to a fpeedy population. Inftead of the prefent brevity of human life, he informs us, that OF NATURAL HISTORY. » 419 tnen, in the firft periods of the world, lived and propagated feveral hundred years. In countries thinly peopled with favages, it is extremely probable, that focieties are formed by the gradual union of families and tribes. The increafe of power arifing from mu- tual affiftance, and a thoufand other comfortable circumftan- ces, foon contribute to cement more firmly the affociated members. Some of the arts of life, befide that of hunting, are occafionally difcovered either by accident or by the inge- nuity of individuals. In this manner, gradual advances are made from the favage to the civilized condition of mankind* This is a very fhort view of the origin of fociety, which has been adopted by moft authors both ancient and modern, though many of them have derived the affociating principle from very different, and even from oppofite caufes, which it is no part of our plan either to enumerate or refute. Some writers, as Ariftotle, and a few moderns, implicit followers of his opinions, deny that man is naturally a gregarious or affociating animal. To render this notion confiftent with the aaual and univerfal ftate of the human race, thefe au- thors have had recourfe to puerile conceits, and to queftion- able faas, which it would be fruitlefs to relate. Other writ- ers, poffeffed of greater judgment and difcernment, and lefs warped with vanity and hypothetical phantoms, have deriv- ed the origin of fociety from its real and only fource, Nature herfelf. That the affociating principle is inftinaive hardly requires a proof. An appeal to the feelings of any human being, and to the univerfal condition of mankind, is fufficient. Thefe feelings, it may be faidjVe acquired by education and habit. By thefe caufes, it is true, our fecial feelings are ftrengthen- •d and confirmed ; but their origin is coeval* with the exift- ence of the firft human mind. Let any man attend to the eyes, the features, and the geftures of a child upon the breaft, 420 THE PHILOSOPHY when another child is prefented to it ; both inftantly, pre- vious to the poffibility of inftruaion or habit, exhibit the moft evident expreffions of joy. Their eyes fparkle, their features and geftures demonftrate, in the moft unequivoca- ble manner, a mutual attachment, and a ftrong defire of ap- proaching each other, not with a hoftile intention, but with an ardent affeaion, which, in that pure and uncontaminated ftate of our being, does honour to human nature. When Farther advanced, children who are ftrangers to each other, though their focial appetite is equally ftrong, difcover a mu- tual fhynefs of approach. This fhynefs or modefty, how- ever, is foon conquered by the more powerful inftina of aflbciation. They daily mingle and fport together. Their natural affeaions, which, at that period, are ftrong, and un- biaffed by thofe felfifh and vicious motives which too often conceal and thwart the intentions of Nature, create warm friendfhips that frequently continue during their lives, and produce the moft beneficial and cordial effeas. When we thus fee with our eyes, that the affociating principle appears at a period much more early than many of our other inftinas, who will liften to thofe writers who choofe to deny that man is, naturally, an affociating or gregarious animal ? With regard to the advantages we derive from aflbcia- tion, a volume would not be fufficient to enumerate them. Man, from the comparatively great number of inftinas with which his mind is endowed, neceffarily poffefles a portion of the reafoning faculty highly fuperior to that of any other ani- mal. He alone enjoys the power of communicating and ex- preffing his ideas by articulate and artificial language. This ineftimable prerogative is, perhaps, one of the greateft fecon- dary bonds of fociety, and the greateft fource of improvement to the human intellea. Without artificial language, though Nature has beftowed on every animal a mode of expreffing its wants and defires, its pleafures and pains, what an humil- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 421 iating figure would the human fpecies exhibit, even upon the fuppofition that they did affociate ? But, when language and affociation are conjoined, the human intellea, in the progrefs of time, arrives at a high degree of perfeaion. Society gives rife to virtue, honour, government, fubordination, arts, fcience, order, happinefs. All the individuals of a com- munity condua themfelves upon a regulated fyftem. Under the influence of eftablifhed laws, kings and magi Urates, by the exercife of legal authority, encourage virtue, reprefs vice, and diffufe, through the extent of their jurifdiaions, the hap- py effeas of their adminiftration. In fociety, as in a fertile climate, human talents germinate and are expanded ; the mechanical and liberal arts flourifh; poets, orators, hoftori- ans, philofophers, lawyers, phyficians, and theologians, are produced. Thefe truths are pleafant; and it were to be wifhed that no evils accompanied them. But, through the whole extent of Nature, it fhould appear, from our limited views, that good and evil, pleafure and pain, are neceffary and perpetual concomitants. The advantages of fociety are immenfe and invaluable. But the inconveniencies, hardfhips, injuftice, oppreffions, and cruelties, which too often originate from it are great and la- mentable. Even under the mildeft and beft regulated gov- ernments, animofities, jealoufies, avarice, fraud, and chicane, are unfortunately never removed from our obfervation. In abfolute monarchies, and particularly in defpotic govern- ments, the fcenes of private and of general calamity and dif- trefs are often too dreadful to be defcribed. Notwithftand- ing all thefe difadvantages, however, any government is pre* ferable to anarchy; and the comforts, pleafures, and improve- ments, we receive from affociating with each other, overbal- ance all the evils to which fociety gives rife. From an attentive obfervation of the manners and oecono- my of animals, fociety has been diftinguifhed into two kinds, E e e 422 THE PHILOSOPHY which have been called proper, and improper. 1. Proper Secteheii comprehend all thofe animals who not only live together in numbers', but carry on certain operations which have a direa tendency to promote the welfare and happinefs of the com- munity. 2. Improper Societies, include all thofe animals who herd together, and love the company of each other, without carrying on any common operations. 1. Proper Societies.—It is almoft needlefs to remark that man holds the firft rank in animal affociations of this kind. If men did not affift each other, no operation of any magni- tude, or which could fhow any great fuperiority of talents above thofe of the brute creation, could poflibly be effeaed. A fingle family, or even a few families united, like other car- nivorous animals, might hunt their prey, and procure a fuf- ficient quantity of food. They might like the bear, lodge in the cavities of trees; they might occupy natural caves in the rocks ; they might even build huts with branches of trees and with turf, and cement thefe grofs materials with clay. This lowed and moft abjea view of human nature is not ex- aggerated. It were to be wifhed that this grovelling condi- tion of mankind were fiaitious, and that, in many regions of the globe, it did not, at this moment, exift. Thefe opera- tions of men, when only acquainted with the mere rudiments of fociety, indicate parts little fuperior to thofe of the brutes. Man, even in his moft uninformed ftate, poffeffes the in- ftinas, or the germs, of every fpecies of knowledge and of genius. But they muft be cherifhed, expanded, and brought gradually to perfeaion. It is by numerous and regularly eftablifhed focieties alone that fuch glorious exhibitions of human intellea can he produced. What is the hut of a favage when compared to the palace of a prince ? or what his canoe when compared to a firft rate fhip of war ? Next to the intelligence exhibited in human fociety, that of the beavers is the moft confpicuous. Their operations in OF NATURAL HISTORY. 423 preparing, fafhioning, and tranfporting, the heavy materials for building their winter habitations, as formerly remarked*, are truly aftonifhing ; and, when we read their hiftory, we are apt to think that we are perufing the hiftory of man in a period of fociety not inconfiderably advanced. It is only by the united ftrength, and co-operation of numbers, that the beavers could be enabled to produce fuch wonderful effeas ; for, in a folitary ftate, as they at prefent appear in fome northern parts of Europe, the beavers, like folitary favages', are timid and ftupid animals. They neither affociate, nor attempt to conftrua villages, but content themfelves with digging holes in the earth. Like men under the oppreffion of defpotic governments, the fpirit of the European beavers is depreffed, and their genius is extinguifhed by terror, and by a perpetual and neceffary attention to individuul fafety. The northern parts of Europe are now fo populous, and the animals there are fo perpetually hunted for the fake of their furs, that they have no opportunity of affociating ; of courfe, thofe wonderful remarks of their fagacity, which they exhib- it in the remote and uninhabited regions of North America, are no longer to be found. The fociety of beavers is a fo- ciety of peace and of affeaion. - They never quarrel or in- jure one another, but live together in different numbers, ac- cording tO the dimenfions of particular cabins, in the moft perfea harmony. The principle of their union is neither monarchical nor defpotic. For the inhabitants of the differ- ent cabins, as well as thofe of the whole village, feem to ac- knowledge no chief or leader whatever. Their aflbciation prefents to our obfervation a model of a pure and perfea re- public, the only bafis of which is mutual and unequivocal at- tachment. They have no law but the law of love and of pa- rental affeaion. Humanity prompts us to wifh that it were poffible to eftablifh republics of this kind among mankind. • See above, page 313, &c. 424 THE PHILOSOPHY But the difpofitions of men have little affinity to thofe of th» beavers. The hampfter, or German marmot, and fome other quad- rupeds of this kind, live in fociety, and affift each other in digging and rendering commodious their fubterraneous hab- itations. The operations of the marmots have already been defcribed ; and the nature of their fociety, as they continue during the winter in a torpid ftate, is either lefs known, or does not excite fo much admiration as that of the beavers. Pairing birds, in fome meafure, may be confidered as forming proper focieties -, becaufe, in general, the males and females mutually affift each other in building nefts and feed* ing their young. But this fociety, except in the eagle tribes, commonly continues no longer than their mutual offspring are fully able to provide for themfelves. None of the feath- ered tribes, as far as we know, unite in bodies, in order to carry on any operation common to the whole. Neither do we learn from hiftory that fifhes ever affociate for the purpofe of executing any common operation. Many of them, as herrings, falmons, &c. affemble in multitudes at particular feafons of the year ; but this affociation, to which they are impelled by inftina, has no common objea ; for each individual is flimulated to aain this manner by its own motives, and no general effea is produced by mutual exer- tions. In proper focieties, each individual not only attends to his own prefervation and welfare, but all the members co-ope- rate in certain laborious offices which produce many common advantages that could not otherwife be procured. In fome focieties, the general principle of aflbciation and of mutual labour is purely inftinaive, though, in many cafes, individu- als learn, by obfervation and experience, to modify or acr commodate this general principle according to particular ac- cidents or circumftances; fome examples of which have al- ready been given in the chapter upon inftina. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 42j V The infea tribes furnifh many inftances of proper fo* cieties. The honey-bees not only labour in common wkh aftonifhing affiduity and art, but their whole attention and affeaions feem to centre in the perfon of the queen or fov- ereign of the hive. She is the bafis of their aflbciation and of all their operations. When fhe dies by any accident, the whole community are inftantly in diforder. All their labours ceafe. No new cells are conftruaed. Neither honey nor wax are colleaed. Nothing but perfea anarchy prevails, till a new queen or female is obtained. The government or fociety of bees is more of a monarchical than of a republican nature. The whole members of the ftate feem to refpea and to be direaed by a fingle female. This faa affords a ftrong inftance of the force and wifdom of Nature. The female alone is the mother of the whole hive, however nu- merous. Without her the fpecies could not be continued. Nature, therefore, has endowed the reft of the hive with a wonderful affeaion to their common parent. For the recep- tion of her eggs Nature impels them to conftrua cells, and to lay up flores of provifions for winter fubfiftence. Thefe operations proceed from pure inftinaive impulfes. But every inftina neceffarily fuppofes a degree of intellea, a fubftratum to be aaed upon, otherwife no impulfe could be felt, and of courfe, no aaion nor mark of intelligence could poflibly be produced. That the intelligence, the government, and the fagacity of bees, have been frequently exaggerated, and as frequeutly mifunderftood, no real philofopher, or natural hiftorian, will pretend to deny. But the late ingenious Count de Buffon, through the whole of his great work, betrays the ftrongeft inclination to deny that brutes, even thofe which are efteem- ed to be the moft fagacious, as the dog, the elephant, &c. not to mention the inferior tribes, as birds, fifhes, and infeas, are endowed with the fmalleft portion of mind or intellea, \ 426 THE PHILOSOPHY but that all their movements, their expreffions, their defires, their arts, are folely the refults of mechanical impulfes. The Count is peculiarly fevere in his declamations againft the fagacity of the honey-bees, and the celebrators of their oeconomy and manners. < The genius of folitary bees,' he remarks, < is vaftly inferior to that of the gregarious fpecies; and the, talents of thofe which affociate in fmall troops are lefs confpicuous than of thofe that affemble in nume- rous bodies. Is not this alone fufficient to convince us, that the feeming genius of bees is nothing but a refult of pure me- chanifm, a combination of movements proportioned to num- bers, an effea which appears to be complicated, only be- caufe it depends on thoufands of individuals ? It muft, therefore, be admitted, that bees, taken feparately, have lefs genius than the dog, the monkey, and moft other animals : It will likewife be admitted, that they have lefs docility, lefs attachment, and lefs fentiment ; and that they poffefs fewer qualities relative, to thofe of the human fpecies." Hence we ought to acknowledge, that their apparent in- telligence proceeds folely from the multitude united. This union, however, prefuppofes not intelleaual powers •, for they unite not from moral views : They find themfelves together without their confent. This fociety, therefore, is a phyfical affemblage ordained by Nature, and has no de- pendence on knowledge or reafoning. The mother bee produces at one time, and in the fame place, ten thoufand individuals, which, though they were much more ftupid than I have fuppofed them, would be obliged, folely for the prefervation of their exiftence, to arrange themfelves into fome order. As they all aa againft each other with equal forces, fuppofing their firft movements to produce pain, they would foon learn to diminifh this pain, or, in other words, to afford mutual afllftance : They, of courfe, would OF NATURAL HISTORY. 427 « Exhibit an air of intelligence, and of concurring in the ae- icomplifhment of the fame end. A fuperficial obferver t would inftantly afcribe to them views and talents which t they by no means poffefs: He would explain every aaion : «Every operation would have its particular motive, and pro- < digies of reafon would arife without number ; for ten < thoufand individuals produced at one time, and obliged to «live together, muft all aa in the very fame marinrr ; and, < if endowed with feeling, they muft acquire the fame habits, < affume that arrangement which is the leaft painful, or the < moft eafy to themfelves, labour in their hive, return after 1 leaving it, &c. Hence the origin of the many wonderful ' talents afcribed to bees, fuch as their architeaure, their ' geometry, their order, their forefight, their patriotifm, and, « in a word, their republic, the whole of which, as I have «proved, has no exiftence but in the imagination of the ob- ' ferverV • That this mode of reafoning fhould have been ferioufly adopted by fo great a literary charaaer as that of the Count de Buffon, is truly aftonifhing. The fubftance of the argu- ment is, that ten thoufand bees, or other gregarious infeas, when brought into exiftence at the fame time, and in the fame place, muft neceffarily by the inconvenience or pain arifing from mutual preffure, affume an arrangement, and conftrua commodious and artful habitations for the whole community. I hate polemical argumentation ; and philofo- phical abfurdities are the moft difficult to refute. If ten thoufand butterflies, or any other flies, whofe inftinaive or mental powers differed from thofe of the bee, fhould be brought forth at the fame time, and in the fame place, which might be eafily effeaed by colleaing their chryfalids, would thefe animals, from the inconveniencies or pain they might fuffer by being crouded together, affume a proper arrange- • Tranflation, vol, 3, page *8j. 428 THE PHILOSOPHY ment, and build habitations fuited to their mutual comfort and prefervation ? No. If not allowed to efcape from their prefent fituation, they would fuffocate each other ; and, if any of them were permitted to get out of their prifon, inftead of returning, like the bees, they would avoid it with as much horror as a perfon who had made his efcape from the Black Hole of Calcutta. No declamatory reafoning, however fpe- cious, will ever change the nature of truth. Without fome portion of intellea, or what is fynonimous, of mental powers, how fhould the different kinds of bees in the fame hive be induced to perform fo many different operations ? While fome are bufily employed at home in the conftruaion of cells, others are equally induftrious in the fields colleaing materials for carrying on the work. They are no fooner relieved from their load by their companions and fellow-la- bourers in the hive, than they again repair to the fields, and, with perfevering induftry, fly from flower to flower till they have amaffed another load of materials, which they immediately tranfport to the hive. In this laborious office they perfift for many hours every day when the weather permits. Will any man pretend to affert, that thefe, and many fimilar operations performed by bees, are the refults of mechanical impulfes* ? Are bees, when colleaing honey, and the farina of flowers, at great diftances from the hive, compelled by the mechanical preffure of multitudes, to af- fume a certain arrangement, and all of them to aa in the fame manner ? Can any animal be poffeffed of more liber- ty, or be more free from mechanical reftraint than a bee while roaming at large in the fields ? Befides, what fhould force a bee, while wallowing in luxury, to return fo repeatedly to the hive with no other view than to feed its companions, or to furnifh them with materials for their work ? Here every idea of mechanical impulfe is utterly excluded. That bees, • For feveral curious operations of bees, which it will be difficult to recon- cile with any principles of mechanifm, the reader may confult page 336, &c. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 429 as well as other animals, are aauated by motives, or impulfes, it is willingly allowed. But thefe are not mechanical impul- fes. They are the wife and irrefiftible impulfes of Nature upon their minds'. If bees did not affociate, and mutually affift one another in their various operations, the fpecies would foon be annihilated. Not one of them, it is probable, would furvive the firft winter. But Nature ever felicitous for the prefervation of her produaions, has endowed their minds with an affociating principle, and with inftinas which ftimulate them to perform all thofe wonderful operations that are neceffary for the exiftence of individuals, and the continuation of the fpecies. What are called the common caterpillars afford an inftance of proper affociation. About the middle of fummer, a butter- fly depofits from three to four hundred eggs on the leaf of a tree, from each of which, in a few days, a young caterpil- lar proceeds. They are no fooner hatched than they begin to form a common habitation. They fpin filken threads, which they attach to one edge of the leaf, and extend them to the other. By this operation they make the two edges of the leaf approach each other, and form a cavity refem- bling a hammock. In a fhort time, the concave leaf is com- pletely roofed with a covering of filk. Under this tent the animals live together in mutual friendfhip and harmony. When not difpofed to eat or to fpin, they retire to their tent. It requires feveral of thefe habitations to contain the whole. According as the animals increafe in fize, the number of their tents is augmented. But thefe are only temporay and partial lodgements, conftruaed for mutual conveniency, till the caterpillars are in a condition to build one more fpacious, and which will be fufficient to contain the whole. After gnawing one half of the fubftance of fuch leaves as happen to be near the end of fome twig or fmall branch, they begin their great work. In conftruaing this new edifice or neft, F f f •130 THE PHILOSOPHY the caterpillars encruft a confiderabie part of the twig with white filk. In the fame manner, they cover two or three of fuch leaves as are neareft to the termination of the twig. They then fpin filken coverings of greater dimenfions, in which they inclofe the two or three leaves together with the twig. The neft is now fo fpacious that it is able to contain the whole community, every individual of which is employ- ed in the common labour. Thefe nefts are too frequently feen, in autumn, upon the fruit-trees of our gardens. They are ftill more expofed to obfervation in winter, when the leaves, which formerly concealed many of them, are fallen. They confift of large bundles of white filk and wither- ed leaves, without any regular or conftant form. Some of them are flat, and others roundifh ; but none of them are deftitute of angles. By different plain coverings extended from the oppofite fides of the leaves and of the twig, the in- ternal part of the neft is divided into a number of different apartments. To each of thefe apartments, which feem to be very irregular, there are paffages by which the caterpillars can either go out in queft of food, or retire in the evening, or during rainy weather. The filken coverings, by repeated layers, become at laft fo thick and ftrong, that they refifl all the attacks of the wind, and all the injuries of the air, dur- ing eight or nine months. About the beginning of Oaober, or when the froft firft commences, the whole community fhut themfelves up in the neft. During the winter they remain immoveable, and feemingly dead. But, when expofed to heat, they foon difcover fymptoms of life, and begin to creep. In this country, they feldom go out of the neft till the mid- dle or end of April. When they fhut themfelves up for the winter, they are very fmall ; but, after they have fed for fome days in fpring upon the young and tender leaves, they find the neft itfelf, and all the entrances to it, too fmall for the increafed fize of their bodies. To remedy this inconve- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 43| niency, thefe difgufting reptiles know how to enlarge both the neft and its paffages by additional operations accommor dated to their prefent ftate. Into thefe new lodgings they retire when they want to repofe, to fcreen themfelves from the injuries of the weather, or to caft their fkins. In fine, after cafting their fkins feveral times, the time of their dif- perfion arrives. From the beginning to near the end of June, they lead a folitary life. Their fecial difpofition is no longer felt. Each of them fpins a pod of coarfe brown- ifh filk. In a few days they are changed into chryfalids; and, in eighteen or twenty days more, they are transformed into butterflies. Caterpillars of another fpecies, which Reaumur diftinguifh- es by the appellation of the procefftonary caterpillar, live in fo- ciety till their transformation into flies. Thefe caterpillars are of the hairy kind, and are of a reddifh colour. They in- habit the oak, and feed upon its leaves. When very young, they have no fixed or general habitation. But, after they have acquired about one half of their natural fize, they af- femble together, and conftrua a neft fufficient to accommo- date the whole. The nefts of thefe caterpillars are attached to the trunks of the oak, and are fituated fometimes near the earth,and fometimes feven or eightfeet above its furface. They confift of different'ftrata, or layers, of filk, which are fpun by the united labour of the whole community. Their figure is neither ftriking nor uniform. On the part of the oak to which they are fixed they form a protuberance fimilar to thofe knots which are feen upon trees. This protuberance fometimes refembles a fegment of a circle, and fometimes it is three or four times longer than it is broad.' Some of thefe nefts are from eighteen to twenty inches long, and from five to fix inches wide. About the middle of their convexity, they of- ten rife more than four inches above the furface of the tree. 432 THE PHILOSOPHY Between the trunk of the tree and the layers of filk a fingle holeis left, to allow the animals to go out in queft of food, and to retire into the neft after they are fatiated. Notwith- ftanding the great bulk of thefe nefts, and though there are often three or four of them upon the fame tree, and never elevated above the height of diftina vifion, they are not eafily perceived ; for the filk of which they are compofed is cinereous, and refembles, in colour, thofe moffes with which the trunk of the oak is generally covered. The inhabitants of a neft, which are numerous, march out, about the fetting of the fun, to forage, under the condua of a chief or leader, all whofe movements they uniformly fol- low. The order they obferve is fingular. The firft rank confifts of fingle animals, the fecond of two, the third of three, the fourth of four, and fometimes more. In this man- ner they proceed in queft of food with all the regularity of difciplined troops. The chief or leader has no marks of pre-eminence ; for any individual that happens firft to iffue from the neft, from that circumftance alone, becomes the leader of an expedition. After making a full repaft upon the neighbouring leaves, they return to the neft in the fame regular order ; and this praaice they continue during the whole period of their exiftence in the caterpillar ftate. It was from this ftrange regularity of movement that Reaumur, with much propriety, denominated thefe animals procefftonary caterpillars . When arrived at maturity, each individual fpins a filken pod, is converted into a chryfalis, and after- wards affumes the form of a butterfly. This laft transform mation breaks all the bonds of their former affociation, and the female flies depofit their eggs, which, when hatched, produce new colonies, who exhibit the fame oeconomy and manners. There are feveral fpecies of caterpillars who are real re- publicans, and whofe difcipline, manners, and genius, are QTf NATURAL HISTORY. 433 equally diverfified as thofe of the inhabitants of different nations and climates. Some, like particular favages, con. ftrua a kind of hammocks, in which they take their viauals, repofe, and fpend their lives till the period of their tranf- formation. Others, like the Arabs and Tartars, conftrua and live in filken tents, and, after confuming the neighbour- ing herbage, they leave their former habitations, and encamp on frefh pafture. Under thefe tents they are not only pro- teaed from the injuries of the weather, but they repofe in them when fick, or in a ftate of inaaivity. They go out of their tents at particular times in queft of food, and often to confiderabie diftances •, but they never lofe their way back. It is not by fight that they are direaed with fo much cer- tainty to their abodes. Nature has furnifhed them with another guide for regaining their habitations. We pave our ftreets with ftones ; but the caterpillars cover all their roads with filken threads. Thefe threads make white tracks, which are often more than a fixth of an inch wide. It is by following thefe filken tracks, however complicated, that the caterpillars never mifs their nefts. If the road is broke by a man's finger drawn along k, or by any other accident, the caterpillars are greatly embarraffed. They ftop fudden- ly at the interrupted fpace, and exhibit every mark of fear and of diffidence. Here the march ftops, till an individual, more bold or more impatient than his companions, traverfes the gap. In his paffage, he leaves behind him a thread of filk, which ferves as a bridge or conduaor to the next that; follows. By the progreffion of numbers, each of which fpins a thread, the breach is foon repaired. We cannot fup- pofe that thefe ftupid animals cover their roads to prevent their wandering. But they never wander, becaufe their roads are covered with filk. In this, as well as in many other inftances, Nature obliges animals to embrace the moft ejleaual means of felf-prefervation, and even of conve* 434 THE PHILOSOPHY niency, without their perceiving the utility of their own ope-. rations. The caterpillars, whofe manners we have been de; fcribing, fpin almoft continually, becaufe they are continual- ly obliged to evacuate a filky matter, fecreted from their food by veffels deftined for that purpofe, and included in their inteftines. In obeying this call of Nature, they effec- tually fecure their retreat to their neft, and perhaps their exiftence. It may be faid, that caterpillars affociate for no other reafon but becaufe they are all produced at the fame time from eggs depofited near each other. But many other fpecies of caterpillars, who are brought to life in the very fame circumftances, never affociate or aa in concert in the perfoAnance of any mutual labour. The filk-worms afford a fimilar example. It is true, they fpontaneoufly remain aflembled in the fame place, which is of great advantage to manufaaure. But the individuals of other fpecies difperfe immediately after birth, and never re-unite. Spiders, when newly hatched, begin with fpinning a web in common ; but they foon terminate this affociation by devouring one another. As caterpillars do not engender till they arrive at the but- terfly ftate, their affociations have no refpea to the rearing or education of young. Self-prefervatipn and individual conveniency are the only bonds of their union. A perfea equality reigns among them, without any diftinaion of fex, or even of fize. Each takes his fhare of the common labour; and the whole fociety, which conftitutes but one family, is the genuine ^ffue of the fame mother. The affociation and oeconomy of the common ants merit fome attention. With wonderful induftry and aaivity they collea materials for the conftruaion of their neft. They unite in numbers, and affift each other in excavating the earth, and in tranfporting to their habitation bits of ftraw, fmall pieces of wood, and other fubftances of a fimilar kind, which they employ in lining and fupporting their fubterra- OF* NATURAL HISTORY. 435 heoils galleries. The form of their neft or hill is fomewhat conical, and, of courfe, the water, when it rains, runs eafily off, without penetrating their abode. Under this hill there are many galleries or paffages which communicate with each other, and refemble the ftreets of a fmall city. The ants not only affociate for the purpofe of conftrua- ing a common habitation, but for cherifhing and proteaing their offspring. Every perfort muft have often obferved, when part of a neft is fuddenly expofed, their extreme fo- licitude for the prefervation of their chryfalids or nymphs, which often exceed the fize of the animals themfelves. With amazing dexterity and quicknefs the ants tranfport their nymphs into the fubterraneous galleries of the neft, and place them beyOnd the reach of any common danger. The courage and fortitude with which they defend their young is no lefs aftonifhing. The body of an ant was cut through the middle, and, after fuffering this cruel treatment, fo ftrong was its parental affeaion, with its head, and orte half of the body, it carried off eight or ten nymphs. They go to great diftances in fearch of provifions. Their roads, which are often winding and involved, all terminate in the neft. The wifdom and forefight of the ants have been celebrat- ed from the remoteft antiquity. It has been afferted and be- lieved, for near three thoufand years, that they lay up maga- zines of provifions for the winter, and that they even cut off the germ of the grain to prevent it from fhooting. But the ancients were never famed for accurate refearches into the , nature and operations of infeas. Thefe fuppofed magazines could be of no ufe to the ants; for, like the marmots and dormice, they fleep during the winter. A very moderate degree of cold is fufficient to render them torpid. In faa, it is now well known that they amafs no magazines of pro- vifions. The grains which, with fo much induftry and la- 436 THE PHILOSOPHY bour, they carry to their neft, are not intended to be food to the animals, but, like the bits of ftraw and wood, are em- ployed as materials in the conftruaion of their habitation. 2. Improper Societies. Many animals are gregarious, though they unite not with a view to any joint operation, fuch as conftruaing common habitations, or mutually and indifcrim- inately nourifhing and proteaing the offspring produced by ,the whole fociety. But, even among animals of this defcrip- tion, there are motives or bonds of affociation, and, in many inftances, they mutually affift and defend each other from .hoftile affaults. The ox is a gregarious animal. When a herd of oxen are pafturing in a meadow, if a wolf makes his appearance, they .inftantly form themfelves in battle array, and prefent their united horns to the enemy. This warlike difpofition often intimidates the wolf, and obliges him to retire. In winter, the hinds and young flags affociate, and form herds, which are always more numerous in proportion to the feverity of the weather. One bond of their fociety feems to be the advantage of mutual warmth derived from each other's bodies. In fpring they difperfe, and the hinds con- ceal themfelves in the forefts, where they bring forth their young. The young flags, however, continue together ; they love to browfe in company; and neceffity alone forces them to feparate. The Count de Buffon reprefents fheep as ftupid creatures, which are incapable of defending themfelves againft the at- tacks of any rapacious animal. He maintains that the race muft long ago have been extinguiffied, if man had not tak- . en them under his immediate proteaion. But Nature has furnifhed every fpecies of animated beings with weapons and arts of defence which are fufficient for individual prefer- vation as well as the continuation of the kind. Sheep are endowed with a ftrong affociating principle. When threat- - OF NATURAL HrSTORY. 437 cned with an attack, like foldiers, they form a line of battle, ' and boldly face the enemy. In" a natural ftate, the rams conilitute one half of the flock. They join together and form the front. When prepared in this manner for repel- ling an affault, no lion or tiger can refift their united impet- uofity and force. A family of hogs, when in a ftate of natural liberty, never feparate till the young have acquired ftrength fufficient to repel the wolf. When a wolf threatens an attack, the whole family unite their forces, and bravely defend each other. The wild dogs of Africa hunt in packs, and carry on a perpetual war againft other rapacious animals. The jackals of Afia and Africa likewife hunt in packs. But, though ani- mals of this kind mutually affift each other in killing prey, individual advantage is the chief, if not the only bond of this temporary union. Another kind of fociety is obfervable among domeftic ani- mals. Horfes and oxen, when deprived of companions of their own fpecies, affociate, and difcover a vifible attachment. A dog and an ox, or a dog and a cow, when placed in cer- tain circumftances, though the fpecies are remote, and even hoftile, acquire a ftrong affeaion for each other. The fame kind of affociation takes place between dogs and cats, be- tween cats and birds, &c. If domeftic animals had a ftrong averfion to one another, man could not derive fo many ad- vantages from them. Horfes, oxen, fheep, &c. by browfing promifcuoufly together, augment and meliorate the common pafture^ By living under the fame roof, and feeding in com- mon, this affociating principle is ftrengthened and modified by habit, which often commences immediately after birth. A fingle horfe confined in an inclofure, difcovers every mark of uneafinefs. He becomes reftlefs, negleas his food, and breaks through every fence in order to join his companions G c g 4,38 THE PHILOSOPHY in a neighbouring field. Oxen and cows will not fatten in the fineft pafture, if they are deprived of fociety. From the faas and remarks contained m this chapter, it feems to be evident, that the principle of affociation in man, as well as in many other animals, is purely inftinftive * and that this principle may be flrengthened and modified by the numberlefs advantages derived from it, by imitation, by hab- it, and by many other circumftances. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 439 CHAPTER XVIL Of the Docility of Animals. Of all animals capable of culture, man is the moft duaile. By inftruaion, imitation, and habit, his mind may be moulded into any form. It may be exalted by fci- cnce and art to a degree of knowledge, of which the vulgar and uninformed have not the moft diftant conception. The reverfe is melancholy. When the human mind is left to its own operations, and deprived of almoft every opportunity of fecial information, it finks fo low, that it is nearly rivalled by the moft fagacjous brutes. The natural fuperiority of man over the other animals, as formerly remarked, is a neceffary refult of the great number of inftinas with which his mind is endowed. Thefe inftinas are gradually unfolded, and produce, after a mature age, reafon, abftraafon, invention, fcicnce. To confirm this truth, it would be fruitlefs to have recourfe to metaphyfical arguments, which generally miflead and bewilder human reafon. A diligent attention to the aaual operations of Nature is fufficient to convince any mind that is not warped and deceived by popular prejudice, the fetters of authorities, as they are called, whether ancient or modern, or by the vnnity of fupporting preconceived opinions and favourite theories. Let any man reffea on the progrefs of children from birth to manhood. At firft, their inftinas are limited to obfcure fenfations, and to the performance of a few corporeal aaions, to which they are prompted, or rath- er compelled, by certain ftimulating impulfes unnecefftry to be mentioned. In a few months, their fenfations are per- ceived to be more diftina, their bodily aaions are better di- verted, new inftinas are unfolded, and they affume a greater 440 THE PHILOSOPHY appearance of rationality and of mental capacity. When ftill farther advanced, and after they have acquired fome ufe of language, and fome knowledge of natural objeas, they begin to reafon •, but their reafonings are feeble, and often pre- pofterous. In this manner they uniformly proceed in imn provement till they are aauated by the laft inftina, at or near the age of puberty. After this period, they reafon with fome degree of perfpicuity and juftnefs. But, though their whole inftinas are now unfolded and in aaion, every power of their minds requires, previous to its utmoft exertions, to be agitated and polifhed by an examination of a thoufand natural and artificial objeas, by the experience and obferva- tions of thofe with whom they affociate, by public or private inftruaion, by ftudying the writings of their predeceffors and contemporaries, and by their own refleaions, till they ar- rive at the age of thirty-five. Previous to that period, much learning may have been acquired, much genius may have been exerted ; but, before that time of life, judgment, ab- ftraaion, and the reafoning faculty, are not fully matured. This progrefs is the genuine operation of Nature, and the gradual fource of human fagacity and mental powers. The fame progrefs is to be obferved in the powers of the body. It arrives, indeed, fooner at perfeaion than the mind. But, if the progrefs of the mind greatly preceded that of the body, what a miferable and aukward figure would human beings, at an early period of their exiftence, exhibit ? Aaive and vigorous minds, flimulated to command what the organs of their bodies were unable to obey, would produce peevifh- nefs, anger, regret, and every diftreffing paffion. The bodies of men. though not fo duaile as their minds, are capable, when properly managed by early culture, of wonderful exertions. Men, accuftomed to live in polifhed focieties, have little or no idea of the aaivity, the courage, the patience, and the perfevering induftry of favages, when OF NATURAL HISTORY. ill fimplv occupied in hunting wild animals for food to them- felves and their famili ss. The hunger, the fatigue, the hard- fhips, which they not only endure, but defpife with fortitude, would amaze and terrify the imagination of any civilized Eu- ropean. Befide man, many other animals are capable of being in- ftruaed. The ape-kind, and efpecially the larger fpecies of them, imitate the aaions of men without any inftruaion. This imitation they are enabled to perform with the greater > exaanefs, on account of their ftruaure. The orang-outang,^ a native of the fouthern regions of Africa and India, is as tafl *»•».- and as ftrong as a man. He has no tail. His face is flat. His arms, hands, toes, and nails, are perfeaiy fimilar to ours. He walks conftantly on end ; and the features of his vifage make a near approach to thofe of the human countenance. He has a beard on his chin, and no more hair on his body than men have when in a ftate of nature. He knows how to bear arms, to attack his enemies with ftones, and to de- fend himfelf with a club. Of all the apes, the orang-outang, or wild man, as he is called by the Indians, has the greateft refemblance to a man both in the ftruaure of his body and in his manners. There are two fuppofed fpecies of orang- outang, a larger and a fmaller. The latter has been feveral times brought to Europe, and accurate defcriptions have,-^ been given both to his external and internal parts. But, with regard to the larger kind, who is faid to exceed the or- -'. dinary ftature of man, we have nothing to rely on but the relations of travellers. Bontius, who was the chief Phyfician in Batavia, affirms exprefsly, that he faw, with admiration, feveral individuals of this fpecies walking on their two feet. Among others, he remarked a female, who feemed to have a fenfe of modefty, who covered her face with her hands when men approached her with whom fhe was unacquainted, who wept, groaned, and feemed to want nothing of humanity but 442 THE PHILOSOPHY the faculty of fpeech*. Many other furprifing aaions pem formed by this animal are recorded by different voyagers, \vhich it is unneceffary to repeat, efpecially as we have a fuf- ficient number of faas tittefted by unequivocal evidence. The Count de Buffon, with much probability, confiders what are called the large and fmall orang-outangs to be the fame fpecies of animals; for thofe hitherto brought to Europe \vere very young, and had not acquired one half of their ftature. < The orang-outang,' fays Buffon, « which I faw, walked ( always on two feet, even when carrying things of confider-r ( able weight. His air was melancholy, his movements meaf- 1 ured, his difpofitions gentle, and very different from thofe ? of other apes. lie had neither the impatience of the Bar- 1 bary ape, the malicioufnefs of the baboon, nor the extrav- f agance of the monkeys. It may be alledged that he had * the benefit of inftruaion ; but the apes, which I fhall com- ' pare with him, were educated in the fame manner. Signs c and words were alone fufficient to make our orang-outang * aa : But the baboon required a cudgel, and the other apes 1 a whip •, for none of them would obey without blows. I f have feen this animal prefent his hand to condua the peo- { pie who came to vifit him, and walk as gravely along { with them as if he had formed a part of the company. I ' have feen him fit down at a table, unfold his towel, wipe * his lips, ufe a fpoon or a fork to carry the viauals to his f mouth, pour his liquor into a glafs, and make it touch that f of the perfon who drank along with him. When invited \ to drink tea, he brought a cup and a faucer, placed them on *■ the table, put in fugar, poured out the tea, and allowed it * to cool before he drank it. All thefe aaions he perform- «ed without any other irrigation than the figns or verbal or- f ders of his mafter, and often of his own accord. He did n© * J.ic. Bont. Hift. Nat. Ind. cap. 32, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 413 «injury to any perfon : He even approached company with ' circumfpeaion, and prefented himfelf as if he wanted to be < careffed. He was very fond of dainties, which every body < gave him : And, as his breaft was difeafed, and he was « affliaed with a teazing cough, this quantity of fweetmeats « undoubtedly contributed to fhorten his life. He lived one < fummer in Paris, and died in London the following winter. c He eat almoft every thing •, but preferred ripe and dried 1 fruits to all other kinds of food. He drank a little wine } ' but fpontaneoufly left it for milk, tea,' or other mild li- f quors*.' M. de la Broffe purchafed two orang-outangs from a Ne- gro, whofe age exceeded not twelve months. * Thefe ani- ' mals,' he remarks, * have the inftina of fitting at table c like men. They eat every kind of food without diftinc- < tion. They ufe a knife, a fork, or a fpoon, to cut or lay 1 hold of what is put upon their plate. They drink wine ' and other liquors. We carried them abroad. At table, f when they wanted any thing, they made themfelves be un- ( derftood by the cabin-boy : And, when the boy refufed to 1 give them what they demanded, they fometimes became en- f raged, feized him by the arm, bit, and threw him down. < The male was feized with ficknefs on the road. He made ' himfelf be attended as a human being. He was even twice « bled in the right arm : And, whenever he found himfelf f afterwards in the fame condition, he held out his arm to « be bled, as if he knew that he had formerly received bene- c fit from that operation.' We are informed by Francis Pyrard, ' that, in the pro- 1 vince of Sierra-Leona, there is a fpecies of animals called < baris, (the orang-outang,) who are ftrong and well limbed, « and fo induftrious, that, when properly trained and fed, 1 they work like fervants; that they generally walk on the • Buffon, vol. 8. page 86, tranf. 444 THE PHILOSOPHY ' two hind-feet ; that they pound any fubftances in a mor- ..' tar ', that they go to bring water from the river in fmall * pitchers, which they carry full on their heads. But, when ' they arrive at the door, if the pitchers are not foon taken 1 off, they allow them to fall ; and, when they perceive the c pitcher overturned and broken, they weep and lament*.' With regard to the education of thefe animals, the teftiniony of Schoutton correfponds with that of Pyrard. «They are 1 taken,' fays he, « with fnares, taught to walk on their hind- « feet, and to ufe their fore-feet as hands in performing dif- * ferent operations, as rinfing glafles, carrying drink round 1 the company, turning a fpit,' &c. f Guat informs us, that he * faw at Java a very extraordinary ape. It was a female. ' She was very tall, and often walked erea on her hind-feet. * On thefe occafions, fhe concealed with her hands the parts * which diftinguifh the fex. She made her bed very neatly * every day, lay upon her fide, and covered herfelf with the 1 bed-clothes. When her head ached, fhe bound it up with * her handkerchief •, and it was amufing to fee her thus * hooded in bed. I could relate many other little articles * which appeared to be extremely fingular. But I admired * them not fo much as the multitude ; becaufe, as I knew the * defign of bringing her to Europe to be exhibited as a fhew, '«I was inclined to think that fhe had been taught many of «thefe monkey tricks, which the people confidered as being * natural to the animal. She died in our fhip, about the lati- «tude of the Cape of Good Hope. The figure of this ape « had a very great refemblance to that of manj.' We have now enumerated the principal faas regarding this extraordinary animal, which have been related by voyag- ers of credit, and by thofe who have feen and examined him in • Voyages de Francois Pyrard, torn. I. page 331. f Voyages de Schoutton' aux Indes Orientales. $ Voyages de Fran, le Guat, torn. %. page 96. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 445 Europe; and fhall only remark, that, notwithftanding the great fimilarity of his ftruaure and organs to thofe of the hu- man fpecies, his genius and talents feem to be very limited. The form of his body enables him to imitate every human aaion. But, though he has the organs of fpeech, he is deftitute of articulate language. If, however, he were domefticated, and proper pains beftowed for inftruaing him, he might unques- tionably be taught to articulate. But, fuppofing this point to be obtained, if he remained incapable of reffeaion, if he was unable to comprehend the meaning of words, or to difcover by his expreffions a degree of intellea greatly fuperior to th it of the brute creation, which I imagine would be the cafe, he could never, as fome authors have held forth, be exalted to the diftinguifhed rank of human beings. Of all quadrupeds, of whofe hiftory and manners we have any proper knowledge, the elephant is the moft remarkable both for docility and understanding. Though his fize is enormous, and his members rude and difproportioned, which give him, at firft fight, the afpea of dullnefs and ftupidity, his genius is great, and his fagacious manners, and his fedate and colleaed deportment, are almoft incredible. He is the largeft and ftrongeft of all terreftrial animals. Though naturally brave, his difpofitions are mild and peaceable. He is an affociating animal, and feldom appears alone in the for- efts. When in danger, or when they undertake a depreda- tory expedition into cultivated fields, the elephants affemble in troops. The oldeft takes the lead ; the next in feniority brings up the rear ; and the young and the feeble occupy the center. In the forefts and folitudes they move with lefs precaution ; but never feparate fo far afunder as to render them incapable of affording each other mutual affiftance when danger approaches. A troop of elephants conftitutes a moft formidable band. Wherever they march, the foreft feems to fall before them. They bear down the branches H h h 446 THE PHILOSOPHY upon which they feed ; and, if they enter into an inclofure, they foon deftroy all the labours of the hufbandman. Their invafions are the more tremendous, as there is hardly any means of repelling them ; for, to attack a troop, when thus united, would require a little army. It is only when one or two elephants happen to linger behind the reft, that the hun- ters dare exert their art and ingenuity in making an attack ; for any attempt to difturb the troop would certainly prove fatal to the affailants. When an infult is offered, the ele- phants inftantly move forward againft the offender, tofs him in the air with their tufks, and afterwards trample him to pieces under their feet, or rather pillars of flefh and bone. Let not the cha.v.aer of.this noble and majeftic animal, however, be mifreprefented. With force and dignity he refents every affront; but, when not difturbed by petulence or aaual inju- ry, he never fhow's an hoftile intention either againft man or any other animal. Elephants live entirely on vegetables, and have no thirft for blood. Such is their fecial and generous difpofition, that, when an individual chances to meet with a luxurious fpot of pafture, he immediately calls to his com- panions, and invites them to partake of his good fortune. The elephant poffeffes all the fenfes in perfeaion : But, in the fenfe of touching, he excells all the brute creation. His trunk is the chief inftrument of this fenfe. In an ele- phant of fourteen feet high, the trunk is about eight feet long, and five feet and an half in circumference at the bafe. It is a large flefhy tube> divided through its whole extent by a feptum or partition. It is capable of motion in every di- reaion. The animal can fhorten or lengthen it at pleafure. It anfwers every purpofe of a hand ; for it grafps large ob- jeas with great force, and its extremity can lay hold of a fix- pence, or even of a pin. The trunk of the elephant affords him the fame means of addrefs as the ape. It ferves the pur- pofes of an arm and a hand. By this inftrument, the ele- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 44/ phant conveys large or fmall bodies to his mouth, places them on his back, embraces them faft, or throws them forci- bly to a diftance. In a ftate of nature and perfea freedom, the difpofitions of the elephant are neither fanguinary nor ferocious. They are gentle4 creatures, and never exert their ftrength, or employ their weapons, but in defending them- felves or proteaing their companions. Even when deprived of the inftruaion of men, they poffefs the fagacity of the beaver, the addrefs of the ape, and the acutenefs of the dog. To thefe mental talents are added the advantages of amaz- ing bodily ftrength, and the experience and knowledge he acquires by living at leaft two centuries. With his trunk he tears up trees. By a pufh of his body he makes a breach in a wall. To this prodigious ftrength he adds courage, prudence, and coolnefs of deportment. As he never makes an attack but when he receives an injury, he is univerfally beloved; and all animals refpea, becaufe none have any reaf- on to fear him. In all ages, men have entertained a venera- tion for this moft magnificent and fagacious of terreftrial creatures. The ancients regarded him as a miracle of Nature, and he is, in reality, one of her greateft efforts. But they have greatly exaggerated his faculties. Without hefitation, they have afcribed to him high intelleaual pov/ers and moral virtues. Pliny, ^Elian, Plutarch, and other authors of a more modern date, have beftowed on the elephant not only rational manners, but an innate religion, a kind of daily ador- ation of the fun and moon, the ufe of ablution before worfhip, a fpirit of divination, piety toward heaven and their fellow creatures, whom they affift at the approach of death, md, af- ter their deceafe, bedew them with tears, aud cover their bodies with earth. When tamed and inftruaed by man, the elephant is foon rendered the mildeft and moft obedient of all domeftic animals. He loves his keeper, careffes him, and r:.ii< ipates 448 THE PHILOSOPHY his commands. He learns to comprehend figns, and even to underftand the expreffion of founds. He diftinguifhes the tones of command, of anger, and of approbation, and regu- lates his aaions by his perceptions. The voice of his maf- ter he never miftakes. His orders are executed with alacri- ty, but without any degree of precipitation. His movements are always meafured and fedate, and his charaaer feems to correfpond with the gravity of his mafs. To accommodate thofe who mount him, he readily learns to bend his knees. With his truuk he falutes his friends, ufes it for railing bur- dens, and affifts in loading himfelf. He loves to be clothed, and feems to be proud of gaudy trappings. In the fouthern regions, he is employed in drawing waggons, ploughs, and chariots. * I was eye-witnefs,' fays P. Philippe, ' to the fol- «lowing faas. At Goa, there are always fome elephants em- « ployed in the building of fhips. I one day went to the fide ( of the river, near which a large fhip was building in the 1 city of Goa, where there is a large area filled with beams ' for that purpofe. Some men tie the ends of the heavieft 1 beams with a rope, which is handed to the" elephant, who ' carries it to his mouth, and, after twitting it round his trunk, ' draws it, without any conduaor, to the place where the fhip f is building, though it had only once been pointed out to « him. He fometimes drew beams fo large that more than * twenty men would have been unable to move. But, what f furprifed me ftill more, when other beams obftruaed the « road, he elevated the ends of his own beams, that they might f run eafily over thofe which lay in his way. Could the moft »enlightened man do more *?' When at work, the elephant draws equally, and, if properly managed, never turns reftive. The man who conduas the animal generally rides on hjs neck, and employs a hooked iron rod, or bodkin, with which he pricks the head or fides of the ears, in order to pufh the * Y°yage d'Orient. page 367.. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 449 creature forward, or to make him turn. But words are com- monly fufficient. The attachment and affeaion of the ele- phant are fometimes fo ftrong and durable that he has been known to die of grief, when, in an unguarded paroxyfm of rage, he had killed his guide. Before the invention of gun-powder, elephants were em- ployed in war by the African and Afiatic nations. « From «time immemorial,' fays Schouten, * the Kings of Ceylon, « of Pegu, and of Aracan, have ufed elephants in war. Nak- < ed fabres were tied to their trunks, and on their backs « were fixed fmall wooden caftles, which contained five « or fix men armed with javelins, and other weapons *.' The Greeks and Romans, however, foon became acquainted with the nature of thefe monftrous warriors. They opened their ranks to let the animals pafs, and direaed all their weapons, not againft the elephants, but their conduaors. Since fire has now become the element of war, and the chief inftrument of deftruaion, elephants, who are terrified both at the flame and the noife, would be more dangerous than ufeful in our modern battles. The Indian Kings, however, ftill arm elephants in their wars. In Cochin, and other parts of Malabar, all the warriors who fight not on foot are mount- ed on elephants f. The fame praaice obtains in Tonquin, Siam, and Pegu. In thefe countries, the kings and nobles at public feftivals are always preceded and followed by nume- rous trains of elephants, pompoufly adorned with pieces of fhining metal, aud clothed with rich garments. Their tufks are ornamented with rings of gold and filver; their ears and cheeks are painted with various colours ; they are crowned with garlands •, and a number of fmall bells are fixed to dif- ferent parts of their bodies. They delight in gaudy attire; for they are chearful and careffing in proportion to the num- * Voyage de Schouten, page 32. f Thevenot, torn. 3. page 261. 450 THE PHILOSOPHY ber and fplendour of their ornaments. The Afiatics, who were very anciently civilized, perceiving the fagacity and do- cility of the elephant, educated him in a fyftematic manner, and modified his difpofitions according to their own man- ners, and the ufeful labours in which his ftrength and dexte- terity could be employed. A domeftic elephant performs more labour than could be accomplifhed by fix horfes •, but he requires much care and a great deal of food. He is fubjea to be over-heated, and muft be led to the water twice or thrice a-day. He eafily learns to bathe himfelf. With his trunk he fucks up large quantities of water, carries it to his mouth, drinks part of it, and, by elevating his trunk, makes the remainder run over every part of his body. To give fome idea of the la- bour he performs, and the docility of his difpofitions, it is worthy of remark, that, in India, all the bales, facks, and tuns tranfported from one place to another, are carried by elephants. They carry burdens on their bodies, their necks, their tufks, and even in their mouths, by giving them the end of a rope, which they hold faft with their teeth. Uniting fagacity with ftrength, they never break or injure any thing committed to their charge. From the margins of the riv- ers, they put weighty bundles into boats without wetting them, lay them down gently, and arrange them where they ought to be placed. When the goods are difpofed as their matters direa, they examine with their trunks whether the articles are properly flowed ; and, if a c^fk or tun rolls, they go fpontaneoufly in queft of ftones to prop and render it firm. In the elephant, the fenfe of fmelling is acute, and he is paffionately fond of odoriferous flowers, which he colkas one by one, forms them into a nofegay, and, after gratifying his nofe, conveys them to his mouth. OS NATURAL HISTORY. 451 In India, the domeftic elephants, to whom the ufe of water is as neceffary as that of air, are allowed every poffible con- veniency for bathing themfelves. The animal goes into a river till the water reaches his belly. He then lies down on one fide, fills his trunk feveral times, and dexteroufly throws the water on fuch parts as happen to be uncovered. The mafter, after cleaning and currying one fide, defires the ani- mal to turn to the other, which command he obeys with the greateft alacrity ; and, when both fides have been properly dinned, he comes out of the river, and ftands fome time on the b.uik to dry himfelf. The elephant, though his mafs be enormous, is an excellent fwimmer ; and, of courfe, he is of great ufe in the paffage of rivers. When employed on oc- cafions of this kind, he is often loaded with two pieces of cannon which admit three or four pound balls, befide great quantities of baggage and feveral men fixed to his ears and his tail. When thus heavily loaded, he fpontaneoufly enters the river and fwims over with his trunk elevated in the air for the benefit of refpiration. He is fond of wine and ar- dent fpirits. By ffiowing him a veffel filled with any of thefe liquors, and promifing him it as a reward of his labours, he is induced to exert the greateft efforts, and to perform the moft painful tafks. The elephant, as we are informed by M. de Buffey, quoted by the Count de Buffon, is employ- ed in dragging artillery over mountains, and, on thefe occa- Cons, his fagacity and docility are confpicuous. Horfes or oxen, when yoked to a cannon, make all their exertions to pull it up a declivity. But the elephant pufhes the breach forward with his front, and, at each effort, fupports the car- riage with his knee, which he places againft the wheel. He feems to underftand what his cornack, or conduaor, fays to him. When his conduaor wants him to perform any painful labour, he explains the nature of the operation, and gives the reafons which fhould induce him to obey. If the 452 THE PHILOSOPHY elephant fhows a reluaance to the talk, the cornack promis- es to give him wine, arrack, or any other article that he is fond of, and then the animal exerts his utmoft efforts. But to break any promife made to him is extremely dangerous. Many cornacks have fallen viaims to indifcretions of this kind. < At Dehan,' fays M. de Buffey, « an elephant, from * revenge, killed his cornack. The man's wife, who beheld e the dreadful fcene, took her two children, and threw them ' at the feet of the enraged animal, faying, Since you have Jlain s my hupand, take my life alfo, as well as that of my children. < The elephant inftantly flopped, relented, and, as if ftung ' with remorfe, took the oldeft boy in its trunk, placed him f on its neck, adopted him for his cornack, and would never * allow any other perfon to mount it.' From the members of the Royal Academy of Sciences, we learn fome curious faas with regard to the manners of the Verfailles elephant. This elephant, they remark, feem- ed to know when it was mocked, and remembered the affront till it had an opportunity of revenge. A man deceived it, by pretending to throw fome food into its mouth. The ani- mal gave him fuch a blow with its trunk as knocked him down, and broke two of his ribs. A painter wanted to draw the animal in an unufual attitude, with its trunk elevated, and its mouth open. The painter's fervant, to make it re- main in this pofition, threw fruits into its mouth, but gener- ally made only a faint of throwing them. This condua en- raged the elephant ; and, as if it knew that the painter was the caufe of this teazing impertinence, inftead of attacking the fervant, it eyed the matter, and fquirted at him from its trunk fuch a quantity of water as fpoiled the paper on which he was drawing. This elephant commonly made lefs ufe of its ftrength than its addrefs. It loofed, with great eafe and coolnefs, the buckle of a large double leathern ftrap, with which its leg was fixed ; and, as the fervants had OF NATURAL HISTORY. 453 wrapped the buckle round with a fmall cord, and tied many knots upon it, the creature, with much deliberation, loofed the whole, without breaking either the ftrap or the cord. It is remarked by le P. Vincent Marie, that the elephant, when in a domeftic ftate, is highly efteemed for his gentle- % nefs, docility, and friendfhip to his governour. When def- tined to the immediate fervice of princes, he is fenfible of his good fortune, and maintains a gravity of demeanour cor- refponding to the dignity of his fituation. But, if, on the contrary, lefs honourable labours are affigned to him, he grows melancholy, frets, and evidently difcovers that he is humbled and depreffed. He is fond of children, careffes them, and appears to difcern the innocence of their manners. The Dutch voyagers relate*, that by giving elephants what is agreeable to them, they are foon rendered perfeaiy tame and fubmiffive. They are fo fagacious, that they may be faid to be deftitute of the ufe of language only. They are proud and ambitious •, and they are fo grateful for good ufage, that, as a mark of refpea, they bow their heads in paffing houfes where they have been hofpitably received. They al- low themfelves to be led and commanded by a child; but they love to be praifed and careffed. When a wild elephant is taken, the hunters tie his feet, and one of them accofts and falutes him, makes apologies for binding him, protefts that no injury is intended, tells him, that, in his former con- dition, he frequently wanted food, but that, henceforward, he fhall be well treated, and that every promife fhall be per- formed to him. This foothing harangue is no fooner fin- ifhed than the elephant placidly follows the hunterf. From this faa, however, we muft not conclude that the ele- phant underftands language, but that, like the dog, he has a ftrong difcerning faculty. He diftinguifhes efteem from con- * Voyage de la Compagnie des Indes de Hollande, torn. i. page 413. f Voyage d'Orient, du P. Phillippe, page 366. I I i 451 THE PHILOSOPHY tempt, friendfhip from hatred, and many other emotions which are expreffed by human geftures and features. For this reafon, the elephant is more eafily tamed by mildnefs than by blows. < I have frequently remarked,' fays Edward Terry*, «that ' the elephant performs many aaions which feem to proceed * more from feafon than from inftina. He does every thing f that his matter commands. If he wants to terrify any per- f fon, he runs upon him with every appearance of fury, and, f when he comes near, ftops fhort, without doing the perfon ' the fmalleft injury. When the mafter choofes to affront any ' man, he tells the elephant, who immediately colleas water ' and mud with his trunk, and fquirts it upon the objea t pointed out to him. The Mogul keeps fome elephants ' < who ferve as executioners to criminals condemned to death. ' When the conduaor orders one of thefe animals to dif- 1 patch the poor criminals quickly, he tears them to pieces in * a moment with his feet: But, if defired to torment them f flowly, he breaks their bones one after another, and makes < them fuffer a punifhment as cruel as that of the wheel.' Next to the elephant, the dog feems to be the moft docile quadruped. A wild dog is a paffionate, ferocious, and fan- guinary animal. But, after he is reduced to a domeftic ftate, thefe hoftile difpofitions are fuppreffed, and they are fuc- ceeded by a warm attachment, and a perpetual defire of pleafing. The perceptions and natural talents of the dog are acute. When thefe are aided by inftruaion, the fagacity he difcovers, and the aaions he is taught to perform, often ex- cite our wonder. Thofe animals which man has taken un- der his immediate proteaion are taught to perform artificial aaions, or have their natural inftinas improved, by three modes of inftruaion, punifhment, reward, and imitation. More duaile in his nature than moft other animals, the dog • Terry's Voyage to the Eaft Indies, page 15, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 455 not only receives inftruaion with rapidity, but accommodates his behaviour and deportment to the manners and habits o£ thofe who command him. He affumes the very tone of the family in which he refides. Eager, at all times, to pieafe his mafter, or his friends, he furioufly repels beggars ; becaufe he probably, from their drefs, conceives them to be either thieves, or competitors for food. Though every dog, as well as every man, is naturally a hunter, the dexterity of both is highly improved by expe- rience and inftruaion. The varieties of dogs, by frequent intermixtures with thofe of different climates^ and perhaps with foxes and wolves, are fo great, and their inftinas are fo much diverfified, that, even though they produce with each other, we fhould be apt to regard them as different fpe- cies. What a difference between the natural difpofitions of the fhepherd's dog, the fpaniel, and the grey-hound ? The fhopherd's dog, independently of all inftruaion, feems to be endowed by Nature with an innate attachment to the prefer- vation of fheep and cattle. His docility is likewife fo great, that he not only learns to underftand the language and com- mands of the fhepherd, and obeys them with faithfulnefs and alacrity, but, when at diftances beyond the reach of his mas- ter's voice, he often ftops, looks back, and recognifes the ap- probation or difapprobation of the fhepherd by the mere waving of his hand. He reigns at the head of a flock, and is better heard than the voice of his mafter. His vigilance and aaivity produce order, difcipline, and fafety. Sheep and cattle are peculiarly fubjeaed to his management, whom he prudently conduas and proteas, and never employs force againft them, except for the prefervation of peace and good order. But, when the flock committed to his charge is at- tacked by the fox, or wolf, or other rapacious animals, he makes a full difplay of his courage and fagacity. In fitua- tions of this kind, both his natural and acquired talents are 456 THE PHILOSOPHY exerted. Three fhepherds dogs are faid to be a match for a bear, and four for a lion. Every perfon knows the docility and fagacity of fuch dogs as are employed in conduaing blind mendicants. Johannes Faber, as quoted by Mr. Ray, informs us, that he knew a blind beggar who was led through the ftreets of Rome by a middle fized dog. This dog, befide leading his mafter in fuch a manner as to protea him from all danger, learned to diftinguifh not only the ftreets, but the houfes where his mafter was accuftomed to receive alms twice or thrice a-week. Whenever the animal came to any of thefe ftreets, with which he was well acquainted, he would not leave it till a call had been made at every houfe where his mafter was ufually fuccefsful in his petitions. When the beggar began to afk alms, the dog, being wearied, lay down to reft ; but the mafter was no fooner ferved or refufed, than the dog rofe fpontaneoufly, and, without either order or fign, pro- ceeded to the other houfes where the beggar generally re- ceived fome gratuity. I obferved, fays he, not without plea- fure and furprife, that, when a halfpenny was thrown from a window, fuch was the fagacity and attention of this dog, that he went about in queft of it, lifted it from the ground with his mouth, and put it into his mailer's hat. Even when bread was thrown down, the animal would not tafte it, un- lefs he received a portion of it from the hand of his mafter. Without any other inftruaion than imitation, a maftiff, when accidentally fhut out from a houfe which his mafter frequented, uniformly rung the bell for admittance. Dogs can be taught to go to market with money, to repair to a known butcher, and to carry home the meat in fafety. They can be taught to dance to mufic, and to fearch for and find any thing that is loft*. • For thefe, and many other inftances of the fagacity and docility of the dog, thereader may confult Synopfis Quadrupedum a Joanne Raio, p. 6. &e. OF NATURAL HrSTORY. . 457 There is a dog at prefent belonging to a grocer in Edin- burgh, who has for fome time amufed and aftonifhed the people in the neighbourhood. A man who goes through the ftreets ringing a bell aud felling penny pies, happened one day to treat this dog with a pye. The next time he heard the pyeman's bell, he ran to him with impetuofhy, feized him by the coat, and would not fuffer him to pafs. The pyeman, who underftood what the animal wanted, fhow- ed him a penny, and pointed to his mafter, who flood in the ftreet-door, and faw what was going on. The dog immedi- ately fupplioated his mafter by many humble geftures and looks. The mafter put a penny into the dog's mouth, which he inftantly delivered to the pyeman, and received his pye. This traffick between the pyeman and the grocer's dog has been daily praaifed for months paft, and ftill continues. Dogs, horfes, and even hogs, by rewards and punifhments, and, I am afraid, often by cruelty, may be taught to perform aaions, as we have frequently feen in public exhibitions, which are truly aftonifhing. But of thefe we muft not enter into any detail. With regard to the horfe, the gentlenefs of his difpofi- tions, and the docility of his temper, are fo well and fo uni- verfally known, that it is unneceffary to dwell long upon the fubjea. To give fome idea of what inftruaion horfes re- ceive when in a domeftic ftate, we fhall mention fome traits of their form and manners when under no reftraints. In South America the horfes have multiplied prodigioufly, and, in that thinly inhabited country, live in perfea freedom. They fly from the prefence of man.. They wander about in troops, and devour, in immenfe meadows, the produaions of a perpetual fpring. Wild horfes are ftronger, lighter, and more nervous, than the generality of thofe which are kept in a domeftic ftate. Tbey are by no means ferocious. Though fuperior in ftrength to moft animals, they never 458 THE PHILOSOPHY make an attack. When affaulted, however, they either dif- dain the enemy, or ftrike him dead with their heels. They affociate in troops from mutual attachment, and neither make war with other animals nor among themfelves. As their appetites are moderate, and they have a few objeas to excite envy or difcord, they live in perpetual peace. Their manners are gentle, and their tempers focial. Their force and ardour are rendered confpicuous only by marks of emu- lation. They are anxious to be foremoft in the courfe, to brave danger in croffing a river, or in leaping a ditch or pre- cipice ; and, it is faid, that thofe horfes which are moft ad- venturous and expert in thefe natural exercifes, are, when domefticated, the moft generous, mild, and traaable. Wild horfes are taken notice of by feveral of the ancients. Herodotus mentions white wild horfes on the banks of the Hypanis in Scythia. He likewife tells us, that, in the north- ern part of Thrace, beyond the Danube, there were wild horfes covered all over with hair five inches in length. The wild horfes in America are the offspring of domeftic horfes originally tranfported thither from Europe by the Spaniards. The author of the hiftory of the Buccaneers* informs us, that troops of horfes, fometimes confifting of 500, are fre- quently met with in the ifland of St. Domingo ; that, when they fee a man, they all ftop; and that one of their number approaches to a certain diftance, blows through his noftrils, takes flight, and is inftantly followed by the whole troop. Ha defcribes them as having grofs heads and limbs, and long necks and ears. The inhabitants tame them with eafe, and then train them to labour. In order to take them, gins of ropes are laid in the places where they are known to frequent- When caught by the neck, they foon ftrangle themfelves, unlefs fome perfon arrive in time to difentangle them. They are tied to trees by the body and limbs, and are left in that * L'Hift. des Avanteur^ Flibuftiers, torn. I. page no. Ot NATURAL HISTORY. 45JJ fituation two days without viauals or drink. This treat- ment is generally fufficient to render them more traaable, and they foon become as gentle as if they had never been wild. Kvcn when any of thefe horfes, by accident, regain their liberty, they never refume their favage ftate, but know their mafters, and allow themfelves to be approached and re- taken. From thefe, and fimilar faas, it may be concluded, that the difpofitions of horfes are gentle, and that they are natur- ally difpofed to affociate with man. After they are tamed they never forfake the abodes of men. On the contrary, they are anxious to return to the flable. The fweets of hab- it feem to fupply all they have loft by flavery. When fa- tigued, the manfion of repofe is full of comfort. They fmell it at confiderabie diftances, can diftinguifh it in the midft of populous cities, and feem uniformly to prefer bondage to liberty. By fome attention and addrefs colts are firft ren- dered traaable. When that point is gained, by different modes of management, the docility of the animal is improv- ed, and they foon learn to perform with -dacrity the various labours affigned to them. The domeilication of the horfe is perhaps the nobleft acquifition from the animal world which has ever been made by the genius, the art, and the in- duftry of man. He is taught to partake of the dangers and fatigues of war, and feems to enjoy the glory of viaory. He encounters death with ardour and with magnanimity. He de- lights in the tumult of arms, and attacks the enemy with re- folutiou and alacrity. It is not in perils and conflias alone that the horfe co-operates with the difpofitions of his mafter. He even feems to participate of human pleafures and amufe- ments. He delights in the chafe and the tournament, and his eyes fparkle with emulation in the courfe. Though bold .and intrepid, however, he does not allow himfelf to be hur- ried on by a furious ardour. On proper occafions, he re- 460 FHE PHILOSOPHY preffei his movements, and knows how to check the natural fire of his temper. He not only yields to the hand, but feems to confult the inclination of his rider. Always obe- dient to the impreffions he receives, he flies or ftops, and regulates his motions folely by the will of his mafter. Mr. Ray, who wrote about the end of laft century, in- forms us, that he had feen a-horfe who danced to mufic, » who, at the command of his mafter, affeaed to be lame, who fimulated death, lay motionlefs with his limbs extended, and allowed himfelf to be dragged about, till fome words were pronounced, when he inftantly fprung upon his feet*. Fatts of this kind would fcarcely receive credit, if every perfon were not now acquainted with the wonderful docility of the horfes educated by Aftley, and other public exhibitors of horfemanffiip. In exhibitions of this kind, the docility and prompt obedience of the animals deferve more admiration than the dexterous feats of the men. Animals of the ox-kind, in a domeftic ftate, are dull and phlegmatic. Their fenfibility and talents feem to be very limited. But we fhould not pronounce rafhly concerning the genius and powers of animals in a country where their education is totally negleaed. In all the fouthern provinces of Africa and Afia, there are many wild bifons, or bunched oxen, which are taken when young and tamed. They are foon taught to fubmit, without refiftance, to all kinds of do- meftic labour. They become fo traaable, that they are managed with as much eafe as our horfes. The voice of their mafter is alone fufficient to make them obey, and to direa their courfe. They are fhod, curried, careffed, and fupplied abundantly with the beft food. When managed in this manner, thefe animals appear to be different creatures from our oxen. The oxen of the Hottentots are favourite domeftics, companions in amufements, affiftants in all labon- * Raii Synopfis Animalium Quadrupedunn. page io, OF NATURAL HISTORY. 461 ous cxercifes, and participate the habitation, the bed, and the table of their mafters. As their nature is improved by the gentlenefs of their education, by the kind treatment they receive, and the perpetual attention beftowed on them, they acquire fenfibility and intelligence, and perform aaions which one would not expea from them. The Hottentots , train their oxen to war. In all their armies there are con- fiderabie troops of thefe oxen, which are eafily governed, and arc let loofe by the chief when a proper opportunity occurs. They inftantly dart with impetuofity upon the enemy. They ftrike with their horns, kick, overturn, and trample under their feet every thing that oppofes their fury. They run ferocioufly into the ranks, which they foon put into the utmoft diforder, and thus pave the way for an eafy viaory to their mafters*. Thefe oxen are likewife inftruaed to guard the flocks, which they condua with dexterity, and defend them from the at- tacks of ftrangers, and of rapacious animals. They are taught to diftinguifh friends from enemies, to underftand fignals, and to obey the commands of their mafter. When paftur- ing, at the fmalleft fignal from the keeper, they bring back and colka the wandering animals. They attack all ftrangers with fury, which renders them a great fecurity againft rob- bers. Thefe brackeleys, as they are called, know every inhabi- tant of the kraal, and difcover the fame marks of refpea for all the men, women, and children, as a dog does for thofe who live in his matter's houfe. Thefe people may, there- fore, approach their cattle with the greateft fafety. But, if a ftranger, and particularly an European, fhould ufe the fame freedom, without being accompanied with one of the Hotten- tots, his life would be in imminent dangerf. • Voysge de Cap, par Kolbe, torn, r. page 160. f Voyage de Cap, par Kolbe, page 307. 462 THE.PHILOSOPHY Notwithftanding the many furprifing aaions which differ- ent quadrupeds may be taught to perform, none of them, though their organs are much more perfea than thofe of birds, have ever been able to pronounce articulate founds. But many birds, without much inftruaion, learn to pro- nounce words, and even fentences. In parrots, the diflin- guifhing accuracy of their ear, the acutenefs of their atten- tion, and their ftrong inftinaive propenfity to imitate founds of every kind, have juftly procured them univerfal admira- tion. When in a ftate of domeftication, the parrot learns to pronounce the common ftreet-calls, befide many words and phrafes occafionally employed by the family in which he re- fides. Though the limitation of his mental powers does not permit him to learn any extent of language, or the proper ufe and meaning of words, he not unfrequently difcovers the affociation between the objea and the found. A woman every morning paffed the window, where a parrot's cage was fixed, calling fait. The parrot foon learned to imitate the call. But, before any found could be heard, he no fooner caft his eye upon the woman than he uttered her ufual call. In this, and many other fimilar cafes, the objeas and the founds are evidently conneaed in the mind of the animal. How far thefe affociations might be carried by a patient and perfevering education, it is difficult to determine. In this manner, however, parrots might be taught a confiderabie vo- cabulary of fubftantive nouns, or the proper names of com- mon objeas. But his intellea, it is more than probable, would never reach the ufe of the verb, and other parts of fpeech. Befide parrots, jays, &c. who learn to pronounce articu- late founds, there is another race of birds whofe docility de- ferves to be mentioned. Singing birds, thofe lively and fpi- rited little animals, attempt not to articulate. But their mu- fical ears are as delicate and difcerning as their voices are OF NATURAL HISTORY. 463 melodious and delightful. The vivacity, the extent of voice, and the imitative powers of thefe beautiful creatures, have at all times excited the attention and conciliated the affeaions of mankind. When domefticated, thefe birds, befide their natural notes, foon acquire the faculty of finging confidera- bie parts of artificial tunes. Thefe imitations are efteas of natural inftina. But, in exhibitions, I have feen linnets fim- ulate death, and remain perfeaiy tranquil and unmoved, when fmall cannons were fired, within an inch of their bo- dies, from a wooden fort. Thefe little creatures have even been taught to lay hold of a match and fire the cannons themfelves. The docility and fagacity of animals have always been con- fidered as wonderful. But this wonder is partly the effea of inattention ; for, though man is unqueftionably the chief of the animal creation, the other animals, according to the number of inftinas, or, which amounts to the fame thing, according to the mental powers with which Nature has en- dowed them, comparatively approach to or recede from the fagacity and genius of the human fpecies. The whole is a graduated fcale of intelligence. A philofopher fhould, there- fore, contemplate and admire the whole, but fhould never be furprifed at any partial exhibitions of the general fcene of in- tellea and animation. We fhall conclude this fubjea with a few remarks concern- ing the changes produced in animals by domestication. Climate and food are the chief caufes which produce chang- es in the magnitude, figure, colour, and conftitution, of wild animals. But, befide thefe caufes, there are others which have an influence upon animals when reduced to a domeftic or unnatural ftate. When at perfea liberty, animals feem to have feleaed thofe particular zones or regions of the .lobe which are moft confonant to the nature and conftitutbn of each particular tribe. There they fpontaneoufly remain, and 464 THE PHILOSOPHY never, like man, difperfe themfelves over the whole furface of the earth. But, when obliged by man, or by any great revolution of Nature, to abandon their native foil, they un- dergo changes fo great, that, to recognife and diftinguifh them, recourfe muft be had to the moft accurate examina- tion. If we add to climate and food, thofe natural caufes of alteration in free animals, the empire of man over fuch of them as he has reduced to fervitude, the degree to which ty« ranny degrades and disfigures Nature will appear to be great- ly augmented. The mouflon, the ftock from which our do- meftic fheep have derived their origin, is comparatively a large animal. He is as fleet as a ftag, armed with horns and ftrong hoofs, and covered with coarfe hair. With thefe na- tural advantages, he dreads neither the inclemency of the fky, nor the voracity of the wolf. Bj the fwiftnefs of his courfej he not only efcapes from his enemies, but he is enabled to refift them by the ftrength of his body and the folidity of his arms. How different is this animal from our domeftic flieep, who are timid, weak, and unable to defend them- felves ? Without the proteaion of man, the whole race would foon be extirpated by rapacious animals and by win- ter-ftorms. In the warmeft climates of Africa and of Afia, the mouflon, who is the common parent of the fheep, appears to be lefs degenerated than in any other region. Though re- duced to a domeftic ftate, he has preferved his flature and his hair ; but the fize of his horns is diminifhed. The flieep of Barbary, Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, &c. have undergone greater changes ; and, in proportion as they approach toward either pole, they diminifh in fize, in ftrength, in fwiftnefs, and in courage. In relation to man, they are improved in fome ar- ticles, and vitiated in others. Their coarfe hair is converted into fine wool. But, with regard to Nature, improvement and degeneration amount to the fame thing ; for both imply an alteration of the original conftitution. OF NATURAL HISTORY, The ox is more influenced by nourifliment than any other domeftic animal. In countries where the pafture is luxuri- ant, the oxen acquire a prodigious fize. To the oxen of Ethiopia and and fome provinces of Afia, the ancients gave the appellation of Bull-elephants, becaufe, in thefe regions, they approach to the magnitude of the elephant. This effea is chiefly produced by the abundance of rich and fucculent herbage. The Highlands of Scotland, and indeed every high and northern country, afford ftriking examples of the influence of food upon the magnitude of cattle. The oxen, as well as the horfes, in the more northern parts of Scotland, are extremely diminutive •, but, when tranfported to richer pafture, their fize is augmented, and the qualities of their flefh are improved. The climate has likewife a confiderabie influence on the nature of the ox. In the northern regions of both continents, he is covered with long foft hair. He has likewife a large bunch on his fhoulders; and this defor- mity is common to the oxen of Afia, Africa, and America, Thofe of Europe have no bunch. The European oxen, how- ever, feem to be the primitive race, to which the bunched kind afcend, by intermixture, in the fecond or third genera- tion. The difference in their fize is remarkably great. The fmall zebu, or bunched ox of Arabia, is not one terith part of the magnitude of the ^Ethiopian bull-elephant. The influence of food upon the dog-kind feems not to be great. In all his variations and degradations, he appears to follow the differences of climate. In the warmeft climates, he is naked ; in the northern regions, he is covered with a coarfe thick hair ; and he is adorned with a fine filky robe in Spain and Syria, where the mild temperature of the air converts the hair of moft quadrupeds into a kind of filk. Befide thefe external variations produced by climate, the dog undergoes other changes, which proceed from his fituation, his captivity, and the nature of the intercourfe he holds with 466 THE PHILOSOPHY man. His fize is augmented or diminifhed by obliging the fmaller kinds to unite together, and by obferving the fame condua with the larger individuals. The ffiortening of the tail and ears proceeds alfo from the hand of man. Dogs who have had their ears and tails cut for a few generations, tranf- mit thefe defeas, in a certain degree, to their defcendants. Pendulous ears, the moft certain mark of domeftic fervitude and of fear, are almoft univerfal. Of many races of dogs, a few only have retained the primitive ftate of their ears. Erea ears are now confined to the wolf-dog, the fhepherd's dog, and the dog of the North. The colour of animals is greatly variegated by domefti- cation. The dog, the ox, the fheep, the goat, the horfe, have affumed all kinds of colours and even mixtures of colours, in the fame individuals. The hog has changed from black to white; and white, without the intermixture of fpots, is generally ac- companied with effential imperfeaions. Men who are remark- ably fair, and whofe hair is white, have generally a defea in their hear ing,and, at the fame time, weak and red eyes. Quad- rupeds which are entirely white have likewife red eyes and a dullnefs of hearing. The variations from the original colour are moft remarkable in our domeftic fowls. In a brood of chickens, though the eggs be laid by the fame hen, and though the female be impregnated by the fame male, not one of them has the fame colours with another. Domeftication not only changes the external appearances of animals, but alters or modifies their natural difpofitions. The dog, for example, when in a ftate of liberty, is a rapa- cious quadruped, and hunts and devours the weaker fpecies : But, after he has fubmitted to the dominion of man, he re- linquifhes his natural ferocity, and is converted into a mean, fervile, patient, and paralitica! flave. OF NVTURAL HISTORY. 467 CHAPTER XVIII. Of the CharaBers of Animals. C_)N this fubjea it never was intended to paint the charaaers of every fpecies, even of the larger animals. The reader will eafily recollea, that, in many parts of this work, much has already been faid with regard to the tem- pers, difpofitions, and manners, of a great number of animals. Thefe we fhall not repeat, but proceed to fome general re- marks. On every animal Nature has imprinted a certain charaBer, which is indelibly fixed, and diftinguifhes the fpecies. This charaaer we difcover by the aaions, the air, the counten- ance, the movements, and the whole external appearance. The courage of the lion, the ferocity of the tiger, the voracioufnefs of the wolf, the pride of the courfer, the dullnefs and indolence of the afs, the cunning and ad- drefs of the fox, the affeaion and docility of the dog, the fubtlety and felfifhnefs of the cat, the mildnefs of the fheep, the timidity of the hare, the vivacity of the fqiiirrel, are proper examples. Thefe charaaers, when under the influence of domeflication, may be modified by education, of which rewards and punifhments are the chief inflruments employ- ed. But the original charaaer, impreffed by the hand of Nature, is never fully obliterated. Thofe animals which feem to have been deftined by Nature to live, in perpetual flavery under the dominion of man, have the mildeft and moft gentle difpofitions. It is pleafant, but, at the fame time, fomewhat contemptible, to fee a troop of oxen guided by the whip of a child. 468 THE PHILOSOPHY In the human fpecies, the variety of tempers, affeaions, averfions, and ftudies, is indifpenfibly neceffary for fupport- ing the focial ftate, and carrying on the general bufinefs of life. Some minds are formed for ftudy and deep refearch, and others for aaion, courage, and the exertion of bodily powers. The fame variety in the difpofitions and manners of the different tribes of animals is equally neceffary for peo- pling the earth, and tor fupplying the reciprocal exigencies of its inhabitants. Befide the general fpecific charaaers of animals, individual charaaers, efpecially among the human race, are ftrongly marked, and greatly variegated. In every government, and particularly in commercial ftates, human charaaers, indepen- dently of the original bias, or genius, ftamped by Nature on individual minds, are often fo difguifed by a thoufand arti- fices, that it requires not only time, but frequent interefting fcenes, before a man can difcover the real charaaer even of an intimate companion. Many men affociate together in the moft harmonious manner, and fhow every fymptom of friendfhip and attachment ; but, when any of them happens to be diftreffed, and to require aid, all this apparent friend- fhip inftantly vanifhes, the afpea of the countenance, inftead of exhibiting fympathy and cordiality, is converted into a cold referve, and the unfortunate former companion is firft fhunned, and then deferted. This piaure of human nature, we are ferry to remark, is too general; but, thank Heaven, it is not univerfal ; for there always were, and ftill are, men of noble and generous minds, who willingly facrifice part of their own intereft to that of their friends. With regard to the charaaers of quadrupeds, befide the fpecific difpofitions which diftinguifh the different kinds, each individual poffeffes a peculiar charaaer by which it may be difcriminated from any other. Thefe individual charac- ters may be difcovered not only by the afpea, but by the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 469 1 actions of animals. Some dogs, even of the fame race, are furly, churlifh, and revengeful. Others are gay, frolick- fome, and friendly. The countenances of men, which al- ways indicate fome part of their original and genuine charac- ter, are as various as their numbers. Though lefs fubjea to general obfervation, Nature has marked the countenances of every animal, even down to the infea tribes, with fome charaaeriftic ftrokes, which enable them to diftinguifh one another, and even to contraa particular attachments. To us, the fmall birds, fuch as fparrows and linnets, appear to be fo perfeaiy fimilar, that, though we had an opportunity of fee- ing great numbers of them colleaed in one place, it would require much time and attention to be enabled to make indi- vidual diftinaions. After they have brought up their young, they affociate promifcuoufly in flocks ; but, when the genial fpring arrives, a different fcene is exhibited. The flocks difappear. Each male has feleaed, courted, and retired with a female to build a neft, to hatch eggs, and to nourifh and fupport their young. If Nature had not ftamped upon every individual a peculiar mark, it would be impoffible that the immenfe multitudes who pair, or join in matrimony, fhould be capable of diftinguifhing and adhering faithfully to one another. A fhepherd, who has been long accuflomed to fu- perintend a numerous flock, knows, by the countenances, and other natural or accidental marks, every individual. I knew a fhepherd, who not only diftinguifhed every individu- al of above two hundred fheep, but gave to each a particu- lar name. The charaaers of quadrupeds, and even of fome birds, are indicated by obfcure refemblances between the lineaments of their faces, and thofe of men of different features and difpo- fitions. Some men, in the general expreffion of their coun- tenances, refemble goats, others fheep, others oxen, others fwine, others lions, others dogs, others foxes, others owls, L l I 1170 THE PHILOSOPHY others hawks. Even in particular races of the fame fpecies, fimilarities of this kind may be traced. I know fome men .who refemble terriers, others greyhounds, others fpaniels, others the fhepherd's dog, others the lad-dog, &c. Some of thefe refemblances may be regarded as fanciful, and perhaps they frequently are. But, in general, when the refemblance to a particular animal is ftrongly marked in the human coun- tenance, the difpofitions of the men have a ftriking affinity to thofe of the animal. Men who refemble the fox are uni- formly cunning and deceitful. Thofe who refemble the ox are dull, ftupid, and phlegmatic. Thofe who refemble the lion are bold, open, generous, and witty. Thofe who refem- ble the cat are circumfpea, deligning, and avaricious. Thofe who refemble the greyhound are vigilant, aaive, and fmart. Thofe who refemble the lap-dog are vain, prefumptuous, petulent, and lafcivious. Thofe who refemble the few are difguftful both in their appearance and in their difpofitions. Thofe who refemble a crofs-made horfe are cruel, unfeeling, and highly felfifh. Thofe who refemble the fpaniel, of whom the examples are numerous, are fawning, mean, and parafitical. Thofe who refemble the fheep are dull, timid, and inoffenfive. Thofe who refemble the goat are fanciful, obftinate, and libidinous. Thofe who refemble a fine horfe are intrepid, generous, traaable, and good humoured. Thofe who refemble a hawk are quick, defultory, and ingenious. Thofe who refemble the owl are dark, defigning, and treach- erous. Thofe who refemble the bee are aaive, ignorant, and induftrious. It is needlefs to multiply examples. Everyman's recolleaion and obfervation will furnifh him with number- lefs coincidences between the fimilarities in ftruaure and features to particular animals, and the form, difpofitions, and manners, of the men who poffefs them. Comparifons have been inftitubed, and analogies traced, between the ftruaure, afpea, and difpofitions, of fome quad- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 471 rupeds and thofe of certain birds, which fhow a uniformity in the general plan of Nature. Among birds, as well as quadrupeds, fome fpecies are carnivorous, and others feed upon fruits, grain, and various kinds of herbage. The eagle, which is a noble artd a generous bird, reprefents the lion. The vulture, which is cruel and infatiable, reprefents the-ti- ger. The kite, the buzzard, and the raven, who live chiefly on offals and carion, reprefent the hyaena, the wolf, and the jackal. The falcon, the fparrow-hawk, and other birds em- ployed in hunting, reprefent the dog, the fox, the lynx, &c. The owl, who fearches for her prey in the night, reprefents the cat. The heron and cormorant, who feed upon fifhes, reprefent the beaver and the otter. Peacocks, hens, and all , other birds which have a crop, or craw, reprefent oxen, fheepj goats, and other ruminating animals. 472 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER XIX. Of the Principle of Imitation. IMITATION neceffarily implies fome degree of intelligence. All animals, particularly thofe of the more per- fea kinds, are endowed with the principle of imitation. The confequence is obvious, that all animals poffefs a certain por- tion of intelleaual power. In man, the .principle of imita- tion appears at a very early period of his exiftence. In the more advanced ftages of life, this principle is fo interwoven with other motives of aaing and thinking, that it is difficult to diftinguifh it as a feparate inftina, and equally difficult to conquer the habits and prejudices to which it has given rife. The lefs a man has cultivated his rational faculties, the more powerful is the principle of imitation over his aaions and his habits of thinking. Moft women, of courfe, are more in- fluenced by the behaviour, the faffiions, and the opinions of thofe with whom they affociate than men. From this almoft irrefiftible inftina, we fhould learn the extreme danger of frequenting the company of the diffolute and unprincipled; for bad habits are foon acquired, but very difficult to con- quer. It is a comfortable circumftance, however, that if men, efpecially when young, are fortunate enough to fall in with the fociety of the virtuous and intelligent, the principle of imitation, fo benevolent is Nature, aas with redoubled force. If we attend to our own feelings, we muft acknowledge, that, in the acquifition of bad habits, there is an evident force up- on our natural inclinations, but that, in virtuous affociations, the mind acquiefces with pleafure, and feels no reftraint in complying with the examples it perceives nor in acquiring tfie correfpondent habits. We are prone to evil; but, when OF NATURAL HISTORY. 473 not corrupted by improper imitations, Nature has made us much more prone to good. Artificial language, which we learn entirely by imitation, diftinguifhes us, more than any other circumftance, from the brute creation. The proper ufe of it likewife forms the thief difference between one man and another ; for, by language, one man difcovers a fuperiority of knowledge and of genius, while others exprefs by it nothing but borrowed or confufed ideas. In an idiot, or in a parrot, it marks only the moft ab- jea degree of ftupidity. It fhows the incapacity of either to produce a regular chain of thinking, though both of them" be endowed with organs capable of expreffing what paffes within their minds. Men whofe fenfes are delicate, and whofe minds are eafily affeaed, make the beft aaors, and the beft mimics. Children, accordingly, are extremely alert in imitating the aaions, the geftures, and the manners, of thofe with whom they affociate. They are dexterous in perceiv- ing ridiculous figures and reprefentations, which they imi- tate with eafe and propriety. Hence we perceive, in the education of children, the infinite importance of regulating the principle of imitation. The education of the inferior animals, though fhort, is al- wavs fuccefsful. By imitation, they foon acquire all the knowledge poffeffed by their parents. They not only de- rive experience from their own feelings, but, by imitation, they learn and employ the experience of others. Young animals model their aaions entirely upon thofe of the old. They fee their feniors approach or fly when they perceive particular objeas, hear particular founds, or fmell certain odours. At firft, they approach or fly without any other determining principle but that of imitation. Afterwards, they approach or fly fpontaneoufly, becaufe they have then acquired the habit of approaching or flying, whenever they feel the fame or fimilar fenfations. Many inftinas, as terror 474 THE PHILOSOPHY upon hearing particular founds, the appearance of natural enemies, the feleaion of food, &c. feem to be partly the effeas of imitation. It is remarked by Ulloa, that, in the year 1743, the dogs in Juan Fernades had loft the faculty of barking. When affociated with other dogs, it was with great difficulty that they again learned, by imitation to bark. The caufe of thefe dogs loofing the expreffion of their ufual language in a domeftic ftate, it is not eafy to inveftigate. Perhaps, by the aid of experience, and their own fagacity, they difcovered that barking warned their prey to efcape from danger. The jackals, however, who are confidered as belonging to the dog- kind, not only hunt in packs, but, during the chafe, make a loud and a hideous noife. Mr. White, in his Natural Hifto- ry of Selborne, a work which contains much information, and difcovers a good and benevolent heart in the author, in- forms us, that he had an opportunity of feeing two dogs, a male and a female, which had been brought from Canton in China. Thefe dogs, which, in China, are fattened for eat- ing, are about the fize of an ordinary fpaniel, and are of a yellow colour. « When taken out into a field,' he remarks, «the bitch fhowed fome difpofition for hunting, and dwelt « on the fcent of a covey of partridges till fhe fprung them, « giving her tongue all the time. The dogs in South Ame- < rica are dumb ; but thefe bark much in a fhort thick man- «ner, like foxes ; and have a furly favage demeanour, like «their anceftors, which are not domefticated, but bred up in 1 flies, where they are fed for the table with rice-meal, and < other farinaceous food. Thefe dogs, having been taken * on board as foon as weaned, could not have learned « much from their dam ; yet they did not, relifh flefh when < they came to England. In the iflands of the Pacific Ocean, * the dogs are. bred upon vegetables, and would not eat flefh < when offered them by our circumnavigators.' OF NATURAL HISTORY. 475 From faas of this kind, of which a great number might be mentioned, the following obfervations naturally arife. Thefe Chinefe dogs, though defeended, probably for many generations, from a race of anceftors who never had the leaft experience or education in hunting, preferved their original 'inftina of fcenting and purfuing game. The dog is a grofsly carnivorous animal; for he prefers carion to any other kind of nourifliment; yet the Chinefe dogs difcovered no particular relifh for the flefh of animals. Thus it ap- pears, that, by habits, acquired, not by the individual, but by a train of anceftors, both the tafte and the conftitution of animals may be greatly altered. From the fame faas, how- ever, it is equally evident, that Nature can never be entirely conquered. The moment the Chinefe dogs firft faw a field, they both fcented and hunted game. Imitation and habit feem to have greater effeas upon the mode of living, feed- ing, and the corporeal fabrick, than upon the original inftinas of the mind. Thefe dogs, even when they came to Eng- land after a long voyage, had not acquired the habit of gree- dily devouring, like other dogs, either frefh meat or carion ; but, on the firft opportunity afforded to them, they difcover- ed an inclination to hunt. 476 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER XX. Of the Migration of Animals. 1 HE Hon. Daines Barrington, in his Effay on the Periodical Appearing and Difappearing of certain Birds, at differ- ent times of the year*, has, by many ingenious arguments, as well as curious faas, rendered it extremely probable, that no birds, however ftrong and fwift In their flight, can poffibly fly over fuch large traas of the ocean as has been commonly fuppofed. He admits partial migrations or flittings, as he calls them, though he does not attempt to afcertain the dif- tances Of thefe flittings. With regard to the fwallows, of which there are feveral fpecies in Britain, fome naturalifts, of whom the Hon. Daines Barrington is one, are inclined to think that they do not leave this ifland at the end of autumn, but that they lie in a torpid ftate till the beginning of fum- mer in the banks of the rivers, the hollows of decayed trees, the receffes of old buildings, the holes of fand-banks, and in fimilar fituations. That fwallows, in the winter months, have fometimes, though very rarely, been found in a torpid ftate, is unqueftionably true. Neither is the inference, that, if any of them can furvive the winter in that ftate, the whole of them may fubfift, during the cold feafon, in the fame condition, in the fmalleft degree unnatural. Still, how- ever, the numbers of fwallows which appear in this ifland, as well as in all parts of Europe, during the fummer months, are fo very confiderabie, that, if the great body of them did not migrate to fome other climate, they fhould be much more frequently found in a, torpid ftate. On the contrary, when a few of them are difcovered in that ftate, it is regarded • Phil, Transit, vol. 62. page a6j, &c. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 477 as a wonder even by the country people, who have the greateft opportunities of Humbling upon faas of this kind. When, accordingly, a few fwallows or martins are found torpid in winter, and have been revived by a gentle heat, the faa, and few fuch faas there are, is carefully recorded as fingular in all the periodical publications of Europe. Mr. Pennant informs us, from undoubted authority, that fome quails, and other birds which are generally fuppofed to leave this ifland in winter, retire to the fea-coafts, and pick up their food among the fea-weeds*. 1 Quails,' Mr. Pennant remarks, < are birds of paffage ; < fome entirely quitting our iflands, others fhifting their 1 quarters. A gentleman, to whom this work lies under ' great obligations, has affured us, that thefe birds migrate ' out of the neighbouring inland counties, inf> the hundreds ' of Eilex in Oaober, and continue there all the winter : If 1 froft or fnow drive them out of the ftubble-fields and ' marfhes, they retreat to the fea-fide, fhelter themfelves a- < mong the weeds, and live upon what they can pick up ' from the algae, &c. between high and low water mark., ' Our friend remarks, that the time of their appearance in 1 Effex coincides with that of their leaving the inland coun- « tics f.' A quail, it muft be allowed, feems to be very much un- qualified for a long migration ; for its tail is fhort, the bird never rifes more than twenty or thirty feet from the ground* and it feldom flies above three hundred yards at a time. Be- lon, however, an author of great fagacity and credit, tells us, that, in his paffage from Rhodes to Alexandria, many, quails flying from north to fouth, were taken in his fhip. From this circumftance, he remarks, « I am perfuaded ' that tney fhift places ; for formerly, when I failed out of * Brit. Zool. Vol. l. page aio. ad edit. 8vo. f Pennant, ibid, M m m 478 THE PHILOSOPHY ' the Ifle of Zant to Morea, or Negropont, in the fpring, I c obferved quails flying the contrary way, at which time, al- ' fo, a great many were taken in our fhip.' This traverfe they might be enabled to accomplifh by paffing from one ifland to another in the Mediterranean. Inftances of fwallows and fome other birds alighting on the mafts and cordage of veffels, at confiderabie diftances from any fhore, are not fo numerous as might be expeaed. Neither have they been often obferved flying over feas in great flocks. Mr. Peter Collinfon, in a letter printed in the Philofophical tranfaaions, fays, * that Sir Charles Wager had frequently c informed him, that, in one of his voyages home in the * fpring, as he came into foundings in our channel, a great * flock of fwallows almoft covered his rigging •, that they ( were nearly fpent and famifhed, and were only feathers and 1 bones ; but, being recruited by a night's reft, they took ' their flight in the morning.' M. Adanfon, in his voyage, informs us, that, about fifty leagues from the coaft of Senegal, four fwallows fettled upon the fhip, on the fixth day of Oaober; that thefe birds were taken ; and that he knew them to be the true fwallow of Europe, which he conjeaures were then returning to the coaft of Africa. The Hon. Daines Barrington, with more probability, fuppofes that thefe fwallows, inftead of being on their paffage from Europe, were only flitting from the Cape de Verde iflands to the continent of Africa, a much fhorter flight, but to which they feemed to be unequal, as they were obliged, from fatigue, to light upon the fhip, and fall into the hands of the failors. Swallows, Mr. Kalm remarks, appear in the Jerfies about the beginning of April. They are, on their firft arrival, wet, becaufe they have juft emerged from the fea or lakes, at the bottom of which they had remained in a torpid ftate during the whole winter. But Mr. Kalm, who wifhes to fup- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 479 port the torpidity of fwallows during the winter, likewife in- forms us, that he himfelf met with them at fea, nine hun- dred and twenty miles from any land*. Thefe, and fimilar faas, the Hon. Daines Barrington en- deavours to explain, by fuppofing that birds difcovered in fuch fituations, inftead of attempting to crofs large branches of the ocean, have been forcibly driven from fome coaft by ftorms, and that they would naturally perch upon the firft veffel which came within their view. In Britain, five fpecies of fwallows appear in the fummer and difappear in the winter. 1. The houfe-fwallow makes its appearance about twenty days earlier than the martin, or any other of the fwallow tribe. They are often feen about the 15th day of April. They difappear about the end of September. A few days previous to their departure, they affemble in great flocks on the tops of houfes, churches, and trees, from whence they are fuppofed to take their flight. This unufual and temporary affociation of numbers indicates the impulfe of fome common inftina by which each indivi- dual is aauatcd. The houfe fwallow is eafily diftinguiflied from the other fpecies by the fuperior forkinefs of its tail, and by a red fpot on the forehead, and under the chin. This fpecies build in chimneys, and make its neft of clay, but leaves the top quite open. 2. The martin is inferior in fize to the former, and its tail is much lefs forked. The martins appear in Britain foon after the houfe-fwallow. Theybuild under the eaves of houfes : The neft is compof- ed of the fame materials as thofe of the houfe-fwallow ; but it is covered above, and a fmall hole only is left in the fide for the ingrefs and egrefs of the birds. The martins totally difappear about the beginning of Oaober. 3. The fand- martin, or bank-martin, is by much the fmalleft of the fwal- low-kind that vifit Britain. The fand-mirtins arrive very • Voy. torn, i. page 34, 480 THE PHILOSOPHY foon after the houfe*-fwallow, and difappear about Michael- mas. They dig confiderabie holes in fand-pits and in the banks of rivers, where they build their nefts, which confift not of mud, like thofe of the former fpecies, but of grafl'cs and feathers laid together in a very flovenly manner. It is worthy of remark, that thefe birds do not employ the cavi- ties they dig in fummer for winter-quarters •, fince fand- banks, fo perforated, have been carefully fearched in the winter, and nothing was* found but empty nefts*. 4. The fwift, or black martin of Willoughby, is the largeft of our fwallows, and is the lateft of arriving in this country; for the fwifts are feldom feen till the beginning of May, and commonly appear, not in flocks, but in pairs. Swifts, like the fand-martins, carry on the bufinefs of incubation in the dark. They build in the cranies of caftles, towers, and ftee- ples. Straw and feathers are the materials they ufe. They difappear very early; for they are almoft never feen after the middle of Auguft. 5. The goatfucker, which belong:; to the fwallow tribe, is likewife a bird of paffage. Like the other fwallows, it feeds upon winged infeas. But, inftead of purfuing its prey during the day, it flies only in the night, and feizes moths, and other noaurnal infeas. From this circumftance, it has not improperly received the appellation of the noBurnal fwallow. The goat-fucker flays only a fliort >time in Britain. It appears not till about the end of May, and retires in the middle of Auguft, It lays its eggs, which are commonly two, and fometimes three, on the bare ground. To give catalogues of the numerous birds of paffage which frequent this ifland, as well as other countries, and to mark the times of their arrival and departure, would be deviating entirely from our plan. For circumftances of this kind, the curious may confult Catefby, Klein, Linnaei Amoenitates Academicae, White, &c. But, as the periodical appearance • White's Natural. Hiftory of Selborne, page 177. OF NATURAL HISTORY. *81 and difappearance of the fwallow-tribe have given rife to dif- ferent theories and opinions, we fliall briefly relate thofe opinions, and conclude with feme remarks on migration ,n Herodotus and Profper Alpinus mention one fpecies of fwallow which refides in Egypt during the whole year J and Mr. Loten, late governour of Ceylon, affured Mr. Pen- nant, that thofe of Java never remove. If thefe be excepted, all the other known kinds retreat or migrate periodically. Swallows migrate from almoft every climate. They remove from Norway f, from North America {, from Kamtfchatka§, from the temperate parts of Europe, from Aleppo ||, and from Jamaica^. Concerning the periodical appearance and difappearance of fwallows, there are three opinions adopted by different naturalifts. The firft and moft probable, is, that they re- move from climate to climate at thofe particular feafons when winged infeas, their natural food, fails in one country or diftria and abounds in another, where they likewife find a temperature of air better fuited to their conftitutions. In fupport of this opinion, we have the teftimony, as formerly mentioned, of Sir Charles Wager, of M. Adanfon, and of many navigators. It is equally true, however, that fome fpecies of fwallows have been occafionally found in a torpid ftate during winter. Mr. Collinfon gives the evidence of three gentlemen who were eye-witneffes to a number of fand-martins being drawn out of a cliff on the Rhine in the Month of March 1762**. The Hon. Daines Barrington, in the year 1768, communicated to Mr. Pennant, on the au- thority of the late Lord Belhaven, the following faa: «That • Profp. Alp. torn, i, page 198. | Pontopp. Hift. Norw. ii. 98. J: Catefby's Carol, v. 1. page 51. App. 8. (, Hift, Kamtfchatlca.page 16;. fl Runci's Alep.page 70. % Phil.Tranf.No. 3d. •* Phjlofoph. Tranfacl. vol. sh Page *ot- art- '4' *82 THE PHILOSOPHY ' numbers of fwallows have been found in old dry walls, and ' in fand-hills, near his Lordfhip's feat in Eaft Lothian v not c once only, but from year to year ; and that, when they * were expofed to the warmth of a fire, they revived*.' Thefe, and other faas of the fame kind, feem to be uncon- trovertible 5 and Mr. Pennant infers from them, that * we c muft divide our belief relating to thefe two fo different opi- * nions, and conclude, that one part of the fwallow tribe mi- < grate, and that others have their winter-quarters near < home f.' But we fhould rather incline to think, with thofe naturalifts who fuppofe that the torpid fwallows which are occafionally, though very rarely, difcovered in the winter feafon, have been obliged to remain behind, becaufe they were too young, weak, difeafed, or fuperannuated, to under- take a long and fatiguing flight. Still, however, that the torpidity of the feathered tribes fhould be folely confined to the fwallows, is a very fingular faa in the hiftory of Nature. Among quadrupeds, there are many fpecies who lie in a dor- mant or torpid ftate during winter. But, if the fwallow be excepted, not a fingle fpecies of birds, notwithftanding the great numbers which, at ftated times, appear and difappear in every corner of the globe, has ever been difcovered in that ftate. This circumftance alone, though we cannot yet afcertain the precife places to which different fpecies of birds of paffage refort, is a moft convincing proof of migration in general. It has been afferted, and even believed, by fome naturalifts, that fwallows pafs the winter immerfed under the ice, at the bottom of lakes, or beneath the waters of the fea. Olaus Magnus, Archbifhop of Upfal, feems to have been the firft who adopted this opinion. He informs us, that fwallows are found in great clufters at the bottoms of the northern • Pennant's Britifti Zoology, vol. 2. page 2jo, 8vo edit. I Ibid. 251. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 483 lakes, with mouth to mouth, wing to wing, foot to foot, and that in autumn they creep down the reeds to their fubterra- neous retreats*. «That the good Archbifhop/ Mr. Pennant archly remarks, < did not want credulity in other inftances. c appears from this, that, after having flocked the bottoms ' of the lakes with birds, he ftores the clouds with mice, « which fometimes fall in plentiful fhowers on Norway and (the neighbouring countries!' Klein has endeavoured to fup- port the notion that fwallows lie under water during the winter, and gives the following account of their manner of retiring, which he colfeaed from fome countrymen : They afferted, he tells us, that the fwallows fometimes affembled in numbers on a reed till it broke and funk them to the bot- tom : That their immerfion was preceded by a kind of dirge, which lafted more than a quarter of an hour : That others united, laid hold of a ftraw with their bills, and plung- ed down in fociety : That others, by clinging together with their feet, formed a large mafs, and in this manner commit- ted themfelves to the deepf. Two reafons feem to render this fuppofed fubmerfion of fwallows impoffible. In the firft place, no land-animal can exift fo long without fome degree of refpiration. The otter, the feal, and water.fowls of all kinds, when confined under the ice, or entangled in nets, foon perifh ; yet it is well known, that animals of this kind can remain much longer under water than thofe who are deftitute of that peculiar ftruaure of the heart which is neceffary for any confiderabie refidence beneath that penetrating element. Mr. John Hun- ter, in a letter to Mr. Pennant, informs us, c That he had 1 diffeaed many fwallows, but found nothing in them differ- ' ent from other birds as to the organs of refpiration : That 1 all thofe animals which he had diffeaed of the clafs that • Derham's Phyf. Theol. page 349. f Klein Prod. Hilt. Avium, page %0$. ao6. 484 THE PHILOSOPHY « fleep during winter, fuch as lizards, frogs, Sec. had a very * different conformation as to thofe organs : That aLl thofe « animals, he believes, do breathe in their torpid ftate ; and, « as far as his experience reaches, he knows they do ; and « that, therefore, he efteems it a very wild opinion, that ter- ' reftrial animals can remain any long time under water * without drowning.' Another argument againft their fub- merfion rifes from the fpecific gravity of the animals them- felves. Of all birds, the fwallovy tribes are perhaps the lighteft. Their plumage, and the comparative fmallnefs of their weight, indicate that Nature deftined them to be almoft perpetually on the wing in queft of food. From this fpeci- fic lightnefs, the fubmerfion of fwallows, and their continu- ing for months under water, amount to a phyfical impoffi- bility. Even water-fowls, when they wifli to dive, are oblig- ed to rife and plunge with confiderabie exertion, in order to overcome the refiftance of the water. Klein's idea of fwal- lows employing reeds and ftraws as means of fubmerfion is rather ludicrous; for thefe light fubftances, inftead of being proper inflruments for affifting them to reach the bottom, would infallibly contribute to fupport them on the furface, and prevent the-very objea of their intention. Befides, admit- ting the poffibility of their reaching the bottom of lakes and feas, and fuppofing they could exift for feveral months with- out refpiration, what would be the confequence ? The whole would foon be devoured by otters, feals, and fifhes of various kinds. Nature is always anxious for the prefervation of fpecies. But, if the fwallow tribes were deftined to re- main torpid, during the winter months, at the bottom of lakes and feas, fhe would aa in oppofition to her own inten- tions ; for, in a feafon or two, the whole genus would be annihilated. Mr. White of Selborne has favoured us with the follow- ing information concerning the migration of fwallows : l If OF NATURAL HTSTORY. 485 ever I faw,' fays he, * any thing like aaual migration, it was laft Michaelmas day, 1768. I was travelling, and out early in the morning : At firft there was a vaft fog ; but, by the time that I was got feven or eight miles from home towards the coaft, the fun broke out into a delicate warm day. We were then on a large heath or common, and I could difcern, as the mift began to break away, great num- bers of fwallows cluttering on the ftinted fhrubs and bulli- es, as if they had rootled there all night. As foon as the air became clear and pleafant, they all were on the wing at once, and, by a placid and eafy flight, proceeded on fouth- ward towards the fea : After this I did not fee any more : flocks, only now and then a ftraggler. When I ufed to < rife in a morning laft autumn, and fee the fwallows and ' martins cluttering on the chimneys and thatch of the neigh- ! bouring cottages, I could not help being touched with fe- ! cret delight, mixed with fome degree of mortification : 1 With delight, to obferve with how much ardour and punc- < tuality thofe poor little birds obeyed the ftrong impulfe to- < wards migration, or hiding, imprinted on their minds by f their great Creator; and with fome degree of mortifica- «tion, when I refleaed, that, after all our pains and enquir- « ies, we are yet not quite certain to what regions they do s migrate; and are ftill farther embarraffed to find, that * fome do not aaually migrate at all*.' In another part of this work, Mr. White fays : « But we ' muft not deny migration in general ; becaufe migration < certainly does fubfift in fome places, as my brother in An- < dalufta has fully informed me. Of the motions of thefe < birds he has ocular demonftration, for many weeks toge- < ther, both fpring and fall: During which periods, myriads < of the fwallow kind traverfe the Straits from north to fouth, < and from fouth to north, according to the feafon. And • White's Natural Hiftory of Sdborne, page 64.65. N N n 4-86 THE PHILOSOPHY « thefe vaft migrations confift not only of hirudines (fwallows,) 1 but of bee birds, hoopoes, oropenflulos, or golden thrupes, &c. &c« 1 and alfo many of our foft billed fummer birds of paffage ; and, • moreover, of birds which never leave us, fuch as all the 1 various forts of hawks and kites. Old Belon, two hundred « years ago, gives a curious account of the incredible armies * of hawks and kites, which he faw in the fpring-time trav- « erfing the Thracian Bofphorus from Afia to Europe. Be- ' fides the above mentioned, he remarks, that the proceffion ' is fwelled by whole troops of eagles and vultures*.' Mr. White likewife, with much propriety, remarks, that our inquiries concerning the migration of birds have been too much confined to the fwallow tribes ; while little atten- tion has been paid to - the fhort-winged birds of paffage, fuch as quails, red-ftarts, nightingales, white-throats, black- caps, &c. All thefe, though feemingly ill qualified for long flights, difappear in the winter, and not one of them, not- withftanding their immenfe numbers, has ever been found in a torpid ftate. To mark the times of the arrival and departure of birds of paffage in different countries, and in different diftrias of the fame countries, and the probable motives arifing from the ftate of the country with regard to heat and cold, and to that of the food peculiar to each kind, would throw much light upon the hiftory of migration. To Mr. White of Sel- borne we are obliged for the following lifts of birds of paf- fage which he has obferved in his neighbourhood. Thefe lifts are arranged nearly in the order of time. • White's Natural Hiftory of Selborne, page 139. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 487 Lift of Summer Birds of Paffage. Names. Usually appear about I. Wryneck, Middle of March. 2. Smalleft willow-wren, March 23. S. Houfe-fwallow, April 13. 4. Martin, Ibid. 5. Sand-Martin, Ibid. 6. Black-cap, Ibid. 7. Nightingale, Beginning of April. 8. Cuckoo, Middle of April. 9. Middle willow-wren, Ibid. 10. White-throat, Ibid. 11. Red-ftart, Ibid. 12. Stone-curlew, End of March. 13. 14. Turtle-dove, Grafshopper-lark, Middle of April. 15. Swift, April 27. . 16. Lefs reed-fparrow, 17. 18. Land-rail, Largeft willow-wren, End of April. 19. Goat-fucker, or fern-owl, Beginning of IVJay. 20. Fly-catcher, CMay 12. This is th (_ fummer bird of p Moft foft-billed birds feed upon infeas, and not on grain or feeds; and, therefore, they retire before winter. But the following foft-billed birds, though they eat infeas, remain with us during the whole year ; fuch as the red-breaft and wren, who frequent out-houfes and gardens during the win- ter, and eat fpiders, &c.; the hedge-fparrow, who frequents finks for crumbs and other fweepings ; the white wagtail, the yellow-wagtail, and the gray wagtail, who frequent fhal- low rivulets near the fpring heads, where the water feldom 488 THE PHILOSOPHY freezes, and feed upon the aureliae of infeas ; the wheatear, fome of which are to be feen during the winter, &c. Lift of Winter Birds of Paffage in the neighbourhood of Selborne. 1. The ring-oufel. This bird appears about Michaelmas week, and is a new migration lately difcovered by Mr. White. 2. The red-wing, or wind-thrufh, appears in Britain about old Michaelmas. They come in great flocks from the froz*. en regions of the north. 3. Field-fare. Thefe birds vifit Britain in immenfe num- bers about Michaelmas, and depart about the end of Febru- ary, or the beginning of March. They pafs the fummer in the northern parts of Europe, and likewife in Lower Auftria*. They breed in the largeft trees, feed on berries of all kindsf, but prefer thofe of the juniper. It is probable that the field- fares which migrate into Britain come from Norway ancl the northern regions of Europe, becaufe we find that they both breed and winter in Pruffia, Auftria:}:, and the more temper- ate climates. 4. The Royfton-crow, or hooded crow of our countryman Sir Robert Sibbald, is likewife a bird of paffage. It vifits us in the beginning of winter, and departs with the wood-cocks. They frequent the inland as well as the maritime parts of Britain. When near the coafts, they feed upon crabs, muf- cles, and other fhell-fifhes. They breed in Sweden, build their nefts in trees, and lay four eggs[|. They likewife breed in the fouthern parts of Germany, and particularly on the banks of the Danube % 5. The wood-cock appears in this country about old MU chaelmas. During the fummer, wood-cocks inhabit the Alps**, Norway, Swedenff, and the northern parts of Eu- • Kramer Elench, page 361. f Linn. Faun. Succ. fp. 78. $ Klein Hift. Avium, page 178. || Linn. Faun. Suec. fp. 88. ^ Kramer, page 333. ** Willoughby's Ornithology, page 290, ^ M. de Geer's and Dr. Wallerius'3 letters to Mr. Pennant OF NATURAL HJSTORY. 489 rope. From thefe countries they retire as foon as the froft com- mences, which obliges them to migrate into milder climates, where the foil is open, and more adapted to their mode of "feeding; for they live en worms, which they fearch for with their long bills in foft and moift grounds in the midft of woods. Wood-cocks, taking the advantage of the night, or of foggy weather, arrive here in flocks : But they foon feparate; and, before returning to their fummer quarters, they pair. They fly and feed during the night. They begin their flight in the evening, and return to their retreats in the glades when day commences. They depart from Britain about the end of February or the beginning of March. Some of them, how- ever, like the ftraggling fwallows, have been known to breed, and to remain here during the whole year*. It is likewife known that wook-cocks migrate from France, Germany, and Italy, and that they make choice of cold northern climates for their fummer refidence. About the end of Oaober they vifit Burgundy, but remain there four or five weeks only \ becaufe it is a dry country, and, on the firft frofts, they are obliged to retire for want of fuftenance. In the winter, they are found as far fouth as Smyrna, Aleppof, and Barbae ry|. They are even very common in Japan ||. 6. The fnipe. Snipes are enrolled as birds of paffage by Mr. White, though he acknowledges that fome of them con- ftantly breed in England. * In winter,' Mr. Pennant re- marks, f fnipes are very frequent in all our marfhy and ' wet grounds, where they lie concealed in the rufhes, &c. In < the fummer, they difperfe to different parts, and are found ' in the midft of our higheft mountains, as well as our low < moors. Their neft is made of dried grafs. They lay four « eggs of a dirty olive colour, marked with dufky fpots, * Pennant's Britifh Zoology, vol. z page 349. 8vo. f Ruflel's Hiftory of Aleppo, page 64. J Shaw's Travels, page -53. |) KAcmpfer's Hift. Japan, vol, 1. page I2g. 490 THE PHILOSOPHY < Their young are fo often found in England, that we doubt f whether they ever entirely leave this ifland*. 7. The jack-fnipe. This bird, which is very common in Scotland, and frequents the banks of rivers and lakes, is rank- ed by Mr. White as a winter bird of paffage, without men- tioning either the time of its arrival or departure j and Mr. Pennant is entirely filent on the fubjea f. 8. The wood-pigeon. Mr. White, without mentioning ekher the time of their appearing or difappearing, tells us, that «they feldom appear till late ; nor in fuch plenty as ' formerly^.' 9. The wild-fwan. During hard winters, this bird fre- quents the coafts of Britain in large flocks ; but, from any information we have been able to obtain, it does not breed in our ifland. Martin, in his Hiftory of the Hebrides, or Wef- tern Ifles||, informs us, that wild fwans arrive in great num- bers in Lingey, one of the Hebrides, in the month of Oao- ber, and remain there till March, when they retire more northward to breed. For this purpofe, the fwans like moft other water-fowls, prefer fuch places as are leaft frequent- ed by mankind. During fummer, the lakes, marfhes, and forefts of Lapland are filled with myriads of water-fowls. In that northern region, fwans, geefe, the duck tribe, goofand- ers, divers, &c. pafs the fummer ; but in autumn they re- turn to us, and to other more hofpitable fhores^. 10. The wild-goofe. The wild geefe, it is probable, breed in the retired regions of the north. They arrive here in the beginning of winter, and frequently feed on our corn grounds. They fly at a great height h, and obferve regulari- * Pennant's Britifh Zoology, vol. a, page 358. 8vo. | White's Natural Hiftory of Selborne, page 117 ; and Pennant's Britifh Zoo- logy, vol. 4. page 359. 8vo. \ White's Natural Hiftory of Selborne, page T17. | Delcription of the Weltern Ifles, page 71. 5 Linn, Flora Lapponica, page 273. Oeuvresde Maupertuis,tom. 3. page 141. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 491 ty in their movements. They fometimes form a ftraight line ; and, at others, they affume the fhape of a wedge, which facilitates their progrefs through the refifting air. With regard to the wild-duck, pochard, wigeon, and teal, though Mr. White places them in the lift of birds of paffage, he does not mention either the times of their arrival or de- parture. Though it be probable that moft of the duck-kind migrate, yet it is certain, that fome individuals of different fpecies of them breed in this country, and continue in it dur- ing the whole" year. As to the duck-kind in general, Mr. Pennant remarks : < Of the numerous fpecies that form this ' genus, we know of no more than five that breed here. The f tame fwan and tame goofe, the Shield duckt the eider duck, and ' a very fmall portion of the wild ducks. The reft contribute f to form that amazing multitude of water fowl that annually ' repair fro m moft parts of Europe to the woods and 1 lakes of Lapland, and other Araic regions*, there to per- ' form the funaions of incubation and nutrition in full fecu- t rity. They and their young quit their retreat in Septem- « ber, and difperfe themfelves over Europe. With us they * make their appearance the beginning ofOaober, circulate ' firft round our fhores, and when compelled by fevere froft, ' betake themfelves to our lakes and riversf.' In winter, the bernacles, or brent-ducks, appear in vaft flocks on the north-weft coafts of Britain. They are very fhy and wild ; but, when taken, they foon grow as familiar as our domeftic ducks. They leave the Britifh fhores in Fe- bruary, and migrate as far as Lapland, Greenland, and even SpitfbergenJ. The folan-geefe, or gannats, are likewife birds of paffage. They frequent the ifle of Ailfay, near the Frith of Clyde; * Collect. Voyag. Dutch Eaft India Company, 8vo. 1703. page 19. Clufi Esot. page 368. f Pennant's Britifh Zoology, vol a. page 519. 510. \ Linn, Amoen. Acad. torn. 4. page j8j. Barent's Voyage, page 19. 492 THE PHILOSOPHY the rocks adjacent to St. Kilda, the moft remote of the He* brides ; the Skelig ifles, off the coaft of Kerry ; and the Baft ifle in the Frith of Fourth. The multitudes which frequent thefe places are prodigious. To give an idea of their num- bers, the reader will not be difpleafed to fee Dr. Harvey's fhort account of the Bafs. * There is a fmall ifland in the ( Frith of Fourth, called the Baft Ifland, which does not ex- ' ceed one mile in circumference. The furface of this ifland, «during the months of May and June, is fo entirely covered ' with nefts, eggs, and young birds, that it is fcarcely poffible ' to walk without treading on them. The flocks of birds c on the wing are fo prodigious, that they darken the air 1 like clouds, and their noife is fo great, that a man cannot ' without difficulty hear his neighbour's voice. If, from the * top of the precipice, you look down upon the fea, you will * fee it on every fide covered with infinite numbers of birds « of different kinds, fwimming about and hunting for their ' prey. When failing round the ifland, if you furvey the c hanging cliffs, you will perceive, in every cragg, or fiffure c of the rocks, innumerable birds of various kinds, more than ' the ftars of heaven in a ferene night. If you view the dif- « tant flocks, either flying to or from the ifland, you will ' imagine them to be a vaft fwarm of bees*.' The rocks of St. Kilda feem to be equally frequented by folan geefe ; for Martin, in his defcription of the Hebrides, informs us, that the inhabitants of this fmall ifland confume annually no lefs than 22,600 young birds of this fpecies, befide an amazing number of their eggs. The folan geefe and their eggs con- ftitute the chief food of thefe iflanders. They preferve both the fowls and the eggs in fmall pyramidal ftone buildings, which, to protea the food from moifture, they cover with the afhes of turf. The folan geefe are birds of paffage. Their firft appearance is in March, and they continue till * Hervey de Generat. Animal. Exercit. n. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 493 Auguft or September. But, in general, the times pf their breeding and departure feem to coincide with the arrival of the herring, and the migration of that fifh from our coafts. It is more than probable that thefe birds attend the herrings and pilchards during their whole circuit round the Britifh iflands; for the appearance of the folan geefe is always ef- teemed by the fifhermen as a certain prefage of the approach of the herrings or pilchards. In queft of food, thefe birds migrate as far fouth as the mouth of the TagUs; for they are frequently feen off Lifbon during the month of December. The crofs-beak, the crofs-bill, and the filk-tail, are likewife enumerated by Mr. White as birds of paffage. ' But thefe/ fays he, « are only wanderers that appear occafionally, and * are not obfervant of any regular migration*.' The long-legged plover, and fanderling, vifit us in winter Only ; and it is worthy of remark, that every fpecies of the curlews, wood-cocks, fand-pipers, and ploversf, which for- fake us in the fpring, retire to Sweden, Poland, Pruffia, Nor- way, and Lapland, both to feed and to breed. They return to us as foorras the young are able to fly ; becaufe the frofts, which fet in ear^y in thefe countries, totally deprive them of the means of fubfiftence. For the fame reafon they leave us in fummer, as the drynefs and hardnefs of the ground prevent them from penetrating the earth with their bills in queft of worms, which conftitute the natural food of thefe birds. From the faa? which have been enumerated, and from others of a fimilar nature, it is evident, that many birds, both of the land and water kinds, migrate from one climate to another. But, even in the fame climate and country, birds occafionally perform partial migrations. During hard win- ters, when the furface of the earth is covered with fnow, • White's Natural Hiftory of Selborne, page 118. f Linn. Amoen. Acad. torn. 4. page 588. Klein de Avium Migrat. page 187. O o o 494 THE PHILOSOPHY many birds, as larks, fnipes, &c. retire from the inland parts Qf the country to the fea-fhores, where they pick up a fcan- ty fubfiftance. Others, as the wren, the red-breaft, and many of the fmall birds, or fparrow-kind, refort to gardens, and the habitations of men. Their intention, it is obvious, is to procure food and fhelter. There are three principle objeas of migration : Food, temperature of air, and convenient fituations for breeding. Such birds as migrate to great diftances are alone denominat- ed birds of paffage. But all birds are, in fome meafure, birds of paffage, though they do not migrate to places fo remote from their fomer abodes. At particular times of the year, moft birds migrate from one county to another, or from the more inland diftrias toward the fhores. Thefe partial mi- grations of fmall birds are well known to bird-catchers, who make a livelihood by enfnaring them into their nets, and felling them. The birds fly, as the bird-catchers term it, about the end of September, and during the months of Oaober and November. There is another, but lefs confid- erabie, flight in March. Some begin their flight annually about Michaelmas j others, as the wood-larks, fucceed, and continue their flight till the middle of Oaober ; but the green-finch does not migrate till the froft obliges it to remove in queft of food and fhelter. Thefe partial migrations, or flittings, are performed from day-break till noon. Another, but fmaller, flight commences at two o'clock, and continues till night approaches. The times when particular birds mi- grate from one fituation to another are well known to the bird-catchers, who, by means of call-birds, nets, and other devices, feize great numbers of them, and, after accuftoming them for fome time to reftraint and flavery, fell them, for confiderabie prices, to curious men and whimfical women. A diligent attention to thefe partial migrations, and their OF NATURAL HISTORY. 493 motives, would foon unfold the caufes of thofe of a more ex- tenfive kind. Migration is generally fuppofed to be peculiar to the feath- ered tribes. This is a limited idea, which has originated from inattention to the oeconomy of Nature. Birds migrate with a view to remedy the inconveniencies of their prefent fituation, and to acquire a more commodious ftatfon with re- gard to food, temperature, generation, and fhelter. From fimilar motives, men, fometimes in amazing multitudes, have migrated from north to fouth, difplaced the native inhabi- tants, and fixed eftablifhments in more, comfortable climates than thofe which they had relinquiffied. Thefe, in their turn, have fallen viaims to frefh and barbarous emigrants. Among the inhabitants of the more northern nations, as Norway, Sweden, Scotland, &c. notwithftanding a very ftrong attachment to their native countries, there feems to be a na- tural or inftinaive propenfity to migrate. Poverty, the rig- our of climate, curiofity, ambition, the falfe reprefentations of interefted individuals, the oppreffion of feudal barons, and fimilar circumftances, have of late given rife to great emigra- tions of the human fpecies. But, it is worthy of remark, that the emigrations from fouth to north, except from the love of conqueft in ambitious nations, are fo rare, that the inftina feems hardly to exift in thofe more fortunate climates. Curiofity is a general inftinaive principle, which operates ftrongly in the youthful periods of life, and ftimulates every man to vifit places that are diftant from his ordinary refi- dence. This innate defire is influenced by the relations of travellers, and by many other incentives of a more interefted kind Without the principle of migration, mankind, it is probable, would never have been fo univerfally diffused over the furface of the earth. It is counterbalanced, however, by attachment to thofe countries which gave us birth, a prin- ciple ftill more powerful and efficient. Love of our nativ* 496 THE PHILOSOPHY country is fo ftrong, that, after gratifying the migrating principle, almoft every man feels a longing defire to return. Savages, as long as their ftore of food remains unexhauft- ed, continue in a liftlefs inaaive ftate. They exhauft many days fitting in perfea indolence, and feem not to be prompt- ed by any motives of curiofity. They have not a concep* tion of a man's walking either for amufement or exercife. But, when their provifions begin to fail, an aftonifhing re- verfe takes place. They then roufe as from a profound fleep. In queft of wild beafts, birds, and fifties, they mi- grate to immenfe diftances, exert the greateft feats of aaivi- ty, and undergo incredible hardfhips and fatigue. After ac- quiring a ftore of provifions, they return to their wonted haunts, and remain inaaive till their food again begins to fail. Quadrupeds likewife perform partial migrations. At the approach of winter, the ftag, the rein-deer, and the roebuck, leave the tops of the lofty mountains, and come down to the plains and copfes. Their chief objeas, in thefe flittings, are food and fhelter. When fummer commences, they are har- raffed with different fpecies of winged infeas, and, to avoid thefe enemies, they regain the fummits of the mountains, where the cold and the heighth of the fituation protea them from the attacks of the flies. In Norway, and the more northern regions of Europe, the oxen, during the winter, migrate to the fhores of the fea, where they feed upon fea- plants and the bones of fifhes j and Pontoppidan remarks, that the cattle know by inftina when the tide retires, and leaves thefe articles of food upon the fhorc. In Orkney and Shetland, the fheep in winter, for the fame purpofes, unU formly repair to the fhore at the ebbing of the tides. Rats, particularly thofe of the northern regions of Europe, ap-* pear, from time to time, in fuch myriads, that the inhabi-? t^nts pf Norway and Lapland imagine the animals fall from OF NATURAL HISTORY. 497 heaven. The celebrated Linnaeus, who paid great attention to the oeconomy of thefe migrating rats, remarked, that they appeared in Sweden periodically every eighteen or twenty years. When about to migrate, they leave their wonted abodes, and affemble together in numbers inconceivable. In the courfe of their journey, they make tracks in the earth of two inches in depth •, and thefe tracks fometimes occupy a breadth of feveral fathoms. What is fingular, the rats, in their march, uniformly purfue a ftraight line, unlefs they are forced to turn afide by fome unfurmountable obftacle. If they meet with a rock, they firft try to pierce it, and, after difcov- ering the attempt to be impraaicable, they go round it, and then refume the ftraight line. Even a lake does not inter- rupt their paffage ; for they either traverfe it in a ftraight line or perifh in the attempt; and, if they meet with a bark or other veffel, they do not alter their direaion, but climb up the one fide of it and defcend by the other. Frogs, immediately after their transformation from the tadpole ftate, leave the water, and migrate to the meadow or marfhy grounds in queft of infeas. The numbers of young frogs which fuddenly make their appearance in the plains in- duced Rondeletius, and many other naturalifts, to imagine that they were generated in the clouds and fliowered down upon the earth. But if, like the worthy and intelligent Mr. Derham, they had examined the fituation of the place with regard to flagnating waters, and attended to the nature and transformation of the animals, they would foon have difcov- ered the real caufe of the phenomenon. Of all migrating animals, particular kinds of fifhes make the longeft journies, and in the greateft numbers. The mul- tiplication of the fpecies, and the procuring of food, are the principal motives of the migration of fifhes. The falmon, a fifh which makes regular migrations, frequents the northern regions alone. It is unknown in the Mediterranean fea, and }n the rivers which fall into it both from Europe and Africa. 4-98 THE PHILOSOPHY It is found in fome of the rivers of France that empty them- felves into the ocean*. Salmons are taken in the rivers of Kamtfchatkaf, and appear as far north as Greenland. Sal- mons live both in the ocean, and in frefh waters. For the purpofe of depofiting their fpawn, they quit the fea in the month of ^September, and afcend the rivers. So ftrong is the inftina of migrating, that they prefs up the rivers with amazing keennefs, and fearcely any obftacle is fufficient to interrupt their progrefs. They fpring, with great agility, over cataraas of feveral feet in heighth. In their leaps, they fpring ftraight up with a ftrong tremulous motion, and do not, as has been vulgarly fuppofed, put their tails in their mouths. When they find a place which they think proper for depofiting their eggs, the male and female unite their labours in forming a convenient receptacle for the fpawn in the fand, which is generally about eighteen inches deep. In this hole the female depofits her eggs, and the mothers milt, which they are faid to cover carefully with their tails ; #for, after fpawning, their tails are deprived of fkin. The eggs, when not difturbed by violent floods, lie buried in the fand till the fpring, and they are hatched about the end of March. The parents, however, after this important office has been performed, haften back to the fea, in order to cleanfe them- felves, and to recover their ftrength. Toward the end of March, the young fry begin to appear, and they gradually increafe in fize till they acquire the length of four or five inches, and are then called fmelts, or fmoultsp About the beginning of May, all the confiderabie rivers of Scotland are full of falmon-fry. After this period, they migrate to the Sea. About the middle of June, the earlieft of the fry begin to appear again in the rivers. At that time they are * Rondelet. de Fluviat. page 167. N f Hift. Kamtfchatka, page 143. j: See an account of the Salmon Fifhery on the river Tweed, communicated to Mr. Pennant by Mr. Potts, Brit Zool. vol. 3. page 241, 8vo. edif OF NATURAL HKTORY. 499 from twelve to fixteen inches long, and gradually augment, both in number and fize, till about the end of July or begin- ning of Auguft, when they weigh from fix to nine pounds. This is a very rapid growth. But a gentleman of credit at Warrington informed Mr. Pennant of a growth ftill more rapid. A falmon, weighing feven pounds and three quar- ters, was taken on the feventh day of February. It was mar- ked on the back, fin, and tail, with feiffars, and then turned into the river. It was retaken on the I7th day of the fol- lowing month of March, and then it weighed feventeen pounds and a half. The feafon for fifhing falmon in the Tweed begins on the 30th of November, and ends on old Michaelmas day. In that fingle river, it is computed that no lefs than '208000, at a medium, are annually caught, which, together with the produas of many other rivers on both fides of Scotland, not only afford a wholefome and pal- atable food to the inhabitants, but form no inconfiderable article of commerce. Herrings are likewife aauated by the migrating principle. Thefe fifhes are chiefly confined to the northern and tem- perate regions of the globe. They frequent the higheft lati- tudes, and are fometimes found on the northern coafts of France. They appear in vaft ffioals on the coaft of Americans far fouth as Carolina. In Chefapeak bay there is an annual in- undation of herrings ; and Mr. Catefby informs us, that they cover the fhores in fuch amazing numbers as to become offen- five to the inhabitants. The great winter rendezvous of the herrings is within, or near the Araic Circle, where they re- main feveral months,and acquire ftrength after being weaken- ed by the fatigues of fpawning, and of a long migration. In thefe feas, infea food is much more abundant than in warm- er latitudes. They begin their migration fouthward in the fpring, and appear off the Shetland iflands in the months of April and May. Thefe, however, are only the forerunners 500 • THE PHILOSOPHY of the immenfe fhoal which arrives in June. Their approach is recognifed by particular figns, fuch as the appearance of certain fifhes, the vaft number of birds, as gannets or folan geefe, which follow the fhoal to prey upon the herrings. But when the main body arrives, its breadth and depth are fo great as to change the appearance of the ocean itfelf. The fhoal is generally divided into columns of five or fix miles in length, and three or four in breadth. Their progreffive mo- tion creates a kind of rippling or fmall undulations in the water. They fometimes fink and difappear for ten or fifteen minutes, and then rife again toward the farface. When the fun fhines, a variety of fplendid and beautiful colours are reffeaed from their bodies. In their progrefs fouthward, the firft interruption they meet with is from the Shetland iflands. Here the fhoal divides into two branches. One branch fkirts the eaftern, and the other the weftern fhores of Great ■t Britain, and fill every bay and creek with their numbers. Thofe which proceed to the weft from Shetland, after vifit- ing the Hebrides, where the great fifhery is carried on, move on till they are again interrupted by the north of Ireland, which obliges them to divide a fecond time. One divifion takes to the weft, where they are fcarcely perceived, being foon loft in the immenfity of the Atlantic Ocean. The oth- er divifion goes into the Irifli fea, and affords nourifhment to many thoufands of the human race. The chief objea of herrings migrating fouthward is to depofit their fpawn in warmer and more fhallowfeas than thofe of the Frigid Zone. This inftina feems not to be prompted by a fcarcity of food; for, when they arrive upon our coafts, they are fat and in fine condition ; but, when returning to the ocean, they are weak and emaciated. They continue in perfeaion from the end of June to the beginning of winter, when they be- gin to depofit their fpawn. The great ftations of the her- ring fifheries are off the Shetland and the weftern iflands, and along the coaft of Norfolk. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 501 Befide falmons and herrings, there are many fifhes which obferve a regular migration, as mackerels, lampreys, pil- chards, &c. About the middle of July, the pilchards which W a fpecies of herrings, though fmaller, appear in vaft fhoals off the coafts of Cornwall. When winter approaches, like the herrings, they retire to the Arctic feas. Though fo near- ly allied to the herring, it is not incurious to remark, that the pilchards, in their migration for the purpofe of fpawning, choofe a warmer latitude ; for, off the coaft of Britain, the great flioals never appear farther north than the county of Cornwall and the Scilly iflands. Dr. Borlafe, in his hiftory ' of Cornwall, gives the following account of the pilchard fifh- ery : < It employs,' fays he,f a great number of men on the ' fea, training them thereby to naval affairs ; employs men, < women, and children, at land, in falling, preffing, wafhing, 1 and cleaning, in making boats, nets, ropes, cafks, and all the « trades depending on their conftruaion and fale. The poor * is fed with the offals of the captures, the land with the re- < fufe of the fifh and fait; the merchant finds the gains of < commiffion and honeft commerce, the fifherman the gains « of the fifh. Ships are often freighted hither with fait, and f into foreign countries with the fifh, carrying off, at the 1 fame time, part of our tin. The ufual produce of the num- « ber of hogffieads exported each year, for ten years, from * 1747 to 1756 inclufive, from the four ports of Tawy, Fal- < mouth, Penzance, and St. Ives, it appears, that Tawy has * exported yearly 1732 hogffieads ; Falmouth, 14631 hogf- 1 heads and two thirds •, Penzance and Mounts-Bay, 12149 < hogffieads and one third; St. Ives, 1282 hogffieads : In all f amounting to 29795 hogfheads. Every hogfhcad, for ten «vears laft paft, together with the bounty allowed for each « hogfhead exported, and the oil made out of each hogfhead, « has amounted, one year with another at an average, to the « price of one pound thirteen fhillings and three pence ; fo iwi THE PHILOSOPHY ' that the cafh paid for pilchards exported has, at a medium* f annually amounted to the fum of L. 49532 : 10 : 0.' Of the land-crab there are feveral fpecies. The migra- tion of what is called the violet land-crab delerves fome notice. It inhabits the warmer regions of Europe : But its particular f efidence is in the tropical climates of Africa and America. Land-crabs generally frequent the mountainous parts of the country, which are, of courfe, moft remote from the fea. They inhabit the hollows of old trees, the clefts of rocks, and holes which they themfelves dig in the earth. They are ex- tremely numerous. In the months of April and May, they leave their retreats in the mountains, and march in millions fo the fea-fhore. At this period the whole ground is cover- ed with them ; and a man can hardly put down his foot without treading on them*. The objea of their migration fs to depofit their fpawn on the fea-fhore. In their progrefs towards the fea, like the northern rats, the land-crabs move in a ftraight line. Even when a houfe intervenes, inftead of deviating to the right or left, they attempt to fcaie the walls. But, when they meet with a river, they are obliged to wind along the courfe of the ftream. In their migration from the mountains, they obferve the greateft regularity and commonly divide into three battalions or bodies. The firft corififts of the ftrongeft and boldeft males, who, like pioneers, march forward to clear the route, and to face the greateft dangers. The females, who form the main body, defcend from the mountains in regular columns, which are fifty paces broad, three miles long, and fo clofe that they almoft entire- ly cover the ground. Three or four days afterwards, the rear-guard follows, which confifts of a ftraggling undifciplin- ed troop of males and females. 'They travel chiefly during the night ; but, if it rains by day, (for moifture facilitates their motion), they proceed in their flow uniform manner. • Voyage aux IflesFrancoifespar Labat, torn. a. page Z2i. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 503 When the fun fhines, and the furface of the ground is dry, they make an univerfal halt till the evening, and then refume their march. When alarmed with danger, they run back- ward in a diforderly manner, and hold up their nippers in a threatening pofture. They even feem to intimidate their enemies -, for, when difturbed, they make a clattering noife with their nippers. But, though they endeavour to render themfelves formidable to their enemies, they are cruel to each other. When an individual, by any accident, is fo maimed that he cannot proceed, his companions immediately devour him, and then purfue their journey. After a fatiguing and tedious march, which fometimes continues three months be- fore they reach the ffiore, they prepare themfelves for de- pofiting their fpawn. The eggs ftill remain in the bodies of the animals, and are not excluded, as ufual to this genus, un- der the tail. To facilitate the maturation and exclufion of the eggs, the land-crabs no fooner arrive on the ffiore, than they approach to the margin of the fea, and allow the waves to pafs feveral times over their bodies. They immediately re- tire to the land ; the eggs, in the mean time, come nearer to maturity, and the animals once more go to the water, de- pofit their eggs, and leave the event to Nature. The bunch- es of fpawn are fometimes as large as a hen's egg ; and it is not incurious to remark, that, at this very period, numbers of fifhes of different kinds are anxioufly waiting for this an- nual fupply of food. Whether the painful migration of the land-crabs, or the wonderful inftina of the fifhes which await their arrival, in order to devour their fpawn, is the moft aftoniffiing faa, we fhall leave to the confideration of philofophers. The eggs which efcape thefe voracious fifhes are hatched under the fand. Soon after, millions of minute crabs are feen leaving the ffiore, and migrating flowly to- ward the mountains. Moft of the old ones, however, re- main in the flat parts of the country till they regain their 504 THE PHILOSOPHY ftrength. They dig holes in the earth, the mouths of which they cover with leaves and mud. Here they throw off their old fhells, remain quite naked, and almoft without motion for fix days, when they become fo fat that they are efteemed delicious food. When the new fhell has hardened, the ani- mals, by an inftinaive impulfe, march back to thofe moun- tains which they had formerly deferted. In Jamaica, where they are numerous, the land-crabs are regarded as great deli- cacies ; and they are fo abundant, that the flaves are often fed entirely upon them. The migrating principle is not confined to men, quadru- peds, birds, and reptiles: It extends to many of the infeB tribes. Numberlefs inhabitants of the air pafs the firft flages of their exiftence in the waters. There they remain for longer or fhorter periods, according to the fpecies. Previous to their transformation into chryfalids, they quit the waters, and come upon dry ground, where they undergo their amaz- ing change. Inftead of aaive water-worms, they dig or find holes in the earth, where they are converted into chryfalids, or feemingly inanimated beings, and, in a fhort time, mount into the air in the form of winged infeas. Similar migra- tions are to be obferved among land-infeas. But migration is not confined to water-worms. Many fpecies of caterpil- lars which feed upon the leaves of trees, fhrubs, and other vegetables, when- about to undergo their transformation, leave their former abodes, defcend from the trees, and con- ceal themfelves in the earth. The hiving of bees, when nu- merous colonies remove in order to eftablifh new fettfements, is another inftance of the migration of infeas. Indeed, if we except bees, wafps, ants, and a few ethers, moft infeas, whether they inhabit the air, the earth, or the waters, are perfea wanderers, having no fixed place of refidence. Some of them, as the fpider tribes, build temporary apartments \ OF NATURAL HISTORY. 505 but, when difturbed, they migrate to another commodious place, and erea new habitations. From the faas which have been enumerated, it is appar- ent, that the principle of migration, or the defire of chang- ing fituations, is not confined to particular birds, but ex- tends through almoft the whole fyftem of animation. Men, quadrupeds, birds, fifhes, reptiles, infeas, all afford ftriking examples of the migrating principle. From the fame faas it is equally apparent, that the general motives for migrating are fimilar in every clafs of animals. Food, multiplication of fpecies, and a comfortable temperature of air, are evident- ly the chief caufes which induce animals to remove from one place to another, or, what amounts to the fame thing, from one climate to another. Partial emigrations, or emigrations to fmall diftances, are prompted by the fame inftinaive motives which induce animals of a different ftruaure to undertake long and fatiguing excurfions. But, previous to aaual mi- gration, what are the peculiar feelings of different animals, and what fhould ftimulate them to proceed uniformly in the direaion that ultimately leads them to the fituations moft accommodated to their wants and their conftitotions, are myfteries, with regard to which, like every other part of the oeconomy of Nature, it is the duty of philofophers, inftead of attempting to pufh their inquiries beyond the bounds pf human ability, to obferve a refpeaable filence. 506 THE PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER XXL Of the Longevity and Diffolution of Organifed Bodies, IT is a law of Nature, though a melancholy one, that all organifed bodies fhould be diffolved. The periods of diffolution, however, are as various as the fpecies, and the intentions of Nature in producing them. In the human kind, the brevity of life is regarded as an objea of regret. One half of mankind die before they ar- rive at eight years of age. From that early period to eighty, befide the deftruaion of war, and other accidents, Nature kills them annually in millions. Some inftances may be giv- en of men whofe lives were prolonged beyond the ufual pe- riod of human exiftence. Such men are not to be envied ; nor fhould they be confidered as favourites of Nature. With refpea to maturity of judgment, and a knowledge of the world, no man can be faid to exift till he paftgs. thirty years of age. Give him thirty or thirty-five more, and, in gener- al, both mind and body are vifibly declined. Thofe people, therefore, who arrive at an extraordinary age may be faid to exift, but they do not livp. All intelfeanal enjoyments and exertions, which conftitute the chief dignity and happinefs of man, are gone.' There are exceptions; but thefe excep- tions are confirmations of what we have advanced. Man- kind, in the early ages of the world, have been faid to live for feveral centuries. We mean not to contradia the affer- tion. But we muft remark, that, if ever men lived fb long, they muft have been very different both in the ftruaure of their bodies and in their manners, from thofe who now exift. From infancy to manhood, there is a gradual growth or ex- tenfion of our organs. After this period, and when we ad- OF NATURAL HISTORY. Aol Vance in years, the bones harden, the mufcles turn ftiff, the cartilages are converted into bones, the membranes into car- tilages, the ftomach and bowels lofe their tone, and the whole fabric, inftead of being foft, flexible, and obedient to the inclinations, or even the commands of the mind, becomes rigid, inaaive, and feeble. Thefe are the general artd pro- greffive caufes of death, and they are common to all animals. There are modes of living more favourable to health than others. But examples are not wanting of men who have ar- rived at extreme old age, without obferving either temper- ance, or any of the other modes of living which are general- ly fuppofed to be favourable to longevity, Some meh, who lived temperately, and even abftemioufly, have reached to great ages: Others, who obferved the very oppofite condua, who lived freely, and often intemperately, have had their ex- iftence equally prolonged. But, in general, notwithftanding a few exceptions, temperance, a placid and chearful difpofi- tion, moderate exercife, and proper exertions of mind, con- tribute, in no uncommon degree, to the prolongation of life. A few examples of longevity in the human fpecies, though no general conclufions can be drawn from them, may not be incurious to the reader. We fliall not go back to a remote and obfcure antiquity, but confine ourfelves to more modern times, when the modes of living were nearly the fame as they are at prefent. On this fubjea, the celebrated Lord Verulam, in his Syi- va Sylvarum*, gives the following paffage, chiefly tranflated from the feventh book of Pliny's Natural Hiftory : < The « year of our Lord feventy-fix, falling into the time of Vef- ' pafian, is memorable ; in which we fhall find, as it were a « kalendar of long-lived men : For that year there was a tax- ' ing, (now a taxing is the moft authentical and trueft inform- « er touching the ages of men), and in that part of Italy which «lieth between the Appennine mountains and the river Po, * Page 393. 5.08 THE PHILOSOPHY 1 there were found 124 perfons that either equalled or ex- ' ceed an hundred years of age, namely, ' Fifty-four - - . of 100 years each; ' Fifty-feven - _ _ no ' Two - 12^ 'Four - - 130 1 Four" - 135 or 137 'Three - - - - 140 ' Befide thefe, Parma, in particular, afforded five, whereof, 'Three were - - _ 120years each, 1 Two - - . . 130 ' One in Bruxelles - * 125 ' One in Placentia - - isi ' One in Faventia - - 132 « A certain town, then called Velleiatium, fituate in the * hills about Placentia, afforded ten, whereof 'Six were - 110 years each. ' Four - - - 120 { One in Rimino, whofe name was ' Marcus Aponius - . 150.' The moft extraordinary inftance of longevity in Great Britain was exhibited in the perfon of Henry Jenkins. He was a native of Yorkshire, lived to the amazing age of 169 years, and died on the 8th day of December 1670. Next to Jenkins we have the famous Thomas Parre, who was a native of Shropfhire, and died on the 16th day of November 1635, at the age of 152. Francis Confift, a native of Yorkfhire, aged 150, died in January 1768. Margaret Forfter, aged 136, and her daughter, aged 104, were natives of Cumberland, and both alive in the year 1771. William Evans, aged 145, lived in Carnarvon, and ftill exifted in the year 1782. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 509 Dumiter Radaloy, aged 140, lived in Harmenftead, and died on the 16th day of January 1782. James Bowels, aged 152, lived in Killingworth, and died on the 15th day of Auguft 1656. The Countefs of DefmOnd, in Ireland, faw her 140th year. Mr. Eclefton, a native of Ireland, lived to the age of 143, and died in the year 1691. John Mount, a native of Scotland, faw his 136th year, and died on the 27th day of February 1776. William Ellis of Liverpool died on the 16th day of Auguft 1780, at the age of 130. Colonel Thomas Winfloe, a native of Ireland, aged 146, died on the 22d day of Auguft 1766. John Taylor was born in Carrygill, in the county of Cum- berland. He was bred a miner. His father died when John was only four years of age. Poverty obliged him to be fet early to work. During two years he dreffed lead ore for 2 d. a-day. The next three or four years he affifted the miners in removing the ore and rubbifh to the bank, for which he received 4 d. a-day. At this period there happen- ed a great folar eclipfe, which was diftinguiflied in Scotland by the appellation of Mirk Monday*. This event, which he always repeated with the fame circumftances, is the chief aera from which John's age has been computed. After la- bouring many years both in this and the neighbouring king- dom, he died, near Leadhills in Scotland, in the month of May 1770, at the great age of 133. Though the above modern examples of extraordinary longevity reft chiefly on the authority of periodical publica- tions, yet there is not a doubt, that, in all countries, and at all times, fome perfons of both fexes have arrived at ages far beyond the common periods of human life. If the reader is • Mirk, in the Scottifh dialed, fignifies dark ; and the eclipfe happened in 4io THE PHILOSOPHY defirous of feeing many inftances of longevity, he may coll* fult Bacon's Hiftory of Life and Death *, Whitehurft's Inquiry into the Original State and formation of the Earth +, and Dr. Fothergill's Obfervations on Longevity p The general caufes of death have already been mentioned. But, in women, the operation of thefe caufes is frequently retarded. In the female fex, the bones, the cartilages, the mufcles, as well as every 'other part of the body, are fofter and lefs folid than thofe of men : Neither are they generally fo much fubjeaed to bodily exertions. Their conftituent parts, accordingly require more time in hardening to that degree which occafions death. Women ©f courfe ought to live longer than men. This reafoning is confirmed by the bills of mortality •, for upon confulting them, it appears, that, after women have paffed a certain time, they live much lon- ger than men who have reached the fame period. The du- ration of the lives of animals may in fome meafure be eftima- ted by the time occupied in their growth. An animal, or even a plant, as we learn from experience, which acquires maturity in a fhort time, perifhes much fooner than thofe which are longer in arriving at that period. In the human fpecies, when individuals grow with uncommon rapidity, they generally die young. This circumftance feems to have given rife to the common proverbial expreffion, foon rift foon totten. Man grows in ftature till he be fixteen or eighteen years of age ; but the thicknefs of his body is not completely tmfolded before that of thirty. Dogs acquire their full length in one year; but their growth in thicknefs is not finifhed till the end of the fecond. A man, who continues to grow for thirty years, may live ninety or a hundred : But a dog, whofe growth terminates in two or three years, lives only ten or twelve. The fame obfervation is applicable to • Sylva Sylvarum, page 273. &c. f 2d Edit page 165. i. An»ual Regifter, Natural Hiftory dmfion, page 61. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 6l\ moft animals. Fifhes continue to grow for a great number of years. Some of them, accordingly, live during feveral centuries ; becaufe their bones and cartilages feldom acquire the denfity of thofe of other animals. It may, therefore, be confidered, as a general faa, that large animals live longer than fmall ones, becaufe the former require more time to complete their growth. Thus the caufes of our diffolution are inevitable ; and it is equally impoffible to retard that fatal period, as to change the eftablifhed laws of Nature* When the conftitution is found, life may, perhaps, by mode- rating the paffions, and by temperance, be prolonged for a few years. But the varieties of climate, and the modes of living, make no material differences with regard to the peri- od of our exiftence, which is nearly the fame in the Europe- an, the Negro, the Afiatic, the American, the civilized man and the favage, the rich and the poor, the citizen and the pea- fant. Neitherdoes the difference of food,orof accommodation^ make any change on the duration of life. Men who are fed on raw flefh or dried fifh, on fago or rice, on caflada or roots, live as long as thofe who ufe bread and prepared viauafe. If luxury and intemperance be excepted, nothing can alter thofe laws of mechanifm which invariably determine the number of our years. Any little differences which may be remarked in the term of human life, feem to be chiefly ow- ing to the quality of the air. In general, there are more old men in high than in low countries. The mountains of Scot- land, of Wales, and of Switzerland, have furnifhed more examples of longevity than the plains of Holland, Flanders, Germany, or Poland. But if we take a furvey of mankind, whatever be the climate they inhabit, or their mode of living, there is fearcely any difference in the duration of life. When men are not cut off by accidental difeafes, individuals may every where be found who live ninety or an hundred years. Our anceftors, with few exceptions, never exceeded 512 THE PHILOSOPHY this period ;and,fince the days of David King of the Jewvt has undergone no variation. Befide accidental difeafes, which are more frequent, as well as more dangerous, in the latter periods of life, old men are fubjeaed to natural infirmities that originate folely from a decay of the different parts of the body. The mufcles lofe their tone* the head fhakes, the hands tremble, the limbs, totter, the fenfibility of the nerves is blunted, the cavities of the veffels contraa, the fecretory organs are obftruaed, the blood, the lymph, and the other fluids, extravafate, and produce all thofe fymptoms and dif- eafes which are commonly afcribed to a vitiation of the hu- mours. The natural decay of the folids, however, appears to be the original caufe of all thefe maladies. It is true, that a bad ftate of the fluids proceeds from a depravity in the or- ganization of the folids. But the effeas refulting from a nox - ious change in the fluids produce the moft alarming fymp- toms. When the fluids ftagnate, or if, by a relaxation of the veffels, an extravafation takes place, they foon corrupt, and corrode the weaker parts of the folids. Hence the caufes of diffolution gradually, but perpetually, multiply, our inter- nal enemies grow more and more powerful, and at laft put a period to our exiftence. With regard to Quadrupeds, the caufes of their diffolution are precifely the fame with thofe which deftroy the human fpecies. The times of their growth bear, likewife, fome pro- portion to the duration of their lives. But, as we have alrea- dy given a table of the ages at which different quadrupeds are capable of multiplying their fpecies, and of the general dura- tion of their lives, tp avoid unneceffary repetitions, we muft refer the reader to page 288 of this work. Some Birds afford inftances of great longevity. In this clafs of animals, the duration of life is by no means proportioned to the times of their growth. Moft of them acquire their fujl dimenfions in a few months, and arc capable of multiplying ©F NATURAL HISTORY. 519 the fpecies the firft fpring or fummer after they are hatch- ed. In proportion to the fize of their bodies, birds are much more vivacious, and live longer than either men or quadrupeds. Swans have been faid to live three hundred years ; but, though mentioned by refpeaable writers, the affertion is not fupported by any authentic evidence. Mr. Willoughby, in his Ornithology*, remarks, < We have been < affured by a friend of ours, a perfon of very good credit, «that his father kept a goofe known to be fourfcore years of < age, and as yet found and lufty, and like enough to have < lived many years longer, had he not been forced to kill her « for her mifehievoufnefs, worrying and deftroying the young « geefe and goflings.' In another part of this valuable work, Mr. Willoughby tells us, ' that he has been affured by « credible perfons, that a goofe will live a hundred years or f moref.' • In man and quadrupeds, the duration of life bears feme proportion to the times of their growth. But, in Birds, their growth, and their powers of reproduaion, are more rapid, though they live proportionally longer. Some fpecies of birds, as all the gallinaceous tribes, can make ufe of their limbs the moment they iffue from the fhell i and, in a month or five weeks after, they can likewife employ their wings. A dung-hill cock has the capacity of engendering at the age of four months, but does not acquire his full growth in lefs than a year. The fmaller birds are perfea in four or five months. They grow more rapidly, and produce much foon- er than quadrupeds, and yet they live proportionally much longer. In man and quadrupeds, the duration of life is about fix or feven times more than that of their growth- According to this rule, a cock or a parrot, who arrive at their full growth and powers in one year, fhould not live above * Page 14. | Ornithology, page 2,5$. f 1* THE PHILOSOPHY fix. of feven. But Nature knows none of our rules. She accommodates her condua, not to our fhallow, and ofteft Jrcfumptuous conclufions, but to the prefervation of fpecies, and to the fupport and general balance of the great fyftem of animated beings. Ravens, though capable of providing for themfelves in lefs than a year, fometimes have their lives jwotraaed more than a century. The Count de Buffon in- forms us, that, in feveral places of France, ravens have been known to arrive at this extraordinary age, and that, at all times, and in all countries, they have been efteemed birds of great longevity*. ' Eagles/ fays Mr. Pennant, ' are remarkable for their * longevity, and for their power of fuftaining a long abftU * nence from food. A golden eagle, which has now been * nine years in the poffeffion of Owen Holland, Efq. of Con- * way, lived thirty-two years with the gentleman who made * him a prefent of jt j but what its age was when the latter ♦ received it from Ireland is unknown. The fame bird alfo • furnifhes a p: oof of the truth of the Other remark, having * once, through the negfea of fervants, endured hunger for «twenty-one days, without any fuftenance whatfoeverf.' The pelican that was kept at Mechlin in Brabant during the reign of the Emperor Maximilian, was believed to be eighty years of age. ' What is reported of the age of eagles and « ravens,' fays Mr. Willoughby, ' although it exceeds all be- «lief, yet doth it evince that thofe birds are very long-lived^.' Pigeons have been known to live from twenty to twenty- two years. Even the fmaller birds live very long in propor- tion to the time of their growth and the fize of their bodies. Linnets, gold-finches, gcc. often live in cages fifteen, twenty, and even twenty-three years. • Hift. Nat. des Oifeawt, torn. 3. page 3%. | Britifh Zoology, vol. 1. 8vo. edit, page 113, i Ornithology, page 14. OF NATURAL HISTORY* 515 Fpes, whofe bones are more cartilaginous than thofe of men and quadrupeds, are long of acquiring their utmoft growth, and many of them live to great ages. Gefner gives an inftance of a carp in Germany which he knew to be one hundred years old*. Buffon informs us, that, in the Count Maurepa's ponds, he had feen carps of one hundred and fifty years of age, and that the faa was attefted in the moft fatis* faaory manner. He even mentions one which he fuppofed to be two hundred years oldf. Two methods have been de* fifed for afcertaining the age of fifhes, namely, by the cir* clesof the fcales, and by a tranfverfe feaionof the back-bone. When a fcale of a fifh is examined by the microfcope, it is found to confift of a number of circles within one another} refembling, in fome meafure, thofe rings that appear* on the tranfverfe feaions of trees, by which their ages are computed* In the fame manner, the ages of fifhes may be afcertained by the number of circles on their fcales, reckoning for each ring one year of the animal's exiftence. The ages of Buffon's carps were chiefly determined by the circles on their fcales* The age of fifhes that want fcales, as the fkate and ray-kind, may be pretty exaaiy known by feparating the joints of the back-bone, and obferving minutely the number of rings which the furface exhibits. Both of thefe methods may be liable to deception; but they are the only natural ones which have hitherto been difcovered. The longevity of fifhes has been afcribed to feveral caufes. The element in which they live is more uniform, and lefs fubjea to accidental changes than the air of our atmofphere. Their bones, which are more of a cartilaginous nature than thofe of land animals, admit ,pf indefinite extenfion ; of courfe, their bodies, inftead of fuffering the rigidity of age at an early period, which is the natural caufe of death, continue to grow much longe* than thofe of moft land-animals* Gefner de Pifc. page 311. f Epoaue$ de la Nature, page 181. 616 THE PHILOSOPHY As to the age of Reptiles, probably from the uninterefting ftature of the animals, we have very little information. But two letters of J. Arfcott, Efq. •, of Tehott in Devonfhire, concerning the longevity of a toad, deferve fome notice. Thefe letters were addreffed to Dr. Milles, Dean of Exeter, and by him communicated to Mr. Pennant in the year 1768: •It would give me the greateft pleafure/ fays Mr. Arfcott,' to * be able to inform you of any particulars worthy Mr. Pen* « nant's notice, concerning the toad who lived fo many years « with us, and was fo great a favourite. It had frequented ' fome fteps before the hall-door fome years before my ac- ' quaintance commenced with it, and had been admired by ' my father for its fize, (which was of the largeft I ever met * with), who conftantly paid it a vifit every evening. I knew 1 it myfelf above thirty years, and, by conftantly feeding it, ' brought it to be fo tame, that it always came to the candle, * and looked up, as if expeaing to be taken up and brought « upon the table, where I always fed it with infeas of all * forts. You may imagine that a toad, generally detefted, ' (although one of the moft inoffenfive of all animals), fo ' much taken notice of and befriended, excited the curiofity « of all comers to the houfe, who all defired to fee it fed-, fo «that even ladies fo far conquered the horrors inftilled into «them by nurfes, as to defire to fee it*.' In the fecond letter, Mr. Arfcott remarks, ' I cannot fay how long my father had «been acquainted with the toad before I knew it 5 but, when «I was firft acquainted with it, he ufed to mention it as the < old toad I have known fo many years ; I can anfwer for *thirty-fix yearsf.' ' In refpea to its end, had it not been « for a tame raven, 1 make no doubt but it would have been « now living, who one day, feeing it at the mouth of its hole, « pulled it out, and, though I refcued it, pulled out one eye, * Pennant's Britifh Zoology, vol. 3. page 323. ■}• Ibid, page 336. OF NATURAL HrSTORY. 517 * and hurt it fo, that, notwithftanding its living a twelve- < month, it never enjoyed itfelf, and had a difficulty in tak- * ing its food, miffing the mark for want of its eye. Before * that accident it had all the appearance of perfea health*. Moft InfeBs, efpecially after their laft transformation, are fhort-lived. But the fpecies are continually fupported by their wonderful fecundity. Thofe animals whofe parts re- quire a long time of hardening and expanding are endowed with a proportional degree of longevity. Infeas grow, and their bodies harden, more quickly than thofe of larger ani- mals. Many of them complete their growth in a few weeks, and even in a few days. The duration of their exiftence is accordingly limited to very ffiort periods. Some fpecies of * flies lie in a torpid ftate during the winter, and revive when the heat of fpring or fummer returns. The ephemeron flies, Of which there are feveral kinds, feldom live above one day, or one hour, after tlieir transformation. But, to continue the fpecies, Nature has taken care that myriads of males and females fhould be transformed nearly at the fame inftant. Were it otherwife, the males and females could have no op- portunity of meeting, and the fpecies would foon be extin- guiffied. Other kinds are transformed more irregularly, and live feveral days. Here the wifdom of Nature is confpicuous : She prolongs the exiftence of thefe animals for no other purpofe but to allow the individuals of both fexes to meet and multiply the fpecies. Bees, and flies of all kinds, after lying long in water, and having every appearance of death, revive by the application of a gentle heat, or by covering their bodies with afhes, chalk or fand, which abforb the fu- perfluous moifture from their pores. Reaumur made many experiments upon the revivifcence of drowned bees. He found, that, after being immerfed in water for nine hours, fome of them returned to life; but he acknowledges that « Pennant's Britifh Zoology, vol. 3. page 332. R r r » 51* THE PHILOSOPHY many of them, in the fourth part of this time, were actually' dead, and that neither heat, nor the application of abforbent powders, could reftore them to life. Analogical reafoning is often deceitful, but it frequently leads to ufeful truths. As flies of all kinds, after immerfion in water, and exhibit- ing every mark of aaual death, can be reftored to life by covering their bodies with any abforbent fubftance, without the affiftance of a heat fuperior to that of the common at- mofphere, might not the ordinary methods employed for the recovery of drowned perfons be affifted by the applica- tion of warm afhes or chalk ? The ftruaure of a fly and that of a man, it is allowed, are very different. But, in def- perate cafes, when every other method fails, no faa fhould be overlooked, and no analogy defpifed. Plants differ as much in the periods of their exiftence as animals. Many plants perifh yearly; others are biennial, triennial, &c. But the longevity and magnitude of particular trees are prodigious. We are informed by Mr. Evelyn, that, in the bodies of fome Englifh oaks, when cut tranfverfe- ly, three, and even four, hundred rings of wood have been diftinguifhed. A ring of wood is added annually to the trunks of trees ; and, by counting the rings, the age of any tree may be pretty exaaiy afcertained*. With regard to the magnitude of oaks, fome of them are huge maffes. Dr. Hunter, in his Notes upon Eveyln's Sylva, remarks, that none ' of the oaks mentioned by Mr. Evelyn bear any pro- « portion to one now growing at Cowthorpe, near Wether- « by, upon an eftate belonging to the Right Hon. Lady « Stourton. The dimenfions are almoft incredible. With- « in three feet of the furface, it meafures fixteen yards, and, < clofe by the ground, twenty-fix yards. Its height, in its < prefent and ruinous ftate, (1776,) is about eighty-five feet, and its principle limb extends fixteen yards from the bole. * See Evelyn's Sylva, page 505. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 519 * When compared to this, all other trees are but children of « of the foreft*.' From the faas which have been enumerated, it appears, that all animals, as well as vegetables, have ftated periods of exiftence, and that their diffolution is uniformly accomplifh- ed by a gradual hardening and deficcatiea of their conftituent parts. No art, no medicine, can retard the operations of Nature. It is, therefore, the wifdom and the duty of every human being to fail down the irrefiftible current of Nature with all poffible tranquility and refignation. Life, whether ffiort or long, whether fortunate or unfortunate, when the fatal period arrives, is of little confequence to the individual. Society, knowledge, virtue, and benevolence, are our only rational enjoyments, and ought to be cultivated with dili- gence. With regard to animals in general, the aaual duration of their lives is very different. But the comparative fliort- nefs or length of life, in particular animals, probably de- pends on the quicknefs or flownefs of the ideas which pafs in their minds, or of the impreffions made upon their fenfes. A rapid fucceffion of ideas or impreffions makes time feem proportionally long. There is likewife a conneaion between the quicknefs and flownefs of ideas, and the circulation of the blood. A man whofe pulfe is flow and fluggiffi, is ge- nerally dull and phlegmatic. Raife this fame man's pulfe with wine, or any other exhilirating ftimulus, and you im- mediately quicken his fenfations, as well as the train of his ideas. In all young animals, the circulation of the blood is much more rapid than after they have acquired their full growth. Young animals, accordingly, are frolickfome, vivacious, and happy. But, when their growth is completed, the motion of blood is flower, and their manners, of courfe, are more fedate, gloomy, and penfive. Another circum- * Ibid, page 500. 520 THE PHILOSOPHY fiance merits attention. The circulation of the blood is flower or quicker in proportion to the magnitude of animals. In large animals, fuch as man and quadrupeds, the blood moves flowly, and the fucceffion of their ideas is proportion- ally flow. In the more minute kinds, as mice, fmall birds, fquirrels, &e. the circulation is fo rapid that the pulfes of their arteries cannot be counted. Now, animals of this de- fcription aftoniffi us with the quicknefs of their movements, the vivacity of their manners, and the extreme chearfulnefs of their difpofitions. Reaumur, Condillac, and many other philofophers, confid-. er duration as a relative idea, depending on a train of con- fcious perception and fentiment. It is certain that the na- tural meafure of time depends folely on the fucceffion of our ideas. Were it poffible for the mind to be totally occupied with a fingle idea for a day, a week, or a month, thefe por- tions of time would appear to be nothing more than fo many inftants. Hence a philofopher often lives as long in one day, as a clown or a favage does in a week or a month fpent in mental inaaivity and want of thought. This fubjea fhall be concluded with a fingle remark : If it be true, and we are certain that it is fo in part, that ani- mals of every fpecies, whatever be the real duration of their lives, from a flow or rapid fucceffion of ideas, and perhaps from the comparative intenfity of their enjoyments, live equally long, and enjoy an equal portion of individual happi- nefs, it opens a wonderful view of the great benevolence of Nature. To ftore every portion of this globe with animal life, fhe has amply peopled the earth, the air, and the waters. The multifarious inhabitants of thefe elements, as to the aaual duration of their lives, are extremely diverfified. But, by variation of forms, of magnitude, of rapidity of ideas, of intenfity of pleafures, and, perhaps, of many other circum- ftances, fhe has conferred upon the whole nearly an equal portion of happinefs. OF NATURAL HISTORY. &n CHAPTER XXII. Of the Progreffive Scale or Chain of Beings in the Uftiverft. X O men of obfervation and reffeaion, it is ap- parent, that all the beings on this earth, whether animals or vegetables, have a mutual conneaion and a mutual depen- dence on each other. There is a graduated fcale or chain of exiftence, not a link of which, however feemingly infignifi- cant, could be broken without affeaing the whole. Super-! ficial men, or, which is the fame thing, men who avoid the trouble of ferious thinking, wonder at the defign of produc- ing certain infeas and reptiles. But they do not confider that the annihilation of any one of thefe fpecies, though fome of them are inconvenient, and even noxious to man, would make a blank in Nature, and prove deftruaive to other fpecies who feed upon them. Thefe, in their turn, would be the caufe of deftroying other fpecies, and the fyd tem of devaftation would gradually proceed, till man himfelf would be extirpated, and leave this earth deftitute of all ani- mation. In the chain of rzfimals, man is unqueftionably the chief or capital link, and from him all the other links defcend by almoft imperceptible gradations. As a highly rational ani- mal, improved with fcience and arts, he is, in fome meafure, related to beings of a fuperior order, wherever they exift. By contemplating the works of Nature, he even rifes to fome faint ideas of her great Author. Why, it has been afked, are not men endowed with the capacity and powers of angels ? beings of whom we have not even a conception. With the fame propriety, it may be afked, why have not beafts the mental powers of men ? Oueftions of this kind £22 THE PHILOSOPHY are the refults of ignorance, which is always petulant and prefumptuous. Every creature is perfea, according to its deftination. Raife or deprefs any order of beings, tho whole fyftem, of courfe, will be deranged, and a new world would be neceffary to contain and fupport them. Particular orders of beings fhould not be confidered feparately, but by the rank they hold in the general fyftem. From man to the minuteft animalcule which can be difcovered by the mi- crofcope, the chafm feems to be infinite : But that chafm is aaually filled up with fentient beings, of which the lines of difcrimination are almoft imperceptible. All of them poffefs degrees of perfeaion or of excellence proportioned to their ftation in the univerfe. Even among mankind, which is a particular fpecies, the fcale of intellea is very extenfive. What a difference between an enlightened philofopher and a brutal Hottentot ? Still, however, Nature obferves, for the wifeft purpofes, her uniform plan of graduation. In the human fpecies, the degrees of intelligence are extremely va- ried. Were all men philofophers, the bufinefs of life could not be executed, and neither fociety, nor even the fpecies, could long exift. Induftry, various degrees of knowledge, different difpofitions, and different talents, are great bonds of fociety. The Gentoos, from certain political and religi- ous inftitutions, have formed their people into different cafts or ranks, out of which their .pofterity can never emerge. To us, fuch inftitutions appear to be tyrannical, 3nd reftraints on the natural liberty of man. In fome refpeas they are fo: But they feem to have been originally refults of wifdom and obfervation ; for, independently of all political inftitutions, Nature herfelf has formed the human fpecies into cafts or ranks. To fome fhe gives fuperior genius and mental abili- ties ; and, even of thefe, the views, the purfuits, and the taftes, are moft wonderfully diverfified. OF NATURAL HISTORY. 52$ In the talents and qualities of quadrupeds of the fame fpe- cies, there are often remarkable differences. Thefe differ- ences are confpicuous in the various races of horfes, dogs, &c. Even among the fame races, fome are bold, fprightly, and fagacious. Others are comparatively timid, phlegmatic, and dull. Our knowledge of the chain of intelleaual and corporeal beings is very imperfea ; but what we do know gives us ex- alted ideas of that variety and progreffion which reign in the univerfe. A thick cloud prevents us from recognifing the moft beautiful and magnificent parts of this immenfe chain of being. We fhall endeavour, however, to point out a few of the more, obvious links of that chain, which falls under our own limited obfervation. Man, even by his external qualities, Hands at the head of this world. His relations are more extenfive, and his form more advantageous, than thofe of any other animal. His in- telleaual powers, when improved by fociety and fcience, raife him fo high, that, if no degrees of excellence exifted among his own fpecies, he would leave a great void in the chain of being. Were we to confider the charaaers, the manners, and the genius of different nations, of different provinces and towns, and even of the members of the fame family, we fhould imagine that the fpecies of men were as various as the number of individuals. How many gradations may be traced between a ftupid Huron, or a Hottentot, and a profound philofopher ? Here the diftance is immenfe j but Nature has occupied the whole by almoft infinite fhades of difcrimination. In defcending the fcale of animation, the next ftep, it is humiliating to remark, is very ffiort. Man, in his loweft condition, is evidently linked, both in the form of his body and the capacity of his mind, to the large and fmall orang- outangs. Thefe again, by another flight gradation, are con- 524 THE PHILOSOPHY neaed to the apes, who, like the former, have no tails. It is wonderful that Linnaeus, and many other naturalifts, fhould have overlooked this gradation in the fcale of ani- mals, and maintained, that the ifland of Nicobar, and fome other parts of the Eaft Indies, were inhabited by tailed men. Before thofe animals whofe external figure has the greateft refemblance to that of man, are ornamented, or rather de- formed, with tails, there are feveral fhades of difcrimination. The larger and fmaller orang-outangs, which are real brutes, have no tfcil*. Neither are the numerous tribes of apes fur- nifhed with this appendage. But the believers in tailed men gravely tell us, that there is nothing furprifing in this pheno- menon, becaufe a tail is only a prolongation of the os coccygis, which is the termination of the back-bone. They confider not, however, that, inftead of accounting for the exiftence of tailed men, they do nothing more than fubftitute a learn- ed circumlocution for the fimple word tail. It is here wor- thy of remark, that a philofopher, who has paid little atten- tion to natural hiftory, is perpetually liable to be deceived 5 and that a naturalift, I mean a nomenclator, without philo- fophy, though he may be ufeful by mechanically marking diftinaions, is incapable of enriching our minds with gener- al ideas. A proper mixture of the two is beft calculated to produce a real philofopher. From the orang-outangs and apes to the baboons, the interval is hardly perceptible. Th$ true apes have no tails, and thofe of the baboons are very fhort. The monkeys, who form the next link, have long tails, and terminate this partial chain of imitative animals, which have fuch a deteftable refemblance to the human frame and manners. When examining the charaaers by which beings are dif- tinguifhable from each other, we perceive that fome of them are more gqneral, and include a greater variety than others. From this circumftance all our diftributions into claffes, or- OF NATURAL HISTORY. 525 ders, genera, and fpecies, are derived. Between two claffes, or two genera, however, Nature always exhibits intermediate produaions fo clofely allied, that it is extremely difficult to afcertain to which of them they belong. The polypus, which multipties by ffioots, or by feaions, from its body, conneas the animal to the vegetable kingdom. Thofe worms which lodge in tubes compofed of fand, feem to link the infeas »to the fhell and cruftaceous animals. Shell-animals and crufta- ceous infeas make alfo a near approach to each other. Both of them have their mufcles and inflruments of motion attach- ed to external inftead of internal bones. From reptiles, the degrees of perfeaion in animal life and powers move forward in a gradual but perceptible manner. The number of their organs of fenfe, and the general conformation of their bo- dies, begin to have a greater analogy to the ftruaure of thofe animals which we are accuftomed to confider as belong- ing to the more perfea kinds. The fnake, by its form, its movements, and its mode of living, is evidently conneaed with the eel and the water-ferpent. Like reptiles, moft fifh- es are covered with fcales, the colours and variety of which often enable us to diftinguifh one fpecies from another. The forms of fifhes are exceedingly various. Some are long and flender ; others are broad and contraaed. Some fifhes are flat, others cylindrical, triangular, fquare, circular, &c; The fins of fifhes, from the medium in which they live, are anal- ogous to the wings of birds. Like thofe of reptiles, the heads of fifhes are immediately conneaed to their bodies, without the intervention of necks. The flying fifhes, whofe fins refemble the wings of bats, form one link which unites the fifhes to the feathered tribes. Aquatic birds fucceed, by a gentle gradation, the flying fifhes. In tracing the gradations from fifhes to quadrupeds, the tranfition is almoft imperceptible. The fea-lion, the morfe, all the cetaceous tribes, the crocodile, the turtle, the feals, S s f 51G THE PHILOSOPHY have fuch a refemblance, both in their external and internal ftruaure, to terreftrial quadrupeds, that fome naturalifts, in their methodical diftributions, have ranked them under the fame clafs of animals. The bats and the flying fquirrels, who traverfe the air by means of membranous inftead of feather- ed wings, evidently connea quadrupeds with birds. The oftrich, the caffowary, and the dodo, who rather run than fly, form another link between the quadruped and the bird. All the fubftances we recognife on this earth may be di- vided into organifed and animated, organifed and inanimat- ed, and unorganifed, or brute matter. The whole of thefe poffefs degrees of perfeaion, of excellence, or of relative utility, proportioned to their ftations or ranks in the univerfe. Change thefe ftations or ranks, and another world would be neceffary to contain and fupport them. Beings muft not be contemplated individually, but by their rank, and the rela- tions they have to the conftituent parts of the general fyftem of Nature. Certain refults of their natures we confider as evils. Deftroy thefe evils, and you annihilate the beings who complain of them. The reciprocal aaion of the folids and fluids conftitutes life, and the continuation of this aaion is the natural caufe of death. Immortality on this earth, therefore, prefuppofes another fyftem ; for our planet has no relation to immortal beings. Every animal, and every plant, rifes, by gentle gradations, from an embryo, or gela- tinous ftate, to a certain degree of perfeaion exaaiy propor- tioned to their feveral orders. An affemblage of all the orders of relative perfeaion conftitutes the abfolute perfec- tion of the whole. All the planets of this fyftem gravitate toward the fun and toward each other. Our fyftem gravi- tates towards other fyftems, and they to ours. Thus the whole univerfe is linked together by a gradual and almoft imperceptible chain ofexiftences both animated and inani- mated. Were there no other argument in favour of the OF NATURAL HISTORY. 527 unity of deity, this uniformity of defign, this graduated concatenation of beings, which appears not only from this chapter, but from many other parts of the book, feems to be perfeaiy irrefragable. In contemplating Man, as at the head of thofe animals with which we are acquainted, a thought occurred, that no fentient being, whofe mental powers were greatly fuperior, could poffibly live and be happy in this world. If fuch a being really exifted, his mifery would be extreme. With fenfes more delicate and refined ; with perceptions more acute and penetrating ; with a tafte fo exquifite that the ob- jeas around him could by no means gratify it ; obliged to feed upon nourifhment too grofs for his frame ; he muft be born only to be miferable, and the continuation of his exift- ence would be utterly impoffible. Even in our prefent con- dition, the famenefs and infipidity of objeas and purfuits, the futility of pleafure, and the infinite fources of excruciating pain, are fupported with great difficulty by cultivated and re- fined minds. Increafe our fenfibilities, continue the fame objeas and fituation, and no man could bear to live. Let man, therefore, be contented. His ftation in the univerfal fcale of Nature is fixed by#Wifdom. Let him contem- plate and admire the works of his Creator ; let him fill up his rank with dignity, and confider every partial evil as a caufe or an effea of general good. This is the whole du- ty of man. INDEX. A Aainia. See fea-nettle. Air, neceffary to the exiftence of all animals and vegeta- bles, 112. Air-cells in birds defcribed, 119. Temporary inflruments fometimes provided for its admiffion into ani- mal bodies, 130. Some animals can live long without it 135, 136. Air is always impregnated with odorous parti- cles, 171. The medium of founds, 175. Amphibious animals. See animals. Sketch of their ftruc- ture and difpofitions, 75. The foramen ovale of their hearts continue open during life, 76. Analogy. See animals and plants. Analogy between birds and fifhes, 126. Sexes of plants founded on falfe analo- gies, 252. See fexes. Animal heat. An attempt to account for it, 113. Animacules. Thofe obtained by infufions multiply by con- tinued divifions and fubdivifions, 42. Animals. Difficulty of diftinguifhing them from plants, 14. See plants. All of them endowed with fenfation, 20. A fketch of their ftruaure and organs, 23. Analogies be- tween animals and plants, originating from their ftruaure and organs, ibid. From their growth and nourifliment, 32, 39. The food of animals compared with that of plants, 36. Analogies from their diffemination and decay, 40, &c. Some animals neither viviparous nor oviparous, 41. Some are both, ibid ; and fome multiply without impregna- tion, 44. Analogies between the eggs of animals and the feeds of plants, 46. Moft animals have their feafons, 48, 288. All animals fubjea to difeafes and death, 51. Of the organs and general ftruaure of animals, 54. Struc- ture of man, ibid. Of the bones, ibid. Of the mufcular parts, 56. Of the lungs, ibid. Of the ftomach and in- flruments of digeftion, 57. Of the organs of'generation, 59. Of the brain and nerves, 61. Of the ftruaure of quadrupeds, 63. The general ftruaure of quadrupeds has 530 INDEX. a great refemblance to that of man, 63. Peculiarities in the ftruaure of carnivorous animals, 66 •, and of the her- bivorous tribes, 67. Sketch of the ftruaure and difpo- fitions of amphibious animals 75. Sketch of the ftruc- ture of birds, 80. Of the ftruaure of fifhes, 87. The comparative ftrength of animals depends not on ftruaure alone, 111. Of their refpiration, 112. Moft animals ca- pable of expreffing their wants and defires, 118. Of their motions, 140, &c. The notion that animals are machines abfurd, 165. Of the infancy of animals, 202. Their general diffufion over the globe owing partly to the diver- fity of their appetites for food, 225. Of the fexes of animals, 242. Of the puberty of animals, 269. All animals undergo changes at the age of puberty, 272. Their attachment to their young, 278. This attachment ceafes, in fome animals, as foon as the young can provide for themfelves, 282. Many of them marry or pair, ibid. Advantages derived from the variety of feafons obferved by different animals, 285. Table of their relative fecundi- ty, 288. Of their transformations, 291. All animals un- dergo changes, ibid. Cruftaceous tribes annually caft their fhells, 294. Of the habitations of animals, 315. Opera- lions of animals referred by fome authors to mechanical impulfes, 340. Of their hoftilities, 378. Man the moft univerfal deftroyer of animal life, 380. Some animals de- vour their own fpecies, 388. Advantages derived from anjmals preying upon one another, 393. Profufion of an- imal life feems to be a general intention of Nature, 396. There is a wonderful balance in the fyftem of animal de- ftruaion and multiplication, 397. Reftraints againft nox- ious inundations of particular fpecies, ibid. Animals not deftined for individual exiftence alone, 401. Of the arti- fices of animals, 403. Of the fociety of animals, 418. Of gregarious animals who carry on no common operations, 436. Different fpecies affociate, 437. Of their docility, 439. Animals of the ox kind dull and phlegmatic, 460. Much influenced by climate and domeftication, 463, &c. Of the charaaers of animals, 469. Of their principal of imitation, 472. Of the migration of animals, 476. Of their longevitv, 506, &c. Thofe which grow quickly foon perifh, 510. 'All animals perfea according to their def- tination, 522. INDEX. 531 Ants. Their ftruaure and manners, 104. Wood-ants, their furprifing operations and manners. See termites. Their fociety, 434. Aphis. See puceron. Apterous infeas defcribed, 106. Arabians confider the camel as a gift fent from heaven, 74. Performs journies of fifty leagues in one day, 74. Aranea. See fpiders. Arteries. The probable inflruments of nutrition and growth, 120. Artifices. General fources of the artifices of animals, 403. Artifices of cattle, horfes, and monkeys, 404. Of the ftag, ibid. Of the fallow-deer, 405. Of the roebuck, 406. Of the hare, 407. Of the fox, 408. Of the glut- ton, 411. Of the Kamtfchatka rats, ibid. Of birds, 412. , Of fifhes, 414. Of infeas, 415. Afbeftos. Its ftruaure makes no approach toward organiza? tion, 24. Aureliae. See chryfalids. B Beavers. Account of their manners and architeaure, 317. Live peaceably in Society with each other, 321. Lay up provifions for winter, 322. Bees. The general ftruaure of the honey-bee, 104. The mafon-bee fometimes moves in a retrograde direaion, 15L Some of their inftinas enumerated, 155. Wood-piercing bee makes a neft in old timber, 156. When pinched for room, they augment the depth of their cells, 159. Neft of the mafon-bee, 331. Ichneumon flies deftruaive to bees, 333. Operations of wood-piercing bees, 334i Of other folitary bees, 338. Operations and oeconomy of the honey-bee, 340. The figure and mode of making their cells, 341. Their cells are deftined to anfwer dif- ferent purpofes, 343. Their divifion of labour, ibid. Their wax a refult of a digeftive procefs, ibid. Eat the farina of flowers, ibid. Require a warm habitation, 346. Mend their hives with propolis, 347. Amafs great quantities of honey, 347. Occafionally feed one another, 347. Eggs of the female impregnated by the males after they are de- pofited in the cells, 349. Can transform^ common fub- jea into a queen or female, 352. May be multiplied without end, 352. The neuters maffacre the males, 39 L 532 INDEX; Have frequeht combats, 392. Their fociety of a monari chical nature, 425. The Count de Buffon's mechanical theory of the operations of bees examined, 427, &c. Beetle tribe of infeas. An account of their form and man- ners, 99. Many of them, when terrified, fimulate death, 158. Remarkable differences between fome of the males and females, 245. Beings fhould not be contemplated individually, but by their rank, 526. None fuperior to man could exift in this world, 527. Birds. Sketch of their ftruaure, 80. Their form adapt- ed to their mode of living, 81. Of granivorous birds, 82. Analogy between them and herbivorous quadru- peds, 84. Of carnivorous birds, 84, 386. Birds refpire by almoft every part of their bodies, and even by the bones, 119. One ufe of this ftruaure, 122. Analogy between birds and fifhes, 125. When not reftrained, uniformly build nefts in the fame form, and of the fame materials, 157. The great comminuting force of fome of their ftomachs, ^231. Whether the fmall ftones they fwallow affift the digeftion of their food, 233. Among birds of prey, the females are larger, ftronger, and more beautiful, than the males, 247. The reverie takes place among the gallinaceous tribes, 247. Many of them pair, 282, 283. Changes they undergo after being hatched, 295^ Of their nidification, 324, 325. Of their artifices, 412.' Some of them may be taught articulation, 462. Of their migration, 476, &c. Of their longevity, 512. Bifons. See oxen. Bletta. See Cockroach, 100. Blood. Its circulation conneaed with refpiration, 117. Showers of it accounted for, 308. Bones. Birds breathe through them, 121. Brackeleys, a fpecies of the ox, which are taught by the Afri- cans to perform wonderful aaions, 460, &c. Brain. See nerves. Brain. A ffiort defcription of it, 61. The fource of all fen- fation and motion, 140. Suppofed to fecrete and diftn- bute the nutritious matter of food, 217. Breathing. See refpiration. Brutes. See animals. Bug. Some account of it, 100, I N DE X. 533 Butterflies. Defcription of them, 101. Gave rife to the notion of fhowers of blood, 307. Void drops of blood, 308. C Cabins. See beavers. Camel and dromedary, befide four ftomachs, have a refer- voir for holding water, 73. Their manners and difpofi- tions, 74. Camel-cricket. Regarded as a facred animal, 100. Carnivorous animals. See animals. Their ftruaure adapt- ed to their difpofitions, 66. Are not fo apt to devour wo- men as men, 244. Man the moft rapacious of all animals, 380. Of carnivorous quadrupeds, 382. Of carnivorous birds, 386. Of carnivorous infeas, 387. Advantages derived from animals preying upon one another, 394. Carnivorous animals are the barriers againft noxious inun- dations of other kinds, 397. Caterpillars. See infeas. Their mode of refpiring, 132. Are of no fex, 248. When they arrive at the age of pu- berty, 270. Of their transformations, 295. Caft their fkins, 295, 303. Their different modes of retiring pre- vious to their transformation. A defcription of them, 294. The circulation of their blood changes its direaion, 298. Their different modes of behaving when about to trans- form, 303. Spinning of the filk-worm, defcribed, 303. The flies exift in the bodies of the caterpillars, 305. Some of them devour their own fpecies, 386. Have number- lefs enemies, 388. Without a profufion of them fmall birds could not be fupported, 399. Common kind affo- ciate, 429. Some of them are republicans, 432. Caufe. We muft at laft have recourfe to a final caufe, 339. Cells. See bees, and wafps. Air-cells in birds defcribed, 121. Chain. Of the progreffive chain of beings, 521. Changes of form. See transformations. Charaaers of animals, 467. How they may be modified, ibid. Individual charaaers often ftrongly marked, 468. Chermes. The female of this infea depofits her eggs in the leaves of trees, and produce thofe protuberances called galls, 101. Children. See infants. The gradual progrefs of their in- ftinas, 439. Chryfalids. A defcription of them, 297. T t t 534 INDEX. Cimex. See bug. Cinyps. A fly whofe eggs produce galls in the oak, 103. Cleanlinefs. Its importance to health, 138. Cock. The game cock a moft intrepid animal, 247. Cockroach. Some account of it, 100. Colours. The origin of the primary ones, 187. A mixture of them produces whitenefs, ibid. Colour no fpecific cha- raaer of plants, 261, 262. Colours of animals greatly va- riegated by domeftication, 466. Coleopterous infeas defcribed, 98. Combs. See bees and wafps. Crabs. An account of the migration of land crabs, 502. Crows. Experiments on their digeftive powers, 235, 236 237. Endeavour to break grain before they fwallow it! 236. Cruftaceous fifhes caft their fhells annually, 294. Cuckoo makes no neft, and neither hatches nor feeds her young, 327. Culex. See gnat. Cuttle-fifh. Its ftruaure and manners, 109. D Death. All animals and vegetables fubjea to diffolution, 51, 292. Life cannot be fupported without the intervention of death, 394. There is a wonderful balance in the fyf- tem of animal deftruaion and multiplication, 397. The general caufes of death, 507. Deer. Their artifices in efcaping the dogs, 404. Deity neceffarily one, 527. Digeftion. The organs of digeftion defcribed, 57, 58. The mechanical and chemical theories of it, 230. Viauals diffolved by the gaftric juice, 231. Whether the fmall ftones fwallowed by birds affift their digeftion, 233. Great- ly affifted by chewing, or by comminution, 236. Dr. Ste- vens's experiments upon digeftion in man and other ani- mals, 237. After death, the ftomach is diffolved by its own gaftric juice, 240. Bees wax a refult of digeftion, 344. Dipterous infeas defcribed, 105. Docility of animals, 439, &c. Dog. His fenfe of fmelling extremely acute, 172. Wild dogs hunt in packs, 437. Next to the elephant, the dog is the moft docile animal, 454. Accommodates his beha- INDEX. 535 viour to the manners of thofe who command him, 455. Great differences in their natural difpofitions, ibid. Con- dua blind perfons with great fagacity, 456. An extraor- dinary inftance of their intelligence, 457. The influence of climate upon them, 465. Fattened in China for the ta- ble, 474. Domeftication. Its effeas on different animals, 463, Dragon-fly. See libella. Dromedary. See camel. E Eagles. Their longevity, 514. Ears. See hearing and fenfes. Mufical ear a gift of Na- ture, 178. Earth, though fpacious, is comparatively fmall, 143. Education much influenced by the principle of imitation, 473. Eggs. Analogies between them and the feeds of plants, 46. Egg of the fpider fly as large as the mother, 301. Eggs of fome infeas grow after they are laid, 301, 302. Several worms difcovered in the fame egg, 303. Eggs of bees im- pregnated after they are depofited in the cells, 351. Elephant. His ftruaure, 77. His fagacity and manners, 79. A more particular account of this animal, 445. A mild and obedient domeftic, 447. Elephants were formerly employed in war, 449. Their fenfe of fmelling very acute, 450. Revengeful when affronted, 452. They are fenfible of good fortune, and maintain a gravity of demeanour cor- refponding to the dignity of their fituation, 453. They al- low themfelves to be commanded by a child, ibid. More eafily tamed by mildnefs than by blows, 454. Ephemeron-fly lives only one day in its perfea ftate, butcon- tinues three years in the water before its transformation, 99, 517. The nymphs refpire by gills, 132, 133. Evils neceffary in this world, 526. Expiration. See refpiration. Eyes. No animal, except the infea tribes, has more than two, 94. Defcription of the eye, 186. Inverted piaures on the retina, 189, 190. Why feen ftraight, 189. Why we fee fingle with two eyes, 191. Vifion conveys no idea of diftance, 192. Why near objeas appear large, and diftant ones fmall, 192. Origin ofghoih,, &c. 192. 536 INDEX. F Fallow-deer. His artifices and and manners, 406. Farina. See plants and fexes. Farina of flowers the raw material of wax, 344. Feelers of infeas. One ufe of them, 95. Females. See fexes, man and males. Among infeas, great differences between males and females, 245, 246, 247. Female birds of prey larger, ftronger, and more beautiful than the males, 247. The reverfe takes place among gal- linaceous birds, 247. Changes in body and mind produ- t ced by puberty, 271. Arrive fooner at that period than males, 271. Fire-fly. Emits a ffiininp; light in the night, 1Q0. Fifties. Sketch of their ftruaure, 87. Much diverfified in figure, 89. Are endowed with the fenfe of hearing, 89. their mode of refpiration, 125. Analogy between them and birds, 126. We are ignorant of the periods when they become fit for multiplying, 272. Cruftaceous kinds caft their fkins annually, 294. The life of every fifh one continued fcene of hoftility, 386. Shell-fiih is very prolific, 400. Their artifices, 414. Of their migration, 497. Their longevity, 511, 515. Flea. A defcription of it, 106. Undergoes a transforma- tion like that of winged infeas, 107. Flies. See infeas. An account of the phrygania or fpring- fly, 103. Of the dragon-fly, 103. Of the cinyps, the eggs of which give rife to the galls on oak leaves, 105. Gad-fly very troublefome to cattle, 105. Of the common fly, 105. Of the gnat, 105. Spider-fly as large as the mother when it efcapes from the egg, 227, 300. Some depofit their eggs in the leaves of plants, 301. Ichneu- mon flies deftruaive to bees, 333 ; and other infeas, 387. Food of plants and of animals compared, 36. Man could not live upon herbage alone, 69. Food neceffary for the growth and expanfion of all organifed beings, 214. See growth. The general ingredients of food, 221. Rein- deer, the principal food of the Laplanders, 221. Animal food more ufed in proportion as people recede from^the Equator, 223. The nature of man's food determined by the climate, 224. Man defigned by nature to feed partly on animal and partly on vegetable fubftances, 224. Liv- / ing long on a particular fpecies of food is apt to create INDEX. 537 difeafes, 225. Diverfity of food ufed by different fpecies one caufe of the diffufion of animals over the earth, 226. Every animal furnifhed with proper inftruments for procu- ring food, 228. Importance of feeding all young animals well, 228. Infeas which feed upon carrion never attack live animals, 228. This faa eftablifhed by experiments, 228, 229. Spalanzani's experiments upon the digeftion of food by various animals, 230. Foramen ovale. In amphibious animals it remains open du- ring life, 76. Formica-leo. Its artifices and manners, 415. Forms are perpetually changing, 311. See transformations. Fox. His artifices and manners, 408. Frogs. Undergo great changes in their form, 294. Fulgora. See fire-fly. G Gad-fly, extremely troublefome to cattle, both in its cater* pillar and fly ftate, 105. Gall infeas. Defcription of their form and manners, 245. Galls. See chermes. The eggs of the cinyps give rife to thofe on J>ak leaves, 103. How galls are formed, 301. Gaftric juice. See digeftion and ftomach. Its folvent power affifted by chewing, 238. No dead animal fub- ftance can refift its power, 238 ; but it has no effea upon living animals, 240. Diffolves the ftomach after death, 240. Generation. See multiplication. Gentoos. Live almoft entirely on vegetables, 221. Their cafts founded in Nature, 522. Germs. Examination of Bonnet's theory of them, 219, See growth. Glow-worm. See worms. Glutton. His artifices and manners, 411. Gnat. Account of it, 105. Goat-fucker, a bird of paffage, 480. Goofe. Its longevity. Cordius. See worms. Granivorous birds. Sketch of their ftruaure, 82. Analo- gous to herbivorous quadrupeds, 84. Their gentle man- ners, S4. Growth of animals and vegetables extremely analogous, 36, 538 INDEX. &c. May be accelerated or retarded by certain circum- ftances, 39. Button's theory of growth, 214. Nutrition fuppofed to be effeaed by the brain and nerves, 215. This notion rendered improbable, 216. More probable than the nutritious particles of food are conveyed and ap- plied by the arteries, 217. Bonnet's theory of germs ex- amined, 219, 2 0. Our limited conceptions of the nature of growth and nourifhment, 220. All animals fuppofed to grow after birth, 227. The fpider-fly affords an excep- tion, 2-27. Remarkable rapidity of growth in fome 1 worms, 229. Animals as well as plants which quicklv ar- . rive at maturity, foon perifh, 510. Gryllus. Some account of it, 100. Guiney-pig contraas a loofenefs, when forced to eat coleworts for fome time, 224. H Habitations of animals. When not reftrained, animals uni- formly build in the fame ftile, 315. Habitations and man- ners of the alpine marmot, 316. Of the beaver, 317, 323. Of the mole, 323. Of birds, 324. Defcription of the eagle's neft, 324. Of the magpie's neft, 325. Of the titmoufe's neft, 325. Of penfile nefts, 326. Of the neft of the taylor-bird, 326. Nefts of fmall birds, 328. Of water-fowls, 328. Neft of the mafon-bee 331. Of the wood peircing bee, 334. Of another folitary bee, 338. Of the honey bee, 340, &c. Of the wafps, 354. Of the termites or wood-ants, 364. Of the common caterpillar, 429. Of the proceffionary caterpillar, 431. Hares. Their artifices in efcaping the dogs, 407. Health promoted by moderate laughing, 118. Hearing. Fifhes endowed with that fenfe, 89. The inflru- ments and caufes of hearing, 175. Why infants hear bluntly, 177. The pleafures derived from hearing, 179. The fource of artificial language, ibid. Heat. See animal heat. Hemipterous infeas. Of their form and manners, 99. Herbivorous quadrupeds. See animals. Their form adapt- ed to their difpofitions, 68. Hermaphrodites. Some infeas are hermaphrodites, 248. Many inftances of hermaphrodites among horfes, black cattle, and fheep, 248, 249, 250. INDEX. 539 Herrings performs extenfive migrations, 499. Hippobofca. See horfe-fly. Hogs affociate and defend each other, 43 7. Honey bee. See bee. Horfe-fly. Account of it, 106. Horfes. When attacked by any rapacious animal, rank up in lines to defend themfelves, 403. One aas as a centinel, ibid. Affociate with oxen, 437. The gentlenefs and do- cility of their difpofitions, 457. Notices of wild horfes, 458. Naturally affociate with man, 459, 460. Their emulation and warlike temper/459. Their feats in exhi- bitions, 460. Hoftilities of animals, 374, 375. Man the moft rapacious and the moft univerfal deftroyer, 380. Of rapacious quad- rupeds, 386. Of rapacious birds, 388. Every fifh rapa- cious, 386. Of rapacious infeas, 389. Man not the only animal that makes war with his own fpecies, 390. Neu- ter bees maffacre the males, 391. Bees frequently fight with each other, 392. In Oaober, wafps maffacre all their young, 392. This feeming cruelty is perhaps an aa of mercy, ibid. Hoftilities of animals give rife to mutual improvement, 395. There is a wonderful balance in the fyftem of animal deftruaion, 397. Hottentots. Their mode of training and inftruaing oxen, 460. Hunter, Mr. John. His account of the refpiration of birds. 121. His defcription of the free-martin, 249. Hymenopterous infeas. Their form and manners, 103. I Ichneumon flies. See flies and bees. Imitation. Its effeas upon animals as a principle, 473. Infancy. See infants. Intellea. The degrees of it extremely varied both among men and other animals, 522. Infants. They underftand language before they can fpeak, 165. Hear bluntly, 177. Are fond of noife, 177. In- vent, at the age of nine or twelve months, an artificial language, 179, 180. The condition of human infants con- fidered as miferable, 202. This notion invalidated, 203. Fond of motion, 204. The methods of managing them by favages, 205 ; and by northern nations, 206. Are lefs 540 INDEX. affeaed by cold than at any other period, 207. Their lives very precarious, ibid. Caufes of their difeafes and mortality, 208. Sleep, for feveral weeks, almoft conti- nually, 208. Their memory weak, and why, 209. Du- ration of infancy in different animals, 210. Infant ftate of birds fhort, 211. Infancy of fifhes, ibid. Of infeas, ibid. The ftrong attachment of parents to their young, 212. Infeas. A fketch of their ftruaure, 26, 27. A more en- larged view of it, 92. Divifion of infeas from their wings, 93. Ufe of their feelers, 94. Undergo three changes of form, 97. Some of them endowed with the fenfe of fmel- ling, 97 ; and fome probably with that of hearing, 97. Ac- count of their probofcis, 98. Of the form and manners of the beetle tribe, 99. Of the form and manners of the hemipterous tribe, 99. Of neuropterous infeas, 102. Of hymenopterous infeas, 103. Of dipterous infeas, 105. Of apterous infeas, 106. Of the refpiration of infeas, 127. Examples of their inftinas, 155. Infeas have few in- ftinas, 162. Thofe that feed upon carrion, never attack live animals, 228. Great differences between fome male and female infeas, 243, 244, 245. Defcription of the form and manners of gall-infeas, 245. Infeas fuppofed to impregnate certain plants, 254. Changes they under- go before their age of puberty, 271. Some of them have . a ftrong affeaion to their young, 277. Of their transfor- mations, 295. Lives of winged infeas confifts of three principal periods, 298. Their internal parts changed after Transformation, 298. The behaviour of different caterpil- lars when about to transform, 303. Their transforma- tion is only the throwing off temporary coverings, 305. Nefts of various infeas defcribed, 330. Some of them are rapacious, 387. Thoufands of them daily devoured bv cattle, 394. Infeas afford many inftances of affocia- tion, 425. Some of them migrate, 505. Are fhort lived, 517. Infpiration. See refpiration. Inftina. Reafons why it has been fo little underftood, 153. Divifion of inftinas, 153. Of pure inftinas, 154. Exam- ples of it in the human fpecies, ibid. ; in the brute crea- tion 155. Of inftinas which can accommodate them- felves to peculiar circumftances, 158. Of inftinas which INDEX. 541 are improveable by experience and.obfervation, 160, 161. Superiority of man arifes from his great number of in- ftinas, 160. Examples of modified, compounded, or ex- tended inftinas, 161. Inftina defined and explained, 162. Infeas have few inftinas, ibid. Inftina prefuppofes a de- gree of intellea, 425. The gradual progrefs of inftinas in children, 439. When they begin to reafon with fome propriety, 440. The education of animals depends greatly on the principle of imitation, 473. Irritability defcribed, 20. Many plants are endowed with this power, 20. L Lady-fly. See libella. Language. Moft animals can exprefs their wants and de- fires, 118, 164, 179. Artificial a refult of natural lan- guage, 179. The origin of the great diverfity of lan- guages, 180. Articulate language peculiar to man, 420. Laplanders. Live chiefly on the rein-deer, 221. Fond of bear's flefh, ibid. Laughing defcribed, 118. Not peculiar to man, ibid. Leggs. No animal, except the infea tribes, have more than four, 93. LibeUa. A defcription of it, 102. Its nymph refpires water, 130. A rapacious animal, 388.' Life. Our ignorance of its effential charaaeriftics, 19. Its duration longer or fhorter according to the fpecies, 49. Life very precarious in infancy, 207. Lives of winged infeas confift of three principal periods, 298. Life can- not be fupported without the intervention of death, 392. A profufion of animal life feems to be a general intention of Nature, 396. Of the duration of life in man and other animals, 506, &c. Its duration a relative idea, 520. Light. Some of its properties, 186. Its refrangibility, 187. Lobflers caft their fhells annually, 294. Longevity of animals, 506. Some remarkable inftances of it in the human fpecies, 508.; of fifhes, 511, 515. ; of quadrupeds, 513 •, of a toad, 516 ; of infeas 517; of plants, 518. Loufe*. Its ftruaure and manners, 106. Love. The fource of many important advantages ; 274. Is a great incentive to virtue, 274, ibid. Bad effeas of too early marriages, 275 ; and of imprudent ones, 276. Love of U u u 342 I N D E X. offspring a fource of great pleafures, 277 ; remarkable in- ftances of its ftrength, 278, 279, 280. Marriage or pair- ing frequently exhibited in the brute creation, 282. Moft animals have feafons, 283. Lumbricus. See worms. Lychnis dioica. Dr. Hope's experiments upon that plant ex- amined, 260, 261. Female lychnis ripened feeds with- out the poffibility of fexual commixture, 263, 264. M Magpies. Defcription of their nefts, 325. Males. See fexes, and man. Differences between males and females, 243, 244, 245. Changes produced by puberty, 269. In pairing animals, the males and females,produced are nearly equal, 283. Man. Of his ftruaure and organs, 54. From his internal organs he could not live upon herbage alone, 69. His fu- periority over the other animals derived folely from his mental faculties, 70, 111, 164, 381. He alone is endow- ed with the faculty of articulate fpeech, 117, 420. The moft inconfiftent of all animals, 161. His inftinas im- proveable by obfervation and experience, \62. Defigned by Nature to live partly on animal and partly on vegetable fubftances, 223, 224. His texture more firm and compaa than that of woman, 242. See women. Changes produced by puberty, 269. After puberty, marriage is his natural ftate 271. A ftriking inftance of his parental affeaion, 278.' ^Undergoes many changes in form after birth, 291. His mind undergoes changes as well as his body 292. The moft rapacious of all animals, 379. Without fociety, his powers are limited, 381. Not the only animal that makes war with his own fpecies 388. The moft docile of all ani- mals, 439. His body capable of great exertions, 441. The refemblance of men to particular animals an indica- tion of their difpofitions, 469. Of man's longevity and diffolution, 506. No being fuperior to him could exift in this world, 527. . , , . Manners and difpofitions of animals conneaed with their form and ftruaure, 63, 66, 98, 108. Mantis. See camel-cricket. Marmot, Alpine. Defcription of its architeaure and man- ners, 316, 317. INDEX. 543 Marriage, after the age of puberty^ is the natural ftate of man, 271. Difadvantages of too early marriages, 275, Bad effeas of interefted and imprudent ones, 275. Argu- ments in favour of monogamy, 282, 283. Martin. Mr. Hunter's account of the free-martin, 248, 249. Martins are birds of paffage, 481. Mafon-bee. See bee. Matter. Its vis inertiae, 140. Mechanifm inadequate to account for animal aaion, 339. Medufa defcribed, 110. Its motions, 150. Memory of children is weak, and why, 209. Metamorphofes. See transformations. Migration of animals, 476. Lifts of birds of paffage, with the times of their arrival and departure, 487, &c. Partial migrations, 494. Principal objeas of migration, 4-95, 505. Men have a principle of migration, 496. Ouadrupeds like- wife perform partial migrations, 497. Migration of rats, ibid. -, of frogs, 497 ; of fifhes, ibid. ; of land-crabs, 502, of infeas, 504. Millipes multiplies by fpontaneous feparation, 41. Mind. Its faculties the chief fource of animal power, 111. Minds of brutes poffeffed of original qualities, 163. The low eft fpecies of animals are endowed with minds, 164. The mind of man undergoes changes, 292. Minerals, no analogy between them and vegetables, 24. Modefty. The great defence and ornament of women, 243 244. Is not confined to the human fpecies, 244. Moles. Defcription of their manners and operations, 323. Monkeys. When fleeping, one aas as a centinel, 404. Motacilla. See titmoufe. Moths. An account of them, 102. Divided into two kinds, the fphinx and phalaena, ibid. All of them, when about to transform, fpin cods or clues of filk, 303. Motion. Spontaneous motion, 140. By what inftrument it is performed, 141. Vital and involuntary motions, 142. Motions of animals proportioned to their weight and ftruc- ture, 143. Motion gives animation and vivacity to the whole fcene of Nature, 144. Deftruaive animals flower in their motions than the weaker kinds, 145. Progreffive motion of the mufcle, ibid. Motions of the razor or fpout- fifh, 147 ; of the fcallop, 148 ; of the oyfter, 148; of the fea-urchin, 149 ; of the medufa, or fea-nettle, 150. Mo- 544 INDEX. tion of the mafon-bee fometimes retrograde, 151. The rate at which found moves, 176. Children derive great happinefs from motion, 202. Mouflon, the original flock of the fheep, 464. Multiplication. The hydra of Linnaeus multiplies by fend- ing off fhoots from its body, 41. The bell-polypus mul- tiplies by fplitting longitudinally, ibid; and the funnel- fhaped polypus by fplitting tranfverfely, 41. The dart- millepes likewife multiplies by fpontaneous feparation, ibid. Infufion-animalcules multiply by continued divifions and fubdivifions, 42. Puceron multiplies without impreg- nation, 44. A profufion of animal life one great intention of Nature, 396. Noxious multiplication refrained by va- rious caufes, 397, 398. Mufca. See flies. Mufcles. Their progreffive motion defcribed, 145. Mufcles. The inflruments of animal motion, 141. Mufical ears. See ears. N Nature, in the formation of animals and vegetables, feems to have aaed upon the fame general plan, 20. Her inten- tions in changing forms, 313. If properly underftood, her intentions are never wrong, 394. Seems to pay little attention to individuals, but uniformly fupports the fpe- cies, 395. Advantages derived from her allowing ani- mals to prey on one another, 396, &c. It gives rife to mutual improvement, 395. A profufion of animal life feems to be a general intention of Nature, 396. There is a wonderful balance in the fyftem of animal deftruaion, 397. Nature obferves a uniform gradation of beings, 522. Nerves. A fhort defcription of them, 6i. The fource of all fenfation and motion, 141, 168, 182. Their papillae the immediate inflruments of fenfation, 182. Nefts. See birds and habitations. Penfile nefts, 326. Cu- rious neft of the taylor-bird, ibid. Cuckow makes none, 327. Nefts of different birds, 328. Nefts of various in- feas, 330. Wafp's neft defcribed, 354. Nefts or hills of the termites, 365 ; of caterpillars, 429. Nettle. Sea-nettle's motions extremely flow, 150. Neuropterous infeas. Defcription of them, 102. Nidification. See birds. Nofe. Defcription of that organ, 169. INDEX, 545 Nutrition. See food, growth. Nymphs. A defcription of them, 298, O Oak. Account of a remarkable one, 518. Ocean. It prodnces the largeft animals now known, 89. Odours. The reafon why they excite the fenfe of fmelling, 169. The particles of odorous bodies extremely minute, 169. Oeftrus. See gad-fly. Orang-outang. His form as well as his manners make the neareft approach to thofe of man, 63. Walks erea, 70. An acount of the imitative powers of what is called the larger and fmaller fpecies, 441. Their manners, 442, 443, 444. Belong not to the human kind, 444. Nearly allied to man, 441. Organs. See animals, birds, quadrupeds, fifhes, plants, and ftruaure. Oftrich vindicated from unnaturality, 159. Ox-eye. See titmoufe. Oxen, dull and phlegmatic animals, but capable of inftruc- tion, 460, 461. Much changed by domeftication, 463. Oyfter. Its motions defcribed, 148. Is endowed with feme degree of intelligence, ibid. P Pairing. See marriage. Many animals pair, 282, 284. Palm-tree. Its mode of culture in Arabia no proof of the fexes of plants. See fexes. Palpi of infeas defcribed, 95. Papillae. See nerves. Papilio. See butterfly. Parental affeaion. See love. Pediculus. See loufe. Pelican. Her mode or fupplyingher young with drink, 225, Phalaena. See moth. Phryganea. See flies. Pies. Their nefts very various. Pilchards. See herrings. Plants. Difficulty of diftinguifhing them from anirpals, 14. Definitions of them by Jungius, ibid.; by Ludwig, ibid.; by Linnaeus, 14. Examples of the motions of plants, 16, 546 INDEX. 17. Their whole ftruaure may be confidered as a ftomach for receiving their food, 19. Other examples of vegeta- ble movements, 21, 22. Many of them have the power of irritability, 2 .. Between vegetables and minerals there is hardly any analogy, 24, 25. Analogies between ani- mals and plants, originating from their ftruaure and or- gans, 25, 35. Sketch of the ftruaure of plants, 28, 30. Their oeconomy and funaions are refults of a vafcular texture, 32. Analogies arifing from their growth and nourifhment, 34, 40. Food of plants and of animals com- pared, 35. Analogies between the animal and vegetable derived from their diffemination and decay, 40, &c. Anal- ogies between the eggs of animals and the feeds of plants, 46. Some plants may be confidered as viviparous, 47. Plants have their feafons as well as animals, 49 Are all fubjea to many difeafes, and at laft to individual diffolu- tion, 51. Of the fuppofed fexes of plants, 251. See fex- es. Pollen or farina of plants, fuppofed to be analogous to the male organs of generation, 252. New varieties of plants often proceed from accidental caufes, 257, 258. Plants, as well as animals, undergo transformations, 309, 310. See transformations. Thofe which grow quickly foon perifh, 511. Their longevity, 518. Pollen. See plants, and fexes. Polypus. Defcription of its ftruaure and mode of multiply- ing, 28. When cut to pieces in any direaion, each lec- tion foon becomes a perfea animal, 29. One fpecies may be engrafted upon another, ibid. Some polypi multiply by fplitting longitudinally, and others tranfverfely, 41, Conneas the animal to the vegetable kingdom, 526. Probofcis of infeas defcribed, 97. Propolis, or bee-glue. See bees. Puberty. This period of life arrives later, or more early, ac- cording to the difference of fpecies, 38. Of the puberty of animals in general, 269. Changes produced by it, 269 270, 291. Females arrive fooner at that period than males, 271. All animals undergo changes at the age of puberty, 271. . Pucerons. Some fpecies are both viviparous and oviparous, 44. Can produce without impregnation, 44, 98. Differ- ences between the males and females, 247. Devoured by numberlefs enemies, 389. IN0E X-. 547 Pulex. See flea. O Quadrupeds. Their ftruaureT 63. The fimilarity of their ftruaure and organs to thofe of man, 63. Of the carniv- orous kinds, 66. Of the herbivorous, 67. Few quadru- peds pair, 285. Undergo changes of form after birth, 293. Their mental powers likewife change, ibid. Some of them conftrua habitations, 315. Of carnivorous quadrupeds, 382. Their difcriminating charaaers, 468, 469. Some of them migrate, 496. Of their longevity, 513. Quails. Of their migration, 477. R Rapacious. See carnivorous. Rats of Kamtfchatka. Their artifices and manners, 411. Ravens. Their mode of breaking fhell-fifhes, 413. Their longevity, 513. Razor-fifh. See fpout-fifh. Rein-deer, the chief food of the Laplanders, 221. Refpiration. Air neceffary to the exiftence of all animal and vegetable bodies, 112. The mode in which refpiration is carried on by man and the larger land animals, 112. Dr. Crawford has rendered it probable that refpiration is the. caufe of animal heat, 113. Conneaed with the circulation of the blood, 115. Commences inftantly after birth, and continues during life, 116. Of laughing, 118. Of weep- ing, ibid. Many fecondary advantages derived from ref- piration, 119. Birds refpire by the bones, and almoft eve- ry part of the body, as well as by the lungs, 121. Refpi- ration of fifhes, 125. Refpiration of infeas, 126. Retina. Exte;nal objeas painted on it in an inverted pofi- tion, 187. Why objeas are feen erea notwithftanding the inverfion of the piaures, 188, 189. Why vifion is fingle though a piaure is painted on each eye, 190, 191. Roebuck. His artifices and manners, 406. S Saliva, a powerful folvent, 173. Salmons. Of their migrations, &c. 497. Scale. Of the progreffive fcale of beings, 521, &c. Scallop. Its motions defcribed, 148. Scarabaei, or the beetle tribe of infeas, an account of them, 98. 548 INDEX> Scorpion. Account of it, 108. §ea-nettle capable of being ingrafted, 50. Seal. Sketch of his manners, 76. Seafons. See love. Seeds. Analogies between them and the eggs of animals, 45. Seeing. See fenfes. Senfation implies the perception of pleafure and pain. May be fufpended without death, 28. See fenfes. Theory of fenfation, 182. Senfes. Fifhes endowed with the fenfe of hearing, 89. Of the fenfes in general, 168. Of the fenfe of fmelling, 169. Men, as well as brutes, affifted in the feleaion of food by the fenfe of fmelling, 170. Moft odours produaive either of pleafure or pain, 171. The fenfe of fmelling in fome animals remarkably acute, 172. Of tafting, 172. The Organs of tafte and fmelling affift each other, 173. Senfe of tafting comparatively grofs, 174. Senfe of hearing, 175. The pleafures derived from it, 178. Senfe of touch, 181. Senfe of feeing, 185.; conveys no idea of diftance, 192. Errors of vifion correaed by touch, 163. Of the fenfe of fmelling alone, 194. Of hearing alone, 196.; of fmelling and hearing united, ibid.; of tafte alone, and united with fmelling and hearing, 196 ; of fight alone, 197.; of fight united with fmell, hearing, and tafte, 197 ; of touching alone, 198 •, of touch united with fmelling, 200.; of hear- ing, tafte, and touch united, ibid. Of fight united with all the other fenfes, 201. Sepia. See cuttle-fifh. Serpents caft their fkins annually, 295. Sexes. Of the fexes of animals, 242. Their intercourfe not always neceffary for multiplication, 244. See multiplica- tion. Caterpillars are of no fex, 245. Among the larger animals, the difference of fize between males and females is not confiderabie, 245 ; but, among infeas, the differ- ence often great, 245, 246, 247. Of the fuppofed fexes of plants, 251. The arguments employed to fupport the fexes of plants are entirely analogical, 252. Thefe analo- gies fliown to be without foundation, ibid. Some of them ridiculous, 254. The moft plaufible argument in fupport of vegetable fexes derived from the culture of the date-bear- ing palm, ibid. This circumftance brings no aid to the fexualifl, 254. Mylius's experiment on the Berlin palm Index. 549 imperfea and inconclufive, 255, 256. Sfxualifts have re- courfe to the winds and to infeas for the impregnation of certain plants, 256. This notion refuted, 257, 258. Ar- gument from new varieties examined, 258. Dr. Hope's experiments on the lychnis dioica examined, 260. Spa- lanzani's experiments on the fexes of plants, 264, 265. Changes produced in animals by puberty, 269. The male bees impregnate the eggs after they are depofited in the cells, 349. Sheep affociate, and defend each other, 436. Their, ori- gin, 464. Showers of blood accounted for, 306. Silk-worms. See worms and caterpillars. Skeletons, of all quadrupeds, when raifed on their hind-legs, have a great refemblance to thofe of man, 63. Sleep, of plants, 18. Smeathman. His account of the termites or wood-ants, 364. Smelling. See fenfes. Snails. Their mode of refpiring, 134, 135. Society. Not confined to the human fpecies, 418. Its ori- gin, ibid. The affociating principle is inftinaive, 419. Its advantages, ibid. Gives rife to many' virtues and fources of happinefs, 420. Its difadvantages, 421. Without af- fociation, men could perform no extenfive operations, 422. Society of the beavers, 422.; of pairing birds, 424 ; of the honey-bees, 425 ; of the common caterpillars, 429 \ of the proceffionary caterpillars, 431. Some caterpillars are republicans, 432. Society of ants, 434 ; of gregari- ous animals who carry on no common operations, 436. Sound. Its medium and caufes, 176. The celerity of its motion, 177. Augmented by reffeaion, 177. Its modifi- cations, ibid. Sp.ilanzani. Account of his experiments upon digeftion, 230. His experiments on the fexes of plants, 264. Sparrows of great ufe by devouring numbers of caterpillars, 399. Speech. See language. Sphinx. See moth. Spiders. Their ftruaure and manners, 107. When terrifi- ed fimulate death, 158. Their attachment to their young, 278. Moft voracious animals, 387. Some furvive the winter, 415. f Www 550 I N D E X, Spider-fly, See flies, and growth. Spout-fifh. Its motions defcribed, 147. Comes above the fand upon putting fait on the mouth of its habitation, 147. Stag. His artifices in efcaping the dogs, 404. Form herds, 436. Stevens (Dr.) His experiments on digeftion performed by means of a German who was in the habit of fwallowing ftones, 237. Stigmata of infeas defcribed, and their ufes, 127. Stomach. Every part of vegetables may be confidered as a ftomach, 19. In carnivorous animals, the ftomach is pro- portionally fmall, 66. Its juice diffolves all kinds of vic- tuals, 230. Its great comminuting force in certain birds, 231, &c. In man and quadrupeds, the ftomach feems not to aa upon its contents, which are totally diffolved by the gaftric juice, 237. See gaftric juice. After death, the gaftric juice diffolves the ftomach, 240. Storks clear Egypt of ferpents, frogs, mice, Sec. 398. Struaure and organs. Their conneaion with manners and difpofitions, 62, 66, 96, 111. Struaure of quadrupeds has a great refemblance to that of man, 63. Struaure of birds, 80. Struaure of fifhes, 87. Struaure of infeas, 92. Swallow. A curious inftina of it, 157. Swallow's nefts, 328. Of their migration and torpidity, 476, &c. Different opinions on this fubjea examined, 482. Could not pofli- bly exift under water, 484. Swans. Their longevity, 513. Swordrfiffi often kills the whale, 401. T Tadpole. See frogs. Tailed men have no exiftence, 524. Tafte. See fenfes. The inflruments and caufes of the ienr fation of tafting, 172. Tafte various in individuals of the fame fpecies, 174. Taylor-bird. Defcription of its wonderful neft, 326. Termites. Mr. Smeathman's defcription of their fingular operations, 364. Defcription of thefe animals,,365. Un- dergo great changes in form, 365, 366, 367. Wonderful prolific powers of the females, 367. Their nefts or hills defcribed, 368. Of their royal chamber, 370. Of their nurferies, 371. Of their magazines, 373. Of their fub- terraneous paffages, 374. ^ Of their warlike difpofitiODS, 375. Repair their habitations, 377. index. 551 Tiger. His difpofitions are grofsly ferocious, 382. Tit-moufe. Defcription of its neft, 325. Toads. Inftances of their being found alive in the heart of trees, and inclofed in folid ftones, 136, 137. Their lon- gevity, 516. Tongue and palate, the principal inftruments of the fenfe of tafting, 173. Touch. See fenfes. Tracheae of infeas defcribed, and their ufes, 127. Transformations. Every animal undergoes changes, 291, & c\ Transformation of> frogs, 294. Cruftaceons animals caft their fhells annually,294. Serpents annually caft their fkir.s, 295. Of the transformation of infeas, ibid. Transformation of the filk-worm, 296 ; of other caterpillars, ibid. The internal parts, as well as the external form, of winged infeas undergo confiderabie changes, 299. Spider-fly transform- ed into a chryfLlis before efcaping the belly of its mother, 300. The behaviour of different caterpillars when about to transform, 303. Transformation of infeas is only the throwing oft"of temporary coverings, 306. Plants, as#well as animals, undergo transformations, 309. Intentions of Na- ture in changing forms, 313. Trochus deftroys numbers of fhell-fifhes, 400. Turkey. The great comminuting force of its ftomach, 231. U Urchin. Motions of the fea-urchin defcribed, 149. V Vacuum. Sounds cannot be propagated through it, 17.). Vegetables. See plants. Vermes. See worms. Vis inertiae defined, 140. Vifion. See eyes and retina. W War. Man not the only animal that makes war with his own fpecies, 391. Wafp. Solitary wafp digs holes in the fand, where fhe de- pofits her eggs, 156. Feed their young by difgorging like the pigeon, 279. Their manners and operations, 354. Their cells compofed of paper, 355. Defcription of theij 552 INDEX. neft, ibid. Their manner of building, 357. Republics of wafps confift of males, females, and neuters, 358. De- fcription of the different kinds, 362. Maffacre their young, 392. Wax. Bees wax a refult of a digeftive procefs, 344. Weeping, how performed, and its effedls, 118. Not pecu- liar to man, ibid. Whales often killed by the fword-fifh, 401. Winds. Suppofed to impregnate certain plants, 256. This notion refuted, 257, 258. Wings. No animal, except infeas, have more than two, 94. Thofe of infeas made the foundation of a methodical dis- tribution, 98. Wolf. His difpofitions are fierce aud rapacious, 383, 384. Women. Their texture more lax than that of man, 242. Their minds are likewife more timid,242. Social intercourfe with them foftens the difpofitions of men, 243. Modefty the great ornament of women, ibid. Carnivorous quadru- peds not fo apt to devour women as men, 244. See mul- tiplication, and fexes. Wood-ants. See ants and termites. Woodpecker. Some account of it, 413. Worms. Account of thefe infeas, 108. Of the hair-worm, ibid. Of the earth-worm, 109. Rat-tailed worms, their mode of refpiring air, 128. In fome worms, the rapidity of their growth is remarkable, 229. Account of the male and female glow-worm, 246. Silk-worms fpin pods be- fore their transformation into flies, 296 See cater- pillars. Inftances of feveral worms proceeding from one egg, 303. The manner in which the fik-worms fpin their cod or clue, 303. S&39p I tot { * w y^'^1 ■■»'> Wi-.>VM'$t< t'Wry y;y