. Jj,. : nj '■"?*P&> NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Washington Founded 1836 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Service it &■$■'■%. i\ > LEONASD CIIASL _0^ >v* '<; ± ;jm ■ 1 • ■ the AMERICAN MEDICAL LEXICON, ON THE PLAN OF QUINCY'S LEXICON PHYSICO-MEDICUM, WITH MANY RETRENCHMENTS, ADDITIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS COMPRISING AN EXPLANATION OF THE ETYMOLOGY AJVD SIGNIFICATION OF THE TERMS USED IN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, SURGERY, MATERU MEDICA, CHEMISTRY AND THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. COMPILED FROM TME MOST APPROVED AUTHORITIES. NEW-YORK: PUBLISHED BY T. AND J. SWORDS, HO. 160 PEARL-STREET. 1811. District of New-York, w. Be it remembered, that on the twenty-ni,\\li d.v>' of December, in the thirty* fifth year of the Independence of the Unketl States vi America, Thomns and James Swords, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " The American Medical Lexicon, on the Plan of Quincy's Lexicon Physico- Medicum, with many Retrenchments, Additions, and Improvements ; comprising an Explanation of the EUmology and Signification of the Terms used in Anatomy, Physiology, Surgery, Materia Medica, Chemistry, and the Practice of Physic. Compiled from the most approved Authorities." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein men- tioned ;" and also to an act entitled, " An act supplementary to an act entitled, An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein men- tioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints." CHARLES CLINTON, Ckrk of the diurict of New-York. To the Physicians and Students of Medicine in America. ALTHOUGH there are several Medical Dictionaries extant, yet there was a call for a new edi.ion of the Lexicon Physico-Medicum of Dr. Quincy. His work was indeed first published many years ago, and has undergone various editions. And in the mean time, Parr'* Medical Dictionary, Morris's and Hooker's Works under a similar title, have been offered to the public in England. It might thence be sup- posed by some, that imported copies of these books would supply the demand within the United States. The Publishers weighed carefully this consideration. They reflected that the large quarto volumes of Parr and Morris, though respectable performances, were too bulky and expensive for the greater part of readers. And on examining the duodecimo production of Hooper, they found, that although it would not be subject to the objection of a high price, yet that it laboured under the disadvantage of being too concise and limited in its objects. In short, it was highly desirable, that a book of definitions and ex- planations should be offered to medical Gentlemen, which should be cheaper than the two former, and more comprehensive than the latter of these dictionaries. There was no publication extant, which approached so near this character as Quincy's Lexicon. Without costing the purchaser more than a very moderate price, it offers him a great variety of matter. In this edition many obsolete terms have been left out. There was little use in perpetuating words that were never employed by any writer of note or value in modern times. To retain great numbers of hard and uncouth names, which the present state of knowledge did not warrant or require, would be superfluous and disgusting, as well as perplexing to beginners. In these retrenchments, however, the reader may be assured, not an article of worth has been omitted. ( iv ) In the place of the words left out, on account of having become anti- quated and fallen into disuse, a very considerable number of new articles have been added. Some of these are names and definitions not in the original. Others are modern expositions of titles already in the work, but standing in need of correction, to adapt them to the existing state of practice and experiment. And in numberless places of this New-York copy, the pages have been cleared of the typographical errors which abounded in the London text. New-Yorky Jan. 1811. AMERICAN MEDICAL DICTIONARY. AB ""T~" A term in Pharmacy, other- A> wise written a or da, or ana, which being never used but after the mention of two or more ingre- dients, implies that they should be taken in quantities of the same species and denomination,whether by weight or measure, to form the composition wherein they occur. The word is originally Greek, «'»«, a preposition, which signifies se- parately, or f each by itself. Abalienatua, corrupted. Celsus. A part so destroyed as to require immediate extirpation. It also signifies the fault or total destruc- tion of the senses, whether exter- nal or internal, by disease. Abbreviatio. The principal uses of medicinal abbreviations are in prescriptions; here they are cer- tain marks, or half words used by physicians for despatch and con- veniency when they prescribe.—■ Thus YQ readily supplies the place of Reci/ie; h. s. that of hora som- ni ; n. m. that of nucis muschalx ; elect, that of electarium, See. and in general all the names of com- pound medicines, with the several ingredients,are frequently written only up to their first or second syl- lable, or sometimes to their third or fourth, to make them clear and expressive. Thus Croc. Anglic. stands for Crocus Anglicanus; Theriac. Andromach. for Thcriaca Andromachi, Sec. A point being always placed at the end of such syllables in medicine, shows the word to be incomplete. AB Abdomen, the belly ; from abdo, to hide ; because it hides the vis- cera. A cavity between the tho- rax and the pelvis, lined by a smooth membrane called the peri- toneum, and containing ;.he omen- tum or epiploon, stomach and in- testines, liver, gall-bladder, me- sentery, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, renal glands or capsules, part of the thoracic duct, descending aor- ta, and vena cava ascendens. Ex- ternally the abdomen is distin- guished into the epigastric, hypo- chondriac, umbilical, and hypo- gastric regions. Abdominal Muscles. They are five on each side. See Muscles. Abdominal Ring, Inguinal Ring. An oblong, tendinous opening in both groins, through which the spermatic cord of men, and round ligaments of the uterus of women, pass. It is through this opening, that the intestine or omentum falls in ruptures. Abducent Muscles, from abduco, to draivfrom,or those which serve to open or pull back divers parts of the body ; their opposites be- ing called adducent, from adduco, to draw to. Abducent Nerves. The sixth pair of nerves are so called, be- cause they go to the abducent or rectus externus muscle. Abductio, a species of fracture; when a bone is divided transverse- ly near a joint, so that each part recedes from the other. In Cce- liusAurelianus it signifies a strain; 2 AB AB and is mentioned as one of the cau- ses of ischiadic and psoadic pains. Abductor. From ab, from, and duco, to draw ; a name given to those muscles which pull back parts of the body into which they are inserted. Abductor Brevis Alter. See Abductor Pollicis Manus. Abductor Indicts Manus. It rises from the os trapezium, and from the superior part and inner side of the metacarpal bone of the thumb; inserted by a short tendon, into the outer and back part of the first bone of the fore-finger. Its use is to bring the fore-finger towards the thumb. Abductor Indicts Pedis, arises, tendinous and fleshy, by two ori- gins, from the root of the inside of the metatarsal bone of the fore- toe, from the outside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the great- toe, and from the os cuneiforme internum ; inserted, tendinous, in- to the inside of the root of the first joint of the fore-toe. The use is to pull the fore-toe inwards from the rest of the small toes. Abductor Longus Pollicis Ma- nus, i. e. Extensor Ossis Metacar- pi Pollicis Manus. Abductor Minimi Digiti Manus, arises, fleshy, from the os pisifor- me, and from that part of the li- gamentum carpi annulare next it: inserted, tendinous, into the inner side of the upper end of the first bone of the little finger. The use is to draw this finger from the rest. It is a name also of the Flexor Parvus Minimi Digiti. Abductor Medii Digiti Pedis, a- rises, tendinous and fleshy, from the inside of the root of the me- tatarsal bone of the middle toe in- ternally ; inserted, tendinous, into the inside of the root of the first joint of the middle toe. The use is to pull the middle toe inwards. Abductor Minimi Digiti Pedis, arises, fleshy and tendinous, from the semicircular edge of a cavity on the inferior part of the protu- berance of the os calcis, and from the root of the metatarsal bone of the little toe ; inserted into the root of the first joint of the little toe externally. The use is to draw the little toe outwards from the rest. Abductor Oculi, arises from the inferior part of the foramen opti- cum, between the obliquus supe- rior and depressor, being, from its situation, the shortest ; inserted opposite to the inner angle. The use is to turn the eye towards the nose. Abductor Pollicis Manus, arises, by a broad, tendinous, and fleshy beginning, from the ligamentum carpi annulare, and from the os trapezium ; inserted, tendinous, into the outer side of the root of the first bone of the thumb. The use is to draw the thumb from the fingers. Albinus names the inner portion of this muscle abductor brevis alter. Abductor Pollicis Pedis, arises, fleshy, from the inside of the root of the protuberance of the os cal- cis, where it forms the heel, and tendinous from the same bone where it joins with the os navicu- lare ; inserted, tendinous, into the internal os sefamoideum, and root of the first joint of the great toe. The use is to pull the great toe from the rest. Abductor Tertii Digiti Pedis, arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the inside and inferior part of the root of the metatarsal bone of the third toe ; inserted, tendinous, in- to the inside of the root of the first joint of the third toe. The use is to pull the third toe inwards. Abelmosch. It is the Hibiscus Abelmoschus of Linnaeus. Its seeds have the same odour as musk, and therefore are mixed with coffee by the Arabians, Sec. to render it more agreeable. AB AB Abies, the fir-tree. Linnaeus includes it in the genus of pines, calling it Pinus Abies. The Silver Fir (Pinus Picea of Linnaeus) produces the Strasburg turpentine. The tops and leaves are recommended in the scurvy. The Canada Fir (Pinus Cana- densis of Linnaeus) produces the Canada balsam. The Common Fir, or Pitch Tree, (Pinus Abies of Linnaeus) pro- duces the common turpentine, from which we have the common rosin, tar, common pitch, oil of turpentine, Burgundy pitch, &c Ablactatio, (from a priv. and lac- to, to suckle). Ablactation, or weaning a child from the breast. Also called Apogalactismus. When the mother wants health, or strength ; is affected with any constitutional disease, or the milk is in small quantity; has too small nipples, or ill-formed ones ; when the infant will not take the breast; —it is advisable to wean the child ; indeed, often absolutely necessary. It can never be use- ful to continue the breast more than eight or nine months ; but generally, if a child is favoured with a good supply by sucking, during its first three or four months, and is healthy, it will rarely be the worse for weaning at a more early period. If it feeds well with the spoon, and is free from disorders in its bowels, a ten- dency to convulsions, &c. wean- ing may be attempted at any time. But, if the child refuses to feed; or, though the diet be changed to gravy and beef tea, the bowels should be disordered, another nurse should be sought for, and weaning must fie deferred until more favourable circumstances at- tend. In general, the sooner a child is weaned, the more easily it parts with the breast. Prudence directs to accustom a child to ear- ly feeding with the spoon, and to continue it until the breast may be wholly omitted. In general, children should be fed during the first months three or four times a day ; and, if not suckled in the night, once at least, if not twice, during that period. Suckling in the night should, if possible, be avoided ; for the mother, especi- ally in the higher ranks of life, wants some hours of respite. If the child is early brought to re- gular hours of feeding, it will soon give little trouble. The food should be simple and light ; without wine or spices. Well fermented bread, baked hard and reduced to powder, will make a proper food, when boiled smooth in water. Should the stomach be flatulent, a few caraway seeds may be added. If this food turn sour, beef or mutton tea (prepared by infusion only) may be occasionally substituted, or a little beef gravy may be given. A child will in feeding, always first endeavour to drink. He may be allowed to do so with moderation. A little time should' be suffered to elapse, and the soaked bread should then be offered. If refused, he may drink again, but in less quantity ; and should he still refuse the bread, it is a sign that he does not require any solid food. In feeding, he should be in a sitting posture ; or, if recumbent, should be occasion- ally raised, gently moved, and amused. After feeding, he will soon sleep ; but a child should ne- ver be awakened, unless the sleep be uneasy or morbidly continued. —Moss, Cadogan, and Armstrong. Abortion, a miscarriage, or the expulsion of the fetus from the uterus before the seventh month. —Precursors. Pain in the back, loins, and hypogastrium ; shiver- ings; bleeding from the womb; nausea, anxiety, palpitation, syn- cope, an opening and moisture of the os tinecae ; a sensation of AB AB weight or coldness in the epigas- trium, and flaccidity of the breasts. —Prevention. In plethoric ha- bits, venesection, the antiphlogis- tic regimen and digitalis ; in de- bilitated ones, bark, iron, sulphate of zinc or copper and acetite of lead ; in general recumbent pos- ture, occasional laxatives and opi- ates, and cold both generally and topically applied. Abrasion, from abrado, to tear off. It generally expresses the wearing away the natural mucus which covers the membranes, par- ticularly those of the stomach and guts, by corrosive or sharp medi- cines or humours. It is also used to express that matter wore off by the attrition of bodies against one another. Abrotanum. From af^is-, soft. Common southernwood. Artemi- sia Abrotanum of Linnaeus. A plant possessed of a strong, and, to most people, an agreeable smell; a pungent bitter, and somewhat nauseous taste. It is supposed to stimulate the whole system, but more particularly that of the ute- rus. It is rarely used, unless in the way of fomentation. Abscessus, an abscess, from ab- scedo, to go off. The words uvoir- rr.fxtx. (aposteme), and airoo-rcta-ts (imposthumation), frequently us- ed by Hippocrates, are translated by Celsus, abscessus, and some- times vomica. Hence the word abscess, generally used by modern authors to signify a suppurated phlegmon,or inflammatory tumor. These words seem originally, by their derivation, to import any sort of exclusion of morbific matter, a^nrr«/x«»ancl «^k?t»i/*»signifying to recede and retire. Accordingly they are generally used by Hippo- crates to express any critical re- moval of offending humours from the vital parts, cither to some of the emunctories for an immediate discharge, as the glands of the in- testines, kidneys, or skin, whence they are eliminated by plentiful stools, urine, or sweat; or to some part where they find an easy egress by the rupture of a blood-vessel, as the uterus or nose ; or to some muscular part or gland, whence they cannot be so easily expelled, and therefore stagnate and suppu- rate, and at last are separated in the form of pus or matter. Some- times Hippocrates means by these words, the transmutation of one disease into another, as a quincey into a peripneumony, or of a con- tinual fever into a quartan, &c. And sometimes, the destruction of a part of the morbific matter of a distemper fixing upon it. Hippocrates also uses the word wMt7T*t7if, to express the fracture, or exfoliation of a bone, when the parts of it which were contiguous in a state of health, recede from each other. Paulus ^Egineta seems to have limited the signification of abscess to suppuration, bv defining («7roiTT»)fia) abscess, a corruption of the fleshy parts, muscles, veins, and arteries. Of all the significa- tions of an abscess, the present surgeons confine themselves to that which is the consequence of an inflammation. Abscission. The most common use of this word is to signify the dividing any corrupted and use- less part of the body from the sound, by a sharp instrument. It is principally applied to soft parts of the body ; for in the bones it is called amputation. Sometimes it signifies the sudden termination of a disease in death, before it arrives at its declining state. Absinthium, wormwood ; a^J"'^"., unpleasant, of * privative, and 4^»- 6or- which Hesychius interprets Tfp4.»j, delectation; others will have it «7n>0io», i. e. not potable, from «. priv. ..nd xdhu, to d^ink, on account of its bitterness; others derive it of «7T7s»9sc(, f touch or handle, by AB AB untiphrasis, because no animal touches it, on account of its ex- treme bitterness. The English name wormwood is from a simi- lar one in the Anglo-Saxon lan- guage. In the College Pharma- copeia, two species of absinthia are retained ; viz. the maritimum, or sea wormwood, Artemisia ma- ritima, Lin. and vulgare, or com- mon wormwood, Artemisia Absin- thium, Lin. The recent tops of the former are directed to be beat- en with sugar to form a conserve: they enter the decoctum pro fo- mento, or common fomentation, formerly called Fotus Communis. This latter is a good tonic and sto- machic, and is given also by many as an anthelmintic. Externally it is used as an antiseptic, in fo- mentations. There is a tincture of the flowers ordered by the Edin- burgh Pharmacopeia ; but the most agreeable way of administer- ing this medicine is in pills made of the extract. Absorbent, from absorbeo, to drink up, is such a medicine as by the softness or porosity of its component parts, either sheathes the asperities of pungent humours, or, like a spunge, dries away su- perfluous moisture in the body ; and is the same with a drier or a sweetener. Most animal con- cretions, shells of fishes, and bo- lar earths, &c. are possessed of those qualities; hence their use in relieving complaints arising from acidities and sharp humours in the first passages. Those chiefly in use at present are calcined mag- nesia, prepared chalk, oyster- shells, crabs' claws, crabs' eyes, and coral. Absorbent Vessels. They are those lacteal vessels which open with their mouths into the sides of the intestinal tube, to drink in the chyle from thence, which they dis- charge into the mesenteric veins. Later anatomists have applied this term to the lymphatics, which are distributed in great number throughout the whole body, and whose extremities open into eve- ry cavity thereof, absorb all super- fluous moisture, and carry it back into the circulation. By means of lymphatic vessels going from the skin, wrater passes into the habit from baths and fomentations; mer- cury also, and other penetrating substances, applied externally, as the venereal virus, &c. This corn- pages of vessels is also called the system of absorbents. Abstergents. See Detergents. Abstinence. It is either gene- ral, from all sorts of aliment, or .particular, from some kinds of food only. Erasistratus made a strict abstinence supply the place of bleeding, in inflammations and fevers. Abstraction, from abstraho, or abtraho, to draw from, is a power peculiar to the mind of man, where- by he can make his ideas, arising from particular things, become general representatives of all of the same kind. Thus when the eye represents whiteness in awall, a man can abstractedly consider the quality of whi'eness, and find it attributable to many other things besides ; as to snow, milk, or the like ; and this quality, whatsoever it be, considered apart from the concrete, or the subject in which it adheres, is said to be taken in the abstract. This is the doctrine of Mr. Locke, and others who wrote before him ; but it has since his time been called in question ; for some there are who deny all such abstract ideas, and tell usj that a general abstract idea is a mere nothing, all the ideas we have being constantly particular ; so that they would say, it is im- possible to think of white,abstract- edly or independent of some sub- ject wherein it is lodged. Whe- ther this be true or not, every man AC AC may best know by his own experi- ence ; but the point well cleared, would open a new scene in the doctrine of qualities, and possibly overset a great part of our pre- sent philosophy about them. This term is also used in pharmacy, for the drawing off, or exhaling away a menstruum from the subject it was put to dissolve. Accelcratory Muscles, from ad, to, and celar, swift; or from acce- lerare, to hasten, or despatch. These belong to the penis, and are generally called Acceleratores Urince, from their use in expediting the ejection of urine. They arise, fleshy, from the sphincter ani, and membra- nous part of the urethra, and ten- dinous from the crus, near as far forwards as the beginning of the corpus cavernosum penis ; the in- ferior fibres run more transverse- ly, and the superior descend in an oblique direction. They are in- serted into a line in the middle of the bulb, where each joins with its fellow ; by which the bulb is com- pletely enclosed. Their use is to drive the urine or semen forwards, and, by grasping the bulb of the u- rethra,to push the blood towards its corpus cavernosum and the glans, by which they are distended. Accession, the same as tremities to the ground, and thus form an hemispherical mass of verdure of about one hundred and, twenty, or one hundred and thirty feet diameter. The roots extendi as far as the branches; that in the middle forms a pivot, which, penetrates a great way into the earth ; the rest spread near the surface thereof. This tree grows mostly in the west coast of Africa. The bark is called Lubo. The fruit is of the size of a lemon, of an acid taste ; and when dry it is AB AD powdered, and sold in Europe un- der the name of Terra Sigillata Lemnia. Additamentum, additament ; a term of chemistry, which signifies any material mixed along with a principal ingredient, to fit it for the designed operation. Thus salts are distilled from bone-ashes, brick-dust, or the like, to prevent their running together, and make them afford their spirits with the greater ease. In anatomy it is the same as Epiphysis. Castellus says that the large Epiphysis of the ulna, at the elbow, was called Additamentum Necatum. Additamentum Coli, a name of the Appendicula cteci. Adducens, i. e. Rectus internus oculi Muse. Adducens Humeri, i. e. Pectora- lis Musculus. Adducent Muscles, from ad and duco, to bring to ; are those that bring forward, close or draw to- gether the parts of the body whereto they are annexed. Adductors. The name of those muscles, which bring forwards or draw together those parts of the body to which they are annexed ; from ad, to, and duco, to draw. Adductor Brevis Femoris. It arises, tendinous, from the os pu- bis near its joining with the oppo- site os pubis below, and behind the adductor Iongus femoris. It is inserted, tendinous and fleshy, in- to the inner and upper part of the linea aspera, from a little below the trochanter minor, to the be- ginning of the insertion of the ad- ductor longus. Adductor Femoris Primus, i. e. Adductor longus femoris. Adductor Femoris Quartus, i.e. Adductor magnus femoris. Adductor Femoris Secundus, i. e. Adductor brevis femoris. Adductor Femoris Tertius, i. e. Adductor magnus femoris. Adductor Indicia Pedis. It a- riscs, tendinous and fleshy, by Uve origins, from the root of the inside of the metatarsal bone of the fore toe, from the outside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from the os cuneiforme internum. It is inserted, tendi- nous, into the inside of the root of the first joint of the fore toe. Its use is to pull the fore toe inwards from the rest of the small toes. Adductor Longus Femoris. It arises, by a pretty strong roundish tendon, from the upper and inte- rior part of the os pubis, and liga- ment of its synchondrosis, on the inner side of the pectinalis. It is inserted, tendinous, near the mid- dle of the posterior part of the li- nea aspera, being continued for some way down. Adductor Magnus Femoris. It arises a little lower down than the adductor brevis femoris, near the symphysis of the ossa pubis; ten- dinous and fleshy, from the tube- rosity of the os ischium; the fibres run outwards and downwards. It is inserted into almost the whole length of the linea aspera, into a ridge above the.internal condyle of the os femoris; and, by a round- ish, long tendon, into the upper part of that condyle, a little above which the femoral artery takes a spiral turn towards the ham, pass- ing between this muscle and the bone. Adductor Medii Digiti Pedis. It arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the roots of the metatarsal bones of the second and third toes. It is inserted, tendinous, into the out- side of the root of the first joint of the second toe. Its use is to> pull the second toe outwards. Adductor Metacarpi Minimi Di- giti Manus. It arises, fleshy, from the thin edge of the os unciforme, and from that part of the ligament of the wrist next it. It is inserted, tendinous, into the inner side and anterior part of the metacarpal bone AD AD .,f this finger. Its use is to bend and bring the metacarpal bone of this finger towards the rest. Adductor Minimi Digiti Pedis. It arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the inside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the little toe. It is inserted, tendinous, into the inside of the root of the first joint of the little toe. Its use is to pull the little toe inwards. Adductor ad Minimum Digitum, i. e. Adductor pollicis manus. Adductor Oculi. It arises from the inferior part of the foramen opticum, between the obliquus su- perior and depressor, being, from its situation, the shortest. It is inserted opposite to the inner an- gle. Its use is to turn the eye towards the nose. Adductor Pollicis, i. e. Adductor zndicis manus. Adductor Pollicis Manus. It a- rises, fleshy, from almost the whole length of the metacarpal bone that sustains the middle finger ; from thence its fibres are collected to- gether. It is inserted, tendinous, into the inner part of the root of the first bone of the thumb. Its use is to pull the thumb towards the fingers. Adductor Pollicis Pedis. It a- rises, by a long thin tendon, from the os calcis, from ihe os cuboides, from the os cuneiforme externum, and from the root of the metatar- sal bone of the second toe. It is inserted into the external os sesa- moideum, and root of the metatar- sal bone of the great loe. Its use is to bring this toe nearer to the rest. Adductor Tertii Digiti Pedis. It arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the roots of the metatarsal bones of the third and little toe. It is inserted, tendinous, into the outside of the root of the first joint of the third toe. Its use is to pull the third toe outwards. Adenes Canadcnses, i.e. potatoes. Adenography. It is a treatise of the glands, from «c*i», a gland, and •ygxtpu, to write. Adenoides, from aSr,v,a gland, and eiJ®', a form, glandiform, or like a gland. This word is also used for the Prostata, which see. Adenosus Abscessus,ixhar<\ crude tubercle, resembling a gland, diffi- cult to be resolved. Adeps, fat, sometimes is distin- guished from Pinguedo, and appli- ed only to the harder fat common- ly called suet; but by most wri- ters they are used indifferently. Adepts. Such are called so as pretend to some extraordinary skill in chemistry, from adipiscor, to obtain j but these have too often proved either enthusiasts or im- postors : and such Paracelsus, Helmont, and their followers have been thought. The professors of the Adepta Philosophia are also called adepts. Adhesion. For the most part, if any parts in the thorax or belly lie in contact, and inflame, they grow together. The lungs frequently adhere to the pleura. Adiachytos, from aneg. and &«- %vu, to diffuse, scatter, or be pro* fuse, decent in point of dress. Hip- pocrates thinks the dress of a fop derogatory from the physician; though thereby he hides his igno- rance, and obtains the good opi- nion of his patients. Adiapneustia. from the privative particle «and Siavtto, perspiro ; is a diminution or obstruction of na- tural perspiration, and that in which the ancients chiefly placed the cause of fevers. Adiarrhxa, from « priv. and &- afov, to flow out, or through, a to- tal suppression of all the necessa- ry evacuations. Adipocire, is a term formed of adeps, fat, and cera, wax, and de- notes a substance, the nature and origin of which are thus explain- ed. The changes which animal AD AD matter undergoes in its progress towards total decomposition, have been, for many obvious reasons, but little attended to. But an op- portunity of this kind was offered at Paris in 1786 and 1787, when the old burial ground of the Inno- cens was laid out for building up- on, in consequence of which, the surface soil, and the animal re- mains contained therein, were re- moved. This cemetery having been for ages appropriated to the reception of the dead, in one of the most populous districts in Pa- ris, was eminently well calculated to exhibit the various processes of animal decomposition: another fa- vourable circumstance was, that it contained several of those large pits (fosses communes) in which the bodies of the poor are deposit- ed by hundreds. These pits are cavities 30 feet deep, with an area of 20 feet square, in which the shells containing the bodies are closely packed in rows over each other, without any intermediate earth, and with only a slight su- perficial covering of soil, not more than a foot thick: each pit con- tained from 1200 to 1500 bodies, and may be considered as a mass of animal matter of the dimen- sions above-mentioned. M. M. Fourcroy and Thouret were pre- sent at the opening of several of these receptacles; and it is from a memoir by the former of these, that the principal part of this arti- cle is composed. The first pit that was examined had been filled and closed up 15 years before : on opening some of the coffins (for the wood was still quite sound, only tinged of a yellow colour) the bodies were found within shrunk, so as to leave a considera- ble vacant space in the uppe^part of the coffin, and flattened, sis if they had been subject to a strong compression ; the linen which co- vered them adhered firmly, and, upon being removed, presented to view only irregular masses of a soft, ductile, greyish-white matter, apparently intermediate between fat and wax: the bones were en- veloped in this, and were found to be very brittle. The bodies thus changed, being but little offensive to th« smell, a great number were dug up and minutely examined: in some this alteration had as yet only partially taken place, the re- mains of muscular fibres being still visible ; but where the con- version had been complete, the bones throughout the whole body were found covered with this grey substance, generally soft and duc- tile, sometimes dry, but always readily separating into porous ca- vernous fragments, without the slightest trace of muscles, mem- branes, vessels, tendons, or nerves: the ligaments of the articulations had been in like manner changed; the connexion between the bones was destroyed, and these last had become so yielding, that the grave- diggers, in order to remove the bodies more conveniently, rolled each upon itself from head to heels, without any difficulty. According to the testimony of these men, to whom the facts just mentioned had been long familiar, this con- version of animal matter is never observed in those bodies that are interred singly, but always takes place in the fosses communes: to effect this change, nearly three years are required. The soapy matter of latest formation is soft, very ductile, light, and spungy, and contains water; in 30 or 40 years it becomes much dryer, more brittle, and assumes the ap- pearance of dense laminae, and where the surrounding earth has been dryer than usual, it is some- times semitransparent, of a granu- lated texture, brittle, and bears a considerable resemblance to wax. Animal matter having once passed AD AD into this stage of decomposition, appears to resist for a long time any further alteration: some of these pits that had been closed a- bove 40 years, were, upon exami- nation, found to be little else than a solid mass of soapy matter ; nor is it yet ascertained how long, in common circumstances, it would continue unchanged, the burial ground of the Innocens being so small in comparison to the popu- lation of the district, as to require each pit in 30 or 40 years to be emptied of its contents, in order to receive a new succession of bo- dies : it appears, however, that the ulterior changes depend in a great measure on the quantity of mois- ture draining through the mass. From the history of this singular substance, we proceed to an exa- mination of its chemical proper- ties. It was first, however, puri- fied by gently heating in an earth- en vessel, till it became of a pasty consistence, and then rubbed through a fine hair sieve, by which means the hair, small bones, and remainsof the muscular fibre were separated with tolerable exactness. In this state, being exposed in an earthen vessel to the naked fire, it readily became soft, but did not li- quify without considerable difficul- ty, rather frying as a piece of soap would do, and disengaging at the same time ammoniacal vapours. Four pounds being put into a glass retort, and submitted to slow dis- tillation in a water bath, afforded, in the space of three weeks, eight ounces of a clear watery fluid, with a foetid odour, turning syrup of violets green, and manifestly con- taining ammonia in solution ; the soapy matter remaining in the re- tort had acquired a greater con- sistence, was become less fusible, of a deeper brown colour, and upon cooling, was evidently drier than before, though not admitting of being broken. Eight ounces of soapy matter, white and purified, were mixed with an equal weight of powdered quick-lime ; on the addition of a little water, the mass heated, swelled, and disengaged a very strongly ammoniacal vapour, accompanied by a peculiar putre- scent smell: a sufficiency of water being then added to bring the whole to the state of an emulsion, it was heated to ebullition, much ammoniacal vapour escaping at the same time ; the liquor being thrown on a filter, passed perfect- ly clear and colourless, and appear- ed to be only lime-water, with a very small quantity of soap in so- lution : the matter remaining on the filter, being well washed, was beaten up with water, but showed no tendency to unite with it, sub- siding after a time, in the form of a white mass ; this, by drying for a few days in the open air, became grey and much reduced in volume: it was then mixed with diluted muriatic acid, which immediately decomposed it, and a number of white clots rose to the surface of the liquor. This last being obtain- ed clear by filtration, yielded crys- tals of muriat of lime and a slight trace of phosphoric salt; the white clots being washed and dried, and afterwards melted in a water bath, cooled into a dry, combustible, oily matter, brittle, waxy, crys- tallizable, and perfectly insoluble in water, to which the name of adipocire has been appropriated. From this series of experiments with lime, it appears that the soapy matter is a true ammoniacal soap, with a base of adipocire, to which lime has a stronger affinity than ammonia; but which last compo- sition is again in its turn decom- posed by all the acids, leaving the adipocire in a state of purity. Potash and soda produce effects perfectly analogous to those of lime. To the foregoing experi- ments of Fourcroy, a few facts AD AD have since been added by Dr. Gibbes. The receptacle at Ox- ford for those bodies which have be n used by the anatomical pro- fessor there for his demonstrations, is a hole dug in the ground to the depth of thirteen or fourteen feet, and a little stream is turned through it, in order to remove all offensive smell: the flesh contained in this was found, on examination, to be quite white, and for the most part changed into the soapy matter a- bove mentioned. From this hiat, pieces of lean beef were enclosed in a perforated box, and placed in running water, and at the end of a month were found converted into a mass of fatty matter ; this change was observed to take place much sooner and more completely in running than in stagnant water : in order to get rid of the foetid smell, nitrous acid was had re- course to, which immediately had the desired effect; a waxy smell was perceived, and by melting the matter it was obtained nearly pure; the yellow colour which had been given to it by the nitrous acid, was wholly discharged by the oxymu- riatic acid. A similar conversion of muscular fibre takes place by maceration in very diluted nitrous acid. Dr. Gibbes has not men- tioned whether the fatty matter produced by running water is pure adipocire, or ammoniacal soap ; it appears probable, however, that it is in the former state ; where ni- trous acid is the menstruum em- ployed, it is obviously impossible that the adipocire should be com- bined with an alkali. Adipose Aterie. They are bran- ches from the phrenic arteries, which are spread on the fat that covers the kidneys. Adiposa Membrana. The cellu- lar membrane is so called, where it contains a white granulated mat- ter, capable only of being fused by heat. Dr. Hunter says, it is a com- position of ductile membranes, connected by a sort of net work. He farther observes, that it is com- posed of two kinds of cells ; viz. the reticular, which communicate with each other, and the adipose, which do not communicate. But those that are reticular are more properly the cellular membrane. Adiposa Vena, or Vena renalis. It is a vein arising from the de- scending trunk of the cava, which spreads itself on the coat and fat that covers the kidneys. Adiposi Ductus, called also Sac- culi, and Vesicula adipose, are pas- sages which convey the fat into the interstices of the muscles, or to the parts between the flesh and the skin ; or, they are the bags or ducts containing the fat. Adipsia, from a neg. and oVy*, thirst, want of thirst. Adipsos. So the Greeks called the Egyptian palm-tree, whose fruit, before it is ripe, is said to be the Myrobalans. The tree is called adipsos, because its fruit quencheth thirst. Theophrastus cp.Us this tree Balanos. Adipsos is also a name for liquorice. Adnata. It is also called Albu- ginea ; and is generally confound- ed with the Conjunctiva, which see. The adnata is thus formed; five of the muscles which move the eyes, take their origin from the bottom of the orbit, and the sixth arises from the edge of it; they are all inserted by a tendinous expansion into the anterior part of the Tunica sclerotica; which ex- pansion gives the whiteness pecu- liar to the fore part of the eye. It lies betwixt the sclerotica and conjunctiva. Adolescens, expresses that part of life between the end of child- hood and a man's full strength, and is reckoned the most healthful. Adopter, in Chemistry, a large round receiver with two necks di- ametrically opposite to each other, AD AB one of which admits the neck of the retort, and the other is joined to another receiver, in order, in certain distillations, to give more space to the elastic vapours. Ad pondus omnium, the weight of the whole, signifies that the last prescribed ingredient ought to weigh as much as all the others taken together. Adstrictio. Costiveness. It ei- ther expresses the styptic quality •f medicines, or the retention of the natural evacuations by the ri- gidity of the respective emissaries. Adstringents, in medicine, are those substances, which possess a power of condensing the animal fibre. To the taste, they impart a sense of dryness, and a remarka- ble corrugation in the parts on which they immediately act. They are administered to restore dimi- nished tonic power, secretions morbidly augmented, as the alvine secretions, &c. Those in most esteem SLrealumen,catechu,lignuin eampeche?ise, ferrum, rosa rubra, acids, exercise, and cold. Adstringents. In surgery, ad- stringents are those substances which procure a constriction of die orifices of ruptured vessels ; such are curpum, oleum terebin- thina, 8cc. Adulteration. It is the debasing medicine with bad ingredients, or putting one thing for another for the sake of greater profit. He who adulterates or counterfeits medicines is often not only a rob- ber, but also a murderer. Adusta, adust, burnt, scorched, •r parched ; from aduro, to burn. Adynamia. 'ASviapK*, from a priv. and &;»«/»»$, strength or force, weakness or impotence from ill- ness. Also lassitude, and some- times it signifies sleepiness. In Dr. Cullen's Nosology it is the nanfe of an order in the class of neuroses; and, by adynamia, he means those diseases which con- sist in a weakness or loss of mo- tion, in either the vital or natural functions. JEgilops,Anchilops, cuy»XwiJ/. %y^i- Xmfy, from *»£, a goat, and u^. an eye, goat's eye ; a disease so cal- led because goats are said to be subject to it. It is the fistula lach- rymalis just when it begins to dis- charge pus. JEgyptia Ulcera. Also called Syrian ulcers. Arteaeus describes an ulcer of the tonsils and fauces by these names ; they are attend- ed with a burning pain ; the mat- ter discharged from them inLcts the whole frame, and the patient is rendered miserable by the of- fensive smell. Mgyptiacum. It is an ointment (but improperly so called)consist- ing only of honey, vinegar, and verdigrise. It hath its name of Mgyptiacum, from its being said to be of Egyptian origin. Mesue is its supposed author. JEolipile, is a round hollow ball, made of iron, brass, copper, &c. and furnished with a neck, in which there is a very slender pipe opening to the ball. Sometimes the neck is made to screw into the ball, that the cavity may the more readily be filled with water. But if there be no screw, fill it with water thus : heat the ball red hot, and then throw it into a vessel of water; the water will run in a*: the small hole, and fill about two- thirds of the cavity. And if after this the eolipile be laid on or be- fore the fire, so that the water and vessel become very much heated, vaporous air will be forced out with very great noise and violence; but it will be by fits, and not with a constant and uniform blast. Per- haps they may be sometimes of use to blow the fire, where a very quick and strong blast is required. And they may serve to scent or perfume a room, by filling them with perfumed instead of common AE AE water. They are commonly used in Italy, to cure smoky chimnies, which they do by being hung over the fire, and carrying up the smoke thereof along with the steam that issues out of their ori- fice. Mora, from oau^tu, to lift up, to suspend on high, gestation. A spe- cies of exercise used by the an- cients, and of which Aetius gives the following account: Gestation, while it exercises the body and limbs, still they seem to be at rest. Of the motion there are several kinds. First, swinging in a ham- mock, which at the decline of a fever, is beneficial. Secondly, be- ing carried in a litter, in which the patient either sits or lies along. It is useful when the gout, stone-, and such other disorders attend, as do not admit of violent motions. Thirdly, riding in a chariot, which is of service in most chronical disorders; especially before the stronger exercises can be admit- ted. Fourthly, sailing in a ship or boat. This produces various effects, according to the different agitation of the waters, and in ma- ny tedious chronical disorders is efficacious beyond what is observ- ed from the most skilful adminis- tration of drugs. These are in- stances of a passive exercise, and are useful, particularly when ac- tive exercise would be improper or impracticable. Asclepiades was the first who brought passive ex- ercise into practice, which was used after severe illness, in order to conquer debility, and invigorate the system by gentle means. The use of exercise in preserv- ing or restoring health, is too well known to require either arguments to enforce it, or regu- lations to conduct it. The exer- cises here enumerated, we have said, are passive only; and it is not easy to explain in what man- ner these can be useful. It may be remarked that all are attended with renovation of the air, which surrounds the body; all require some little exertion to preserve or restore the equilibrium. Dr. Cullen, taking the idea from the motion of a vessel, containing a fluid, and observing that the mo- mentum imparted to the latter continued when the motion of the former was suddenly stopped, sup- posed that the motion of the fluids in the blood vessels continued in the same way, stimulated the ves- sels, and thus promoted the cir- culation. The idea was ingeni- ous ; but, as the blood vessels are constantly full, we suspect that the analogy cannot be transfer- red ; and the whole advantages of exercise must probably be attri- buted to the renovation of the surrounding air, and the exertion necessary to preserve the equili- brium. The kinds of exercise here mentioned, are progressive in these respects; and of course adapted to different states of de- bility. Swinging is a more active exercise ; riding and walking pro- gressively more so, and conse- quently adapted to the less deli- cate and infirm. Other circumstances must, however, influence the choice of our modes of exercise. Sailing has been thought best adapted to hectic cases. The effluvia of the pitch in the ship may have some effect, but these could be obtained on shore ; and, when this has been tried, no particular benefit has re- sulted. The sea air is certainly not peculiarly salutary in suoh cases ; though, if the idea of Dr. Rush be admitted, that the mix- ture of sea and land air is rather injurious than useful, it will ac- count for the disadvantages some- times experienced from a resi- dence near a harbour. Thebene- fits,therefore,probably result from the exercise, which is Genstant i AE AE the general tendency of the circu- lation to the surface thus excited, assisted, perhaps, by the nausea. The tendency to the surface is evinced by the constipation of the bowels, and th'e rare occurrence of catarrhal affections on shipboard. Riding on horseback has been equally commended in hectic cases by Sydenham, though not confirm- ed by more recent experience.— This remedy is certainly better a- dapted to the more languid circu- lation, in the chylopoctic viscera ; to obstructions of the liver; bad digestion ; and want of appetite. The succussions which the viscera experience by the motion in the horse, must undoubtedly assist the circulation, when languid from in- dulgence and plethora, or when obstructed from indolence, or the immoderate use of wine and spirits. Swinging, another remedy for phthisis, should have been men- tioned after sailing. It has cer- tainly been of service : the con- stant renewal of fresh cool air, for air constantly renewed in this cli- mate must produce cold, checks a too high temperature, and lowers the pulse, while the exercise de- termines the circulation to the surface. For preserving health, however, walking is the best exercise : in all the other species, the extremi- ties are not sufficiently warmed, while, by walking, the determina- tion of the blood to the surface is general, every muscle has its share of exertion, and the viscera expe- rience sufficient agitation to pre- serve their circulation undiminish- ed in force, though perhaps not sufficient to restore it, if the or- gans are previously diseased. ^Equilibrium, is when either e- qual weights at equal distances, or unequal ones at reciprocally proportionable distances from the centre, make the arm of any libra or balance to hang even ; so that they equiponderate, and do not outweigh one another: in such a case, we say, the balance is in xquilibrio, a common term in me- chanics. AEquinox. It is when the days or nights are of equal length. Aetius places the vernal equinox on the 23d of March, and the au- tumnal on the 25th of September ; Paulus TEgineta makes the au- tumnal a day sooner. The mo- dern astronomers generally fix them about the 20th of March, and the 23d of September. A'c'r, A*,(, Air, (from the Hebrew term, aor, light,) called also gas ventosum. From a variety of ex- periments, atmospheric air is prov- ed to consist of a mixture of about seventy-two parts of azotic gas, to twenty-eight of oxygen, or vital air. Lavoisier says, of about twen- ty-seven parts of vital air, and se- venty-three azotic. But the pro- portion of these two gases is sub- ject to variation in the mixture which forms the atmosphere ; de- pending upon local causes. From the decomposition of the atmos- pheric air, these two gasses are obtained ; and sometimes in their simple state, sometimes in a pro- portion different from what they hold when forming atmospheric air, are used for medicinal pur- poses. The oxygen, or vital air, may be considered as a stimulant, and invigorator of the system ; whilst the azotic gas is a sedative, and hurtful to the constitution, by destroying its irritability. Before the present aera of chemistry, it was the only gaseous substance known ; and, indeed, almost all that has been formerly written on the air relates only to its physical properties. The chief of which are : First, that it is a fluid of ex- treme rarefaction, obedient to the smallest motion : the slightest agi- tation deranges its equilibrium, which is continually endeavouring 4 AE AE to restore itself. Though very fluid, it passes through those ori- fices with difficulty, through which grosser fluids can pass with ease. Secondly, it is invisible ; it refracts, but does not reflect the rays of light: it is inodorous, through the vehicle of odoriferous particles : it is insipid ; and its physical qua- lities, chiefly, affect us variously. Thirdly, the weight of the air is not perceived but in large quanti- ties ; nor is the comparative weight easily, if at all, to be ascertained, as no two portions are ever of the same weight at different heights in the atmosphere. However, from long and repeated observations, the greatest gravity of the air in Europe is found to be equal, in equilibrio, with thirty inches and half of quicksilver in the barome- ter, and the least raises it only to twenty-seven and half. The weight of the common air about the sur- face of the earth, at the time of the middle weight of the atmos- phere, and in every temperate season, is to that of water as one to 850. Fourthly, the elasticity of the air is one of the properties upon which natural philosophers have made the greatest number of experiments, and it has ever been applied with considerable advan- tage in the arts. Fifthly, air is necessary to animal existence. This is evident from the experi- ments made with the air-pump ; though not without some excep- tions, for toads, vipers, eels, in- sects of all kinds, and fish, live for a time in the exhausted re- ceiver. They cannot indeed live without oxygen, but they expend it slowly, and separate it more per- fectly from the injurious part of the atmosphere. Sixthly, the par- ticles oiair are said to be too small for any microscope to discover, and yet they are supposed to be larger than those of fire, water, oil, and many other fluids, since fire per- vades glass; oil, water, £cc. will pass through many compact sub- stances, whilst air is resisted by strong paper. This argument is, however, fallacious. Seventhly, air is a vehicle of sound, of the objects of taste, of effluvia to the nose, as is evident from observa- tions made on the tops of high mountains, where our senses be- come duller than when we are nearer the plains. Eighthly, it is a part in the composition of all bodies. Ninthly, it cannot be ren- dered of itself solid by any known means. Tenihly, by contact and cohesion in the parts of bodies it becomes solid and unelastic ; but when separated by heat, fermen- tation, Sic. its elasticity returns. Heat ratifies,and cold condenses it. The physical qualities of the air have occasioned numerous disqui- sitions. But extensive inquiries* the comparison of the tables of mortality, experience long con- tinued, have allowed us to draw few conclusions which will bear the test of careful examination. In spring, we find inflammatory complaints ; in autumn, bilious diseases : in every season, fevers, in the commencement inflamma- tory, in the conclusion more or less putrid. To be more particular : Continued cold produces that ten- sion of the fibres, that strong and steady action, which we style in- flammatory diathesis: high situa- tions, with a pure bracing atmos- phere, produce similar effects. These are partly owing to an ex- cess of oxygen, as we shall pre- sently notice ; but, in a great mea- sure, to moderate, continued cold. A previous moist, temperate win- ter, which predisposes to scrophu- lous complaints, will, at this pe- riod, produce the most fatal con- sequences in hectic cases. The fever will increase, the ulceration proceed with rapidity, and the heat of the ensuing summer close AE the scene. Those, however, who are moderately healthy and not peculiarly robust, will find a win- ter, of no extreme cold, healthy ; and the opening spring, expand- ing the fibres, will give a genial glow and new life to every organ. Summer, of course, may produce its own diseases; but, if we pe- ruse the history of epidemics, we shall, with difficulty, trace any particular bad effects of the heat, till the evenings begin to cool, the fruit to be plenty, and the bile to become a conspicuous cause of disease, from its accumulation and excessive discharges. Winter a- gain recurs, and Dr. Heberdcn has endeavoured to show, from the bills of mortality, that it is a fatal sea- son. It may be so in general: old people resist cold with difficulty, and the cararrhus suffocativus, asthma, and similar complaints, are often fatal at this period. In our experience, however, it is not the cold, but the early warmth of spring succeeding cold, which is most injurious : the constitution, braced by cold, cannot bear t!iL sub- sequent relaxation. A long damp summer has had similar effects. Philosophers have taught us how much pressure we bear from the atmosphere ; and of course, from the diminution of that pressure, we shall feci the want of tension or tone which results from the re- moval of any support. Thus, when the air is lighter, wc find a lan- guor come on ; v\ hen heavier, our spirits are more brisk and lively. The whole is not however owing to the absolute weight of the air, but, in part, to its elasticity ; or rather our feelings of health and activity are in the compound ratio of both. Thus, at the height of from 1200 to 2000 feet above the level of the sea, the pressure is greatly diminished; but we feel increased activity, as wo are in general above the re ^ion of clouds, AE and the air is more elastic ; and the languor felt in very high situa- tions, is not uniform or constant; so that it cannot depend on a con- stant cause. During rain,the mer- cury in the barometer is not de- pressed half an inch, yet we teel more languor than on the top 01 mountains, where it has probably fallen from five to ten inches. In other respects the physical properties of the air seem to have little influence : the warmest and longest summers are often heal- thy': the coldest winters, with the exception of accidental inflamma- tory complaints, are the same : the warmest weather, with the dampest fogs, have been followed by no peculiar epidemic It is what Hippocrates long since cal- led the to bio*, something divine or inexplicable, that produces fe- vers and similar diseases; but, be- fore we notice the " divinity that stirs within us," we must add a few remarks on situation, as con- nected with the physical proper- ties of the air. A dry elevated spot, on a gra- velly soil, is said to be most whole- some, especially if sheltered from the east wind. Elevation is however relative ; light clouds float in the atmosphere, about 1600 feet above the level of the sea; and the healthiest spot is said to be some way above this elevation. This ap- pears, however, to be fanciful; and it has not been proved that atmos- pheric moisture alone is inju- rious. In dry gravelly elevated spots, experience has fixed the most salutary residence for con- sumptive cases; yet, in these,oxy- gen seems to abound, which is pe- culiarly injurious in such com- plaints ; and air of a lower quality, as it has been styled, is seemingly as good ; in the opinion of some, preferable. In asthmatic cases, elevated spots are manifestly in- jurious. In fact, theorists may AE AE declaim, but facts give the lie to the most plausible declamations. A change is often necessary ; and from the effects of that change, the conduct proper for each indi- vidual must be ascertained. It is observed by some authors, that vaults, corn-magazines, apple- garrets, &c. should open to the north; for that point is invariably proper: but the south and west are constantly improper. The most healthy exposure, if a house is to be built, is said to be found by cutting one of the trees that grow there transversely with a saw, observing the rings : the side of the tree on which the distances between each ring is widest is the most healthy exposure, and the windows of the house, all other circumstances being the same, should ever face that way. We have mentioned the effects of the east wind in general, and we shall now notice them more particularly, though it cannot be yet determined whether they be- long to the chemical or physical properties of the air. The atmos- phere, while the east winds pre- vail, is lurid; and, even when clear, the sun has not its brilliant hue. The strength is not equal to the usual exertions ; the respi- ration is not free ; the spirits not lively. Asthmatics and hypochon- driacs feel it severely ; yet it is often dry, and, when it rains dur- ing a southeast wind, its fall is frequently periodical, extending only to twelve or twenty-four hours; while the clouds constantly display a promise of fair weather : there is seemingly a perpetual contest between the causes of rain and their antagonists, whatever they may be. As we have now instruments by which the quality of the air may be measured, it might be presum- ed, that these would inform us of the cause of this singular state of the atmosphere. The east wind is not peculiar to any situation, so that it is not injurious from pass- ing over a baleful desert, or a suc- cessive series of marshes; nor does the eudiometer show any particular ingredient which may impair health or induce disease. We have not mentioned this in- strument in our disquisitions re- specting air, as it chiefly informs us of its chemical qualities. As we now approach this subject, we may remark that, in all its forms, the assistance it affords is incon- siderable to the medical chemist. In crowded cities, and the most apparently healthy situations, re- mote from u the busy hum of men," its results are nearly the same. Chemists must decide whether this similarity in the appearances are owing to the imperfection of the instrument, or whether the in- jurious qualities of the air are not cognizable by it. We have now mentioned this instrument to ex- cuse our future silence respecting it. Its forms, however, we shall afterwards describe, as future en- quirers may be more successful. See Eudiometer. We have said that air consists of oxygen and azote in a gaseous state. To this, when we speak more critically, we must add car- bonic acid gas. It has been dis- puted, whether the principal in- gredients are chemically combin- ed, or only mixed mechanically— Neither is true. We cannot in- deed mix oxygenous and azotic gas, so as to form a gaseous fluid, like our atmosphere ; yet they are not chemically united so as to form atertium quid; nor even in the more general sense of the word, so as to produce a substance partaking of their united properties ; as when we mix spirit with water, or dis- solve sugar in any fluid. It seems that the particles are united in their nascent state, and adhere together AE AE tather than form a compound. It appears at first sight singular, that the oxygen which supports life should be in so small a proportion; but the singularity will soon vanish when we reflect, that oxygen alone would be as fatal in the lungs as arsenic in the stomach. It is, li- terally, like fire which warms; but in excess, will burn. This we chiefly mention to explain the in- conveniences arising in hectic and in asthmatic cases, from air too pure : in the latter it stimulates the weak lungs too violently; in the former it adds to the tone and irritability of the vascular system, already too great. The moun- taineer and farmer, who breathe air highly oxygenated, are strong, robust, and active, but scarcely ever fat. Oxygen makes no part of this animal fluid ; and hydrogen and carbone, of which it chiefly consists, do not abound in these regions. Hydrogen, indeed, has been discovered by Saussure on the highest mountains ; but its le- vity carries it beyond human ha- bitations ; it is an extraneous bo- dy, found in air, but not a compo- nent part of it. As its elasticity is inconsiderable,.it certainly con- tributes to the languor experienc- ed in highly elevated situations. The aerial pathology has not yet been successfully cultivated. Man can live and enjoy health from the heat of twenty-eight to one hundred and eight degrees of Fahrenheit. He can exist in a constant fog, where the hygrome- ter proceeds beyond the extreme of humidity; and in air which supports the mercury only at twen- ty-two or twenty-three inches, he is robust and active. The sudden changes are indeed injurious ; but the injuries are often transitory and inconsiderable; or,if severe, producing only temporary and acute diseases. But that our ob- servations respecting the effects of the different airs may be more distinct, it is necessary to enlarge a little on the chemical properties of the different gases. Besides the common, or atmos- pherical air, there are various other sorts, distinguished by their respective characteristics: 1st. Air, fixed or fixable. By Van Hel- mont, it was called gas sylvestre, from being produced in vast quan- tities from the burning of charcoal; from its apparent acid properties, aerial acid, cretaceous aczd, and car- bonic acid ; and fixed air, as readi- ly losing its elasticity, and fixing itself in many bodies. It is an invi- sible, and permanently elastic fluid, superior in gravity to the common atmospheric air, and most other aerial fluids. It consists of twen- ty-eight parts of carbone, and se- venty-two of oxygen, with some caloric, forming about one sixty- sixth of the common atmosphere, though, from its gravity, gene- rally falling to the bottom. It is unfit for respiration ; easily dis- solved in water; exceedingly de- structive to animal life, and pro- duced in great quantities natu- rally from combustible bodies and many chemical processes. It is found at the bottom of pits ; it rises from fermenting liquors ; it is one and a half heavier than pure com- mon air ; water imbibes more than its own bulk of it; flame is extinguished, and animals are de- stroyed, by its influence: when the fixable air is separated from chalk and other calcareous sub- stances, they become caustic, or, as they are now styled, pure : it is antiseptic, powerfully prevent- ing and recovering from putre- faction ; whence lime-kilns, which discharge great quantities of this air, would be useful in the neigh- bourhood of populous towns : in clysters it hath been very advanta- geously administered against pu- trid disorders,and, mixed with the AE AE drink, has been thought to conduce to the relief of patients labouring under putrid fevers. In the form of yeust it has also been administer- ed with good effect in these dis- orders : but though it may be in- troduced into the stomach and in- testines with advantage, if breath- ed into the lungs, it is mortal. To fixable air the chief property of some mineral waters is attributed : the Pyrmont and Seltzer water owe their brisk acidulous taste and sparkling appearance to it; and it dissolves iron in a small pro- portion, when it is mixed with wa- ter. Fixable air hath been found useful in cancerous, consumptive, scorbutic, and other disorders, where an antiseptic medicine might be expected to afford relief. It has not only been considered as antiputrescent, but also lithon- triptic. When the stomach is disordered, carbonic acid air often gives a temporary and an useful stimulus. It is administered unit- ed with water by swallowing kali, or soda, in an effervescing state, or the one immediately after the other, that the effervescence may take place in the stomach. Air, vital; called also dephlo- gisticated, empyreal air, and oxy- genous gas. From a variety of ex- periments, modern philosophers have proved, that in respiration a portion of air is lost; that the first effect produced, is the blood as- suming a vermillion colour, by combining with pure air. The second is to establish a real focus of heat in the lungs, maintained and kept up by the air of respira- tion. See Heat, vital; and Res- piration. Air, inflammable. It isthelight- est of all the aeiform fluids: in general about twelve times lighter than atmospheric air. All animal and vegetable substances, which can be burned in the open air, charcoal excepted, will afford in- flammable air, if heated in close vessels: though this is usually mixed with air of other kinds, with water, and with oleaginous matters. Charcoal, and several metals, afford inflammable air by heat, if water be present. Some metallic substances, during theii solution in acids, afford, or extri- cate inflammable air, which is of the purest kind. The common process for obtaining it is by dis- solving iron filings or shavings in diluted vitriolic acid. It occupies the upper parts of subterraneous caverns ; and has been commonly found in mines and coal-pits, where it is called Fi">- damp, because it is liable to take fire, and explode like gunpowder. When not com- bined with oxygen it extinguishes fire; kills animals as readily as fixable air ; takes fire by the con- tact of the electric spark, provid- ed vital air be present, or any combustible body already in a state of ignition, and burning with a brilliant flame. If about two parts by measure, of inflammable air, and one of vital air, are mixed to- gether, and set on fire in a vessel strongly closed, which may be done by the electric spark, the air, if pure, will almost totally disap- pear, and the product be water, and an acid. It holds about half its weight of water in solution, which imparts to it a disagreea- ble odour ; is absorbed by vegeta- bles, and becomes a component part of their oils and resins. The sulphureous, the muriatic, and some other acids assume the form of air : but as they are nei- ther found in the atmosphere, nor applied to medical purposes, they form no part of the present sub- ject. Nitrous air, or nitrogenous gas, or azotic gas, forms an object of considerable importance in che- mistry and medicine. It is fatal, when alone, to animal life ; though, A& AYi in combination, highly advanta- geous to it. This gas, we have seen, forms a large proportion of atmospheric air ; and the gaseous nitrous oxide produces effects in respiration highly animating and stimulant. It is also the distin- guishing ingredient of animal sub- stances ; the principle of animal- isation. , # Nitrogen gas, or the mephitic air of former authors, is very ex- tensively diffused. Its specific gravity is inconsiderable, for it is lighter than atmospheric air, in the proportion of 985 to 1000. Nitrogen, with caloric, forms this gas; and, with different propor- tions of oxygen, the nitrous acid in its various forms. With the full proportion of oxygen, it forms the nitric acid, the aqua-fortis of the shops : with a less proportion it becomes nitrous acid, with still less nitrous gas; and with a very small quantity the nitrous oxide. Nitrogenous gas is neither acid nor soluble in water; and the ni- trous gas is employed as a test of the purity of air in the eudiometer, q. v. If the air contains oxygen, it thus changes the gas into nitrous acid ; and a larger proportion of the acid is formed when the oxy- gen is more abundant; while, with impure air no change is produced. In medicine it has scarcely been employed : it is said to be antisep- tic, and to kill worms, but expe- rience has neglected to register its effects, or has disregarded it. The nitrous oxide is heavier than air, and soluble in double its quan- tity of water. The taste it im- parts is sweet, and the odour agreeable, though slight. Com- bustible bodies, at a high tempera- ture, decompose this oxide ; and it unites with alkalis, though not with acids. In fact, if an acid, it is the lowest in the scale, and to dispute whether it be so, is to con- rend with air. Its effects on res- piration are singular. It is said to animate the person who breathes it to a degree little inferior to phrensy : the sensations produced are highly pleasurable, and no languor follows. Though much must be allowed to the enthusiasm of a discoverer, and to the experi- ence of effects wholly new and unexpected, yet very pleasing sen- sations have been undoubtedly felt on its being inhaled. To what these are owing has not been as- certained. A slight reflection will show, that though life is really sustained by oxygen, yet this air is not proper for breathing for any continued period. The pleasure excited by fresh air does not arise from the oxygen, for it is not in- creased, or at least to an inconsi- derable extent, in proportion to the quantity contained in the air breathed. Why azote, that is alone fatal to life, should be the neces- sary ingredient, is not clear. The great principle of distinction of animal substances, chemically con- sidered, is indeed azote : this principle, so copious in these, is found in a small proportion, and only in particular parts, of the vegetable kingdom ; and it is the great pr.oblem in the function of animalisation, to discover the sources of the azote. May it not then be the air, and may not the animal system feel a peculiar plea- sure in the supply of this princi- ple, which must neutralise, or as- similate, the vegetable food ? It is not an improbable supposition, but it has escaped us, if it has been noticed by any former physiologist. Air, in so many various ways injured, viz. by bveathing, by burn- ing bodies, Etc. is restored by ma- ny means ; a few of which only have been discovered. Plants ab- sorb carbonic acid gas, and restore, in their turn, a pure air ; and thus combining with azote, may, im- perceptibly to otir senses, renu- AE AE vate the atmosphere. Wc may thus account for the different re- sult of the experiments of philo- sophers, some of whom have dis- covered that plants exhale pure air, while others deny it. Inflam- mable air seeks the upper regions of the atmosphere, and is destroy- ed in the meteoric explosions, when too copious ; while the por- tion arrested in its progress con- tributes, as we have said, to the production of the oils and resins of vegetables. Thus nature very completely restores the various changes in the constitution of our atmosphere, which the different processes con- stantly going on may, in her regu- lar course, have occasioned. Yet the air is accused as the cause of numerous diseases; and it really is so. Sudden cold checking the perspiration, will apparently pro- duce almost every form of the py- rexiae. Partial cold will produce rheumatisms; damp air, catarrhs; and in old people those defec- tions which are called humoural asthmas, and catarrhi suffocativi. The continued heat of summer oc- casions bilious disorders ; and the cold of winter a return of the more active inflammations. The air is, however, chiefly a vehicle of inju- rious effluvia ; some of which only can be ascertained. Marsh mias- mata, as they are styled by patho- logists, are the cause of numerous intermittent and remittent fevers, as well as those apparently of a more continued form. It has been ascertained, that a clayey soil, when moistened, will attract the oxygen of the air, and leave its azotic part not sufficient- ly guarded to support the vis vitae ; and it is found that districts be- come unhealthy chiefly when the earth begins to appear, in conse- quence of a diminution of the wa- ter. It is singular, that Linnaeus, "'ith a view to prove the cause of intermittents to be an argillaceous earth, has traced very minutely the prevalence of intermittents in clayey countries ; a circum- stance which may be explained from the views just assigned. To this diminution of the oxygen must be added a larger and unusual pro- portion of inflammable air from the parts of marshes still covered by water. To these conjoined causes many epidemics are owing: and when the changes in the phy- sical properties of the air appear to produce fevers, they act only as exciting causes of these mias- mata, in a manner to be afterwards explained. See Infection and Epidemics. It is not found that an unusual proportion of fixed air is injuri- ous : it falls to the lowest strata of the atmosphere; and, whatever be the quantity, it is apparently absorbed. The very extensive diffusion of catarrhs and other epidemics, of small-pox, measles. Sec. are from causes combined with the air, and no part of the atmosphere. The contagion of putrid fevers, viz. the contagion conveyed by the patient, or by the medium of the attendant's clothes, are substances combined with the air which the nicest instruments have not yet been able to detect, though much may be expected from the persevering ardour of modern experimental philoso- phers. Aerology, from a»p,c^'r, and Myer, sermo, a treatise on air ; or that branch of physical science where- in the history and phenomena of gases or permanently elastic fluids are systematically treated of. Aerostation, the science of ga- ses as applicable to the construc- tion and elevation of balloons. A balloon may be considered as a bubble rising in the atmosphere, just as a bubble ascends in water. These bubbles or balloons are AE AE constructed in two ways: 1. Of common atmospherical air, so much rarefied by heat as to rise by its specific levity through the sur- rounding space of denser atmos- phere, until it finds its region of equilibrium above. 2. Of hydro- genous gas, or inflammable air, which is naturally possessed of so small a degree of specific gra- vity as to mount aloft with the up- most ease. Many curious aerial voyages have been made with these machines, which have tend- ed in some degree to enlarge our knowledge of this branch of phy- sics. In France, where they were invented, there has been establish- ed at Meudon an aerostatical school for instructing young men in the use and economy of balloons for military purposes. It was suppos- ed they might be employed suc- cessfully in reconnoiteringan ene- my's camp. Aerologice, that part of medi- cine which treats of air, explains its properties and use in the ani- mal economy, and its efficacy in preserving and restoring health. Aerophobi, from «»if, air, and 0o- £©*, fear. According to Coelius Aurelianus, some phrenetic pa- tients are afraid of a lucid, and others of an obscure air ; and these he calls aerophobi. Aerophobia, a symptom of the phrenitis ; also a name of the Hy- drophobia. Mrugo, the rust of any metal, But particularly of copper, which, when reduced to a rust by means of vinegar, is called verdigrise. The College have retained verdi- grise in their Pharmacopeia ; it enters the oxymel aeruginis, a composition standing instead of the mel aegyptiacum. ASsculus, horse-chesnut. It is a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates two species. M-xtrtrm Vcnrrenv-. The venere- al orgasm, or the pleasant sensa- tion experienced during coition. Mstuarium, sestuary, or stoves for conveying heat to all parts of the body at once; a kind of va- pour-bath. Amb. Parey calls an instrument thus, which he de- scribes for conveying heat to any particular part; and Palmarius De Morb. Contag. gives a contri- vance under this name for sweat- ing the whole body. Stoves, for preserving tender exotic plants from inclement seasons, are also so named ALstuatio, the boiling up, or ra- ther the fermenting of liquors when mixed. ASstus Volaticus, sudden heat, which soon goes off, but which for a time reddens the face Vo- gel and Cullen place this word as synonymous with Phlogo.si.s-, or external inflammation. Sauvage ranks it as a vari'. ty of the erythe- matous inflammation. Mther, «tfl>jp, a supposed fine, fluid, subtile substance or medium, much rarer than air, and every way diffused in the interstellar spaces. An ether, endowed with all the properties an ingenious philosopher could require, might help to explain many phenomena of nature, and has for this pur- pose been adapted by Sir Isaac Newton, and offered as the imme- diate cause of gravity. Mther, a liquor obtained by dis- tillation from a mixture of pure alcohol and concentrated vitriolic acid. Its chief properties are, that it is lighter, more volatile, and more inflammable than the most highly rectified spirit of wine. It dissolves oils and oily matters with great ease and rapi- dity. If a small quantity of ether be added to a solution of gold in aqua regis, and the whole shaken together, the gold separates from the aqua regis, joins the ether,and remains dissolved therein. As a AB AG medicine it is said to be highly penetrating, discutient, and ano- dyne in r.ervous spasms, and such like complaints. Mthiofis Mineralis, aethiops mi- neral, so called from its colour, which is like aAa^, a blackmoor, from aiflw, to burn, and u^, the countenance. It is a preparation made with equal parts of sulphur and quicksilver, and is called, in the new Pharmacopeia, Hydrar- gyrus cum Sulphure. AEthiops Vegetabilis, vegetable aethiops. It is produced by burn- ing the spa-wrack (Fucus vesicu- losus, Lin.) in the open air, by which it is reduced to a black powder. The soap boilers call it Kelp. Mthna, subterraneous, invisible, sulphureous fire, which calcines rocks in the earth. The igneous meteors about burning mountains are called Ethnici. Mtia, ouTix, the cause of a dis- temper. Mtiologia, aetiology, from «m«, a cause, and hoy®*, a discourse, a discourse or treatise on the causes of distempers, and their symp- toms. Mtites, eagle-stone, also called Lapis aquila, so called, because it is said to be found in an eagle's nest. According to Edwards's Elements of Fosdlogy, it is of the class of earths ; the genus is clay; and it, with the Geode, may rank under a species which may be warned figured clay. It is a round- ish stone of the pebble kind, lrom the size of a hazfL.ut to that of a walnut, with a hollow in it, in which is a smaller stone, loose, and that rattles when shaken ; it is gene- rally of a dark russet, or of an ash colour. They are found among gravel in many countries, but the best comes from the East-Indies. Affection, is applied on many occasions where the name of the disicniper is put adjectively, as hypocortdrical affection, and the like. This term is also some- times used in physics, much in the same sense as properties, as the affections of matter are those properties with which it is natural- ly endued. ' Affinity. Attraction. Elective attraction. A term used by che- mists, to denote the continual ten- dency to bring principles together, which are disunited ; and to re- tain, with more or less energy, those which are already in com- bination. There are two kinds of affinity or attraction distinguished by chemists. 1. The affinity of aggregation, which is the power that causes two homogeneous bo- dies to tend towards each other, and to cohere after they are unit- ed : thus two drops of water unite into one, and form an aggregate, of which each drop is known by the name of an integrant part. 2. The affinity of composition. This is that affinity from which new combinations result: thus bodies of different kinds exert a tendency or attraction upon each other, which is more or less strong ; and it is by virtue of this force that all the changes of composition and decomposition observed amongst them are effected. Agalactia. A defect of milk in child-bed ; from a, priv. and y<*Kxa milk. Agaricus, agaric, or mushroom, a genus in Linnaeus's botany ; of the order of Fungi. He enume- rates twenty-eight species. Agaricus Quercus, agaric of the oak. It is the Boletus Igniarius of Linnaeus. From its" readiness to catch fire it is called touchwood. It grows in the form of an horse's hoof; externally it is of a dusky ash colour, and internally of a dusky red ; it is soft and tough. It is said that the best grows on oak trees, but that which is found on other trees is generally as good. AI It hath been extolled for prevent- ing haemorrhages after amputa- tions, but, as a styptic, it does not appear to excel dry lint. Agate. It is a genus in the or- der of Quartz. It is a quartzose stone, which possesses all the cha- racters of flint; accompanied with an elegant and delicate appearance. Agave, American aloe, a genus in Linnaeus's botany- He enume- rates four species. The species called agave Americana was first brought into Europe by Cortusus, A. D. 1651. Age, one life, one hundred years, or a certain stage of life. The an- cients reckoned six stages of life, viz. Pueritia, childhood, which is the fifth year of our age ; Adoles- centia, youth, reckoned to the eighteenth, and youth properly so called to the twenty-fifth year; Ju- ventus, reckoned from the twenty- fifth to the thirty-fifth year; Virilis etas, manhood, from the thirty- fifth to the fiftieth year; Scnectus, old age, from fifty to sixty ; Cre- pita etas, decrepit age, which ends in death. Agent, is improperly sometimes attributed to menstruums, or such bodies as, in mixture, have the greatest share of motion. Agheustia, from a, priv. and yivt- pett, taste, want or loss of taste. In Dr. Cullen's Nosology it is a genus in the order Dysesthesie, and class Locales. The causes are fever or palsy. This word some- times signifies a fast, or fasting. Ague. Intermitting fever, whe- ther there is a cold fit or not, is of no great moment as to the inten- tions of cure, that being more ac- cidental than essential hereunto; although indeed the term ague, if from algor, coldness, as some will have it, is applicable only where the cold fit is sensible. Air. It is generally understood to be that fluid in which we breathe, and which covers the earth to a AL great height. Beaume defines it to be an invisible, colourless, in- sipid, inodorous, weighty, elastic fluid, susceptible of rarefaction and condensation, and affecting none of our senses, unless it be that of the touch. Aix la Chapelle. The medical water at this place is volatile, sul- phureous, and saponaceous, pow- erfully penetrating and resolvent; it contains a very small portion of iron. Of the three European hot waters of note, viz. that of Aix la Chapelle, Bourbon, and Bath, the first is the hottest, most nauseous, and purgative : the Bath is the least possessed of these qualities. Ajava. So the Portuguese call a seed which is brought from Malabar, and is celebrated in the East-Indies as a remedy in the cholic. When the gout affects the stomach, these seeds are very effectual in dispelling wind, and procuring speedy relief from this painful disorder. Dr. Percival takes notice of th?se seeds in his Essays Med. and Exper. vol. ii. Al, the Arabian article which signifies the: it is applied to a word by way of eminence, as the Greek '> is. The Eastern express the superlative by adding God thereto, as the mountain of God, for the highest mountains ; and it is probable that Al relates to the word Alia, God ; so alchemy may be the chemistry of God, or the most exalted perfection of chemi- cal science. Ala, a wing. In botany it is the hollow of a stalk which the leaf or pedicle makes therewith, and whence a new offspring usually puts forth. Sometimes it means the little branches, as when we say the stocks or stems are made with many ale, because branches grow from the stock as so many ale, or wings. The petala of papilionaceous flowers placed between the vex- AL AL ilium and the carina, are called ale. It is used to express the folia- ceous membranes which run the whole length of the stem, whence it is called caulis alatus, a winged stem. It is used to signify the slender membranaceous parts of some seeds, such as are observed in the fruit of the maple, &c. Ala Nasi, or Pinna Nasi, the cartilages which are joined to the extremities of the bones of the nose, and which form its lower moveable part. Ala Auris, or Pinna Auris. It is the upper part of the external ear. Alabastrum, alabaster, a species Of the genus of Gypsum that is of a solid structure : some pieces are transparent, others opake ; some white, others yellow. It takes its name from the name of a town in Egypt, near which it was found. The ancients made great use of it for boxes to con- tain their precious ointments or perfumes. Alaris Vena, the inner of the three veins in the bend ef the arm. Alati. Those who have promi- nent scapulae are so called. Alati Processus, the wing-like processes of the Os Sphenoides. Albuginea Tunica. The inner proper coat of the testicle is thus named, from its white and trans- parent colour. It is a strong, thick, white membrane, smooth on the outward surface, rough, and une- ven on the inner: into the upper part of this membrane are insert- ed the blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, which send branches into the testicles. This coat be- ing distended, causes that pain which is felt when the testes are inflamed, or in the Hernia tumor- alis. Albuginose Humour. So the aqueous humour of the eye hath been called. Albugo Oculorum, the white speck on the eyes. The Greeks named it Leucoma; the Latins, Albugo, Nebula, and Nubecula; some ancient writers have called it Pterygium, Pennus Oculi, Onyxf Unguis, and AZgides. It is a va- riety of Cullen's Caligo Cornea. With us it hath various appella- tions, as a cicatrice, film, haw, a dragon, pearl, &c. Some distin- guish this disorder by Nubecula when it is superficial; and Albugo when it is deep. Others make the following distinctions, viz. when the speck is of a shining white, and without pain, it is cal- led a cicatrice; when of an opake whiteness, an albugo ; seated su- perficially, it hath been called a speck ; and more deeply, a dra- gon ; if an abscess was the cause, its contents hardening between the laminae of the cornea, causes it to project a little, and then it is called a pearl. Album Alvi Prqfluvium, the Mu- cous Diarrhoea. Album (Bals.) i. e. Balsam Ca- fiivi. Album Grecum, the white dung of dogs. It was formerly applied as a discutient, to the inside of the throat, in quinsies, being first mixed with honey. Albumen, Albumor, white of an Alburnum,from albus, white,the softer and paler part of wood next the bark ; artificers call it the sap, to distinguish it from the heart, which is deeper coloured and har- der. Some call this Adeps Arbo- rum. Alcahest, an Arabic word to ex- press an universal dissolvent, which was pretended to by Para- celsus and Helmont. Some say that Paracelsus first used this word, and that it is derived from the German words al and geeat., AL i. e. all spirit. Von Helmont bor- rowed the word, and appiied it to his invention which he called the universal dissolvent. If Helmont had an universal dissolvent, what held it ? Alcahest, a name of the liquor of flints. Alchemy, that branch of che- mistry which had for its principal objects the transmutation of all the metals into gold ; the panacea, or universal remedy for all dis- eases ; and the alkahest, or uni- versal menstruum. Those who pursued these delusive projects, gradually assumed the form of a sect, under the name of Alche- mists, a term made up of the word chemist, and the Arabian article al, as a prefix. The alchemists laid it down as a first principle, that all metals are composed of the same ingredients, or that the substances at least which compose gold exist in all metals, and are capable of being obtained from them. The great object of their researches was to convert the baser metals into gold. The sub- stance which produced this pro- perty they called lapis philosopho- rum, « the philosophers' stone;" and many of them boasted that they were in possession of that grand instrument. The alche- mists were established in the west of Europe as early as the ninth century; but between the eleventh and fifteenth alchemy was in its most flourishing state. The prin- cipal alchemists were Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Arnoldus de Villa Nova, Raymond Lully, and the two Isaacs of Holland. Alcohol. It is an Arabian word, much used in chemistry, signify- ing an impalpable powder, which the eastern women used as a kind of paint for their faces, or other- wise as an improvement to their complexions. As this powder, being an impalpable one, was cal- AL led alcohol, this name was given to other subtile powders : so the name was applied by chemists to the purely spirituous part of li- quors that have undergone the vi- nous fermentation. It is in all cases the product of the saccharine prin- ciple, and is formed by the suc- cessive processes of vinous fer- mentation and distillation. Vari- ous kinds of ardent spirits are known in commerce, as brandy, rum, &c; but they differ in colour, taste, smell, Sec. The spirituous part, however, is the same in each, and may be procured in its purest state by a second distillation, which is termed rectification. See Dis- tillation, Fermentation, and Recti- fication. Alcohol is procured most largely in England from a fer- mented grain-liquor; but in France and other wine countries, the spi- rit is obtained from the distilla- tion of wine ; hence the term spi- rit of wine. See Brandy. Alco- hol is a colourless, transparent liquor, appearing to the eye like pure water. It possesses a pe- culiar penetrating smell, distinct from the proper odour of the dis- tilled spirit from which it is pro- cured. To the taste it is exces- sively hot and burning ; but with- out any peculiar flavour. From its lightness, the bubbles which are formed by shaking, subside al- most instantaneously, which is one method of judging of its purity. Alcohol may be volatilized by the heat of the hand. It is converted into vapour at the temperature of 55° of Fahrenheit, and it boils at 165°. It has never been frozen by any degree of cold, natural or ar- tificial, and on this account it has been much used in the construc- tion of thermometers. Alcohol mixes with water in all propor- tions, and during the mixture heat is extricated, which is sensible to the hand. At the same time there is a mutual penetration of the AL AL parts, so that the bulk of the two liquors when mixed is less than when separate : consequently the specific gravity of the mixture is greater than the mean specific gravity of the two liquors taken apart. Alcohol is supposed to Consist of Carbon.............28.53 Hydrogen........ 7.87 Water..............63.6 100.00 Itsuses are many and important: it is employed as a solvent for those resinpus gums which form the ba- sis of numerous varnishes : it is employed also as the basis of arti- ficial cordials and liquors, to which a flavour and additional taste are given by particular admixtures : it serves as a solvent for the more active parts of vegetables, under the form of tinctures. The anti- septic power of alcohol renders it particularly valuable in preserv- ing particular parts of the body as anatomical preparations. The steady and uniform heat which it gives during combustion, makes it a valuable material for burning in lamps. Alembicus. This word is half Arabic and half Greek. From the Arabic particle al, and upGii;, which is again derived from u^Gse- tvu, for tt,ixQa,»a, to ascend. Seneca calls it in the Latin language, mi- liarium; in English it is called alembic and moor's-head. It is a copper cap tinned in the inside, made like a head ; to this the pipe (before worms were contrived) which passes through a tub of cold water, was fixed, to receive the vapour from the vessel containing the matters to be distilled, and to convey it to the receiver. This head is properly the alembic, and is called alembicus roslratus, i. e. the beaked alembic, to distinguish it from alembicus ccecus, or blind alembic, which is without a canal, as it is to receive dry substances that arc sublimed into it. The still-head is properly an alembic. Alepensia, a species of ash-tree which produces manna. Alexipharmaca, alcxipharmics, from &>&%u, to repel or drive av.'uy, and e$a>, and rrpsu, preser- vative from contagion. Hippo- crates used the word to express help, or remedies ; but latter wri- ters use it to express remedies against the poisonous bites of ani- mals. By Castellus this word is considered as synonymous with Alexipharmaca. Alga, Fucus marinus, sea-oak, sea-wrack, sea-weed. One of the most common species, called Fu- cus vesiculosus, hath been used calcined : it is then called Mthiops vegetabilis. Alga marina, Zostera marina. Linnaei. It is gathered on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, to be burnt to ashes for the mak- ing of soap, glass, &c. Alge, one of the seven families or tribes in the vegetable king- dom, defined by Linnaeus to be such as have their root, leaves, and caudex, or stem, all in one, comprehending sea-weeds, and some other aquatic plants. In Tournefort they constitute the se- cond genus of the second section of class xvii. and are divided into AL AL nine species. In the Systema Na- ture of Linnaeus they constitute the third order in the class Cryp- togamia, and are divided into Ter- restres and Aquatice; the first comprehending eight genera, and the latter four. AUenatio Mentis, i. e. Delirium. Aliformis (Processus)i. e. Pte- rygo'ides Processus, from wrtpvii, ala, a wing, and Mot, forma, the shape. Aliformes Musculi, the muscles arising from the pterygoi'de bone, and ending in the neck of the lower jaw, and towards the inter- nal seat of the head. Aliment, nourishment, includes all that is taken in, as meat or drink, from whence nourishment is expected. Alkali, in chemistry, a word ap- plied to all bodies that possess the following properties : they change vegetable blue colours, as that of an infusion of violets, to green : they have an acrid and peculiar taste : they serve as intermedia between oils and water : they are capable of combining with acids, and of destroying their acidity: they corrode woollen cloth, and, if the solution be sufficiently strong, reduce it to jelly': and they are soluble in water. The alkalies at present known are three ; viz. am- monia, potash, and soda; the two last are called fixed alkalies, be- cause they require a red heat to volatilize them; the other is de- nominated volatile alkali, because it readily assumes a gaseous form, and is dissipated by a very mode- rate degree of heat. Barytes, strontian, lime, and magnesia, have been denominated alkalies by Four- croy; but as they possess the strik- ing character of earths in their fixity, this innovation does not 9eem entitled to general adoption. Since writing the above, some discoveries of great importance, on the subject of alkalies, have been made known to the philoso- phical world by Mr. Davy, Pro- fessor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution. We shall in this place give a sketch of the two pa- pers which he has just laid before the Royal Society, referring to some subsequent articles for fur- ther particulars. In a formerdis- course read before this learned body, Mr. Davy, in speaking of the agencies of electricity, suggest- ed the probability that other bo- dies not then enumerated might be decomposed by the electric fluid. In the course of the sum- mer of 1808, this celebrated philo- sopher was employed in making a number of experiments with this particular view, and by means of . very powerful galvanic troughs, consisting of a hundred pair of plates, six inches square, and one hundred and fifty pair four inches square, he has succeeded in de- composing potash and soda. A more brilliant discovery has not been made since those which have immortalized the names of Priest- ley and Cavendish. This was ef- fected by placing moistened pot- ash, or soda, on a plate of platina, and exposing it to the galvanic cirele. Oxygen was disengaged, and the alkalies reduced to their primitive base, which is found t<$ be a peculiar and highly-inflam- mable matter, and which assumes the form and appearance of small globules of mercury. These glo- bules are, however, lighter than water, and when potash is used, they are in the proportion of six to ten. At the freezing point they are hard and brittle ; and when broken, and examined by a mi- croscope, they present a number of facettes with tho appearance of crystallization : at 40° Fahrenheit they are soft, and can scarcely be discriminated but by their gravity from globules of mercury ; at 60' they are fluid, aud at the small AL AL heat of 100° volatile. When ex- posed to the atmosphere, they ra- pidly imbibe oxygen, and reassume the alkaline character. In distil- led naptha they may be preserved four or five days, but if exposed to the atmosphere, they almost in- stantly become incrusted with a coat of alkali : the incrustation may be removed, and the reduced globule will remain, either in nap- tha, or otherwise separated from all contact with oxygen. See Bi- tumen. One part of the base of alkali and two of mercury, estimated by bulk, form an amalgam, which when applied in the circle of a galvanic battery, producing an in- tense heat, to iron, silver, gold, or platina, immediately dissolved them, and converted them into oxides, in which process alkali was regenerated. Glass, as well as all other metallic bodies, was also dissolved by the application of this substance : the base of the alkali seizing the oxygen of the manganese and of the minium, potash was regenerated. One of these globules placed on a piece of ice dissolved it, and burnt with a bright flame, giving out an in- tense heat. Potash was found in the product of the dissolved ice. Nearly the same effects followed, when a globule was thrown into water: in both cases a great quan- tity of hydrogen was rapidly libe- rated. When laid on a piece of moistened tumeric paper, the glo- bule seemed instantly to acquire an intense heat; but so rapid was its movement in quest of the mois- ture, that no part of the paper was burnt, only an intense deep red stain marked the course it follow- ed, and showed a reproduction of alkali. The specific gravity of the base of soda is as seven to ten of water: it is fixed in a temperature of about 150°, and fluid at 180°. Mr. Davy next tried its effects on the phosphates, phosphurets, anJt many other salts of the first and second degree of oxydizement, all of which it decomposed, seizing their oxygen, and reassuming its alkaline qualities. From many experiments it appears, that 100 parts of potash contain 15 of oxy- gen and 85 of an inflammable base, and that the same quantity of soda contains 20 of oxygen and 80 base. This ingenious chemist, after a. great number of complex experi- ments, in which he was assisted by Messrs. Pepys and Allen, as- certained that oxygen is also an essential ingredient in ammonia ; of which 100 grains appeared to yield 20 of oxygen. Mr. Davy has also found that oxygen is one of the constituent principles of the muriatic and fluoric acids, and likewise of the earths, barytes and strontites. See Chemistry, Pot- ash, and Soda. Alkali (Salfixum), Potash, the common fixed vegetable alkali, ob- tained from such burnt vegetables as are not impregnated with sea- salt. This species is called, in the new Pharmacopeia, Kali. Alkali, (Fossil), Soda, a genus in the order of Alkalies. It rea- dily shoots into crystals of a rhom- bic form. This alkali is called, in the new Pharmacopeia, Natron. Alkali (Volatile) Ammoniac, a genus in the order of Alkalies, of a pungent smell, which wholly sublimes in no great degree of heat; and readily strikes a blue colour, with a salt of copper. Vo- latile alkali is discovered not only in most parts of the clays, but likewise in the sublimations at Sol- fatara, near Naples. This alkali is called, in the new Pharmaco- peia, Ammonia. Alkalies. They are apparently formed by synthesis during the decomposition of organized sub- stances by high heat. Alkalies are of two kinds, salts and earths. AL AL The salts are of three sorts, pot- ash, soda, and ammoniac. Potash is formed during the combustion of wood, timber, and generally speaking, of upland vegetables. Soda is produced by the incinera- tion of glaswort, sea-weeds, and maratime plants. And ammoniac is evolved during the exposure of many animal and vegetable sub- stances to a distilling heat. Al- kaline earths are of four species, lime,magnesia, barytes,and stron- tian ; the two former of which are very plentiful in nature, and the two latter exist in compara- tively small quantities. Their fi- nal cause in nature is evidently to repress and neutralize that pre- dominating acidity which would otherwise overwhelm the earth ; and thereby to produce neutral and middle salts. In a particular manner they are capable of resist- ing the dangerous progress of the septic acid abounding in pesti- lential or infectious air, and there- by preventing the mischief which would otherwise ensue. Hence alkalies may be termed the great safeguards of creation ; keeping putrefactive and other acidity with- in proper limit and restraint. Al- kaline salts are more powerful than the earths. They have stronger at- tractions and greater activity. Alkaline salts, more especially potash and soda, are the greatest detergents or purifiers which are known. They cleanse garments and every thing else which is con- taminated with common nastiness, infection and contagion, and either neutralize them, or carry them clean off. Hence they are em- ployed as the principal and active ingredient in soaps; and are so signally active in the form of lix- ivia or leys. Without their aid in overcoming and removing per- sonal nuisances, human life would suffer excessively by foulness and infection. Alkaline salts, too, are the most powerful antiseptics with which we are acquainted. Potash is re- markable for removing tainted and fetid odours, and for keeping animal substances sweet, entire, and free from decay. Soda was employed by the ancient Egyp- tians to envelope and penetrate the bodies of the dead during the process of embalming. And am- moniac is sufficiently known to possess a like antiseptic quaiity. Lime, too, in the great straut of the mountains and plains of the earth, evinces its wonderful anti- septic virtue, by preserving with- in its embrace the remains of ani- mals and vegetables fiom an older date than any other monuments which exist. Petrifactions of all kinds, as old as the everlasting hills, are powerful and instructive proofs of the antiseptic quality of lime. Alkalies are admirable reme- dies in dysentery. Administered by the mouth, they neutralize, in their passage through the alimen- tary canal, the septic acid which is its exciting cause ; and inject- ed in clysters, they allay tenesmus like a charm. In both cases they mitigate pain, allay spasmodic ac- tion, and restore and equalize the peristaltic motion. They effec- tually prevent the fetor and infec- tion of the stools. They are excellent helps in sur- gery. Many foul ulcers are very much benefited by their applica- tion with the dressings in weak watery solution. Experiments having proved, that, in foul and degenerate ulcers, of the common as well as of the syphylitic, can- cerous and scrophulous kinds, the matter secreted on their surfaces degenerates to a venomous acid; the propriety of alkaline dres^ngs will be instantly apparent. These and other properties of alkalies have been treated of in Dr. Mit- AL AL chill's Essays, published in the several volumes of the Medical Repository of New-York. Alkalies, in Natural History, are an order in the class of salts. They are salts of a peculiar taste, changing the purple juices of vegetables into a green colour. They are farther known by their vehement attraction to acids. Alkalis. A term given to sub- stances, which possess an acrid, burning, urinous smell ; convert syrup of violets to a green colour ; render oils miscible with water ; and effervesce with certain acids : from kali, a plant so called, from which alkali is obtained. Seeite- rilla. Alkanet, Anchusa tinctoria, Lin. This root is in common use for the purpose of imparting a deep red colour to oil, wax, and unc- tuous substances. Allium. Garlick. Allium sati- vum of Linnaeus. It is a native of Sicily ; but as it is much used both for culinary and medicinal purposes, it is cultivated in our gardens. Every part of the plant, but more especially the root, has a pungent taste, and a peculiarly offensive smell. The medicinal uses of garlick are various ; it is given as an expectorant in pitui- tous asthmas. Its utility as a di- uretic in dropsies is very consi- derable. It is also esteemed as an antihelmintic ; and the decoc- tion of the beards of leeks is of infinite service in calculous and gravelly complaints. The syrup and oxymel of garlick are expung- ed from our Pharmacopeias, as the swallowing of the root in small pieces is considered the best way of administering it.—From i. to ii. chives. Allspice, i. e. Myrtus Pimenia. Aimond. See Amygdalus. Almonds of the throat, impro- perly called the almonds of the ears. See Tonsilla. As they are subject to inflammation, they fre- quently are the seat of the sore- throat. Aloes. The deep red or brown and very bitter juice of the Aloe perfoliata of Linnaeus. Aloes are distinguished into three species— 6occotrinealoes, hepatic aloes, and cabaline aloes ; these differ only in their respective degrees of pu- rity, the first being the best. They are obtained in the following man- ner : deep incisions are made, from which the juice flows; this is decanted from its fecula, and thickened by the sun's heat, in which state it is packed in leather bags, under the denomination of soccotrine aloes. The juice obtain- ed by pressure from the leaves, after it is purified by standing, and dried, is the hepatic aloes. The same leaves,by stronger pres- sure, afford more juice, which, mixed with the dregs of the two foregoing, constitutes the cabaline aloes. The first sort contains a much less quantity of resin than the two last, which are more strongly purgative. Aloes is es- teemed the best laxative for wo- men with suppressed catamenia., and is much employed as an anti- helmintic. Several preparations of this drug are directed in the London and Edinburgh Pharma- copeias.—Emmenagogue grs. iii. to x. Cathartic Bss. to 9ii. Alopecia, baldness, or the fal- ling off of the hair, from <**a»'a-»?|, a fox, because the fox is subject to a distemper that resembles it; or, as some say, because the fox's urine will occasion baldness. Alphus. Vitiligo alba. Morphea alba. Lepra maculose alba. A species of leprosy, in which white spots appear upon the skin. It is produced by a peculiar miasma, which is endemial to Arabia: esTupoj, from a*p«»»«, to change ; because it changes the colour of the skin. AL AM Alterantia, alteratives, or alter- ing medicines, are such as have no immediate sensible operation, but gradually gain upon the con- stitution, by changing it from a state of distempcrature to health. See Cathartics. Althea, from «a6i«, to heal, marsh-mallow. Althea officinalis of Linnaeus. The gluten or mu- cilaginous matter with which this plant abounds, is the medicinal part of the plant; it is commonly employed for its emollient and de- mulcent qualities, in coughs, hoarseness, and catarrhs. The root had formerly a place in many of the compounds in the Pharma- copeias, but now it is only direct- ed in the form of syrup. Aludel, a chemical subliming vessel. They are without bottoms, and fitted into one another, a6 ma- ny as there is occasion for ; at the bottom is a pot that holds the mat- ter to be sublimed, and at the top there is a head to retain the flow- ers that rise up. Alumen, alum ; a genus of earthy salt, in the order of earthy neutral salts. It consists of the vitriolic acid, and a clayey earth ; it changes the purple juices of vegetables into a red colour. It is of very extensive use in medi- cine and surgery, as an adstrin- gent. Internally it is given in haemoptoc, diarrhaea, and dysen- tery. Externally it is applied as a styptic to bleeding vessels, and to ulcers where there is too copious a secretion of pus.—grs. iv. to xx. Alumina, or Alumine, is a term in M. Fourcroy's Elements of Natural History and Chemistry, for the earth of alum, base of alum, or pure clay. Aluta ALgyptia, the same as Aluta, leather so prepared as to be fit to spread plasters on. Aluta Montana, a species of leather-stone ; it is soft and plia- ble, and not of a laminated struc- ture. Alvearium, from alveare, a bee- hive. The bottom of the concha, or hollow of the external ear; it terminates in the meatus audito- rius. It is in this cavity where the ear-wax is principally lodged. Alveoli, the sockets in the jaws in which the teeth are set. There are usually sixteen of these alveoli in each jaw of an adult. Alveus. Medicinally it is ap- plied to many tubes or canals, through which some fluid flows, particularly to ducts which con- vey the chyle from the receptacle thereof to the subclavian vein. Alvus, the abdomen ; but in a more limited and strict sense, it expresses rather the condition of the bowels ; as when a person is laxative it is called Alvus liquida ; when costive Alvus dura ; and when very costive Alvus adstricta. Alyce, oXvki), anxiety, that anx- iety which is attendant on fevers. Alypum, from a priv. and ivvtn, pain, the herb terrible, a species of Globularia. Amalgama. In Chemistry it is a substance produced by mixing mercury with a metal. All metals except iron, will amalgamate with quicksilver. Gold amalgamate* most readily, silver next, lead and tin next, copper with difficulty, and iron scarce at all. To amal- gamate gold is to reduce it to a paste by uniting it with mercury ; with this paste, silver and other metals are gilt. Amatoria, vel Amatoria Febris, the fever of lovers : also the Chlo- rosis. Vogel defines it to be a fe- ver of a few hours continuance, beginning with a great degree of coldness, and arising from eager expectation. Amatorii, Musculi, the muscles of the eyes which move them when we are said to be ogling. When the abductor and humilis act to- AM AM gether, they give the eyes this oblique motion. These muscles are aiso called obliquus inferior and superior oculi Ama uro sis* from apai-^a, obncure, to darken. It is a dec^y or loss of sight, when no Lult is observed in the eye, except that the pupil is somewhat enlarged and motion- less The Latins call this disor- der a Gutta serena. Dr. Cullen ranks it as a genus in the class L'.cales, and order Dysesthesie, and enumerates the species from the following causes, viz. com- pression, debility and its causes, spa.s.n, and the application or swal- lowing of poisons. The sight fails whether the object be near or at a distai.ee ; but not from a visible defect in the eye, but from some distemperature of the inner part:*, occasioning the representations of flies, dust, &c. floating before the eyes ; which appearances are nothing else than the parts of the Retina hid and compressed by the blood-vessels being too much stuf- fed and distended; so that in many of its parts all sense is lost, and therefore no images can be paint- ed upon them, whereby the eyes, as it generally happens, being con- tinually rolling round, many parts of objects falling successively up- on them, are obscured. The cure of this depends upon a removal of the stagnations in the extremities of those arteries which run over the bottom of the eye ; and what- soever forces away the matter ob- structing them, will also be able to remove the like obstructions in the arteries of any other part of the brain. For what is generally said concerning the optic nerves being obstructed in this case, is ridiculous ; for the arteries must first be obstructed, because there is nothing in the nerves which was tint before in the arteries ; and when a nerve is obstructed it may he taken for incurable. Ambe, «pC«. a lip, edge, or bor- der, an instrument usee in dislo- cations of the humerus. GJen explains the word ambe, by aQpvvbii «w*var«J/, the eye. It is an obscurity of sight, without any apparent defect in the organ. In Cullen's synop- sis it is placed as synonymous with Amaurosis, and with Dysopia. Ambra. See Amber. Ambra cineracia, i. e. Ambra- grisea. Ambra-grisea, ambergris ; a ge- nus in the class of inflammables ; it is generally foul and opake; when burning, it yields a peculiar AM AM fragrant smell. Some take it to be a vegetable matter; others a mineral; but from some account inserted in the Philos. Transac- tions, it is most probably an animal matter, and the produce of the spermaceti whale. It is mostly found floating on the surface of the Indian seas, though occasionally on our northern seas Mr. At- kins relates that it was found in the urine-bladder of that fish. Dr. Schwediar thinks it is its excre- ments. Dr. Mitchill also has been in- formed, by several experienced whale-men of Nantucket, that this is certainly the excrement of the costive whale; in proof of which, the appearances of the beaks of the saepice, or cuttle-fishes, upon which the whales feed, can be plainly discerned in it. Ambrosia, was a sounding title given to medicines which were pretended of uncommon efficacy for supporting the principles of life, and procuring a kind of im- mortality ; but such terms are now not met with. Ambula'io, walking. Celsussays, that if moderately used, it strength- ens a weak stomach; that it is best if upand down hill, except in great weakness. If the viscera are weak, rkling is to be preferred to walk- ing. Walking preserves, and rid- ing recovers health the best. Ambusta, burns. Dr. Cullen places these as a variety of Phlo- gosis erythema. Ambustio, from amburo, burn- ing or scalding. Amenorrhea, from a priv. pnvia- t«j, monthly, and gi«, fiuo, a defect or want of the menses. This is Dr. Cullen's generic term for de- fective or suppressed menses. He places this genus in the class Lo- cales, and order Epischescs. His species are, 1. Emansio menaium ; that is, when the menses do not appear so early as is usually ex- pected. 2. Suppressio menaium, when, after the menses appearing and continuing as usual for some time, they cease without pregnan- cy occurring. 3. Amenorrhea dif- ficilis, vel Menorrhagia difficilis, when this flux is too small in quantity, and attended with great pain, &c. Amentaceous Flowers. In Bo- tany they are such as have an ag- gregate of summits hanging down in form of a rope or of a cat's tail, as the male flowers of mulberry, 8cc. These are also called Juli, and in English Catkins. Amentia, from a priv. and mens, the mind, foolishness, a defect of imagination, idiotic insanity, a slight degree of madness. Dr. Cullen defines it to be the weak- ness of the mind in judging, from either not perceiving or not re- membering the relations of things. He ranks this disease in the class Neuroses, and the order Vesanie. His species are, 1. Amentia Coge- nita, natural stupidity, i. e. from the birth. 2. Amentia Senilis, do- tage or childishness, from the in- firmities of age. 3. Amentia Ac- quisita, when from accidental in- juries a person becomes stupid or foolish. Amentum, from «f*p«, vinculum, a bond, or thong, or catkin. See Amentaceous Flowers. America, one of the four great divisions of the earth ; and until near the close of the 15th century unknown to the Europeans. Its inhabitants, being not intent on fo- reign voyages, had never crossed the ocean, and knew nothing of the inhabitants of the eastern conti- nent. It has furnished Europe with several articles of food, as the potatoe, and the turkey ; and with several medicines, as the guacium, ginseng, ipecacuanha, jalap, and Peruvian bark. Its cli- mate is found favourable to the prodaction of opium, both from AM AM the poppy and the lettuce ; and physicians in various parts of the eountry, in New-York and Penn- sylvania, gather their cantharides or blistering flies in their own fields. America is often used of late to signify the u United States of America." In these there are several valuable schools of medi- cine, as in New-York, Cambridge, Philadelphia and Baltimore. For some years this region has been remarkable for the discussions and discoveries that have taken place, concerning infectious and pestilential distempers, by which the knowledge of them has been very much enlarged. On these great subjects of human interest and inquiry, Europe is deriving information, and gathering know- ledge from the west. For the ar- ticles of a remedial kind which this country furnishes, Shoepf's Materia Medica Americana, Bar- ton's Materia Medica, and Coxe's American Dispensatory may be consulted with advantage. Americanum Bals. i. e. Balsam. Peruv. Americanum Tuberosum, pota- toes. Amethysta Pharmaca, from « priv. and f*i0v, wine, medicines which either prevent or take away the inebriating effects of wine. Amethystus, amethyst. It was so called from a supposition that it prevented drunkenness. It is a precious stone; a specimen of quartzose crystal. Amethysts are met with amongst the species of four different genera, in the order of quartz. Amianthus, amianth ; a genus in the order of fibrous stone ; its fibres are pliable and soft when separated, and of different colours. Ammonia, volatile alkali; the salt obtained by distilling the sal ammoniac of the shops with any substance for which the muriatic acid has a stronger attraction. When distilled from deer's horns it is called spirit of hartshorn; when from viper's flesh, vola He salt of vipers ; when from sal ammoniac, the spirit of rat ammo- niac, &c. Ammoniac is a ~t,;.crete salt; but usually exists in the shops in a liquid form, wherein it is dis- solved in a large quantity of water. Its smell is pungent and \ efresh- ing, and therefore is frequently employed for smelling-bottles. When taken into the stomach it is a good, active, and safe stimu- lus. It has been recommended to neutralize pestilential acidity in the air, and thereby to destroy the exciting cause of fevers. It ex- hales in great quantity from burn- ing coal, and doubtless has an anti-pestilential operation in cities which consume great quantities of that fuel. Experiments have proved it to be a strong antiseptic, as the other alkalies also are. It is said to be evolved in considerable quantity in some putrefactive pro- cesses. When this happens, the occurrence is very happy ; for, as septic acid is so often formed in corruption too, the economy of na- ture may be discerned, which fur- nishes the antidote together with the poison. It is believed to be a compound of hydrogen, phlogis- ton, and azote, chemically com- bined and associated, to a portion of water. See Potash and Soda. Ammoniac Salt (common), a neutral salt in the order of Alka- line neutral salts. It is composed of the muriatic acid and the vola- tile alkali; it is volatile in a small degree of heat; its alkali is ex- tricated in pungent vapours on the admixture of quick-lime ; its acid is extricated in white fumes, on pouring concentrated vitriolic acid upon it. Ammoniacal salt is a ge- neral name for such neutral salts as have a volatile alkali for their basis. That whose acid is the acid of sea-salt, was called sal ammo- AM AM niac, and as the first known, it gave name to all the rest. The name ammoniac is derived by Sal- masius from one of the Cyrenaic territories, Ammonia ; by others, from the temple of Jupiter Am- nion in Africa; by others, from the Greek ap.yi.*s, sand, or appmet- xot, sandy, the salt being said to have been found plentifully in Am- monia, and near Amnion's temple, in sandy grounds. The sal ammo- niac of the ancients is commonly supposed to have been a species of Sal Gem. The true modern sal ammoniac is never found native, at least not in any tolerably pure state. The common sal ammoniac is an artificial preparation, which, until very lately, was made only in Egypt. It is now produced in England and other countries. The volatile alkali obtained from this salt is called Ammonia in the late edition of the college Pharmaco- peia ; the crude sal ammoniac, Ammonia muriata. The taste of sal ammoniac is penetrating, acrid and urinous. It is exhibited in- ternally in intermittent fevers, a- menorrhaea, &c. Externally it acts as a powerful resolvent and antiseptic.—Febrifuge grs. v. to xx. Diuretic, diaphoretic; to 3 i- In larger doses Emetic. Ammoniacum (Gum), gum Am- moniac. It is brought from the East-Indies. It is a gummi-re- sinous juice, composed of little lumps, or tears, of a strong and somewhat ungrateful smell, and nauseous taste, followed by a bit- terness. There has, hitherto, been no information had concerning the plant which affords this drug. It is imported from Turkey,and from the East-Indies. Internally, am- moniacum is given in asthmas, and difficulty of expectoration. In large doses it proves purgative. Externally, made into a plaster with acetum scillre, it produces pustles, filled with tenacious pus, and is a powerful resolvent.— From 9ss. to 9 i. Ammoniacus Vegetabilis (Sal), i. e. Spiritus Mindereri. Aqua ammoniae acetatae in the late Phar- macopeia. Amnesia, or Amnestia, from u. priv. and poems, memory. For- getfulness. Some use this word as synonymous with Amentia. Amnion, or Amnios. Martinius thinks it is derived from, or hath its name in allusion to a[Mit», a ves- sel, which the ancients used for the reception of blood in sacrifices. It is the internal membrane which surrounds the foetus: it is thin and transparent, soft, tough, smooth on its inside, but rough on the outer. Dr. Hunter says that it runs over the internal surface of the placenta, and makes the external covering of the funis umbilicalis, to which it is most firmly united, and that viewed in a microscope, it appears to have blood-vessels, but they are lymphatics. Amomum. Ginger ; a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates four species. Amor Insanus. The same as Erotomania. Amphemerinoa, from «f*p», about, and opfa, a day, a quotidian fever. Amphiarthrosis, a mixt sort of articulation, partaking of Diar- throsis and Synarthrosis ; it re- sembles the first in being movea- ble, and the latter in its connec- tion. The pieces which com- pose it have not a particular car- tilage belonging to each of them, as in the diarthrosis, but they are both united to a common cartilage, which being more or less pliable, allows them certain degrees of flexibility, though they cannot slide upon each other; such is the connection of the first rib with the Sternum, and of the bodies of the Vertebre with each other. Amphibius, Amphibius, of ay.>?lij, from k;o:\otfji- Sctvu, to recover and regain vigour after sickness. Hence Analeptica. Analeptica. -Analeptics. Its de- rivation is the same with Analepsis. They are such things as restore, particularly such also as exhila- rate the spirits. Besides the nu- tritious quality of restoratives that are analeptic, they have a sweet, fragrant, subtile, oleous principle, which immediately affects the nerves, and gives a kind of friendly motion to the fluids. Analogia, avaXoyja, from avaXoyt- £&>;-, shape. Andranatome, from xm%, a man, and tip™, to cut, the dissection of a human body, especially a male. Andria, from avrij, a man, an her- maphrodite. Androgyni, avSj>oyi/yo», from «»«», a man, and yum, a woman, effeminate men, and hermaphrodites. Plants are also named androgynous, whose flowers have both male and female organs within the same ca- lyx, or corolla. Andromeda ; a genus in Linnae- us's botany. He enumerates six- teen species. Anemometer, an instrument that measures the strength of the wind. Anethum. Common dill. Ane- thumgraveolens of Linnaeus. This plant is a native of Spain, but cul- tivated in several parts of Eng- land. The seeds of dill are di- rected for use by the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopeias; they have a moderately warm, pungent taste, and an aromatic, but sickly smell. There is an essential oil, and a distilled water, prepared from them, which are given, the former from 2 to 6 drops, the lat- ter from 3i. to £ i. in flatulent co- lics and dyspepsia. They are also said to promote the secretion of milk. Aneurisma, ocvsvpva-fjx, an aneu- rism, from anv^wu, to dilate much ; and that from ax/, asunder, and Eyfv,-, broad. The aneurism is a tu- mour, caused by the dilatation or rupture of the coats of an artery. Arteries only are the seat of this disorder: and any artery, in any part of the body, may be thus af- fected, as any vein may be the seat of a varix. Dr. Cullen ranks this genus of disease in the class Lo- AN AN cales, and the order.Tumores. Dr. Hunter divides aneurisms into four kinds, viz. the true, the false, the mixed, and the varicose. The true is formed by the dilatation of an artery; the false is formed by a rupture or wound in the coats of the artery ; the mixed is formed partly by a wound or rupture in the artery, and partly by a dilatation of the rest; the varicose is when there is an anastomosis or an im- mediate communication between the artery and the vein of the part where the patient hath been let blood, in consequence of the ar- tery being wounded through the vein, so that blood passes imme- diately from the trunk of the ar- tery into the trunk of the vein, and so back to the heart. Mr. Bell, in his System of Surgery, divides the aneurism into the encysted, and the diffused. The encysted includes all those instances in which the coats of the artery be- ing only dilated, the blood is con- fined in its proper coat: of this kind he reckons the varicose aneu- rism. The diffused includes all those in which, from an aperture in the artery, the blood is spread about in the cellular membrane, out of its proper course. Aneurisma Precordium, aneu- rism of the aorta near the heart, or in the heart. Aneurisma Varicosum, the vari- cose aneurism. See Aneurisma. Aneurisma Venosum, i. e. Aneu- risma Varicosum. Angelica ; a genus in Linnaeus's botany. Fie enumerates five spe- cies. The college have directed the root, stem, leaf, and seed, of the Angelica Archangelica, Lin. the seed enters the spiritus anisi eompositus. jingiglossi, stammerers. Angina, cuvuyxr), et xvmyxn, from uyX^h straugulare, to strangle, is such an inflammation of the jaws, or throat, as renders swallowing and breathing very difficult and troublesome. Hippocrates de- fines this a tumoiM, either inter- nal or external, that interrupts respiration ; and Galen, a straight- ness of the jaws' that renders breathing and swallowing difficult, proceeding from inflammation : but the moderns have given dis- tinct names to the different kinds of this disorder; as Syr.anche, when the inner parts are inflamed, or Cynanche, expressing an inflam- mation of the internal muscles of the throat, causing the patient to thrust out the tongue, and to pant like a dog out of breath ; and a Parasynache, when the external muscles are so tumefied as to straiten the passages within. But it hath been justly observed, that too nice a distinction of names of- ten darkens the true knowledge of things. The more general and useful distinction of the angina is into that of the inflammatory and malignant kind ; this last is com- monly called the putrid sore throat, and requires a treatment very dif- ferent from the former. Bleed- ing, and other evacuations, gene- rally prove prejudicial. Diapho- retics, the milder cardiacs, and such medicines as resist putrefac- tion, the bark, &c. are found to be most serviceable. Dr. Cullen's generic name for anginais Cynan- che, which he places in the class Pyrexie, and order Phlegmasia ; and distinguishes five species, viz. 1. Cynanche To?isillaris ; when the inflammation begins in the tonsils, and affects only the mucous mem- brane of the fauces. 2. Cynanche Maligna; when the fever is of the low kind, and ulcers are formed in the fauces. 3. Cynanche Trachea- lis, when the trachea is affected so as to constitute the disease called the croup. 4. Cynanche Pharyn- gea ; when the pharynx is princi- pally affected. 5. Cynanche Paro- tide j when the external parotid AN AN and maxillary glands are so affect- ed as to form the disease called the Mumps. Angina Aquosa, an instance of Anasarca. Angina Convulsiva, a species of Angina. Angina F.xterna, i. e. Cynanche, vel Angina Parotidea, or mumps. See Angina. Angina Gargrenos, i. e. Angina vel Cynanche Maligna. See Angina. Angina Interna, i. e. Cynanche Trachcalis, or the croup. See Angina. Angina Latens Difficilis, i. e. Cy- nanche Trachcalis, or the croup. See Angina. Angina Mnnbranacea, i. e. Cy- nanche Trachealis, or the croup. See Angina. Angina Mucosa, i. e. Amphime- rina Angenosa. Angina Oedematosa, an instance of Anasarca. Angina Perniciosa, i. e. Cynan- che Trachealis, or the croup. See Angina. Angina Polyposa, i. e. Cynanche Trachealis, or the croup. See Angina Angina Suffoca'iva, i. e. Cynan- che Maligna. See Angina. Angina Ulcerosa, putrid sore throat, or Cynanche Maligna. See Angina. Angiologia, angiology, from ay- yuov, a vessel, and oyos, a word, a treatise describing, &c. the arte- ries, veins, lymphatics, and other vessels of the human body. Angiospermos, and (m^a,,aseed, an epithet for such plants as have their seed or fruit enclosed in membranes. Angiospermia, from a/y®-, a ves- sel, the second order in the class Didynamia of Linnaeus ; it consists of those plants of that class whose seeds are inclosed in a pericar- pium. Angle of Incidence, is that an- gle made by the line of direction of any body at the point of contact with the body whereto it is direct- ed ; and is measured from a per- pendicular to the plane,or surface, at the point where the two bodies are supposed to meet. In like manner, Angle of Reflection, is that an- gle made by the line of direction of the reflected body at the point of contact, where in flies off. Anglicus Sudor, is now com- monly used to express an epide- mical colliquative fever, pince it was so in England in Henry Vllth's reign, and elegantly described by Lord Bacon, in his history of those times. Sennertus largely treats of this subject, De Febr. lib. iv. cap. 15. But there are many conjec- tures about its causes, that are merely ridiculous. Dr. Cullen places it as a sort of Typhus, in his Nosology. Angoneus, i. e. Anconeus. Angone. In VogeTs genera of diseases, it is an acute choaking or suffocation, without inflammation. According to some it is a nervous quinsy. Angor, ccyumx, is defined a shrink- ing inwards in the native heat of the body, or its retiring to the cen- tre, upon which follows a pain and palpitation of the heart, attended with sadness. It is esteemed a very bad symptom when it hap- pens in the beginning of acute fevers. Angos, xyyo;, a vessel, a recepta- cle of humours. Angularis Arteria, i. e. Arteria Maxillaris Externa. Angularis Musculus, i. e. Leva- tor Scapule. Angulus Acutus Tibie, the spine of the tibia, or the shin. Angustia, anxiety, restlessness in distempers ; also a narrowness in the vessels. Angusture Cortex, a bark first imported into England from the West-Indies in the year 1788. Its AN AN name is said to be taken from An- gustura in South-America. It is probably of South-American growth. Its external appearance varies considerably. When good, its outer surface is more or less wrinkled, with a greyish white covering, below which it is brown with a yellow cast: the inner sur- face is of a dull brownish-yellow colour. It breaks short and re- sinous. Its smell is unpleasant : the taste is intensely bitter, and slightly aromatic, somewhat like that of bitter almonds, very last- ing, leaving a sense of heat and pungency in the throat. When powdered, it resembles the pow- der of Indian rhubarb. Of its na- tural history there is as yet no sa- tisfactory account. On being in- fused in rectified spirit of wine, it gives out pure reshv-and an acrid oily matter ; the bark being after- wards tried with water, yields a much larger quantity of dry gum- my extract. This bark hath been given internally, and applied ex- ternally. The powder of the bark hath been given in the quantity of Bss. or gr. xv. for a dose, every three, four, or six hours, accord- ing to circumstances. The infu- sion is made with J ss. of the bark to lb. i. of boiling water, and the decoction made with J ss. of the hark, and lb. iss. of water boiled away to lb. i. of these from ^ i. or 3 x. are a dose. It hath been given in dysenteries, diarrhoeas, inter- mittents, putrid fevers, Sec. and in tincture made with ^ i. of an- gustura, ^ij. of cinnamon, 9i. of saffron, and Jxviij. of brandy, di- gested together without heat six days. See Experiments and Ob- servations on the Angusturabark, by Aug. Everard Brande. Anhelatio, panting, a shortness or difficulty of breathing, or a dif- ficult and small but quick respira- tion, which happens to persons in health, after strong exercise. In fevers,dropsies,asthmas, 8cc. there is always an Anhelitus. Anima Mundi, the soul of the world, an ubiquitarian principle, supposed by Plato to do the same feats as Des Cartes's aether, per- vading and influencing all parts and all places. Animal. Every body endowed with life, and the power of spon- taneous motion, is called an ani- mal. Animalcula, a diminutive of the word animal; that is, they are such little creatures as require to be viewed through glasses, to discern them distinctly. Animal Functions, are defined by the learned Boerhaave, those which, when performed, the hu- man mind conceives such ideas from them as are annexed to the respective corporeal actions; or such wherein the will exerts itself to produce them, or is moved by them when produced: thus the touch, taste, smell, sight, hearing, perception, the imagination, me- mory, judgment, reasoning pas- sions of the mind, and voluntary motions, are animal functions. Animal Heat. Heat is essenti- ally necessary to life. That of a man in health is from about 94° to 100° of Fahrenheit. It appears to depend upon the absorption of oxygen in the lungs. Animal Spirits. See Nervous Fluid. Animation, a term used to ex- press the first sure signs of life in an animal. It is also used by the hermetic philosophers to express a certain state of perfection where- to a body is brought by some par- ticular process ; at which time it becomes capable of effecting some extraordinary change, or of pro- ducing, or affording some uncom- mon phenomenon. Animi and Aname Deliquium. Fainting. See Syncope. Animus, is distinguished from AN AN Anima, as the former expresses the faculty of reasoning, and the latter the being in which that fa- culty resides. Aniscalptor, from anus, the breach, and scalpto, to scratch. So called because it is in use when the office is performed. It is the Latissimus Dor si. Anisum, Anise. It is the Pim- pinella anisum of Linnaeus. The college have retained this seed in their dispensatory; it enters the spiritus anisi compositus: its es- sential oil enters the tinctura opii camphorata, formerly called Elix. Paregoric. Anisum Herbariis, Anesum, Com- mon Anise. Hoffman calls the seeds Solamen Intestinorum, by way of eminence, for their service in complaints of the bowels. Anni/ulation. It is the reduc- tion of matter into nothing. See Corruption. Annona, custard apple-tree. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates nine species. Annotatio, the very beginning of a febrile paroxysm, called also the attack of the paroxysm. There is another annotatio or Episemasia, which is proper to hectic fevers happening an hour or two after eating : in this there is no shiver- ing with cold, as in the other sort. Annuens Musculus, i. e. Rectus Capitis Internus Minor. Annularis, the ring-finger. The one between the little and middle finger. Annularis Cartilago, from annu- lus, a ring. A name of the Cri- coid Cartilage. Annularis Digitus, the ring-fin- ger, or that next the little-one. Anmdaria Vena, the vein be- twixt the ring and little-finger. Annularis Processus. Annular process, is a protuberance made by the meeting of the processes of the Medulla Oblongata, under the sides thereof. Ano, etui, is used for upwards, in opposition to kxtv, downwards, and is often joined by Hippocrates to x.oi\ix, Venter, to signify the mouth of the stomach, or Oesophagus. It is also applied to things which work upwards, as vomits. Anodyna, xrAwx, from « priv. and whvn,pain. Anodynes are me- dicines that ease pain, and procure sleep. They are divided into three sorts, viz. 1. Paregorics, xxfnyoftxx, or such as assuage pain. 2. Hypnotics, vTrvumxx, or such as relieve by procuring sleep. 3. Narcotics, vxpkutikx, or such as ease the patient by stupifying him. Anodyna, xr^wtx. When used to express a disease, it signifies a loss of feeling, and is synonymous with Anesthesia. Anomalia, aiuft.x'Kix, inequality, signifies any thing that is irregu- lar, and variously applied. Some use it for the accession of a fever, which is attended with a great un- certainty of symptoms. Galen ap- plies it to the disorders of men- strual obstructions ; and Marcus Aurelius Severinus, who wrote a whole Treatise of Abscesses, to tumors, either unequal in shape, or containing matter of different kinds and consistences. Anomphalos, from a priv. and ojjlQxXos, a navel; without a navel; and is applicable only to our first parents, as they were created with- out want of nourishment that way; for which reason, as Paulus Ammi- anus says, they are so distinguish- ed in paintings and drawings. Anonymos, from « priv. and owy.«t, a name, nameless. Anorexia, avops|»*, anorexy, from « priv. and opsfK, appetite. A want of appetite, without loathing of food. The Greeks call such as take no food Anorccti and Aaiti ; but those who have an aversion to food they call Apositoi. Dr. Cul- len ranks this genus of disease in AN AN the class Locales and order Dyso- rexie ; he thinks it is generally symptomatic; yet he notices two species, viz. the anorexia humora- lis, and the anorexia atonica. Anosmia, onoo-fjax, a diminution or loss of smelling. Dr. Cullen ar- ranges thisgenus of disease in the class Locales and order Dysesthe- sie, and enumerates two species, viz. anosmia organica, and anosmia atonica. Antacida, anti-acids. Dodaelus, in his Encyclopedia, thus calls all those things which destroy acidity. The remedies which possess this power, are magnesia alba, kali tar- tarizatum, sapo, creta, oculi can- crorum, and most of the alkalis. Antagonista, antagonists, from et.ni, against, and ayw^w, to strive. One acting in opposition to ano- ther. The word is applied to mus- cles which counteract each other. Antalgicus, from avn, against, and «Xyoj, pain. Such remedies as ease pain. Antalkalincs. Medicines which possess the power of neutralizing alkalines. To this class belong all acids. Antaphrodisiacos, Antaphrodisi- ac, from am, against, and Atyohln, Venus. It is a term given by We- delius to medicines which extin- guish venereal desires. Others use it in the same sense as anti- venereal. Antafihroditaca, i. e. Antaphro- disiacos. Antelix, or Antihelix, avSsAtf. It is that part of the ear which is op- posite to the helix. Antemetica, from uvli, against, and tfiftwos, vomiting, a name given by Willis to medicines which allay vomitings. Anterior auris. This muscle rises thin and membranous near the posterior part of the Zygoma ; is inserted into a small eminence on the back of the helix, opposite to the concha. Its use is to draw this eminence a little forwards anft upwards. Anterior Mallei, i. e. Laxator Tympani. Anthelmia, worm-grass, i. e. Shi- gella marilandica. Ant helmintica, anthelmintics, from am, against, and |X/*u.-,a worm, remedies against worms Those in the highest esteem are, calome- las, stannum, sulphur, oleum linit sabina, santonicum, scam?noniumt jalapa, aloe, and gamboga. Anthemis, camomile, a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates eighteen species. This genus gives us the officinal camomile,called by Linne Anthemis Nobilis ; the col- lege, in their new Pharmacopeia, have directed the use of the sin- gle-flowered in preference to the double-flowered, on account of the virtues principally residing in the yellow central flowers, and not in the white circular florets. An ex- tract extractum chamcemeli is di- rected ; the flowers enter the de- coctum pro enemate, and the de- coctum pro fomento ; the former supplies the place of the decoct. commun. pro clystere ; the latter, that of the fotus communis. Anthera, avQvpx, from uvQ&; 9. flower. In the Linnaean system, it is that part of the stamen which contains within it the Pollen, and, when come to maturity, discharges the same. Anthracia, Anthrax, ccvQpxuri, xi- %«£, which strictly signifies a live coal, and figuratively a scab or blotch that is made by a corrosive humour, that, as it were, burns the skin, and occasions sharp prickling pains ; for which reason, some, as SerenuSjCall such an eruption Car- bo, and others Ignis Pcrsicus. Anthropology, from avQ^u-r1^, a man, and \tyo, to speak, is am dis- course or treatise of which man is the subject: as, Anthrcpos, a man, or a woman, or a husband; xvQ*v7r'&} according AN ArN tf» some, quasi av« t^uvuv una, be- cause he directs his countenance upwards ; according to others, ta kvx, dsiii^iiv, one that contemplates on things above. Anti, against. There are vari- ous terms compounded with this, as, Anti-asthmatics, Anti-hysterics, 8cc. which signify medicines a- gainst the asthma, hysterics, 8cc. Anticardium, from av1», against, and Ka$tx, the heart. It is that part commonly called the Scrobi- eulus cordis, or pit of the stomach. Anticrouon, to avlutpouov, id quod repellit, the great repelling power or principle in nature, sometimes called heat, as when it warms or burns the skin of a sentient being; sometimes cMtdfire, as when it glows or shines so as to strike the eye with considerable force ; and sometimes called igneous fluid, as when it passes from body to body, enlarging and dilating all their particles in its passage. It is by virtue of anticrouon or the repel- ler, that the particles of matter are kept from actual or mathema- tical contact. The term was pro- posed as an amendment to the no- menclature by Dr. Mitchill in 180 \, with the design of expressing, in more logical terms,the phenomena of heat or caloric, and with a fur- ther view of facilitating the com- prehension of Boscovich's elegant Theory of Matter. Amicus, that which lies in the fore-part. Antidotus, omit^otos, an antidote, from av7», against, and iiSupi, to give, a medicine given to expel the mis- chiefs of another, as of poison. Antihecticum, the name of a me- dicine invented by Poterus, called also Antimonium diaphoreticum jo- viale. Antihelix, a protuberance of the ear ; situated before the helix. Antilobium, «vn*o/3tov, from mm, against, and ?.oGo», the bottom of the ear. It is the Tragus, or that part of the ear which is opposite the lobe. Antiloimica, from am, against, and ;\o»f*®*, the plague, remedies against the plague. Antibissus, from am, against, and \v??x, the madness caused by the bite of a mad dog. It is the name of any medicine for the cure of this sort of madness. Antimony, a genus in the class of metals. It is sometimes found in a particular ore, but most fre- quently mixed with other metals. Mr. Beaume describes it as a mi- neral composed of nearly equal parts of sulphur and regulus. It is seldom that this combination is made artificially, as nature fur- nishes it abundantly. This mine- ral is the ore of regulus of antU mony. It is of a grey slate-colour, approaching to that of lead. It is disposed in long, shining, brittle needles The native metal is of a white or silver colour. The Regulus of antimony is the metallic part of antimony. It is a semi-metal of a brilliant white, like that of silver. It hath the opacity, weight, and fusibility of metals ; but as all other semi-me- tals, it wants ductility, malleability, and fixity. The college have re- tained antimony in their Pharma- copeia: Antimonium Praeparatum is desoribed among the simple preparations : Antimonium Cal- cinatum is directed, formerly cal- led Calx Antimonii: Antimonium Muriatum, formerly called Causti- cum Antimoniale : Antimonium Tartarisatum, formerly called Tar- tarum Emeticum, or Emetic Tar- tar : Antimonium Vitrificatum: Pulvis Antimonialis. This latter medicine is intended to supply the place of James's powder. Sul- phur Antimonii Praecipitatum ; Vinum Antimonii Tartarisati. Antipathia, arr\izu§ua, antipathy, from avl», against, and -axaS©-, affec- tion. It expresses any opposite AN AN properties or affections in matter. It is opposite to sympathy; or it is an aversion to particular ob- jects. Antiphlogistica, such remedies as tend to weaken the system, by diminishing the living power. Antiphthisica, from cuili, against, and pO*3K, a consumption, remedies against a consumption. Antiscorbutics. Those medi- cines which cure the scurvy ; from avlt, against, and scorbutus, the scurvy. To this class belong oxygen gas, acids, vegetables, bark, &c. Antiseptica, antiseptics, from avli, against, and rmta, to putrify, such medicines, 8cc. as resist pu- trefaction. Antiseptics. Antiseptics may be divided into two classes: 1. Those things which prevent the putrefaction of inanimate substan- ces : 2. Such as obviate the putrid tendency in living bodies. Of the former class of bodies alkaline salts rank among the fore- most ; for solutions of pot-ash, so- da, ammoniac, and lime, have a strong antiseptic operation. The muriate of soda (sea-salt), and va- rious other neutral salts, have also exceeding great antiseptic quali- ties. So has alkohol and spirit of turpentine. Oil, too, particularly the more concrete forms of it, as tallow and lard, is possessed of a large share of antiseptic power. To these may be added certain as- tringent substances, as the leaves of myrtle, the bark of oak, and other similar productions employ- ed in tanning leather. And un- der this head may be reckoned several of the acids, particularly those of sea-salt and sulphur. To the latter head of antiseptics belong all those bodies which are capable of preserving and prolong- ing the vital condition of the ani- mal solid when threatened with speedy decay. Perhaps the most common, powerful, and necessary of these is oxygen, as taken into the body both by respiration and lacteal absorption. It certainly has a most noble effect in acute and chronic scurvy, and in many other states of the body border- ing on or constituting malignant and putrid fevers ; for here there seems to be an approximation to death for want of oxygen ; and on the acquisition of a due portion of this, the nerves, muscles, Sec. take on their due consistency and tone, and grow healthy again. Acids have long been celebrated in me- dicine as antiseptics. As reme- dies they appear to owe their an- tiseptic virtues chiefly to the oxy- gen they contain ; thus renewing and invigorating the living solids, and redeeming them from septic dissolution. In this sense acids are frequently the best of antisep- tics in relation to the living body ; whereas this is far from being the case in respect to dead substances. Where there is debility in the muscles, torpor in the nerves, or inability in both to perform their appropriate functions, wine is a good antiseptic, by keeping up the living energy. Peruvian bark be- longs to the same class of reme- dies, for a similar reason; it stimu- lates moderately, and keeps up the powers of life. The same applies to other tonics and astringents. Alkohol, and even opium itself, may be called, in certain cases, powerful antiseptics, by allaying pain, imparting temporary vigour, and gaining a truce with the a- gents hostile to health and life. In short, whatever can withstand the rapid tendency to dissolution in each of these ways, is quoad cor- pus vivum, as far as the living body is concerned, an antiseptic. Antispasmoides, from u>% a- gainst, and waaix.7^, a convuLion, a remedy against convulsions. A kind of Anodynes. AO AP Antithenar, from am, against, and $«»«?, the palm of the hand. Dr. Hunter and others apply this to the Adductor Pollicis Pedis, which see. Some apply it to a muscle that draws the thumb to the fingers. It rises from the bone of the metacarpus that sus- tains the fore-finger, and is insert- ed into the first bone of the thumb. Antitragicus. See Antitragus. Antitragua, nmjpayoi, from u>V, against, rexoi, a leaf. Tournefort names his fifteenth class of vegetables Apetali. Ape- talous flowers are without petals. They have no other covering on the parts of generation but the calyx Apex, in the Linnxan system, is the extremity in which the leaf terminates, to which various epi- thets are given, according to its figure. For example, leaves are called truncate, when they end in a transverse line ; obtuse, when they terminate, as it were, in the segment of a circle ; acute, when they terminate in an acute angle, &c. >>ee Apices. Ap here sis,atyaiptoti, from una, from *priv. and Qurn, a voice, one who hath lost his voice. Dr. Cullen ranks this ge- nus of disease in the class Locales, and order Dyscinesie; and notices three species. \. Aphonia guttu- ralis, when the gullet is affected by a tumour in the fauces or the glottis. 2. Aphonia trachealis, when the trachea is compressed or mor- bidly contracted. 3. Aphonia ato- nica, when the nerves of the la- rynx are wounded or paralytic. Aphorismus, atpopwfLos, from er^o- p$u, to separate or distinguish, a short sentence, briefly expressing the properties of a thing; or which serves as a maxim, or principle, to guide a man to any knowledge, es- pecially in philosophy and physic. Aphrodisia, appohna, from atyo- J»T*, Venus, venereal commerce. Some express by this word the age of puberty, or the venereal age. Aphrodisiacum, a medicine that excites desire to venery. Aphrodisiasmus, atppo&o-nzo-fio;, i. e. Aphrodisia. Aphrodisius Morbus, i. e. Lues venerea. Aphthe, anv%,fire, or from tavpi- xa-au, to be feverish. It is the in- termission of feverish heat. Aqua Vite, eau de vie, water of life ; a cant and familiar phrase for brandy or spirit of wine. Aqua, Water, which see. Aque Medicinales, medicinal wa- ters ; also called mineral waters. Aque Sulphuree, sulphureous waters, or hot baths, as the waters at Aix la Chapelle, Bath, &c. Aqua Fortis, i. e. Nitrous Acid. Arabic Gum. This gum exudes, in a liquid state, from the bark of the trunk of the Mimosa nilotica of Linnaeus, in a similar manner to the gum which is found upon the cherry-trees in this country. That of a pale yellowish colour is most esteemed. Gum arabic is neither soluble in spirit nor in oil, but in twice its quantity of water it dis- solves into a mucilaginous fluid, of the consistence of a thick syrup, and in this state answers many useful pharmaceutical purposes, by rendering oily, resinous, and pinguious substances miscible with water. The glutinous quality of gum arabic renders it preferable to other gums and mucilages, as a demulcent in coughs, hoarsenes- ses, and other catarrhal affections. It is also very generally employed in ardor urinae, diarrhoeas, and cal- culous complaints—9i to 3ij« Arac, commonly called Rack, spi- rituous liquor produced from rice. Arachnoides, apax'o^r,;, from a- ga^v», a spider, and uSo?,form. The external lamina of the pia mater is thus named, from its resem- blance to a cobweb. Also a name of the tunic of the crystalline hu- mour of the eye. Celsus says that llerophilus named the coat thus AR AR which immediately invests the vi- treous humour. Arbor Diane. If a small piece of amalgam of mercury and silver be put into a solution of mercury, and silver mixed and diluted in water, there springs, some time after, from the amalgam, a little silver shrub, which is not always of the same form. This vegeta- tion is a mixed crystallization of silver and mercury, which appear with their metallic lustre. Arbor Vite. On each side of the fourth ventricle in the brain, the medullary substance of the Cere- bellum forms a trunk which ex- pands itself in form of laminae through the cortical strata. These ramifications are thus named. Arbutus, strawberry-tree ; a ge- nus in Linnaeus's botany. He enu- merates nine species. Arcei (Bals. vel Linim. vel Ung.) i. e. The balsam or ointment of Gum Elemi. Arcanum, a secret, or a medi- cine whose preparation or efficacy is kept from the world, to enhance its value. With the chemists it is a thing secret, and incorporeal; it can only be known by experience, for it is the virtue of every thing, which operates a thousand times more than the thing itself. Archeus, from a^a»oj, signifying ancient, as applied in medicine, denotes the ancient practice, con- cerning which, in his time, Hip- pocrates wrote a whole treatise. And some times it is used in that natural state which preceded any disease. This, by some likewise, is used for Archeus, a term much used by Helmont to express an internal ef- ficient cause of all things ; which seems no other than the Anima Mundi of his predecessors ; and as he applies it to particular ani- mated beings, it differs not from the cVuvapf, or Vis Plastica of the old philosophers. Arche, aw The nrst attack of a disease, its first stage, that time of the disorder in which the pa- tient first takes to his bed, or in which help might be effectual. Archiater, o^ixrpo,-, from a^, principium, chuf and *ojfo?, medi- cus, a physician ; signifies chief physician, such as those to prin- ces, according to the explanations of Hieron. Mercurialis ; but Hoff- man applies it rather to the head or president of a college or com- munity of physicians. Some like- wise use it in the same sense as Archeus. Arcuatus Morbus, the jaundice. Ardens Febris, from ardeo, t9 burn. The ardent fever. It is when fever attends an excess of Crassamenlum in the blood; or where there is an inflammatory Diathesis, without any particular or local inflammation. Ardor, a very intense acute heat raised in our bodies. Ardor Capitis, the Cephalitis Si- riasis of Sauvage. A kind of de- lirium from inflammation of the brain. Ardor Stomachi, i. e. Ardor Ven- triculi. Ardor Urine, a scalding of the urine. See Dysury. Ardor Ventriculi. It is a heat in the stomach, and expresses it improperly, though generally cal- led the heart-burn. Area, signifies the internal ca- pacity of any given boundary or limit, of what figure or shape so- ever. It is a term also used by miners for a certain compass of ore allotted for digging; and some physical writers use it for a spe- cies of the Alopecia, which see. Areca, the Indian or Malabar nut. Arece Indice, an ordinary kind of nutmegs. Arena, sand or gravel in the kidneys. In Fossilogy sands are a genus of Saxum ; they are saxuna AR composed of granules, which are loose and cohere not together, and formed neitherof comminuted nor decompounded fossil bodies. Arena Litoralis, sea-sand. Arena Marin, sea-sand. Arcnarium Saxum, rough free- stone. Arenatio. It is the casting of hot sand on the bodies of patients. Arentes, a sort of cupping glas- ses used by the ancients. Areola. It is the circle which surrounds the nipple on the breast; in virgins it is little and red; in pregnant women it is larger and more brown. Aretenoides, from xpva, to draw, taioiyu, to often, and Eido--, form ; a cartilage; and also a muscle of the wind-pipe bears this name. Argentum. See Silver. Argentum Vivum. See Mercury. Argilla, Clay, which see. Argyrus,x°yvpo;, silver. It seems to be derived from x^yog, white, or clear. Arida Medicamenta, dry medi- cines. Arista. In Botany it is that sharp-pointed needle, which stands out from the tusk or covering of the grain of corn or grass, and is called the awn, or beard. Aristolochia, birthwort, a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates twenty-one species. Of this genus the Aristolochia Serpentaria, or Virginian snake-root, hath been chiefly used in medicine. Aristolochia, such medicines as promote the flux of the Lochia. Arma, arms, weapons: one of the seven kinds of Fulcra of plants, according to Linnaeus, intended by nature to secure them against ex- ternal injury ; its species are, A- culci, Furce, Spine, Stimuli. Armena Bolus, Armenian bole. Arnica, a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates eight spe- cies. The species recommended Sv the Edinburgh Dispensatory is AR the Arnica Montana of Linnaeus. The flowers of this plant are very generally employed on the conti- nent. Of the advantages derived from their use in paralytic and other affections, depending upon a want of nervous energy, there are several proofs ; and iheir ex- traordinary virtues, as a febrifuge and antiseptic, have been highly extolled. Much caiuion is neces- sary in regulating the dose, as it is a medicine very apt to produce vomiting and much uneasiness of the stomach.—From 3j- to ^ ss. of the flowers infused in a pint of boiling water may be given in the course of a day. Arnotto. See Bixa. Aroma, a|iy*«. It seems to be compounded of ap and apt, an inten- sive particle, and ofy>, to smell any thing fragrant or odorous. Some- times it is taken for myrrh. Aromatica, spicy. Aromatics, from xgufjx, signify- ing a sweet flavour, is now given to all medicines of a grateful spi- cy scent: though anciently it was a term given to myrrh only, and since, by way of pre-eminence, saffron hath by some been called Aroma Philosphorum.—Those bo- dies are properly called aromatics which have a fragrant or pungent taste or smell. Aromatica Nux, the nutmeg. Aromaticum Lignum, i. e. Ca- nella Alba. Aromaticum Rosatum, rose- spice. An aromatic powder, for- merly kept in the shops, in which roses were part of the composi- tion. Aromaticus Cortex, i. e. Canella Alba. Arquatus Morbus, the jaundice. Arquebusadc, a French word that implies, it is good for gun- shot wounds. It is the name of a water which is also called Aqua Vulneraria, Aqua Catapultarnm, and Aqua Sclopctaria. 9 AR AR Arrangement; the distribution * of the facts relating to a subject in regular or systematic order, as individuals under species, species under genera, genera under or- ders, and these latter under clas- ses, or more general propositions. The sexual system of vegetables by Linnaeus is a beautiful example of arrangement. The systems of mineralogy by Crondstedt and by Kirwan are fine instances of the arrangement of fossils. The work of Fabricius on insects is a hand- some piece of zoological arrange- ment. And the table of the che- mical nomenclature by the French academicians, though not free from great faults, was neverthe- less a noble specimen of analysis, method and arrangement. See these several works. Arseniates, are arsenical salts, or compounds of the arsenical acid with the alkalis, earths, and metals. M.Foureroy enumerates twenty-three different species in his Elements of Natural History and Chymistry. Arsenic, or White Arsenic, a semi-transparent crystalline con- crete of a very singular nature, contained, in greater or less quan- tity, in the ores of most metallic bodies, particularly in those of tin and bismuth, and in the mineral called cobalt, from which last most of the arsenic brought to us is ex- tracted, in Saxony, by a' kind of sublimation. It is a most violent poison ; the remedies against which, as against most other poi- sons, are milk and oily liquors, immediately and liberally drank. According to Mr. Edwards's ar- rangement of fossils, arsenic is a genus in the class of metals. Mr. Beaume says the arsenic in the shops is the calx of a semi-metal; it is in a white, crystalline, bril- liant, transparent mass, but soon becoming opake, yet without los- ing its whiteness. It hath some properties in common with salts. Arsenic Earth, a genus in the order of Cryptometalline earths. Art. It is variously defined. As applied to medicine, it includes all that is to be done in the prac- tice of its several branches; where- as those principles or rules which direct that practice, are more pro- perly called theory or science. Artery, aprtjpta, as some imagine, from a>jf, aer, the air, and t^e^, ser- vo, to keep : for the ancients had a notion of their enclosing a great deal of air. There are indeed three ducts in the body to which this name is applied, viz. the As- pera Arteria, the Arteria Pulmo- naris, and Vena Arteriosa ; which see. But all the vessels that con- vey the blood from the heart, more properly are hereby includ- ed, and which it is of that conse- quence to be well acquainted with as deserves a particular descrip- tion here. An Artery is a conical canal con- veying the blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Each ar- tery is composed of three coats; of which the first seems to be a thread of fine blood-vessels, and nerves, for the nourishing the coats of the artery. The second is made up of circular, or rather spiral fi- bres, of which there are more or fewer strata, according to the big- ness of the artery. These fibres have a strong elasticity, by which they contract themselves with some force, when the power by which they have been stretched out ceases. The third and inmost coat is a fine, dense, transparent mem- brane, keeping the blood within its canal, which otherwise, upon the dilatation of an artery, would easily separate the spiral fibres from one another. As the arte- ries grow smaller,these coats grow thinner ; and the coats of the veins seem only to be continuations of the capillary arteries. The pulse is thus accounted for: When the left ventricle of the AR AR "heart contracts, and throws its blood into the great artery, the blood in the artery is not only thrust forward towards the extre- mities, but the channel of the ar- tery is likewise dilated ; because fluids, when they are pressed, press again to all sides, and their pres- sure is always perpendicular to the sides of the containing vessels; hut, the coats of the artery by any small impetus may be distended ; therefore, upon the contraction of the heart, the blood from the left ventricle will not only press the blood in the artery forwards, but, both together will distend the sides of the artery. When the impetus of the blood against the sides of the artery ceases, that is, when the left ventricle ceases to contract, then the spiral fibres of the artery, by their natural elasticity, return again to their former state, and contract the channel of the artery, till it is again dilated by the systole of the heart. This diastole or di- latation of the artery is called its pulse ; and the time the spiral fi- bres are returning to their natural state, is the distance between two pulses. This pulse is in all the arteries of the body at the same time: for while the blood is thrust out of the heart into the artery, the artery being full, the blood must move in all the arteries at the same time; and because the arteries are conical, and the blood moves from the basis of the cone to the apex, therefore the blood must strike against the sides of the vessels, and, consequently, every point of the artery must be dilated at the same time that the blood is thrown out of the left ventricle of ■the heart; and, as soon as the elas- ticity of the spiral fibres can over- come the impetus of the blood, the arteries&re again contracted. Thus two causes operating alternately, the heart, and fibres of the arte- ries keep the blood in a continual motion. The chief distribution of the ar- teries is into the Aorta ascendens, and the Aorta descendens; from which they are branched into all the several parts of the body after the following manner. The Aorta coming from the left ventricle of the heart, sends out two branches called Coronaria to the heart, be- fore it pierces the Pericardium ; but, after it hath pierced it, it ascends a little, and then it crooks forward, and forms the Aorta de- scendens. From the upper side of this crook it sends out three bran- ches, two on the left side, which are one Subclavian, and one Caro- tid ; and one on the right side, which is the right Subclavian, from which immediately arises the right Carotid. The Arterie Subclavie on each side send out the Medias- tina, the Mammaria, the Cervica- lis, or Vertebralis, and a branch which goes to the muscles of the neck, of the breast, and to the Glandula Thyroides. After the Subclavia has passed through the Musculus Scalenus, it is called Ax- illaris. The Arterie Carotides, as they ascend on each side the Tra- chea Arteria, give some small branches thereunto,to the Larynx, to the Glandula 2^hyroides,a.ndihen they send out each four considera- ble branches. The first goes to the tongue, to the muscles of the Os Hyoides, and to the Pharynx. The second divides into two bran- ches, of which the first loses itself in the muscles Mylohyoides and Digastrici; and the second goes along the basis of the lower jaw, and is lost in the muscles of the lips. The third branch divides at the angle of the lower jaw into two branches; one enters into the lower jaw, and the other makes the Ar- teria temporalis. The fourth branch goes to the muscles on the hind part of the neck, and to the skin of the hind head. The Caro'id then passes through the canal in the OsPe/rosuw, gives some bran- AR AR ches to the Dura Mater, joins with the Cerviealis, sends out branches to the Glandula Pituitaria, Rete mirabile, Plexus Choroides; then runs through all the circumvolu- tions of the Cerebrum and Cere- bellum, and loses its capillary bran- ches in their carotidal substance. The Axillary having pierced the Scalenum, gives some little bran- ches to the nearest muscles; it sends out the Thoraica superior and inferior, the Scapularis, and then gives a branch which passes under the head of the Humerus into the Musculus longus and bre- vis of the arm. The trunk of the Axillaris goes down the inside of the arm, giving branches by the way to the muscles that lie upon the Humerus. Above the elbow it sends out a branch which is spread upon the internal Condyle of the Humerus. At the bending of the elbow this same trunk divides into two branches,the one external,and the other internal: the external runs along the Radius ; it casts out a branch which goes to the Supi- nator, and ascends to the Brachia- lis internus; in the rest of its course down to the wrists, it gives branches to the Longus, Rotundus, and benders of the fingers, wrist, and thumb. Being come to the wrist, it sends out a branch which goes to the beginning of the The- nar, then it passes under the ten- don of the Flexor Pollicis: it gives a branch to the external part of the hand, and passing under the ten- dons of the muscles, its branches run along each side of the thumb and fore-finger. The internal branch goes down along the Cubi- tus to the wrist, and is distributed in like mannerto each side of the middle-finger and little-finger. The Aorta descendens sends out first the Bronchialis, which accom- panies all the branches of the Bronchia; as it descends along the Vertebre of the Thorax, it sends out on each side the inter- costal arteries to the Diaphragm ; it gives the Phrenica; and the Caliaca is the first it sends out when it enters the Abdomen. The Celiaca divides into two branches, the one on the right, and the other on the left, of which the first gives the Gastrica dexira, which goes to the stomach, the Cystica to the gall-bladder, the Epiplois dextra to the Omentum, the Intestinalis to the gut Duodenum, and to a part of the Jejunum, the Gastro-Epip- lois to the stomach, to the Omen- tum, and some branches to the liver, which enters the Capsula communis, to accompany the bran- ches of the Vena Porte. The left branches of the Caliaca give the Gastrica dextra, which is also spread on the stomach, the Epip- lois sinistra to the Omentum, and the Splenica to the substance of the spleen: then the Aorta de- scendens sends out the Mesenteri- ca superior, the Renales Glandule, or fat about the reins, the Emul- gents to the reins or kidneys, the Spermatice to the testicles, the Lumbaris interior to the muscles of the loins, the Mcsenterica infe- rior, which, with the superior, is distributed through the mesen- tery, and which accompanies all the' branches of the Vene Mese- raice. When the Aorta is come to the Os sacrujn, it divides into two great branches ; and from the angle they make, springs out a small artery called Sacra, because it spreads from the Os sacrum. The iliac arteries divide again in- to the external and internal Iliac. From the internal Iliac arises the Hypogastrica, which is distributed to the bladder, to the Rectum, to the outer and inner side of the Matrix, Vagina, Vesicule semina- les, Prostate and Penis, Os sacrum, and all the parts contained in the Pelvis or bason : and then it gives two considerable branches which pass out of the lower belly; the first goes under the Pyriformis, AR AR and is distributed to the muscles called Glutei: the second, which is lower than the first, gives also two branches pretty big, of which the first goes to the Obturatores, the second pierces the cavity of the Abdomen, under the Pyrifor- mis, and loses itself by several branches in the Gluteus major. As soon as the external Iliac leaves the cavity of the Abdomen, it sends out the Epigastrica, which runs up the inside of the Muscu- lus rectus, and a little below that, the Pudenda, which goes to the privities: then it is called Crura- lis, and sends out three consider- able branches : the first is called Musculo, which gives several branches : the first passes between the muscles called Iliacus and Pectineus, and loses itself in the third head of the Triceps in the semi-membranosus, or semi-nervo- sus, in the beginning of the Bi- ceps ; in the Quadrigemini, and in the cavity of the greater Tro- chanter. The second, third, and fourth, go to several parts of the Triceps, and Gracilis posterior ; then the trunk of the Musculo goes under the first of the Triceps, and divides into three branches more. The first having passed the third of the Triceps, is lost in the Semi-membranosus. The se- cond passes under the Femur to the Vastus externus. The third goes a little lower, casts branches to the tendon of the third of the Triceps : it loses itself at the end of the Stmi-nervosus, and at the end of the great head of the Bi- ceps. The second considerable branch of the trunk of the Crural goes to the external part of the thigh, passes under the Sartorius, under the Gracilis rectus : it casts some branches to the end of the Iliacus, to the beginning of the Gracilis rectus, to the Vastus ex- ternus, Cruralis, Membranosus, and fore-part of the Gluteus minor. The third rises almost from the same part of the Crural, and loses itself in the middle of the Gracilis rectus, Cruralis, and Vastus exter- nus. The Crurul havi ;g sent out these three branches,gives several more to the Sartorius, the Gracilis posterior, but the greatest goes to the Vastus externus. As the Cru- ral descends it sinks deeper in the hinder part of the thigh, passing through the tendons of the Tri- 'ceps : being come to the ham, the first branch it sends out is spread on the hinder part of the thigh- bone, and it goes to the little head of the Biceps; then it casts out several other branches, which lose themselves in the fat, and in the extremities of the muscles behind the Femur. Under the ham it sends out two Poplitei, which go round the knee ; the one on the inside, the other on the outside. It casts out a little lower several other branches, of which some go to the beginning of the Gemini, of the Soleus, Plantaris, and Popli- teus, and the rest surround the Tibia on all sides. Then it divides into two branches, of which the first passes through the membrane which joins the Tibia and Fibula together, upon which it continues its way, giving branches to the Tibials externus, and to the Ex- tensores Digitorum. The second branch divides into two more, ex- ternal and internal : the external, after it hath given branches to the Soleus, to the Peroneus posterior, and to the Flexor Pollicis, pierces the membrane between the Tibia and Perone, and rises upon the ex- ternal ancle, to spread itself upon the upper part of the foot. The internal, as it descends, gives branches to the Soleus, to the Flexores Digitorum, to the Tibia- lis posterior ; then it passes by the cavity of the Fibula, where it di- vides into two branches, of which one passes under the Thenar to the AR AR great toe, the other passes between the Musculus brevis and the Hy- pothenar, and is distributed into the other toes. And this is the order and dis- tribution of the principal arteries in the body, each of which are sub- divided into others, and these again into others, till at last the whole body is overspread with most mi- nute capillary arteries, concerning which there are two things neces- sary to remark: first, that the* branches which go off at any small distance from the trunk of an ar- tery, unite their canals into one trunk again, whose branches like- wise communicate with one ano- ther, and with others, as before. By this means, when any small The Aorta .... Right subclavian artery Left Carotid Left axillary Bronchial artery Twenty-four intcrcostals, Coeliac Mesenteric Right emulgent Left emulgent Inferior Mesenteric Six Lumbals, each 434.2 Left iliac Right iliac artery is obstructed, the blood is brought by the communicating branches below the obstruction, which must otherwise have been deprived of their nourishment. These inosculations are every where apparent, but chiefly in the Uterus, Mesentery, and brain: it is the same thing with the veins. Secondly, that the sum of the ori- fices of the branches of any artery is greater than the orifices from the trunk from which they came, upon which account the velocity of the blood is greatly diminished, as it removes farther from the heart. The proportions the primary bran- ches bear to one another, and the Aorta to the Cava and pulmonary artery, are as follow : t , . 100000 .... 80101.9 . . . . 10016 . . . . 14456.7 • . . 434.2 each 434.2 10420.8 . . . . . 4830.3 . . . . , 73G7.8 .... 4639 . 4639 . 3015 . 2605.2 . 9739.8 . 10535 Sum of all the branches 102740.7 The pulmonary artery The ascending cava The descending cava To the action of the arteries in the human body are owing the cir- culation of the blood, its heat, red colour, fluidity, assimilation of the seed, the conversion of fixed salts into such as are volatile, and the performance of all the secretions. To show all these particulars in their full extent, would be to give . 139291.8 92373 92373 a curious and useful history of the arteries: and they may readily enough be drawn from the nature and structure of those wonderful canals, with the help of our pre- sent philosophy and chymistry. Arteria Venosa, the pulmonary vein. Arteriosus Ductus, also called, AR AR Canalia Arteriosua. This, in the foetus, arises from the extremity of the Arteria pulmonaris just where it is going to give off the two branches, and opens by its other end into the beginning of the descending Aorta, just below the great curvature. Arteriotomy, apTnpwro^x, from «pT»pi«, an artery, and mpo, seco, to cut, is letting blood by the ar- teries in some extraordinary ca- ses ; but the hazard makes it very rarely practised. Arthritica, i. e. Arthritis. Arthritis, apSpmir, from agfl^oy, ar- ticulus, a joint. Any distemper is properly enough thus called that affects the joints, but the gout most particularly; and this hath different names, as it falls upon different parts, amongst some au- thors more nice in words than things ; as Podagra when in the feet, Chiragra when in the hands, and so of other parts. Dr. Cul- len in his Nosology, gives the name of Podagra to the gout. He places it as a genus of disease in his class of Pyrexie, and order of Phlegmasie. He distinguishes its species as follows, viz. 1. Po- dagra Regularis. 2. Podagra Ato- nica. 3. Podagra Retrograda; and, 4. Podagra Aberrans. M. M. In the first species, cordials; occasional laxatives and opiates ; soft flannel on the part inflamed. In the second, corroborants, with occasional laxatives and emetics. In the third, aromatics, with wine or alcohol; asafoetida; volatile al- kali ; camphor; opium and blis- ters. In the fourth, the same as in idiopathic inflammation of the part affected. Arthrocace, an ulcer in the ca- vity of a bone, with caries. Dr. Cullen makes it a synonym with Spina ventoaa, which see. Arthrodia, apQpuSux, from afOfov, a joint. It is when a round head is received into a shallow cavity, and admits of motion on all sides. Arthrodynia, the chronical rheu- matism. Arthron, a joint. Arthropuosis, from a$$>v, articu- lus, and wvov, pus. This word is variously used by different wri- ters: sometimes it means an in- flammation in a joint; and then Phlegmone articuli has the same signification. Sometimes it is used for an abscess in the joint. Others again express by it what is understood by the different terms, Lumbago Psoadita, Lumbago A- postematosa, Lumbago ab Arthro- cace, Ischias ex Abscessu, and Mor- bus Coxarius, Psoas abscess, Hip- joint abscess, &c. Articularis Morbus. When the gout rises from the toes to the an- cles and knees, and they swell and inflame, it is thus named. Articularis Arteria. It arises from the lower and fore-part of the axillaris, and runs backward between the head of the os humeri and teres major, surrounding the articulation till it reaches the pos- terior part of the deltoides, to which it was distributed. Articularis Vena. Under the head of the os humeri, the basi- lica vena sends off this branch. ,It passes almost transversely round the neck of that bone, from within backwards, and from behind out- wards, and runs upon the scapula, where it communicates with the venae scapulares externae. Articulations. This is peculiar to the bones, and distinguished in- to three sorts, I. Diarthrosis. 2. Synchondrosis; and, 3. Synarthro- sis. Of the first there are two sorts, the Enarthrosis, or Arthro- dia, and Gingh/mus. The first is when a round head of a bone is re- ceived into a round cavity of ano- ther, such as the articulation of the Femur with the Ischium; and this is called the ball and socket. AR AR The property of this joining is, that the parts may move equally to any side. The Ginglymus is described under that word, which see. The second, Synchondrosis, is when the extremities of two bones are joined to one another by means of an intervening cartilage. Thus the bodies of the Vertebre, and the extremities of the ribs and Sternum, are joined together ; where, though the motion of all is manifest, yet that of any two is hardly discernable. The third, Synarthrosis, is also of two sorts, the Sutura and Gomphosis. The Sutura is when two bones are mu- tually indented with one another : the teeth by which they are indent- ed are of various figures, some- times like the teeth of a saw; sometimes broad at their extremi- ties, and narrow at their base; sometimes the sides of the teeth are likewise indented, as frequent- ly in theiw ura Lambdoidalis. This sort of articulation is called dove- tailing, and is used by joiners in drawers, 8cc. All the bones of the Cranium and upper jaw, as also the Epiphyses of the bones, are joined by this articulation. Gom- phosis is when one bone is joined to another, as a pin or nail is in a piece of wood ; and the teeth only are articulated this way in their sockets. To these may be added a third kind of Synarthrosis, very different from any of the former, which is, when a bone has a long and narrow channel, which re- ceives the edge or process of ano- ther bone ; and thus the Vomer is joined to the Os Sphenoides and Septum Narium : this is called ploughing. These comprehend all the different articulations of bones in a human body, and what other authors mention is to no pur- pose. The extremities of all the bones which are articulated to one another with a manifest motion, are bound together by membra- nous ligaments, which rise from the conjunction of the Epphyses with the bones, and passing over the articulation, are inserted at the same place in the other bone. Thus they form a bag, which embraces all that part of the extremities of the bones which play upon one an- other ; and in this bag is contain- ed a mucilage for the easier mo- tion of the joint. This is sepa- rated by glands which lie in fat on the inside of the ligaments. Those articulated by the Ginglymus have the ligaments much stronger than they are either behind or before, that the protuberances may be kept to play in their cavities, and to prevr,nt the bones from slipping out of joint. Artocarpus, bread-fruit, a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He hath but one species. Arum, cuckow-pint, or wake- robin, a genus in Linnaeus's bota- ny. In this genus he includes the Arisarum, or friar's-cowl, and Dra- cunculus, or dragons. Of species he enumerates twenty-six. The college have directed a conserve to be made of the recent root, Conserva Ari. Aryteno-Epiglottici. They are small, fleshy fasciculi, each of which is fixed by one end in the head of one of the arytaenoid car- tilages, and the other in the near- est edge of the epiglottis. Arytenoides, from x^vratva, a funnel, and ej^, shape; the Ary- tenoid, or ewer-like cartilage. An epithet of two cartilages, which, together with others, constitute the head of the larynx. Arytenoideus Major, i. e. Aryte- noideus Transversus. Arytenoideus Minor, i. e. Ary- tenoideus Obliquus. Arytenoideus Obliquus. This muscle arises from the base of one arytaenoid cartilage, and crossing its fellow, is inserted near the tip of the other arytaenoid cartilage. AS AS When both act they pull the ary- tenoid cartilage towards each other. Arytenoideus Transversus. This muscle arises from the side of one arytaenoid cartilage, from near its articulation with the cricoid, to near its tip. The fibres run straight across, and are inserted in the same manner, into the other arytaenoid cartilage. Its use is to shut the rima glottidis, by bring- ing these two cartilages, with the ligaments, nearer one another. Asafetida. Gum asafoetida. The plant which affords this gum-resin is the Ferula asafetida of Linnaeus, which grows plentifully on moun- tains in the provinces of Chorasan and Laar in Persia. The process of obtaining it is as follows : the earth is cleared away from the top of the roots of the oldest plants; the leaves and stalks are then twisted away, and made into a co- vering, to screen the root from the sun; in this state the root is left for forty days, when the cover- ing is removed, and the top of the root cutofftransversely; it is then screened again from the sun for forty-eight hours, when the juice it exudes is scraped off, and ex- posed to the sun to harden. A second transverse section of the root is made, and the exudation suffered to continue for forty-eight hours, and then scraped off. In this manner it is eight times re- peatedly collected in a period of six weeks. The juice thus ob- tained has a bitter, acrid, pungent taste, and is well known by its pe- culiar nauseous smell, the strength of which is the surest test of its goodness. It is highly esteemed as an antihysteric, nervine, and stimulating remedy, and is much used in hysteria, hypochondriasis, dyspepsia, Sec—9ss. to 3i- Asarum, asarabacca, a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates three species. The college have retained the root of the Asa- rum Europaeum Lin. it enters the Pulvis Asari Compositus, formerly called Pulv. Sternutator. Asbestos, or Asbestus, aa8iaro;t a genus in the order of fibrous stones; its fibres are hard, rigid, and brittle, when separated ; and are not easily divisible as those of the Amianthus. Ascarides, from oo-kiu, to move, a sort of worms so called from their continual troublesome motion, which causes itching. They are very small, white, and have sharp- pointed heads. They are gene- rally lodged in the rectum; but sometimes are also higher up, even in the stomach. ( Ascites, ao-JUTn?, from oo-k^, a bot- tle. It is the dropsy of the belly. Dr. Cullen ranks this genus of dis- ease in the class Cachexie, and order Intumescentie. He enume- rates two species. 1. Ascites ab- dominalis ; as when the tumour of the belly is equal, and with evi- dent fluctuation. 2. Ascites sacca- tus, as when the ovaries, &c. are the seat of the disease ; in which cases the tumour is not equally ex- teaded in all parts of the belly, and the fluctuation is not so evident. Ascites Sanguineo-Uterinus, i.e. Hydrometra. Ascites Uterinus, i. e. Hydro- metra. Asciticus, one who labours un- der an ascites. Ash (Poison.) See Vernix. Ash-tree. See Fraxinus. Asiti, or Asitia, ao-ma, those who take no food for want of appetite. Aspalathus, a name of the Lig- num Rhodium. Asparagus, asparagus, a genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates thirteen species. . Aspasia, a medicine formerly used to constringe the vagina ; it consisted of wool moistened with an infusion of galls. 16 AS AS Aspera Arteria. It is called Aspera, from the inequality made by the cartilages of it: it is called also Trachea. It is a canal situat- ed in the fore-part of the neck, before the Oesophagus, whose up- per end is called Larynx ; from whence it descends to the fourth vertebra of the back, where it di- vides and enters the lungs. This canal is made of annular cartilages, which are at small and equal dis- tances from one another. These cartilages grow smaller and smal- ler as they approach the lungs ; and those of the Bronchi are so close to one another, that, in ex- piration, the second enters within the first, and the third within the second, and the following always enters the preceding. Betwixt the Larynx and the lungs these carti- lages make not complete rings; but their hinder part, which is con- tiguous to the Oesophagus, is mem- branous, that they may the better contract and dilate, and give way to the food as it passes down the gullet. But the cartilages of the Bronchi are completely annular; yet their capillary branches have no cartilages, but, instead of them, small circular ligaments, which are at pretty large distances from one another. The use of the car- tilage is to keep the passage for the air open ; but in the capillary Bronchi they would hinder the subsiding of the vesicles. These cartilages are tied together by two membranes, external and internal: the external is composed of circu- lar fibres, and covers the whole Trachea externally: the internal is of an exquisite sense, and co- vers the cartilages internally; it is composed of three distinct mem- branes ; the first is woven of two orders of fibres ; those of the first orderare longitudinal, for shorten- ing the Trachea; they make the cartilages approach and enter one another: the other order is of cir- cular fibres, for contracting the cartilages. When these two or- ders of fibres act, they help, with the external membrane, in expira- tion, in coughing, and in altering the tone of the voice. The second membrane is altogether glandular, and the excretory vessels of these glands open in the cavity of the Trachea: they separate a liquor for moistening the cavity, and for defending it from the acrimony of the air. The third and last is a net of veins, nerves and arteries; the veins and branches of the Vena Cava; the nerves of the Recur- rent; and the arteries, sprigs of the Carotides. Asperifolius, ofasper, rough, and folium, a leaf, an epithet for such plants as are rough-leaved, having their leaves placed alternately, or without any certain order on their stalks. Aspersio, a sprinkling. Medi- cines administered this way were called by the Greeks Sympasmata, and by the Latins Aspergines. Asphyxia, acr£i/f»a, from a priv. and therfourth being oxygenous gas. Between these two gases there is no chemical union, in the ordinary state of things ; the mixture being merely such an one as exists be- tween oil and water shaken toge- ther, where the particles indeed »f the one fluid are interspersed with those of the other, but still not united with them. The great use of azotic gas seems to be, to temper the excessive stimulant properties of oxygenous air, and thereby lessen the injurious con- sequences that would result from an atmosphere of this air alone. It is supposed to minister largely to the nourishment of plants, and some late experiments have led to a similar belief in respect to animals. It combines readily with water, which it elevates from the surface of the earth above the summitsof the highest mountains, and lets it fall in the form of rain, giving rise to showers, steady rains, hail, snow, sleet, fog, mist, dew, and hoar-frost. This easy association of azotic air with wa- ter had led some experimenters into a persuasion that the whole of any given quantity of water is convertible to azotic air ; and, con- sequently, that, vice versa, azo- tic air is capable of being changed to water. The later experiments of Dr. Priestley lead to this con- clusion, though they are not con- formable to the other and more fashionable opinion, that water is resolvable into hydrogenous and oxygenous airs. See Septous Gas. Azure Blue. Zaffre mixed with fixed alkaline salt, and brought into fusion by an intense heat, is changed into a glass of a very deep blue colour. This is pow- dered, then sold under the name of azure blue, azure enamel blue, &c. Azygos, a name of the Os Sphe- noides. Azygos, afyyo;, from a priv. and tyyos, a pair, without a fellow. The musculus azygos of Morgagni rises tendinous from the junction of the ossa palati, and runs down the palatum molle to the middle of the uvula, serving to elevate it. Azygos Processus. See Sphe- noides (os.) Azygos Vena, a vein so called, because it hath no fellow. It is also called Vena sine pari and jugo. The azygos is a considerable branch of the Cava. It descends through the right side of the ca- vity of the Thorax, and at its ar- rival at the eighth or ninth verte- bra, it begins to keep the.middle, and sends forth on each side inter- costal branches to the interstices of the eight lower ribs, and there is divided into two branches, of which the larger descends to the left, betwixt the processes of the diaphragm, and is inserted, some- times into the cava above or below the emulgent, but oftener into the emulgent itself. The other, which goes down on the right, 13 BA BA enters the cava commonly a little ^t^;, ferment, unfermented bread, below the emulgent, but is very as sea-biscuit, which, as Galen seldom joined to the emulgent says, is not very wholesome, ex- itself. ccpt where the digestive powers Azymos, aZypo;, from a priv. and are too strong. B BACCA, a berry, in Botany, is which is deposited upon the stones a fleshy or pulpy pericarpium over which they run. They con- without valve, the seeds within tain also a large quantity of neu- which have no other covering or tral salts. Persons on first tasting cell, as in the gooseberry, 8cc. them have rather a disrelish for Bacce, are small roundish fruit them, but on drinking a few times that grow scattered upon trees grow very fond of them. The and shrubs, and in that are distin- waters are agreeably stimulant to guished from Acina, which are the stomach, and powerfully diu- berries hanging in clusters. retic ; they possess also a modc- Balanus, the glans or nut of the rately purgative quality Many yard. valetudinarians resort to them for Balaustium, the double flowered the benefit of their health; and wild pomegranate-tree. It is the the place has also become a fa- Punica granatum, varietas plena shionable resort for well persons major, Linnaeus. Properly balaus- who wish to pass a few weeks tium is the cup of the flower of agreeably during the hot season. this tree. See Dr. Seaman's Dissertation on Ballstown-Springs, mineral wa- these waters. ters in the State of New-York, Balneum, from @>.\\w, to cast about fifteen miles north of the away, and ana, grief. This word Mohawk River, at Schenectady, properly signifies the hot bath They contain as much carbonic only; and under this head we acid as they can dissolve, and the shall consider only the general overplus rises through to the sur- and partial warm baths, referring face in large bubbles. This air, for cold bathing to the article when collected in vessels, is found Bathing. to extinguish flame, to render Warm bathing gives a softness lime-water turbid, and to be ca- and flexibility to the skin and pable of being poured from one muscles; and from some rarefac- vessel into another like a liquid, as tion of the blood, or from its de- Dr. Mitchill experienced. It soon termination to the surface, in- escapesin the open atmosphere, creases the bulk. It seems to in- Bread can be made light and crease all the secretions, as it cer- spongy with this aerated water tainly does those of the skin; nor without the aid of yeast; for, on after the sweat excited by bathing mixing it with flour into dough, is the perspiration diminished, and putting it quickly into a bak- though the increase of any evacu- ing-pan, the carbonic acid is ex- ation, in general, occasions a tem- tricated by the heat, and made to porary suppression afterwards: puff up the mass very beautifully, the pulse becomes fuller and Beside carbonic acid, the Balls- quicker; the face flushed; the town waters contain a small quan- respiration laborious. A mode- tity of iron, the yellow oxyd of rate stay in the bath increases the BA BA spirits as well as the activity, and improves the general health : con- tinuing in it tdo long induces lan- guor and debility. We do not recollect any direct experiments on this subject but those in a Thesis by Dr. Parr, which have been generally copied in every subsequent publication. He tiied the effects of warm bath- ing at 96°, 98°, 100°, 102°, 104°, and 106°, of Fahrenheit. At 96°, the general effects above mention- ed were observed ; the pulse, if at first slightly quickened, was soon natural; the respiration, in the earliest period a little more rapid, soon became free and easy, and but little change was produced in the heat of the body. At 98° the pulse was slightly increased in quickness, and did not subside ; but the heat appear- ed to remain stationary. There was no sweat, though a free copi- ous perspiration : the urine was not increased; and, after some time, the pulse became slower than before the bathing. The cu- ticle was observed to be slightly corrugated. At 100° the pulse was increased from 60° to 72°; the respiration much affected; the face red and swollen, and a copious sweat broke out: the cuticle appeared more corrugated. The heat was raised two degrees ; and, after about ten minutes, faintness came on. The perspiration was free and copious; and, after a short time, every dis- agreeable symptom vanished; the pulse sinking a little below its na- tural standard. At 102° the pulse was soon rais- ed from 68° to 100°, and, in ten minutes, the sweat on the face was copious, the vessels turgid, the skin not corrugated, and the heat of the body raised from 98Q to 102°. A beating noise was heard in the head ; and, in half an hour, giddi- ness came on. When laid between blankets, the sweat was copious and free, the pulse soon became natural, and the quantity of urine was not increased. At 104° all these appearances were still more striking and more rapid: a vertigo coming on, at the end of about twenty minutes, put a stop to the experiment. At 106° the effects came on still more quickly and more violent. The faintness and sickness supervened more early ; the sweat was more copious, but the frequency of the pulse did not subside even after twenty-five minutes. From these experiments, seemingly made with care and attention, we perceive that little is to be dreaded from the stimulating effects of the hot bath under about 102°; and that, probably, under 94° it has no pe- culiar or appropriate power. As the limits of the cold bath we shall find to be about 84*, the tempera- ture, in the interval, has the ef- fects of neither. Above 102° the warm bath determines powerfully to all the extreme vessels, parti- cularly to the head and breast; and at this temperature it must be used with caution, when the contents of either are disordered. The ba- lance between the urine and the skin is nearly even at about 98". Dr. Cullen supposed the effects of the warm bath to arise wholly from the relaxation of the skin, and, of course, the diminished pressure of that peripherical band which confines the fluids. Though cor- rect to a certain extent, this view is tpo simple to explain all the be- nefit derived from the remedy. It will undoubtedly account for the determination to the, skin, and, joined with the stimulus of the heat, to the evacuations occasion- ed by warm bathing. When we reflect however that the sub cuta- neous nerves, as closely connect- ed with the skin as the vessels,are subject to this relaxing warmth, we BA BA must suppose some of the benefit to be derived from this source also. In higher degrees, the stimulus we shall find to be very advantageous. The state of the extreme vessels is soon communicated to other or- gans; and as these in every part of the body sympathise with the ves- sels of the surface, a considerable relaxation must be thus obtained. In a certain degree their increas- ed action gives a tone to the nerves; and we may therefore suppose that their relaxation pro- duces an opposite state. In this way the effects on the nerves may be explained without suppos- ing any immediate effect of the bath on the nervous system ; and we thus see how moderate heat may relax, and a higher tempe- rature give a tone to the nerves. Two other opinions must be no- ticed. One of these is the gene- ral language of relaxing contract- ed ligaments, as if from the ex- ternal action of warm water, the subjacent parts were macerated like the skin. There is not the slightest evidence of the fluid penetrating beyond the surface ; indeed the oily fluid below the skin must prevent it; and, from what has been said, its immediate contact will appear to be unne- cessary in the explanation of the effects of bathing. Dr. Stevenson has attributed all the effects of warm bathing to a rarefaction of the blood ; and this idea is supported by all the ap- pearances of external fullness. The language is echoed in every medical work without careful ex- amination. In fact, the blood is one of the least expansile fluids by heat which has ever been tried. Sauvages enclosed it in a thermo- metrical tube, and found that at 212° it did not expand T£CT part. Haller exposed it to a still greater heat with the same result. In- deed, the expansility of fluids fol- lows no given law. ./Ether and quicksilver are nearly equal in this respect; at least, as we were in- formed by Dr. Black, who had tri- ed the experiment, the difference was very inconsiderable. In the cure of diseases, there- fore, the beneficial effects of warm bathing are to be expected from its relaxing power ; the increase of the circulation in the extreme vessels ; with the perspiration ex- cited, and its general stimulus. In melancholy, its effects as a relax- ant are most conspicuous ; and in some spasmodic diseases without inflammation, particularly tetanus, it has been useful. In ileus it has been highly commended ; but we have suspected that it hastens the progress of mortification, and are convinced that its free use has had injurious effects. Dr. Heberden however, in the Medical Transac- tions, mentions the case of a wo- man who went into the bath nine times in one day, while labouring under an ileus in consequence of a hernia. In the spasmodic asthma of children it has been employed with success. In the croup also it has been commended, but scarce- ly any benefit has been derived from its employment. Modern theory supposes a spasm on the extreme vessels to prevail in case of fevers ; and warm bath- ing must, of course, be a remedy of importance. We are not pre- pared to discuss the question of the cause of fevers, but may re- mark, that the circulation during the paroxysm is not carried on in the smaller branches of the san- guiferous system. In intermittents it has consequently prevented the return of a fit; and in continued fevers it is often highly useful. In the beginning of continued fevers it is, however, less advantageous than in their decline ; and in this state the bath must be supplied hy the pediluvium,or,more common- BA BA ly, by warm fomentations to the legs and thighs. In inflammatory fever it is less useful; yet at 98°, where the action of the heart and arteries is scarcely, if at all, in- creased, it may safely be employ- ed ; and Dr. Whytt, on the fourth day of this fever, has used it with advantage. In the latter period of typhus, when the low delirium oc- curs, it has been freely employed, and at least with some alleviation of the symptoms, if not with more decisive advantages ; and should even inflammation have taken place in the brain, as it is of a less active kind, no injury is likely to result. Dr. Whytt supposes that fomentations are less useful than pediluvia; but in the low state to wl ich the patient is usu- ally reduced before the bath is em- ployed, the former only are ad- missible. It will be remarked, that in vapour greater heat can be borne than in water; and, conse- quently, when the fomentation is properly employed, the heat of the fLnnels is seldom less than 120° of Fahrenheit. Ot the exanthemata, the only disease in which bathing has been employed, is the small-pox. In Upper Hungary, Fischer has de- scribed it as the domestic remedy for this disease ; and, in an epide- mic small-pox of considerable vi- rulence, by imitating this prac- tice, he was very successful. Dr. Stack, in his Thesis published at Leyden, has shown that variolous fevers threatening a copious erup- tion, were mitigated by warm bath- ing, and the disease proceeded mildly and safely. When the eruptions are repelled also, it has been very useful. The heat of the bath should be carefully regu- lated, and should certainly not ex- ceed 100°. In hemorrhages and phlegmasie the use of bathing is equivocal ; yet, with caution, it has been employed in the latter success- fully. In amenorrhea from cold it has been useful; and such is the po- pular prejudice in favour of pedi- luvium, that it is too indiscrimi- nately used. It is chiefly adapted to the strong and robust, where the suppression has been owing to a violent occasional cause. In the pain from stone in the ureters, or the gall ducts, from its relaxing power, it is a valuable remedy. From its power of determining to the surface, it is useful where any acrimony is to be discharged, or any unequal balance of the cir- culation is to be removed. In the former view we find it employed in cutaneous diseases and syphilis ; in the latter, in chronic catarrhs and diarrhaas. In the .first it chiefly assists the effects of mer- cury, and in the latter only sup- plies the advantages of a milder climate. In hydrophobia it has been employed, though with no very particular success. The an- cient physicians used it in their complicated form, but concluded with immersing the patient into the piscina, the cold bath. As a stimulus, the warm bath has been found very useful; and in the diseases for which it is most successfully employed, the heat must be raised very high, far be- yond that used in the experiments described. To this high degree of heat the peculiar virtues of the Bath waters are to be attributed, rather than to their impregnation. They are assisted also by the per- cussion in pumping on an affect- ed part; a mode of application which greatly adds also to the tonic power of the cold bath. In cases of hemiphlegia there have been many doubts respecting the use of the warm bath. These chiefly arise from the disease be- ing often occasioned by effusion on the brain, which the necessarv BA BA stimulus might increase ; and ma- ny instances have been adduced of its producing in such cases a fatal apoplexy. Untloubtedly, where marks of a determination to the head are strong; where the pa- tient has not passed the meridian of life ; or where the vessels have been stimulated by a continued excess of wine and spirituous li- quors ; warm bathing is a preca- rious remedy. In palsies in gene- ral, however, it may perhaps be allowed ; and, as we have sain, in amaurosis : so we shall find in hae- miphlegia, that the effusion hav- ing once taken place, the disease is continued in consequence of the injury which the nervous system has received from the compres- sion. We may then disregard the cause, except in the younger and more inflammatory constitutions just described. It should, how- ever, be managed with caution : a drain from the head should be established by a perpetual blister, and the bowels freely emptied pre- vious to its employment. There is little management re- quired in the use of the balneum in chronic rheumatism. It is a dis- ease nearly allied to palsy, as the vessels, from the previous disten- sion, are rendered paralytic, and contract spasmodically on fluids, probably in too large a proportion. The warm bath is particularly useful, and often alone will cure the disease. In that species of it confined to the hip joint, sciatica, bathing and pumping on the part affected, is a very valuable re- medy. In the hip joint also, the relax- ation of the ligament often occa- sions or endangers dislocation. It is the morbus coxarius of Dr. Haen ; the arthropnosis of other authors. If it has not yet advanced to a suppuration, the Bath waters have certainly relieved a large proportion of those who have ap- plied for their assistance; nor need we despair of imitating their effects by employing an equal tem- perature, and pouring it from a height. It would not require any great ingenuity to contrive a hand pump fixed in a reservoir, which is continually filling from cocks conveying boiling and cold water. The size of the aperture, or the number of cocks conveying cold water, might easily regulate the heat. A common garden engine might be readily converted to this purpose. Contracted limbs are greatly be- nefited by warm pumping, and gra- dually moving the limb during the relaxation obtained. Dr. Blegbo- rough, in these local diseases, has contrived a receptacle for the part from which the air is exhausted while the vapour is applied ; but this seems unnecessary. If the vapour is confined, all the benefit will be obtained without previous exhaustion ; or, in reality, the va- pour itself, by rarefying the air, will exhaust the vessel sufficiently. The warm bath, if the tempe- rature is too high, will certainly be injurious to the plethoric, or those disposed to any accumula- tions in particular parts, unless they arc such as the bath may dis- sipate. In the weak, the relaxed, and the irritable, it is hurtful; and hence the indiscriminate use of pediluvium in chlorosis and amaenorrhcea has been highly in- jurious. In both views it is inju- rious in hectic fevers, and in schir- rosities of the liver. Hoffman thinks it hurtful in asthma; and it will be seemingly so from its effect on the respiration. Dr. Fal- coner differs from him in this re- spect ; and on trial, in convulsive asthma, it has not seemed parti- cularly injurious, though so much benefit was not derived from it as to induce a repetition. Those sub- ject to haemorrhage should be cau- BA BA tious in its use ; and, in general, danger may attend its employment after any agitation of mind or body, which greatly quickens the circu- lation. The Romans used it in the time of the emperors after a full meal: the practice is repro- bated by Juvenal and Horace, ra- ther as a luxurious than a danger- ous indulgence. After the bathing, sweating be- tween flannels is generally enjoin- ed ; but if we wish to employ it as a stimulus, a copious perspira- tion should not be too freely in- dulged. The contracted vessels should be excited to action, but their powers should not be ex- hausted. Fomentations and embroca- tions are partial warm baths, and supposed to derive some virtue from their impregnations ; but in general the heat and moisture, when the latter are used warm, are the most beneficial agents. Warm baths, impregnated with different medicinal substances, are said to derive,from these,peculiar advantages. We know of no in- stance in which the waters of Bath have been imitated for external use. Those of Harrowgate have been prepared by adding sulphu- rated kali to water, in the propor- tion of two ounces to a sufficient quantity of fluid for a bath. They are chiefly used in cutaneous com- plaints, but we have had no ex- perience of their efficacy. An impregnation of warm wa- ter, though not an artificial one. is employed in warm sea-water. This bath is supposed to be a more active stimulant than common wa- ter, and to be more useful, not on- ly in palsy, but from the absorp« tion of its salts in scrophulous complaints. We have reason to think that its powers are consider- able ; and it may be used at alow temperature in constitutions that cannot bear the shock of cold im- mersion, and in weak habits as a good preparative for sea-bathing. The greater weight and pressure of salt-water has been supposed to render it more useful as a bath than fresh. It certainly is so; though, during the short immer- sion, we cannot easily perceive how any advantage can arise from its weight. In pumping, or pour- ing from a height, the momentum is certainly greater, and the ad- vantages are proportionally in- creased. Near smelting huts it is not un- common to impregnate baths with the scoriae of iron, and sometimes with the mixed slag of copper, cobalt, &c. The slags and scoriae are immersed in water while hot, or heated again for the purpose ; and the baths thus prepared are supposed to be peculiarly useful as tonics. With a similar view, it has sometimes been a practice of boiling alum and quick-lime together for a bath. Scheutzer describes the pep- per-water of the Alps, which was formerly highly esteemed as a bath. It breaks out in a place al- most inaccessible with great im- petuosity in the spring, and con- tinues till near October. The water, however, according to this author, contains no particular mi- neral. The vapour bath conveys heat less speedily than water, but a greater heat can be borne, and for a longer period. This, in reality, was the warm bath of the Romans, as it is of the Swedes, Russians, and the native Americans ; and it is probably more efficacious, both as a relaxant and a stimulant. It is certain, that water in a vesicular state is more powerful in its hy- grometical affinity than when fluid; and Saussure, when he fixed the extreme point of moisture in his hygrometers in water, found that the index, in a fog, passed beyond BA BA it. This was our meaning when we remarked that man could live in air beyond the point of extreme humidity. A bath of a different kind is that of warm sand or earth. The for- mer is used by sailors in scurvy ; the latter, we believe, has only been employed by quacks. We remember attending some experi- ments of this kind. A glowing heat was felt in the parts surround- ed by the earth, but we remarked no peculiar change in the counte- nance that would lead us to sup- pose it a powerful remedy, and certainly no disease was relieved by it. The complaints to which it is apparently best adapted are cutaneous. See Edinb. Med. Com- ment. Decad. 2d. vol. x. p. 153 ; also among the ancients, Hippo- crates, Celsus, Ccelius, Aurelianus, Aretaeus, and Trallian; and among the moderns, Sir John Floyer, Dr. Wainwright on Bathing, and par- ticularly Hoffman. Balneum is a word much used by chemists, and generally signifies a vessel of water, in which another is placed that requires a less heat than the naked fire : but their Balneum Marie is a mistake for Balneum Maris, which signifies only a sea or water-bath. A sand-heat is also sometimes called Balneum Siccum, or Cinereum. But what comes more properly under this term in medicine, are baths which are made so by art or nature, to wash the patient in. The artificial baths have, by the ancients, been in great esteem, and contrived for many purposes, especially in complaints to be relieved by revulsion ; as in inveterate head-achs, by opening the pores of the feet; and also, in cutaneous cases they were much in esteem. But the modern practice has greatest recourse to the natu- ral baths. The cold baths are only the most convenient springs or 1 e- servatories of cold water to wash in. They have been long banish- ed out of medicine by a monkish philosophy and chemistry ; for the ancients had them in great esteem ; and, by good luck, some improve- ments in physical reasoning, from the assistances of geometry and mechanics, have brought them into tolerable countenance again ; and the present age can produce us abundance of noble cures per- formed by them. Balneum Arene, Balneum Sic- cum. The Sand-Bath. Over the mouth of a common wind furnace place one end of an iron plate with a ledge round it, and under this plate the canal must run, by which the furnace commu- nicates with its chimney ; the plate must then be filled with sand or other dry matter for placing the medicines to be digested in. The heat from the fire will be different in different parts of the plate ; and thus, as more or less warmth is required, different situations are chosen. The vessel containing the matter to be heated hath its bottom and sides totally covered with the sand, and there it is continued until the digestion is completed. Ashes may be used in this bath when a lesser heat is wanted, sand for a greater, and iron filing for the greatest. Balneum Marie, vel Maris. The Sea-water Bath; which admits of greater heat than boiling water, though sometimes it implies this only. In this bath, wrater supplies the place of sand; and when a greater heat than that of boiling water is not required, this method of digestion is preferable to that by the sand-bath, because the heat cannot exceed at any time that which is required. Balneum Siccum. See Balneum Arene. Balneum Vaporis. A Vapour Bath. This is properly when the BA BA vessel containing the matter to be digested is exposed only to the steam that arises from boiling water. Balsams. Balsams are fluid, odorous, combustible substances, that communicate a sweet taste to water, and contain concrete acids, which may be obtained by subli- mation or decoction. Chemists are not agreed as to the difference between balsams and resins. Balsam of Copaiba. A yellow resinous juice, of a moderately agreeable smell, and a bitterish biting taste, that remains a long time in the mouth. It is obtained from the Copaifera officinalis of Linnaeus, by making deep incisions near the base of its trunk. The juice flows so freely as to afford twelve pounds in about three hours. Balsam of Copaiba, like most other balsams, is nearly al- lied to the turpentines, with which it is always mixed in the shops. It was formerly thought to be a very efficacious remedy. It de- termines very powerfully to the kidneys, and impregnates the urine with its qualities. It is given prin- cipally in gonorrhaeas, phthisis pulmonalis, fluor albus, and in ne- phritic complaints.—Gts. x. to lx. Balsam of Gilead. Balsamum de Mecca. Opobahamum. Balsamum verum. This resinous juice, ob- tained by making incisions into the bark of the amyris gileadensis of Linnaeus, is of a light yellow colour, of a bitter, acrid, adstrin- k^nt taste, and of a very strong smell, resembling that of lemons. The chief mark of its goodness is said to be founded on this, that when dropped on water, it spreads itself all over the surface, forming a thin pellicle, tough enough to be taken up upon the point of a pin, and at the same time impreg- nating the water with its smell and flavour. Its virtues are simi- lar to those of the Canada and Co- paiba balsams. Balsam of Peru. Balsamum peruvianum. The tree which pro- duces this resinous fluid is de- scribed by the younger Linnaeus by the name of Myroxylon perui- fcrum. Two species of this bal- sam are imported into this coun- try—the common or black, and the white. The first, which is chiefly used, is about the consis- tence of a syrup, of a dark, opake, reddish brown colour, inclining to black, and of an agreeable aroma- tic smell, and a very hot pungent taste. The white balsam, called also white storax, is brought over in gourd-shells, and is of a pale yellow colour, thick and tenacious, becoming, by' age, solid and brit- tle. They are esteemed as warm nervine medicines, and are some- times used by surgeons in. certain conditions of wounds and ulcers.-«- Gts. iv. to xv. Balsam of Tolu. This juice, which is considered as a true bal- sam by modern chemists, is of a reddish, yellow, transparent co- lour ; in consistence thick and te- nacious ; by age it becomes so hard and brittle, that it may be rubbed into a powder between the finger and thumb. Its smell is extremely fragrant, somewhat re- sembling that of citrons: its taste is warm and sweetish : on being chewed it adheres to the teeth. Thrown into the fire it immedi- ately liquefies, takes flame, and disperses an agreeable odour. The tree which affords this balsam, from incisions of its bark, is the Toluifera balsamum of Linnaeus, which grows in South-America, between Carthagena and Hondu- ras. Tolu balsam possesses cor- roborant, stomachic, and nervine qualities. It has been chiefly used as a pectoral, and is directed in the Pharmacopeias in the syrupus to- lutaiius, tinctura tolutuna, and sy- rup.u:! balsamicus.—Gts. v. to 9i. Balsavics. A term generally HA BA applied to substances of a smooth and oily consistence, which possess emolient, sweet, and generally aromatic qualities. Balsamum Canadense. One of the purest turpentines procured from the pinus balsamea of Lin- naeus, and imported from Canada. For its properties, 8cc. see Tur- pentines.—Gts. x. to xl. or more. Bangue, an Indian plant whose stalk resembles that of hemp. Its seeds and leaves are heating, and strangely affect the imagination. Barba, a beard. In Botany a species of pubescence covering the surface of plants. Barbadoes Oil, a variety of the black species of Petroleum. It is opake and thick, like treacle. Barbary-bush. See Berberis. Bardana, burdock. Bardana Major, clotburr, or great burdock. Arctium lappa of Linnaeus. A plant which grows about waste grounds, and in hed- ges. The Pharmacopeia directs the root for medicinal use : it has no smell, but tastes sweetish, and mixed, as it were, with a slight bitterness and roughness. It does not appear to possess those quali- ties which have been attributed to it; yet, as a diuretic and pectoral, in form of decoction, it has some claim to our attention.—3 i- Bardana Minor, lesser burdock, or louse-burr. Barilla. Soda. Natron. The plant from which this mineral al- kali is principally procured, is the Salsola kali of Linnaeus, which is cultivated on the coast of the Me- diterranean. The plants, about the time the seeds become ripe, are pulled up by the roots, and exposed in a suitable dry place, where their seeds are collected ; this being done, the plants are tied up in bundles, and burned in an oven constructed for the pur- pose, where the ashes are conti- nually stirred, while hot. The saline matter falls to the bottom, and, on becoming cold, forms a hard solid mass, which is after- wards broken into pieces of a con- venient size for exportation. This alkaline salt has been sup- posed to be a decomposition of the sea-salt of the kali-plant, by fire, during its incineration. This, however, is a mistake; for the quantity of alkali is very far great- er than the amount of sea-salt which could be extracted by any process before burning. If the plant be not completely burned, or if it be rotten, very little barilla is obtained. Barilla, however, al- ways contains a portion of sea- salt, either naturally or intention- ally mingled with it. Hence it appears that the alkali is the crea- ture of the fire, produced by syn- thesis in the act of burning these maratime plants, as pot-ash is dur- ing the combustion of oak, beech, and other upland vegetables. Ba- rilla is the commercial name for this article, and in the shops of apothecaries it is known by the term of soda, or sal sodae. It is a precious article of the materia medica. It is mild, and possesses but little causticity, and therefore may be prescribed with great safety, even to delicate constitu- tions and tender infants. Dissolv- ed in water, soda or barilla is an excellent cleanser of the mouth from febrile, syphilitic and ulcer- ous sordes. It is even the most pleasant mouth-wash and preser- ver of the teeth for persons in health ; destroying the septic acid, and all other acidity about the teeth, without inflaming or in the least injuring the gums or other parts of the mouth. It renders the teeth smooth, and destroys the fcetor of the breath. Taken into the stomach, soda is an ad- mirable remedy for the heart-burn and pain and uneasiness caused by acids there. In the dysentery, it BA BA is one of the best of all medicines ; for if administered in the early stages of the disease, its benefi- cial effects are soon perceptible. It neutralizes the septic acidity of the faeces, relaxes the spasms of the guts, heals up the ulcerations, if there be any, and acts as a gen- tle purgative. If tenesmus is vio- lent, it may be given most advan- tageously in clysters, and in this way it almost immediately gives relief. Another advantage of pre- scribing soda in dysentery is, that the offensiveness of the stools is almost wholly destroyed by it, and their infectious quality entirely prevented and overcome. Those foul and intolerable evacuations which render a dysenteric patient so horribly offensive, and often- times considerably dangerous to the attendants, are unknown to the alkaline mode of practice. In the diarrhoea infantum barilla is also a safe and pleasant remedy, very neat and easy to be administered. A weak solution of it in water is a good wash for eruptions upon the skin, and for foul blotches and unsightly spots. See Bile, Nitre, and Soda. Barley. See Hordeum. Barometer, from fixpoc, a weight, and /ustjw, a measure ; frequently called Torricellian Tube, from.Tor- ricelli, its inventor. It is an instru- ment for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere; and by that means the variations in the state of the air, foretelling the changes in the weather, and measuring heights or depths, &c. About the beginning of the 17th century, when the doctrine of a plenum was in vogue, it was a common opinion among philoso- phers, that the ascent of water in pumps was owing to what they called nature's abhorrence of a va- cuum; and that thus fluids might be raised by suction to any height whatever. But an accident hav- ing discovered that water could not be raised in a pump unless the sucker reached to within 33 feet of the water in the well, it was conjectured by Galileo, who flou- rished about that time, that there might be some other cause of the ascent of water in pumps, or at least that this abhorrence was limited to the finite height of 33 feet. Being unable to satisfy him- self on this head, he recommend- ed the consideration of the difficul- ty to Torricelli, who had been his disciple. After some time Tor- ricelli, fell upon the suspicion, that the pressure of the atmos- phere was the cause of the ascent of water in pumps ; that a column of water 33 feet high was a just counterpoise to a column of air of the same base, and which extend- ed up to the top of the atmosphere ; and that this was the true reason why the water did not follow the sucker any farther. And this sus- picion was soon after confirmed by various experiments. See Atmos- phere. It was some time, however, be- fore it was known that the pres- sure of the air was various at dif- ferent times in the same place. This could not, however, remain long unknown, as the frequent measuring of the column of mer- cury must soon show its variations in altitude; and experience and observation would presently show that those variations in the mer- curial column were always suc- ceeded by certain changes in the weather, as to rain, wind, frosts, &c.: hence this instrument soon came into use as the means of foretelling the changes of the wea- ther, and on this account it ob- tained the name of the weather- glass, as it did that of barometer from its being the measure of the weight or pressure of the air. We may now proceed to take a view of its various forms and uses, BA BA are well known. The whole body is contracted ; the bulbs of the hair are conspicuous; and the skin, resembling that of a newly pluck- ed goose, has been styled cutis an- serina. The debility and tremor are considerable; a sense of weight is felt in the head; the respiration is quick and laborious. These ap- pearances are followed by a very different series. A glow soon re- turjis to the surface ; the weight in the head is almost instantane- ously relieved, and every func- tion appears to be carried on with increased activity. If a person stays for a longer period in the cold bath, the glow will be slighter and soon disappear, while every pre- vious symptom of debility will re- turn and continue. Few experiments have been made on the effect of the pulse after cold bathing. Dr. Stock has, in the trials he made, found in ge- neral the pulse quicker and weaker after immersion ; in a few instan- ces only, slower. The writer of this article has found similar re- sults ; but the pulse, felt at a more distant period than that mentioned by Dr. Stock, has been usually more slow and full. In a slight feverish complaint, the quickness of the pulse was greatly mitigat- ed. Other authors have found the pulse much slower, but this was the consequence of partial cold enly. If the immersions are at due in- tervals repeated, and the stay in the bath be not improperly con- tinued, the general health and spi- rits are greatly improved; the dif- ferent necessary evacuations pro- perly carried on and supported; and the body and mind appear to act with increased vigour. The explanation of these phe- nomena is not difficult. The cold, by its sedative power, represses the circulation in the extreme ves- sels, and the fluids are accumu- lated in-the larger arteries and veins. Whether the distension excites the action of the former; whether in consequence of repres- sed irritability it is afterwards restored with greater vigour ; or whether the vires medicatrices re- act to conquer debility; we must not now inquire: but in every such circumstance, from one of these causes, the circulation is again restored with additional ac- tivity. The repetition of cold bathing produces tonic effects, which we are inclined to attribute to the frequent exertion of this re-acting power. According to the management of this remedy, we may therefore secure very different and opposite effects. A sudden change in the determination of the blood and nervous power, assisting its re- action, will produce a very differ- ent effect from the continued, and this again from the repeated, ap- plication ; a distinction necessary to be attended to, in considering the different diseases in which the application of cold water has been considered as a remedy. From the sudden changes in the determination of the blood it has been employed in many dis- eases, and particularly to prevent or remove the paroxysms of an intermittent. In the attack of this disease, there is a similar change of determination to that which has been described from the ef- fects of the cold bath ; and it is relieved by a similar exertion of the constitution. The cold bath therefore may be supposed to ex- cite that exertion, and to render the subsequent relief more per- manent and effectual; or, if the determination to the skin from the bathing has come on, the fit may be wholly prevented. The plan certainly has succeeded, and it is mentioned by Senac to have been useful even after the cold fit has BA BA appeared. (De recondita Febrium Natura, p. 218.) If continued fevers are only in- termittents whose paroxysms run into each other, so that the earlier stages are less observable, we may see some foundation for its use in these also. Remittents are con- fessedly of the same nature as in- termittents ; and in the Breslaw fever (the tryteophya Wratisla- viensis of Sauvages), De Hahn used the application of cold wa- ter with success. It brought on a glow of warmth; and, in the language of the ancient physician, inde novi motus initium. In some other cases of typhus it has been employed, seemingly with suc- cess; but in some late trials, at a period of the disease when the powers of nature were unable to excite these new motions, it was unsuccessful, and even dangerous. Dr. Currie's practice of cold ab- lutions we shall soon consider. In ileus the practice of dashing cold water against the legs and thighs of a patient standing on a cold floor has certainly succeeded. It is mentioned by Brassavolus as the practice of Savanarola, and is recommended by Hoffman (iv. 349). The latest author who seems to have employed it successfully is Dr. Stevenson (Edinburgh Me- dical Essays, vi. 895). We re- member having tried it with little advantage. If sudden immersion in cold water has prevented threat- ening paroxysms of hysteria and epilepsy, it must be referred to altered determination. The debility occasioned by con- tinuing long in the cold bath, has occasioned its employment in many instances, where the excitement of both the nervous and sanguife- rous systems was morbidly in- creased. In cases of phrensy it has been employed with success ; but the most striking instance of this kind is in Dr. Willis's work, De AnimaBrutorum, p. 264. The most frequent cases in which its advantages have been conspicuous, occurred from phrenitic patients escaping their confinement and running spontaneously to a river or pond. Applications of cold water to the head are frequently employed ; but the more general influence of cold must produce a more powerful effect. There may appear to be some danger from rupture of the over-distended ves- sels of the brain, but no such ac- cident seems ever to have oc- curred. In scarlatina Dr. Currie has lately shown the advantages of cold ablu- tions, and the necessity of continu- ing them steadily to obviate the vio- lent heat which attends the parox- ysms of this complaint; and he has been successfully followed with equal spirit and perseverance by Dr. Gregory. As the object is t» abate heat, it is only used in this complaint when the heat is very violent, and continued until it is mitigated. In small-pox, accident has also shown its utility; and in the whimsical compilation of Dr. Baynard there are numerous in- stances of this kind. It has in this complaint also been continued till the extreme heat is repressed, and on returning to bed a gentle per- spiration has come on; some of the pustules have filled,and the greater number in the skin have disappear- ed. Since the general progress of vaccination we shall probably have little occasion for this remedy, ei- ther communicated by air or water. In hemorrhages, cold bathing, or more frequently, cold applications, have been employed with the same views; nor, excepting in haemorr- hoids and haemoptyses, has it been neglected: in the former, as a sup- posed critical discharge ; and in the latter, from apprehension of accumulating the blood in the lungs. Cold drinks have, how- BA BA ever, inhasmoptyscs supplied their place ; and it is doubtful whether the American practice of giving a solution of common salt may not derive part of its advantages,from the cold of the water, which com- mon salt howeverwill not increase. The utility of nitre in all haemorr- hages, is certainly increased by the cold it imparts to water during its solution. Hippocrates remarks, that the cold should be applied *k non supra ipsas partes, sed circa ipsas, unde profluit." The hae- morrhage most certainly relieved by cold is maenorrhagia, and par- ticularly that of pregnant or puer- peral women. It may be safely and advantageously carried to a very considerable extent. In more general fevers, cold in every form is useful. In those of our own climate, cool air and cool drinks are perhaps sufficient. In those of warmer regions, however, the cold must be more actively exhibited. It is chiefly confined to such fevers as have considera- ble internal heat without topical affections ; and whether with Hip- pocrates we give water J? ^yp^o- vkto-j ; with Lommius and Avicen- na apply cold water or snow to the extremities; with Celsus apply vine-leaves dipped in water to the pit of the stomach ; the principle is the same. Paulus ./Egineta re- commends bathing; and in later periods it has been employed by Doctor Stevenson. But the most striking and satisfactory case is that of Sir J. Chardin in the Gom- bron fever of the remittent kind, related by himself, in which the coldest drinks, and the application of cold water externally, was of the greatest service. The Nea- politan physicians, following the ancients, according to the plans detailed by Lommius, give the coldest drinks ; and if faint sweats come on, the water is if possible rendered still colder with snow and ice ; for Cyrillus adds, thai " a person who sweats while un- der this course, is in danger of losing his life by faintness." If cold drinks do not produce this effect, " the patient is uncovered, exposed to cold air, and continu- ally fanned ; and some have gone so far as to sprinkle snow powder- ed on the skin." The plague is at- tended with great internal heat, and cold applications have been found useful. Dr. Baynard has detailed many rambling stories of this kind, and we apprehend that they have been of service in our late experience of this disease in Egypt. Dr. Rush used cold ap- plications with advantage in the yellow-fever. In mania, cold bathing seems to have attracted the attention of Van Helmont, in consequence of an accident which happened to a carpenter at Antwerp, and he af- terwards employed it designedly. The patient was immersed so long as was necessary to repeat, dis- tinctly, the psalm " Miserere ;" and though he would be often taken up apparently lifeless, Van Helmont adds, that he might be recovered; " since people do not die from being under water so soon as is imagined." It is how- ever more to the purpose to re- mark, that this remedy is spoken of with respect by Boerhaave, and countenanced by Van Swieten. The repeated action of cold bathing affords numerous oppor- tunities of relieving some of the most troublesome and obstinate diseases to which the human frame is subject. Every com- plaint arising from debility in its varied forms and numerous con- sequences often yields to this re- medy, when every other has prov- ed ineffectual. Palsy, so often benefited by the stimulus of the warm bath, is greatly relieved by the tonic power of the cold ; nor BA BA is the danger of its being impro- perly applied so great. It must not be used early in the complaint if the case is hemiphlegia, nor until every symptom of congestion is removed. The partial palsies will not require even this precau- tion ; but the cold is more useful if the water is poured from a height, or thrown from a pump, on the part affected. Chronic rheumatism we have said is a paralytic affection of over- distended vessels, and cold bath- ing is a singularly useful remedy. Sir John f loyer thinks it more beneficial if the patient is after- wards put between blankets to sweat. In the intervals of gout, if the patient is perfectly free from the disease, it is of service in re- storing flexibility to the stiffened limbs, giving strength, and per- haps protracting, with safety, the return of the paroxysm. In stiff- ness of the joints from old strains, or any cause, it is useful; and the sea bathing has been supposed particularly so in white swellings of the knee. In other forms of scrophula, bathing and drinking salt water alternately are very serviceable. In the hemorrhages without fe- ver, called by pathologists passive, and in the mucous discharges from relaxation, the tonic power of the cold bath is useful. In those little fevers, connected with debility, or owing to excess, it re- lieves ; though it is doubtful whe- ther it be from its tonic power, or in the language of Petron, from its exciting new motions. In clo- rosis, though it does not produce any very rapid benefit, it is often of the greatest service to the ge- neral health, and ultimately brings on the expected evacuation. When poisons or infectious mi- asmata have been communicated to the animal body, we often find that they lie dormant, till some exciting and generally debilitating cause gives them activity. This renders cold bathing of use dur- ing the progress of an epidemic, and it is a valuable part of the prophylaxis. Bathing has been supposed also to prevent hydro- phobia ; but as few of the animals supposed to be mad are really so, and of those really bitten by mad animals, few are infected, the ad- vantages from bathing are equi- vocal. If we look into the old authors, we shall find that bathing was employed with considerable severity, and with every circum- stance that could agitate the mind and fix the attention. Tulpius, one of the chief advocates for the utility of this remedy, considers the mode of administration to be a very important part of the pro- cess ; and it may have been so, for modern practitioners have not found it very successful. When narcotic poisons have been swal- lowed, and tremors, &c. have been produced, cold bathing has been very beneficial. Baccius men- tions its efficacy against the poi- son of the juice of the mandrake. The Indians are recovered from the stupefaction occasioned by the datura, by moistening the soles of their feet with cold water; dogs stupified by the carbonic acid air of the Grotto del Cani, are re- covered by being thrown into the neighbouring lake; and sailors recover their intoxicated com- rades by a dip in the sea. The spasmodic and convulsive diseases are relieved by the tonic powers of the cold bath. In cho- rea, though often used, it is less successful, and in tetanus there is seldom time for the proper action of this remedy, though it has been employed with advantage. Sir John Floyer has remarked, that cold bathing is injurious in palsies when the patient is ple- thoric and feverish. It pr»bab!y «15 BA BA is so whenever any partial pletho- ra or local obstructions exist in any of the more important viscera. Jaundice may perhaps be an ex- ception to this opinion. In the passage of a stone through the gall duct it seems to have been of service ; but it was probably in cases where the liver was other- wise sound. In some of the west- ern islands, a patient in the jaun- dice is laid on his belly, and a pail of cold water unexpectedly thrown on his back (Smith's Curiosities of common Water). It is injurious also when the stomach is full, or/when the patient has been previously weakened. A ruptur- ed blood-vessel, or an incurable obstruction, may be the result of the former error; and in the lat- ter case the constitution may not have sufficient power to restore the determination to the surface. When the body is heated it is also dangerous to bathe, though the young and strong transgress this rule with impunity. Bathing in the Sea is on the whole preferable, as the heat is more uniform. It is, we think, also, perhaps from the agitation of the water, more refreshing. Other causes of preference have been assigned: one is, the greater pressure of the water impreg- nated with salt; the other, the stimulus of the salt left on the skin. Each may have some effect, and the latter ground of prefer- ence is assuredly more certain than the former. We cannot easily conceive how the momentary in- crease of pressure can have any considerable effect, except by the increase of momentum ; and the stay in the sea is too short to ex- pect much advantage from this source. The river water, heated from the vicinity of the shore, is less active than the sea water, whose heat is uniform in summer, and more so in wimor; and the sea water, warmed from 75° t.a 82°, may be an useful bath for in- valids, preparatory to immersion in the sea. In these baths of a higher temperature the patient should stay a longer time than in the sea or fresh water. It is an observation of Galen, that a more temperate bath is not less useful than a cold one, if the stay be protracted in it. The shower bath, a modern in- vention, in which the water falls through numerous apertures op the body, is a remedy much less pleasing, but probably more useful than the sea or river bath. The cold is greatly increased from the momentum ; and, as the water is usually taken from wells, its heat is uniform, about 51° in this cli- mate, the mean of the earth. In winter the river water is much cooler, but generally superior in heat to that of the air. Bathing, therefore, through the winter is not a practice so severe as may be supposed, except when it is ne- cessary to break the ice. Even then, however, the water below is higher than the freezing point, as its latent heat cannot escape, and the temperature of the air is often far below it. The time of bathing should be as soon in the spring as settled weather can be obtained; and, from the long prevalence of eas- terly winds on the eastern coasts, the southern seem preferable at that time. The most advantage- ous part of the day is the morn- ing, before breakfast; but, when the weather is not warm, and the patient is much debilitated, it may be proper to begin in the fore- noon, after a light and early break- fast. The usual mode of immer- sion, first plunging the head, is undoubtedly preferable ; but if the whole body is very soon immers- ed, this precision is of little im- portance. The stay in the bath is BA B£ oi more consequence : many come out after the first immersion, and indeed this is the most common, and often the most advantageous method It sometimes happens, however, that the glow is so vio- lent, as to leave in the subsequent part of the day a chilliness ; and in such circumstances we have advised a second dipping, which, repressing the too violent deter- mination to the surface, has ren- dered it more equable and perma- nent. If any debility arises from staying too long, some warm wine and water, warm tea, or any simi- lar fluid, drank frequently while the patient is laid between blan- kets, will relieve it. It has been supposed that where the fluids are too much attenuated, bathing will be injurious. We have already said that we have scarcely any evidence of this tak- ing place. We know from fre- quent experience that no such ef- fect is produced by sea water; and if any of the neutral salt were absorbed independent of the fluid, it might produce the effect. Seamen, however, fishermen, and the sea bathers, who are constantly immersed in salt-water, never ex- perience any inconvenience from this cause. One other form of cold bath has been employed, viz. the cold air bath. This consists only in exposing the body for a few mi- nutes to the cold air, partly se- cured by a loose dressing-gown. With prudent precautions this practice may be useful, and even salutary. The effects to be ex- pected must depend on the heat of the atmosphere, and the tem- perature of the body when expos- ed to it. Sponging the whole body with cold water is of the greatest consequence, particularly in cases of chronic debility, where the cold bajth cannot be obtained, or is from circumstances inadmissible. Bathonia Aqua, Bath water. It is the hottest of the waters in England that are called Sulphu- reous. Most hot waters (that are naturally so) contain a ferrugi- neous and a sulphureous part, though always but a small propor- tion of them. The sulphureous principle is in a volatile state, and the iron in Bath water is not one quarter of a grain in a gallon. Of acidulous gas there are about twelve ounces in a gallon; of earthy matters near half an ounce; and of sea-salt about a dram. The heat of this water raises Fahren- heit's thermometer from about 100 to 114, and, perhaps, to this circumstance it is owing that much of its usefulness depends. Bay-tree, Laurus. Bdellium, the name of a gum- my resinous juice, produced by a tree in the East-Indies, of which we have no satisfactory account. It is brought into Europe both from the East-Indies and Arabia. It is one of the weakest of the deobstruent kind. Bear's-foot, a species of Helle- borus. Becabunga, ,brook-lime, a spe- cies of Veronica. The college have retained this plant in their Pharmacopeia ; it enters the Suc- cus Cochleariae Compositus, for- merly called Succi Scorbutici. Bechica, P^kx, from /&if, a cough, or from fimlu, to cough, any medicine designed to relieve a cough. It is of the same import as the word pectoral. Beef, the flesh of common neat cattle slaughtered for the food of man. It enters largely into hu- man diet, both in its fresh and salted condition, especially among the Anglo-Americans and British. It is one of the great articles of export from the middle and north- ern States of America. Large quantities of it in barrels are an- nuallv brought to the Atlantic sea> BL BE ports from the interior parts of the country, pickled or packed with sea-salt. The history of beef is very curious in a medical as well as a dietetic and commercial point of view. Some facts which have been carefully noted in New- York, the great deposit of this commo'dity, are remarkably in- structive. In the year 1798, an uncommonly large quantity of heef was in the city. A dulness of sale kept a more tfian common quantity at home. The law regu- lating the salting of it was at that time vague and dubious, both as to the quantity and quality of the salt. Liverpool salt, of which large importations have been made to New-York, had been used to cure it; and this, improper as it was, was put into the barrels very spar- ingly. The season was excessive- ly hot. The beef corrupted ; and being stored in cellars and ware- houses in some of the central and busy parts of the city, emitted disagreeable effluvia. The pro- prietors and consignees, finding the beef was tainted and spoiling, began in the heat of the season, to overhale and repack it. In do- ing this, the putrid pickle was thrown in great parcels into the streets; and the exhalations from the meat in the cellars, and the stinking brine in the gutters, were horribly offensive. A pestilential disease broke out in the immedi- ate vicinity of these effluvia, and destroyed the lives of many citi- zens, particularly of those who lived to leeward of their sources. It was remarked by the persons engaged in examining and re-pick- Jing these barrels of beef, that when the meat was beginning to corrupt, it became slimy or slip- pery to the touch, and always emit- ted a sour odour. The Inspector General of provisions, and almost everyone of his assistants, amount- ing to between thirty and forty men, were uniformly sensible of thisaczV flavour. But not only were they sensible of this sourness in the ga- seous emanation from the beef, but the putrid pickle in which it was soaking, was likewise sour to the taste. Nor was the noxious ef- fect of this acid vapour confined to the city. Much of this corrupting beef was carried out of town, and there examined. One of the sworn Inspectors reported to the Health- office, that, in examining a parcel of beef belonging to one merchant only, and that on the healthy shore of Long-Island, six of his men were taken sick. Of the Inspec- tor General's men, almost all were poisoned by the effluvia in differ- ent degrees. Of the pork then in the city, a far less quantity corrupted, and of that which did spoil, very little either of offensiveness or noxious- ness was remarked. The observations made coincid- ed perfectly with Dr. Mitchill's reasoning in his argument in fa- vour of tallow-chandlers and soap- makers of New-York, in 1797. See his discussion before the Legisla- ture. Beef corrupts much sooner than pork; because the former consists principally of lean, and the latter of fat. Of the differ- ent parts of beef, the fat putrifies much less easily than the lean; and of the pork, its lean, though small in quantity, spoils much more readily than its fat. Upon the whole, it was ascertained that the fat was remarkably more slow to putrefy, and when it did corrupt, it afforded no pestilential air. The mischievous product, then, comes from the lean part of ani- mal flesh, whether beef or pork. And as lean differs from fat chiefly in being charged with septon or azote, it is plain this septon must be at the bottom of the destructive work. The product being sour, the septon must be oxygenated ; BE BE and thence it is inferred, that the oxygen associated with it, consti- tutes septic acid. And this septic acid existing sometimes in a liquid, and sometimes in an aerial form, gives rise to dysenteries, yellow and malignant fevers, as their prin- cipal exciting cause. Such are the facts relating to the decay of lean and fat meats. They lead to important conclu- sions, more favourable to the dis- cernment of Bramha, who forbade beef to be eaten, than to that law- giver who would not allow pork to be used as an article of diet. Whatever may have been remark- ed in the eastern parts of the world concerning the flesh of the swine, the experience of the west has amply and unquestionably shown it to be the most wholesome kind of animal food. Beef, on the con- trary, being exceedingly prone to corrupt and turn to poison in the casks where it is pickled, indulges its natural propensity in the sto- mach and intestines of those who feed largely upon it, both in its salted and unsalted condition. This is so much the case, that wherever a beef-ration enters into the diet of seamen, farmers and soldiers, dy- senteries and malignant distem- pers are very apt to make their appearance. The same remarks apply to other kinds of lean meat, as that of the camel, the sheep and the horse, particularly that which is badly salted and that which is quite fresh. The like observa- tion is true of fish and fowl, the lean parts of which, abounding in septon, are more likely to be con- verted to septic or pestilential poi- son, than articles of food consist- ing principally of oil and fat. See these words respectively.—A con- sequence of this proncncssofbeef and other lean meat to turn to pes- tilence and venom is, that the con- tents of the intestines of the per- sons who feed largely on them. may become infectious within their bodies, as in dysentery, and im- mediately after their discharge may poison the air of a room, as the beef might have done if it had pu- trified without having been eaten. The alvine evacuations of such beef-eaters consist of a great pro- portion of decayed or rotten beef; and if they do not abound with sep- tic acid before their expulsion, they commonly turn to it a short time after, rendering the pit or sink into which they are thrown, abominably nauseous, and poison- ous beyond any other species of excrement: for remedy of which evils, alkalies are the natural and efficacious applications, by virtue of their extraordinary and anti- septic power. Weak solutions of mild soda and pot-ash taken into the stomach, and injected into the rectum, will neutralize the cor- roding acid in the alimentary ca- nal, and destroy the fcetor and poi- son of the stools. A little ley poured into the bed-pan will have a similar operation there, and ef- fectually guard nurses and atten- dants against infection. And the same applications will overcome similar effluvia in a jakes or privy, or any where else. Belladonna. Deadly night-shade.. Atropa belladonna of Linnaeus. This plant has been long known as a strong poison of the narcotic kind, and the berries have furnish- ed us with many instances of their fatal effects, particularly upon children that have been tempted to eat them. The leaves were first used externally, to discuss schirrhous and cancerous tumours, and from the good effects attend- ing their use, physicians were in- duced to employ them internally for the same disorders'; and there are a considerable number of well authenticated facts, which prove them a very serviceable and im- portant remedy. The dose, at first. BE BI should be small, and gradually and cautiously increased. Five grains are considered a powerful dose, and apt to produce dimness of sight, vertigo, &c. Ben. The oily acorn, oily nut, or ben-nut. Benzoats, (Bcnzoas, tis, s. m.) Salts formed by the union of the benzoic acid with certain bases; thus benzoat of alumine,ammoniac, antimony, 8cc. Benzoinum, Bcuzo'c, Benjamin tree. A species of Styrax. The college have retained this resin in their Pharmacopeia; it enters the Tinctura Benzoc's Composita, for- merly called Bals. Traumatic ; its flowers enter the Tinctura Opii Camphorata, formerly called Elix. Pareg. This substance is classed, by modern chemists, amongst the balsams. There are two kinds of benzoin : benzoe amygdaloides, which is formed of white tears, resembling almonds, united toge- ther by a brown matter ; and com- mon benzoin, which is brown and without tears. The tree that af- fords this balsam is the Styrax benzoin, according to the London Philosophical Transactions; from which it is obtained by incisions. The benzoin of the shops is usu- ally in very large brittle masses. When chewed, it imparts very lit- tle taste, except that it impresses on the palate a slight sweetness ; its smell, especially when rubbed or heated, is extremely fragrant and agreeable. It has rarely been used medicinally in a simple state, but its preparations are much es- teemed against inveterate coughs, asthmas, and phthysical com- plaints. The acid of benzoin is employed in the tinctura opii cam- phorata, and a tincture is directed to be made of the balsam—grs. v. to 3ss- Berberis, Barberry, or Piftpe- ridge Bush. A genus in Linnae- us's botany. He enumerates four species. , Bergamote, or Bergamot, a spe- cies of Citron, produced at first casually, by an Italian's grafting a citron on the stock of a Bergamot pear-tree ; whence the fruit pro- duced by this union participated both of the citron-tree and the pear-tree. The essence of Ber- gamot is also called Essentia de Cedra. Biceps Musculus, from bis and caput, a double-headed muscle. Biceps Cruris, i. e. Biceps Flexor Cubiti. Biceps Cruris,!, e. Biceps Flexor Cruris. Biceps Externus, i. e. Triceps Extensor Cubiti. Biceps Flexor Cruris. It arises by two distinct heads ; the first, called Longus, arises, in common with the semitendinosus, from the upper and posterior part of the tuberosity of the os ischium. The second, called Brevis, arises from the linea aspera, a little below the termination of the glutseus maxi- mus, by a fleshy acute beginning, which soon grows broader as it de- scends to join with the first head, a little above the external condyle of the os femoris. It is inserted by a strong tendon into the upper part of the head of the fibula. Its use is to bend the leg. This mus- cle forms what is called the outer ham-string ; and between it and the inner, the nervus popliteus, arteria and vena poplitea, are si- tuated. Biceps Flexor Cubiti, also called Biceps Humeri, and Biceps Flexor. It arises by two heads. The first and outermost, called Longus, be- gins tendinous from the upper edge of the glenoid cavity of the scapula, passes over the head of the os humeri within the joint, and, in its descent without the joint, is enclosed in a groove near the head of the os humeri, by a membranous ligament that pro- ceeds from the capsular ligament and adjacent tendons. The se- BI BI r.ond or innermost head, called Brevis, arises, tendinous and fle- shy, from the coracoid process of the scapula, in common with the coraco-brachialis muscle. A lit- tle below the middle of the fore- part of the os humeri these heads unite. It is inserted by a strong roundish tendon into the tubercle on the upper end of the radius in- ternally. Its use is to turn the hand supine, and to bend the fore- arm. At the bending of the elbow, where it begins to grow tendinous, it sends off an aponeurosis, which covers all the muscles on the in- side of the fore-arm, and joins with another tendinous membrane, which is sent off from the triceps extensor cubiti, and covers all the muscles on the outside of the fore- arm, and a number of the fibres, from opposite sides, decussate each other. It serves to strengthen the muscles, by keeping them from swelling too much outwardly, when in action, and a number of their fleshy fibres take their ori- gin from it. Bicuspides. See Molares. Biennial. Herbs are said to be biennial when their roots continue two years. Bifurcated, is said by anatomists of such vessels and parts as divide into two branches. Bigastcr, a name given to mus- cles that have two bellies. Bignonia, trumpet-flower. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates twenty-one species. Biliaria Arteria, the biliary ar- tery. When the hepatic artery hath advanced as far as the vesi- cula fellis, it gives out the bilia- ria, which accompanies the two cystic branches in the gall-blad- der, and then is lost in the greaj: lobe of the liver. Biliary Ducts. The very vas- cular glomeruli, or acini biliosi, which compose almost the whole substance of the liver, terminate in very small canals, called biliary ducts, which at length form one trunk, the ductus hepaticus. Their use is to convey the bile, secreted by the liver, into the hepatic duct. Bile. A bitter yellowish fluid, of a smell somewhat like musk, secreted in the glandular substance of the liver, and conveyed by the biliary ducts, through the ductus hepaticus, into the ductus com- munis choledochus, from whence it is, in part, carried into the in- testinum duodenum. The other part regurgitates through the cys- tic duct into the vesica fellis, or gall-bladder. Thus there are two kinds of bile ; the one, which flows from the liver into the duodenum, is termed hepatic bile; this is thin, inodorous, and slightly bitter : the other, which regurgitates from the hepatic duct into the gall-bladder, and there becomes thicker and more acrid, is called cystic bile. Bile is a fluid of considerable im- portance in the animal economy ; it extricates the chyle from the chyme, excites the peristaltic mo- tion of the intestines, and prevents the abundance of mucus and aci- dity in the primae viae. Next t« the semen, it is the most extra- ordinary secretion in the animal body, as it consists of a quantity of soda or barilla dissolved in a watery menstruum, together with a portion of a bitter material. It has, therefore, been called by Dr. Mitchill the "bitter of soda." See his letter in the 2d volume of the Medical Repository. It has been stated under the article " Alka- lies," that they were the most pow- erful of known antiseptics, for in- animate substances. And the Cre- ator, foreseeing that the food of animals would be liable to deten- tion, acidity, and corruption some- times in the stomach and intes- tines, has provided an alkaline spring in the neighbourhood of the fcowels, which, from iis s.ir.ia- BI tion in the liver, should furnish an adequate supply of this wholesome and antiseptic liquor to prevent the bad consequences of putrify- ing and sour aliment. From its peculiar constitution, the bile or gall is little prone to corruption. It may, accordingly, be kept for years in the gall-bladder of an ani- mal after death, without spoiling. For the secretion of so important, so antiseptic, and so health-pre- serving a liquid, the constitution is endowed with a large viscus, the liver ; whose function it is to pre- pare a due quantity of bile for the purpose of keeping the contents of the alimentary canal from run- ning too rapidly into sourness and putrefaction. When bile meets with an acid, it turns from a yellowish colour to a green. The greenness, there- fore, of the bile when discharged by vomiting or by stool, is a sure indication that it has done its duty by neutralizing, as far as possible, the offending acid. When the duodenum abounds with acidity, the irritation which it causes near the orifice of the ductus commu- nis choledochus, provokes an in- creased secretion, and a more abundant flow of the gall to re- move or overcome the offending cause; after the same manner that snuff applied to the nostrils pro- motes a flow of mucus, dust in the eyes excites a gush of tears, and tobacco in the mouth augments the secretion of spittle. The bile then is not the cause of the dis- eases in which it plentifully ap- pears ; but it is the friend and ally of the constitution in getting the better of noxious, septic, or other acidity, by which it is assailed. There is scarcely any thing more worthy of admiration in the hu- man frame, than the provision of this alkaline, antiseptic and salu- tary liquid in the midst of the vis- cera, where, in its appropriate BI gland, it is prepared copiously, and whence it issues as from a never-failing fountain. When the bile is deficient in quantity or qua- lity, the alimentary canal at first, and the whole constitution after- wards, become disordered. On the other hand, when it flows free- ly, and the noxious or peccant cause is seated high in the alimentary ca- nal, the bile, by a kind and whole- some provision, sometimes regur- gitates in the intestine,and ascends to the stomach itself, relieving it > from oppression and danger. The good done by the refluent gall in such cases, has led to the pre- scription of it when dried and moulded into pills as a remedy. And it is related t hat a dose of fresh gall is a good preventive of indi- gestion, and the ill consequences of gluttony and excessive eating. From these considerations, the reason is evident wherefore the bile is admitted into the intestines so far from their termination at the anus ; to wit, that it may visit and regulate their whole tract down- wards as it descends, and may also occasionally exert its corrective and neutralizing influence in the stomach, whenever, by a small in- cision of the peristaltic motion, its presence is required there. Of all the fluids of the animal body, the bile is the least disposed to under- go spontaneous changes. Its al- kaline quality enables it to resist the tendency to fermentation and putrefaction in a most remarkable manner; for while blood, urine, milk, lymph, saliva, &c. by expo- sure to the air, change very rapid- ly, and grow corrupt, the bile parts with its watery part, grows thick, hardens, and remains, after long keeping, as sweet and good as ever. See Soda, Barilla, and Nitre. Bilious. A term very generally made use of to express diseases which arise from too copious a secretion of bile. BI BI Bilious Diseases, morbid states of body, in which there is an ex- cretion of much bile. Hence bi- lious fevers, bilious dysenteries and diarrhoeas, and bilious colics, are very frequently talked of. If the excretion of bile in considera- ble quantity during these disorders had served to give them a name merely, there would not have been much harm in it. But the case has been far otherwise : for by a most improper and unjust interpreta- tion, the bile, which comes with all its powers to succour the endan- gered constitution, has been gene- rally deemed the cause itself of the very mischiefs that its compo- sition and nature enable it to pre- vent. Hence, we find this pre- cious and wholesome fluid spoken of in the most opprobrious terms. Notwithstanding its grand anti- septic qualities, it has been called a corrupt and acrimonious humour. Though its anti-febrile and anti- pestilential virtues are eminently great, physicians have most un- wisely termed it the worst secre- tion that ever pestered the consti- tution. They denounce it as the author of half the bodily evils which mortals endure ; and some have wondered for what purpose such a troublesome fluid, so apt to degenerate into acrimony and poi- son, was placed within the body. Such have been the ravings and delusions of mankind concerning the use and functions of the bile. And under such impressions they have said, that a heated, exalted, or acrimonious bile was the excit- ing cause of the fevers, dysente- ries, colics, and other maladies, in which a considerable quantity of gall appeared. And the epithet " bilious" is as familiarly applied to these classes of diseases, to de- signate their exciting cause, as if it really and truly had some agency in the business ; whereas, nothing in the whole circ'c of vulgar or of learned absurdity is more remote from the truth. It is in conse- quence of this fundamental error, and of the prejudice growing out of it, that every body, patients as well as doctors, speak of bilious diseases with the utmost familia- rity, as well known and perfectly comprehended ; and that " bilious pills," and " anti-bilious pills," ad- vertised by the year in our news- papers, perpetually insult the eye and understanding. The real exciting cause of those disorders called " bilious," being generally a hostile, stimulant, and pestilential acid in the primae viae, the bile sallies forth to meet the enemy, and to save the constitu- tion. But this saver of the indi- vidual body, like the Great Sa- viour of the world, has been op- posed, reviled, scourged, spit upon, and crucified by the high- priests, pharisees, and rabble of the medical tribes. It is to be hoped, that its true character and virtues will not be kept out of sight much longer. Bismuthum, bismuth. The ores of bismuth very much resemble those of lead. They are, like them, disposed in facets, but have a yel- lowish cast. Ores of bismuth are frequently found mixed with co- balt. Bismuth is a semi-metal, of a bright, pale, lead-colour; and when broke, it appears of a silver white. It is of a flakey contexture. Its earthy part affords as good a blue as that from cobalt. It melts rather sooner than lead, but later than tin. Bistorta, bistort. Polygonum bistorta of Linnaeus. A native of Britain. Every part of the plant manifests a degree of stipticity to the taste, and the root is esteem- ed to be one of the most powerful of the vegetable adstringents. Bittern. When the brine is eva- porated for obtaining salt for the table, and all the tabic salt is col- BL BL lected from it, there remains at last a large quantity of liquor which re- fuses to yield any crystals. These liquors are very bitter,and are cal- led by chemists Mother- Waters ; but that now spoken of is called bittern in the salt-works. The bit- tern, or mother-water of sea-salt, contains a great quantity of sea- salt, with an earthy basis, and a little Glauber's salt. Bitumens. Bitumens are com- bustible, solid, soft, or fluid sub- stances, whose smell is strong, acrid, or aromatic. Theyare found either in the internal part of the earth, or exuding through the clefts of rocks, or floating on the surface of waters. Like oils they burn with a rapid flame. Natural historians have divided them into several genera; but modern che- mists arrange them according to their chemical properties, and are only acquainted with six species, which are very distinct from each other; these are, amber, asphal- tos, jet, pit-coal, ambergris, and petroleum. Biventer, from bis, twice, and venter, a belly. A muscle is so called that is divided into two bel- lies. See Digastricus. Biventer Cervicis, i. e. Com- plexus. Biventer Maxille Inferioris, i. e. Digastricus. Bladder. This is situated be- tween the duplicature of the peri- tonaeum, ai:d the lower part of the abdomen, between the os sacrum, and the os pubis, above the straight gut in men, and on the neck of the womb in women. It is tied to the navel by the urachus degenerated into a ligament, its sides to the umbilical arteries, and its neck to the intestinum rectum of women. It is composed of three coats : the first is a covering of the perito- naeum ; the second is composed of muscularfibres,which run irregu- larly several ways; and the third, which is full of wrinkles for facili- tating its dilatation, isboth glandu- lous and nervous. Its glands se- parate a viscous and slimy matter, which defends it from the acri- mony of the salts in the urine. Around its neck there goes a small muscle, called sphincter vesicae, which contracts the orifice of the bladder, that the urine may not run out but when it thrusts open the passage, by the contraction of the second coat of the bladder, which is therefore called Detrusor Urine. The blood-vessels of the bladdor are branches of the Hypogastrics. Its nerves come from the Intercos- tals. Its use is to be a reservatory of the urine, that it may not in- cessantly run from us, as it is se- parated in the kidneys. Bladder in the throat. So the Cynanche Trachealis is called in New-England. Blende, a species of the ore of Zinc; it is always glaring; it is mineralized by sulphur, and often contains iron. Blennorrhea. Gonorrhea mu- cosa. A gleet. An increased dis- charge of mucus from the urethra of men, arising from weakness; from /3?ie»»«, mucus, and jew, to flow. M.M. Astringent injections; cin- chona ; olibanum ; alum ; sulphu- ric acid; balsam of copaiba; cold bath. Blennorrhagia. The name Go- norrhea implies a discharge of se- men, which never takes place in the complaint to which at present it is applied ; and for which, if a Greek name is to be retained, Dr. Swediar proposes to call it Blen- norrhagia, from /??i£vva, mucus, and fw, to flow, i. e. Mucifluxus (acti- vus); and thus, to distinguish both from real gonorrhoeas, and from gleets, to which latter he proposes to give the name Blennorrhea Mucifluxus (passivus), i. e. with- out phlogistic symptoms. Blennorrhagia balavd. Dr. Swe- BL BL diar proposes this name as more properly expressive of the disor- der called Gonorrhea spuria,which see. The disorder is an active discharge from the part. Bleftharophthalmia. An inflam- mation of the eye-lid. M. M. Ca- lamine cerate or equal parts of weak citron ointment and lard; a blister on the neck. Blepharoptosis. A prolapse, or falling down of the upper eye-lid, so as to cover the cornea; from $\iQ%$ov, an eye-lid, and TTTwa-^r, from criTli;, to fall. Blisters, when applied to the skin, first produce a tingling heat, a redness, and afterwards the cu- ticle is elevated, and a portion of fluid, resembling the serum of the blood, is enclosed, as in a bladder. When this is evacuated, a redness continues, the serum gradually thickens, at last becomes a whit- ish curdly substance, under which the new skin is again formed, or assumes a truly purulent appear- ance, and the blistered part con- tracts until the whole wound is healed. From this very simple and con- fined operation, it is not, a priori, probable that extensive benefit should be produced. The first effects are pain and irritation; and it was once supposed that blisters were only useful by their stimu- lant power. The evacuation fol- lowed ; and others then thought that from this source ouly they were beneficial, and that their first effects were injurious. They were then antispasmodics from some unknown influence ; they coagu- lated or thinned the blood, accord- ing to the fancy of the pathologist; but the manner in which they re- ally operate is still uncertain, not- withstanding the labours of Tral- les in his closely printed quarto, entitled, Usus Vesicantium. The first effect of blisters is un- doubtedly stimulant; yet this sti- mulus is local, and seldom commu- nicated to the whole system. In irritable skins, however, when the pain is considerable, when restless- ness and want of sleep are the con- sequence, they are certainly for a time injurious from their stimu- lant power, but in general they re- lieve more pain than they give ; they lessen previous irritation or uneasiness, and dispose to sleep. These are their effects in fevers and inflammations, where we might chiefly dread their stimu- lant power. It may be asked if they are never used as stimulants ? Undoubtedly, but chiefly as local ones, and where we come near the affected nerve ; and, indeed, from the moment of their application, they must be considered as such, though the external stimulus, re- lieving the internal, renders the former an object of little compa- rative importance. The great dif- ficulty arises from considering the benefits derived from so small an external inflammation, when the internal, which it relieves, is so extensive and violent. Various have been the modes of resolving the question, and numerous the discussions which the various so- lutions have occasioned. The ef- fects are undoubtedly dispropor- tioned to the cause, but it is pro- bable that the smallest relief given to the internal over-distended ves- sels, gives nature an opportunity of exerting her powers, and the turgid arteries of propelling more effectually their contents. The stimulus of a blister seems also of service in lessening the excessive action of the nervous power. We well know that the tone and the sensibility of the nerves, and the consequent irrita- bility of the muscles which they supply, are intimately connected with the state of the circulation in their extremities. We can easily see therefore the means by which BL BL this excessive action may be miti- gated. In some peculiar circum- stances, however, we have thought that diseases more purely nervous have been relieved by this remedyi and have suspected that there may be a balance between the excite- ment of the internal and external nervous power, as there more evi- dently is of the circulation. We need not enlarge on the subject, but leave this hint to suggest fu- ture inquiry. We may, however, add, that if blisters ever act as an- tispasmodics, it must be from this or a similar effect. The discharge, in many instan- ces, gives a greater permanence to the benefits derived from blis- ters, and in some cases seems to be the chief source of their ad- vantages, particularly in dropsies, in humoral asthmas, the more de- cidedly serous apoplexies, and a few other diseases. It is continu- ed however with some difficulty, as in many constitutions the blis- ter rapidly heals, whatever be the application. The sabine ointment now generally supplies the place of the blister ointment, which is inconvenient by its effects on the neck of the bladder. Though, as we have said, the inflammation is confined and slight, and the discharge inconsiderable, yet it probably has more effect on the constitution than we might suspect from the absolute quanti- ty ; for in many constitutions the continued discharge from blisters produces considerable debility; in some they can scarcely be borne for even the period of two or three days. We might attribute this to the quality of the discharge ; but M. Margueron, who has analysed it (Annales de Chimie, vol. xiv.), found that it very nearly resembled the serum of the blood, containing only a little less of the albuminous portion. It is seemingly darker coloured from the tinge ©f the plaster, whose peculiar smell it retains. He found it the same when the blister was applied in putrid fevers, as when the person was in health. Blisters have on many constitu- tions a cordial and exhilarating ef- fect, generally on those of full ha- bits, and probably of languid cir- culation, by relieving the over- distended vessels. A gentleman once highly distinguished at the bar, and of brilliant convivial powers, always applied a blister when he wished to shine in either sphere, and the effect was pro- duced as soon as the warmth in the part began. We have heard also many, who even felt the pain of blisters acutely, declare, that the relief of the languor they pre- viously experienced, counterba- lanced all their sufferings. In our enumeration of the dis eases benefited by blisters, w e shall be guided by their effects, and shall consider them as altering the determination of the fluids from parts overloaded ; influencing the determination of the nervous power; as stimulants, evacuants, and cordials. In fevers, we generally find the equilibrium of the circulation greatly disturbed ; and, in gene- ral, the two organs which chiefly suffer from over-distension, are the brain and the liver. We have a more ready access to the latter by more easy remedies. The dis- tension of the vessels of the brain is chiefly relieved by blisters. In some inflammatory fevers the load in the head is considerable ; and in cases not truly phrenetic, the delirium is of that wild and vio- lent kind which approaches very nearly to phrenzy. When bleed- ing is admissible, it must be pre- mised ; and, in other cases, the stomach and bowels must be freely emptied. Blisters will then greatly relieve, but they should be appli- BL BL ed very near the head, and in ge- neral immediately below the hair, on the back part of the head. Near the head we have still the temples, as well as the parts be- hind the ears, for a succession of blisters, if necessary; since the first effects of this remedy are those most beneficial, and it is unnecessary to continue the dis- charge from one part more than thirty-six or forty-eight hours. We must still, however, look for- ward to the possibility of a con- tinued determination ; and should the fever not terminate in four- teen or sixteen days, shave the vertex, that cold applications may be employed, or any accidental scratch be healed, before it be ne- cessary to apply a blister to that part. These frequent repetitions of blisters are, however, seldom necessary. In the typhus, there is also a determination to the head,though less violent,and with inflammation less active. In these our chief reliance is on blisters, for bleed- ing is improper, and active purg- ing sometimes inadmissible. The inexperienced practitioner has been alarmed by the debilitating powers of this remedy ; but these are observed in very few constitu- tions, nor have we ever found them permanently injurious in fe- vers of this kind. In the worst kind of asthenic fevers they are less proper ; and in highly putrid fevers, they have been considered as rather injurious than useful. The greatest advantages of blisters are experienced in inflam- mations. In phrenetic cases their administration does not greatly differ from that we have describ- ed, when speaking of inflamma- tory fevers. In sore throats we have mentioned them as highly useful, and they should extend from behind the ear under the lower jaw to the trachea. In every inflammation of the face they should be applied in the same way, and are highly useful. The tic doloreux, in Dr. Fothergill's language the dolor faciei crucians, is an exception to this rule, and indeed can scarcely be called an inflammation. In inflammatory af- fections of the chest, blisters are our chief dependance; and in every disease of this kind, except perhaps the putrid pneumonia, they are of service : in this how- ever they are certainly not inju- rious, and, as we have said, they are not so in angina maligna. We spoke with less confidence of their effects in highly putrid fevers, as these have not very often occurred to us. In inflammatory coughs they are useful; and in many of these, especially if not attended with expectoration, they seem to be more beneficial when applied to the bone of the neck, than to any part of the chest. In general, however, if there is any fixed pain in any part, to it they must be di- rected. In croup we have said they are used, but, like most other remedies, with little advantage: and in hooping-cough they rather guard against any inflammatory accumulation in the chest, than shorten or materially mitigate the disease. In inflammation of the abdomen they are highly useful, with the exception only of those of the bladder ; but even in the latter, when the inflammation is confined to its neck, a short application of a blister to the perinaeum has been of service. In all local pains of the abdomen blisters will relieve, and we think they even facilitate the passage of a gall-stone through the duct. They are certainly use- ful in preventing inflammation of that part from the distension. In gastrodynia, whatever be the cause, they seem to relieve. In all inflammationa of the joints BL BL blisters are useful; even the^ pa- roxysms of gout they shorten and mitigate, though we have had reason to fear with disadvantage to the constitution. rI he white swelling is a peculiar disorder, which we cannot at present enlarge on. It consists however in its commencement of a rigidity of the ligaments, and in its progress oi' deep seated inflammation. In the early state, there is perhaps no more certain remedy than blis- ters repeatedly applied; their first action seems to be the most use- ful. Modern practitioners have substituted the stimulus of emetic tartar in these and some other swellings, particularly the bron- choccle, it is said with success. In our hands, however, it has ap- peared less useful; and the pe- culiar deep irritable little sores which it occasions, soon prevent the use of this and every other external application. In the exanthemata we find blis- ters chiefly useful in small-pox and measles. In the former, when the head and breast are greatly loaded previous to the eruption, they are often useful, and occasion a more mild and distinct kind. When repelled, also, they assist in their reproduction, and often prevent the inconveniences which arise from their disappearance. In measles they are more useful, on account of the violent catarrhal in- flammation, which often becomes pneumonic. Active hemorrhages are greatly relieved by blisters. The san- guine effusions in the brain pro- ducing apoplexies, require their immediate application without waiting for the effect of evacua- tions. Bleedings from the nose and the lungs are equally relieved by them. It has not been usual to apply them in discharges of blood from the bowels, chiefly perhaps because these are seldom of the active kind ; and as it is not easy to ascertain the part particularly affected, with accuracy. Dis- charges of blood from the kidneys and bladder also are not relieved by blisters. In diarrheas from the measles they are supposed ser- viceable ; and indeed this must be considered as an inflammatory complaint. In dysentery they are said to relieve pain, but are sel- dom employed. Blisters are employed also to alter the determination of the nervous power. This is certainly a vague indication ; but they are useful in spasmodic pains of the in- testines when there is no inflam- mation ; they relieve the parox- ysms of angina pectoris, of spas- modic asthma, as well as epilep- sies not connected with local ple- thora and extravasation ; they re- move pains in the stomach, aris- ing wholly from the irregular ac- tion of that organ; and coughs that are nervous and independent of inflammation. These are cer- tainly facts, though the mode of their operation may be doubted. Though the stimulus of blisters be transitory and local, yet they are certainly useful as stimulants. On the back part of the neck they stimulate the nerves sent to the throat, and relieve aphonia, and deglutition impeded from palsy. On the internal humerus they re- lieve paralytic affections of the hands and fingers ; on the internal part of the thigh they are equally useful in weakness of the legs. They are certainly employed as stimulants in palsy and apoplexy, yet their powrer as such is doubtful. It is too much the custom to ac- cumulate stimulants and evacu- ants in these emergencies till we know not to what the relief is to be attributed, and unfortunately to what our failure is owing, for the little remaining excitability is of- ten thus destroyed. A gentle BL Bk oreath will re-illumine the flame, which a violent wind will irreco- verably extinguish. In asphyxy, in carus, in catalepsy, and in hys- teric affections, which for a time apparently destroy life, they have been employed as stimulants ; yet we doubt if with any good effect, except in the species simulate. As evacuants we have already mentioned the good effects of blis- ters in anasarca, in humoral asth- ma, and in serous apoplexies; nor does our recollection at pre- sent supply any other disease to which from this power they are applied. In tumours, and collec- tions of a doubtful nature, setons and issues are preferred. Where the fluid to be discharged lies deeply imbedded, the two last are more useful. We have mentioned the foun- dation of their employment as cordials. This rests, as we have seen, on a loose equivocal founda- tion ; nor do we find them used by practitioners with this view, except in some cases of low ner- vous fever, in which their utility may perhaps be explained more satisfactorily by their power of altering the determination. The inconveniences arising from cantharides have induced physicians to employ other stimu- lants with a view of exciting blisters. The flour of mustard, garlic, arum root, emetic tartar, and the vitriolic acid, have been used for this purpose. They pro- duce, however, a very inadequate discharge. The only substance which may probably with advant- age be substituted, is the inner bark of the daphne mesereum or laureola. The small branches are cut into portions of the re- quired length, and macerated in warm water or vinegar till the bark can be loosened. This must be applied to the part previously rubbed with vinecar. Blood. A red homogeneous fluid, of a saltish taste, and some- what urinous smell, and glutinous consistence, which circulates in the cavities of the heart, arteries, and veins. The quantity is esti- mated to be about 28 pounds in an adult: of this, four parts are con- tained in the veins, and a fifth in the arteries. The colour of the blood is red; in the arteries it is of a florid hue ; in the veins dar- ker ; except only the pulmonary veins, in which it is of a lighter cast. Physiology demonstrates, that it acquires this florid colour in passing through the lungs, from the oxygen it absorbs. The blood is the most important fluid of our body. Some physicians and ana- tomists have considered it as alive, and have formed many ingenious hypotheses in support of its vita- lity. The temperature of this fluid is of considerable importance, and appears to depend upon the circulation and respiration. The blood of man, quadrupeds, and birds, is hotter than the medium they inhabit; hence they are term- ed animals of warm blood : whilst in fishes and reptiles, animals with cold blood, it is nearly of the tem- perature of the medium they in- habit. The microscope discovers that the blood contains a great number of red globules, which are seen floating about in a yellowish fluid, the serum. The blood also possesses remarkable physical pro- perties; while hot, and in motion, it remains constantly fluid and red; when it cools, and is at rest, it takes the form of a fluid mass, which gradually and spontaneously separates into two parts ; the one, which is red and floating, becomes of a darker colour, remains con- crete, and is called the cruor, cras- samentujn, or cake; the other, which occupies the lower part of the vessel, is of a yellow greenish colour, and adhesive, and is caller BO BO the serum, or lymph. The impor- tance of this general fluid is very considerable; it distends the cavi- ties of the heart and blood-vessels, and prevents them from collaps- ing; it stimulates to contraction the cavities of the heart and ves- sels, by which means the circula- ♦lon of the blood is performed; it generates within itself animal heat, which it propagates throughout the body; it nourishes the whole body: and, lastly, it is that source from which every secretion of the body is separated. Blood-letting. Under this term is comprehended every artificial discharge of blood made with a view to cure or prevent a disease. Blood-letting is divided into ge- neral and topical. As examples of the former, venesection and ar- teriatomy may be mentioned ; and of the latter, the application of leeches, cupping-glasses, and sca- rification. Boerhaavian System. Few phy- sicians enjoyed for so long a pe- riod, such unbounded, such unal- loyed, reputation as Boerhaave. He was represented, as equally amiable in private life, and respect- able in science : he first gave che- mistry a philosophical systematic form, and reduced medicine to a science at least plausible, neat, and perspicuous. At his era, the chemical reveries of Van Hel- mont were yielding to the more abstract sciences; and from un- real fancies, the change to the ne- cessity of demonstration was so rapid, as to leave scarcely the ves- tige of an intermediate step. Calm, penetrating, and reflecting, Boerhaave could distinguish be- tween the visionary theorist and the attentive observer; and, equal- ly judicious, could appreciate the merits of each. We have no rea- son to think that he expected to be the founder of a sect; yet he proceeded with the caution of a vetorau, and culled from each the flower which was to adorn his own parterre. Though Paracelsus had burnt the writings of Hippocrates and Galen in solemn state, yet they were not forgotten ; and the wise observations of the Grecian sages formed the ground-work of his system. The Galenic doctrine of humours he assimilated with wonderful address to his chemi- cal doctrines, and gave them a specific character, founded on their chemical relations. The mechanical philosophy, then at- tracting universal attention, added to the fabric : the vessels were cones or cylinders; the fluids, consisting of various particles, adapted only to given apertures, were at times forcibly impelled and impacted in vessels to which they were not fitted, and conse- quently produced numerous com- plaints. The whole of this doctrine was combined with so much precision, with such scientific skill, as high- ly to prepossess even the expe- rienced observer. Each found his own opinions placed in a re- spectable view, illustrated by lan- guage elegant and perspicuous, and supported by collateral doc- trines, which in another situation he would have rejected. The Galenist could not object to the elegant illustration of the various humours ; the chemist saw, with surprise, that the works which his master had burnt, illustrated his favourite system; and the me- chanical philosopher, probably, never suspected the very exten- sive application of doctrines which he had cherished exclusively for their own sake. In fact, Boer- haave's system was a selected one : and he has, of course, been styled an Eclectic. We have engaged in this short comprehensive view, partly to ac- count for the enthusiasm with BO BQ whioh this system was received; for it must not be concealed, that in treating of the properties and functions of a living body, he over- looked the principle of life, and the laws of a living organized machine. He seems to have seen his error, and in his later works he speaks, but still in the lan- guage of a sectary, of the ' iner- tia liquidi nervosi.' The first de- cisive step in opposition to this mechanical pathology was taken by his own nephew, and this heresy is followed, apparently with some reluctance, by Gaubius, the pupil of Boerhaave. Yet though we have spoken thus freely of his doctrines, we mean neither to depreciate the man nor his talents. He was far above the common race of mor- tals ; and, with Newton almost alone, might be shown by angels as imitating their superior powers, and emulating their brighter in- tellectual acquisitions. Those who have contemplated the state of medicine previous to his time, will see order rise from confusion, precision from vague analogy ; in a word, science from doubtful unconnected facts. The practitioners of the Boer- haavian school have, in general, been distinguished for patient attention and acute observation. They have not perhaps extended the bounds of medicine, but been contented to imitate their master, and his preceptors, Hippocrates and his successors. This was per- haps an error, and it resulted from the unbounded admiration they felt for Boerhaave. It was a very advan- tageous trait of Dr. Cullen's cha- racter, that he wished to raise his pupils into critics on himself. Body. The body is divided by anatomists into head, trunk, and extremities. The trunk, or body, is subdivided into the neck, tho- rax, abdomen, and pelvis. Boletus, spunk. A genus of the fungusses in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates twenty-one spe- cies. A species of this genus, viz. the igniarius, Linn. Agaricus pedis equini facie, Tournefort, hath been used as a styptic appli- ed after amputations. Bolt-head, is a bellied glass that rises up with a long cylindrical neck, much slenderer than the body, being nearly of the same make with a glass egg. Bolus, bole. A genus of earth. It readily falls down into a loose mass in water; having a degree of ductility when not pervaded with too much water ; smooth and rather unctuous to the touch. Boles, which fertilize land, are called Maries. The college have retained the Bolus Gallicus in their Pharmacopeia. Bolus, fiuhoi, a bole Or bolus. Boluses differ not from electaries, only in that they are made in sin- gle doses, and are therefore more proper where it is necessary to be exact, and where drugs are used that soon perish. The quan- tity of each is a morsel, or mouth- ful, (i. e. as much as can be con- veniently swallowed at once); whence their name Bucella. Bombiates, are salts formed by the union of the Bombic Acid with alkaline, earthy, or metallic bases. Bombic Acid. Acid of the silk worm. Silk-worms contain, espe- cially when in a state of chrysalis, an acid liquor in a reservoir placed near the anus. It is obtained by expressing their juice in a cloth, and precipitating the mucilage by spirit of wine, and likewise by in- fusing the chrysalides in that li- quor. This acid is very penetrat- ing, of a yellow amber colour, but its nature and combinations are not yet well known. Bones. Bones are hard, dry, and insensible pert-, of the body. 1- BO BO of a whitish colour, and compet- ed of a spongy, compact, or reti- cular substance. They vary very much in their appearances, some being long and hollow, others flat and compact, &c. The greater number of bones have several pro- cesses and cavities, which are dis- tinguished from their figure, si- tuation, use, &c. thus crista, spines, tuberosities, acetabulum, furalntn, he. The uses of these organs are various, and are to be found in the account of each bone ; it is, therefore, only necessary to ob- serve, in this place, that they give shape to the body, contain and de- fend the vital viscera, and afford an attachment to all the muscles. A TABLE OF ALL THE BONES. < a 1 G O Bones of the cranium, or skull. ' Bones of the face. Dentes, ov teeth. Bone of the tongue. fFrontal Parietal Occipital Temporal Ethmoid _Sphaenoid ["Superior maxillary I Jugal | Nasal J Lachrymal J Palatine I Inferior spongy - Vomer ^Inferior maxillary fIncisores < Cuspidati [ Molares Hyoides os {Malleus Incus Stapes Orbiculare os 1 2 I 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 8 4 20 pq {Cervical - 7 Dorsal - 12 Lumbar - 5 j Sacrum 1 (^Coccygis os - - - \ The thorax. : J Sternum - - 1 \ Ribs 24 The pelvis. Innominata ossa 2 H V. W a o c o BO The shoulder. The arm. The /ore arw. TheAanrf. < Carpus, or wm( BO C Clavicle \ Scapula Humeri os CUlna (Radius TNaviculare os I Lunare os - j Cuneiforme os ) Orbiculare os i Metacarpus ^Phalanges Trapezium os Trapezoides os Magnum os ^Unciforme os Nb. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 10 28 "The thigh. The leg. The foot. Femur • - - 2 f Patella - - 2 •{ Tibia - - 2 (.Fibula - - 2 {Calcaneus - 2 Astragalus - 2 Cuboides os 2 Naviculare os 2 Cuneiformia ossa 6 I Metatarsus - - - - 10 \Phalangea - - - - 28 Sesamoid bones of the thumb and great toe, occa- sionally found - 8 Bononiensis (Lapis), the Bono- nian stone, or Bononian Phospho- rus. It is a small, grey, soft, glossy, fibrous, sulphureous stone, about the size of a walnut. When broken, a kind of crystal, or starry talc, is found therein. This stone is met with in the neighbourhood of Bologna, or Bononia, in Italy ; and when duly prepared, makes a species of phosphorus. When this phosphorus is held to the light, it retains it for six or eight hours after. As a medicine, this stone is said to be caustic and emetic. Borates (Boras, tis, s. m.) Salts formed by an union of the bpracic acid with different bases; thus borat -•faluminjr, borat of ammoniac, &c. Total 248 Borax. A neutral salt, formed by the combination of the acid, improperly called sedative salt, with the marine alkali. It is dug out of the earth, in the kingdom of Thibet, in the East-Indies. It is also said to be formed or pro - duced by certain artificial proces- ses. There are several kinds of borax, but that used in medicine is called Dutch or purified borax ; it has a very regular form; its crystals are six-sided prisms, two of the sides being commonly lar- ger than the others; its crystalli- zation, however, varies : the taste is styptic, and acts strongly on the fibres of the tongue. It is gene- rally employed in solution, to de- tach mucus, Sec. from the mouth BK BR in putrid fevers. The salts form- ed by the union of the acid of borax with different bases, are called borates___Grs. v. to xl. Borborygmus. The rumbling noise occasioned by the flatus in the intestines; ^o^o^vy^, from /39j/9og«/£», to make a noise. Botany, /3oT*im, a herb, or grass, from /Soa-xw, to feed. Borxvn is that grass which is perfect, but not quite fit to be mowed. Botany is that part of natural science, which includes every thing respecting vegetables, as their division into classes, orders, genera, species; external figure, internal proper- ties, and their application to their purposes. Bougie. A term applied by sur- geons to a long, slender instru- ment, that is introduced through the urethra into the bladder. Bou- gies made of the elastic gum are preferable to those made of wax. The caustic bougie differs from the ordinary one in having a thin roll of caustic in its middle, which destroys the stricture, or any part of the urethra it comes in contact with, and is consequently a hazar- dous application. Those made of catgut are very seldom used, but are deserving of the attention of the surgeon. Brachialis Internus. A muscle of the fore arm situated in the fore part of the os humeri. Its use is to bend the fore arm, and to prevent the capsular ligament of the joint from being pinched. Brachial Artery. The continu- ation of the axillary artery, situa- ted between the axilla and the bend of the arm ; in its course it gives off many lateral vessels, and about the bend of the arm divides into the cubital and radial arteries. Brachio-Cubitale Ligamentum. The expansion of the lateral liga- ment (see Lateralia Ligamenta), which is fixed in the inner condyle of the os humeri, runs over the capsula, to which it closely ad- heres, and is inserted like radii on the side of the great sigmoidc ca- vity of the ulna ; it is covered on the inside by several tendons, which adhere closely to it, and seem to strengthen it. Brachio-Radiale Ligamentum. The expansion of the lateral liga- ment (see Lateralia Ligamenta), which runs over the external con- dyle of the os humeri, is inserted round the coronary ligament, from thence all the way down to the neck of the radius, and also in the neighbouring parts of the ulna. Through all this passage it covers the capsular ligament, and is co- vered by several tendons adhering closely to both. Brachium. Bja^ov. The arm, or that part of the upper extremity that lies between the shoulder and elbow joint. Bractea, in Botany, a floral leaf, ranged by Linnaeus among the ful- cra, props, or supporters of plants. Bradypepsia, PpxSviri-^m, weak. concoction of food; or when di- gestion in the stomach is perform- ed slowly and with difficulty. Brain. See Cerebrum and Ce- rebellum. Branchus, (Spxyxps, a defluxion of humours upon the fauces. It is a species of Catarrh, which Coelius Aurelianus calls Raucitas. Brandy. A colourless, slightly opake, and milky fluid, of a hot and penetrating taste, and a strong and agreeable smell, when first distilled from the wine. It con- sists of water, ardent spirit, and a small portion of oil, which ren- ders it milky at first, and after a certain time colours it yellow. It is the fluid from which rectified or ardent spirit is obtained. The utility of brandy is very consider- able, but from its pleasant taste and exhilarating property it is too often taken to excess. It gives energy to the animal functions; BR BR is a powerful tonic, cordial, sto- machic, and antispasmodic ; and its utility with camphire, in gan- grenous affections, is very great. Branks, a name in Scotland for the Cynanche Parotidea, or Mumps. Brass. Copper, melted with zinc, loses its red, and acquires a yellow colour, without losing much of its ductility ; and is thus named. Brassica, cabbage. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates fourteen species. Brassica Italica, broccoli. Brassica Sabellica, borecole, or Scotch kale. Brassica Sylvestris, sea colewort or cabbage. Breasts. Mamme. Two soft hemispherical bodies, composed of common integuments, adipose substance, and lacteal glands and vessels, and adhering to the ante- rior lateral regions of the thorax of females. On the middle of each breast is a projecting portion termed the papilla or nipple, in which the excretory ducts of the glands terminate, and around which is a coloured orb or disc, called the areola. The use of the breasts is to suckle new-born in- fants. Bromelia, pine-apple. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He includes in this genus the Ananas, the pine- apple, and the pinguin, or Karatas, the wild pine-apple. He enume- rates seven species. Bromatology. A discourse or treatise on food ; from/S«o/*«, food, and Tioyo-, a discourse. Bronchia, ftpoyxix. The aspera arteria descends from the fauces down the throat, growing narrow- er as it approaches to the lungs ; and a little before it approaches to them, it divides into two bran- ches, called the Bronchia. These ramifications arc divided into numberless others, which are dis- tributed through the substance of !.he lungs, and terminate in small vesicles, like clusters, which ad- here to these small bronchial ra- mifications, constituting the chief part of the lungs. The use of the Bronchia is for the conveyance of air into, and out from the lungs, and for the discharge of such other matter as is ready to be car- ried out of the body this way. Bronchial Arteries. They some- times go from the fore-side of the superior descending aorta, some- times from the first intercostal, and sometimes from the arteries of the oesophagus. Sometimes they arise separately from each side, to go to each lobe of the lungs ; and sometimes, by a sm; \ common trunk, which afterwards separates towards the right and left hand, at the bifurcation of the aspera arteria, and accompanies the ramifications of the bronchia. The bronchial artery, on the left side, often comes from the aorta, while the other arises from the superior intercostal on the same side; which variety is owing to the situation of the aorta. Bronchioles Glandule. At the angle of the first ramification of the trachea arteria, we find on. both the fore and back sides cer- tain soft, roundish, glandular bo- dies, of a bluish or blackish colour, and of a texture partly like that of the thymus, and partly like that of the thyroid gland. There are many similar glands at the origin of each ramification of the bronchia. Bronchialis Glandula, i.e. Thy- roidea Glandula. Bronchacele, fipryxpx.rikviy from $poyxo$, the wind-pipe, and xn\n, i tumour. Its seat is the thyroid gland, which lies just below the larynx, round the trachea. Th~ tumour appears in the fore pari. of the neck, between the skin and the wind-pipe. In this consists that disfiguration of the fore part of the neck and throat, called in Switzerland, cretinage-, or gmtrc ; BR BU in which, besides an enormous enlargement of th-" thyroid gland, the individual frequently has an impaired understanding, and of- tentimes is an ideot. The goitre has been observed too in several parts of America, both among the aborigines and the whites, and a particular account of both may be found in Dr. Barton's pamphlet on the subject. Bronchotomy, from fipoyxo;, the •wind-pipe, and n^w, to cut. It is a division made between the rings of the wind-pipe. It is also called Tracheotomy. Brunneri Glandule. They are lodged under the villous coat of the intestines, closely adjoining to the nervous. They are more numerous in the small intestines, and smaller also than in the lar- ger. They are also called Peyer's Glands. Brunonian System. The history of Dr. Brown would not be of im- portance in this place, were it not necessary to explain some parts of his doctrines. Originally a teacher of Latin, he attended the medi- cal classes by the permission of the different professors ; and, as the tutor of his sons in that lan- guage, was first connected with Dr. Cullen, to whom he became an useful assistant, and of whose doctrine he was a warm admirer. His great object for a future main- tenance, was to repeat Dr. Cul- len's lectures in London after his death. Some disagreement turn- ed him to a virulent antagonist, and from hence arose the Bruno- nian doctrine. We mean not by this to pre- judge or disparage the system ; it must rest on its own merits : but to explain that decided opposition, and the virulent language employ- ed when speaking of the Cullenian doctrines. We suspect, however, that it may explain the source of some of his own opinions, without giving him the credit of a veny brilliant genius; for, in posses- sion of a system with the argu- ments in its support, it is not very difficult to say that any part is 1 false,'and to wrest the arguments to the opposite opinion. If, how- ever, his system be well founded, it proves his genius to be pre-emi- nent, for little was gained by study. We recollect but one author quot- ed, which is Triller; and from the manner of the quotation, we should suspect that he was not intimately acquainted with him. The opi- nions and practice of different au- thors he could not have been ignor rant of, from the lectures he at- tended; yet it is singular that his practice is so little discriminated, that he seems scarcely to have visited the sick bed, or attended to the distinguishing symptoms which influence the practical phy- sician in the minuter variations of his conduct. Dr. Brown, however, started as a self-appointed lecturer, and the avowed opponent of the Cullenian system. His doctrine, even more simple than that of the methodists, admitted only of the strictum and laxum, the sthenic and asthenic states, without allowing the union of both. Simplicity is attractive to youth ; it is falsely called l the seal of truth ;' and to escape from professorial dogmas, added to the seduction. It is at least certain, that after some months of hesita- tion, Dr. Brown was greatly fol- lowed, and his doctrines were echoed in the " Medical Society," where the Cullenian system had gained a complete victory over the Boerhaavian ; and, by the aid of the numerous pupils of that school, was disseminated through Europe, Asia, and America. It was ea- gerly caught at on all sides ; but, by a strange perversion, in escap- ing from the humoral pathology, many professed Brunonians adopt- #R BR ed doctrines essentially distinct from those of Brown, supposing that if they were not Boerhaavi- ans, they were of his sect. Dr. Brown seemed to consider man not as a being compounded of an organized system, to which the principle of life was superadded, but as a machine, to which a cer- tain series of actions and effects is allotted by means of an excitabi- lity, differing in degree, but ge- nerally, though on the whole im- perceptibly, exhausting. In fact, it is a flame kept alive by excite- ments, such as heat, food, pas- sions, &c. which, however, destroy by degrees the pabulum, or, in his language, the excitability. As the machine is merely passive, and the flame kept up by blowing, it can- not be depressed except by an in- termission of the blast. It may, however, be exhausted by blowing too violently ; or the pabulum, not exhausted by the constant blast, may burn with greater fury on its recommencement. We mean merely to facilitate the reader's conception by our metaphor, not to render the subject ludicrous. Life, therefore, is ' a forced state ;' every thing stimulates ; some substances too violently, others not sufficiently; and we thus have two kinds of debility, indi- rect and dirqct. In the former case, the strongest stimuli are ne- cessary ; in the second, the slight- est destroy, in consequence of too great irritability. In the jail fe- ver, for instance, we must give the strongest stimulants ; to the man long pent up in darkness, with scanty food, the light must be mo- derate, the aliment of the mildest kind, and stimuli of every sort most sparingly administered ; as the flame, long repressed, would be roused by the slightest excite- ment. Such is the basis of Dr. Brown's system ; and fer one part of it, accumulated excitability, he de- serves the greatest credit. It is a law of the animal economy so ge- neral, that the attention to it di- rects the practitioner in various ways; nor should he, on any oc- casion, lose sight of its conse- quence, that too frequent and vio- lent excitements are destructive. It had been well if Dr. Brown had kept it more often in view, parti- cularly in his arrangement of dis- eases. There is, however, ano- ther law of the system connected with this, which has been less ad- verted to, viz. that excitability long- repressed, is, with difficulty, if at all, to be roused by stimulants. Constitutions of this kind are ru- ined from inactivity ; they rust, an we have said, on their hinges, and the Brunonian will not refuse this addition to his system, since it is so connected with his principle, that life is a forced state. This principle, however, we can- not admit. Life is superadded to organized matter; for organiza- tion itself will no more produce it, than the most skilful union of wheels will produce a time-piece without its spring. This leads to a fundamental objection to the Brunonian system; that, by giv- ing man in the beginning a deter- mined proportion of excitability, he has no where provided for its renewal, when exhausted. It ac- cumulates from want of exhaus- tion, but from what source ? For, let only an atom be taken from a mountain, and in no way restored, the mountain must in that propor- tion be diminished, and cannot re- gain its former bulk. Boerhaave and Cullen felt the difficulty. Boer- haave supplied it by secretion; Cullen, more indistinctly, made it the consequence of collapse, al- luding, by some remote analogy, to the electrical fluid. Brown ciu the knot, and, like Jack in the tale. would be ' as unlike the rogue Pe BR BR ter as possible ;' so that there must he no collapse. Brown himself -.peaks of < recruiting' the excita- bility ; and his followers, when urged by the difficulty, have either evaded it, or explained in a way not very consistent with the gene- ral principle. Again: Dr. Brown speaks of indirect and direct debility, of the two states of exhausted and accu- mulated irritability. The jail fever is allowed to be an instance of the former, and the person, se- cluded from light and air, of the latter. Yet, did Dr. Brown never see (we believe he never did) in the jail fever, inordinate stimuli fatal by their excess ? Did he ne- ver see phlegmonic inflammation sometimes supervene ? To the angina maligna too, a very similar disease, the inflammatory angina sometimes succeeds from too vio- lent and long-continued stimuli. How, however, in the jail fever, one of his own instances, is the excitability exhausted by excess of stimuli ? Every previous cause, every concomitant circumstance has a tendency totally different. In this and the other instance of indirect debility, we see only the powers of life gradually exhaust- ing, in a certain degree to be rous- ed with augmented violence by stimuli; but, after a certain period, incapable of any excitement : while even the effects of stimuli, though apparently for a time suc- cessful, often contribute to destroy the remaining portion of excita- bility. The difference of the two cases consists in this only, that the excitability in the latter is only accumulated ; but in the former, by the debilitating power of the fever, added to that from the con- finement, in a great measure de- coyed, or at least so far diminish- ed, as to be very generally irre- coverable. A striking instance of accumu- lated excitability occurred in that singularly intrepid exertion of captain Bligh, when he crossed the Pacific in a small boat, with a very inconsiderable stock of pro- visions. On reaching Timor, one of his crew died of an inflamma- tory fever. Had these men after their voyage been thrown into a loathsome prison, or an infected hospital, would they have escaped? We know they would not, for si- milar instances have occurred; yet in these we might in vain look for the stimuli by which the exci- tability had been exhausted. A consequence ©f this doctrine must be, that every medicine sti- mulates ; and the difference be- tween what are styled stimulants and sedatives is, that the latter are not sufficiently stimulating. This, however, must soon become a ver- bal controversy. The oxygen «f the atmosphere stimulates the lungs, and hence the whole sys- tem ; but if the oxygen is defi- cient, the stimulus is abstracted, and the machine no longer urged on. Yet this is not the only sti- mulus ; if we abstract oxygen, wc may supply an additional stimulus by warmth : abstract warmth also, and the passions may supply its place. Without all these exciting powers, we need not despair; we have brandy, laudanum, and aether. It is sufficient to state this reason- ing, which, on Brunonian princi- ples, is fair, to show its fallacy. Azote and hydrocarbonate, when breathed without dilution, imme- diately kill. Is this from defi- cient or excessive stimulus? If from the former, it differs in no degree from a sedative: if from excessive stimulus exhausting ex- citability, we can only say that the existence of the previous stimu- lus is gratuitous; and we have long since learnt, that, quodverbo dicitur, verbo negare sat est. If no stimulus appears, we cannot BR BR piace sufficient confidence in any and purging, cure the sthenic assertion to believe that it exists. diseases; stimuli, of different But these are harmless specu- kinds and degrees, the asthenic. Iations. When we find them ap- Is it surprising then that this sys- plied to practice, humanity shud- tern should have its admirers ? ders at the dangerous tendency The labour of study is at once of many of these doctrines. If abridged. The works of Galen we can trust reports, their appli- and his followers may be again cation has been very extensively burnt in solemn state ; and the injurious. As the trammels of a degree of strength or debility re- system are every where conspi- gistered on a scale, may be at once cuous, so diseases are supposed attacked by the appropriate wea- to be either sthenic or asthenic, pon. Sad is the history which Those arranged under the former must follow. The victims of the class are,peripneumonia,phrenitis, yellow fever in the West-Indies variola, rubeola, erysipelas, rheu- were often laid low after full doses matism, cynanche tonsillaris, ca- of Madeira, bark, and laudanum. tarrhus, synocha, scarlatina, mania, We have seen the hectics raised pervigilium, and obesitus. The into a destructive flame by simi- asthenic diseases are, macies, in- lar means; and the typhus fever quietudo, eruptio scabiosa, diabetes aggravated by equally undistin- lenior, rachitis, menstruorum ces- guishing management. satio euppressio if retentio, me- We cannot pursue the list mi- norrhtea, epistaxis, hemorrhois, nutely, but shall take an instance aitis vomitus if indigestio cum af- or two from each class. Perip- finibus alimentarii canalis morbis, neumony is a sthenic disease, and puerilea affectus scil. vermes if is attacked, as usual, by bleeding tabes, dysenteria if cholera, scor- and purging. If this plan be fol- butus, hysteria levior, rheumatal- lowed, the fever is mitigated, but gia, tussis asthenica,pertussis^ cys- the affection of the breast remains tirrhaa, podagra validiorum ifim- the same. For this, the only sa- beciliorum, asthma, spasma, ana- lutary discharge is the expecto- sarca, colicodynic, dyspepsodynia, ration, which should be conduct- hysteria gravior, hypochondriasis, ed with care. Of this discharge hydrops, epilepsia, paralysis, apo- Dr. Brown takes no notice ; and, filexia, trismus, tetanus, intermit- unfortunately, active purging will tentes, dysenteria if colica gravior, not only supersede, but prevent synochas, typhus simplex, cynan- it: and we have no hesitation in che gangrenosa, variola confluens, saying, that few patients treated typhus, pestilens if pestis. The in this way would survive. We local diseases follow, among which might notice also scarlatina and we see, with some surprise, the erysipelas. Either,treated by ac- internal inflammations of the abdo- tive bleeding and purging, would men, abortion, and difficult births, soon prove fatal. Once more : Deep wounds, suppuration, pus- obesity is a disease to be cured by tula, anthrax, bubo, gangrene, bleeding and purging. In fact, sphacelus, scrophulous tumours and there is no state of the system in schirrus, may with more propriety which these evacuations are borne be considered as local diseases, with so little advantage. The.tru- yet these often require general ly inflammatory habit is the strong, methods of treatment. thin, firm, muscular highlander, The cure is as simple as the or the English mountaineer. The arrangement. Bleeding, low diet, opposite state is thi rritable, hys- 13 BR BR teric female, generally plump, but weak, and soon sunk by dis- charges. In the second class we see the asthenic cough, by which Dr. Brown means consumption ; and apoplexy. In each case we must use active stimulants. In the lat- ter we have said they must soon be employed, butnot withotrtpre- viously lessening the quantity of fluids in the head, clearing the bowels with the most active laxa- tives, and establishing some drain to prevent the secondary accumu- lation. Of these precautions not a word is said, and without them the physician will not be very suc- cessful. Of the fatal consequence of the stimulating plan in consumption, we have unfortunately had too many instances. With the bestma- nagement the picture is gloomy ; with the methods proposed it is deeply darkened. If there is any more stiking feature than another in this complaint, it is increased irritability of the arterial system, and a larger proportion of oxygen in the fluids, with its accompany- ing irritation. Every meal of an animal nature increases the heat, the smallest quantity of wine or spirits raises it to a greater de- gree ; and when again cooled, the patient sinks with languor and de- bility. Yet this is the disease treated with all the warmth of Brunonian stimulus ! We are free to own that the lowering system has been carried too far ; and that while we were guarding against i'ever, we neglected properly sup- porting the strength. Of the gout we shall not again speak. Undoubtedly the system may be brought too low ; and Dr. Brown, we suspect, would raise his arthritics too high. He him- self suffered severely when he changed his free plan of living to a more abstemious onej but his case is not to be brought as an ex- ample, till his plan and its long continuance are more particularly known. We knew it; and in these more rational days, till we find si- milar plans have been adopted by our patients, we shall not recom- mend those in the work now be- fore us, his own Latin edition, published in 1784. Scurvy also is to be treated by stimulants; and these without the usual remedies, it is said by this author, will succeed. Uniform experience has decided different, ly; and lemon-juice without sti- mulants is, even at sea, found to be an effectual remedy. In the hooping-cough, stimulants are also essential in Dr. Brown's opinion. Change of air is nonsense (fabula), and vomiting, death. It is some- what surprising that, in opposition to this dogma, hooping-cough is seldom fatal, though these use- less or dangerous remedies are employed, and with those recom- mended—but we have not heard of any one who has so far sinned against common sense as to em- ploy them. We have enlarged on this sys- tem and its application, because, as we have said, it is seductive from its simplicity, and the little labour required either in its study or its management. We have not dwelt on the minute investigation really required to adapt the stimu- lus to the state of direct or indi- rect debility in a given case ; for, though we know that every dis- ease varies in this respect, yet no provision is made for it in the sys- tem : the name and the class are only necessary. We observe, in- deed, that Dr. Brown, in one or two instances, orders the stimulus to be somewhat less than that of the disease; but he no where points out the symptoms which discriminate its degree. It is not wholly the neglect o< BU distinguishing the degree of debi- lity either indirect or direct, and, of course, the proportion of sti- mulus to be employed, that ren- ders the application of this sys- tem difficult or dangerous, but the very imperfect distinction of dis- eases. The descriptions are often the most meagre and imperfect; the diagnosis is seldom attended to. These, in fact, would require what the author never possessed, practical knowledge. The distinc- tion also of different circumstan- ces of a disease, which would re- quire very different and often op- posite treatment, is neglected ; and when we find in the same class, to be treated with the same reme- dies, menstruorum, suppressio, and maenorrhcea,we shall begin to sus- pect that an attachment to system has precluded the observation of the operations of nature. When we see in the opposite classes,per- vigilium and inquietudo, phrenitis and epistaxis, colica gravior and enteritis ; in the same chapter the podragra imbeciliorum and vali- diorum, treated in the same man- ner, we cannot greatly rely on the judgment or practical knowledge of the author. Bryony. White bryony. Bryo- nia alba of Linnaeus. A very com- mon plant in woods and hedges. The root has a very nauseous biting taste, and disagreeable smell; and is employed in hydro- pical cases as a diuretic or drastic purge, which qualities depend up- on the dose that is administered. Bubo, from jSou£«>, the groin. It is a tumid gland which is inflamed, or tends to suppuration ; but it is generally understood only of those glands which are in the arm-pits, or the groins. Bubonocele, ^a^moKrikn, from /Soi/- £w, the groin, and W\*, a tumour. It is also called Hernia Ingui?ialis, or rupture of the groin; and is when the intestines force the in- BU teguments through the ring of the external oblique muscle of the belly, or, according to Dr.Friend, through the cavity in the thigh, between the pectincus and the sartorius; though this latter is called Hernia femoralis, or Hernia cruralis. Bucca, the cheek. The cheeks are the sides of the face; they reach from the eyes and temples between the nose and the ears. The upper prominent parts of the cheeks are called Male. Buccales Glandule. All the in- sides of the cheeks near the mouth are full of small glandulous bodies called by this name. They open by small holes or orifices through the inner membrane of the mouth. Buccinator Musculus, the trum- peter's muscle. It is thus named because of its use in forcing the breath to sound the trumpet. It arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the lower jaw, as far back as the last dens moralis, and fore part of the root of the coronoid process ; fleshy from the upper jaw, between the last dens moralis, and ptery- goid process of the sphenoid bone, from the extremity of which it arises tendinous, being continued between both jaws to the constric- tor pharyngis superior, with which it joins ; from thence proceeding with straight fibres, and adhering close to the membrane that lines the mouth, is inserted into the an- gle of the mouth, within the orbi- cularis oris. Its use is to draw the angle of the mouth backwards and outwards, and to contract its cavity, by pressing the check in- wards, by which the food is thrust between the teeth. Bulimia, (taXi^a, bulimy, from /3a?, an ox, and X»/*o>, hunger, a ra- venous appetite ; or rather, when the same inclination to eat exists as in the canine appetite, without the power; and after the paticm does eat he fain's. It mostly arises CA CA- i'rom worms,rachitis,x»r from acids. M. M. Fat meats ; oils ; wine ; brandy; tobacco; opium; emetics; anthelmintics ; antacids; aroma- tics ; cinchonia; iron. Bulle. Pustules on any part of the body, the size of a nutmeg. Burgundy Pitch. The juice of the Pinus abies of Linnaeus boiled in water, and strained through a linen cloth. It is chiefly imported from Saxony, is of a solid consis- tence, yet somewhat soft, of a red- dish brown colour, and not disa- greeable smell. It is entirely con- fined to external use as a stimu- lant, in form of a plaster. Bursalogy. The doctrine of the bursas mucosae ; from/ft/go-a, a bag, and Xoyoc, a discourse. Burse Mucosa. Mucous bags, composed of proper membranes, containing a kind of mucus fat, formed by the exhaling arteries of the internal coat. They are >of different sizes and firmness, and are connected by the cellular mem- brane with articular cavities, ten- dons, ligaments, or the periosteum. They are divided into vaginal, which are long and cover a ten- don ; and vesicular, which are round. The use of the bursae mucosae is to secrete, and contain CACHEXIA, **x£m,from x«- xoj, ill or bad, and e|k, a habit, a bad habit of body. Dr. Cullen defines it to be a depravity of the constitution of the whole, or of a great part of the body, without any febrile or nervous disease as the primary one. Cachexia Icterica, the jaundice. Cachexia Uterina, i. e. Fluor Albus. Cacochylia, indigestion, or de- praved chylification. Cacochymia, xaxo^v^ua, from xa- xo?, ill, and xvhu>^ humour, a deprav- ed state of the humours. a substance to lubricate tendons, muscles, and bones, in order to render their motion easy. Bursalis Musculus, so called from its resemblance to bursa, a purse. It is the muscle which Bartholine calls Marsuhialis, and Innes calls the Obturator Internus, which see. Butter. A concrete and soft substance, of a yellow colour, ap- proaching more or less to that of gold, and of a mild agreeable taste. It melts by a gentle heat, and be- comes solid by cooling. Fresh butter is mild, temperate, and re- laxing, but it readily becomes sour, and in general agrees with few stomachs. Rancid butter is one of the most unwholesome and in- digestible of all foods. Buxton Water. This is the se- cond in its degree of heat among those of Great-Britain. The wa- ter of St. Anne's well contains a trifling portion of calcareous earth, fossil alkali, and sea-salt; of all not much more than twenty grains in a gallon. It contains so much fixed air as to be rather lighter than pure common water. It seems to be most efficacious in cool weather. Cacoethes, xaxotjGnj, from xaxov, ill: and »5o?, a word which, when ap- plied to diseases, signifies a qua- lity, or a disposition. Hippocrates applied this word to malignant and difficult distempers. Galen, and some others, express by it an in- curable ulcer, that is rendered so through the acrimony of the hu- mours flowing to it. Linnaeus and Vogel use this term much in the same sense with Galen, and de- scribe the ulcer as superficial, spreading, weeping, and with cal- lous edges. Cac&phonia, KXHoQunx, a depravi- CA CA ty of the voice. Vogel defines it to be a disagreeable sharp kind of voice. Cullen uses this word as synonymous with Paraphonia. Cacotrophia, KXKorpoQia, from xkxoj, illf and rfo The cranium, the Calvaria, \ upper part of the head, which grows bald first; also, the bird called a coot. Calvities, baldness on the sinci- put. Calx, the same as Calcaneus; which see. It is also a term in Chemistry for any thing that is ren- dered reducible to powder, by burning; the word signifying lime, which is so made. Calxpreparata, i. e. Calx lota. Calx viva, quick-lime. Calx, or lime, is retained in the college Pharmacopeia; and is employed in the Aqua Kali Puri, formerly called Lixiv. Saponarium ; in the Kali Purum, or Caustic fixt """ege- table Alkali; in the Calx cum Kali, Puro, formerly called Caus- ticum Commune Fortius; in the Aqua Ammonia Purae, or Spirit. Sal Ammoniac: cum Galce. in the Linimentum Ammoniac For- tius, and Linimentum Camphorae. Calycanthus, Carolinian allspice. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates two species. Calypter, from kxXvkIu, to hide, a carnous excrescence covering the hemorrhoidal vein. Calyptra. In Botany it is the thin involucrum, or cover of some seeds. Also a thin cup which co- vers the antherae of some of the mosses. Calyx. In Botany, a general term expressing the cup of a flow- er, or that part of a plant which surrounds and supports the other parts of the flower. They are various in their structure, and, on that account, distinguished by se- veral names, as Perianthium, In- volucrum, Amentum, Spat ha, Glu- ma, &c. which see. Camara, the fornix of the brain; also the vaulted part of the auri- cle leading to the external fora- men ; also the name of a species of Lantana. Cambogia, a genus in Linnaeus's botany. There is but one species, viz. the Cambogia Gutta. Camomile. See Anthemis. Campaniform, ~) from campana, Campanulous* 3 a bell, such plants as have flowers that are shaped like a bell. Campeachy Wood, Lignum Cam- pechense. See Hematoxylum. Camphora. Camphor or Cam- phire. The tree from which this substance is obtained is the Lau- rus camphora of Linnaeus, indi- genous to Japan, where it grows abundantly. The camphor is found to lodge every where in the inter- stices of the fibres of the wood, pith, and knots of the tree. The crude camphor, exported from Ja- pan, appears in small greyish pie- ces, and is intermixed with various extraneous matters ; in this state it is received by the Dutch, and purified by a second sublimation ; it is then formed into loaves, in which state it is sent to England. Pure camphor is white, pellucid, somewhat unctuous to the touch; of a bitterish, aromatic, acrid taste, yet accompanied with a sense of coolness; of a fragrant smell, and approaching to that of rosemary, but much stronger. It is totally volatile and inflammable, soluble in vinous spirits, oils, and the mi- neral acids; not in water, fixed nor volatile alkaline liquors, nor in acids of the vegetable kingdom. The use of this important medi- cine, in different diseases, is very 19 CA CA considerable. It has been much employed, with great advantage, in fevers of all kinds, particularly in nervous fevers attended with delirium and much watchfulness. The experienced Werihoff has witnessed its utility in several in- flammatory diseases, and speaks highly in favour of its refrigerant qualities. The benefit derived from its use in putrid fevers, where bark and acids are contra-indicat- ed, is remarkable. In spasmodic and convulsive affections, it is also of much service, and even in epi- lepsy. In chronic diseases this medicine is likewise employed; and against rheumatism, arthritis, and mania, we have several ac- counts of its efficacy. Nor is it less efficacious when applied ex- ternally in certain diseases ; it dissipates inflammatory tumours in a short time, and its antiseptic quality, in resisting and curing gangrene, is very considerable. There are several other proper- ties peculiar to this medicine, which, it is lamented, must be passed over ; one, however, must not be omitted, viz. the power it possesses of obviating the stran- gury that is produced by cantha- rides, when sprinkled over a blis- ter. The preparations of cam- phor are spiritus camphoratus, eleum camphoratum, linimentum camphore, tinctura opii camphorata, and the mistura camphorata.—Grs. yi. to 3ss. Camphorates (Camphoris, atis, s. m.) Salts formed by the union of the camphoric acid with differ- ent bases; thus comphorat ofalu- mine, camphorat of ammoniac, &c. Camphoric Acid. If nitric acid be distilled several times (six or tight) from camphor, a crystaliz- ed salt is obtained, called the acid of camphor, and which reddens syrup of violets and the tincture of turnsole. Its taste is bitter, and it differs from oxalic acid, in not precipitating lime from the muriatic acid. The union of this acid with different bases forms what is called a camphvrat. Canalis Arteriosus. Canalis Bo- talli. A blood-vessel peculiar to the foetus, disappearing after birth; through which the blood passes from the pulmonary artery into the aorta. Canales Semicirculares. The three semicircular canals are plac- ed in the posterior part of the la- byrinth of the ear, and open by five orifices into the vestibulum. See Ear. Canalis Venosus. A canal pe- culiar to the foetus, disappearing after birth, that conveys the ma- ternal blood from theporte of the liver to the ascending vena cava. Cancelli. Lattice-work, gene- rally applied to the reticular sub- stance in bones. Cancer, the crab. The shell- fish so called. The college have retained the Chelae Cancrorum in their Pharmacopeia: their pre- paration is described among the more simple preparations: they are employed in the Pulvis e Che- lis Cancrorum Compositus ; Pul- vis ContrayervaeCompositus; Tro- chisci e Creta, formerly called Ta- bell. Cardialg. and Conf. Aroma- tica, instead of the Conf. Card. Cancer. Carcinoma. A painful, hard, indolent tumour of a glan- dular part, which terminates in the foulest ulcer. Those tumours were so called by the ancients, that exhibited large blue veins., like crab's claws ; from cancer a crab.—M. M. Excision. When that is not permitted, arsenic; a carrot poultice; cicuta, belladonna or stramonium. Canella Alba. Laurel-leaved canella. Canella albaoi Linnaeus. The tree, which produces the bark so called, is a native of the W'est-Indies. It is brought into Europe in long quills, somewhat CA CA thicker than cinnamon: their taste is moderately warm, aromatic, and bitterish; and of an agreeable smell, somewhat resembling that of cloves. Canella alba has been supposed to possess a considerable share of medicinal power, and is said to be a useful medicine in scurvy and some other complaints. It is now merely considered as a useful and cheap aromatic, and is ehiefiv employed for the purpose of correcting, and rendering less disagreeable, the more powerful and nauseous drugs: it is there- fore an ingredient in the pulvis aloeticua of the London Pharma- copeia, and in the tinctura amara, vinum amarum, vinum rhei, &c. of the Edinburgh.—9i to Sii. Canine Appetite. It is an inor- dinate hunger, to the degree of a disease, so that the person becomes as voracious as dogs ; whence the name. Canine Teeth. The four cus- pidati or eye-teeth are so called from their resemblance to those of the dog. See Teeth. Canities, greyness of the hair, or grey-headed. Canker. Eroding ulcers, form- ed without a previous tumour, and seated in the gums, are thus named. Cannula. A tube adapted to a sharp instrument, with which it is thrust into a cavity or tumour, containing a fluid ; the perforation being made, the sharp instrument is withdrawn, and the cannula left, in order that the fluid may pass through it. Cantharides. Spanish flies. Me- lo'e vesicatorius of Linnaeus. The importance of these flies, by their stimulant, corrosive, and epispas- tic qualities, in the practice of physic and surgery, is very con- siderable ; indeed, so much so, as to induce many to consider them as the most powerful medicine in the materia medica. When ap- plied on the skin, in the form of a plaster, it soon raises a blister full of serous matter, and thus relieves inflammatory diseases, as phrenitis, pleuritis, hepatitis, phlegmon, bubo, myositis, arthri- tis, &c. The tincture of these flies is also of great utility in se- veral cutaneous diseases, rheuma- tic affections, sciatic pains, &c. but ought to be used with much caution. In New-York and Penn- sylvania several species of blister- ing*flies have within a few years been discovered. They are so plentiful on certain plants, espe- cially the common potatoe (sola- num tuberosum), that country physicians can easily collect enough for their own use in their fields and gardens. If pains were taken to catch them in their pro- per season, the necessity of im- porting the cantharides of the shops from foreign parts might be wholly dispensed with. See Chapman's and Woodhouse's communications in the 2d and 3d volumes of the Medical Reposi- tory. Canthus, xavOo?. An angle of the eye, or the corner of the eye. The greater canthus is next the nose; the lesser canthus lies to- wards the temples. Caochouch. "> This elastic gum Caoutchouc. } is the produce of the Jatropha elastica of Linnaeus. Capillary Vessels, are the small ramifications of the arteries ; so called from capillus, a little hair. Capillares Vermiculi,thosesmall worms in infants which some call Crines,Crinedones, and Dracunculi. Capillatio, a capillary fracture of the cranium. Capillitium, i. e. Capillamentum ; also the Trichiasis, and the hairy scalp. Capillorum Defluvium, i. e. Alo- pecia. Capillus, the hair of the head ; also hair in general. The hairs CA fcA are hollow, as appears from the Plica Polonica. Capital Lees, are the strong ones used by soap-makers ; which are also used to make the lapis infer- nalis with. Capsicum, Guinea, or Indian pepper. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates five spe- cies. From a species of this ge- nus we obtain Cayenne pepper. Capsulare Ligamentum, the cap- sula c ligament; also called J:he Mucilaginous Ligaments, as they coutHin many glands to separate the synovia. Every articulating bone is furnished with a capsular ligament, wh'ch is composed of two layers; the external is the stron- ger, and is made of the perios- teum ; the inner is thin and uni- form. The use of this ligament is, I st. to connect the bones, which is performed by the other lamella; 2dly, to confine the synovia, which is the office of the inner layer. Caput. The head, cranium, or skull, is situated above the trunk, upon the cervical vertebrae. For its bones, see Bones. Upon the hairy part is observed the vertex or crown, sinciput or forepart, oc- ciput or hinder part, and the tem- ples. The part.- distinguished on the ace are well known, as the forehead, nose, eyes, Sec. The arteries of the head are branches of the carotids; and the veins empty themselves into the jugu- lars. Caput Gallinaginis, a wood- cock's, snipe's, or cock's-head; is a kind of Caruncle, a spongy border, at the extremities, or apertures of the vesiculae semi- nales, to prevent the impetus of the seed from being sufficient there to dilate the orifices of the vasa deferentia, except when as- sisted by the compression of the surrounding parts in copulation. Caraways. See Carum. Carbone. Elementary charcoal is perhaps found no where in cre- ation in a pure and unmingled state ; and difficult indeed, if not impossible, to procure so by art. But although it is so rare to be met with by itself, it exists abun- dantly in combination with other things. It enters largely into the constitution of vegetable and ani- mal bodies. In many plants there is so much carbone, that after the water, hydrogen and essential oils are consumed or expelled, there is enough carbone left to retain the shape of the branch or trunk, and to exhibit its annual circles. This is called charcoal; and when this part of vegetables is wholly burn- ed, it turns, by combination with oxygen and caloric, to carbonic oxyd, carbonic acid, and carbonic acid gas. Large quantities of car- bonic acid gas are produced dur- ing respiration, fermentation, in- flammation, and corruption of or- ganized bodies. Its specific gra- vity is very great; it being the heaviest of the aeriform fluids; therefore it is to be met with in mines, caverns, wells, vaults, and holes where one or more of the beforementioned processes is go- ing on, or into which it subsides by its great weight. As it fre- quently destroyed the lives of ani- mals in such places, it has been called choak-damp. It is frequent- ly found above ground also in the lower stratum of atmosphere ; on analyzing which, there is disco- vered to be, besides oxygenous and septous gases, a small portion of carbonic acid air. Carbonic acid is thus an abun- dant production ; and unless there were some means provided for its diminution and destruction, the atmosphere would be overcharged by it, and grow uninhabitable. These means are two: 1. The combination of vast quantities of it with lime, magnesia, and alka- line salts, into the compounds cal- GA CA led carbonates ; and, 2. The de- composition of carbonic acid, and the severing of it into its elements by the living economy of plants. When plants feed upon carbonic acid they retain the carbone in their own bodies, and expel the oxygen in a form fit for animal respiration through their leaves. Carbone thus becomes an ingre- dient in the vegetable economy, and on the decay of this class of beings, great quantities of it are strewed over the earth's surface, and contribute to form black mould, grassy sward, peat and turf, as well as a large portion of ma- nures. In all these, carbone is a predominating material. Hence may it be comprehended how vegetables acquire the carbone which they possess in such large quantities. Animals feed upon vegetables, and thence derive the carbone with which their bodies are replenish- ed : and this is distributed in such a manner, that, with phlogiston or hydrogen, it forms their oil and fat, and with phlogiston and sep- ton it constitutes their lean and brawn. Carbone perseveres in its connection with these ingre- dients as long as the life of animals lasts, and for an indefinite time longer, and then mingles with the black mould of the soil, or. turns to carbonic acid gas. The blood, as well as the muscles, nerves, fat, &c. contains a great deal of car- bone. In the interior parts of the su- perficial strata of the earth, and often in company with calcareous free-stone, carbone is found mi- neralized. Like calcareous earth and lime-stone, it belongs to the secondary class of fossils. Accord- ingly, coal is never found among theprimitive materialsof the globe; and, therefore, where whinstone, granite, slate, micaceous rock, and shorl abound, strata of coal are not to be expected. But, on the other hand, as the experienc- ed professor John Walker ob- serves, where free-sione, lime- stone, rock and slate-marle, and iron-stone, and more especially dogger, blaes, and shiver abound, it is almost certain that coal ac- companies them. Coal is a combustible substance, but in its pure state exhibits no flame or blaze whatever; and this forms an obvious and distinctive character between it and phlogis- ton or hydrogen, whose criterion it is to burn with flame in all cases. Another distinction between the two is, that carbone with oxygen forms carbonic acid ; while phlo- giston with oxygen affords water. Whenever coal burns with flame it is a pure token of the presence of phlogiston, which escaping in the form of inflammable air, burns as it flies off. See Phlogiston. Carbonates, are salts formed by the union of carbonic acid with different alkaline, earthy, and me- tallic bases: there are twenty- four species enumerated in M. Fourcroy's Elements of Natural History and Chemistry. Carbuncle. This is sometimes used in the same sense as Anthrax which see ; but is more generally taken for that particular boil which appears in pestilential fevers, and is a red hard swelling with great pain, and a burning heat. From its similitude to the colour of fire likewise, this term strictly signi- fying a live coal, is sometimes given to a precious stone of the ruby kind. Carbure of Iron, implies plum- bago in M. Fourcroy's Elements of Natural History and Chemis- try. Carcinoma, ? xapxiwp*, from x.xp- Carcinos, 5 x»v®*, cancer, and vijmv, depasco, to feed upon, is a par- ticular ulcer, called commonly a Cancer, which is very difficult to CA CA cure. A disorder likewise in the horny coat of the eye is thus cal- led by some writers. Cardamtne. Common lady's smock, or cuckoo flower. Carda- mine pratensis of Linnaeus. It is the flower of this plant, which is a native of England, that has a piece in the materia medica, upon the authority of Sir George Baker, who has published five cases, two of chorea sancti Viti, one of spas- modic asthma, an hemiplegia, and a case of spasmodic affections of the kwer limbs, wherein the flores cardamines were successfully used. —9i. to 3i. Cardamomum Minus. Officinal cardamom. Amomum repens, seu le cardamome de la cote de Malabar, of Sonnerat. The seeds of this plant are imported in their capsu- les or husks, by which they are preserved, for they soon lose a part of their flavour when freed from this covering. On being chewed, they impart a glowing aromatic warmth, and grateful pungency; they are supposed gently to stimulate the stomach, and prove cordial, carminative, and antispasmodic, but without that irritation and heat which many of the other spicy aromatics are apt to produce. Simple and compound spirituous tincturesare prepared from them, and they are ordered as a spicy ingredient in many of the officinal compositions. »—Grs. iij. to 9ss. Cardamomum Majus, greater cardamom, the Amomum Grana Paradisi of Linnaeus. Cardia, Kapha. So the Greeks called the heart. But now this word is used for the left orifice of the stomach, which was supposed by some anatomists to have an extraordinary consent therewith. And hence, things which are sup- posed to influence the heart im- mediately, as cordials, are called Cardiacs. Cardiaca. In Pharmacy it sig- nifies cordials. Cardiaca Arteria, i. e. Coronaria Cordis Arteria. Cardialgia, the heart-burn, from x«f)&a, the heart, or rather, the left orifice of the stomach, and aXyiu, to be pained ; so more properly pain or uneasiness about the upper ori- fice of the stomach. It is an in- stance of Dyspepsia. This disor- der is called Soda, or spurious Cardialgia; and pain in the sto- mach, or the true Cardialgia. In the spurious kind the pain is not so great, nor does the strength fail, nor is there any tossing or re- markable inquietude. In the true, there is pain in the stomach, or about its orifices, but generally felt about the part called the pit of the stomach; it is attended with great anxiety, difficulty of breath- ing, want of strength, inquietude, retching to vomit, coldness, and trembling of the extremities. Sometimes the uneasy sensation extends the whole length of the oesophagus, with a pressure or constriction, and usually attacks by fits. The general means of re- lief are alkalies, absorbent earths, and whatever improves the power of digestion. Carditis. Inflammation of the heart; from Ka$a, the heart. It is a genus of disease arranged by Cullen in the class pyrexie, and order phlegmasie. It is known by pyrexia; pain in the region of the stomach ; great anxiety; difficulty of breathing; cough; irregular pulse ; palpitation, and fainting.— M. M. Same as in pneumonia. Carduus Benedictus. Blessed or holy thistle. Centaurea bene- dicta of Linnaeus. This exotic plant obtained the name of bene- dictus, from its being supposed to possess extraordinary medici- nal virtues. In loss of appetite, where the stomach was injured by irregularities, its good effects CA CA have been frequently experienced. —9i. to 3'- Carica. The fig. The plant which affords this fruit is the Fi- cus carica. Fresh figs are, when completely ripe, soft, succulent, and easily digested, unless eaten in immoderate quantities, when they are apt to occasion flatulency, pain of the bowels, and diarrhaea. The dried fruit, which is sold in our shops, is pleasanter to the taste, and more wholesome and nutritive. They are directed in the decoctum hordei compositum, and in the electuarium lenitivum. Applied externally, they promote the suppuration of tumours; hence they have a place in maturating cataplasms; and are very conve- nient to apply to the gums, and, when boiled with milk, to the throat. Caries, expresses the rottenness of a bone; whence Carious is said of a foul bone, or one inclined to rottenness. Carmin, carmine. It is a pre- paration from cochineal. It is used chiefly for miniature paint- ings. Carminative. A term applied to those substances, which allay pain, and dispel flatulencies of the primae viae. The word is derived from carmen, a verse, or charm ; because practitioners in ancient times ascribed their operations to a charm or enchantment. Caros. K«|o?. Insensibility and sleepiness, with easy respiration. It rises on a coma, and is a slight degree of Apoplexy, in which you get some broken incoherent an- swers from the patient; when called he scarce opens his eye ; yet if he be pricked, he hath feel- ing enough to manifest his sense of it. Carotids. Two considerable ar- teries that proceed, one on each side of the cervical vertebrae, to the head, and which supply it with blood. The right carotid does not arise immediately from the arch of the aorta, but is given off from the arteria innominata. The left arises from the aroh of the aorta. Each carotid is divided into exter- nal and internal, or that portion without, and that within the cra- nium. The external gives off eight branches to the neck and face, viz. anteriorly, the superior thyroideal, the sublingual, the in- ferior maxillary, the external max- illary ; posteriorly, the internal maxillary, the occipital, the ex- ternal auditory, and the temporal. The internal carotid or cerebral artery, gives off four branches within the cavity of the cranium ; the anterior cerebral, the poste- rior, the central artery of the op- tic nerve, and the internal orbital. Carpobalsam. The fruit of the balsam tree, Amyris gileadensis of Linnaeus ; from xajrro?, fruit, and fiaXarxfiw, balsam. Now in disuse. Carpus. Kx?rroi;, the wrist, or carpus. See Bones. Carthamus, bastard saffron, or saf-flower. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates ten spe- cies. Carthusianus Pulvis, i. e. Ker- mes Mineral. Cartilage. A white, elastic, glistening substance, growing to bones, and commonly called gris- tle. Cartilages are divided by ana- tomists into obducent, which co- ver the moveable articulations of bones ; inter-articular, which are situated between the articulations, and uniting cartilages, which unite one bone with another. Their use is to lubricate the articulations of bones, and to connect some bones by an immoveable connection. Cartilago Ensiformis, and also called Xiphoidcs, from |i?>o>, ensis, a sword, and u^o;, forma, shape ,• is the tip or extremity of the ster- num, which is broad at its upper er.:!, and ni\rrov*.r towards th« CA CA extremity, where it is sometimes a little forked, and bends down- wards, so as to hurt the stomach, and cause vomiting. See Ster- nttm. Caftilago innominata, so called by Galen, is the same as the mo- derns call Annularis, or Cricoides ; which is the second cartilage of the larynx, and, according to f'.;r- i tholine, is the basis of all the other. Cartilago Scutiformis, so called from its resemblance to a helmet in shape ; is that cartilage whose prominence is discernible, exter- nally, in the throat, and by some called Pomum Adami, from a con- ceit of its being left as a mark of the divine wrath upon Adam's transgression. Carum, caraways. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He hath one species. Caruncula, a caruncle. This v* ord is a diminutive from caro, flesh; it is either preternatural, as those little excrescences in the urinary passages, in venereal cases especially ; or natural, as the Caruncula Myrtiformes, from their resemblance of myrtle-ber- ries, so called ; as also Glandule Myrtiformes. They are made by the rupture of the hymen in the first copulation, which contracting in several places, forms those ca- runcles or glands. Caruncule Lachrymales, Puncta Lachrymalia, and Glandule La- chrymales : all concur in the same offices, and w^ll hardly admit of a separate description ; thus distin- guished from lachryme, tears. On the back-side of the adnata tunica of the eye, upon the upper part of the globe is the glandula lachryma- lia, pretty large, divided into seve- ral lobes, each of which sends out an excretory channel, which opens in the fore side of this membrane, where it covers the upper lid. This gland separates the matter of the tears, which, by the conti- nual motion of this lid, moisten the cornea, which otherwise vvould dry and wrinkle by the continual action of the external air. The edge of the eye-lid being of an equal convexity with the ball of the eye, which they touch, as the tears fall off from the cornea, they are stopt by the edge of the under eye-lid, along which they run till they fall into two small holes in the great canthus, one in each lid. These holes arc called Puncta La- chrymalia : and these lead to a small membranous bag, which is situated in this corner, upon the os lachrymale ; from the bottom of which goes a small pipe, which pierces this bone into the nose, and opens under the upper lamina of the os spongiosum. It moistens the inner membrane of the nos- trils by the humour of the lachry- mal glands, which runs from off the globe into them. Sometimes the acrimony of this humour caus- efeh sneezing, which may be hin- dered by pressing the angle of the eye to stop its flowing. Now, be- tween these two puncta there is a caruncle which serves to keep them open when the eyes are shut, and this by some is ignorantly cal- led the Glandula Lachrymalis. Caruncule Papillares, are those little protuberances on the inside of the pelvis of the kidneys, made by the extremities of the tubes, which bring the serum from the glands in the exterior parts to the pelvis. Caruon. Common caraway. Ca- rum cauri of Linnaeus. Caraway seeds are well known to have a pleasant spicy smell, and a warm aromatic taste, and on this account, are used for various economical purposes. They are esteemed to be carminative, cordial, and sto- machic, and recommended in dys- pepsia, flatulencies, and other symptoms attending hysterical and CA CA hypochondriacal disorders. An es- sential oil and distilled water are directed to be prepared from them by the London college.—9ss. 3 ss. Oil of gt. i. to iii. Carus, insensibility and sleepi- ness, with quiet respiration. It sometimes signifies a loss of sense and voluntary motion, respiration remaining uninjured: the same authors call the disease an Apo- plexy, if to this is added an op- pressed respiration to a consider- able degree, or so as to snort or snore. Sometimes it signifies a profound sleep, but without fever. , Carus a frigore, i. e. Apoplexia Sanguinea. Carus a hydrocephalo, i. e. Apo- plexia Serosa. Carus ab Insolatione, i. e. Ictus Solaria. Carus Spontaneus, i. e. Apo- plexia Sanguinea. Caryophyllum Aromaticum. The clove. The tree which affords this spice is the Caryophullus aro- maticus of Linnaeus, and grows in the East-Indies, the Moluccas, &c. The clove is the unexpanded flow- er, or rather the calyx ; it has a strong, agreeable smell, and a bit- terish, hot, not very pungent, taste. The oil of cloves, commonly met with in the shops and received from the Dutch, is highly acrimo- nious, and sophisticated. Clove is accounted the hottest and most acrid of the aromatics, and by act- ing as a powerful stimulant to the muscular fibres, may, in some cases of atonic gout, paralysis, Sec. su- persede most others of the aro- matic class ; and the foreign oil, by its great acrimony, is also well adapted for several external pur- poses : it is directed by several Pharmacopeias, and the clove it- self enters several officinal prepa- rations.—«$a- ".r, the head, and ^§», to appear green, the green sickness. It is also called Febria Alba, the virgin's disease, Fcbris Amatoria, and Icterus Albus. Dr. Cullen places it in his Arosology, as a genus in the class Neurosis, and order Adynamie; but since that time, he hath seen cause for a change of his opinion, and now considers it only as a symptom of Amenorrhea. Choke-damp. A noxious gas is found in many caverns, as in the Grotto del Cani, in mines, wells, and other deep pits. This gas is called choke-damp by the English miners. It is heavier than com- mon air, therefore lies chiefly at the bottom of pits ; it extinguishes flame, and is noxious to animals. It is reckoned of the same kind as the calcareous gas. Cholagoga, cholagogues, from j£oXi, bile, and ayu, to evacuate. By cholagoguesthe ancients meant only such purging medicines as expel- led the internal faeces, which re- sembled the cystic bile in their yellow colour,and other properties. Choledochus Ductus. It seems to be a continuation of the ductus cysticus; for it is often observed that the ductus hepaticus runs, for some space, within the side of the ductus cysticus, before it opens into its cavity : also, at the open- CH CH ing of the hepatic duct into the cystic, there is a small loose mem- brane, to hinder the bile from re- turning into it. Cholera, xo\tp», or Cholera Mor- bus. It is when the bile so ex- ceeds in quantity or acrimony, as to irritate the bowels and stomach to eject it both upwards and down- wards. Or it is a purging and vomiting of bilious or other acrid matter, with great pain and fever. Coelius Aurelianus says the name is derived from %o\»i, bile, and g a name OI" 'he ex- ternal membrane of the foetus. It hath this name from the chorus of blood-vessels which are spread upon it. It is divisible into two lamellae. Some call the internal lamina the true chorion, and the external lamina the false chorion. Choroid. From xorwv> tne cAo" rion, and uSb;, resemblance. Choroid Membrane, the second tunic of the bulb of the eye, which is extremely vascular, and which forms the iris and uvea anteriorly, Choroid Plexus, a plexus of blood-vessels and glands, situated in the lateral ventricles of the, brain. ^ . Chronic. From Xfovo^ time- A disease is so called that is of long duration, lasting above six or eight weeks. Chrupsia. Visus coloratus. A disease of the eyes, in which the person perceives objects of a dif- ferent colour than their natural. From xp«», colour, and o^x, sight. „ Chrysalis,frqm^gt/o-oj, gold; also called Aurelia, and Nympha. Thus naturalists call the worm or mag- got while it lies hidden under a hardlsh pellicle : during this time it is in a state of seeming insensi- bility ; but quitting this covering, it comes forth a moth, or a butter- fly, or other winged insect. Chyle, the milk-like liquor, ob- served some hours after eating, in the lacteal vessels of the mesen- tery, and in the thoracic duct. It is separated by digestion from the chyme, and is that fluid substance from which the blood is formed. CI CI Chyliflcation, the process carri- ed on in the small intestines, and principally in the duodenum, by which the chyle is separated from the chyme. Chylopoietic, any thing connect- ed with the, formation of chyle; thus chylopoietic viscera, chylopoie- tic vessels, £cc. Chyme, the indigested mass of food, that passes from the stomach into the duodenum, and from which the chyle is prepared in the small intestines. From xvw, which sig- nifies humour, or juice. Cicatricula, a little white speck or vesicle in the coat of the yolk of an e^, wherein the first chan- ges appear towards the formation of the chicken or the nervous cy- linder. It is commonly called the Treddle. Cicatrisantia, i. e. Epulotica. Cicatrix, from cicatrico, to skin, a seam or elevation of callous flesh, rising on the skin, and remaining there after the healing of a wound or ulcer, which is commonly cal- led a Scar. Cichorium, succory or endive. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates three species. Cicuta. Hemlock. This plant, Co- nium maculatum of Linnaeus, is dis- tinguished from those plants which bear some resemblance to it,by the spotted stem. It is generally be- lieved to be a very active poison. When exhibited in immoderate doses, it produces anxiety, cardial- gia, vomiting, convulsions, vertigo, coma, and death. Baron Stoerck was the first who brought hemlock into repute as a medicine of extra- ordinary efficacy: and although it does not effect the wonderful oures of cancer it was said to perform, it certainly possesses narcotic and antispasmodic virtues. There is scarcely any disease, to which hu- man nature is subject, in which this remedy, like mercury, is not exhibited internally by some phy- sicians, and in those of the glan- dular system it appears some- times to be productive of benefit. Nor is it less efficacious when ap- plied externally: a poultice made of oatmeal and the expressed juice, or a decoction of the extract, when the former cannot be obtained, al- lays the most excruciating tortu- rous pains of a cancer, and thus gives rest to the distracted patient. Grs. ij. to 3mj* Cilia, the edges of the eye-lids. They are semicircular, and carti- laginous, with hairs fixed in them, which by*some are called Cilia. See Tarsus. Ciliar Ligament. The circular portion that divides the choroid membrane from the iris, and which adheres to the sclerotic membrane. It appears like a white circular ring. Cinara. Common artichoke. Cynara scolymus of Linnaeus. A native of the southern parts of Europe, but cultivated here for culinary purposes. The leaves are bitter, and afford, by expres- sion, a considerable quantity of juice, which, when strained, and mixed with an equal quantity of white wine, has been given suc- cessfully in dropsies ; but it is an uncertain remedy. Cinchona. Quinquina. Cortex Peruvianus. Officinal cinchona, or Peruvian bark. The tree which affords this valuable medicine, is the Cinchona officinalis, a native of Peru. The bark is brought to us in pieces of different sizes, some rolled up into short, thick quills, and others flat: the outside is brownish, and generally covered in part with a whitish moss ; the inside is of a yellowish, reddish, or rusty iron colour. The best sort breaks close and smooth, and proves friable betwixt the teeth : the inferior kinds appear, when broken, of a woody texture, and in chewing separate into fibres. The CI CI lorme r pulverises more easily than the latter, and looks, when pow- dered, of a light brownish colour, resembling that of cinnamon, or somewhat paler. It has a slight smell, approaching to mustiness, yet so much of the aromatic kind as not to be disagreeable. Its taste is considerably bitter, adstringent, very durable in the mouth, and accompanied with some degree of aromatic warmth, but not sufficient to prevent its being ungrateful. The medicinal properties of this drug are very considerable. It cures intermittent, remittent, ner- vous, and putrid fevers; putrid sore throat, scarlatina, and dysen- tery ; stops excessive discharges, and is in general use as a tonic, and stomachic; it also is of infi- nite service in local affections, as gangrene, scrophula, ill-condition-. ed ulcers, rickets, scurvy, &c. and in most diseases where there is no inflammatory diathesis. The officinal preparations of this bark, are the powder, the extract, the tincture, and the decoction.—9i. to 3 i. or more. Extract of Bi. Tinc- ture of 3i. to § ss. Decoction £ ij. or more. Cinchona Cortex Peruvianus Ruber. The medicinal qualities of this red bark are similar to those of the former. Cinchona Cortex Peruvianus Flavus. The medicinal properties of this new species are also near- ly the same as those of the cin- chona officinalis. Cinnabar. A red mineral sub- stance composed of mercury na- turally combined with sulphur. It is found in the Dutchyof Deux- ponts, in the Palatinate, in Spain, South-America, Sec. It is called native vermillion, and cinnabar in flowers. Artificial cinnabar is em- ployed as a mild mercurial, and as an alterative.—Grs. iij. to 9i. Cinnamomum. Cinnamon. The tree which affords the true cinna- mon, which is its inner bark, is the Laurus cinnamomum of Jacquin, a native of Ceylon. Cinnamon bark is one of the most grateful of the aromatics ; of a very fragrant smell, and a moderately pungent, glowing, but not fiery taste, ac- companied with considerable sweetness, and some degree of adstringency. It is one of the best cordial, carminative, and restora- tive spices we are in possession of, and is generally mixed With the diet of the sick. The essen- tial oil, on account of its high price, is seldom used : a tincture, sim- ple and spirituous water, are di- rected to be kept in the shops.— 9ss. to 3SS- Circocele, or Cirsocele, xipovxriXvi, an enlargement of the arteries and veins of the spermatic cord. From xijo-of, varix, and x.ri\n, a tumour. It is the same as Hernia Varicosa. Circulatio, from circulo, to com- pass about, moving as it were in a circle. Circulation. In anatomy it is the circulation of any fluid through the vessels destined for its conveyance. Strictly speaking, circulation is only applied to the blood, because at moves from the heart to return to it again ; but the other fluids do not return to the organ from which they were first discharged. The honour of the discovery of the circulation is undoubtedly due to Dr. Harvey; but it has been claimed for Servetus, Columbus, and Caesalpinus. Servetus was an opponent of Calvin, and persecuted by him. He was a Spanish physician ; but was not the author of any known medical work. In a theological tract, by way of allusion, he men- tions the circulation of the blood through the lungs, rather indeed as an hypothesis than as an esta- blished fact. It is of more import- ance, in another view, to remark, that he considers the object of the CI CI circulation through the .lungs to jbe the inhaling a.spirit jfrom the air, and the escape of a.fuliginous •vapour. He was unacquainted, however, with the structure of the heart, or the uses of the valves ; and, with Galen,confines the blood to the.- StAoj; from xovbv, an ancient cup shaped like a joint. Condyli, Ko^vXot, knots in the bones about the joints of the fin- gers, which make them thicker. Condyli, are the little knots or protuberances ofthose short bones which make them thick about their articulations, as on the knuckles. Condyloide Apophysis. See Max- illa Inferior. Condyloma, xovhiXupa, from ko>^v- X%, Digiti Articulus, is the knit- ting of the bones in articulation, but more particularly those of the fingers. Condyloma Clavus, a corn. Dr. Aitken reckons it a kind of Sar- coma. Condylomata, are a soft kind of tumours arising on the internal coat of the anus, unattended with pain, and of the natural colour .of the skin. Confection, may signify any com- position, from cum and facio, to make up together ; but it is gene- rally applied to a particular sort of medicine, compounded with dry ingredients of many kinds, powdered and made into the con- sistence of a thin electuary with honey or syrup. Conferva, river weed. A genus in Linnaeus's botany, of the order of Algas, or Thongs. He enume- rates twenty-one species. Conflrmantia medicamenta, me- dicines which restore or confirm the strength of the body, or any part of it; or medicines which fas- ten the teeth in their sockets. Confluent, flowing together, are any liquors joining into a common stream; but this is generally used for that sort of the small-pox wherein the pustules run into one another. Conformation, is used to ex- press that particular make and construction which is peculiar to every individual ; and hence a mala conformatio signifies some fault in the first rudiments, where- by a person comes into the world crooked, or with some of the vis- cera or cavities unduly pvopor- tioned. Thus many are subject to incurable asthmas, from too small a capacity of the thorax, and the like. Confuse Febres, are such fevers which come together alternately in the same persons, but keep not their periods and alternations so exactly as to be easily distinguish- ed from one another. Congeneres, when spoken of muscles imports those which con- cur in the same action. Congestion, the same as collec- tion of matter, as in abscesses and tumours. Conglobate Gland. Lymphatic ghnd. Globate H"v!. A round CO CO gland formed of a contortion of lymphatic vessels, connected to- gether by cellular structure, and having neither a cavity nor an ex- cretory duct ; such are the mesen- teric, inguinal, axillary glands, &c. Conglomerate Gland. A gland composed of a number of glome- rate glands, whose excretory ducts all unite into one common duct; suchare the salival, parotid glands, £cc. Coniferous, from conus, a cone, and fero, to bear, are such trees or shrubs as bearasquamose scaly fruit, of a woody substance, and a figure approaching to that of a cone, in which there are many seeds ; and when they are ripe the several cells or partitions in the cone gape or open, and the seeds drop out. Of this kind are the fir, pine, beech, and the like. Conium maculatum, spotted hem- lock, a species of Conium. The plant is the officinal hemlock. The college hath directed the herb, the flower, and the seed; its ex- tract is called Succus Cicutae Spissatus, and is ordered to be made as soon as the flowers ap- pear. Conjuncti Morbi, are when two or more diseases come together, which" are distinguished into con- nexi and consequentes ; the for- mer subsisting at the same time, and the latter following one ano- ther. Conjuncta Signa. The pathog- nomonic signs of a disease are so called. Conjunctiva Tunica. See Adna- ta. The conjunctiva is often con- founded with the adnata ; they are two distinct coats, and both but partial coverings of the fore part of the eye, though the conjunctiva is also spread over the inside of the eye-lids. The conjunctiva is a thin transparent membrane, which lines the inner surface of the eye- lids, and at the edge of the orbit has a fold, and is continued for* ward over the anterior half of the globe of the eye. It is exterior to all the other coats of the eye, and connected with the albuginea, by means of a. cellular substance, from which it may easily be sepa- rated in the dead subject by dis- section. Connatus, o-vvfm;, used much by Hippocrates for what is born with a person; the same with congenite, as, Connutritus, ovvlpoty:, is what be- comes habitual to a person from his particular nourishment,or what breaks out into a disease in pro- cess of time, which gradually had its foundation in the first aliments, as from sucking a distempered nurse, or the like. Consent of Parts, is that per- ception one part has of another at a distance, by means of some fibres and nerves which are common to them both, or communicated by other branches with one another: and thus, the stone in the bladder, by vellicatingthe fibres there, will affect and draw them so much into spasms as to affect the coats of the bowels in the same mannei by the intermediation of nervous threads, and cause a colic there; and also extend their twiches sometimes so far as the stomach, and occasion grievous vomitings. The remedy therefore in such cases is to regard the part origi- nally affected, how remote and grievous soever may be the con- sequences and symptoms in other places. Conserva, a conserve. Conserves arc compositions of recent vege- table matters and sugar, beat to- gether into one uniform mass. Conscrvatio. In Pharmacy, it is preserving, pickling, or keeping from putretaction and evapora- tion by the addition of some other substance. Conscrvatio Medica, called by CO CO the Greeks tyvXax^m and vynu>v, is that part of a physician's care that preserves a person in health, by preventing the attack of a distem- per, in distinction from the phar- maceutic, which applies remedies to the diseased. Constipation, and Constriction, from constringo, to bind together, is the binding up wounds, or clos- ing the mouths of vessels so as to prevent any efflux of their contents. Constipatus, costive. A person is said to be costive, not only when the alvine faeces do not daily pass from him, but also when what is discharged by the anus is too hard to receive its form from the im- press of the rectum upon it. Constrictiva, styptics. Constrictores, from the same de- rivation are muscles of the nose, called also Depressores Labii su- perioris, depressors of the upper lip, which arise from the fourth bone of the upper jaw, immedi- ately above the gums of the den- tes incisores, and ascending are inserted into the roots of the alae nasi, and superior parts of the up- per lip; they draw the upper lip and alae nasi downwards. There are also the Constrictores Ale Nasi. They rise fleshy below the root of the nares, immediately above the gums of the dentes incisorii,and ascend- ing transversely are inserted into the coats of the alae nasi, and the superior part of the upper lip. Constrictor Ani, i. e. Sphincter Ani. Constrictor Isthmi Faucium. From the uvula two arches run down, and there is a cavity be- tween them, where the tonsils are lodged. The anterior arch goes down to the basis of the tongue, and is thus called ; the other pas- ses down the palatum rnolle,and goes to the pharynx, whence it is distinguished by the name of Pa- lato-Phuryngeus, Constrictor Labiorum, i. e. Sphincter Labiorum. Constrictor Musculus, i. e. Buc- cinator. Constrictor Oris, i. e. Orbicula- ris Oris. Constrictor Palpebrarum, i. e. Orbicularis Palpebrarum. Constrictor Pharyngis Medius, i. e. Hyo-Pharyngeus. Constrictor Pharyngis Superior, i. e. Cephalo-Pharyngeus. Constrictor Vesice Urinaria. See Detrusor Urine. Constrictores Pharyngei. See Pharynx. Constrictores Pharyngis Infe- rior, i. e. Crico-Pharyvgei. Constrictorii, diseases attended with constriction. Constringentia, astringents. Consumption, from consumo, to waste. In general it signifies a defect of nourishment, or the de- caying of the body, and particu- larly by a waste of muscular flesh : it is frequently attended with a hectic fever, and is divided by phy- sicians into several kinds, accord- ing to the variety of its causes, which must carefully be regarded in order to a cure. See Morton De Phthisi, and the Theatrum Ta- bidorum. Contabescentia, i. e. Atrophia. Contagion, Contagio, or Conta- gium, from Contingo and Contac- tus, contact, is a secreted humour from a living vascular surface, of a poisonous quality, and capable of exciting a disease like to that by which itself was produced, when applied to the living system of a healthy animal of the same spe- cies. Thus the matter of small- pox is a contagion, being produc- ed in the incision of an inoculat- ed spot, and in the pustules which make their appearance after the eruptive fever. The pus or sordes of lues venerea is also a contagion, formed by arterious action on a diseased secreting surface. Mea- 25 CO CO slcs is another example of a con- tagious disease, it being propa- gated by a peculiar morbid stimu- lus inherent in matter secreted during the febrile state of the body. So the matter of vaccinia or cow-pox is a contagion formed by a morbid vascular action on the teats of kine, and communicated thence first to human beings, and afterwards from a human being to another. In has been supposed that the number of contagious diseases was very great. But this seems to be a mistake : for yellow fever, ship, jail and hospital fevers, and pesti- lential fevers, as wellas the plague itself, seem 'to be entirely desti- tute of that peculiar morbid se- cretion, which we denominate Contagion. Neither of the febrile diseases just enumerated produ- ces, in any of its stages, a secret- ed fluid, or humour of any kind, that can, with any propriety, be cal- led contagious. On the other hand, it is sufficiently understood that in the cities of America yellow fever is excited by the septic exhala- tions from putrefying beef, hides and fish ; from feculency, offal and excrements acted upon by the in- tense rays of their summer sun. In sea vessels it is equally evident that fevers of the most destructive kind have arisen, as in several of the armed ships of the American States, from putrefying animal provisions; in other instances fe- vers have arisen during long voy- ages from septic gases exhaling from excrementitious substances, such as matter discharged by vo- miting, stool, urine and perspi- ration undergoing a pestilential change in the cloathing and bed- ding which receive them. In pri- sons and hospitals, where,, from collected faeces, from foul wounds and ulcers, and from perspiratory pores, much offensive matter is effused, and, by intestine action worked to a noxious or pestilential quality, a febrile poisoning is in- duced, by which health is under- mined or destroyed. So, from the most correct estimate that can be formed, the plague, as it is em- phatically called, of Barbary, E- gypt and Syria, is caused by sep- tic exhalations proceeding from the accumulated nastiness inci- dental to the disgusting way of living in countries where the mas- ter of an house never invites his friend within his doors, where the decencies and elegances arising from the liberal and polite inter- course of the sexes are unknown, where oppression and poverty de- base the human species to the lowest point of degradation, and where the construction both of their private dwellings and of ci- ties favour remarkably the accu- mulation of noxious and plague- begetting materials. Notwith- standing the fashionable notion of the highly contagious nature of the plague of Asia and Africa, there seems to be no foundation whatever for it. All these dis- eases last enumerated are propa- gated by infection, or septic acid gas. See Infection. Contagions are secreted poi- sons ; and of these poisons pro- duced by living animals there are two kinds: 1. Poisons produced by healthy action of the vessels, as those of the rattle-snake, viper and spider; and, 2. Those which are formed in consequence of a mor- bid condition of the secreting ar- teries, as those of lues, variola and vaccinia. Their chemical consti- tution labours under the same dif- ficulty which attends our know- ledge of the greater part of other secreted fluids, and they have not been well analized. It is presum- able, however, from the analogy the contagions bear to infection, that there is a great similarity in their composition. But wherein CO CO this particularly consists is not perfectly understood. They seem, however, to be destructible by the same agents, and alkaline salts and earths are capable of overcoming both the one and the other class of these injurious compounds. Contagiosi, disorders from con- tagion, or contagious diseases. Contention tension, or stricture. Continens Febris, a continual or continent fever, \yhich proceeds regularly in the same tenor, with- out either intermission or remis- sion. This happens rarely if ever. Continua Febris, a continued fe- ver, attended with exacerbations and slight remissions, butno inter- mission. j Contorsio, from contorqueo, to turn aside, contortion. In Medi- cine, this word signifies, 1. The iliac passion; 2. An incomplete dislocation; 3. A dislocation of the vertebrae of the back sideways, or crookedness of them ; 4. A dis- order of the head, in which it is drawn to one side. Contra-Apertura, a counter- opening ; as when a puncture is made into the bottom of a wound, so as to favour the discharge of what could not easily pass at the top, where an opening was alrea- dy made. Contraction, from contraho, to draw together, expresses the shrinking up of a fibre, when his extended: and Contractile, is such a body as, when extended, has a property of drawing itself up again to that di- mension it was in before extension. For the cause of this property, whichisoftheutmostcensequence to a right understanding of the animal economy, see Fibre. Contraction. Contractura. A rigid contraction of the joints. It is a genus of disease in the class Locales, and order Dyscinesie of Cullen. The species are, 1. Con- tractura ab inflammatione, when it arises from inflammation : 2. Con- tractura a spasmo, called also to- nic spasm and cramp, when it de- pends upon spasm : 3. Contractura ob antagonistas paralilicos, from the antagonist muscles losing their action : 4. Contractura ob acrimo- nia irritante, which is induced by some irritating cause : 5. Contrac- tura articularis, originating from a disease of the joint. M. M. For the 2d and 3d species see the ar- ticles Tetanus and Paralysis. In the others oily frictions about the joints and the bellies of the flexor muscles. Contraflssura, contrafissure. It is a crack in the skull, opposite to where the blow was given, e. g. the blow is received on the right bregma, and thereby a fissure is occasioned in the left. Contra-Indication. A symptom attending a disease, which forbids the exhibition of a remedy that would otherwise be employed: for instance, bark and acids arc usu- ally given in putrid fevers ; but if there be difficulty of breathing or pain of the side, they are contra- indications to their use. Contralunaris, an epithet given by Dietericus to a woman who conceives during the menstrual discharge. Contrayerva. Contrayerva. This word is of Spanish origin, and sig- nifies an antedote to poison. The officinal part of this plant, Dorste- nia contrayerva of Linnaeus, is the root. It has a peculiar kind of aromatic smell, and a light, ad- stringent, warm, bitterish taste; and on being long chewed it dis- covers somewhat of a sweetish sharpness. Putrid and nervous fevers are the diseases in which this medicine was formerly used. Grs. v. to B'\. Contusion. Contusio, a bruise ; from Contundo, to knock together. M. M. Vinegar; brandy ; sugar of lead; liniment of soap or ammo- CO CO nia. If pyrexia follow, venesec- tion, cathartics, and the antiphlo- gistic regimen. Convalescence, is that space from the departure of a disease, and the recovery of the strength which was lost by it. Converge, or converging Rays, are those which go from divers points of the object, and incline towards one another. Convex, from conveho, to carry out, is the external round part of any body opposite to the hollow, and commonly in Anatomy called Protuberance. Convoluta Superiora (Ossa), i. e. Concha Narium Superior. Convoluta Inferiora, the lower shelves of the nose. Convolvulus Syriacus,i.e. scam- mony. Convolvulus, a name of the iliac passion. Convulsion. Convulsio. Clonic spasm. Alternate relaxations, with violent and involuntary contrac- tions of the muscular fibres, with- out sleep. Cullen arranges con- vulsion in the class Neuroses, and order Spasmi. M. M. If it pro- ceed from teething, an incision on the suspected teeth ; if from cru- dities in the first passages,an eme- tic ; if from acidities, castor oil, volatile alkali and other antacids ; if from worms, anthelmintics ; if from repelled eruptions, a warm bath, blisters. In general antis- pasmodics and anodynes. Convulsio Clonica, convulsion alternating with relaxation. Convulsio Indica, i. e. Tetanus. Convulsio a Arervi Punctura, i. e. Trismus. Convulsio Soloniensis, i. e. Ra- phania. Convulsio Tonica, convulsion not alternating with relaxation. Convulsio Uteri, i. e. Abortus. Coolers; which produce an im- mediate sense of cold, as fruits, all acid liquors, and common wa- ters, cucumbers, &c. Copaifera, balsam capivi tree. A genus in Linnaeus*s botany. There is but one species. Copal. The natives of America call all transparent odoriferous gums by the name of Copal. That which is in our shops is a resinous gum, and is brought from New- Spain. It is in irregular masses; some are transparent, others less so in different degrees. It differs from other resinous bodies in be- ing difficultly dissolved by rectifi- ed spirit of wine, &c. Cophosis, a difficulty of hearing; from xw0o?, dumb. See Dyseco'e'a. Copper. Cuprum. An imper- fect metal, of a red brilliant co- lour; hard, elastic, sonorous, and very ductile. It is found in the earth in various states. The uses of this metal in the arts are nu- merous. All its preparations are very violent poisons, and ought never to be given internally, but with the greatest caution. The sulphate of copper is a powerful tonic and diuretic, and is given internally in dropsies and weak- nesses.—From Grs. 4 to 1 at a time. From 9ss to 9i. operates as an emetic. Externally it is employed by surgeons as an es- charotic. Copperas. A name given to the three vitriols, viz. the blue, green, and white. The English green vitriol is purely ferrugineous; but almost all others have an ad- mixture of copper. It seems as if the metallic part of all vitriols had been formerly supposed to be copper only; hence, in various countries, they have received names expressive of copper. The English call each of them coppe- ras ; the Germans kupfferwasser; some Latin writers cuperosum, i. e. cuprum erosum; the Greeks XxXkxvQo?. Copula, whence Copulation, CO CO strictly signifying the conjunction of male and female in the act of generation, but used by some phy- sical writers for a peculiar mix- ture of some bodies with others. Cor. See Heart. Coracobrachialis, } from w*cc%, a Coracobrachieus, 5 crow,and;@px- Xmv, brachium, an arm. This mus- cle arises tendinous and fleshy from the fore part of the coracoid process of the scapula, adhering in its descent, to the short head of the biceps; inserted, tendinous and fleshy, about the middle of the internal part of the os humeri, near the origin of the third head of the triceps, called brachialis ex- ternus, where it sends down a thin tendinous expansion to the inter- nal condyle of the os humeri. Its use is to raise the arm upwards and forwards. Coraco-hyoideus. It arises from the superior part of theuppercosta of the scapula, and is inserted in- to the basis of the os hyoides, to pull it downwards and backwards. Coracoides Processus, the beak- like process. Its name is from its likeness to the beak of a crow. It projects from the anterior extre- mity of the upper costa of the sca- pula. This process is a little crooked, with its point inclining forwards; a ligament goes out on its superior part, to connect it to the acromion and clavicle. At the birth of children it is cartilagi- nous. Coracoideus, i. e. Coracobrachi- alis. Coralachatcs, a species of the Achates, which resembles coral with respect to its colour. Corallina, coralline. The coral- lines, of which there are several kinds, were formerly reckoned amongst plants : but later inqui- ries prove them to be the product of different animals which resem- ble polypes. Modern naturalists define them as being submarine plant-like bodies, that consist of many slender, finely divided, and jointed branches. They are dis- tinguished from plants by their texture and hardness. By distilla- tion they yield a considerable quantity of volatile salt; and their smell, on burning, resembles that of burnt horns, and other animal substances. See on this subject Ellis's Natural History. Corallium, coral. Its produce is similar to that of coralline. It is also called Lithodendron, or tree-stone. Corallium Nigrum, black coral. What is usually shown for black coral, is a woody, and not a stony production. Corallium Album Ramosum, also called Madrepora Vulgaris, white coral. The best is brought from the Mediterranean, and is not po- rous, but solid. Corallium Rubrum, red coral. This sort hath chiefly been used in medicine. It contains a small portion of iron ; its basis seems to be the same calcareous animal earth as that of coralline, and other animal earths; it is possessed of the same properties with them, and no other. The college have retained this substance in their Pharmacopeia ; it enters the Pul- vis e Chelis Cancrorum Composi- tus ; the PulvisContrayervae Com- positus; and the Confectio Aro- matica : it is the Isis Nobilis, Lin- naei. Corculum, a diminutive, from Cor, the heart. In Botany, it signi- fies the heai tor essence of a seed, and the primordium of the future plant, attached to, and involved in the cotyledon. Cordials. Medicines are gene- ally so termed which possess warm and stimulating properties, and that are given to raise the spirits ; from cor, the heart. Coriandrum. Coriander. Cori- andrum sativumoi Linr.?, likeness. Corpora Cavernosa. See Gene- ration, parts of, proper to men ; and Corpora Nervoso Penis, called also Corpora Cavernosa: these are two spongy bodies arising dis- tinctly from the lower part of the os pubis. A little from their root they come close together, being only divided by a membrane, which, at its beginning, is pretty thick, but as it approaches to the end of the yard, grows thinner and thinner, where the corpora cavernosa terminate in the mid- dle of the glans. The external substance of these spongy bodies is hard, thick, and white. The in- ternal is composed of small fibres and membranes, which form a sort of loose net-work, upon which the branches of the blood-vessels are curiously spread. When the blood is stopped in the great veins of the penis, it runs through several small holes in the sides of their capillary branches into the cavi- ties of the net-work, by which means the corpora cavernosa be- come distended, and by that means the penis erected. Corpora Fimbriata. A border on the edge of the fornix in the brain is thus named. Corpora Olivaria. Two eminen- ces on the medulla oblongata are thus named. Winslow calls those Corpora Olivaria which Willis calls Corpora Pyramidalia. Corpora Pyramidalia, are two protuberances of the under part of the cerebellum, about an inch long, which, from their resem- blance to a pyramid in shape, are thus called; and on each side of them, towards the lower end, there are two more, which, from their figure resembling an olive, are called Corpora Olivaria. Further, When the blood hath discharged itself of the seed in the testicles, CO CO it returns by the veins, which, rising in several branches from the testes, tend towards the abdomen in the production of the paerito- neum, the same way the arteries come down ; in their progress the branches frequently inosculate, and divide again till they come near the abdomen, and then they all unite in one trunk, and there, because of their shape, are also called Corpora Pyramidalia. Corpora Striata. Two promi- nences in the lateral ventricles of the brain, are thus named. Corpulentia, excess of fat Corpus, a body, strictly expres- ses the same as Matter, which see. Corpus Callosum, is the upper part or covering of the two lateral ventricles appearing immediately under the process of the dura mater, below the depth of all the circumvolutions of the brain, and formed by the union of the medul- lary fibres of each side. Corpus Glandulosum. See Pros- tate. Corpus Luteum. The granulus papilla which is found in that part of the ovarium of females, from whence an ovum had proceeded ; hence their presence determines that the female has been impreg- nated ; and the number of the cor- pora luteu corresponds with the number of impregnations. It is, however, asserted by a modern writer, th&tcorpora lutea have been detected in young virgins, where no impregnations could possibly have taken place. Corpus Mucosum, i. e. Rete mu- cosum. Corpus Pampiniforme, 7 the spermatic Corpus Pyramidale, 5 cord. Carpus Reticulare. See Rete mucosutn. Corpus spongiosum Urethra, the spongy body of the urethra. It is of the same substance as the cor- pora'cavernosa, and surrounds the urethra, and at its extremity forms the glans. That end next the prostatae, because of its bigness, is called the Bulb of the Urethra. Corpus varicosum, the sperma- tic cord. Corpuscles, a diminutive of cor- pus, body, signify the minute par- ticles, or atoms, of which any body is constituted. And that way of reasoning which endeavours to ex- plain things by the motion, figure, and position of these minute in- gredients of mixed bodies, has of late, and particularly from the au- thority of Mr. Boyle, been called the Corpuscular Philosophy; the chief principles of which are, 1. That there is but one catholic or universal matter, which is an ex- tended, impenetrable, and divisi- ble substance, common to all bo- dies, and capable of all forms: 2. That this matter, in order to form the vast variety of natural bodies, must have motion in some or all its designable parts ; and that this motion was given to matter by God the Creator of all things, and has all manner of direction and ten- dencies: 3. That matter must also be actually divided into parts, and each of these primitive particles, fragments, or atoms of matter, must have its proper magnitude, figure, and shape: 4. That these differently sized and shaped par- ticles have different orders, posi- tions, situations, andpostures, from whence all the variety of compound bodies arises. Sir Isaac Newton, in his second book of Optics, shows a way of guessing with great ac- curacy at the sizes of the compo- nent corpuscles or particles, of which bodies are constituted. Corrector, is such an ingredient in a composition as guards against or abates the force of another; as the lixivial salts prevent the griev- ous vellications of resinous purges, by dividing their particles, and CO CO preventing their adhesions to the intestinal membranes, whereby they sometimes occasion intolera- ble gripings; and as spices and carminative seeds also assist in the easier operation of some cathar- tics, by dissipating collections of wind. In the making a medicine likewise, such a thing is called a corrector, which destroys or dimi- nishes a quality in it that could not otherwise be dispensed with: thus turpentines may be called the cor- rectors of quicksilver, by destroy- ing its fluxility, and making it thereby capable of mixture; and thus rectified spirit of wine breaks off the points of some acids, so as to make them become safe and good remedies, which before were destructive. Corroborate, signifies to streng- then. See Strength. Corroborating Medicines, are such as increase the strength of the body by enlivening the vital faculties. Corrosives. Caustics. Substan- ces are so called which possess a power of destroying the texture of a solid part to which they are applied, independent of any me- chanical action; from corrodo, to eat away. See Caustics. Corrugate, is to wrinkle or purse up, as the skin is drawn into wrin- kles by cold or any other cause. Corrugator Supercilii. Each eye-brow has one. It is a muscle arising from the great canthus of the orbit, and terminating in the skin about the middle of the eye- brows. Some reckon this pair only a prolongation of the fron- tales; their name declares their use, from corrugo, to wrinkle up, or knit the brows. Corrugator Coiteri, i. e. Corru- gator Supercilii. Corruption, is the destruction, or at least the cessation for a time, of the proper mode of existence of any natural bodv: for when- ever a body loses all, or any of those accidents which are essen- tially necessary to the constituting it of such a particular kind, it is then said to be corrupted or de- stroyed, and loses its former de- nomination, being not now a body of the kind it was before : but no- thing can be destroyed as to its substance or materiality; for as in generation nothing of matter is produced that did not before exist, so in corruption nothing more is lost than that particular modification which was its form, and made it be of such a species. Cortex, from corium, a hide, and tego, to cover ; properly the outer rind of vegetables, distinct from the liber: thus the corolla is a continuation of the liber, and the calyx of the cortex. The Peru- vian bark is so called by way of pre-eminence. Cortex Cardinalis de Lugo. The Cort. Peruv. was thus called, be- cause the cardinal Lugo had tes- timonials of above a thousand cures performed by it in the year 1653. Cortex Magellanicus. Wintera- nus Cortex. Cortex Peruvianus, i. e. Cin- chona. Cortex Winteranus Spurius, i. e. Canella Alba. Corymbus, is a species of fruc- tification, having its flowers sup- ported on flower-stems of differ- ent lengths, but so disposed, that the flowers shall be nearly of an equal height, as occurs in the mi- lefolium, or common yarrow. Coryza, Kopv^a, is a defluxion of serous sharp humours from the glands of the head, upon a dimi- nution of perspiration, or taking cold. Dr. Cullen uses this word as synonymous with Catarrh. Coryza Catarrhalis, a catarrh from cold. Coryza Febricosa, a catarrh from cold. "C CO Coryza Phlegmatorrhagia, a ca- tarrh from cold. Cosmetic, from xoo-fttu, orno, to beautify ; such medicines as pre- serve the beauty and smoothness of the skin. Coste, the ribs. Ofthese there are 24 in number, viz. 12 on each side the 12 vertebrae of the back : they are crooked, and like to the segments of a circle ; they grow flat and broad as they approach the sternum; but the nearer they are to the vertebrae, they are the roun- der and thicker; at which end they have a round head, which being covered with a cartilage, is receiv- ed into the sinus in the bodies of the vertebrae, and at the neck of each head (except the two last ribs) there is a small tubercle, which is also received into the sinus of the transverse processes of the same vertebrae. The ribs thus articu- lated make an acute angle with the lower vertebrae. The ribs have each a small canal or sinus, which runs along their under sides, in which lies a nerve, vein, and ar- tery. Their extremities, which are fastened to the sternum, are cartilaginous, and the cartilages make an obtuse angle with the bony part of the ribs : this angle respects the head. The cartilages are harder in women than in men, that they may the better bear the weight of their breasts. The ribs are of two sorts : the seven upper are called coste vere, because their cartilaginous ends are received in- to the sinus of the sternum. The five lower are called./a/s, a ring, aptrra.v*, an ewer, and utic;, shape; arises fleshy from the cricoid cartilage laterally, whera it is covered by part of the thyroid, and is inserted into the side of the base of the arytaenoid cartilage, near the former. Its use is to open the rima glottidis, by pulling the ligaments from each other. Crico-arytanoidaus posticus, ari- ses fleshy from the back part of the cricoid cartilage, and is insert- ed into the posterior part of the base of the arytaenoid cartilage. Its use is to open the rima glotti- dis a little, and by pulling back the arytaenoid cartilage, to stretch the ligament so as to make it tense. Cricoides, k^ko;, a ring, and u£o;, a form. The name of the annular cartilage belonging to the larynx. Crico-pharyngeus, from x/»xoj, annulus, and «§i>yf, gutter. It arises from the side of the thyroid cartilage, near the attachment of CR CR the 6terno-hyoidaeus, and thyreo- hyoidaeus muscles ; and from the cricoid cartilage, near the crico- thyroidaeus ; it is inserted into the white line, where it joins with its fellow, the superior fibres running obliquely upwards, covering nearly one half of the middle constrictor, and terminating in a point: the in- ferior fibres run more transversely, and coverthebeginningof theoeso- phagus. Its use is to compress that part of the pharynx which it covers, and to raise it with the la- rynx a little upwards. Cricos, Kfixos, a ring, or circle. Hippocrates calls the annular car- tilages, which form the aspera ar- teria, thus. Cricothyroidei, from x?«>cej, a ring, St^toj, a helmet, and £*&?, shape. These arise from the sides and fore part of the cricoid cartilage, running obliquely upwards; are inserted each by two portions, the first into the lower part of the thy- roid cartilage ; the second into its inferior cornu. Their uses are to pull forwards and depress the thy- roid, or to elevate and drawback- wards the crycoid cartilage. Crinones, from crinibus, hairs ; the name of a disorder that chiefly troubles children, pricking their backs as if with thorns : it makes the patient very restless ; and is said to arise from hairs, which are scarce a pin's length, but thick and strong. See an account of it in the London Medical Journal, vol. ii. p. 280, 8cc. Crisis, xp*sr*j, from xp.vu, to judge. It is some change in the patient, which discovers the state of a dis- ease, whether for the better or the worse. And Critical Days, are those days wherein such change happens. The writers of Institutions have strangely perplexed this part of a physician's province: it may there- fore be of consequence to clear it up as much as is consistent with our allotted room here. The con- coction then of any morbific mat- ter, and the humour to be secern- ed, is nothing else but a change of it into such a due magnitude orsmallness, as it may be carried by the circulating blood along the canals, and excerned by vessels destined for that purpose. But if the morbific matter cannot be re- duced to such a smallness that may correspond to the orifice of * the secretory vessels, then either an abscess or haemorrhage will follow, if a crisis is begun; for which reason abscesses, &c. are accounted less perfect crises. But that the morbific matter may be reduced to a due smallness, and its wished-for discharge be effect- ed, there is required a considera- ble time, if the quantity of matter is large ; that is, if the distemper be great and severe. And since there are a great many causes, and those very constant, that may occasion the blood and offending humours therein to be of a differ- ent fluidity in the inhabitants of different climates, it is impossible but that different spaces of time should be required for the finish- ing concoction ; which make it impossible to determine the criti- cal days in one climate from what they are found to be in another. The causes of real critical days; that is, such on which happens the last concoction of the morbific matter, which is always attended with its expulsion, are all those things whichoccasionthehumours to become of such a certain mag- nitude or minuteness, and of a greater or lesser cohesion; but with any given power, bodies, un- equally large, or unequally co- hering, cannot be concocted in an equal time ; wherefore it is to be found from the observations made by all nations among themselves, what are the usual causes and con- ditions of those diseases which CR CR require a certain number of days to finish such a concoction in. And when there is a sufficient number of such observations made, the distemper and circumstances ap- pearing the same, we may be able to foretel a critical day with much more exactness than it is now in our power to do. Crista, the name of a turbercle about the anus and pudenda; they are so called on account of their form. Crista Galli, cock's comb. A species of Rhinanthus. Also, an eminence on the upper part of the os ethmoides. Criste Clitoridis, i. e. Nymph*. Crithe, Hpt'-.y, i. e. Grando, or stye on the eye-lid Critica Signa,ihose signs which are taken from the crisis of a dis- ease, as to recovery or death. Critici, critical fevers, those fe- vers which terminate with the ap- pearance of alateritious sediment in the urine. Crocus, saffron. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates one species, and two varie- ties : the officinal saffron is the autumnalis. The stigma or the female part of the flower is the saffron used in medicine. Crocus, is a term given to ma- ny preparations made by the che- mists after the manner of rust, by corroding metallic substances. The college have retained Saffron in their Pharmacopeia; it enters the Vinum Rhabarbari, formerly called Tinct. Rhab. Vinos, the Tinct. Aloes Composita, formerly called Elix. Aloes : the Tinctura Corticis Peruviani: the Tinctura Rhabarbari : the Tinctura Rha- barbari Composita: the Syrups Croci: the Pilulae ex Aloe cum Myrrha, formerly called Pilulae Rufi : the Conf. Aromatica instead of the Conf. Cardiac. Crocus Metallorum, i. e, Crocus Antimonii, Cross-Stitch. See Suture (Cru- cial.) Crotaphite, xporx^irxi, the same as Temporal Piuscle, which see ; from x£OT«(po;, time, or else x»oJeui, ta beat, as the pulse. Croton, bastard ricinus, or phy- sic nut. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates twenty- three species. Croup, i. e. Cynanche Trachealis, Crowfoot. Ranunculus. Crown Imperial. See Corona Imperialis. Crucialia (Ligamenta). They rise from the inside of each con- dyle, and are attached to the fe- mur. They give strength to the joint, and limit its motion. Crucialis, i, e. Herba Cruciate Hirsuta. Crucible. It is an earthen vessel used by chemists and refiners; it is made on purpose to bear such a heat as is necessary for fusing metals. Cruciform Flower, in Botany. It consists of four petala regularly disposed in form of a cross : they constitute the fifth class in Tour- nefort, and the tetradynamia of Linnaeus. Crudity, signifies properly raw- ness, or any thing not duly digest- ed and mixed, whether in animal or other substances. Cruor. Sometimes it means the blood in general, and some- times the venal only ; but is the proper term for the thick, red part of the blood, called also eras- samentum, in distinction to the serous or aqueous part. Crura. The two largest legs, or roots of the medullary substance of the brain, called Medulla Ob- longata, are thus named. Crura- Clitoridis. The two spongy bodies that form the clitoris, be- fore their union, are thus called. Crureus, vel Cruralis, arises fleshy, from between the two tro- chanters of the os femoris, but CR CR nearer the minor, firmly adhering to most of the fore part of the os femoris, is connected to both vasti muscles. It is inserted tendinous into the upper part of the patella, behind the rectus. The use is to assist in the extension of the leg. Crureus, from Crus, i. e. Femur. Crurales Arteria, the crural ar- teries ; the external iliac arteries pass out of the belly under the in- guinal glands, and there take the name of Crural; each runs under the fartorius, vastus internus, and triceps muscles, and is covered by them to the lower part of the thigh; a little above the internal condyle of the os femoris it runs to the ham, and there takes the name of Poplitaus. Crural Hernia. Femoral Her- nia. A tumour under the groin, and in the uppermost part of the thigh, arising from a protrusion of part of an abdominal viscus un- der Poupart's ligament. M. M. as in bubonocele. Cruralis. The nerve which passes from the loins into the thigh, is thus called. It is pro- duced by the conjunction of the second, third, and fourth lumbar branches. It passes under Pou- part's ligament, runs on the fore part of the thigh, upon the iliacus internus muscle, and one of its principal branches accompanies the vena saphena to the ankle. Crus, the leg. It includes the whole of the lower extremity, from the os innominatum to the toes; viz. the thigh, leg, and foot. It sometimes signifies only the thigh; by some it is confined to that part between the knee and the ankle. Crusta Lactea. When the Ti- nea affects the face it is thus nam- ed. In the hairy scalp only it is called Tinea, or scald head. Crypte, xpuTrrat, from k$vxtu, to hide; hollow places like cavities, containing some fluid. It is a term used in anatomy to express a re- ceptacle of any particular humour or matter, in distinction from a gland, which is not supposed to receive, but only to transmit. Cryptogamia, from k^wIo;, occul- tus, concealed, and yxfxo-, nuptie, nuptials, in the Linnaean system of botany, a class of plants, the twenty- fourth or last in order. This class consists of such plants as either bear their flowers concealed with- in the fruit, or have them so small as to be imperceptible ; it compre- hends four orders, viz. Filices, fer- nes, Musci, mosses, Alge, flags, and Fungi, mushrooms, consisting each of a variety of genera. Cryptopyica (Ischuria,) a sup- pression of urine from a retraction of the penis within the body. Crysorchis, xpveopx^?, a retraction or retrocession of one of the tes- ticles. Crystalli, eruptions about the size of a lupine, white and trans- parent, which sometimes break out all over the body. They are also called Crystalline, and "by the Italians Taroli. Dr. Cockburn speaks of them as attendant on a gonorrhoea. Crystalline Manus, in Hippo*- crates, are hands so cold as to seem frozen. Crystalline Humour, is the se- cond humour of the eye, that lies immediately next to the aqeeous, behind the uvea, opposite to the pupilla, nearer to the fore part than the back part of the globe; it is the least of the humours, but much more solid than any of them. Its figure, which is convex on both sides, resembles two unequal seg- ments of spheres, of which the most convex is on its back side, which makes a small cavity in the glassy humour in which it lies. It is covered with a fine coat called Aranea. Crystallization, is such a combir- nation of saline particles as resem- bles the form of a crystal, vari- 77 CU cu ovjsly modified according to the nature and texture of the salts. The method is by dissolving any saline body in water, and filtering it, to evaporate till a film appears at the top, and then let it stand to shoot; this it does by that attrac- tive force which is in all bodies, and particularly in salt, by reason of its solidity ; whereby, when the menstruum,or fluid, in which such particles float, is sufficiently im- pregnated, or evaporated, so that the saline particles are within each other's attractive powers, they draw one another more than they are drawn by the fluid, then will they run into crystals. And this is peculiar to trhose salts, that if ever so much divided and reduced into minute particles, yet, when they are formed into crystals, they each of them reassume their pro- per shapes ; so that one might as easily divest and deprive them of their saltness, as of their figure. This being an immutable and per- petual law, by knowing the figures of the crystals, we may understand what the texture of the particles ought to be, which can form those crystals. And on the other hand, by knowing the texture of the particles, may be determined the figures of the crystals; for, since the figures of the most simple parts remain always the same, it is evident the figures which they run into, when compounded and united, must be uniform and con- stant. And since the force of at- traction may be stronger on one side of a particle than on another, there will constantly be a greater accretion of salts upon those sides which attractmore strongly. From which it may easily be demonstrat- ed, that the figure of the least par- ticle's is entirely different from that which appears in the crystal. Crystalloides Tunica, i. e.Ara- nea. Cube, is a solid body of six equal sides, which are all squares. It is one of the five regular bodies, and its contents are found by multiply- ing any one side or surface by the height. Cubeba, Cubebs, a species of Pi- per. The college have retained Cubebs in their Pharmacopeia. Cubiforme ( Os),i.e.CuboidesOs. Cubit, is the middle part be- tween the shoulder-bone and the" wrist. It is also the ninth degree in the Linnaean scale for measuring plants ; from the elbow to the ex- tremity of the middle finger; or seventeen Parisian inches. Cubiteus, from Cubitus, i.e. Ulna. Cubitalis, i. e. Cubiteus. Cubitalis Arteria, the cubital or ulnar artery. It parts from the radial artery about a finger's breadth below the bend of the arm. Near the carpus it lies just under the integuments,runs across the palm of the hand, and forms an arch which anastomoses with that of the radial; whence these arteries go to each finger and the thumb. Cubitalis Externus, i. e. Exten- sor Carpi Ulnaris. Cubitalis Riolani, i. e. Anconeus. Cubitalis, a name of the ulnar nerve. Cheselden describes the cubital nerves as being two in each arm, the upper passing over the upper extuberance of the os hu- meri, and runs on to the thumb and the three next fingers by its branches, which spread when it approaches the thumb; the infe- rior, which passes under the in- ner extuberance of the os humeri, and runs on to the ring and little fingers. Cubitalis Ext. if Int. (Vena.) See Basilica Vena. Cubiti Profunda (Vena). Some- times from one, and sometimes from another of the branches, cal- led Mediana, a branch goes out on the inside of the fore arm, which is thus named. CU cu Cubitus, from Cubando, because the ancients used to lie down on that part at their meals, i. e. Ulna, which see; or the elbow, or the fore arm from the elbow to the wrist. Cubitus, a cubit measure. In Botany, it is eighteen inches ; so the stalks of plants are named cu- bitalis, bicubitalis, &c. according to their height. Cuboides, (Os), from xt/£®*, a cube, and tt$b<;,form. It is situated immediately before the os calcis ; on its fore side it sustains the os metatarsi of the little toe, and the toe next to it. Cucullaris, a muscle serving to move the scapula, so called from its figure resembling,that of monk's hood. It is also called Trapezius. Cucullate-flower, from cuculla, a hood; so called from its resem- blance in shape to a hood. Cucumis, cucumber. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. To this ge- nus he adds the Anguria, Mclo, and Colooynthis. There are thir- teen species. Cucupha, is an ancient form of quilting spices into a cap to be worn upon the head in many ner- vous distempers, and such as more particularly affect the head ; but they are now almost out of prac- tice. Cucurbita, the gourd. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. To this ge- nus he adds the Pepo and Melopepo. He enumerates seven species. Cucurbita, a cucurbit. A che- mical vessel, commonly called a body, made of earth or glass, in the shape of a gourd, and there- fore thus called. Cucurbita, vel \ A cupping- Cucurbitula 5 glass. Cucurbitini Lumbrici, a sort of worms in human bodies, which re- semble gourd-seeds in shape, and therefore are thus named. The separate joints of the tape-worm are thus named. Culinary salt. It is the salt which is used at our tables, to be taken with our food; muriate of soda. Cuminum, Cumin. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. There is but one species, viz. Cyminum. The college have retained this seed in their Pharmacopeia ; it enters the EmplastrumCumini,formerly cal- led Empl. e Cymino. Cunealis Satura, the suture by which the os sphenoides is joined to the os frontis. Cunciforme Os, from Cuneus, a wedge. A name of the os sphe- noides, from its being wedged be- tween the other bones. It is also a name of the third bone of the first row in the wrist; it is so cal- led from its appearing like a wedge sticking between the two rows. Cuneiformia Ossa, are the fourth, fifth, and sixth bones of the foot, thus called from their wedge-like shape, from Cuneus, a wedge, and Forma, shape : for they are large above, and narrow below. They lie all three at the side of one ano- ther. The upper side is 'convex, and their under hollow, by which means the muscles and tendons in the bottom of the foot are not hurt when we go. At one end they have each a sinus, which receives the os naviculare, and at the other end they are joined to the three inner bones of the metatarsus; the inmost of these bones is the big- gest, and that in the middle the least. Cuneus, the Wedge, which is a triangular prism, whose sides arc acute angled isosceles triangles. Cunnus, expresses so much of a woman's privy parts as consist of the clitoris, nymphae, and labia. Cupel, or Cupel. It is a vessel made of ashes and burnt bones, for separating the dross from me- tals, chiefly used by the refiners. Cupellation. The purifying of perfect metals by means of an ad- CU cu dition of lead, which at a due heat becomes vitrified, and pro- motes the vitrification and calci- nation of such imperfect metals as may be in the mixture, so that these last are carried off in the fusible glass that is formed, and the perfect metals are left nearly pure. The name of this opera- tion is taken from the vessels made use of, which are called cupels. Cupri Rubigo, verdigrise. Cuprum. See Copper. Cura Avenacea. A decoction of oats and succory roots, in which a little nitre and sugar were dissolv- ed, was formerly used in fevers, and was thus named. Curcuma. Turmeric. Curcuma longa of Linnaeus.—The root of this plant is imported here in its dried state from the East-Indies, in various forms. Externally it is of a pale yellow colour, wrinkled, solid, ponderous, and the inner substance of a deep saffron or gold colour: its odour is somewhat fragrant; to the taste it is bitter- ish, slightly acrid, exciting a mo- derate degree of warmth in the mouth, and on being chewed it tinges the saliva yellow. It is now very seldom used medicinally, but retains a place in our Pharmaco- peias. 9i. to 3i- Currant-tree. See Ribes. Custos Oculi, an instrument to preserve the eye in an operation. Cutambuli, the name of a sort of worms either under the skin or upon it, which by their creeping cause uneasiness and pain. Cutaneus Musculus, i. e. Pla- tysma Myoides. Cutaneous, is any thing concern- ing the skin, either of a distem- per, or remedy ; from Cutis, the skin. Cutaneous Diseases, are gene- rally supposed to proceed from tliat curdy matter, like paste, which being thrust out and lodg- ed between the cuticular pores, causes a stagnation of the juices, and dryness of the skin,&c. Cutaneum Ossis Coccygis (Li- gamentum) ; it goes out anteriorly from the extremity of the Os Coc- cygis ; it is slender, and divides into two portions at the orifice of the anus, which run into the mem- brana adiposa, and are inserted in the skin on each side of the anus by a kind of expansion, and con- tinuing to divaricate, they are lost on the two sides of the perinaeum. Cutaneus i. e. Sphincter Anil also the name of a nerve that pas- ses from the union of the seventh cervicle and first dorsal pairs to the inside of the arm. Cuticula, the cuticle or scarf- skin ; also called Epidermis, from eot, supra, above, and &£/*«, cutis, the skin; is the first and outermost covering of the body, commonly called the scarf-skin. This is that soft skin which rises in a blister upon any burning, or the applica- tion of a blistering plaster. It sticks close to the surface of the true skin, by which it is also tied by the vessels which nourish it, though they are so small as not to be seen. When the scarf-skin is examined with a microscope, it appears to'be made up of several layers of exceeding small scales, which cover one another, more or less, according to the different thickness of the acarf-akin in the several parts of the body. In the lips, where the scales appear plainest, because the skin is thin- nest, they only in a manner touch one another. Now these scales are either the excretory ducts of the glands of the true skin, as is apparent in fishes, or else the glands have their pipes opening between the scales. Lewenhoeck reckons, that in one circular scale there may be 500 excretory chan- nels, and that a grain of sand will cover 250 scales ; so that one grain of sand will cover 102500 ori- cu cu lices through which we daily per- spire. The scales are often glewed to one another by the grosser parts of our insensible transpiration har- dening upon them by the heat of the body, which carries off the more volatile particles. The hu- mour, which is afterwards sepa- rated by the glands of the skin being pent in between the scales, causes frequent itching; and where the matter has been long pent up, small pimples ; for the removing of which, nature directs to those wholesome remedies of frequent rubbing, or washing, or bathing. The use of the scarf-skin is to defend the nerves of the skin, which are the origin of the sense of feeling, from the injuries of rough and hard bodies, as well as the air; for either those would make too exquisite and painful an impression on the naked nerves; or the air would dry them, so that they vvould be less susceptible of the nicer touches of pleasure. Cuticularis Membrana, the dura mater. Cuticulosus, i. e. Sphincter Ani. Cutis, the skin. In this there are three parts remarkable: the first is an infinite number of the papillae pyramidales; these are the ends of all the nerves of the skin, each of which is enclosed in two or three covers of a pyrami- dal figure, and those covers each above another. They may be easily seen and separated in the skin of an elephant, and in the skin of the feet of several other animals. Be- tween these papillae are an infi- nite number of holes, which are the orifices of the excretory ves- sels of the miliary glands under- neath. About the papillae is spread a mucous substance, which, be- cause it is pierced by them, and consequently full of little holes, is called by Malpighi, the Corpus reticulare ; its use is to keep the extremities of the nerves soft and moi#t, and sensible of the slight- est touches. The second part is a web of nervous fibres, and other vessels differently interwoven, and it is the parenchyma, or that part of the skin that the parch- ment is made of. The third part is an infinite number of miliary glands, about which there is much fat; they lie under the other two parts, and they separate the mat- ter of sweat and insensible trans- piration. Each gland receives a nerve and artery, and sends out a vein and excretory vessel, which last passes through the other two parts of the cuticula, for discharg- ing the body of this matter, and for moistening the cuticula, and the papillae pyramidales, that they may not dry, which would very much hurt the sense of feeling. Upon the surface of the skin there are many parallel lines which are cut by as many parallel ones. These intersections make spaces of a rhomboidal figure ; and out of each angle, for the greatest part, grows a hair, shorter or lon- ger, as nature requires in the se- veral parts of the body ; but in the palms of the hand, where there are no hairs, these lines do not intersect one another ; and on the ends of the fingers they are spiral. The skin is six times thicker than the scarf-skin; and in the sole of the foot it is much thicker than in the face, hands, and other parts. In the summer it is softer, because the pores are wider. In the win- ter it is more compact and hard, because the pores are closer; therefore the hairs of beasts stick faster, and furs made of them are better in that season. In some this skin is white, in others black and tawny, which probably comes from the different colours of the mucus, which covers the paren- chyma of the akin; for the fibres of the skin in all are white, and cu CY there is little or no difference in the colour of different bloods. VThe skin is not only a covering in which all the parts of the body are wrapped up, but in it also na- ture has placed the organs of the sense of feeling, so that not the least thing hurtful can assault us without our knowledge : and as it preserves us from external offen- ces, so it relieves us of noxious and superfluous internal humours; its glands being the emunctories of the whole body, through which not only the peccant humours pass, but likewise the greatest part of the liquors which we drink, which having part of their office in conveying the aliments into the blood, are in the next place to dissolve the saline and terrestrial particles to be carried off through the glands of the skin and kidneys—Now the sum of all these particles strained through the cuticular glands, is, by Sancto- rius, reckoned to amount to about 50 ounces in Italy; so that sup- pose a man's body to weigh 160 pounds, then in 51 days we per- spire a quantity equal to the weight of the whole body. And from the consideration of this and other evacuations, our bodies are said to be renewed and changed in some stated times : but that the vessels or solid parts of the body do con- stantly decay, waste, and evapo- rate, does not at all seem proba- ble ; nor if they do, is it possible to determine in what time there is a total change; and I am more apt to think, that the fluids only con- sume, of which though several pounds are daily lost, yet it is not from thence certain when the old stock is spent, and the vessels fil- led with new juices : for, besides that the true quantity of blood in the body is not certainly known, re can never be sure whether they are new or old juices, or a mix- ture of both, which are constantly flying off; and if a mixture, which is most probable, in what propor- tion they are mixed, which must necessarily be known in order to determine when the old mass is entirely evacuated. But that part of our native blood does remain in the body, even to the last stages of life, some think credible from hence, that the small-pox comes upon many at 80 or 90 years of age; but whether that is conclu- sive, we have not leisure here to examine. Cycaa, the sago-tree. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. There are two species. Cyclopion, kvkXidkmv, from xuxAow, to surround, and u^, the eye, the white of the eye. Cyclos, a circle. Hippocrates- uses this word to signify the cheeks, and the orbits of the eyes. Cyclus Metasyncriticus. It is a long protracted course of reme- dies, persisted in with a view of restoring the particles of the body to such a state as is necessary to health. Cydonia, the quince-tree. A species of Pyrus. It is the Py- rus Cydonia of Linnaeus. The college have retained its fruit, and its seed, in their Pharmacopeia; a mucilage of the seeds, Mucilago Seminis Cydonii Mali, is directed. Cynanche, xvvayx*, from xvuv, a dog, and ayxv, to suffocate. It is that species of Angina, or Quinsey, in which the tongue is inflamed and swelled, so that it hangs out between the teeth. Aretaeus says it is thus named from dogs either being subject to it, or else when in health they hang out their tongues at times. Coelius Aurelianus says, that the voice of a patient in a quinsey resembles that of a dog or of a wolf. Cynanche is the gene- ric name for a Quinsey in Dr. Cul- len's Nosology. Cynanche Epidemica. It is the Febris Anginosa of Huxham. CY CY Cynanche Exanthematica, i. e. Cynanche Epidemica. Cynanche Gangrenosa, the putrid quinsey. The same as the Cynan- che Maligna. Cynanche Maligna, the putrid quinsey, or ulcerated sore throat. Cynanche Parotidea, i. e. the quinsey of the parotid glands, commonly called the Mumps. Cynanche Pharynga, the quinsey of the pharynx and oesophagus. Cynanche Stridula, the quinsey commonly called the Croup. Cynanche Trachealis, the tra- cheal quinsey, known by the name of the Croup. Cynanche Tonsillaris, the quin- sey of the tonsils. It is an inflam- mation of the mucous membrane of the fauces, particularly affect- ing the tonsils, the velum, and the uvula. Cynanche Ulcerosa, i. e. Cynan- che Maligna. Cynara, artichoke. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enumerates four species. Cynicus, ximxos, canine. Certain convulsions, called Cynic Spasms. Cynodontes, xuvoSovtsj, from xviuv, a dog, and oJar, a tooth. The canine teeth. Cynolissa, or Cynolissus. It is used by Leister, in his Exercit. Tert. De Morb. Chron. in the same sense as Rabies Canina. Cynorexia, the same as Bulimia, i. e. a greedy appetite that is not easily satisfied. Cynorrhodon, from xvw, a dog, and foSbv, a rose, i. e. Cynosbatos. Cynosbatos, the dog-rose, or hip- tree. It is one of the largest plants of the rose-kind. The col- lege have retained the fruit of this shrub in their Pharmacopeia. It is the Rosa Canina, Linn, with the pulp of the fruit a Conserve, Con- serva Cynosbati, is directed to be made. Cypselc,or Cypselis, the ear-wax. Cysteolilhos, xwtt»A»0oj, from wa- rn;, the bladder, and X»&o;, a stone- The stone in the bladder. Cystice Arterie, the cystic arte- ries. The hepatic artery having advanced behind the ductus hepa- ticus towards the vesiculae fellis, it gives two principal branches, called Arterie Cystice. Cystice Vene, a branch from the vena portae ventralis; they run along the vesicula fellis, from its neck to the bottom, and as they are often only two in number, they are called Cystice Gemelle. Cystics, medicines prescribed in any disorder of the bladder; because cysticus, from kuw, a blad- der, signifies any part of the body so called, as the urinary bladder or gall-bladder. Cysticus Ductus, is a pipe that goes from the neck of the gall- bladder, not in a straight line with the bladder, but as it were, more depressed in the liver; into which some bilious ducts likewise open, and its inner membrane has seve- ral rugae, to retard the motion of the bile. Cystic, is also applied to the ar- teries and veins communicating between the vena portae and liver. Cystides, encysted tumours, and those whose substance is included in a membrane. Cystis, xno-Ti?, a bag. It is ap- plied to any receptacle of morbid humours. Cystitis. Inflammation of the bladder; from xiw, the bladder. A genus of disease arranged by Cullen in the class pyrexie, and or- der phlegmasie. It is known by great pain in the region of the bladder, attended with fever, a hard pulse, a painful discharge of urine, and a frequent desire to urine. M. M. As in nephritis. Cystocele, a hernia formed by the protrusion of the urinary bladder. Cystolithica (Ischuria), a re- tention of urine from a stone in the bladder, DA DE Crystofihlegica (Ischuria), a suppression of urine from a palsy in the bladder. Cystofitosis, the inner membrane of the bladder protruding through the urethra. Cystophlegmatica (Ischuria), a suppression of urine from abundance of mucus in the blad- der. Cystoproctica (Ischuria), a sup- pression of urine from pain in the bladder, caused by indurated fae- ces, wind, inflammation, abscess, 8cc in the rectum. Cystopyica (Ischuria), a sup- pression of urine from purulent matter in the bladder. Cystospastica (Ischuria), a sup- pression of urine from a spasm in the sphincter of the bladder. Cyststhromboides (Ischuria), a suppression of urine from gru- mous blood in the bladder. Cystotomia, a cutting of the blad- der in the operation for the stone. D DtEMONIA, or Damonomania, txifjiowpana, a kind of melan- choly supposed to arise from the possession of a daemon ; it is oc- casionally feigned by impostors. See Sauvag. Nosologia. Daphne, spurge-laurel,or Meze- reon. A genus in Linnaeus's bota- ny. He enumerates seventeen species. Dartos. The part so called, un- der the skin of the scrotum, is by some anatomists considered as a muscle, although it appears to be no more than a condensation of the cellular membrane lining the scrotum. It is by means of the dartos that the skin of the scro- tum is corrugated and relaxed. Dvta, from the participle of do, to give, is a term used for such things or quantities as are suppos- ed to be given or known, in order to find out thereby other things or quantities, which are unknown or sought for. This, which was first transplanted from the mathema- tics into medicine, expresses any quantity, which, for the sake of a present calculation, is taken for granted to be such, without re- quiring an immediate proof for its certainty: and this is called the given quantity, number, or power: and such things as are known, from whence, either in the animal mechanism, or the opera- tion of medicines, we' come to the knowledge of things before un- known, are now frequently in phy- sical writers called data. Datura, thorny-apple. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates seven species. Daucus. The carrot. The culti- vated root of the Daucus carota of Linnaeus. Scraped, and applied in the form of a poultice, it is an use- ful application to phagedenic ul- cers, and to cancers, and putrid sores. The seeds, which obtain a place in the materia medica, have a light aromatic smell, and a warm acrid taste, and are esteemed for their diuretic qualities, and for their utility in calculous and ne- phritic complaints. Decagynia, from hxa, deccm,oxid yvvn, mulier, a woman ; the fifth or- der in the tenth class in the Lin- naean system ; comprehending those plants whose fructification discovers ten styli, which are con- sidered as the female organs of generation. Decandria, from h*a, decern, ten, and av>5£, maritus, a husband; in the Linnaean system of botany, a class of plants, the tenth in order, which has hermaphrodite flowers, with ten stamina in each, and includes five orders. Decantation, is the pouring off any liquor clear from its faeces. DE DE Decidua. Dr. Hunter first dis- covered this very thin and deli- cate membrane or tunic, which adheres to the gravid uterus, and is said to be the reflexion of the chorion, which, on that account, is called decidua reflexa. The tunica decidua comes away after delivery in small pieces mixed with the lochia. Decoction. Any medicine boil- ed in a watery fluid ; from decoquo, to boil. In a chemical point of view it is a continued ebullition with water, to separate such parts of bodies as are only soluble at that degree of heat. Decrepitation, is a term much used by Ludovicus and Wedelius for the crackling noise which salt makes when put over the fire in a crucible. Decussation, is when lines cross one another; and is the case of many muscles and membranes, where the fibres run over one an- other in greater or lesser angles, and give both strength and con- veniency of motion of different ways, much in the same manner as threads are disposed in a net. Defectio Animi, a fainting or swooning. Defensitive, is said of a plaster or bandage whereby surgeons keep on their dressings, and se- cure wounds from the air. Deflagration, signifies burning away any thing, and is a term fre- quently made use of in chemistry for setting fire to several things in their preparation : as in mak- ing the jEthiops with fire, the sal prunellae, and many others of the like nature. Deftuxion. A discharge of a fluid from any part; from de, and fluo, to run off. Deglutition. A natural action, by which the masticated bole or a fluid is conveyed from the mouth into the fauces, and from thence through the aesophagus into the stomach. Dejectio, dejection, from dejicio, to cast off. Going to stool is so called. Deleterious. Those substances are so called, which are of a poisonous nature ; from hxw, to hurt or injure. Deliquium Animi. Fainting. See Syncope. Delirium, from deliro, to rave or talk idly. It is an incapacity in the organs of sensation to perform their function in due manner, so that the mind does not reflect upon, and judge of, external ob- jects as usual: as is the case fre- quently in fevers, from too im- petuous a hurry of the blood, which alters so far the secretion in the brain, as to disorder the whole nervous system. Deltoides. A muscle of the superior extremity, situated on the shoulder. It is so called from its resemblance to the Greek A. It pulls the arm directly outwards and upwards, and forwards and backwards, according to the dif- ferent directions of its fibres. Demulcents. Medicines are thus called, which possess a power of diminishing the effects of stimuli on the sensible solids of the body : such are amylum, gummi arabicum, oleum olivarum, aqua hordeata, Sec. Dentagra. The tooth-ach. See Odontalgia. Dentata. So the second verte- bra of the neck is called. It is remarkable for its process, which is called processus dentatus, which plays in the hollow of the anterior arch of the vertebra above it. Dentifricium, from denies fricare, to rub the teeth, dentifrices, medi- cines for cleaning the teeth. Dentition, the breeding or cut- ting of the teeth. The first den- tition takes place about the sixth or seventh month, and the teeth are termed the primary or milk teeth. About the seventh year these fall out, and are succeededby 28 Dfc DI ethers, which remain during life, and are called the secondary or perennial teeth. The lastdentition takes place between the ages of twenty and five and twenty, when the four last grinders appear ; they are called dentes sapientia. Deobstruent, from de priv. and obstruo, to obstruct. They are such medicines as open obstructions. Depascens (Ulcus,) despacent ulcer, i. e. Phagedena, and Herpes mi liar is. Dephlegmation. Vinous spirits are said to be dephlegmated or rectified, when well freed from their watery parts. Depilatory, from de, of orfrom, and pile, hairs, such a medicine as takes the hairs off from any place where they are a deformity, which may be commodiously done with quick-lime, orpiment, &c. Depressio, a depression. In Surgery it generally signifies a sinking inwards of some part of the skull, which happens from an external violence by which the bone is fractured. Depressor. Several muscles are so termed, because they depress the parts into which they are in- serted; from deprimo, to press down. Depressor Anguli Oris. A mus- cle of the mouth and lip, situated below the under lip, that pulls down the corner of the mouth. Depressor Labii Superioris Ala- que Nasi. A muscle of the mouth and lip, situated above the mouth, that draws the upper lip and ala nasi downwards and backwards. Depressor Labii Inferioris. A muscle of the mouth and lip, that pulls the under lip and skin of the side of the chin downwards, and a little outwards. Depuration, is the freeing any liquor or solid body from its foul- ness, which may be effected vari- ous ways. 1 st. By Decantation, by which, when the grosser parts are settled at the bottom of the vessel, the clear liquor above is poured off. 2dly. Despumation, see Clarification ; in which eggs or other viscid matters are used. 3dly. Filtration, which is by pas- sing, without pressure, the fluid to be purified through strainers of linen, flannel, or paper, which, retaining the feculence, permits only the clear liquor to pass. Detergents. Those applications are so termed by surgeons, which possess the property of cleansing foul ulcers; fromefe£«r, from ha, and cteMw, to contract, to stretch, sig- DI DI nifies the dilatation of the heart, auricles, and arteries; and stands opposed to the Systole, or con- traction of the same parts. Diathesis. Any particular state of the body : haQuns; from haSn/ju, to dispose : thus, in inflammatory fever, there is an inflammatory diathesis, and during putrid fever, a putrid diathesis. Dicrotus, hxporos, from hs, twice, and xpsw, to strike, an appellation of a pulse, in which the artery seems to strike double. Dr. Sola- no first observed it, and it is con- sidered as a certain sign of an ap- proaching critical haemorrhage from the nose. It is also called a rebounding pulse. Dictamnus Albus. White fraxi- nella, or bastard dittany. Dictam- nus albus of Linnaeus. The root of this plant is the part directed for medicinal use ; when fresh, it has a moderately strong, not dis- agreeable, smell. Formerly it was much used as a stomachic, tonic, Sec. but is now fallen into disuse. Diet, Dieta, hxna. The diete- tic part of medicine is no incon- siderable branch of medicine, and seems to require a much greater share of regard than it commonly meets with. A great variety of distempers might be removed by the observance of a proper diet and regimen, without the assist- ance of medicine, were it not for the impatience of the sufferers. However, it may on all occasions come in as a proper assistant to the cure, which sometimes can- not be performed without a due observance of the non-naturals. That food is in general thought the best and most conducive to long life, which is most simple, pure, and free from acrimony; not too volatile, but such as ap- proaches nearest to the nature of our own bodies in a healthy state, or capable of being easiest con- verted into their substance by the vis vitae humana, after it has been duly prepared by the art of cook- ery : but the nature, composition, virtues, and uses of particular ali- ments, can never be learnt to satis- faction, without the assistance of practical chemistry. Dietetics, is that part of physic which considers the way of living with relation to food, or diet suit- able to any particular case. Digastricus. A muscle so cal- led from its having two bellies, from hi, twice, and yxTtne, a belly, situated externally between the lower jaw and os hyoides. Its use is to open the mouth by pulling the lower jaw downwards and backwards; and when the jaws are shut, to raise the larynx, and consequently the pharynx, up- wards, as in deglutition. Digester, a strong vessel or en- gine, contrived by M. Papin, to boil, with a very strong heat, any bony substances so as to reduce them into a fluid state. Digestion. The change that the food undergoes in the stomach, by which it is converted into chyme. In chemistry it is an operation in which such matters as are intended to act slowly on each other, are exposed to a slow heat, continued for some time. Digestives. A term applied by surgeons to those substances which, when applied to an ulcer or wound, promote suppuration : such are the unguentum resine flave, unguentum elemi, &c. Digitalis. Common fox-glove. Digitalis purpurea of Linnaeus. The leaves of this plant have a bitter, nauseous taste, but no re- markable smell; they have been long used externally to ulcers and scrophulous tumours with con- siderable advantage. Respecting the internal use of this plant, we are told of its good effects in epi- DI DI lcpsy, scrophula, and phthisis; and Dr. Withering and others have established its reputation as a diuretic in dropsies. It is, how- ever, necessary to observe, that this remedy must be cautiously administered, for the plant is of so deleterious a nature, that three grains of the dried leaf have been known to produce the most dread- ful tormina.—Grs. -J. cautiously increased to 3 or more. Digitus, a finger. The fingers and ;humb in each hand consist of fift< en bones, there being three to each finger; they are a little convex and round towards the back of the hand, but hollow and plain towards the palm, except the last, where the nails are. The order of their dispositions is cal- led first, second, and third Pha- lanx. The first is longer than the second, and the second longer than the third The upper ex- tremity of the first bone of each finger has a little sinus which re- ceives the round head of the bones of the metacarpus. The upper extremity of the second and third bones of each finger hath two small sinuses parted by a little protuberance ; and the lower ex- tremity of the first and second bones of each finger has two pro- tuberances divided by a small sinus. The two protuberances are received into the two sinuses of the upper extremity of the se- cond and third bones; and the small sinus receives the little pro- tuberance of the same end of the same bones. The first bone of the thumb is like to the bones of the metacarpus, and it is joined to the wrist, and second of the thumb, as they are to the wrist and first of the fingera. The ser cond bone of the thumb is like the first bones of the fingers, and it is joined to the first and third, as they are to the bones of the meta- carpus, and second of the fingers. The fingers are moved side-ways only upon their first joint. Be- sides these bones there are some small ones, called Ossa Sesamoi- dea, because they resemble sesa- mum grains : they are reckoned about twelve in each hand : they are placed at the joint of the fin- gers under the tendons of the flex- ores digitorum, to which they serve as so many pullies. Diluents, or Dilutors ; such as common whey, ptisans, and juleps, which, in respect of the blood in a state of viscidity, are thinner than it, and therefore'said to thin it. Dioptrics, concern the differ- ent refractions of light passing through different mediums, as the air, water, glasses, &c. Diploe. Meditullium. The spon- gy substance between the two ta- bles of the skull; from hvXoiu, oj double. Diplopia. Visus duplicatus. A disease of the eye, in which the person sees an object double or triple ; from hnXov, to double. Director. A chirurgical instru- ment, in which there is a groove for the cutting instrument to slide. Discrimen. It is a small roller, about twelve feet long, and two fingers breadth broad, rolled up with one head, and used after bleeding in the forehead, as fol- lows : the bandage is held with the left thumb upon a compress, so that about a foot hangs below the forehead; then the roller is carried roundkhe temples and oc- ciput in the circular direction; after this the part which hangs down is to be carried over the head to the occiput, and there having rolled it several times about the head, it is to be secured. Discutients. A term in surgery applied to those substances which possess a power of repelling or resolving tumours. DI DI Disease. It is such an altera- tion of the chemical properties of the fluid's or solids, or of their organization, or of the action of the moving power, as produces an inability or difficulty of per- forming the functions of the whole or any part of the system, or pain, or a preternatural evacuation. A disease is variously termed, when it pervades the whole system, and does not depend on any other dis- ease; as an inflammatory fever, for instance : it is called a general disease, to distinguish it from in- flammation of the eye, or any other viscus, which is a partial or local one: and when it does not depend on another disease, it is termed an idiopathic disease, which maybe either general or partial, to distinguish it from a symptomatic affection, which depends upon an- other disease, and is produced by consent of parts. See also Ende- mic, Epidemic, Sporadic, &c. The following are the classes and orders under which diseases are arranged, by that great master of the healing art, Dr. Cullen. Classis I. Pyrexiae. Ordo I. Febres. II. Phlegmasia. III. Exanthemata. IV. Haemorrhagiae. V. Profluvia. Classis II. Neuroses. Ordo I. Comata. II. Adynamiae. III. Spasmi. IV. Vesaniae. Classis III. Cachexias. Ordo I. Marcores. II. Intumescentiae. III. Impetigines. Classis IV. Locales. Ordo I. Dysaesthesiae. II. Dysorexiae. III. Dyscinesiae. IV. Apocenoses. V. Epischesis. VI. Tumores. VII. Ectopias. VIII. Dialyses. Dislocatio, from dis, and locue, a place, to put out of its place : the same as luxation. Dissectio, from disseco, to cut, dissection, the cutting up a body with a view of examining the structure of the parts. Distentio, distention. It is when parts are stretched beyond their natural size. It sometimes signi- fies simply dilatation, pandicula- tion, or a convulsion, as nervous distention almost always implies. Distichiasis. A disease of the eye-lash, in which there is a dou- ble row of hairs, the one row grow- ing outwards, the other inwards towards the bulb of the eye ; from ho-Totx"*) a double row. M. M, Extraction of the hairs, and con- fining the new ones by adhesive plaisters as they grow. Distillation. A chemical pro- cess, very like unto evaporation, instituted to separate the volatile from the fixed principles by means of heat. Distillatory vessels are either alembics or retorts ; the former consist of an inferior ves- sel, called a cucurbit, designed to contain the matter to be examin- ed, and having an upper part fix- ed to it, called the capital or head. In this last the vapours are con- densed by the contact of the sur- rounding air, or in other cases by the assistance of cold water sur- rounding the head, and contained in a vessel called a refrigeratory. From the lower part of the capital proceeds a tube, called the nose, beak, or spout, through which the vapours, after condension, are, by a proper figure of the capital, made to flow into a vessel called the re- ceiver, which is usually spherical. These receivers have different names, according to their figure, DR DU being called mattrasses, balloons, Sec. Retorts are a kind of bottle, of glass, pottery, or metal, the bottom being spherical, and the upper part gradually diminishing into a neck, which is turned on one side. Diuresis. An increased secre- tion of urine ; from ha, through, and ptu, to flow. See Diabetes. Diuretics. Those medicines or substances are so called, which, when taken internally, augment the flow of urine from the kidneys; from ha, and spm, urine. Docimastica, the docimastic art. It is the art of examining fossils, in order to discover what metals, &c. they contain. Dogma, Jbyjua, from SW», to be of opinion. In Medicine it is a senti- ment founded on reason and expe- rience, which are the professed rules of the dogmatist, as distin- guished from one of the metho- dic, or of the empiric sects. JDogmatictt Medicina, is under- stood of that state of medicine which adds reason to experience : from Jbxtw, censeo, to judge ; and the divine Hippocrates was the first of this distinction, called Dogmatici, htypartxoi, physicians who reasoned upon experience, in opposition to those sects who were called Methodists and Empi- rics, and conducted their practice only by observation and example, without examining into the rea- sons for such particular proceed- ings. Dolichos. Cowhage. Dolichos pruriens of Linnaeus. The pods of this plant are covered with sharp hairs, which are the parts employed medicinally as anthel- mintics, on which account they are admitted into the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia. The hairs of one pod. Dose. It is so much of any medicine as is taken at one time. Dracunctdi, from Spaxuy, a ser- pent, Guinea worms. In hot coun- tries these worms get into the feet and legs of the inhabitants. Drastic. A term generally ap- plied to those medicines which are very violent in their action; thus drastic purges, emetics, &c. from }pacmxc$, active, brisk. Dropsy. See Ascites, Anasarca, Hydrocephalus, Hydrocele, &c. Drupa, in Botany is a fleshy or pulpy pericarpium without valve, containing a stone, as the plum, peach, &c. Ductus, from duco, to lead, a duct or canal. This word is fre- quently applied to parts of the body through which particular fluids are conveyed. Ductus Arteriosus. It is found only in the foetus, and very young children. It arises from the aorta descendens, immediately below the left subclavian artery. In adults it is closed up, and appears like a short ligament, adhering by one end to the aorta, and by the other to the pulmonary artery, so that in reality it deserves no other name than that of Ligamentum Ar» teriosum. Ductus Venosus. In a foetus, as the vena cava passes the liver, it gives off the ductus venosus, which communicates with the sinus of the vena portae, and in adults be- comes a flat ligament. Dulcamara. Woody nightshade, or bitter-sweet. Solanum Dulca- mara of Linnaeus. The stipites or younger branches are directed for use in the Edinburgh Phar- macopeia. Dulcamara does not manifest those narcotic qualities, which are common to many of the nightshades, but, when properly managed, is a very powerful and efficacious remedy. It is recom- mended in rheumatism, cutaneous affections, &c. and is said to act powerfully as a diuretic. Duodenalis Arteria, also called In'estinalis. As soon as the gastrica DY DY dextra hath passed behind the stomach, it sends out the duodenal artery (which sometimes comes from the trunk of the hepatica;) it runs along the duodenum, on the side next the pancreas, to both which it furnishes branches, and also the neighbouring part of the stomach. Duoienalis Vena, a branch from the vena portae ventralis ; it is dis- tributed chiefly in the duodenum, but sends some branches to the pancreas. A branch of the gas- trica is also thus called. The haemorrhoidalis interna gives a branch of this name to the duode- num. Duodenum, from duodeni, twelve. This intestine is thus named from a supposition that its length does not exceed the breadth of twelve fingers, and if measured with the ends of the fingers, is about the matter. It is continued to the pylorus,from which turning down- wards, it runs under the stomach immediately above the vertebrae, towards the left side, and ends at the first of the windingSiunder the colon. At its lower end there are two canals, which open into its cavity; one comes from the liver and gall-bladder, called the Ductus Communis Choledochus ; and the other from the Pancreas, called Pancreaticus. Its passage is straighter, and its coats thicker than any of the three upper di- visions of the intestines. Duplicana, i.e. Tertiana Duplex. Dura Mater. Dura meninx. A thick membrane, formed of two layers, that surrounds and defends the brain, and adheres strongly to the internal surface of the cra- nium. It has three considerable processes, the falciform, the tento- rium, and the septum cerebelli; and several sinusses, of which the longitudinal, lateral, and inferior longitudinal, are the principal. Dysesthesia. The senses in- jured or destroyed by the im- perfections of the organs ; from hcraurSwrix, loss of sensation. It is an order in the class locales of Cullen's nosological arrangement. Dyscinesie. Motion impeded, or depraved, from an imperfec- tion of the organ; from hjf, bad, and x»ve», to move. An order in the class locales of Cullen's "noso- logy. Dysecoea. Hearing diminished or destroyed ; from $vs, difficult, and awn, hearing. A genus .of dis- ease in the class locales and order dysesthesia of Cullen, containing two species: Dysecoea organica, which arises from wax in the meatus, injuries of the membrane, or inflammation and obstruction of the tube: Dysecoea atonica, when without any discernible in- jury of the organ. Dysentery. Flux. A genus of disease in the class pyrexie and order prqfluvia of Cullen's noso- logy. It is known by contagious pyrexia; frequent griping stools ; tenesmus; stools chiefly mucous, sometimes mixed with blood, the natural faeces being retained or voided in a hardened state ; loss of appetite, and nausea: from hjTtvleptx, pain in the bowela.—M. M. venesection, if the pulse be full and strong ; an emetic ; mild purgatives; cerated glass of anti- mony, ipecacuanha, or some other diaphoretic, every third or fourth hour ; mucilages and opiates per ore et ano ; a blister on the abdo- men ; prepared chalk; tonics and adstringents. Dysopia. Sight depraved, re- quiring one certain quantity of light, one particular distance, or one position ; from hv;, bad, and a4", an eye. A genus of disease in the class locales and order dyses- thesie of Cullen, containing the five following species : 1. Dysopia tenebrarum, requiringobjectstobe placed in a strong light: 2. Dyso- EA EA pia luminis, objects only discerni- ble in a weak light: 3. Dysopia dissitorum, in which distant ob- jects are not perceived : 4. Dyso- pia firoximorunt, in which objects too near are not perceived : 5. Dy- sopia lateralis, in which objects are not seen, unless placed in an oblique position. Dysorexia. The appetite de- praved, or deficient; from hjg, bad, and opi-fa, appetite. An order in the class locales of Cullen's no- sology. Dyspepsia. Want of appetite, accompanied by nausea, vomiting, flatulence, heartburn, costiveness, and pain in the stomach, with other symptoms of debility in the organ of digestion; from hj$, bad, •garlu, to concoct. It is sympto- matic of schirrhus, ulcer, poison, worms, chlorosis, pregnancy, gout, nephritis, 8cc.—M. M. Emetics; occasional laxatives ; antacids ; demulcents ; carminatives ; antis- pasmodics ; opium ; bitters ; cin- chona ; iron ; cold bath; exercise ; light, nutritive diet. Dyspermatismus. Slow or im- peded emission of semen during coition; from hj;, difficult, and trmpfjix, seed. A genus of disease in the class locales and order epis- cheses of Cullen.—M. M. In de- EAR. The organ of hearing is situated at the side of the head, and is divided into external and internal ear. The auricula, commonly called the ear, consti- tutes the external, and contains several eminences and depres- sions, as the helix, antihelix, tra- gus, aiititragus, concha auricule, scafiha, and lobulus. The exter- nal auditory passage, containing the wax, proceeds from its mid- dle down to the membrane of the tympanum, which divides the ex- ternal from the internal parts of bilitated habits, tonics,astringents and antispasmodics. In robust habits, evacuants and a vegetable diet chiefly acid or acescent. Dysphonia. A difficulty of speak- ing ; from hjg, bad, and Qmn, the voice. Dyspnea. Continual difficult respiration, without sense of stric- ture, and accompanied with cough through the whole course of the disease; from hj;, difficult, and vnu, to breathe. A genus of dis- ease in the class neuroses and or- der spasmi of Cullen. Dysuria. Difficulty and pain in discharging the urine ; from hjs, difficult, and «pov, urine. A ge- nus of disease in the class locates and order eflischeses of Cullen, containing six species: 1. Dysu- ria ardens, a sense of heat, with- out any manifest disorder of the bladder : 2. Dysuria spasmodica, from spasm : 3. Dysuria compres- sions, from a compression of the neighbouring parts: 4. Dysuria phlogistica,(rom. violent inflamma- tion : 5. Dysuria calculosa, from stone in the bladder: 6. Dysuria mucosa, an abundant secretion of mucus.—M. M. In the first spe- cies, mucilages ; cream of tartar. In the last, cascarilla; essence of amber. this organ. Behind the membra- na tympani is an irregular cavity, the cavity of the tympanum, in which are four little bones, the malleus, incus, stapes, and os orbi- culare ; and four openings, one of the Eustachian tube, mastoid si- nus, fenestra ovalis, and fenestra rotunda. The tympanum is ter- minated by the labyrinth. The labyrinth is the remaining part of the internal ear, consisting of the cochlea, vestibulum, and semicircu- lar canals. The arteries of the ear are the external and internal 29 E EB EB auditory. The veins empty them- selves into the external jugulars. The muscles of the ear are divid- ed into three classes: the com- mon, proper, and internal. The common muscles are, the attollens aurem, anterior auris, and rctra* hentes auris, which move the whole ear. The proper are, helicis ma- jor, helicis minor, tragicus, and- tragicus, and transversus auris; these affect the parts only to which they are connected. The mus- cles of the internal ear are, laxa- tor tympani, tensor tympani, and stapedius, which belong to the os- sicula auditus. The nerves of the external ear are branches of the nervus auditorius mollis, and those of the internal ear are branches of the nervus auditorius durus. Earth. Modern chemists are of opinion, that no bodies should be admitted as true earths, but such as are perfectly insipid, in- soluble, and infusible ; and there- fore they admit but of two earths, which are equally simple and ele- mentary. The one is that which constitutes rock crystal, quartz, grit-stone, flints, and all hard stones which strike fire with steel, and is called vitrifiable earth, be- cause itis the only earth that forms a transparent glass by combination with alkalis. The other is term- ed argillaceous earth, which in a state of purity is almost opake, and disposed in thin plates or la- minae. It is tasteless, like vitrifi- able earth, but adheres to the tongue. Ebrietas, (from ebrio, to be drunk.} Drunkenness. Spirituous liquors animate, and for a time, our na- tural vigour is more active; but this effect is fleeting. If they are often repeated, or too freely used, their excess of action enervates the constitution ; the appetite and the digestion are impaired; the spirits fail; and a general feeble- ness ensues. The effects of spirits on the human body have not been dis- cussed with philosophical preci- sion, nor is this the place for the enquiry. It has been generally supposed that alcohol is a stimu- lant, and that the repeated stimu- lus exhausts the excitability. From every experiment, however, on the nerves, it has been found a sedative ; and those who trust in such conclusions have supposed, as usual, that it combines a stimuj lant power. Were we inclined to form systems, we should endea- vour to show that it is really a se- dative, and that its apparent sti- mulus is only an instance of irre- gular, rather than increased, ac- tion. Whatever be the source, its secondary effects are allowed to be highly sedative ; and from the diminution of irritability, the most fatal effects are derived, par- ticularly indurations of the liver, which have been ridiculously at- tributed to its coagulating the blood. To relieve the effects of ebriety, we must employ moderate stimu- lants and tonics, particularly those which contain no portion of ardent spirits. The most effectual are the Bath-waters, carbonated am- monia, or even the pure alkali; light bitters with aromatics. The most difficult, but the most es- sential part of the cure, is to pre- vent the continuance of the prac- tice. This can be seldom attain- ed ; never, it is said, with females ; but men will sometimes " turn from the error of their ways." As the want of irritability is chiefly felt in the liver, its circulation should be assisted by a gentle, steady stimulus to its ducts, by those laxatives which assist the secre- tion of bile. When the over-night's potation has been too liberal, a wet napkin should be bound round the head ; a quantity of cold water should be EC EC placed at the bed-side ; and if a restlessness comes on with heat, a dryness of the tongue, &c. this water should be drunk as freely as the thirst requires: thus, by degrees, a perspiration is produc- ed, and the most effectual relief obtained. On the succeeding day, abstemiousness is requisite ; and such a regimen should be pursued as is consistent with the nature of the constitution. A man of a strong, healthy, plethoric habit, should drink plentifully of thin, warm,diluting liquids, mixed with vegetable acids ; keep in bed, and promote perspiration. The weak, delicate, and relaxed, besides ab- stinence from solid diet, should ride on horseback, or take some other gentle exercise in the pure air; a glass or two of generous wine, as a cordial, may be allowed, or such other means pursued as are calculated to invigorate the system, and keep up an increased state of insensible perspiration. To the most violent effects of fermented spirits vinegar is an antidote. A sponge dipped in vinegar should be frequently ap- plied to the mouth and nose; an emetic that operates quickly should be given ; a clyster, and, after it, a purging draught, may be administered; and a gentle sweat promoted. Ebullition, is strictly any boil- ing up, like that of water over the fire, but is generally used to sig- nify that struggling or efferves- cence which arises fromthe ming- ling together of any alkalizate and acid liquor; and hence any intestine violent motion of the parts of a fluid, occasioned by the struggling of particles of different properties, is called by this name. Ebulus, dwarf elder, a species of Sambucus. Ecbolica, from ixSaWta, to cast out, medicines which cause abor- tion. Ecbrasmata, txppac-fjuaTx, from ex- Gpxa-cru, to cast out violently, fiery pustules on the surface of the body. Ecbyrsomata, tK@vpo-wfj.xra, from |3vft0 s^nc• It signifies a splendour, bright- ness, effulgence, flashing of light, scintillation. It is a flashing light, or those sparklings which strike the eyes of epileptic patients. EF EL Coelius Aurelianus calls them cir- culi ignei, scintillations, or fiery circles. Though only a symptom of the epilepsy, Hippocrates puts it for epilepsy itself. Eclectica, exAsxtjx*, Medicina, from ixXvyti), to elect. Archigenus and some others selected from all other sects what appeared to them to be the best and most ra- tional ; hence they were called Eclectics, and their medicine Ec- lectic Medicine. Eclegma, ixXnypa, from exXh^w, lingo, to lick, is a form of medi- cine made by the incorporation of oils with syrups, and which is to be taken upon a liquorice stick ; the same also as Lambative, from lambo, which signifies the same, and Linctus. Ecph'ractic, tK, to vo- mit : such are antimonium tartari- zatum, ziuncum vitriolatum, ipeca- cuanha, nicotiana, &c. The use of these medicines is so extensive, and their effects of- ten so important, that they will justify our considering them at some length. The most simple view we can take of emetics is, that they evacuate the stomach by the inverted action of its own motions with those of the oesopha- gus, assisted by the contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles. This alone is an object of no little importance when we consider the extensive influence of this organ, and the very dan- gerous consequences which arise from its acrimonious or vitiated contents. But the advantages do not rest here. The same invert- ed motion is communicated to the duodenum, and, in some degree, to the inferior parts of the canal. Into this second stomach, the bile and pancreatic juice are poured; and, while the joint action of the diaphragm and the abdominal mus- cles compress the gall-bladder to evacuate its contents, the inverted motion of the duodenum and sto- mach evacuate it. Emetics, in this way, unite with cathartics in assisting the secretion and dis* 30 EM EM charge of bile; in relieving or preventing infarctions of the liver: for, while the latter promote the secretion by stimulating the ducts, the former contribute to the same purpose by an action more strictly mechanical. We have often had occasion to remark the extensive influence of the stomach in the animal econo- my, particularly its connection with the state of the brain and the extreme vessels. The first effect of emetics, in consequence of this connection, is to produce a general relaxation, approaching sometimes to faintness. In this state the extreme vessels sympa- thise and yield, with little resist- ance, to the force of the circula- tion. Perspiration follows, which by the action of vomiting is still further increased ; and, if this is kept up by other means, the most salutary changes are often pro- duced. We perceive the con- nection of the stomach with the head, rather in the morbid than the salutary effects. During the action of vomiting, the return of the blood from the head is imped- ed, and all its vessels are distend- ed; which has occasioned some hesitation in the use of emetics, when these vessels were previ- ously distended, as in apoplexy and palsy. In such circumstances, however, we find the irritation on the brain communicated to the stomach, and vomiting excited. The agitation of vomiting has been considered as useful; but this is a vague, indistinct indica- tion. Medicines of this kind have, however, been employed where obstructions have been suspected; and, in the brain, the alternate filling and emptying their vessels may contribute to excite and sup- port their action. We see some traces of such an influence from their utility in nervous diseases, particularly in those attended with general languor, as hypochondri- asis, and in obstructed menses; but more strikingly in the good effects of very active emetics, particularly of vitriolated mercury in the cure of gutta serena. An- other distant effect of emetics is more certain: their increasing the action of the absorbent system. Their operation, in this way, is not easily explained, but such ef- fects are well established; and, on this account, we shall find them extremely serviceable, when we wish to promote the absorption of purulent matter that we cannot with ease or safety evacuate. They cannot be employed to relieve the more extensive accumulations of dropsies. A very important effect of eme- tics, referrible in part to their action, and sometimes, perhaps, to the nature of the medicine, is their power of cmulging the bronchial glands. On the first access of nausea, we find a flow of saliva, and a little discharge from the bronchiae ; but, when the emetic begins to act with some violence, this discharge is considerable; and no remedy is more powerful in producing a complete evacua- tion of those glands, or relieving them from the infarctions of viscid mucus. In part, this effect may be owing to the medicine ; for we shall find some of the most active emetics to be expectorants also. Emetics are of very different kinds. Some are purely stimu- lant, as mustard, volatile alkali, and horse-radish root. Others are sedative or relaxant. Opium, in large doses, acts as an emetic. Foxglove, tobacco, putrid sub- stances, oil, and warm water, are emetics of different strength, nearly in their order. The greater number, however, act apparently by a peculiar stimulus. In some of these the stimulus is obvious ; and, when the stomach is not af- F.M EM fected, acts on other secretory organs. The principal emetics of this kind are the antimonial pre- parations, which affect the bowels, the skin, and sometimes the bron- chial glands. The mercurials are similar in this respect; but the copper, zinc, and platina, which, in all their forms, are emetic, seem not to affect any other glands. The acrimony of the squill and the seneka root is very general: they are not only emeticB, but ca- thartics and expectorants. The asarabacca and the groundsel juice are more limited in their stimu- lant powers. The former, besides its emetic property, acts chiefly as an errhine, and the latter only on the intestines. The ipecacuanha is the connecting link between these more general stimulants and medicines, which seem to act from a specific influence on the sto- mach. There are certain emetics which may be referred to this head. The vitriols of zinc, al- ready mentioned, not to separate the metallic substances, have little general stimulus ; and the air of the lungs which, when swallowed, proves certainly emetic, is wholly without any other power. Every nauseous taste tends to excite the action of the stomach ; and to this head may be referred the bitters, as wormwood, camomile-flowers, the seeds of the carduus benedic- tus and broom. Putrid substances, and the liver of sulphur, act ap- parently in the same way. Other causes of vomiting are more obscure in their action. As- sociation of ideas is a mental ope- ration ; yet a very frequent and certain cause of vomiting is, the recollection of objects connected with the evacuation of the stomach at a former period. Motion in a circle, in a ship, or in an unaccus- tomed direction, has the same ef- fect. The motion of a wheel car- riage, especially if the windows are closed, or the person sits in the back seat of a coach, will of- ten produce vomiting. This ef- fect, as connected with the changes in the common sensorium, must remain in obscurity. The principle on which emetics act is not readily explained. It has been said that they are con- stantly sedatives; and, as plausi- bly, that they are always stimu- lant. Very powerful emetics be- long to each class, yet, perhaps, a different principle influences their operation. The affection of the stomach is apparently increased action ; but, in medicine, increas- ed action is sometimes owing to a defect. It is, more obviously, ir- regular action; and we might thus attribute vomiting to the principle we have already endea- voured to establish, that irregular action is connected with a diminu- tion of tone. We certainly, in this way, approach, at least, very near the truth ; and the facts will, in general, support it. In every in- stance, however, except where vomiting is owing to an affection of the brain, there appears to be a substance inimical to the con- stitution, which the stomach, in- fluenced by the vires medicatrices, attempts to discharge; and the necessary motions are conse- quently excited. Yet we must keep in our view, that languor and faintness, from any cause, will produce the same effect; and we thus see why causes of extreme debility will equally excite this or- gan, independent even of the pre- sence of any medicine, certainly by the intervention of any violent commotion. In this way may, probably, be explained the experi- ments of those who have excited vomiting by injections of emetic medicines into the veins. In fact, every foreign substance in the blood-vessels excites such com- motions, with faintings and con- EM EM vulsions ; nor is it surprising that the stomach should equally suffer. In general, then, the most active emetics are the most powerful se- datives; and the whole class of poisons, particularly the narcotic cathartics, are violently emetic. The motions of the stomach during the operation of emetics are, as we have said, inverted. This has been proved by occular obser- vation ; and it is equally certain, that the action of the muscular fibres of the oesophagus are equally inverted. A nauseous draught, the repetition of an emetic, will some- times excite the action of the oeso- phagus only; and we once saw it so permanently excited by a crystal of emetic tartar sticking in it, that the mildest fluids could not, for a long time, pass into the stomach. The action of the fibres of the sto- mach surrounding the cardia is, in some instances, exclusively excit- ed ; as in those who discharge wind, a small portion of acid, of oil, or any substance swimming on the surface of the contents of the sto- mach, and producing cardialgia. The more violent exertions of this organ alone discharge its whole contents ; and such exertions must be strong and long continued be- fore they are communicated to the duodenum. These are not facts merely of curiosity, but of great importance in the exhibition of vo- mits. It is in vain to expect benefit from them, if only the slight inef- fectual discharge of a little of the tea, which has been drank, takes place. The strain, such as arises from the action of the greater curva- ture, is necessary, if any viscid mu- cus is to be evacuated; if any ef- fect on the liver can be expected. The evacuation of bile appears to- wards the end of the operation, sometimes after the interval of two or three hours; frequently on tak- ing in the first draught of negus, or a similar cordial. The expedi- pncy of the remedy is then trium- phantly pointed out; but, in reality, the bile was the effect, and was not previously in the stomach. The assisting actions of the diaphragm and abdominal viscera are sufficient- ly felt during the operation, if the facts were not ascertained by the experiments of Mr. Haighton. These observations are of some importance in the administration of emetics. If the medicine is not for some time in the stomach pre- vious to the vomiting, the whole organ is seldom excited. It has been usual to direct that the emetic sh.il be first discharged, probably from its apprehension of doing some injury. The practice is, however, proper from its thus ex- citing every portion ; but, c.s the vomiting, v ithout some contents, is painful, on the first appearance of sickness a little camomile tea may be allowed. In the whole ope- ration, however, if more than a half pint of any fluid is contained in the stomach at one time, the greater is the probability of its acting incom- pletely. In cases of poisons the vomiting is extremely violent, and we then only want to dilute, and to render the action as easy as is con- sistent with the discharge. The dry vomits,as they are called, where all drinking is precluded, are pain- ful remedies, but of great impor- tance in assisting the bronchial dis- charges, or in relieving visceral ob- structions. Opposed to the severity of dry vomits, are the milder nauseating doses of antimonials or squills. These assist, in some degree, the discharge from the bronchiae, but not so effectually as full vomiting. Their chief advantages are in the earlier state of fevers; in which they, in some degree, contribute to relieve the dryness of the skin, and to mitigate, by this effect, the great heat. The use of emetics is very ex- tensive. In fevers of every kind they are most powerful remedies. EM EM In intcrmittents,the vomiting, some- times excited on the accession by nature, has taught us to lessen the violence of the paroxysm by eme- tics ; and occasionally to prevent it, by their previous exhibition, and continuing to support the perspira- tion they excite. In every inter- net tent, and remittents also, we find bilious congestions, which ac- tive vomiting contributes to relieve. By '.hismeans the paroxysmsof each gradually become milder; and there have bacn many instances where no other remedy was required. In continued fevers emetics are highly useful, but their effects are not cquJly striking. The debili- tating power of every febrile attack affects the stomach, and produces those irregularities of the digestive process which we have already de- scribed. The wholesome aliment is, in this way, converted into an injurious load ; and emetics are not more useful in determining to the skin, than in removing the acrimo- nious or putrid saburrae. When contagion also has been received, though breathed with the air, it im- mediately affects the stomach, pro- ducing a bad taste in the mouth. This, with all the subsequent bad consequences, an emetic, followed by a brisk cathartic, will often re- move. The particular kinds of fever offer few remarks of impor- tance. In the synocha, bleeding, if it be at all admissible, should be premised; but the young practi- tioner, eager with his lancet, should reflect, that every throbbing pulse is not a strong one ; nor does every headach portend approaching de- lirium. Emetics have often been of service even in the most inflam- matory fevers, when bleeding has not preceded ; and we should al- ways consider, that the worst putrid fevers are sometimes ushered in by symptoms seemingly inflammatory. In the lower putrid fevers, emetics are useful; but the nauseating ioses, which may be continued in inflammatory fever, should soon be omitted in the latter, as they debili- tate in a considerable degree. In the next order, the phlegmasie, emetics are less essentially neces- sary ; and, in these, bleeding must be frequently premised. After vo- miting, the nauseating doses may be continued with the best effects. In the pneumonia they are often important remedies, from their power of emulging the bronchial glands. In phrenilis, though dan- gerous from increasing the accu- mulation in the head, we are some- times obliged to employ them. In cynanche they are inconvenient, though useful, remedies. When the inflammation terminates in sup- puration, suffocation often impends, and then vomiting, a precarious re- medy, which may even bring on the fate it is intended to avert, may at once rescue the victim from the grave. Firm and steady must be the physician who prescribes it; but he who would for a moment hesitate when his patient's life is at stake, whatever risk he may per- sonally run, merits not the name of man, or the character of a physician. In the other pyrexiae we find little room for the use of this remedy. In hepatitis, for obvious reasons, it is doubtful, though sometimes use- ful ; in enteritis the natural vomit- ing is often the most troublesome symptom; but in the peritonitis puerperarum, emetics, given early, have been considered as a most cer- tain remedy. In gout, emetics have been employed to obviate the return of paroxysms; and in rheu- matism, if bark be useful in this view, vomits must be equally so. Emetics are remedies of peculiar value and importance in the order exanthemata. We need not enlarge on the different kinds, for in each these remedies are useful on the first appearance of fever. In those, however, attended with nervous or putrid fever, the repetition must be attempted with caution. EM EM In hemorrhages, emetics are sup- posed of doubtful efficacy; but they are more generally useful than has been supposed. With respect to the hemorrhagia cerebri we shall reserve our observations for the present; and in epistaxis we need not have recourse to an active, un- certain remedy, when we have more safe ones within our reach. In hemofitysis, emetics have been Forbidden ; but with little reason. Dr. Robinson, near sixty years since, recommended them as safe and ef- fectual remedies; and we know that there are none which more certainly deserve this character: yet the general opinion is so decid- edly in opposition to their employ- ment, that, unless in emergency, we think they should not be exhi- bited ; or even in emergency, not professedly as emetics. One of the most obstinate haemoptyses the author of this article ever saw yield- ed only to the digitalis, which acted as a violent emetic ; and its action was continued for several days. The bleeding only ceased during the operation of vomiting, and was finally stopped. Vomiting has been employed with success in menorr- hagia ; but a physician may brave popular prejudice more safely in any disease than in female ones : nor is their utility in this complaint very clearly established. We speak, however, only at present of febrile maenorrhagia. In every other kind, emetics are decidedly injurious. Of the profluvia, the only genera, catarrh, and dysentery, are greatly benefited by these remedies. In the adynamia, emetics are of very extensive utility. They are of doubtful efficacy in syncope, when the disease arises from a topical affection of the heart and larger arteries, or when owing to debility, or an exhausted constitution. In many, perhaps the greater number of instances, fainting proceeds from accumulations in the stomach, and emetics are then absolutely neces- sary. In dyspepsia, hypochondriasis, and chlorosis, they are remedies of the greatest importance. The order styled spasmi is a group of diseases scarcely connect- ed. Palpitatio, however, like syn- cope, more commonly depends on accumulations in the stomach and bowels than on any other cause ; and asthma, with dyspnea,is greatly relieved by the operation of eme- tics, when not owing to any topical affection of the heart and arteries. If any medicine be useful in pertus- sis, it is occasional vomiting; but the pyrosis is a spasmodic com- plaint, and ultimately cured by a very different plan. In the vesania, emetics are the most important remedies. When the disease is not connected with the stomach, which generally hap- pens, they are probably useful by the agitation formerly mentioned among their effects. v In the first order of the cachexia, the marcores, we find little founda- tion for their employment; yet, as in tabes the hectic fever is mention- ed, they may appear to be indicated. But the fever, in this case, is from debility only, the exacerbation of the common evening paroxysm. It reminds us, however, of an omis- sion, which we must supply, the utility of emetics in phthisis ; a disease that has no appropriate place in the system of Dr. Cullen, which we have chiefly followed. Whether we consider the fever as a remit- tent, the bronchial glands as infarct- ed, or the existence of purulent matter in a concealed abscess, eme- tics appear to be medicines of the greatest utility. In fact, they are so; and could phthisis be ever cured, it would be by the joint ac- tion of emetics and blisters. No remedy is so generally useful as a slight emetic, frequently repeated; it checks the fever, relieves the burning heat, renders the respira- tion more free, and the cough more loose. Yet haeret, lateri lethalis EM EM arundo, emetics will not cure. In dropsies natural vomiting is of oc- casional utility; but in hydrocepha- lus and hydrothorax vomiting is in- admissible. We find a few solitary cases where the water in hydrocele, a partial dropsy, has been evacuat- ed in this way. For the various genera of the order impetigines we find little room for the use of this remedy. If frambesia, as Dr. Adams thinks, (Memoirs of the Medical Society, vol. vi.) be an exanthema, emetics may be of service, as they very cer- tainly are in icterua. Even where the pain at the pit of the stomach is violent, and the existence of a calculus unequivocal, though eme- tics may for a time increase the pain, the relaxation which they pro- duce assists its passage. Neither in accidental nor in artificial vomit- ing have we ever found, in this case, any inflammation (the great source of alarm) follow. Emetics are of more importance in the last class of diseases, than from their local nature might be expected. In every case of obstructed sense, where the cause is not so firmly fixed as to resist every power, these remedies are useful; in the caligo for instance, amaurosis, dysecia, and ageustia; in the greater num- ber of depraved and deficient ap- petites; and in some of the deprav- ed or irregular motions. In the apocenoses, the passive haemorr- hages, or mucous discharges, they are certainly injurious. In the epischeses,ii we except the amenorr- hea, and in the tumores, except the purulent ones, they are hurtful. The choice of emetics is a sub- ject of some importance ; but it is chiefly regulated by the quickness or the violence of their action. The most quickly operating eme- tic, in cases of emergency, is the white vitriol; the most violent is the turbith mineral. It is common to select the mercurial emetics in venereal cases ; but this plan is not attended with peculiar advantages. We have often thought it singular that the squills are not more fre- quently employed for this purpose in asthma or pneumonia. They indeed produce a very permanent and distressing nausea, and are of- ten employed as nauseating reme- dies ; but we suspect that they might be particularly useful if given in these cases so as to pro- duce full vomiting. In such in- stances physicians seem to prefer the antimonial emetics, and it must be allowed that the squills are very uncertain in their operation. Emetics are injurious when there is any original defect in the head, in the heart and larger arteries, or, perhaps, in the abdominal viscera, if we except the liver; in the aneu- risms of the larger vessels, in the delicate and the weak, if particu- larly plethoric. If no plethora ex- ists, debility is seldom so considera- ble as to contraindicate vomiting, should there be any foundation for thinking it may produce real good effect. With respect to the administra- tion, we have little to add to what we have already remarked. In cases of fever we prefer the even- ing ; in asthmatic cases, the morn- ing ; in hectics, the period when the febrile accession is most strongly- marked. In the other disorders there is little choice of time. The preferable form is a liquid; and were the preparation of the ipeca- cuanha wine to be always depended on, this would be the best form of a medicine almost universally em- ployed as an emetic, since the pow- der, apparently entangled in the coats of the stomach, sometimes occasions a continuance of painful retchings. Those who have re- peatedly taken this medicine often find even the smell or taste suffici- ent to excite vomiting; and, from what has been said, it will be obvi- ous that such vomiting will be in- effectual. To patients of this class EM EM it may be given in pills, or the tar- tarised antimony may be substi- tuted. Vomits, taken in the morning, should be allowed to produce their operation in bed. In the evening, if not taken in bed, the patient should immediately retire to it, without exposing himself to any chill. At any other period of the day, coid, after the vomiting, should be carefully avoided. Any warm liquid may be em- ployed to facilitate the action of the emetic; but the camomile, the carduus tea, mustard infusion, or whey, or the volatile alkali added to the bitter infusions, gi-f.atly facilitate it. Emetocatharticum, a medicine w'vi'-h operates by vomit and by St*.' - Emmenagogues. Those medi- cines that possess a power of pro- moting that monthly discharge of blood by the uterus, which, from the laws of economy, should take place in certain conditions of the female system ; from ev, in, y.w, a month, and ay*, to draw : sabina, tanacetum, aloes, ferrum, &c. pos- sess more or less this property. Emollients. Those substances which possess a power of relaxing the living animal fibre, without producing that effect from any mechanical action: such are aqua tepida, olea blanda, adeps suille, opium, &c. Emphractica, tfj.Qpxx.ma, from tfj-Qpao-a-iu, to obstruct, such topics as stop the pores when applied to the skin. Emphysema, tfj,Qv, water, and xij^d, a tumour. Entcrology, from Eilepov, intesti- num, a gut, and Xoyo;, aermo, a dis- course, is a treatise of the bowels, and is generally understood to in- clude the contents of the three cavities, head, breast, and belly. Enteromphalua, tvrepofjitpctXog, from nlspov, an intestine, and o^xX^, the navel, a rupture of the intestine at the navel. Enteroraphia, suture of a gut when wounded. It is generally performed by the glover's stitch, and a portion of the thread is left at each end of the seam, to con- nect it to the necessarily pre-ex- isting wound of the muscles, &c. of the belly, till the wounded gut adheres to the wound of the belly. Enteroscheocele, from svlspov, an. intestine, oa-x^ov, the scrotum, and xriXn, an hernia. It is when the intestine descends into the scro- tum. Entrichorna, tvrpixvpu, from ev and rp^w^at, the hair, the edge of the eye-lid on which the hairs grow. Entropium. A disease of the eye-lids, occasioned by the eye- lashes and eye-lid being inverted towards the bulb of the eye. M. M. Adhesive plasters; glue; ex- traction of the cilia- Enula Campana. Common inula, or Elecampane. Inula helenium of Linnaeus. This plant, though a native of Britain, is seldom met with in its wild state, but mostly cultivated. The root, which is the part employed medicinally, in its recent state, has a weaker and less grateful smell than when thoroughly dried, and kept for a length of time, by which it is greatly improved, its odour then approaching to that of Florentine orris. It was formerly in high estimation, but is now fallen into disuse. 5i to 3ij. Enuresis. An involuntary flow of urine; from ttapnu, to make water. A genus of disease in the class lo- cales and order apocenoses of Cul- len, containing two species. 1. Enuresis atonica, the sphincter of the bladder having lost its tone from some previous disease : 2. Enuresis ab irratione, vel compres- aione vesice, from an irritation or compression of the bladder. M. M. 1st. Tonics; cold aspersion; a blister over the sacrum or peri- noeum. 2d. Removal of the pres- EP EP sure or irritation; a cathartic; mucilage; opium. Ephelis. Broad, solitary, or ag- gregated spots, attacking most commonly the face, back of the hand, and breast, from exposure to the sun ; from mi and »)A»oj, the sun. Ephemera, t$y\fj.tpo<;, from tvi, super, upon, and n^a, dies, a day, is a fever that terminates in the compass of one day. Ephidrosis. Sudatio. Mador, A violent and morbid perspira- tion ; from iQiSpov, to perspire. A genus of disease in the class lo- cales and order apocenoces of Cul- len. Epiala, a kind of tertian fever. Epialos, tmakoq, an ardent fever, in which both heat and cold are felt in the same part at the same time. Galen defines it to be a fever in which the patient labours under a preternatural heat and a Coldness at the same time. The ancient Latins call it Quercera. Epidemical Catarrhous Disease. So some have called the influ- enza. Epidemical Catarrhous Semipes- lilential Fever, a name of the influ- enza. Epidemius, (from tm, upon, and 5»iju.oj, the people.') Epichorioa; pandemius, popularis, regionalis morbus. An epithet of diseases which at certain times are popu- lar, and frequently attack; then for a time disappear, and again return. The extensive influence of epi- demic diseases has excited the greatest attention to their causes. In almost every ruder age they have been referred to the anger of their peculiar divinities, and sacrifices were instituted to re- concile them. More lately Mr. Webster has attempted to connect them with the eruptions of vol- canos, or the devastation of earth- quakes. A more sound philoso- phy and more attentive observa- tion have shown, that they are owing very often to the effluvia of neighbouring marshes ; and their occasional appearance is connect- ed with the prevailing wind which passes from the marsh to the ha- bitations. Another cause of their prevalence is, the wind from the marsh coinciding with the time when the moist ground begins to appear, from the water subsiding. This is the period of sickness; for the marsh, while covered with water, is innocuous. Another cause of epidemics is the weather. A long continued warm season, suddenly interrupted by a cold piercing wind, will produce a vio- lent and extensive epidemic,which particularly attacks in the highest, and apparently the most healthy situations; for this reason, that the inhabitants are there most ex- posed to cold. But if this inter- change of weather occurs to the inhabitants of a crowded city, the epidemic will be highly putrid, and often fatal. Should contagion of a malignant kind concur, the devastation of the epidemic will increase in proportion. These are the concurring causes of the American yellow fever, and the late fatal epidemics in Spain. There are, however, causes which we cannot investigate. Ex- tensive epidemics appear, and tra- vel in succession, with different severity, through every part of the globe that we are acquainted with. The destroying angel seems to move with a studied regularity, without our being able to arrest his steps or alter his course. We often find these inexplicable epi- demics without much danger, in- fluencing the appearance of dis- eases and their treatment. Thus, while some epidemics prevail, evacuations from the bowels are necessary in almost every com- plaint ; even where, in appear- EP EP ance, unnecessary or contraindi- cated. In others they are, with difficulty, borne in any disorder. This necessary attention to the prevalence of the constitution me- rits very particular attention ; and the more extensive a physician's experience is, by so much will he be better able to treat the com- monest disease. Epidemics connected with the seasons or prevailing temperature may be easily traced, and we shall find them occasionally mitigated or severe : sometimes apparently stopped ; at others exerting their power with increased virulence. The peculiar treatment, however, suggested by a general epidemic, should not at once be discontinu- ed. The human constitution does not soon change ; the alteration is gradual, and almost impercepti- ble : nor should the medical plans be altered till they are decidedly injurious. When an epidemic has continu- ed for some time, the body is ha- bituated to the influence of the morbid cause ; suffers less from it; and the health is more readily restored. At this time, remedies before useless are found to pro- duce some salutary effects ; and, at the end of an epidemic, we usually are told of a plan which never fails. On its return, these boasted plans are as ineffectual as before. In fact, they only com- bated, with success, a disease of reduced power. We greatly want a judicious and well connected account of epidemics. Mr. Webster has lately brought together a very ex- tensive collection of facts of this kind, with the views formerly mentioned ; but the chaff is so in- timately mixed with the grain, that the salutary information is with difficulty selected. We cannot give a better view of the epidemics of the two last centuries than in the comprehen- sive abstract of Dr. Sims. " 1. The first epidemic consti- tution was as follows: The years 1590, 1591, 1592, were all exceed- ingly dry; as was part of 1593; afterwards very rainy weather un- til the end of 1597. In 1593 the plague killed eleven thousand five hundred and three in London; the same year it was prevalent in Alcmaar. A catarrh prevailed in 1597. The rainy weather began in Florence in 1592, during which a pestilential fever raged there, attended with a whitish tongue, and an inflammation, with ulcers about the throat and mouth. " 2. There was, in 1598, an ex- cessive heat and drought, which continued next year ; 1600, a se- vere winter; 160 l,a drought of five months' continuance; 1602, a cold spring and summer, cold dry har- vest and winter ; the rest of this constitution very rainy, until the end of 1608, except seven weeks frost in 1607. In 1603, the plague was imported from Ostend, where, and in the Low-countries, it raged much, and killed thirty-six thou- sand two hundred and sixty-nine in London. " 3. In 1609, three months' most rigorous frost, wherein the Thames became like a solid high- way ; 1610, an excessive hot dry summer,as were those of 1611 and 1612; 1616, 1617,and 1619. The winters of 1614 and 1615, great frost and snow; the rest of this constitution wet until the end of 1624. In 1609 the plague broke out in Alcmaar, as also in Den- mark. In 16-10 the Hungarian fever commenced in many places, and made great havock for several years, so as often to be denomi- nated a plague. About the same time the malignant sore throat is supposed to have commenced in Spain, where it killed incredible numbers. In 1611 the plague is EP EP said to have destroyed two hun- dred thousand at Constantinople. In 1614 the most fatal small-pox spread all over Europe. In 1618 the sore throat broke out at Na- ples, where it continued its rava- ges for twenty years; it was pre- ceded by a similar disorder among cattle. In 1618 the plague exist- ed in Bergen. In 1619 it broke out in Denmark and in Grand Cairo'. " 4- In 1625, a hard frosty win- ter, summer wet and hot; 1626 and 1627 excessively hot sumT mers; 1630 and 1631, a great drought; the other years wet un- til 1634. In 1625 the plague kil- led thirty-five thousand four hun- dred and seventeen in London; it raged in Denmark both in 1625 and 1629 ; as also in 1625 in Ley- den. In 1632 inflammations of the jaws prevailed, with an erysipelas in one or more parts of the body. " 5- In 1634, an excessively fros- ty winter; 1635, 1636, 1637, and J 638, very hot and dry summers ; then very rainy years until 1643;. In 1635 the plague in Ley den and the camp fever spread all over Germany. In 1636 the plague was in London, whereof died thir- teen thousand four hundred and eighty; in 1637, the plague in Denmark. «6. The years 1643 and 1645 were remarkable for hot summers, followed hy inconstant rainy sea- sons until 1650. In 1643 a fatal malignant fever was spread by the armies all over England; 1644, a malignant epidemic fever in Denmark ; a similar fever in Eng- land, in which there was a rough- ness and sliminess of the throat and jaws, with pain, but scarcely any swelling or inflammation: it seemed only a mere defluction, by which the sick seemed choaked, and for which astringent gargles were useful. In 1650 a general catarrh prevailed. "7. The years 1651 and 1659 had both very hot summers, and proved mostly dry; thence to 166$ very wet. The winters of 1651 and 1658 remarkably cold. In 1651, in the country about Rome,?i contagious epidemic quinsey pre- vailed, and made terrible slaugh- ter among children. A small ul- cer arose in the mouth, for which juice of wood-sorrel, syrup of pomegranates, with the bark, and chiefly the acid of vitriol, were useful. All that took these medi- cines recovered ; but those who were not tractable, and refused medicines, died : it did not seize adults, nor the aged. In 1654 the plague was in Denmark ; and in 1655, and the two following years, it prevailed exceedingly in the south of Europe ; the agues like- wise of these hot years were ma- lignant, and spotted fevers were very common. In 1664, after a mild rainy winter, a malignant purple fever raged in Prussia, and killed great numbers under twelve years of age, those only escaping who had no inflammation or oede- matous tumour in the throat. Such as recovered, after sweating, had scales pealing off the skin ; then adults had a swelling over their body and of their belly,which continued several weeks like leu- cophlegmatia, and then went off by sweat and urine. This epide- mic seems a considerable devia- tion from their general progress laid down in the scheme of them already mentioned, and is, there- fore, particularly noticed in this place. "8. In 1665, an excessively se- vere frost, which continued to the end of March ; summer tempe- rate ; 1666, a very hot dry year, followed by two as wet and cold. In 1665, immediately after the frost, began the plague in London, whichkilled, according to the least computation, sixty-eight thousand £* $p five hundred and ninety-six. Since that time the plague has vanished from London, and all other epide- mics seem to have become less malignant, owing to many causes; among which may, perhaps, be a greater use of fresh vegetable food, a less use of fish, an univer- sal use of tea, superior cleanliness in our persons, a greater attention to the poor in times of scarcity, which are now scarcely felt in any extreme degree, and, lastly, the tremendous fire in 1&66; since which the streets have been very much widened, and the houses so enlarged, that the same number ef inhabitants now occupy above double the space. In 1667 an epidemic fever, with aphthae, pre- vailed in Holland, in which acids were useful, but neither bleeding nor purging. " 9. In 1669, the summer in- tolerably hot, after which the win- ter was as severely cold and frosty; 1670, a severe frosty winter; the rest of this constitution bad and wet. In 1669 a most fatal fever prevailed, with slimy tongue, sore mouth, &c. in which bleeding was hurtful, but acids and laxatives very beneficial. Sydenham does not mention this fever, nor its re- turn in 1678, although, next to the plague, they were the greatest epidemics in his time ; which, to- gether with his little knowledge Of putrid fevers, can only be at- tributed to his practice lying about the court; whilst Morton, who practised in the city, gives abun- dant proofs that putrid complaints were as prevalent then as at this time. The same year, in Norway, malignant measles are said to have prevailed, with thrush, which, if mismanaged or neglected, ended in a fatal mortification. In 1675 a coryza, or cough, was preva- lent. " 10. In 1678, summer and har- vest droughty, hot, and clear; 1679, winter long, severe frost, and intensely cold; 1680 and 1681, Summer extremely dry and hot; the next two years rainy. In 1678 the same fever and sore throat prevailed as in 1669. In 1679, after a most deluging October, a catarrh was universal. In 1682, sphacelated tongues and angina maligna prevailed among cattle ; in the same year, in Dublin, a fatal petechial fever. "11. The year 1684 was re- markable for the severest frost remembered at that time, succeed- ed by a very dry and hot summer, to which 1686 bore a near resem- blance : the other years were rainy till 1691. In 1684, spotted fevers, particularly of the miliary kind, were common. This and the following year of 1685 are re- markable for the greatest number ef burials. In 1688 an epide- mic catarrh prevailed all over Eu- rope. " 12. A frosty winter in 1691, and excessively hot and dry sum- mer. The same in 1694; the other years rainy and variable. In 169! a fatal spotted fever prevailed; in 1693 an universal catarrh; and in 1695 the hooping-cough. " 13. Of 1698, an exceedingly hard frost in the winter; the rest of this constitution rather rainy. In October, 1698, began a fatal contagious spotted fever, which spread all over England. Coughs attended most of the diseases in 1703. " 14. The year 1704 was ex- cessively dry, so that the grass was burnt up ; this continued un- til August 15, 1705 ; the rest of this constitution cold and wet. In 1704 malignant spotted fevers were common. In 1708 coughs and coryzas prevailed every where, so that few escaped. " 15. In 17Q9, great frost all over Europe, even in Portugal; 1712, a very frosty winter; the EP EP rest of this constitution varia- ble. In 1709 the plague broke out in Dantzick, immediately after the thaw, and killed twenty-four thousand five hundred and fifty- three. In 1710 the plague in Co- penhagen killed twenty-five thou- sand. In 1712, sore throats uni- versal in July and August, with dizziness and pains of the limbs, in London. " 16. The year 1714, and the six succeeding years, were all dry, with hot summers. In the winter of 1716 so severe a frost that the Thames was covered with booths : that of 1718 likewise very frosty ; the rest to 173!, cold, wet, and variable, except 1723, which was cold and dry; and 1729, which was a cold dry winter, followed by a hot dry summer. In 1720 the plague killed sixty thousand in Marseilles. In 1729 an universal epidemic catarrh prevailed in No- vember. " 17. The year 1731 was a very dry one, which continued until harvest 1732; summer of 1733 rather dry and pleasant, as was most of 1738; the remainder of this constitution extremely wet. In the beginning of 1733 was an epidemic catarrh; 1737, 1738, and 1739, were all much infested with catarrhal fevers, especially among children. " 18. In 1740 was the severest frosty winter and spring that had happened for three hundred years; 1741, extremely dry hot summer; 1742, a variable, but dry year ; the rest of this constitution wet or variable. In 1740 a malignant petechial fever made great havock in Bristol, and in Galway in Ire- land. In 1741 it reached London, where this and the last year were the most mortal ever known, ex- cept when the iplague reigned, the burials amounting to sixty-two thousand nine hundred and eighty. In 1742 the putrid sore throat broke out. In March, 1744, an epidemic catarrh was universal, and was more fatal than usual. " 19. In 1747, there was an ex- cessively hot dry summer; 1750, a dry year throughout and in- tensely hot summer; the rest of this constitution moderate, varia- ble, or wet. In 1747, and the suc- ceeding years, the sore throat seemed to acquire new vigour, alarming the inhabitants of these kingdoms very much. In No- vember, 1758, there was an uni- versal epidemic catarrh. " 20. The year 1760 was droughty from June 26 to September 16; the end of that and the following year severely wet, as was the end of 1763 and beginning of 1764; the rest of this constitution mode<- rate. In April and May, 1762, a most epidemic catarrh. " 21. A very dry year, and rather hot summer in 1765, as was the next year, though not quite so much so; the remainder of this constitution moderate years,rather inclining to wet. During this con- stitution no very remarkable epi- demic till the universal catarrh in November, 1775,unless we reckon such, the small-pox of the year 1772, which, succeeding a hard winter, were more fatal than they had ever been before in London. " 22. The year 1776 was dry, and 1778 still more so. The win- ter of 1780 was the most frosty since 1740: yet these deviations from what might be accounted moderate weather were so small as scarcely to deserve notice. In May, 1782, there was a very gene- ral epidemic catarrh; and early in 1783 began the constitution which produced the epidemic scarlatina anginosa, which spread very considerably." Epidermis, arih-p-fus, from tm,ufion, SipfjLX, the skin, the scarf-skin. See Cuticula. Epididymis, A hard, vascular, EP EP oblong substance, that lies upon the testicle, formed of a convolu- tion of the vas deferens ; from etj, upon, and hhtpos, a testicle. Epigdstrice Arterie, epigastric arteries. The external iliac ar- tery divides into two branches at the ligamentum Poupartii: one of them is the epigastric, which runs to the inside of the rectus abdo- minis, at whose upper part it com- municates with the internal mam- mary. Epigastrice Vene, the epigas- tric veins. The internal iliac veins, a little before their going out of the belly, send off from the inside the epigaatric veina, which send branches to the neighbouring glands, and run up the musculi recti abdominis, and then advanc- ing, join the mammary. Epigastrium, tmyxorpnv, from et», super, upon, and yawg, venter, the belly, is the upper part of the ab- domen, reaching from the cartila- go ensiformis till within two fin- gers' breadth of the navel. Its two sides are hypochondria ; the right of which covers the greatest part of the liver; the left the spleen, part of the stomach, and colon. Epiglottis. The cartilage at the root of the tongue that falls upon the glottis; from tin, upon, and yXur%, the glottis, or superior opening of the larynx. Epilepsia. Convulsions with sleep, and usually froth issuing from the mouth; from etiXej^k, a swoon. It is a genus of disease in the class neuroses and order spasmi of Cullen, and contains nine spe- cies : 1. Epilepsia traumatica, aris- ing from an injury of the head : 2. Epilepsia a dolore, from pain : 3. Epilepsia verminosa, from the irritation of worms: 4. Epilep- sia a veneno, from poisons: 5. Epi- lepsia exanthematica, from the re- pulsion of cutaneous eruptions: 6. Epilepsia a cruditate ventriculi, from crudities of the stomach: 7. Epilepsia ab inanitione, from de- bility : 8. Epilepsia uterina, from hysterical affections : 9. Epilepsia ex onanismo, from onanism. M. M. Avoiding the exciting and remov- ing the predisponent causes ; ve- nesection when the vessels are too full; emetics; purgatives; an- tispasmodics ; blisters ; issues; cinchona; iron ; flowers of zinc ; cuprum ammoniacum ; arsenic ; digitalis; nitrate of silver grs. £ to I. three or four times a day; ace- tite of lead. Dr. Currie has re- commended the cold bath in the height of the paroxysm; Dr. Ha- milton the daily use of purgatives. Epinyctis, tvuvxru;, from eot, on, and m%, night. It is a kind of pustule, which rises in the night, whence its name. It is an angry tumour affecting the skin in the arms, hands, and thighs; the ancients rank with it the Terminthus, which is somewhat less. It is of the bigness of a lupine, of a dusky red, and sometimes of a livid and pale colour, with great inflamma- tion and pain. In a few days it breaks and gleets, and separates away in a slough. Epios, tirio;, mild, gentle, an epi- thet which Hippocrates bestows on mild epidemic fevers. Epiparoxysmus. It is when the patient suffers more exacerba- tions than are usual in a fever. Epiphenomenos, eot^«ivo/*evoj, from et», importing addition, and Qavops- voy, a phenomenon, or symptom, an adventitious symptom which does not appear till the disease is found, and seems to be the same as Epi- ginomenos. Epiphlebos, m$Xt(2o;, from tm, and s, likeness. It is a tumour resembling the erysi- pelas, or a spurious erysipelas. Erythema. A morbid redness of the skin, as is observed upon the cheeks of hectic patients after eating, and the skin covering bu- bo, phlegmon, &c. Erythema a Frigore. The same as Pernio, Erythema Ambust'tQ, the inflam- mation caused by burns or scalds. Erythema Gangrenosum, the tu- mour called a carbuncle. Erythroeides, tpvtypouhK, or Ery- throides, from t§vfyo», rubrum, red, and uSbj, forma, appearance, is a red membrane, called also Tunica Vaginalis, embracing loosely the whole body of the testicles, and adhering to one end of the epidi- dymus. Esaphe, vrvQn, from uratyaw, to feel with the fingers, the touch or feel- ing the mouth of the womb, to know its state. Escalot, a kind of onion. Eachara, the name of a subma- rine plant, which resembles a net or cobweb. Its virtues are simi- lar to those of coral. Eschara, str^apa, an eschar crust. In Surgery, it is a hard crust, or a scab upon the flesh, formed by the application of a red hot iron, a caustic, or some sharp humourof the body. Alsoaslough formed on a wound or ulcer, and is an instance of mortification. Escharotics. See Caustics. Esculent, an appellation given to such plants, or the roots of them, ET EU as may be eaten; such are beets, carrots, artichokes, Sec. Essence, is strictly that which constitutes the nature of any thing, and makes it be what it is; but in Medicine it is used to signify the chief properties or virtues of any simple or composition collected together Essential Oils, are such as were really in a plant, and drawn from it by distillation, in distinction from those made by insolation. Essential Salts, are such as will crystallize in the juice, or an in- fusion of plants, in distinction from those made by incineration, and appear to be actually contained in the plant. Essera. A species of cutaneous eruption, distinguished by broad, shining, smooth, red spots, mostly without fever, and differing from the nettle rash in not being ele- vated. It generally attacks the face and hands. Esthiomenos, e»9wjw,evoj, from ectOjo- ^xi, to eat, eating, corroding, an inflammation in the skin, attended with a sharp humour, more pro- perly the Herpes Excedens. It is indeed any inveterate ulcer. Ether Acetic, Acetous Ether. Ether Muriatic, Marine Ether. Ether Nitric, Nitrous Ether. Ether Sulphuric, Vitriolic Ether. EtherialOil. The chemists thus call a highly rectified oil, that dif- fers little from an inflammable spirit, as the oil of turpentine, and the like. Ethica, i. e. Hectica. Ethmoid Bone. Cribriform bone. A bone of the head ; from nS/xof, a sieve, and uhog,form ; because it is perforated like a sieve. It is situ* ated anteriorly in the basis of the cranium, at the upper part of the nose. The principal eminences and depressions of this bone are the crista galli, the perpendicular septum, the spongy laminae and the cribrose foramina. Eudiometry. The measurement of the quantity of oxygen contain- ed in atmospheric air, or indeed in any gas in which it is not intimate- ly combined, is named eudiome- try, and the instrument by which it is performed, the eudiometer. To attain such a measurement, it is merely necessary to present to atmospheric air, some sub- stance which combines with its oxygen, and which either does not afford any gaseous product, or affords one that is easily abstract- ed and measured. Different sub- stances have been applied tq this purpose. The fluid originally employed by Scheele, in the analysis of the air, the solution of sulphuret of potash, or what is rather more convenient, the sulphuret of lime, is perhaps superior in accuracy to any, at least if the air be not too long exposed to it, and be not in too small quantity proportioned to the quantity of fluid. Phosphorus is applied by a very simple apara- tus, but by its solubility in nitrogen gas, it adds to the bulk of the re- sidual air, for which a correction must be made. Nitrous gas was employed by Priestley; it exhibits the result immediately, but is lia- ble to several sources of fallacy. Hydrogen gas was employed by Volta: a given measure of it be- ing put along with a quantity of the air, designed to be submitted to trial, into a graduated tube, and inflamed by the electric spark, the diminution of volume indicating the quantity of oxygen ; 100 mea- sures of oxygen require rather less than 200 measures of hydro- gen for saturation; about 40 mea- sures of hydrogen are therefore sufficient to saturate the oxygen contained in 100 measures of at- mospheric air, but it is proper to use an excess of hydrogen, as otherwise part of the oxygen is liable to escape combination. EU EU Prom 60 of hydrogen, with 100 of atmospheric air, Mr.Dalton states, that the residuum after explosion is 100, 21 of oxygen combining with 39 of hydrogen. The method is simple and expeditious, and as Humboldt and Gay Lussac have remarked, has the great advant- age, from the bulk of the mix- ture, and the great diminution of volume, from the consumption of a given quantity of oxygen, of be- ing more delicate than any other. It also requires no corrections for variations of temperature or atmo- spheric pressure ; and any impu- rity in the hydrogen gas, which it has been supposed might be a source of error, may be avoided by care. It affords also the best method of determining the purity of oxygen gas, or the proportion of oxygen in any mixed gas con- taining it. Humboldt and Gay Lussac, in an elaborate memoir, have pointed out all the circum- stances to be attended to in em- ploying it as an eudiometer. (Journal de Physique, torn. lx. p. 129.) From the practice of eudiome- try, it was at one time expected, as the name implies, that we should be able to ascertain the purity of the air, with regard to its salutary or noxious power on life. It was soon found, however, particularly by Priestley, (and the fact has also since been establish- ed by De Marti,) that the air of places the most offensive and un- healthy, afforded as much oxygen as that of others of an opposite description ; the air, for example, of crowded cities, of low, damp situations, or of crowded manufac- tories, has not been found less pure than that of the country; the noxious quality of the air depend- ing not so much on any deficiency of oxygen, as on the presence of effluvia not discoverable by this test. It was at one time imagined, that the composition of atmosphe- ric air is not uniform, but that it varies both at different parts of the earth's surface, and still more at different heights. Ingenhouz made a number of experiments to prove the former fact, from which he concluded, that the air is purer, or contains more oxygen at sea than on land, and that in the neigh- bourhood of marshy situations it contains less oxygen than the standard. (Philosophical Trans- actions, vol lxx. p. 354.) Saussure made some experi- ments on the air at some of the elevated parts of the Alps, the summit of the great St. Bernard, the Buet, &c. In this air the pro- portion of oxygen was less than in the air on the plains. (Voyages, torn. ii. p. 357 ; torn. iv. p. 451.) Von Humboldt relates also, that air brought from a great height in the atmosphere, by a person who had ascended in a balloon, contained in 100 parts 25.9 of oxy- gen, while air at the surface con- tained 27.6; and that at the sum- mit of the Peak of Teneriffe, the proportion of oxygen amounted only to 19, while at the foot of the mountain it was 27. The propor- tions which he states prove suffi- ciently the error of the eudiome- trical method he employed ; and the eudiometer he did use, that with nitrous gas, corrected by try- ing its purity with sulphate of iron, is indeed the one which is most liable to fallacy. The ana- lysis of the air in the upper regions of the atmosphere, has since been executed with accuracy by Gay Lussac, assisted by Thenard. A glass balloon was filled with air, at the height of 21,735 feet from the surface, the greatest which has yet been reached, and when opened under water by Gay Lus- sac after his descent, one half of its capacity was filled by the water. EU EU a sufficient proof that it had been accurately closed. The air was subjected to trial, both by Volta's eudiometer, and by the solution of surphuret of potash ; it afforded by the former method 21.49 of oxygen, in 100; by the latter 21.63. Atmospheric air at the surface, analysed at the same time in the eudiometer of Volta, gave precisely the same result, iil.49. (Nicholson's Journal, vol. x. p. 286) Saussure, junior, also found, that the air on the summit of the Col-du-Geant contained within one-hundredth part as much oxy- gen as that on the plain, and even this difference may be ascribed to the difficulty of making the ex- periment with perfect accuracy. The uniformity of the composition of the atmosphere at different parts of the earth's surface, ap- pears also to be established. Mr. Cavendish originally ob- served, that air subjected to ex- amination at different times, and air likewise from different places, was of perfectly similar composi- tion ; (Philosophical Transactions, vol. lxxiii. p. 129,) and the same observation had been made by Fontana, from his own experi- ments. (Philosophical Transac- tions, vol. lxix.) Mr. Davy states, that no sensi- ble difference was found in the air sent from the coast of Guinea, and the air in England. (Journal of the Royal Institution, vol. i. p. 48.) • Berthollet found, that the air in Egypt and in France was similar, affording 22 of oxygen in the 100, any difference observed not a- mounting to a two-hundredth part of the air submitted to trial. (Me- moirs relative to Egypt, p. 326.) De Marti, by experiments in Spain, obtained the same unifor- mity of composition (between 21 and 2? of oxygen in the hundred parts) in the air at places at a dis- tance from each other; and he adds also, as established by his ex- periments, that in every state of the atmosphere, whether with re- gard to temperature, to pressure, as indicated by the barometer, to winds, to humidity, to the season of the year, or the hour of the day or night, the results were pre- cisely the same. (Journal de Phy- sique, torn. iii. p. 173.) And more lately the researches of Humboldt and Gay Lussac, made with the view of determining this question, have established the same conclu- sion. (Journal de Physique, torn. lx.p 152.) The instruments for subjecting atmospheric air to such changes as may indicate its proportion of oxygen, have been called eudio- meters. When a mixture of ni- trous gas is to be made with at- mospheric air, the most conve- nient apparatus consists in a glass tube closed at top, and graduated by a diamond into cubic inches and parts. The lower aperture may be widened, in order that the gases may more easily be passed up, and likewise to afford the faci- lity of its standing alone upon the pneumatic shelf. It is likewise usual and advantageous to fit a stopper in the mouth by grinding ; a cubic inch measure will be re- quired for determining the quan- tities poured up. A bottle will do for this purpose, and the in- strument may be made very well by a chemist who is obliged to work for himself; by taking any small bottle whatever, and pour- ing its contents of water, by suc- cessive times, into the tube placed mouth upwards. By this means he will obtain a graduation, which, whether of the cubic inch or not, will answer the purposes ofeudio- metry. When air is to be exposed to a liquid sulphuret, which absorbs EU EU the oxygen, the eudiomctric tube may be immmersed in the liquid. Professor Hope, of Edinburgh, has contrived a very simple, ele- gant, and accurate apparatus for this purpose, announced in « Ni- cholson's Journal," iv. 210. It consists of a small bottle, of the contents of about three ounces, intended to contain the eudiome- tric liquid ; into the neck a tube is accurately fitted by grinding, which holds precisely a cubic inch, and is divided into a hundred equal parts, and on one side the bottle, near its bottom, there is a neck into which a stopper is ground in the usual manner. In the use of this apparatus, the bot- tle is first filled with the liquid employed, which is best prepared by boiling a mixture of quick lime and sulphur with water, fil- tering the solution, and agitating it for some time in a bottle half filled with common air. The tube, filled with the gas under examina- tion, or with common air, if that be the subject of the experiment, is next put into its place, and, on inverting the instrument, the gas ascends into the bottle, where it is brought extensively into con- tact with the liquid, by brisk agita- tion. An absorption of oxygen, if present, ensues, and to supply its place, the stopper in the side of the bottle is opened under wa- ter, a quantity of which rushes in- to the bottle ; the stopper is then replaced under water, the agita- tion renewed, and these opera- tions are alternately performed, till no farther diminution takes place; the tube is then withdrawn, while the neck of the bottle is un- der water, and after the tube has been kept in this situation for a few minutes, the quantity of the diminution will be seen by the graduated scale upon the tube. Tubes fitted up for exploding a mixture of hydrogen, or other in- flammable gases, with oxygen gas, have been called the eudiometers dfVolta; they are usually made very strong, and are provided with two wires, which pass through sockets cemented in holes drilled through the glass, near the top, which is not perforated. The electric spark being passed be- tween these wires, gives fire to the gases, not without some risk of blowing out the confining li- quid, or breaking the glass. Euemeti,tviijn-r, habitus, habit, a sound and healthy constitution, in opposition to cachexy, or a bad habit. Eule, tvXti, a worm, properly that is bred in ulcers. Eupatoria, common acrimony. Eupepsia, from w,good, and weto-7*', to digest, good digestion. Euphorbium. An inodorous gum- resin in yellow tears, which have the appearance of being worm- eaten : it is imported from Ethio- pia, Lybia, and Mauritania. It contains an active resin, and is very seldom employed but as an errhine. Euphrasia, eyebright. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates seven species. Euphrosyne, i. e. Euphrasia. Eurythmia, tvpvbfux, from en, well, and pu0/*oj, order and harmony, pro- perly in music. It imports the proper order of the pulse. Eusarcos, twx$xo$, is used by Galen, and others since, for such a proportion of flesh as is not too lean or too corpulent, but gives due symmetry and strength to all the parts. As, , Eutiplanchnos, EUfrraftay^voj, is ap- plied by Hippocrates to those who are supposed to have sound vis- cera. Thus the adverb ev is put to several things to express the goodness of their condition; as EX EX Eutaxia, for an healthful state; Euthanasia, for an easy or happy death, &c Evacuation, signifies any dimi- nution of the animal fluids, whether it be by cathartics, blood-letting, or any other means. Evacuatorii, diseases attended with increased discharges. Evaporation. The volatilization of a fluid by means of heat, with access of air, in order to diminish its fluidity, or to obtain any fixed salts it may hold in solution, or di- minish the quantity of a residuum. In this manner the water of the sea is evaporated, and the salt ob- tained, and decoctions made into extracts. Evil, the same as Scrophula. Exacerbantes, remitting fevers. Exacerbatio, i. e. Paroxysmus. Exacinata, stoned. The word Acinus, besides other meanings, is also used for the stone of the grape ; hence Uve Exacinata, for grapes that have their stones ta- ken out. Exeresis,irom e£, out of or away, and a»pw, to remove. It is that part of surgery which consists of* re- moving superfluities; as remov- ing parts by amputation, extract- ing foreign bodies, &c. Exanguis, without blood. So Galen and the ancients called the nerves,cartilages,bones,and other parts which appeared white. Exania, the same as Prociden- tia ; also, in particular, the bear- ing down of the anus. Exanimation, is used by Scribo- nius Largus for real death ; but is in general applied to swoonings or such sinking of the spirits as is at- tended with the loss of sense for some time. Exanthema, E^avOripa, from Efav- On/Mi, effloresco, to flower out, is such an eruption of the skin as the measles, and is generally attended with a fever, and terminates in a rash. Exanthema Febrile is an or- der in Dr. Cullen's nosology, in his class Pyrexia. Exarthrema, sfapfipn/xos, from t%, out of, and afyov, a joint, a luxa- tion. Exarthros, s2fap9po?,an epithet for a person whose joints are large and prominent. Exarticulation, the same as luxa- tion. Exasperatio, exasperation. Be- sides its signifying the increase of a disorder, it is also a rendering the skin rough. Excipiens. In prescriptions,that is called the excipient which re- ceives the other ingredients, and gives them a proper form, as offi- cinal electaries, conserves, robs, &c. Excitability, and Excitement. The former of these is the capacity of the body to admit of increased action ; and the latter the state of increased action. In Brown's sys- tem, excitability is the distinction of life, and the excitement of heat and other stimuli alone necessary (if we understand him) to produce life. When these are present, the body lives ; when absent, it dies; and life is thus a flame kept up by constantly blowing. Exclusorium, a medicine which causes abortion. Excoriatio, > excoriation,abra- Excoriatura, $ sion of the skin ; also pulling the bark from off a tree or plant, 8cc. Excrementum, an excrement. It is whatever requires to be dis- charged out of the body; from excerno, to divide, part, or separate. Excrescentia, from ex and cres- co, an excrescence. It is any thing which grows preternaturally up- on any part of the body ; as wens, warts, &c. Excretion, is that separation of an animal substance, as ejects somewhat quite out of the body, as of no further use, which is cal- led Excrement. 33 EX EX Exercitatio, (from exercito, to ex- ercise.) Exercise. The exercise of the body for the benefit of health is called gymnastic. The military exercises, gardening, husbandry, or other employments in the open air, conduce greatly to health; and moderate exercise in the open air, an hour or two before break- fast, improves the appetite and cheers the spirits : glandular ob- structions are best prevented and cured by moderate exercise. On the other hand, when exercise is too freely used, it occasions loss of appetite, loathing of food, cos- tiveness, rigors, and fainting. In this case a moderate use of wine, Warm bathing, quiet sleep, and a moist nourishing diet, afford the best relief. Exoxystis, a prolapsus of the internal membrane of the bladder. Exomphalos, ffo/*$aXo?, from e| and ofj., os, a bone, is any protuber- ance of a bone that is not natural, as often happens in venereal cases. Exotic, is applied to those things which are the natural pro- duce of other countries, and not of our own. Expansion, spreading out; in a physical sense, is the stretching out, opening, or spreading of any body, but generally signifies such an alteration as is made by Rare- faction, which see. Expectoration, is promoting those discharges which are made by coughing, as bringing up phlegm, or any thing that ob- structs the vessels of the lungs, and strengthens the breath. Expiration, from expiro, ta breathe out, is that part of respira- tion which thrusts the air out of the lungs, and contracts the cavity of the breast. See Respiration. Expressed Oils, are such as are procured from any bodies only by pressing, as the oils of olives, al- monds, and the like. And the do- ing this is called Expression. Expulsion, the same as excre- tion ; and the power of expelling any thing is by some writers cal- led Facultas Expultrix. Exsiccation, drying. This phar- maceutic operation is effected by exhaling the moisture from the body, to be dried over a gentle fire, or by absorbing it, as when such subjects are laid on chalk- stones for this end. As instances vary, coction, insolation, torrefac- tion, decantation, or filtration, assist the process of drying. Exspuition,signih'es a discharge of saliva by spitting. Exstasis, or Ecstasis, an ecstacy. It is a species of Catalepsy, parti- cularly when the patient recollects the ideas which he conceived dur- ing the paroxysm. Also, a deliri- um ; an apoplexy of the mind. Extension, stretching out; the same as expansion. Extensors. Many muscles are so called, which serve to extend any part; as Extensor Carpi, which is also called Bicorni*, is two distinct EX EX muscles. The first arises from above the external protuberance of the humerus, and the second from the lowermost part of the external protuberance. They both fie along the external part of the radius; and passing under the an- nular ligament, one is inserted in- to the bone of the metacarpus that sustains the fore-finger, and the other to that which sustains the middle-finger. These two ex- tend the W' ist. Extensor Carpi Ulnaris. Some call it Extensor Carpi interior. It rises from the outer condyle of the os humeri, and then receives an origin from the edge of the ul- na: its tendon passes in a groove behind the styloid process of the ulna: it passes and is inserted in- to the inside of the basis of the metacarpal bone of the little- finger. Extensor Digitorum communis, arises from the external protuber- ance of the humerus ; and at the wrist it divides into three flat ten- dons, which pass under the annu- lar ligament, to be inserted into all the bones of the fore, middle, and ring fingers. Extensor Digitorum longus. Dr. Hunter calls this Extensor longus Digitorum Pedis. It rises from the upper part of the tibia and fibula, and the interosseus liga- ment; its tendon passes under the annular ligament, and then di- vide s into five, four of which are inserted into the second and third phalanges of the toes, and the fifth goes to the basis of the metatarsal bone. This last Winslow reckons a distinct muscle, and calls it Pe- roneus brevis. Extensor Digitorum brevis. It is also called Pedicus. It rises from the anterior part of the os calcis, runs across the instep, and divides commonly into four tendons, but sometimes only into three, which are inserted into the three toes next to the great one, or into all the four. Extensor Indicis, comes from the middle and external part of the ulna, and passing under the annular ligament, is inserted into the third bone of the fore-finger, where it joins the extensor com- munis. Extensor minimi Digiti, arises from the external protuberance of the humerus, and from the upper part of the ulna, and passing un- der the annular ligament, is in- serted into the third bone of the little-finger. Extensor Pollicis, arises from near the upper half of the fibula forwards, and passing under the annular ligament, is inserted into the last bone of the great toe. It is called Extensor Pollicis longus. Extensor Pollicis brevis. It is only a slip from the extensors of the toes, and is inserted into the first bone. Extensor primi int■ rmodii Pol- licis, arises from the upper and ex- ternal part of the ulna, and passes obliquely over the tendon of the radius externus, and is inserted near the second joint of the thumb. Extensor secundi internodii Pol- licis, arises from the upper and internal part of the radius, and is inserted into the upper part of the second bone of the thumb. Extensor tertii internodii Pol- licis, arises from the ulna, a little below the first extensor, and is in- serted into the third bone of the thumb. Extenuatio, (from extenuo, to diminish.) Leanness. This may arise in two ways : one from the increased evacuation of the nu- tritious particles; the other from cacochymia, or a depravation of the fluids. Prosper Alpinus ob- serves, in his Presages of Life and Death, that if, after being ex- tenuated by a disease, the body continues lean, though the nutii- EX EX ment be duly received, it denotes a relapse. Again, leanness from a spitting of blood, attended with a slow fever, is highly dangerous; and it is equally a bad sign in an ardent fever for the body not to become speedily lean, or to waste rapidly : the first prognosticates a tedious disease; the latter, death. In general, leanness is not a disease; and, whatever are the evacuations, or the degree of ex- tenuation, if without fever, and the appetite keeps up, there is little danger. Extenuation alone is not a disease, nor a predispo- nent cause: the same cannot be said of its opposite, obesity. An acrimony in the fluids rather than increased discharges occasions it; but the source of the greatest emaciation is the effusions of dropsy. The body is never so thoroughly extenuated as in drop- sy, though greatly so in hectics, from absorbed purulent matter, and cancer. Some recent re- marks, by Dr. Pemberton, in his Practical Treatise on various Dis- eases of the Abdominal Viscera, are so truly ingenious and com- prehensive, that we shall select them in his own words. We can- not compress or give them in lan- guage more scientific and elegant. " A proneness in the body to waste or not, as the same disease shall happen to be situated in this or that part, is in itself a circum- stance very remarkable; and as an attention to this proneness may help to lead us through the ob- scurities which too often attend internal complaints, it is a sub- ject well worthy of further con- sideration. " To assist us in this inquiry it may be right to specify a few ex- amples, where the difference of the effect of disease on the bulk is most striking. Let us take the two cases, of a diseased state of the mesenteric glands, and a dis- eased or scrophulous affection of the breast. In the former we shall find there is a great emacia- tion ; in the latter, none at all.—. In an ulceration of the small in- testines, great emaciation takes place; in schirrus of the rectum, none.—In a disease of the gall bladder, which is subservient to the liver, the bulk of the body is rapidly diminished ; but in a dis- ease of the urinary bladder, which is subservient to the kidneys, scarcely any diminution of bulk is to be perceived.—In an abscess of the liver the body becomes much emaciated; but in an abscess of the kidneys the bulk is not di- minished. " If we examine into the func- tions of those parts, the diseases of which do or do not occasion emaciation, we may perhaps be led to the true cause of this dif- ference of their effect on the bulk. In order, however, to understand more clearly how the functions of these parts bear relation to each other, it may be necessary to pre- mise, that the glands of the body are divided into those which se- crete a fluid from the blood for the use of the system, and those which secrete a fluid to be dis- charged from it. The former may be termed glands of supply; the latter, glands of waste. " The small intestines, in con- sideration of the great number of absorbents with which they are provided for the repair of the sys- tem, may be considered as per- forming the office of glands of supply. u The large intestines, on the contrary, may be considered as performing the office of glands of waste; inasmuch as they are fur- nished very scantily with absor- bents, and abundantly with a set of glands which secrete or withdraw from the system a fluid, which EX EX serves to lubricate the canal for the passages of the faeces, and which itself, together with these faeces, is destined to be discharg- ed from the system. " I have often imagined that this mode of considering the sub- ject might, in many cases, assist us in approaching to the seat of a chronic disorder, by deciding where the disorder is not situat- ed, and consequently by contract- ing within narrower limits the difficulties of our researches. " Thus the symptom exhibited by the patient, either in retaining his bulk, or in being emaciated, might serve as a diagnostic, ac- cording to my conception, for the purpose of deciding whether the disorder is seated in the glands of supply, or in the glands of waste. " The glands which secrete a fluid to be employed in the sys- tem, as well as the glands of di- rect supply, may be considered the liver, the pancreas, the mesen- teric glands, perhaps the stomach, and the small intestines : and the glands of waste are the kidneys, breasts, exhalent arteries, and the large intestines. " In an abscess of the liver, and an abscess of the kidneys, both of which glands frequently run into suppuration, without exhibiting any pain in the part affected, it seems impossible to decide in what part of the system the de- rangement manifested in both these cases by the hectic fever is situated. " According to the foregoing idea, if emaciation takes place, we might then determine that the disorder must be situated in a gland of supply; and thus we should be led to decide, that the disorder was certainly not in the kidneys ; consequently we should be secured from the danger of misapplying our remedies upon a part which was not affected. « The same hectic attends a chronic disease of the mesenteric glands, and of the small intes- tines : and here likewise, if ema- ciation does not take place, we should decide that the disorder was not situated in these parts, or in the liver. " Now it is surely of consider- able importance to determine where the disorder is not found, that our inquiries may be solely directed to those parts in which it is to be found. " If this position respecting the bulk of the body, under disease, should be admitted as true, will it not afford a probability that the spleen, whose diseases produce great emaciation, is a gland of supply ? " What has been here advanc- ed must be considered as applying to local diseases unattended by pain, as pain will itself sometimes waste the body, though sometimes it will not. Here too the wasting from pain seems to vary according to the part from which it pro- ceeds. A stone in the bladder of urine, or in the kidneys, nearly- stopping the discharge of urine, and occasioning the greatest pain, will not in the least affect the bulk ; but a biliary stone, under similar circumstances, will occa- sion great and rapid emaciation." Externus, vel superior Musculus Mallei, i. e. Tensor Membrane Tympani. Externus Tympani Auris, i. e. Laxator Externus. Extraction, in the largest sense, signifies any solution made by menstruums, unless there be al- lowed this difference between them, that in solution the men- struums absorb the whole sub- stance of the body, but in this they carry off only certain parti- cles of it. Camphor is dissolved in spirit of wine, but jalap is more properly said to be extracted ; for EX EY the resin only is taken out by the menstruum, the other particles being left untouched. But ex- traction most commonly signifies such an inspissation, or thicken- ing of a solution, as, when there is drawn off a certain quantity of the menstruum, reduces the remain- ing mixture to the consisteuce of honey ; as in the extracts of saf- fron, gentian, and the like. Ex- tracts are chiefly made out of ve- getables, and require different menstruums according to the dif- ferent nature of the plants, especi- ally in gums; for such as are mucilaginous, as gum arabic, and tragacanth, 8cc. are not easily to be dissolved but in aqueous li- quors ; whereas, on the other hand, resinous gums, as galba- num, scammony, &c. must have ardent spirits to dissolve them. There are others again of a mid- dle nature, which may be dissolv- ed in either sort of menstruums, though not so easily in one as in the other. Thus aloes and rhu- barb, which are sometimes resin- ous, are better made into extracts with spirit of wine than water. But plants which abound less with resin, such as hellebore, &c. are more commodiously extracted with water. To perform, there- fore, extraction aright, a proper menstruum is necessary, and one which is as near akin as possible to the body to be extracted. Thus extraction is usually performed ; but its use does not seem to be of so great service in physic as is generally imagined ; for much of the more subtile parts fly away, either when the menstruum is drawn off by distillation, or when it evaporates in the open air. So that if those particles are any ways useful in medicine, it is to no purpose to seek for them in extracts. It is also of service to clear some gums and resins from dross; for, as the taking up the genuine substance by a proper menstruum leaves all that is not so behind ; so, by evaporating the menstruum again, the resin, or whatsoever of that nature it is, will be recovered in its utmost purity. Extraction. In Surgery, it is the drawing from or out of the body, any thing that is offen- sive. Extractum,an extract. In Phar- macy, it is a solution of the purer parts of a mixed body inspissated by evaporation nearly to the con- sistence of stiff honey. See Ex- traction. Extraneous, any thing foreign. It is also used to express the same as external, and frequently signi- fies the same as excrescence, something that is not natural to the substance it grows out of, or properly belongs to a part to which it adheres. Extravasated, is any thing that is got out of its proper vessel; from extra, out of, and vas, a vessel. Extravasation, is applied to any of the fluids in the body, which are out of their proper vessels ; thus an ecchymosis, sugillation, or aneurism, may be called ex- travasations. Exulceration, the same as ulcer; but generally used to express those beginning erosions which wear away the substance, and form an ulcer; or when an excoriation begins to suppurate. Exumbilicatio, a protuberance of the navel. Exuvie, the sloughs or skins of serpents that are cast in spring. Eye. Oculus. The eye, or or- gan of vision, is situated in a socket called the orbit, at the side of the root of the nose, that is com- posed of seven bones, viz. the frontal, superior maxillary, jugal, lachrymal, palatine, ethmoid, and sphaenoid, which almost surround EY EY and defend it. Anatomists have divided the soft parts which form the eye into external and internal. The external parts are the super- cilia or eye-brows, palpebre or eye-lids,cilia or eye-lashes, lachry- mal gland, lachrymal caruncle, na- sal duct, muscles of the bulb of the eye, and the fat of the orbit. The internal parts are those which form the bulb, or eye, properly so called : they consist of five mem- branes, viz. the sclerotic, choroid, retina, hyaloid, and capsule of the crystalline lehs; two chambers, one anterior, the other posterior; and three humours, the aqueous, crystalline lens, and vitreous hu- mour. The arteries of this vis- cus are the internal orbital, the central, and optic artery. The veins empty themselves into the external jugulars. The nerves arc the optic, and branches from the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth pair. All the rays which come from one point of an object are, by the cornea and humours of the eye, united in a point of the retina, which is in a straight line drawn from the same point of the object, through the centre of the eyes; and consequently all the rays which come from all the points of an object are united on the retina, in the same order and pro- portion as the points of the ob- jects are from whence those rays come. Therefore the interposi- tion which these rays make upon the retina, must be the image of the object. And thus vision in general is performed; but to know what the several parts of the globe contribute hereunto, it is needful to observe, that the cor- nea is more convex than any other part of it; by which means all the rays are gathered to pass through the pupilla, and none of them are lost upon the uvea. The aqueous humour being thin- nest, and most liquid, easily changes its figure, when either the ligamentum ciliare contracts, or both the oblique muscles squeeze the middle of the bulb of the eye, to render it oblong, when objects are too near us. The straightfibresof the uvea dilatethe pupilla, when there are but few rays of light; and the circular fibres contract it, when there are too many. When the pupilla is contracted, we see most distinct- ly ; when it is dilated, we see most clearly. T he glassy humour keeps the crystalline at such a dis- tance from the retina, as is neces- sary for uniting the rays which come from one point of the ob- ject, exactly in one point of the retina. The impression of the object is made upon the retina. The choroides is tinctured black, that the rays of light which pass through the retina may not be re- flected back again, to confuse the image of the object. Being dis- tinct, vision consists in the union of all the rays which come from one point of an object, exactly in the point of the retina; and the rays which come from objects at different distances are united at different distances, behind the crystalline humour. They can- not both be exactly united upon the retina, therefore the eye can- not see equally distinctly, at the same time, objects at different distances. It is for this reason that the globe of the eye moves so quickly, and almost continually, and that the muscles of the eyes have such a great quantity of nerves to perforin their motions. When the globe of the eye is so flat, as happens sometimes in old age, that the rays pass the retina before they unite, in such a case there is no distinct vision; and such as have this defect are called Presbyte ; and if, on the contrary, the globe of the eye be so conves FA FA as to unite the rays before they come to the retina, neither is there then any distinct vision; and such as have this defect are called Myopes. Eyebright. See Euphrasia. Ff, or ft. In a prescription • they are abbreviationsotflat orfiant, let it or them be made ; thus,/, bolus, let the substance or substances prescribed be made in- to a bolus. Fabafebrifuga. See Nux vomica. Faba Graca latifolia, i. e. Guaja- cana. Faba Indica. See Nux vomica. Faba Purgatrix, the Barbadoes nut. Fabago, a species of Zygophyl- lum. Fabasuilla, common black hen- bane. Fabrorum Aqua, water in which hot iron is quenched. Face. The bones of the face are divided into those of the upper and under jaw. The upper jaw consists of thirteen bones, viz. two superior maxillary, two jugal, two nasal, two lachrymal, two inferior spongy, two palatine, and the vo- mer. The under jaw is formed of one bone, the inferior maxillary bone.—The muscles of the face are those of the eye-lids, eye-ball, nose, mouth, and lips. Fades Hippocratica, is when the nostrils are sharp, the eyes hol- low, the temples low, the tips of the ears contracted, the forehead dry and wrinkled, and the com- plexion pale or livid. Fades rubra, i. e. Gutta rosacea. Factitious, signifies any thing made by art, in opposition to what is the produce of nature. Faculty, is a power or ability to perform any action. Institution- writers mention three, viz. na- tural, vital, and animal. By the first they understand that by which the body is nourished and aug- mented, or another like it gene- rated ; which some farther divide into three, nutrition, growth, and generation ; and the first of these has also by some been divided in- to attractive, retentive, concoc- tive, and expulsive : but these are terms that puzzle rather than in- struct, as they convey no distinct signification. The vital faculty i» that by which life is preserved, and the ordinary functions of the body performed. And the ani- mal faculty is what conducts the operations of the mind ; as the imagination, memory, &c. Feces, are excrements ; but of- ten made use of to express the ingredients and settlings after dis- tillation and infusion. Fecule, are the dregs which subside in vegetable juices, as in that of the roots of briony ; but these are not used so much in medicine as formerly. Fex. It is properly the sedi- ment of lees, or grounds of any fermented liquor ; but in Medicine it is generally understood of wine. It is the same as faeces. The al- vine excretions are thus called. /'ag-o/z r/nm,buckwheat, or brank, a species of Polygonum. Fagus, the beach-tree. A ge- nus in Linnaeus's botany. He in- cludes in his genus the Castanea, or chesnut, and enumerates three species. Painting, from kneeling. In kneeling, the ossa pubis are lower than when we stand ; and this not only increases the hollow of the loins, and throws the abdomen and its viscera more outward, or for- ward, but also, in some measure, strains the abdominal muscles, which is so uneasy to some per- sons as to cause them to faint TA FA away. The depression of the os pubis in kneeling depends partly on the tension of the two musculi recti anteriores, the lower tendons of which are, in this situation, drawn with violence under the condyloid pulley of the os femoris. Winslow's Anatomy. Falciform Process. The falx. A process of the dura mater, that arises from the crista galli, sepa- rates the hemispheres of the brain, and terminates in the tentorium ; from falx, a scythe, and forma, re- semblance. Falling Sickness, i. e. Epilepsia. Falling-Star, in meteorology, a phenomenon that is frequently seen, and which has been usually supposed to depend on the elec- tric fluid. Mr. Davy, in a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, gave many reasons against this opinion: he conceives that they are rather to be attributed to fall- ing stones. It is observable that when their appearance is frequent they have all the same direction ; and it has been remarked that they are the forerunners of a westerly wind. Fallopian Tube. See Generation, Parts of, belonging to Women. Fallopii Ligamentum ; also cal- led Ligamentum Poupartii. It is only the lower border of the ten- don of the external oblique mus- cle of the belly, stretched from the fore part of the os ilium to the os pubis. Fames. See Hunger. Fames canina, dog-appetite, is such'an insatiable hunger, as is not to be satisfied with eating, but continues even when the stomach is full. This is a case much talk- ed of by the ancients, but rarely met with amongst us. It seems to arise from fretting sharp juices in the stomach, which, by their continual vellications, excite a sense like that of hunger, and is to be conquered by medicines, and not ordinary food, such things as the testacea, all alkalies, and chalybeates. Farina, meal or flour. Farina fecundans, impregnat- ing dust. It is placed on the apices of flowers, and falls from thence upon the head of the pistil, or female part of the flower, and is thence conveyed to the matrix, in order to impregnate the seed. Farinacea, a kind of Nutrientia. Fascia. A bandage, fillet, or roller; hence the aponeurotic ex- pansions of muscles, which bind parts together, are termed fascie. Fascia sex, ifc. Capitum, a six, 8cc. headed roller. Fascia spiralis repens, a spiral roller. Fascia uniens, a roller applied to promote the union of divided parts. Fascia Lata. A thick and strong tendinous expansion sent off from the back, and from the tendons of the glutei and adjacent muscles, to surround the muscles of the thigh It is the thickest on the outside of the thigh and leg, but towards the inside of both becomes gradually thinner. A little below the trochanter major, it is firmly fixed to the linea aspera; and far- ther down, to that part of the head of the tibia that is next the fibula, where it sends off the tendinous expansion along the outside of the leg. It serves to strengthen the action of the muscles by keeping them firm in their proper places when in action, particularly the tendons that pass over the joints where this membrane is thickest. Fascial Nerves. The eighth pair of nerves are so called. They arise from the fourth ventricle of the brain, pass through the petrous portion of the temporal bone to the temples, where they divide into several branches. Fascia Lumborum. It is a strong tendon fixed to the lateral pan 34 Ft FE of the os Sacrum, from the spines of the sacrum, from the spine of the ilium and the spines of the lumbar vertebrae. Fat. Adeps. A concrete oily matter contained in the cellular membrane of animals, of a white or yellowish colour, with little or no smell or taste. It differs in all animals in solidity, colour, taste, fee. and likewise in the same ani- mal at different ages. In infancy it is white, insipid, and not very solid; in the adult it is firm and yellowish; and in animals of an advanced age its colour is deeper, its consistence various, and its taste in general stronger. Fat meat is nourishing to those that have strong digestive powers. It is used externally as a softening remedy, and enters into the com- position of ointment and plasters. Fatuitas. Foolishness. A syno- nim of Amentia. Fauces. A cavity behind the tongue, palatine arch, uvula, and tonsils; from which the pharynx and larynx proceed. Febrifuge. A medicine that possesses the property of abating the violence of any fever; from febris, a fever, and fugo, to drive away. Febris. An order in the class pyrexia of Cullen, characterized by the presence of pyrexia, with- out primary or local affection. Febris Intermittens. An inter- mittent fever or ague. A genus of disease in'the class pyrexie and ttrderfebres. It is known by cold, hot, and sweating stages in suc- cession, attending each paroxysm, and followed by an intermission br remission. There are three species of this disease, viz. 1. In- termittena quotidiana, a quotidian ague. The paroxysms return in the morning at an interval of about twenty-four hours. 2. Intermit- tens tertiana, a tertian ague. The paroxysms commonly come on at mid-day, at an interval of about fortyeight hours. $. Intermittens quartana, a quartan ague. The paroxysms come on in the after- noon, with an interval of about seventy-two hours. M. M. An emetic or cathartic if the stomach be foul or the bowels slow ; cin- chona 5'- every second hour dur- ing the remission ; opium; sul- phate of copper; arsenic. Febris Continua. A continued fever. A genus of disease in the class pyrexia and order phlegmasia of Cullen. It has no intermission, but exacerbations come on twice in one day. The species of con- tinued fever are : 1. Synocha. In- flammatory fever, known by in- creased heat; pulse frequent, strong and hard; urine high co- loured ; senses not much impair- ed. 2. Typhus, which is contagi- ous, and is characterized by mo- derate beat; quick, weak and small pulse; senses much impaired, and great prostration of strength. Ty- phus has four varieties, viz. J. Ty- jphus petechialis, typhus with pete • chiae : S. Typhus mitior, the nerv- ous fever: 3. Typhus gravior, the putrid fever : 4. Typhus icterodes, the yellow fever. M. M.—1st. Venesection ; cooling cathartics; an emetic; refrigerants;diaphore- tics ; blisters ; camphor ; acids ; antiphlogistic regimen. 2. An emetic ; mild purgatives ; wine ; spirit of vitriolic aether ; refrige- rants ; opium; cold air; cold af- fusion ; acids ; blisters ; bark ; snake root. 3d. same as the 2d. 4th. Active purgatives; refrige- rants ; blisters; cold affusion: about venesection, salivation and tonics, practitioners are divided in opinion. Febris Hectica. A genus of dis- ease in the class pyrexia and or- derfebres of Cullen. It is known by exacerbations at noon, but chiefly in the evening, with slight remissions in the morning, after FE FE nocturnal sweats; the urine de- positing a furfuraceo-laterkious sediment; appetite good ; thirst moderate. Hectic fever is symp- tomatic of chlorosis, scrophula, phthisis, diseased viscera, Sec. Fecula. A dry, pulverent, in- sipid, white, grey, or variously co- loured substance, insoluble in wa- ter, and of an earthy appearance, obtained by certain processes from vegetables ; such as starch, sago, salep, &e. Felon. So the paronychia is called when its seat is in the peri- osteum at the beginning. Femur. Oa femoris. The thigh bone. A long cylindrical bone, situated between the pelvis and tibia. Its upper and rounded emi- nence is called the head, below which are two rough eminences, the great and small trochanter. The two eminences on the in- ferior extremity are termed con- dyles. Fermentation. A spontaneous commotion in a vegetable sub- stance, by which its properties are totally changed. There are several circumstances required in order that fermentation may proceed; such ar«, I. A certain degree of fluidity; thus dry substances do not ferment at all: 2. A certain degree of heat: 3. The contact of air. Chemists, after Boerhaave, have distinguished three kinds of fermentation : the spirituom, which affords ardent spirit; the acetous, which affords vinegar, or acid; and the putrid fermentation, or putrefaction, which produces volatile alkali. The conditions necessary for spirituous fermen- tation are, 1. A saccharine muci- lage : 2. A degree qf fluidity slightly viscid: 3. A degree of heat between 55 and 65 of Fahren- heit : 4. A large mass, in which a rapid commotion may he excited. When these four conditions are united, the spirituous fermentation takes place, and is known by the following characteristic pheno- mena: 1. An intestine motion takes place: 2. The bulk of the mixture then becomes augment- ed : 3- The transparency of the fluid is diminished by opake fila- ments: 4. Heat is generated :5.The solid parts mixed with the liquor rise and float in consequence of the disengagement of elastic fluid: 6. A large quantity of cretaceous acid gas is disengaged in bubbles. All these phenomena gradually cease in proportion as the liquor loses its sweet and mild taste, and becomes brisk, penetrating, and capable of producing intoxication. In this manner, wine, beer, cider, Sec. are made. Fermentum, ferment, barm, or yeast, leaven ; to which may be added, from late experiments, th# carbonic acid, or fixed air ; sub- stances which enter into fermen- tation more readily than others. Pliny, in his Natural History, Lib. xviii. c. 7. speaks of the barm from, malt liquor. Fern. See JFili#. Ferrum. Iron. See Iran. Ferae, the measles. Fibre. A very fine simple fila- ment, composed of earthy parti- cles, connected together by an inr termediate gluten. It is owing to the different arrangements of the fibres that the cellular struc-« iw/t, membranes, muscles, ves- sels, nerves, and in short, every part of the body, except the fluids, are formed. ffikrin. If a quantity of blood, newly drawn from an animal, bo allowed to remain at rest for soma time, a thick red clot gradually forms in it, and subsides. Sepa» rate this clot frpm the rest of the blood, put it into a linen cloth, and wash it repeatedly in water till it ceases to give out any colour or taste to the liquid ; the substance which remains after this process IT FL is denominated^ir/w. It has been long known to physicians under the name of the fibrous part of the blood; but has not till lately been accurately describedi It may be procured also from the muscles of animals. Fibula. A long bone of the leg, situated on the outer side of the tibia, and which forms, at its lower end, the outer ancle. Ficus. A fleshy excrescence about the anus, in figure resem- bling a fig. See Condyloma. Filices, ferns, one of the seven tribes or families of the vegetable kingdom, according to Linnaeus, by whom they are thus charac- terized, in having their fructifica- tion on the back side of the leaves. They constitute the first order in the class Cryptogamia, and consist of eighteen genera. This order comprehends the entire sixteenth class of Tournefort, in whose sys- tem the Filices make only a single genus in the section of the above- mentioned class. Filix. Male polypody or fern. Polypodium filix mas of Linnaeus. The root of this plant has lately been greatly celebrated for its ef- fects upon the tenia osculis super- ficialibus, or broad tape-worm. Madam Noufer acquired great celebrity by employing it as a specific. In this country it is of little or no advantage.—5i< Jss. Filtration, is the method of ren- dering fluids clear by passing them through a porous solid, as the filtering stone, compact close linen, woolen cloths, or porous paper, which is generally used for this purpose, as a lining to a fun- nel, or other such vessel. Filtra- tion is also performed on a princi- ple somewhat different, as by immersing one end of a porous substance, as a piece of list, skein of cotton, or slip of thick paper, or other such substance, moisten- ed in its whole length in the fluid, and allowing the other end of it to hang down over the outside of the vessel. The fluid in this depend- ing part drains out by its own gravity, and is supplied by capil- lary attraction from the portion next within the vessel, which is supplied in the same manner from the surface of the fluid, till the whole passes over, unless too deep, these appearing to act as a syphon. Filtrum. See Filtration. It is also a stone which is found in the bay of Mexico, which is used for filtering liquors through. Fimbrie. The extremities of the Fallopian tubes. Fire. The word heat has been used with so much precision by Doctors Black, Irvine, Crawford, and others, that the word fire seems to have been rendered of little use, except to denote a mass of matter in a state of combustion, which is, indeed, its vulgar ac- ceptation. The term has, how- ever, been used by many eminent writers, to denote what these great philosophers call the matter of heat, now generally termed Calo- ric, which see. Fire-Damp. An inflammable gas, thus named by the English miners, is found in mines and other deep pits. It is lighter than air; it floats near the roofs of mines, and is apt to catch fire and explode. Fire (Potential,) the same as caustic Fissure. That species of frac- ture in which the bone is slit, but not divided. • Fistula. A term in surgery, ap- plied to a long and sinous ulcer that has a narrow opening, and sometimes leads to a larger cavi- ty.—M. M. A seton or laying open the whole course of the fis- tula with a director and scalpel. Flammula Jovis. Upright vir- gin's bower. Clematis recta of Lin- FL FL naeus. More praises have been bestowed upon the virtue which the leaves of this plant are said to possess, when exhibited internally as an anti-venereal, by foreign physicians, than its trial in this country can justify. The powder- ed leaves are sometimes applied externally to ulcers as an escha- rotic. Flannel, a kind of woollen stuff, composed of a woof and warp, and woven after the manner of baise. Various theories have been adopt- ed to prove the utility of flannel as an article of dress: it is un- questionably a bad conductor of heat, and on that account very useful in cold weather; this is accounted for from the structure of the stuff; the fibres touch each other very slightly, so that the heat moves slowly through the interstices, which being already filled with air, give little assist- ance in carrying off the heat. On this subject Count Rumford has made many experiments, from which it should seem, that though linen, from the apparent ease with which it receives dampness from the atmosphere, appears to have a much greater attraction for water than any other, yet that those bo- dies which receive water in its unelastic form with the greatest ease, or are most easily wet, are not those which in all cases at- tract the moisture of the atmos- phere with the greatest avidity. " Perhaps," says he, " the appa- rent dampness of linen to the touch arises more from the ease with which that substance parts with the water it contains, than from the quantity of water it ac- tually holds ; in the same manner as a body appears hot to the touch in consequence of its parting free- ly with its heat, while another bo- dy, which is really at the same temperature, but which withholds its heat with great obstinacy, af- feets the sense of feeling much less violently. It is well known that woollen cloths, such as flan- nels, &c. worn next the skin, greatly promote insensible per- spiration. May not this arise prin- cipally from the strong attraction which subsists between wool and the watery vapour which is con- tinually issuing from the human body ? That it does not depend entirely on the warmth of that covering is clear; for the same degree of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a dif- ferent kind does not produce the same effect. The perspiration of the human body being absorbed by a covering of flannel, it is im- mediately distributed through the whole thickness of that substance, and by that means exposed by a very large surface to be carried off by the atmosphere ; and the loss of this watery vapour which the flannel sustains on the one side, by evaporation, being im- mediately restored from the other, in consequence of the strong at- traction between the flannel and this vapour, the pores of the skin are disencumbered, and they are continually surrounded by a dry and salubrious atmosphere.*' He expresses his surprise, that the custom of wearing flannel next the skin should not have prevail- ed more universally. He is con- fident it would prevent a number of diseases; and he thinks there is no greater luxury than the com- fortable sensation which arises from wearing it, especially after one is a little accustomed to it. " It is a mistaken notion," says he, " that it is too warm a clothing for summer. I have worn it in the hottest climates, and at all seasons of the year ; and never found the least inconvenience from it. It is the warm bath of perspiration confined by a linen shirt, wet with sweat, which render* the summer FL FL heats of southern climates so in- supportable ; but flannel promotes perspiration, and favours its eva- poration; and evaporation, as is well known, produces positive cold." Flatus, is wind gathered in the bowels, or any cavities of the body, caused by indigestion. Flexor, a name applied to several muscles, from their office, which is to bend the part3 to which they belong. Flexor Accessorius Digitorum Pe- dis, seu Massa Carnea Jacobi SylvU. A muscle situated on the leg, that assists the flexor. Flexor Brevis Digitorum Pedis. A flexor muscle of the toes, situ- ated on the leg. Flexor Brevis Minimi Digiti Pedis. A muscle, situated on the foot, that bends the little toe. Flexor Brevis Pollicis Manus. A muscle, situated on the hand, that bends the first joint of the thumb. Flexor Brevis Pollicis Pedis. A muscle, situated on the foot, that bends the first joint of the great toe. Flexor Carpi Radialis. A mus- cle, situated on the cubit or fore arm, that bends the hand and as- sists in its pronation. Flexor Carpi Ulnaris. A mus- cle, situated on the cubit or fore arm, that assists the former. Flexor Longus Digitorum Pedis, Profundus, Perforans. A flexor muscle of the toes, situated on the leg, that bends their last joints. Flexor Longus Pollicis Manus. A muscle, situated on the hand, that bends the last joint of the thumb. Flexor Longus Pollicis Pedis. A muscle, situated on the foot, that bends the last joint of the great toe. Flexor Ossis Metacarpi Pollicis, seu Opponens Pollicis. A muscle, situated on the hand, that brings the thumb inwards, opposite to tbe other fingers. Flexor Parvus Minimi Digiti. A muscle, situated on the hand, that bends the little finger, and as- sists the adductor. Flexor Profundus Perforans. A muscle, situated on the fore arm, that bends the last joint of the fingers. Flexor Sublimis Perforatus. A muscle, situated on the fore arm, that bends the second joint of the fingers. Flints (Liquor of.) When two or three parts of alkaline salt are added to one of vitrifiable earth, and the degree of heat is carried no further than to melt the mix- ture, without giving time for the alkali to evaporate, the product obtained is a vitriform mass, in which the earth is held in solu- tion : but as the mixture retains a great superabundance of alkali, it preserves almost all the pro- perties of alkaline salt; it power- fully attracts moisture from the air, and deliquesces. In this state it is called Liquor of Flints. Flowers of Zinc. They are to be considered as the calx of this semimetal. The calx is very re- fractory, and in the highest degree fixed. Fluats (Fluas, tis, s. m.) Salts formed by the fluoric acid, com- bined with different bases ; thus, fluat ofalumine,fluai of ammoniac, &c. Fluctuation, a term in Surgery. When matter is formed in an ab- scess, and lightly pressed with the fingers, the motion of fluctua- tion may be distinctly felt. Fluid. A fluid is that substance, the constituent principles of which so little attract each other, that when poured out, it drops gutta- tim, and adapts itself, in every re- spect, to the form of the vessel containing it. Fluor Spar. Vitreous spar. FO FO ~ Sparry fluor. A species of salt which abounds in nature, formed by the combination of the sparry acid with lime. It is called spar, because it has the sparry form and fracture: fluor, because it melts very readily; and vitreous, be- cause it has the appearance of glass, and may be fused into glass of no contemptible appearance. Fluor Albus, is a distemper com- mon to the female sex, called by them the Whites. See Leucorrhea. Flux. See Dysentery. Focus. From its signifying a hearth or wfire-place, some have made use of it to express the seat of a fever, or some other distem- pers. In Optica it is the point of convergence or concourse, where the rays meet and cross the axis after their refraction or reflection. Feniculum Dulce. Common fen- nel. Anethum Feniculum of Lin- naeus. The seeds and roots of this indigenous plant are directed by the colleges of London and -Edinburgh. The seeds have an aromatic smell, and a warm sweet- ish taste, and contain a large pro- portion of essential oil. They are stomachic and carminative. The root has a sweet taste, but very little aromatic warmth, and is said t© be pectoral and diuretic. Bi. to 9ij. Fenum Grecum. Fenugreek. Trigonella fenum grecum of Lin- naeus ; a native of Montpelier. The seeds are brought to us from the southern parts of France and Germany ; they have a strong dis- ageeable smell, and an unctious iarinaceous taste, accompanied with a slight bitterness. They are esteemed as assisting the formation of pus, in inflammatory tumours ; and the meal, with that intention, is made into a poultice with milk. Fetus. The child, inclosed in the uterus of its mother, is called a fixtus from the fifth month after pregnancy until the time of its birth. The internal parts pecu- liar to the foetus are the thymus gland, canalis venosus, canalis arteriosus, foramen ovale, valve of Eustachius, and the membrana pupillaris. Besides these pecu- liarities, there are other circum- stances in which the foetus differs from the adult. The lungs are black and collapsed, and sink in water; the liver is very large; all the glands, especially the thymus and suprarenal, and the vermiform process of the caecum, are also considerably larger in proportion. The teeth of the foetus are hid within their sockets; the great in- testines contain a substance called meconium ; the membrana tym- pani is covered with a kind of mucous membrane, and the bones in many places are cartilaginous. Follicle. A small membraneous receptacle. Folliculose Gland. A gland which consists of a hollow vascu- lar membrane, and has an excre- tory duct; as the muciparous and sebaceous glands. Foiliculus Fellis, the gall-bladder. Follis, i. e. Foiliculus, the name of a large leather bag filled with wind, and used as an exercise by the ancient Romans. Fomentation, is a sort of partial bathing, by applying hot flannels to any part, dipped in medicated decoctions, whereby steams are communicated to the diseased parts, their vessels are relaxed, and their morbid action is there- by removed. Fomes, fuel, from fovendo. When spoken of diseases, it is the internal or antecedent cause which foments and continues the dis ease. Fomites. Dr. Cullen observes that clothes, &c. receive contagi- ous matter from human bodies, and retain it in an active state for along time. The substances tlm;; FO }R imbibed, he says, are called by this name. Many think that contagion received from them is more pow- erful than that arising from human bodies. Fontanella. The fontasul. It is the membranous part which is found in new-born infants at the coronal and sagittal commissures, and which, in length of time, har- dens into a bone. Fontanella, or Fonticulus, signi- fies strictly a little spring, and is used to express issues, setons, or any such like artificial discharges. Foramen, a hole. Foramen Cecum. A single open- ing in the basis of the cranium, between the ethmoid and the frontal bone, that gives exit to a small vein. Foramina Lacera. A pair of foramina in the basis of the cra- nium, through which the internal jugular veins, and the eighth pair of accessory nerves pass. Foramen Ovale. The opening between the two auricles of the heart of the foetus. See also Os innominatum. Forceps, properly signifies a pair of tongs ; but is used for an instru- ment in chirurgery, to extract any thing out of wounds, and the like occasions. Fore-Skin. See Preputium. Forfex, an instrument to draw teeth with. Formiats (Formias, tis. s. m.) Salts produced by the union of the formic acid with different bases: t\ms,formiat of alumine,formiat of ammoniac, Etc. Formic Acid. The acid of ants was known to Tragus, Bauhme, Fisher, Etmuller, Hoffman, and many others. It is obtained chiefly from the red ant, Formica rufa of Linnaeus, by distilling them in a retort, and by washing them in boiling water. When rectified and rather concentrated, it has a penetrating smell, and is cor- rosive ; and its taste is so agree- able when greatly diluted with water, that it has been propos- ed to be used instead of vine- gar. Formula, a little form of pre- scription, such as physicians di- rect in extemporaneous practice, in distinction from the great forms, which are for the officinal medi- cines. Fornix. The medullary body, composed of three crura, situated at the bottom of the ventricles, under the septum lucidum. Fortification Agate. See Onyx. Fortis (Aqua,) a name of the nitrous acid, given because of its dissolving power. In the manu- facture of soap, the caustic alka- line lixivium is called also the strong water. Fossa, a ditch. In Anatomy it is the same as Fossa Navicularia. Fossil. This signifies any thing that is dug out of the earth ; from fodio, to dig. For the several di- visions of which, see the writings of natural historians- Fracture. A fracture is a solu- tion of a bone intovtwo or more fragments. A simple fracture is when the bone only is divided. A compound fracture is a division of the bone, with a laceration of the integuments, the bone mostly pro- truding.—A fracture is also term- ed transverse, oblique, &c. ac- cording to its direction. Treat- ment. Replace the pieces of bone in their natural situation. Retain them with splints and bandages. Bathe the limb with vinegar or spirits, and keep it still.—Bleed and use the antiphlogistic regi- men if necessary. Frenulum of the Tongue. The cutaneous fold, under the apex of the tongue, that connects the tongue to the infralingual cavity. It is sometimes, in infancy, so short as to prevent the child from suck- ing, when it is necessary to cut it, FR FU in order to give more room for the motion of the toneue. Frenum of the Penis. The membranous fold which connects the praepuce to the inferior part of the glans penis. Frambesia. The yaws; from framboise, Fr. a raspberry. A ge- nus of disease arranged by Cullen in the class cachexie and order impetigines It is somewhat simi- lar in its nature to the lues ve- nerea, and is endemial to the An- tilla islands. It appears with ex- crescences, like mulberries, grow- ing out of the skin in various parts of the body, which discharge an ichrous fluid. M. M. Generous diet and diaphoretics 21 days; then salivation for ten; afterwards guaiacum. Fraximus, the ash-tree. A ge- nus in Linnaeus's botany. He enu- merates three species. Friction, is often used by phy- sicians for rubbing any part in order to dislodge any obstructed humours, or promote a due mo- tion of the included juices. This is of great service in medicine, and may contribute to the cure of several distempers, and especially such as proceed from a stoppage of insensible perspiration, or an obstruction of the cuticular pores. Frons, the forehead. It i« that part which is above the eye, des- titute of hair, and that reaches from one temple to the other. Frontal Bone. The cockleshell- like bone which forms the fore- head, and contains the two ante- rior lobes of the brain. Its prin- cipal processes are the two super- ciliary arches, and two external and internal orbital apophyses. Its cavities are two orbital cavities, a niche for the trochlea of the supe- rior oblique muscle, two large p tuitary sinuses, one on each side above the root of the nose, called the frontal sinuses; the ethmoid niche, and superciliary foramen. In the foetus it is composed of two bones. The union of the frontal bone with the parietal bones, forms the coronal suture. Fructification, among botanists, includes the flower and fruit, with their several coverings and attach- ments. Fructists* fructiste, that set of authors who have attempted the establishing the classes and dis- tinctions of plants upon the fruit, seed, or receptacle of these in plants. Of this list is Caesalpinus, Morrison, Ray, Herman Boer- haave. Fructus, fruit. Properly it is the part of a plant wherein the seed is contained ; but in general it is any seed or grain covered or uncovered, but with the coverings when there are any. Fucus, hath been used for a co- lour or paint to beautify the face with, and belongs to the class of Cosmetics. Fumaria Bulbosa, great bulbous fumitory, and hollow-root. Com- mon fumitor. The leaves of this indigenous plant, Fumaria officina- lis of Linnaeus, are directed for medicinal use by the Edinburgh college : they are extremely suc- culent, and have no remarkable smell, but a bitter, somewhat sa- line taste. The infusion of the dried leaves, or the expressed juice of the fresh plant, isesteem- ed for its property of clearing the skin of many disorders of the leprous kind. Fumigation, is making one body receive the steam of another, and is done various ways, and to dif- ferent purposes. The chemists use it for a species of calcination, when that process is performed upon any substance by the steams of another ; as lead is reducible into a calx by the steams of acids. Among physicians, it means the application of fumes to particular parts of the body, as those of 33 ¥V JPtJ factitious cinnabar to venereal ul- cers. Function. The power or faculty by which any action of an animat- ed body is performed. The func- tions of our body are dirided into vital, by which life is immediately supported, as the action of the heart and arteries, respiration and animal heat; animal, which are effected through the operation of the mind, as the external and in- ternal senses, the voluntary action of the muscles, voice, watching, and sleep; natural, by which the body is preserved, a9 hunger, thirst, mastication, deglutition, di- gestion, chylification, sanguifica- tion, nutrition of the body, and the various secretions and excretions; and, lastly, into sexual functions, such as menstruation, conception, formation of the foetus, and par- turition. Functio, irovafungor, to perform. We shall add professor Riche* rand's new classification of the functions. It is elegant, compre- hensive, and complete. THE PLAN OF A NEW CLASSIFICATION OF THE FUNC- TIONS OF LIFE. 5!^ Order I. Functions which assimi- late the all- s'.s^ mentbywhich-^ c > <-> w u c a 1 the body nourished. is ( Assimilat- ing,internal,or digestive func- tions J ("Reception of the food. | Mastication. I Solution by the saliva. Deglutition. Extracts the nutritive^ Digestion in the stomach. part. | - - - - duodenum. I .... intestines. I Excretion of the faeces and of the L urine. f Inhalation of chyle. Genus IT—Absorption j - - - - lymph. Carries it into the mass< Action of vessels. of humours- j - - - glands. V. - - - the thoracic duct. Genus III.—Circula- f Action of the heart. tion j .... arteries. Propels it towards the j .... capillary vessels. organs. L - - - - veins c nr n * „ f Action oftheparietesof the thorax. Genus IV —Resptra- ... fumjs < Alteration of the air. tion Combines it with mospheric oxygen at-] "* in the blood. vJOiseng'agement of animal heat. Genus V— Secret!on CExhalation. Causes it to pass thro' < Secretion by follicles. several modifications (_ - - - - glands. Genus VI—Nutrition f Applies it to organs, to Different in every part, according which it is to suppl>< to the peculiar composition of growth, and restore J each. , their loss. L Ftf FU Order II. Functions which form con- nections with surrounding ob- jects. (External or relat ve func- tions.) GenusI.—Sensations j Inform the being oP their presence. Genus II—Motions Approach towards or remove it from them. Genus Ill—The Voice and Speech Cause it to communi- cate with similar be- ings, without change , of place. , The Sight. V Hearing. ^Organs / Smell. J Taste. v Feeling. Action of nerves. the brain. Human understanding. Sleep and watching. Dreaming and sleep-walking. Sympathy. wHabit. Organs and muscular motion, The skeleton. Articulations. , Place. If Walking. V (tinning. ^.Progressive 1 Jumping. motions. \ Swimming. / Flying \ Creeping. The C Articulated, or Speech. Voice l Modulated,or Singing. Stammering. Lisping. Dumbness. Ventriloquism. ifcts's. B) _ ID % i I 4> r, P.U Order I. C f General differences of the Functions which | Concept!on and J sexes. req>ure_the concur-^ Generation. \ Ilermaphrodism. I Systems relative to generation. ("Of the uterus in a state of im- I pregnation. tHistory of the embryo. . • • • foetus and its membranes. C On the uterus after delivery. £The lochis. C Action of the breasts. £Milk. renceof both sexes, as Order II. Functions which^ exclusively belong 1 to females, as I Gestation. Delivery. Lactation. {Infancy.—Dentition.—Ossification. Puberty.—Menstruation. Adolescence. Youth. (Temperaments. VirilityA Idiosyncracy. Sanguine. Muscular. Biliary-melancholic Lymphatic. Nervous. C Age of decrease Decrease. < Old age. C. Decrepitude. Death. Putrefaction. (■European Arab. Human race J Son^u'l. (.Hyperborean. FU fit The splendid work of M. Vicq d'Azyr on the Brain furnishes us with the following table of the functiona, or the proper characters of living bodies. These are, diges- tion, nutrition, circulation, respira- tion, secretions, ossification, genera- tion, irritability, and sensibility. Every body in which one or several of these functions are observed must be regarded as an organized or living body. I. Digestion —Living Bodies, Which have one or many sto- machs distinct from the oesopha- gus and intestinal canal: man, quadrupeds, cetacea, birds, and Crustacea. Whose stomachs are distin- guished from the oesophagus and intestinal canal only by some en- largement : oviparous animals, ser- pents, cartilaginous ?,nd proper fish. Who have only an alimentary tube : insects, worms, zoophytes. Who have neither stomach nor intestinal canal: plants. II. Nutrition..—Living Bodies, Whose nutritious juices are ab- sorbed by the vessels opening in- to the external cavities: animals of every kind. Whose nutritious juices are ab- sorbed by vessels opening exter- nally : plants. III. Circulation.—-Living Bodies, Having blood, blood-vessels, and a heart, with two ventricles and two auricles: man, quadrupeds, cetacea, and birds. A single ventricle, internally divided into several cavities and two auricles: oviparous quadru- peds and serpents. A single ventricle and auricle : cartilaginous and other fish. Whose heart is formed by a long convoluted contractile vessel Containing a white fluid: Crusta- cea, insects and worms. In some Crustacea there are traces of a heart. Who have no heart, but ves- sels filled with fluids of different kinds : zoophytes and plants. IV Rt spiration.—Living Bodies, Who breathe hy tree uncon- nected spongy lungs : man, quad- rupeds, cetacea. Who breathe by free cellular muscular lungs : oviparous q ud- rupeds and serpents. By lungs adhering to the ribs provided with appendices : birda. By pills of different forms :fish and Crustacea. By holes placed on different rings: insects and earth-worms. By a trachea and external frin- ges : aquatic worms. By tracheae : plants. In which neither holes nor tra- cheae are discernible : polypi. V. S'xretion. This takes place in different forms or degrees in every living body. VI. Ossification.-—Living Bodies, Which have an internal bony skeleton: man, quadrupeds, ceta- cea, birds, oviparous quadrupeds, i.ndfish. An internal cartilaginous one: ca rtilaginous fish. An external horny : perfect in- sects and lithophytes. Calcareous: crustacea, shellfish, the greater number of madrepores^ zoophytes. Woody : plants. Which have no skeleton : in- sects in their lava state, worms, polypi. VII. Generation.—Living Bodies, Viviparous: man, quadrupeds, cetacea. Oviparous, whether hatched in- ternally or withoutthe body: birds, oviparous quadrupeds, cartilaginous and other fish, serpents, insects, Crustacea, worms, plants. VIII. Irritability .—Living Bodies, Wholly muscular or contrac- tile : the greater number of the larvae of insects, worms, polypi. Whose muscles cover their FV FU skeleton : man, quadrupeds, birds, cetacra, oviparous quadrupeds, fish, aerpents. Whose muscles are covered by their skeleton : perfect insects and Crustacea. Who have some contractile parts,but no spontaneous motions: plants. IX. Sensibility.—Living Bodies, Who huve nerves, and a brain distinct from their spinal marrow : all animals, except those in the following sections. Who have nerves and a brain scarcely distinct from their spinal marrow : insects, crustacea, worms. Without discovered nerves, brain or spinal marrow: zoophytes, plants. Fungus. Proud flesh. A term in surgery to express any luxu- riant formation of flesh. Fungus hamatodes. This sin- gular complaint was first distinctly described by Mr. Hey, in his very excellent work, entitled " Practi- cal Observations in Surgery." It is a bloody tumour which forms in every part of the body, painful when seated in the muscles ; but producing little inconvenience when in the cellular substance. It distends the integuments ; but does not, like an abscess, render them thinner. When pressed with the hands, one part will give the sensation of a deep-seated fluid ; in another the tumour is hard and uneven. When the in- teguments burst, the appearances are sometimes those of an exco- riation only; sometimes a dark, bloody mass protrudes through the aperture. Where the fungus comes into contact with the mus- cles, they lose their natural red- ness and their fibrous appearance, becoming brown, and like the adipose membrane. When the fungus appears through the skin, it bleeds copiously, and the hae- morrhage is frequently repeated till the patient sinks; neither the hydrargyria nitratus ruber, the hydrargy r us muriatus,antimonium muriatum, or undiluted vitriolic acid, can repress its growth. Am- putation is the only remedy ; and if the tumour has begun at the lower part of a limb, and the slighest portion is left at the up- per, the disease returns. It ap- pears to be an organized, and is probably a living, parasitic animali nourished by the vital fluid of the patient, and capable of absorbing from the subjacent vessels what is effused from its own. Funiculus Umbilicalis. Funis urn' bilicalis. The navel-string or um- bilical cord. A cord of an intes- tinal form, about half a yard in length, that proceeds from the navel of the fcetus to the centre of the placenta. It is composed of a crutaneous sheath, cellular sub- stance, one umbilical vein, and two umbilical arteries ; the former conveys the blood to the child from the placenta, and the latter return it from the child to the placenta. Furnaces. The furnaces em- ployed in chemical operations are of three kinds : 1. The evaporatory furnace, which has received its name from its use ; it is employ- ed to reduce substances into va- pour, by means of heat, in order to separate the. more fixed prin- ciples from those which are more ponderous, and were mixed, sus- pended, compounded, or dissolv- ed in the fluid : 2. The reverbera- tory furnace ; which name it has received from its construction be- ing appropriated to distillation: 3. The forge furnace, in which the current of air is determined by bellows. Furor Uterinus. See Nympho- mania. Furuncle. An^inflammation of a subcutaneous gland, known by an inflammatory tumour that does GA OA not exceed the size of a pigeon's by which bodies are made to pass egg; from/wro, to rage. M. M. from the solid to the fluid state, Emollient poultices; incision; in consequence of the application basilicon ; calamine cerate. of heat. Fusion. A chemical process, G GALACTOPHOROUS Ducts. The excretory ducts of the glands of the breasts of women, which terminate in the papilla or nipple ; from yccXa, milk, and Qtpu, to carry, because they bring the milk to the nipple. Galbanum. A gummi-resinous juice, obtained partly by its spon- taneous exudation from the joints of the stem of the Bubon galbanum of Linnaeus, but more generally, and in greater abundance, by mak- ing an incision in the stalk, a few inches above the root, from which it immediately issues, and soon becomes sufficiently concrete to be gathered. It is imported into England from Turkey and the East-Indies, in large, sottish, duc- tile, pale-coloured masses, which by age acquire a brownish yellow appearance : these are intermix- ed with distinct whitish tears, that are the most pure part of the mass. Galbanum holds a middle rank between assafcetida and am- inoniacum, but its foetidness is very inconsiderable, especially when compared with the former ; it is therefore accounted less antis- pasmodic, nor are its expectorant qualities equal to those of the lat- ter ; it, however, is esteemed more efficacious than either in hysterical disorders. Externally it is often applied by surgeons to expedite the suppuration of in- flammatory and indolent tumours, and by physicians as a warm stimu- lating plaster. It is an ingredient in the pilule e gummi, the emplas- trum lithargyri cum gummi of the London Pharmacopeia, and in the emplastrum ad clavoa pedum-oK the Edinburgh. Grs. v. to 9i. Galena. The name of an ore formed by the combination of lead with sulphur. Galenic Medicine, is that prac- tice of medicine which conforms to the rules of Gdlen, and runs much upon multiplying herbs and roots in the same composition, though seldom torturing them any otherwise than by decoction, in opposition to chemical medi- cine, which, by the force of fire and a great deal of art, fetches out the virtues of bodies, chiefly mineral, into a small compass. Gall. See Bile. Galla, gall. They are hard round excrescences, produced by the puncture of an insect. They are the Cynipidis Nidi. The in- sect makes a puncture in the leaf of an oak-tree, there lodges its egg, which remains until the young insect is able to eat its way out. The tear which issues from the wound, gradually increased by accessions of fresh matter, forms a covering to the eggs and succeeding insect. The galls are a strong astringent. They are retained in the Pharmacopeia of the college. Gall-Bladder. An oblong mem- branous receptacle, situated un- der the liver, to which it is attach- ed in the right hypochondrium. It is composed of three mem- branes : a common, fibrous, and villous. Its use is to retain the gall, which regurgitates through the hepatic duct, there to become thicker, more acrid and bitter, and GA GA to send it through the cystic duct, which proceeds from its neck into the common duct or ductus communis choledochus, to be sent on to the duodenum. Galvanism. l*h\s surprising branch of philosophy has been denomi- nated galvanism, from Galvani, an Italian professor, whose experi- ments led to its discovery. In 1789, some time before he made the most important discovery, he was by accident led to the fact, of electricity having the property of exciting contractions in the mus- cles of animals. Stimulated by the then prevailing idea of elec- tricity being a principle inherent in animals, which, acting upon the musclar susceptibility, was the immediate cause of muscular mo- tion, he was induced to persevere in the inquiry, during the prose- cution of which, he brought to light other facts, which laid the foundation of this valuable scien- tific acquisition. After having observed that common electricity, even that of lightning, produced vivid convulsions in the limbs of recently killed animals, he ascer- tained that metallic substances, by mere contact, under particular circumstances, excited similar commotions. He found, that it was essential, that the forces of metals employed should be of dif- ferent kinds He applied one piece of metal to the nerve of the part, and the other to the muscle, and afterwards connected the me- tals, either by bringing them to- gether, or by connecting them by an arch of a metallic substance; every time this connection was formed the convulsions took place. The diversity in the metals em- ployed in these experiments ap- peared, in the very early stages of this inquiry, to be connected with their respective degrees of oxy- dability, the one being possessed of tbjjtt property in a great degree, and the other little liable to the change. Hence zinc, and silver, or gold, was found to produce the greatest muscular contractions. The pile was found to unite the effects of as many pairs of plates as might be employed. Previ- ously to this no other effect had been produced than what result- ed from the energy of a single pair of plates. A pile of fifty pairs of plates, with as many corres- ponding pieces of wet cloth, was found to give a pretty smart shock, similar to an electric shock, every time that a communication was made between the top and bottom of the pile. It was found, how- ever, that little or no shock was perceived, when the hands, or other parts applied, were not pre- viously moistened. It was also observed, that the effect was in- creased when a larger surface was exposed to the action of the pile. If the communication was made by touching the pile with the tip of each finger merely, the effect was not perceived beyond the joint of the knuckle ; but if a spoon, or other metallic sub- stance, were grasped in moisten- ed hands, the effect was felt up to the shoulder. If the communica- tion be formed between'any part of the face, particularly near the eyes, and another part of the body, a vivid flash of light is perceived before the eyes, corresponding with the shock. This phenome- non may be more faintly observed, by placing a piece of silver, as a shilling, between the upper lip and the gum, and laying a piece of zinc at the same time upon the tongue: upon bringing the two metals in contact, a faint flash of light is perceived. It is singular, that this light is equally vivid in the dark with the strongest light, and whether the eyes be shut or open. It is to Mr. Cruickshank that GA GA we are indebted for the inven- tion of the galvanic trough, a dis- covery which very soon super- seded the use of the pile, as be- ing more manageable, and attend- ed with less trouble to the opera- tor. It consists of a wooden box, or trough, the depth and breadth of which correspond with the size of the plates. The wood of which the trough is formed,should be the oldest and hardest maho- gany, being less liable to warp than other kinds of wood. The sides of the trough must be dove- tailed together, and the bottom ought to be grooved into the sides, and fitted-in with turpentine ; perpendicular grooves must be made in the sides of the trough, for the reception of the plates, correspondent to which there must be grooves in the bottom. When the length of a trough is more than two feet, it becomes unwieldy; it should not even be that length, when the size of the plates would render it too heavy to be handed about. The distance between the plates should be about three-eighths of an inch ; if they are nearer together, the acid em- ployed is too soon exhausted, and consequently, the power of the battery less lasting. The plates should be of copper and zinc. Though silver is stronger than copper, it is not so in proportion to the price. The zinc plates are best cut out of sheets of mallea- ble zinc, as being cheaper, less liable to break, and may be used much thinner. The copper may be employed so thin as six ounces to the square foot. The plates of copper being made a little larger than the zinc, may be lapped over the edges of the latter, by which means they fit much closer to the zinc plate, without the labour of hammering the copper plates pre- viously flat. The copper plates only require to be soldered to tke upper edge of the zinc plate, since the other three edges are so secured with cement in the grooves as to preclude the neces- sity of soldering. The lapping over of the copper is sufficient to keep it close to the zinc plate till the plate is fastened in the trough. Previously to inserting the plates in the trough, the insid< must be lined with a cement, formed of resin and bees-wax, or what is cheaper, of six parts of resin and one of lime and oil. The plates, being previously warmed, are to be pressed down into the grooves before the cement becomes quite cold. After the plates have been inserted, in such order that all the zinc surfaces shall face one way and the copper the other, the ce- ment must be more evenly ad- justed with a hot iron which will reach to the bottom of the cells ; the trough being laid first on one side and then on the other for that purpose. When the cement- ing process is finished, and the whole sufficiently cold, the trough must be dressed off and varnished with copal varnish where it can be had, but in lieu of that, with common spirit varnish. When the varnish is dry it must be polished with rotten-stone and water. In the above construction it is manifest that two of the surfaces are lost by being laid and soldered together. About two years ago the writer of this article had con- ceived the possibility of making use of both the surfaces of the copper and zinc plates at the same time. Accordingly he cemented into a trough, in the groove made for the plates of metal, plates of glass. The metal plates were formed by soldering together a plate of each, of copper and zinc, and then bending them till the plates became parallel to each other, leaving a space between the GA GA two surfaces a little wider than the thickness of the glass plates. The cells between the glass plates being filled with the pro- per liquid, each of the above com- pound plates were made to be- stride one of the glass plates, in such order that a zinc and copper plate of two different compound plates,in succession to each other, may occupy each of the cells. All the surfaces are by this contriv- ance exposed to the action of the liquid, and might be considered double the power of a common trough, having the same number of plates. Little or no advant- age was gained by this method. Though there are two surfaces of each metal in each of the cells, it will be evident, from several mi- nor experiments already given, that two of the surfaces are so completely disconnected as to produce little or no effect. One of the zinc surfaces in this trough is facing the glass on one side the cell, and one of the copper sur- faces is similarly situated on the other side. The trough, there- fore, is, for general use, the most convenient, and in other re- spects, the best battery yet in- troduced. The next thing to be consider- ed, is the management of the gal- vanic battery. First, all of the cells of the trough must be filled, within about half an inch of the top, with a liquid, composed of water, with about one twenty-fifth part of the muiiutic»or the nkric acid. The plates of the trough are shorter than the depth of the trough, by about three-fourths o'f an inch ; so that the trough may be leaned on one side in the fil- ling, for the purpose of letting the liquid run equally into all the cells. If a number of troughs are to be connected together, the com- munication must be made by arcs of metal, which are inserted into the liquid of one cell of each trough. In making the connec- tion, it is to be observed, that the zinc surface of one trough must correspond with the copper one of another, and the zinc of the lat- ter with copper of a third, and so on. This arrangement may be better conceived by placing them in the same order, and to end in such away, that all the zinc surfaces may face one way, and the copper ones the other. After all the troughs are connected to- gether, let the two unconnected ends, at which the experiments are to be made, be as near to- gether as possible. A connection being now form- ed between the two ends, one of which we shall term the zinc end, and the other the copper end, the united energy of the whole will be transmitted through the con- necting medium. The most striking and the most common experiments are those which consist in the galvanic energy upon the organs of ani- mals. If two metallic rods, or, what is equally convenient, two silver spoons, be grasped, one in each hand, the skin of the'part be- ing previously moistened with a solution of salt, and one of the spoons be brought in contact with one end of the battery, the mo- ment the other comes in contact with the other end of the battery, the shock is perceived. Fifty compound plates will give a shock which will be felt in the elbows. One of a hundred will be felt in the shoulders. A greater num- ber of plates give so forcible a shock to the muscles, as to be dreaded a second time. The shock appears to depend upon the number of plates. The stun, or first impression, is much the same, whatever may be the size of the plates; at least, from the size of two inches squarg to that of ten j 36 GA GA the surfaces being as four to one hundred. The effect upon the muscles, as well as upon the cuti- cle itself, is very different from large plates, when the series is the sarge. It appears, that the shock, or first impression, is as the series, which is also as the in- tensity of the electricity. If the shock be received from the same number of large plates, the same species of commotion is produced in the first instance, as with the small plates; but if the contact be still kept up, a continuation of the effect is perceived, which is felt through the whole arms, pro- ducing a vast tremor, attended with a sensation of warmth. If the plates be from eight to twelve inches square, this effect may be perpetually kept, while the acid in the cells is expended. Though small plates have been recommended for medical pur- poses, we think large ones will be found more likely to have a good effect. If the medical ad- vantage is to be derived from the stimulus of galvanism, the effect of a perpetual and regular cur- rent of that stimulus must cer- tainly be preferable to the rapid transmission of a small quantity. The galvanic shock may also be conveniently given, by immersing the hands or the feet into vessels containing a solution of salt, and bringing wires from each end of the battery into the liquid. If any other part of the body is intended to be operated upon, a sponge, moistened with salt water, fasten- ed to a metal plate connected with one end of the battery, may be ap- plied to the part, and the hand or foot put into a vessel of the same liquid, connected by a wire with the other end of the battery. Small bits of sponge or bits of leather may be fastened to the end of the connecting wires, and made more or less moist as the delicacy of the part may require. This con- trivance is very useful in operat- ing upon the eyes or ears. When galvanism is used medi- cally, it should first be applied very feebly, and the effect gradu- ally increased, as the suscepti- bility of th<- part will admit. If the part has, from disease, become so languid and insusceptible, as not to be sensible of the effect, it should be scarified, or by other means have the cuticle removed. This is sometimes the case with languid tumors, and some cases of paralysis. Though we had no great opinion of the medical agency of galvanism, we have lately heard of several very suc- cessful cases, one of which in par- ticular was the cure of perfect loss of speech. If the naked me- tal of the wire, from a powerful battery, be applied to the skin, it becomes cauterized and blistered. If the plate, covered with a moistened sponge, connected with one end of the battery, be applied to the back of the head, at the same time that the moistened fingers of one hand are slightly applied to the other end, a smarti ing sensation will be felt in the part, and a taste at the same time will be felt in the mouth, similar, but in a greater degree, to that occasioned by the piece of zinc, and the shilling when laid upon the tongue. This experiment succeeds the best with a small number of large plates, as much as ten inches, square. The action of galvanism on the human body is nearly that of elec- tricity ; but as a stimulant, it is less intense, and more steady. The cuticle in animals, and the epidermis in plants and seeds, re- sist it more powerfully than the electrical influence; and it is ne- cessary often, for the purpose of increasing its power, to puncture the skin, so as to draw some blood. GA GA The coats of the nerves have ap- parently a similar effect; for the influence is greater, the nearer the coating is placed to the part on which the nerves are dispers- ed, where the coats are thinner, or wholly lost. In general, how- ever, galvanism does not seem to resemble accumulated electrici- ty ; but a weaker charge diffused over a larger surface. In the ope- ration, the metals are oxidated, and the water between them is decomposed, the zinc apparently yielding the oxygen, and the cop- per the hydrogen. As the water is seemingly decomposed on each side, it has become a problem to account for the disappearance of the oxygen on the side of the cop- per, and the contrary. Philoso- phers have not yet dared to face this difficulty, as it so strongly militates against the modern che- mical doctrines. This decompo- sition of a watery fluid was, how- ever, introduced very early into its medical system ; and Galvani, resting on the hypothesis of Co- tunnio de Ischiade Nervosa, that sciatica, and many other com- plaints, arose from the accumula- tion of a fluid within the nervous sheaths, supposed that it was of service from its influence on the morbid causes. We have no rea- son, however, to think that it has any effect in this way, though it has been supposed also from this circumstance to change the posi- tive electricity of the healthy body to the negative state. Galvanism seems chiefly to af- fect the nervous system, includ- ing the muscular fibres, and in- deed, in some degree, fibres of every kind, producing even some apparent contraction in the fibrin of the blood. The nerves and muscles, however, it penetrates more actively than the" electrical fluid in its usual state ; for it pro- duces powerful contractions, and sensations of pricking and burn- ing in parts insensible, from dis- ease, to electrical sparks, and even shocks. The effects are increas- ed by moistening the skin, and wetting it so much as even to penetrate the cuticle ; still more, we have found, if the cuticle is divided : but it often happens that one person may be insensible to its influence, and occasionally the pile is a long time in producing its effects, seemingly from some obstacle, which is removed by an apparently inconsiderable change in the apparatus. It appears to penetrate the nervous system in every direction with equal facility, and probably passes through the minutest fibres, as, after a nerve has been cut and re-united by what seems a condensed cellular or ligamentous substance, the gal- vanic influence is not transmitted. It apparently acts by exciting the nervous power; since, like all powerful exciters, it soon destroys irritability. Animals killed by the destruction of this principle soon become putrid; and this is also the rapid consequence of death by putrid miasmata, electricity, and galvanism. Galvanism, in consequence of its readily permeating the nerves, has been employed, by Humboldt, to ascertain what parts are ner- vous, and the real use of some nerves whose office was doubtful. The tendons, probably from the compactness of their structure, are insensible of the galvanic sti- mulus. By his experiments it also appears that the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves supplies the organs of taste, and the ninth pair gives activity to the muscles of the tongue, as Galen supposed. This active principle has been employed with success in restor- ing persons apparently drowned; and by establishing a communica- tion between zinc and silver wires, GA GA introduced into the mouth and anus of small birds, Humboldt has recovered them from asphixy. Except, however, in deaths from violence, galvanism is useless; since, in the last struggles, irrita- bility is usually destroyed. It has been recommended to distinguish a case of peculiar difficulty and importance, viz. the existence of amaurosis in cases of cataract. If the two metallic exciters, in a proper position, do not produce the usual sensations in the retina, the operation will probably be useless, as the sentient power of the nerve is apparently lost. M. Grappengeisser, the first author who seems to have applied galvanism to medical purposes, used it chiefly in palsies, and in various weaknesses of the sentient or moving nervous fibres; it has been certainly useful, though ob- viously inefficacious in diseases arising from an organic defect. Yet, in a very considerable degree of what may be styled organic de- fect in the structure of the nerve itself, it seems to have been bene- ficial where this defect occasion- ed epileptic symptoms ; and from this we are led to expect some ad- vantages from the remedy, where epileptic paroxysms proceed from either extremity, and rise to the head in the form of an aura. In gutta serena, practitioners have not succeeded by means of gal- vanism ; and it ought to be re- membered, that the very sensible retina seldom recovers its powers after it has been, for even a short time, in a paralytic state. In cases of spasmodic contrac- tion, as cramp, contracted fingers, or limbs, galvanism has often re- lieved ; and in lameness from gout it has been successful. In one instance, hydrophobia is said, by Vassalli Eundi, to have been cured by it; but, in sciatica, the same author adds, that it has been occasionally injurious, though i^ some circumstances he supposes that it may be beneficial. Ner- vous headachs, and similar symp- toms, have been relieved by gal- vanism ; and A!dini thinks, that in two instances of mental derange- ment it has been highly useful. In the application of galvanism to palsies, a remark of M. Pfaff should be attended to, though we believe it has been confirmed by other practitioners, viz. that the zinc should be applied to the mus- cles, and the silver to the nerves ; for if the arrangement is altered, the irritability of the muscles is diminished rather than increased. This remedy has been employ- ed in some cases of vitiated secre- tion. Its effects on the secretions, like those of electricity, • are the increase of the discharge ; and it is not improbable that m here the secreted fluids are diseased from a relaxation of the vessels, gal- vanism may be useful. It has been employed also, like electri- city, in discussing indolent tu-« mours, and in cataracts, but with no very marked or decided suc- cess. A few boasted cures have raised our expectations, but the little permanency of the benefit received has again depressed our sanguine hopes. After repeated experiments about the head, in-< flammations of the eyes, a catarr- hal inflammation of the Schneide- rian membrane, an insensibility of the organ of taste, headach, op vertigo, have followed; and gal- vanism has been undoubtedly in- jurious where there was consi- derable irritability. On the whole, then, we have not yet received very encourag- ing accounts of the success of galvanism in diseases; and we fear that we must resign it, with electricity, as a remedy that pro- mises to be beneficial, but whose. advantages have not yet answer- GA GA ed the flattering expectations first raised. We have considered galvanism only as electricity, but it is proba- bly not exactly the same ; and we may, with some advantage, add a few observations on this part of the subject, which, though not strictly medical, may perhaps ad- mit of some application to medi- cine.. Galvanism will indeed pro- duce all the phenomena of elec- tricity ; but it cannot be accumu- lated in non-conducting bodies, or excited by any operation on them. The distinction seems to depend on this, that in the electrical ma- chine, the fluid accumulated on the non-conductors is raised from the earth, or drawn from the at- mosphere around ; in the galvanic pile it is the fluid which formed a component part of the conductor, appearing in consequence of its change of capacity in this respect. In the doubler of electricity it is the same ; and the electricity of the air appears to be truly galva- nic, since it is owing to the de- composition of water, and conse- quently a change in the capacity of air that before contained va- pour. Conductors of electricity are also conductors of galvanism, and in the same order. In the following series, viz. gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, and zinc, each will become positive when connected with that which pre- cedes, and negative with that which follows. The metal oxi- dated gives out the galvanic fluid; and it may be produced by a sin-< gle metal, if one part only is chang- ed in its state. The most and least oxidable metals form the most active combinations; and af- ter the metals, charcoal, muscular flesh, spirits, and beer, are con- ductors in their order. Charcoal is the most, and beer the least powerful. Various circumstances in common life were Uttle under- stood previous to the discovery of the galvanic fluid. As it may be excited by two dissimilar fluids, and one metal, the improved taste of porter from a pewter pot, a fact generally acknowledged, may be owing to this principle ; nor is it very absurd to suppose, that two persons in a different state of electricity may excite the galvanic fluid by the medium of a single metal, as in the management of the Perkinean tractors. We are not yet sufficiently in- formed of the influence of differ- ent animal substances as conduct- ors or exciters of galvanism. Gal- vanic effects probably arise from alternate strata of muscles and nerves ; but it is more certain that this fluid acts particularly through the medium of the nerves. This, has been denied, because leeches are sensible of this action, and in these animals no nerves have been discovered; but we shall show that they really have a nervous system. Mushrooms are also tolerably good conductors of gal" van ism. In the animal economy, the ca- pacity of the fluids fpr containing electricity is constantly changing. To the facts adduced under that article, of the different states o£ the electricity of the fluids of the body, may be added, from the ob«^ servations of Buvina, that in the shivering fit of fever the electri- city is negative. In shivering from fear it is the same; and dis- eased cats are no longer electri- cal. Vigour, spirit, and activity in the human body, and probably all animals,are therefore connect- ed with the positive, or, as we have been willing to style it, with the excess of electricity ; languor and disease with its defect. We find, too, in the electrical organs of the torpedo and gymnotus elec-* tricus (for as the only organs in which they differ from other fish, GA GA we may presume that they are the seat and source of their peculiar powers,) that the surface is greatly increased by the numerous phtes of which they consist, and that a very large proportion of nerves is sent to these plates. When we combine these facts, we shall find reason to conclude that the nerves are the probable sources of the animal, galvanic fluid ; and that these and the nervous fluids are the same, or nearly related. If in the animal process the excess of electricity disappears, we must look for some reservoir in which it is collected, some storehouse from which it may be issued ; and this appears to be the brain and nerves. Such, at least, are ap- parently the fair conclusions from the facts before us. Galvanism, as a source of light and heat. Batteries of great dimensions, such as contain from 5,000 to 10,000 square inches each, of zinc and copper surface, are capable of furnishing abundance of sensi- ble heat and much light. If the connection between the two ends of the battery be made by a very small wire, such as the fine watch- spring wire, the wire becomes red-hot for a considerable length, and if the power of the battery be great, it becomes white-hot and ultimately fused. Let the end of the wires of the battery be each provided with a pair of tweezers, one pair of which being insulated from the hand by covering the surface with dry cloth ; place be- tween each pair of tweezers a small bit of charcoal, made in a close vessel, from box-wood, or lignum vitae. The moment the contact is formed between the bits of charcoal, a vivid light is pro- duced, much more brilliant than that occasioned by burning in •xygen. If the contact be fre- quently severed by a sort of tre- mulous motion, th°. light may be kept up for some time. The foils and small wires of metals are de- flagrated by placing them in the current. Let one of the conduct- ing wires be brought in contact with an iron dish, filled with mer- cury. Let the foil or small wires be attached to the other conduct- ing wire, and be brought in con- tact with the surface of the mer- cury, which constantly presenting a clear surface, is very convenient in these experiments. A very brilliant effect may also be pro- duced, by presenting the foils to the surface of a sheet of tinsel. In inflaming oils, alcohol, &c. by galvanism, some thin metallic sub- stance, or a small piece of char- coal, should be covered with the substance to be inflamed. The moment the contact is made, as in deflagrating the metal, the oil takes fire. The galvanic spark, with great facility, fires a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases. A very brilliant discovery has lately been made by Mr. Davy, Professor at the Royal Institution, and confirmed by others, which consists in the decomposition of the two fixed alkalies. It is per- formed by placing a bit of the al- kali in the solid state, and a little moistened, upon a plate of platina, connected with one end of the battery, and bringing into contact with it another piece of platina, from the other end of the battery. A portion of black matter is soon formed, in which is found imbed- ded, small metallic globules; which substance is found to be the base of the alkali, and has been deprived of its oxygen by the gal- vanic agency. These globules are so inflammable, as to decom- pose water, with a brilliant flash and slight explosion. This dis- covery will be of great impor- tance to chemistry, and will pro- bably soon make a serious change GA GA in its arrangement and nomen- clature. Gambogia. The tree from which this gummi-resinous juice is ob- tained, constitutes, according to Kcenig, a physician who resided many years at Tranquebar, a new genus, which is called Stalagmitis. Gamboge is brought from the East-Indies, and is generally em- ployed as a drastic purgative me- dicine in constipation of the bow- els, hydrophical affections, and against the taenia or tape-worm. Grs. ii. to viij. Ganglion. Fxy-yXtov. In anatomy it is applied to a knot in the course of a nerve. In surgery it is an encysted tumour, formed in the sheath of a tendon, and containing a fluid like the white of an egg. It most frequently occurs on the back of the hand or foot. Gangrene. A mortification of any part of the body, before en- dowed with vitality. It is known by the insensil)ility,coldness, livid- ness, and flaccidity of the part, and by the faetor it exhales. M. M. Scarifications; fermenting cata- plasm; sal-ammoniac or tincture of myrrh. Internally cinchona, aromatics and opium. Gargle. (Gargarismum, i. s. n.) A fluid medicine to wash the throat; from y«pyapi£ regular exertions of the stomach, but it will sometimes fail. The columbo-root, in powder or in tincture, is sometimes useful; and the aqua kali, or ammonias purae, will occasionally relieve the vo- miting, or the distressing heart- burn. In general, something should be taken into the stomach before the expecting mother rises from bed, and a cup of pepper- mint or camomile tea is the most effectual means of relieving the usual urging. The cause ofthese commotions we know not, but they are evi- dently neither unnatural nor mor- bid. They arise probably from the irritation of the uterus, com- municated to the stomach, and are the effect of the new unaccustom- ed motions excited in this very irritable organ. That they are not morbid is sufficiently clear, from their scarcely in any in- stance producing abortion, and from the. child being born healthy and active; though for at least three months, sometimes through the whole period, the mother has never retained a single meal, and is apparently worn to the lowest state of debility; a degree of de- bility under which some delicate women have sunk. The final cause seems to be the necessity of securing a supply for the foetus. When a woman is first pregnant* all the evacuations are diminish- ed, and a plethoric state occurs. Nature, at that time, requiring no recruit, rejects every addition: secure in what is provided, all ad- ventitious aid is rejected. Were they more accumulated,the embryo might be thrown off by the effort of vessels excited beyond their powers ; and vomiting, which, as we have shown, determines to the surface, prevents the uterine ves- sels from being too much distend- ed. When the uterus rises above GE GE the pelvis, when the foetus has at- tained the power of motion, and is felt at first in irregular fluttering, and afterwards by more distinct actions, all the supply which the mother can convey is wanted. The scene is then changed: the appetite returns, the sleep is un- interrupted, digestion rapid and perfect, the spirits free and un- ruffled. So far from irritation suggesting fancied evils, real ones disappear; and,though she some- times talks of the future delivery being fatal, she acts as if she look- ed forward to a numerous off- spring, and even to their descen- dants. In short, if there is a pe- riod of greater health and activity than any other, it is from the two hundred and fortieth to the two hundred and eightieth day ; in- terrupted only, at last, by the un- wieldy size, and probably,through the whole, by a little constipation. In other cases the practitioner feels greater difficulties. Preg- nancy sometimes is not discover- ed by its appropriate symptoms, and these are occasionally con- cealed. In the early weeks, the abdomen is said to be flatter than usual: it is at least not fuller; and if obstruction takes place, with none of the appropriate symptoms of pregnancy, that is considered as a disease, and active emmenagogues are employed. Luckily, this discharge, as we shall find, is not much in our power. If a woman is married, not advanced in years,even though in a bad state of health, pregnancy should be always suspected. If she has been before regular, the suspicions are stronger; but, if not so, we must still suspect, and avoid any powerful evacuants, till the period when the state can be ascertained by unequivocal symp- toms, or by the touch. If the wo- man is clandestinely pregnant, every artifice is employed to con- ceal the real symptoms, and the facts are only ascertained by the greatest address. The look of a chlorotic and a pregnant girl greatly differs. In the former the face is sunk ; the skin muddy ; the breasts flaccid ; and the nostrils dry : in the latter, whatever are the symptoms of debility, the skin is clear, the features retain some animation, the breasts are full, and the nipple ruddy. These appear- ances cannot be disguised; but the state of menstruation is conceal- ed, for by this means they hope to escape from their inconveniences, by the probability of what they style " forcing medicines" being ordered. In every circumstance, however, where the slightest doubt remains, the prudent prac- titioner will abstain from active measures, till the period arrives when the tumour, or the touch, will clear all his doubts. The tumour, in these clandestine preg- nancies, is attributed to dropsy. The touch is more decisive ; and, by this means, real pregnancy may be ascertained, and distin- guished from schirrus, or polypus of the uterus. If the woman leans forward on a chair, the surgeon, from behind, introduces his fore or middle-finger into the vagina, and moves it round till the point touches the os tincae. In the vir- gin state it is smooth and even; the uterus yields to the finger, and may be moved like a light ball with ease. In the first three msnths the difference is inconsi- derable ; but the tubercle at the mouth of the uterus is somewhat enlarged, and the womb itself sinks, seemingly, lower into the vagina. These marks are, how- ever, equivocal; for even in the unimpregnated state, women dif- fer in these respects. But at about the fifth month, the cervix uteri begins to be distended, and the os tincae te offer a different GE GB sensation to the finger. The tu- bercle shortens, the orifice ex- pands, the uterus itself is moved with difficulty. At last the os tincae no longer conveys the idea of a fissure, but of an elliptical tube, and is sometimes at that period wholly beyond the reach of the finger. The tumour, at the same time, affords no unequivocal sign. It is not uniform over the whole abdomen. It does not yield, as if its contents were flatus; there is no fluctuation, as if there were water; no unequal hardness, as if any contained part were schirrous. The swelling rises from above the pubes, generally leaning to one, very often the right, side : it is circumscribed above, hard, but not consider, bly or irregularly so; and from the state of the urinary secretion, can- not be confounded with a distend- ed vesica. In the fifth month the uterus extends about half way be- tween the pubes and navel, and the neck of the womb is sensibly shortened. In the seventh month the fundis uteri reaches to the umbilicus ; in the eighth, midway between this and the pit of the stomach; in the ninth, to the scrobiculus cordis. After the fifth month, and more decidedly in the further stages, the breasts are full; the areola round the nipple extends, and from a ruddy as- sumes a b,rown or a blackish hue. In reality, however, after the sixth month deception must be at an end : the facts are decisive. Not to break the continuation of the subject, we omitted men- tioning the distinction between pregnancy and schirrus, or polypi of the uterus. In the first the weight of the womb is consi- derable, but the edges of the os tincae are hard and irregular: in the second we find also considera- ble weight in the uterus, but the other symptoms of pregnancy are wanting, and it is very generally the disease of advanced life. During gestation the uterus enlarges not from distension or pressure, for distended organs be- come thinner, and compressed ones thicker than natural: the womb preserves its former thick- ness ; and even increases to the usual bulk of the gravid state when the foetus is in the ovary, the Fallopian tubes, or the abdomen. Its substance, during gestation, becomes softer; its veins enlarge, so as to assume the appellation of sinuses ; its arteries run in a ser- pentine direction, and freely anas- tomose, especially near the pla- centa, and open obliquely into this organ. Its fibres are circular, and arise from three distinct sources ; the spot where the pla- centa is attached, and from the orifice of each tube. When the womb rises high, as is usual in a first pregnancy, the ligamenta ro- tunda are considerably stretched, and pains, striking from the belly downward, are very distressing. A surgeon is often consulted about the reckoning. It is usual to commence from about the mid- dle of the period between the last return and the suppression; but it is safer to reckon about a week earlier. If the menses return scantily in a woman usually regu- lar, the reckoning should com- mence about a week before this inefficient recurrence. But the whole should be corrected by the qidckening, the period when the child's motion is perceived. This is at first indistinct, resembling rather a flatulence in the bowels ; but producing sometimes a deli- quium. When thus unequivo- cally marked, somewhat more than the fourth month may be supposed complete, or from one hundred and thirty to one hundred and forty days. When not thus marked, about a week may bejreck- GL GL •ned back from the certain feeling of a motion, and that may be fixed on as the same period of preg- nancy.' When, from the irregu- larity of the menses, the weak- ness of the child's motion, and the mother's age, generally connect- ed with the two former, we can- not determine from either cir- cumstance, the state of the tumour must decide. Gingive. The gums. See Gums. Ginglymus. The hinge-like joint. A species of diarthrosis or moveable connection of bones, which admits of flexion, and ex- tension, as the knee-joint, See. from yuyXvpo;, a hinge. Ginseng. The plant from which this root is obtained is the Panax quinquefolium of Linnaeus. It is imported into this country scarce- ly the thickness of the little-fin- ger, about three or four inches long, frequently forked, trans- versely wrinkled, of a horny tex- ture, and both internally and ex- ternally of a yellowish white co- lour. To the taste it discovers a mucilaginous sweetness, ap- proaching to that of liquorice, ac- companied with some degree of bitterness, and a sligh aromatic warmth. The Chinese ascribe extraordinary virtues to the root of ginseng, and have no confi- dence in any medicine unless in combination with it. In Europe, however, it is very seldom em- ployed—3i« °r more. Gland. A small round body that serves for the secretion or alteration of a fluid. Glands are generally larger, in proportion, in infants than in adults: they are composed of nerves and ves- sels, which are very numerous, and come from, and proceed to, the neighbouring parts : they are connected with one another, and toother parts by a cellular struc- ture. There are several kinds of glands, which the reader will find in their respective places, as fol- liculose, globate, conglobate, glo- merate, and conglomerate glands; these are also variously termed by anatomists, according to the nature of the fluid they separate, as sebaceous, muciparous, lym- phatic, lachrymal, salival, billious glands, &c. Glandule Myrtiformes. Carun- cule myrtiformes. The small glan- diform bqdies at the entrance of the vagina of women. They are the remains of the hymen, which is cleft in several parts during the first coition. Glans Penis. The very vascu- lar body that forms the apex of the penis. The posterior circle is termed the corona glandis. See Corpus spongiosum urcthre. Glass. This substance is some- times employed by surgeons when roughly powdered, as an escharo- tic to opacities of the cornea. Glauber's Salt, a genus of Neu- tral Salt, in the order of alkaline neutral salts. Its crystals are hexaedral, and contain a great portion of water: spontaneously calcining in the open air. It con- sists of the fossil alkali and the vitriolic acid. Glaucoma. An opacity of the vitreous humour. It is difficult to ascertain, and is only to be known by a very attentive exami- nation of the eyes. Gleet. It is commonly under- stood to be the gonorrhoea benig- na ; but Dr. Cullen distinguishes it from that, by making it synony- mous with gonorrhoea mucosa, which name he gives to the dis- charge from the urethra, after the virulence of an impure gonorrhoea is destroyed. Glenoid Cavity. The articular cavity of the scapula ; from y\wn, a cavity, and stSbj, resemblance. Globate Gland. A lymphatic gland. See Conglobate gland. Globules, are such small parti- GL 6L cles of matter as are of a globular or spherical figure; as the red particles of the blood, which swim in a transparent serum, and are easily discovered by the micros- cope; and it is pleasant to see how these will attract one another when they come within a due dis- tance, and unite like the spheres of quicksilver. Globus Hystericus. In hysteric disorders a globe seems to ascend from the stomach, or from the breast, into the throat, and almost suffocates the patient: this seem- ing ball is a spasmodic affection, and is produced by a spasm of the upper orifice of the stomach being relaxed, and the air rushing up into the oesophagus, where it is confined in consequence of a spasm in the muscles of this part. Glomerate Gland. A gland form- ed of a glomer of sanguineous vessels, having no cavity, but fur- nished with an excretory duct; as the lachrymal and mammary glands. Glossa, yXuacra,, the tongue. Glossagra, a rheumatic pain in the tongue. Gtossocele, and extrusion of the tongue. Glossocomu, a retraction of the tongue. Glosso-pharyngei. These mus- cles are fibres which come from the tongue, running along its in- ternal edges, from which they are parted backward, and run down on the sides of the pharynx, under the stylo-pharyngaei. Also a name of the cephalo-pharyngaei: from yXua-ax, the tongue, and ?, likeness; so called from its transparent and glassy appearance. Hydarthrus. Hydarlhron. A co- lourless swelling of a joint. The name is derived from vbue, water, and api/pov, a joint. A genus of dis- ease arranged by Cullen in the class locales and order tumores ; and known by an uniform swelling round the joint of the colour of the skin, and extremely painful. It mostly affects the knee joint. M. M. Friction^ pouring warm brine on the joint; a covering of flan- nel ; blisters ; a roller; opening the joint so as not to admit the air. Hydatids. An hydatid; from y&x.l»?, a bladder. A very singular animal, formed like a bladder and distended with an aqueous fluid. Hydatids arc not unfrequently ge- nerated in the natural cavities of the body, as the ventricles of the brain, abdomen, pelvis of the kid- ney, &c. producing disease. Cul- len arranges this affection in the class locales and order tumor es. Hydra, v^px,a water-serpent, from v$ue, aqua, water ; an aquatic mon- ster said to have been very de- structive to human beings in the neighbourhood of the marsh of Lerna in Argolis, and to have been destroyed by the fire and sword of HY HY Hercules. This ancient allegory has a most instructive physical meaning, and evidently is intended to express the beneficial operation of the axe and of fire in clearing up swamps and their vegetable overgrowth, and thereby contribut- ing to lessen or overcome the viru- lence of their exhalations. The more detailed explanation of this, by Dr. Mitchill, may be seen in the third volume of the Medical Repository, p. 19, where the know- ledge which the Greek philoso- phers had on this subject is exhi- bited ; showing that the adventure of Hercules and Hydra expresses the progress of agricultural im- provement in draining marshes and overcoming their effluvia. Hydragogue. Medicines are so termed which possess the pro- perty of increasing the secretions or excretions of the body, so as to cause the removal of water from any of its cavities; such are tonics, diuretics, cathartics, &c. Hydrargyria. Mercury. Quick- silver. Mercury is found in the earth at Adria in Spain, and in America, in a fluid state, possess- ing a metallic opacity and billiancy, and in combination with other me- tallic substances. It differs from all other metals by its property of retaining the fluid state, at the or- dinary temperature of the atmos- phere. It always affects the form of globules when divided, and when it is confined in a bottle its surface appears convex. Mercury has no taste that the nerves of the tongue and palate can perceive: rubbed for a short time between the fin- gers, it emits a slight peculiar smell. Its utility in the practice of physic and surgery is very great indeed, and there are a considera- ble number of preparations of it or- dered by the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopeias. It is impossible in this place to enumerate its particu- lar virtues, as there is no disease whatever in which it is not exhi- bited, and every one is acquainted with its efficacy in subduing the venereal virus, and the benefit de- rived from administering its pre- parations in diseases of the skin, lymphatic glands, 8cc. Acetated grs. ii. to vi. calcined gr. ss to ij. muriated grs* 1-10 toss.mildmu- riated gr. i. to xii. or more, pills of 9ss. to 3 9s. red sulphurated gr. iij. to Bi. vitriolated gr. £ to i. Hydrastis, yellow-root. A ge- nus in Linnaeus's botany. There is but one species. Hydraulics, is that part of me- chanics which considers the mo- tion of fluids, and particularly of water. Or, it is the art of raising or conveying water by the help of engines. Hydrenterocele, vfywrtpoMX*, from vbwe, water; tvlepoi, an intestine, and xri\n, a tumour ; a tumour from the dropsy and a hernia together. Hydrocardia. Hydrocardis. Hy- drops pericardii. Dropsy of the heart. Dropsy of the pericardium. A collection of a fluid in the cavity of the pericardium; from vine, "ma- ter, and xxphx, the heart. It pro- duces symptoms similar to those of hydrothorax, with palpitations of the heart, and mostly an inter- mittent pulse. Hydrocele. Dropsy of the scro- tum, or spermatic chord; from iXf, water, and xn\n, a tumour. It is a genus of disease in the class cachexia and order intumescentia of Cullen, and is known by a soft, py- ramidalj fluctuating,generally pel- lucid, swelling of the scrotum, in- creasing slowly, and without pain. B. Bell distinguishes two species : 1st. anasarcous : 2d. the encysted. M. M. The 1st frequently depends on a constitutional affection which should then be removed; punc- tures. 2d. An incision ; a seton; caustic ; an injection. In infants, alkohol, or alum. Hydrocele Peritonei, i.e. Ascites. HY HY Hydrocele Spinalis, i. e. Hydrora- chitia. Hydrocelodes, a suppression of urine from a rupture of the ure- thra into the scrotum. Hydrocephalus. Watery head ; from v$ue> water, and xvQxX*, the head. It is distinguished by au- thors into external and internal. Hydrocephalus externus is anasarca of the integuments of the head. Hydrocephalus internus is a depo- sition of a fluid in the ventricles of the brain, producing dilatation of the pupils, apoplexy, &c. See Apoplexia. It is sometimes of a chronic nature, when the water has been known to increase to an enormous quantity, effecting a di- astasis of the bones of the head, and an absorption of the substance of the brain. M. M. Venesection ; cathartics ; blisters ; mercury. Hydrocystis, encysted dropsy ; or a dropsy in a particular part. Hydrogen, the base of inflamma- ble air and of water, from v&ue, aqua, water, and ympxi, fio, to become. When fifteen parts of oxygen are chemically and closely combined with eighty-five of hydrogen, they produce a new compound, which is the oxyd of hydrogen, or water. When water is decomposed, a great quantity of hydrogen is set loose, which, uniting with caloric, is turned to hydrogenous gas, or inflammable air, and flies off. This hydrogen is ever very ready to associate anew with oxygen, and therefore it easily burns. During its combustion it re-associates with a portion of the oxygen of the at- mosphere, and forms water again. By this destruction of water in some cases, and its production in others, are some of the most re- markable phenomena of nature ef- fected. Hydrogen is an ingredient in all those bodies which burn with blaze, as distilled spirits, resin, turpentine, oil, fat, tallow, wood, straw, bark, leaves, fossil coal, cuid the like. The heat to which these bodies are exposed, expels their hydrogen, which, on its escape, rushes into union with a portion of atmospheric oxygen, and forms watery vapour. And it is burning of this separated hydrogen in its aerial form which causes the phe- nomenon of flame. Hence hydro- gen has been called phlogiston, or the blazer, and the reasons there- for may be seen in the project of pacification between the chemists, addressed by Dr. Mitchill to Dr. Priestley. See Nicholson's Journal for Feb. 1798. See Phlogiston. Hydrogenous Gas, inflammable air, or the aerial fluid, which turns with flame or bh-ze, and by so do- ing forms water, or the oxyd of hydrogen. Often times, bodies which contain hydrogen or phlo- giston, suffer it to escape in its proper form. But it is so prone to unite with caloric, that it never appears in a solid form in any known temperature, but always in the condition of a gas. This gas has a strong attraction for oxygen, and therefore burns with great ve- hemence and rapidity, and with intense heat. As with oxygen it forms water, so with carbone it constitutes oil, and fatty and oleagi- nous compounds. Its specific gra- vity is considerably less than that of any other air, and therefore it as- cends readily into the atmosphere; and when collected in considerable quantities, can carry aloft consider- able weights along with it Upon. this principle, and with this mate- rial, are air-balloons contrived. Hydrogenous gas is seldom found pure, for it generally contains ei- ther carbone, sulphur, or phos- phorus, in solution, and thereby forms carbonated, sulphurated, and phosphorated hydrogenous gases. These latter, particularly the solu- tions of sulphur and phosphorus in inflammable air, are remarkable for their disagreeable scents, .ad are 49 HY HY indeed the principal ingredients in most stinking and nauseous odours. It has no vital properties,but,at the same time, seems to have no direct- ly noxious powers. It is believed to be a principal ingredient in such fiery meteors as falling stars, flying dragons, and Jack o'lanthorns. Hydrolapathum. The water dock. Rumex hydrolapathum of Linnaeus. The leaves of this plant manifest considerable acidity, and are said to possess a laxative quality. The root is strongly adstringent, and has been much employed both ex- ternally anc internally for the cure of scurvy, and other diseases of the skin. Hydromel, vtyoptXt, from vo\^, wa- ter, and ptXi, met, honey ; a compo- sition of water and honey. Hydrometra. Dropsy of the womb ; from vSWf, water, and p-nrpa,, the womb. A genus of disease in the class cachexia and order intu- mescentie of Cullen. It is known by a swelling in the hypogastrium of females not pregnant, with fluc- tuation, and no suppression of urine. M. M. Emetics; stimulat- ing glysters; cathartics. Hydrometra Ovarii, dropsy of the ovaries. Hydromphalon, ~) from Hydromphalos, u5po/*$aX, to dread; because persons that are bitten by a mad dog dread the sight or fal- ling of water, when they are first seized with the madness. It is a genus of disease arranged by Cul- len in the class neuroses and order spasmi; known by the previous history of the disease, the dread of water, painful convulsions of the pharynx, and putrid fever. M. M. Excision of the bitten parts; cup- ping, cauterizing and frequently washing it with salt water; mer- curial ointment. Hydrophthatmia. A swelling of the bulb of the eye, from too great a collection of the aqueous or vi- treous humour; from vb\>e, water, and o?G»X/xoj, the eye. Hydrophysocele, from vSue, water, Qvo-a,, a flatus, and x*>.n, a hernia ; a hernia proceeding from a mix- ture of water and flatulence. Hydrops. A dropsy ; from vfy, water. See Ascitea, Anasarca, Hy. drothorax, Hydrocephalus, Hydro- cele, 8cc. Hydrorachilis. Spina bifida. A small, soft, fluctuating tumour, mostly on the lumbar vertebrae of new-born children ; from vSxe, wa- ter, and pxx1^ the back-bone. It is a genus of disease in the class ca- ehexie and order intumescentie of Cullen. Hydrostatics, is what relates to the gravities and equilibria of li- quors ; and also comprehends the art of weighing bodies in water, in order to estimate their specific gravities. There are several parts of the animal mechanism, especi- ally the circulation and secretion, which cannot be understood but by some praecognita from hence ; the best writers, therefore, on this sub- ject ought to be consulted. Hydrothorax. Dropsy of the chest; from v$ue, water, and Qupal;, the breast. A genus of disease in the class cachexie, and order intu- mescentie of Cullen; known by dyspnoea; paleness of the face; aedematous swellings of the feet; scarcity of urine; impatience of an horizontal position, with sudden starting from sleep; palpitations of the heart,and fluctuations of wa- ter in the chest. M. M. Diuretics; blisters ; paracentesis of the tho- rax. Hygidion hygeia, Hygidion hy- gieia, (from vyw, sound). Health or soundness. The name of a plaster called panacea, and the plaster of the three brothers, described in JUtius. Health, however,in a more HY HY extensive sense, comprehends a great variety of considerations, which in the Leyden school form- ed a considerable and important part of the institutions of medicine. We cannot attend to it with equal care; andindecd its doctrines com- prehend a variety of subjects treat- ed of under distinct heads. We must not, however, pass it over lightly. It will be at once obvious that health is a relative term : for the changes consistent with it in some constitutions would be morbid in others. It is equally obvious that there is some latitude in its use, and that many changes may take place, without inducing a lesion of the functions, and, of course, a dis- ease. Authors have, therefore, used the expression, " within the limits of health," to imply some deviation from the most perfect, but not sufficient to constitute a a morbid state. Health depends on the manage- ment of what has been called the non naturals, a fanciful term, com- prehending air, food, exercise, the passions, retenta and excreta, sleep and waking. Yet the regulation of these depends on the constitu- tion, what has been styled tempe- rament or idiosyncracy: the former a generic term, comprising pecu- liarities of constitution, common to many persons; the other the peculiarity of each individual's structure. We must not now an- ticipate the subject of tempera- ments, but may remark that the an- cients, in subservience to their doctrine of humours, distinguish- ed four; the sanguine, the bilious, the phlegmatic, and the melancho- lic. The distinction is not wholly theoretical. The supposed san- guine temperament is that of youth, where the vessels are full, the fibres firm and active, quickly excited to motion, and often to excessive or irregular action. The bilious is distinguished by equal strength and activity ; but by a yellow hue on the skin, red hair, with a consti- tution often more acutely sensible, always more irritable. The phleg- matic temperament is pale in com- plexion ; languid in its exertions ; the vessels, if full, torpid ; the con- stitution inactive ; the mind not easily excited to exertion. The melancholic has a greater degree of torpor, with a dark yellow hue ; the mind dull, abstracted, but per- severing. In such constitutions the plethora is chiefly venous. Thesan£7«'netemperamentbears evacuations with great ease; but they soon constitute a habit which is seldom broken with impunity. Health, with such persons, is best preserved by low living, avoiding excess of every kind, particularly cold after active bodily exertions. The bilious requires the same pre- cautions ; but the evacuations best adapted, which are indeed almost indispensable to this kind of con- stitution, are the free and frequent use of the milder laxatives. The warm cordial diet, and the stimuli, which suit the phlegmatic tempera- ment, would induce fever in the sanguine or bilious. Free air, re- gular and constant exercise, with every means of strengthening, without constriction, are adapted for persons of this class. They will not bear evacuations, particu- larly loss of blood; and, at the same time, must not indulge too freely in high living or inactivity. In the melancholic, every thing which accumulates the blood in the internal organs must be avoided. Exercise, which determines to the skin; purgatives, which can rouse the torpid fibres into active exer- tions ; amusements, which can in- terest the mind; are peculiarly necessary in such habits. A same- ness of exercise and of objects, mental or coporeal, must be avoid- ed ; for the bent which the body HY HY or mind takes, is with difficulty counteracted. Health is also a relative to dif- ferent ages, to different sexes, and different occupations. Infancy is the period of peculiar irritability, and of peculiar sensibility. It is the sanguine temperamentof man- hood, with the mobility of the fe- male constitution. As the body in- creases in size and in bulk, the mobility lessens, the strength and the activity of the sanguiferous and nervous systems augment. The power is at its height from about twenty-eight to thirty-five, and then gradually declines, assuming, by slow degrees, some of the more distinguishing appearances of the melancholic temperament, but not 50 acutely marked. In the early and later periods, the limits of health are more narrow; in the middle period, extensive ; and the means of preserving it in both will be sufficiently obvious from what has been already remarked. Different sexes differ also in the means of preserving health. The constitution of women is that of youth : in advanced age the sexes approach very nearly in tempera- ment. Women are generally dis- tinguished by a plethora, and this is often a cause of apparent debility. The circulation is also balanced with peculiar nicety, so that the equilibrium is soon destroyed. The twodistinguishing eras in a woman's life are, when the catamenia first appear, and when they cease. ,In each, before the equilibrium is established, either a morbid, ir- regular mobility, or a torpor, takes place. In the latter case the tem- perament approaches the phleg- matic. We have no appellation for the former ; and another tem- perament should be added to ex- press it, which may have the hack- neyed appellation of the nervous. The health as adapted to differ- ent occupations also differs. The sturdy strength of the husbandman would be torpor in the watch- maker; and the delicate feelings, the acute eye, and minute exact- ness of the latter, would be morbid sensibility in the sailor. Habit, in these instances, forms the constitu- tion ; but the limits of health are in each peculiarly his own. The diet of the one would be injurious to the other : the robust exercises ' of the sailor would bring on a mor- bid tremor in the artist. For ac- tive exertions and continued la- bour the diet should be chiefly ani- mal, but not in excess; the ves- sels must be full, not distended. This is the training of the pugilist and the game cock, whose contests. require the most vigorous exe% tions, and sometimes their conti- nuance. Health is also relative when there is any constitutional disease. In gouty habits it is necessary of- ten to reduce the stronger state of the constitution ; but it must be done with caution, lest the atonic form of the disease should follow. Scrofula, the disease of the phleg- matic constitution, will also not admit of stimulants; and, in each, we must keep to those extreme limits of health, which in many constitutions might be called de- bility. In nervous complaints we often find plethora, at least a re- mote cause, and to lower the tone more may increase the irritability, and consequently the disease. We musthere also keepto the extreme limits, and cautiously regulate our evacuations, lest the patient sink too low. Idiosyncracy is, in part, consti- tutional, but often induced by habit. It can be taught only by observation, and generally by the observation of the individual. No prudent physician will, therefore, employ an active medicine, until, from the patient or his friends, he has attempted to ascertain any pe- HY HY culiarity of constitution, which should render him cautious in this respect, or wholly forbid its being given. Hygieia, vywx, from i/y*aivoj, bene valeo, to be well; is a good state of health. The poets have fancied a goddess under this appellation ; and institution writers are almost as fictitious and unintelligible, when they define what is meant hereby. Hygieine, vyum, is that part of physic which teaches the preser- vation of health. Hygieinista, Physicians who only attend people in health, and that in order to preserve the same, and to prevent diseases. The tempera- ments of the constitution, the air lived in, the food lived on, the houses dwelt in, the changes in the functionsof the body, those changes to which different ages, seasons, climes, &c. expose people, were the objects of their attention. Hygrology. The doctrine of the fluids of the body ; from vypo?, a humour or fluid, and Xoyoj, a dis- course. Hygrometrum, the hygrometer. It is an instrument, by which is shown the different degrees of moisture in the atmosphere. The word is derived from uygoj, humid, and perpov, a measure. Hygroscope, is an instrument to show the moisture and dryness of the air; and to measure and esti- mate the quantity of either extreme. There are various methods of do- ing this, but the ordinary con- trivances with whipcord are the easiest and best, as they infallibly shorten and lengthen, as the air grows moister and drier. How far the earliest notices of changes of this kind may be made use of by a physician, in many cases, the skil- ful alone can be judges. Hylon, a species of Cotton-tree. Hymen, i^y, a membrane in ge- neral ; but by it is usually under- stood the membrane which appears in the form of a crescent, and is situated at the entrance of the va- gina. It naturally shrinks with years, and often disappears before the age of twenty, so can be no proof of virginity. Hyoglossus, the name of a mus- cle of the tongue. It rises from the basis, but chiefly from the cornu of the os hyoides, running laterally and forwards, to shorten the tongue. Some divide this muscle into three, and call them Basio- glossus, Chondro-glossus, and Cera- to-glossus. Hyoides Os. A semilunar bone, situated between the basis of the tongue and the layrnx, that serves for the adhesion of the tongue, for deglutition, and for a point of at- tachment to many muscles. It has two greater and two lesser horns; from v and £<&>?, resemblance. Hyopharyngeus. The Hyopharyn- gei muscles, in general, are those on each side, which are inserted in the os hyoides ; and they may be reckoned three pairs, viz. the Ba- sio-pharyngei, Kerato-pharyngeus major and minor. They come from the basis and the horns of the os hyoides. Innes calls it, Constrict or pharyngis medius. Its use is to compress that part of the pharynx which it covers, and to draw it on the os hyoides upwards. Hyosciamus. Henbane. Hyos- riamus niger of Linnaeus. The smell of this indigenous plant is strong and peculiar; the leaves when bruis- ed, emit somewhat of the odour of tobacco; to the taste they are mild and mucilaginous. Henbane is a powerful narcotic poison, and many instances of its deleterious effects are recorded by different au- thors. Nevertheless, the extract of the seeds, under proper man- agement, may be safely employed ; and it has this advantage over nar- cotics in general, that it never ren- ders the bowels costive, but on the HY contrary, gently opens them__Gr. \ to 3 ss. Hyothyreoides, from the os hyoi- des,and§vptou$ri;,scutiformis. These muscles are also called Thyreoidei. They run from the thyroid carti- lage to the os hyoides ; they are at- tached to the knobs of the carti- lage, and the line between them. Their use is to bring these knobs nearer to each other. Hypercatharsis, wmpxtx&xptnt;, from vmp, supra, over or above, and xaOa^u, purgo, to purge ; is when medicine has purged to excess. It is a va- riety of the Diarrhea Mucosa, in Dr. Cullen's Nosology. Hypercrisis, vnrtpxfio-n;, from vmtg, over or above, and jc^vw, to separate. It is a critical excretion above mea- sure ; as when a fever terminates in a looseness, the humours may flow off faster than the strength can bear, and therefore it is to be checked. Hypericum, St. John's wort. Hy- pericum perfoliatum of Linnaeus. This indigenous plant was greatly esteemed by the ancients, but is now very rarely used. The Lon- don Pharmacopeia retains the flow- ers on account of the great propor- tion of resinous oily matter, in which the medical efficacy of the plant is supposed to reside. Hyperostosis, the swelling of a whole bone. It is synonymous with Exostosis in Cullen's J\iosology. Hypnotic, vrvortxoo-, from vims, som- nus, sleep, is any medicine that in- duces Sleep; which see, &nd Nar- cotics. Hypocatharsis, viroxuQxpo-i$, from wo, sub, under, and xaSowpw, purgo, to purge, is when a medicine does not work so much as expected, or but very little ; or a slight purging, when it is a disorder. Hypochondriac regions. They are situated one on each side of the epigastric region, being the spa- ces in the abdomen that are under the cartilages of the spurious ribs; HY from wo, under, and xofh9^ a car' tilage. Hypochondriasis. Hypochondriac affections: from woxpvfyaxo;, one who is hipped. A genus of disease in the class neuroses and order adynamie of Cullen ; characterized by dyspepsia ; languor and want of energy ; dejection of mind, and ap- prehension of evil, more especial- ly respecting health, without a suf- ficient cause; with a melancholic temperament.—M. M. Exercise ; emetics; antispasmodics; ner- vines ; bitters; cinchona; cold bath; opium; blisters ; cheerful company. Hypoama. An effusion of red blood into the chambers of the eye: from vko, under, and atjua, blood; because the blood is under the cornea. Hypogala. A collection of white humour, like milk, in the cham- bers of the eye ; from viro, under, and yx\», milk; because it is a milk- like effusion under the cornea. Hypogastrica Arterie. The hy- pogastric or internal iliac arteries dip into the inside of the pelvis, just over the shoulder of the sa- crum ; when it arrives at the side of the pelvis, it throws down bran- ches to the contents of the pelvis, and then goes through the sciatic notch. Hypogastrice Vene. The veins run the same course with their corresponding arteries, except that they do not send off the vena urn- bilicalis. The hypogastric veins are the internal iliac branches. Hypogastrium, viroyxo-rptoy, from viro, sub, under, and yxtrr-ng, venter, a belly, is that region of the belly reaching from three inches below the navel to the os pubis and groins. Hypogastrocele, the ventral her- nia. Hypoglossi Externi vel Majores (Nervi), also called Gustatorii and Linguales. They are the ninth pair of nerves ; they have their origin IB IC just above the foramen magnum, and go out at the holes on the sides of the same great hole, above the condyles of the os occipitis. As soon as they are passed out of the cranium, they run betwixt the ca- rotid artery and the internal jugu- lar vein, to the tongue, on the side of the digastric muscle. Hypopium. A collection of pus in the anterior or posterior cham- ber, or both chambers of the eye ; from u7ro, under, and i/wov, pus ; be- cause the pus is under the cor- nea. Hypothesia,vita§iw, from wotjQwju*, suppono, to suppose, signifies strict- ly any conjecture or supposition advanced, but in a large sense. It is a way of reasoning upon some- what supposed, that cannot of it- self be proved; or for despatch, is taken for granted. But this way of reasoning has of late been just- ly exploded in physic, because that argues from demonstrable princi- ples, which our senses are witnes- ses to, and will not allow any thing suppositious, unless sometimes for argument sake. Hyssopus. Common hyssop. Hyssopus officinalis of Linnaeus. This exotic plant is esteemed as an aromatic and stimulant, but is chiefly employed as a pectoral, and has long been thought useful in humoral asthmas, coughs, and catarrhal affections ; for this pur- pose an infusion ofthe leaves,sweet- ened with honey or sugar, is re- commended to be drunk as tea. Hysteria. Hysterics; from u?«p«, the womb. A genus of disease in the class neuroses and order spasmi of Cullen. It is characterized by a grumbling noise in the belly"; a ball ascending to the throat, with a sense of suffocation; stupor; insen- sibility and convulsions; involunta- ry laughing and crying ; sleep in- terrupted by sighs ; urine limpid and abundant, previous to the fit; and great sensibility and irritability of the mind. There are four spe- cies; 1. Hysteria chlorotica, from a retension of the menses: 2. Hys- teria a menorrhagia, from an im- moderate flow of the menses : 3. Hysteria a leucorrhea, from the flour albus : 4. Hysteria libidinosa, from sensual desires. M. M. In the paroxysm, fetid volatiles by the nose and mouth ; cold air ; cold as- persion and glysters, sometimes venesection. In the intervals, as in hypochondriasis. Dr. Hamilton recommends the daily use of pur- gatives. Hysteritis, inflammation of the womb. Dr. Cullen places this ge- nus of disease in the class Pyrexia; and order Phlegmasie. Hysterocele, from vtrre^x, the womb, and xnXn, a tumour ; an her- nia caused by the uterus falling through the perinaeum. Hysterocystica Ischuria, a sup- pression of urine from the pres- sure of the uterus on the neck of the bladder. Hysterotomia, from vo-rtea, the womb, SLXxdrefjitu, to cut, i. e. Cesarea Sectio. Hystriciasis. A disease of the hairs, in which they stand erect, like porcupine quills; from hystrix, the porcupine. An account of this rare disease is to be seen in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 424. IBIS, i£»?, was a bird, much like our king-fisher, taken notice of by the Egyptians, because when it was sick, it used to inject with its long bill the water of the Nile into its fundament, whence Langius, lib. ii. ep. ii. says they learned the use of clysters. Ice. Water made solid by the application of cold. It is fre- IC IL quently employed by surgeons to resolve external inflammatory dis- eases. Ichor, ixup, signifies strictly a thin acrid watery humour, like se- rum, but is also sometimes used for a thicker kind that flows from ul- cers. Ichthyocolla. Isinglass. Fish glue. A substance, partly gelatinous, and partly lymphatic, which is pre- pared by rolling up the air bladder of the sturgeon, and several other fishes, and drying it in the air, af- ter it hasbeen twisted into the form of a short cord, as we receive it. It affords a viscid jelly by ebulli- tion in water, which is used in me- dicine as an emollient in disorders of the throat, intestines, See. Ichthiosis. A disease in which several parts of the body are cover- ed with white and dry scales, lying one over the other like the scales of fishes. Icterus. The jaundice. A ge- nus of disease in the class cachexia and order impetigines of Cullen, characterized by a yellowness of the skin and eyes; faeces white; and urine of a high colour. Species: 1. Icterus caleulosus, acute pain in the epigastric region, increas- ing after eating ; gall stones pass by stool: 2. Icterus spasmodicus without pain, after spasmodic dis- eases and passions of the mind: 3. Icterus mucosus, without either pain, gall stones, or spasm, and re- lieved by the discharge of tough phlegm by stool: 4. Icterus hepa- ticus, from an induration of the liver: 5. Icterus gravidarum, from pregnancy, and disappearing after delivery: 6. Icterus infantum, of infants. M.M. Venesection ; gen- tle emetics and cathartics; opium; soap ; mercury ; fomentations ; sa- line draught; iron. Ictus Solaris, a stroke of the sun. It is the effect of too violent an in- fluence of the sun on the head. Dr. Cullen ranks it as a variety of apoplexy, under the name of Carus ab insolatione. Idiopatheia, iSWafoia, from *3ioj, proper, or one's own, and w«9oj, affec- tion, or passion. Thus the head is affected idiopathically in a lethargy, and the lungs in a pleurisy : but when tense parts suffer by consent, that is, by disorders residing in other parts, they are then said to suffer by sympathy. Idiosyncracy. A peculiarity of constitution, in which a person is affected by certain stimuli, which, if applied to a hundred other per- sons, would profluce no effect: thus some people cannot see a fin- ger bleed without fainting: and thus violent inflammation is induc- ed on the skin of some personsby substances that are perfectly inno- cent to others ; from *&<;t a hare, and o^xX^, an eye; because it is credited that hares sleep with their eyes open. Lamboidal Suture. Occipital su- ture. The suture that unites the occipital bone to the two parietal bones: from A, and ulo;, resem- blance, because it is shaped like the letter A. Laryngotcmy. From Xxpvy\, the larynx, and rijxiia, to cut. See Bronchotomy. Larynx. h.xpvy%. A cartilagi- nous cavity, situated behind the tongue, in the anterior part of the fauces, and lined with an exqui- sitely sensible membrane. It is composed of the annular or cry- coid cartilage, the scutiform, or thyroid, the epiglottis, and two arytaenoid cartilages. The supe- rior opening of the larynx is cal- led the glottis. The laryngeal ar- teries are branches of the external carotids. 'The laryngeal veins eva- cuate their blood into the external jugulars. The nerves of th.e la.- LA kfc ryhx are from the eighth pair. The use of the larynx is to consti- tute the organ of voice, and to serve also for respiration. Latissimus Dorsi. A muscle of the humerus, situated on the pos- terior part of the trunk, that pulls the arm backwards and downwards, and rolls the os humeri. Laudanum, from laus, praise. The name implies that the medi- cine is worthy of praise ; it is ge- nerally confined to the preparations of opium. According to the opinion of the Scotch physician, Bruno, or Brown, it ought to have been called xtvlpov, stimulus, as be- ing the most active of all the dif- fusible stimulants. Laurus. Sweet-bay. Laurus nobilis of Linnaeus. This tree is a native of Italy, but cultivated in our gardens and shrubberies as a handsome evergreen. The leaves and berries possess the same me- dical qualities, both having a sweet fragrant smell, and an aromatic adstringent taste. The laurus of honorary memory, the distinguish- ed favourite of Apollo, may be na- turally supposed to have no incon- siderable fame as a medicine ; but its pharmaceutical uses are so li- mited in the practice of the pre- sent day, that this dignified plant is now rarely employed, except in the way of enema, or as an exter- nal application ; thus, in the Lon- don Pharmacopeia, the leaves are directed in the decoctum pro fo- mento, and the berries in the em- plastrum cumini. Laurus, a name for the camphor and cinnamon trees, for the sassa- fras, and also several other trees, as the New-York spice-wood. Lavendula. Common lavender. Lavendula spica of Linnaeus. A native of the southern parts of Eu- rope, but cultivated in our gar- dens on account of the fragrance of its flowers. Their taste is bit- ter, warm, and somewhat pungent; the leaves are weaker and less grateful. The essential oil, ob- tained by distillation, is of a bright yellow colour, of a very pungent taste, and possesses, if carefully distilled, the fragrance of the la- vender in perfection. Lavender has been long recommended in nervous debilities, and various af- fections proceeding from a want of energy in the animal functions. The College directs an essential oil, a simple spirit, and a compound tincture, to be kept in the shops. 9i. to 5i. Oil of gts. i. to v. Com- pound spirits of gts. x. to c. Laxator Tympani. A muscle of the internal ear, that draws the malleus obliquely forwards to- wards its origin ; consequently the membrana tympani is made less concave, or is relaxed. Lazaretto. Regulations for pre- serving the health of men against foreign contagions make so consi- derable a part of the code of seve- ral European nations, that it is very interesting to know in what state of society, and under what cir- cumstances, they arose, that we may thereby the better judge of their value and usefulness. It will appear, on investigation, that they were originally adopted before the principles of science on which they depend had been unfolded, and in times of fanaticism and terror, when the human mind was not in a condition to judge calmly about them, if they had been unfolded. These regulations refer to three great objects : 1. Quarantines: 2, Lazarettoes : and 3, Areas and stores for unladed goods and mer- chandize. On examining the his- tory and actual condition of each of these, it will be found, that in most cases they are instrumental in engendering and perpetuating that pestilence which it is their professed object to avoid. They all take it for granted, that malig- nant and pestilential diseases are LA contagious—a supposition utterly groundless; and then undertake, with vast parade, to prevent the importation of this imaginary con- tagion. But a concise review of their history will set these esta- blishments in the clearest light. A quarantine, from " quarante," the French word for " forty," in its simple sense, means a duration of " forty" days. As a term of the common law, it means the time a widow is permitted to remain in the mansion-house of her deceased husband, and this is called her "quarantine." This was a rea- sonable regulation, that the widow might not be turned out of doors immediately by the heir; but, after funeral rites were performed might be allowed time to make deliberate arrangements for removal, and to receive an assignment of dower. But what could have been the reason of fixing upon " forty" days for the detention of ships suspect- ed to be already too dirty to live in, and, consequently, to be admitted into port ? The direction of plain sound judgment, in such cases, would be to hoist out the cargo as fast as possible at some conveni- ent station, rather remote from thick population, and to remove the nuisances, corruption and poi- son engendered on board with all speed. The mode of removing these, and of cleaning and sweet- ening a room so as to make it ha- bitable and healthy, is so perfectly and practically understood, that scarcely a washer-woman or a chamber-maid is ignorant thatlime, alkaline leys, and soaps, will destroy every particle of infection there. And as the pestilential poison could be thus destroyed in a habitation on shore, there can be no possible reason to doubt their efficacy in destroying it on board a ship, which is but a human haodation afloat. But it has been the misfortune of American and English navigators LA to adopt a mode of cleaning ships different from the method of clean- ing houses; and great sickness and mortality have been the con- sequence. Christendom is beyond a doubt the most intelligent portion of the globe. How, then, came the Christians to fix upon " forty" days as the expiatory period ? It pro- ceeded, probably, from a religious or superstitious veneration for the number "forty:" for «c forty" is a very remarkable number, as well as " three," " seven," and " twelve." In the days of Noah the rain was upon the earth forty days a.nd forty nights (Gen. vii. 12). Moses re- mained on Mount S'maiforty days a.nd forty nights (Deut. x. 10.) If a wicked man was to be beaten, the number of stripes to be given, by order of the judge, was not to ex- ceed forty (Deut. xxv. 3.) The men sent by Moses to search the land of Canaan were engaged in that employment/brty days (Num. xiii. 25.) And the Jews who mur- mured on hearing the report of the spies, were denounced to wan- der in the wilderness, and bear their iniquities (a year for a day) forty years (Numb. xiv. 33, 34.) Christ fasted forty days and forty nights in the wilderness (Mat. iv. 2). And was seen by the apostles forty days after his resurrection (Acts i. 3.) And, in the Christian Church, the season of Lent, or penitentiary abstinence between Shrove Tuesday and Easter, was continued for forty days. Thus we find a term of forty days had been frequently noticed in sacred history. Even an opi- nion of sanctity had been attached to it both among Jews and Chris- tians. It was associated with vari- ous events and usages of their re- ligions, and had been employed as an expiatory and penitentiary pe- riod for uncleanness and sin. The expeditions of the Franks, LA LA or Christians of the west, who, in the spirit of crusading, poured into Palestine to rescue it from the Mahometans, gave rise to quaran- tines for ships and sea vessels. The readers of these expeditions well know what misery, want, un- cleanness and mortality accompa- nied them as they marched or sail- ed. There was an incredible de- struction of the human species by diseases, independent of the num- bers who fell by way-faring acci- dents, or perished by the sword of the enemy. After severe and costly exer- tions, the faithful accomplished their purposes, and established the kingdom of Jerusalem. But they held it uneasily, and they held it not long: for, forced at length to abandon their dear-bought con- quest, the infidels once more took possession of the Holy Land. Dur- ing the wars which had been wag- ed between the Christians and Ma- hometans for the possession of Ju- dea, the religious animosity of the two parties had been carried to the utmost violence of opposition and hatred, by every species of private as well as public aggravation. And the Franks, as they reluctantly quitted the country of the patri- archs and apostles, charged the Turks with all their disasters, and accused them as the authors of al- most every evil which they suf- fered. Among other miseries, and that not the least in the enumera- tion, the returning Europeans af- firmed that the Asiatics had in- fected them with the plague. They forgot that the desolation of their armies by this disease had been so great that their line of march from their places of rendez- vous could be traced through Hun- gary, and along the route to Con- stantinople, by the bones of the unburied dead. On this the Ori- entals might have affirmed that these invaders had imported the plague from Europe. Perhaps they did; but because similar sick- ness attended the Franks on their return from the Levant, produced by their customary uncleanness, badmanagement,exposure to hard- ships and want of necessaries, they roundly asserted the distemper was contagious, and the contagion catch- ed from the infidels. To counte- nance this notion, they affirmed the Turks were fatalists ; and, as they took no pains to destroy or avoid the contagion of this horrible dis- ease, it was always alive and ac- tive among them. They persuaded themselves this contagion, if in- troduced, would spread like fire, and consume as a conflagration. A prudent government, therefore, should guard against it by every precaution. An interdiction of all intercourse with the infected cities of the Ar- chipelago and the Levant promised the most perfect security from the contagion. But the policy and commerce of nations forbade so strict a prohibition. It was there- fore agreed, that travelling and trade might be carried on, provid- ed voyagers, merchants, and every thing they carried with them, were subjected to certain salutary re- straints; and one of these restraints was a quarantine, or detention of forty days and nights, to conquer the pestilential contagion, or to let it die for want of something to feed upon. Latterly "quarantines" have been shortened to fourteen, eight, or even three days, accord- ing to circumstances. Thus a dirty or sickly vessel, in a hot climate, with corrupting and perishable things on board, became more foul and intolerable from in- bred mischief working within her during her quarantine in one of the Mediterranean harbours, than she had been during her voyage; and by the most preposterous interpre- tation, all this local and domestic 43 LA LA infection, hatched and reared by bad management in ships, and in- creased under quarantine regula- tions among the Christians, is as- cribed to a. plaguy contagion im- ported from Turkey, Syria or Egypt! And so, because quaran- tines were established in days of ignorance, prejudice, rancour and intolerance, between the Franks and the Turks, they have been adopted as matters of course by the Christian nations in their in- tercourse with each other: in con- sequence of which the ships of New-York are compelled to per- form a quarantine at Cuxhaven, those of Baltimore at Cadiz, and those of Naples at Philadelphia, for fear of mutually importing yel- low fever and plague. Surely these things are worthy of being better understood. Quarantines thus arose from a desire of stopping a supposed con- tagion,catched, as was erroneously believed, from the Asiatics, and were tinctured with superstitious notions or ideas of religion badly interpreted. During the/or/ydays detention of a ship and cargo, the persons who were actually sick, or suspected to have contagion lurk- ing about them, were removed to an hospital, to remain until the pe- riod of danger was supposed to be past. This hospital was called by one of the most odious and disgusting names that could be thought of. It was derived from Lazarus,the decrepitbeggar,who lay covered with sores, and starv- ing at the rich man's gate. The Lazar-house, or Lazaretto, was the place of reception for those who W> re suffering from pestilential nastiness and venom, and for those that were supposed to be in im- mediate danger of sickening by it, or of rendering others sick. Be- ing constructed frequently of very durable materials, these Lazaret- tos were the receptacles of all the newly arrived persons who were thought proper subjects of deten- tion, for a great number of years in succession. Hence they became remarkably foul and pestilential. The chambers were often much neglected, and abounded in un- cleanness and corruption. From an accumulation of all manner of impurity from year to year, those hospitals themselves became the nurseries of the plague; notarising from contagion here any more than on ship-board, but proceeding from animal excretions, corrupting pro- visions, and the like, undergoing putrefaction in a hot climate. The plague, engendered and perpetu- ated in these direful hospitals too, was most uncharitably ascribed to the Turks! The local and domestic origin of pestilential distempers, and of al- kalies toquell their exciting cause, is strikingly proved in the bene- volent Howard's account of his quarantine at Venice, contained in his book on Lazarettoes, p. 11. And if he had written nothing but this, he would have deserved the approbation of all classes of men. " Soon after unloading the boat," he writes, "the sub-prior came, and showed me my lodging in the new Lazaretto, which was a very dirty room, full of vermin, and with- out a table, chair or bed. That day and the next morning I employed a person to wash my room; but this did not remove the offensiveness of it, or prevent that constant head- ache which I hed been used to feel in visiting other Lazarettoes, and some of the hospitals in Turkey. This Lazaretto is chiefly assigned to Turks and soldiers, and the crews of those ships which have the plague on board. In one of the enclosures was the crew of a Ragusan ship which had arrived a few days before me, after having been driven from Ancona and Trieste. My guard sent report of LE LE my health to the office; and, on the representation of our consul, I was conducted to the old Laza- retto, which is nearer the city. Having brought a letter to the prior from the Venetian ambassa- dor at Constantinople, I hoped now to have had a comfortable lodging: but I was not so happy. The apartment appointed me (consist- ing of an upper and lower room) was no less disagreeable and of- fensive than the former. I pre- ferred lying in the lower room, on a brick floor, where I was almost surrounded with water. After six days, however, the prior removed me to an apartment in some re- spects better, and consisting of four rooms. Here I had a pleasant view ; but the rooms were without furniture, very dirty, and no less of- fensive than the sick wards of the worst hospital. The walls of my chamber, not having been cleaned probably for half a century, were saturated with infection. I got them washed repeatedly with boil- ing water, to remove the offen- sive smell, without any effect. My appetite failed, and I concluded I was in danger of the slow hospital fever," &c Strong prejudices were opposed to his having the room white-washed with lime. He, however, with great difficulty, got )t done at last; and the consequence was, thenoxiousvapourswere neu- tralized, and it was immediately rendered so fresh and sweet, that he was able to drink tea in it in the afternoon, and to sleep in it the following night. The other inha- bitants of the Lazaretto admired these strange proceedings. Mr. Howard observes, that he left his successors an agreeable and whole- some room, instead of a nasty and contagious one. Lead. Plumbum. An imper- fect metal, of a dull white colour, inclining to a blue. It is very soft, and easily cut .with a knife ; has a peculiar and remarkable smell, which becomes stronger by fric- tion. Its taste is scarcely sensi- ble in the mouth, but its effect is very manifest in the stomach and intestines, whose nerves it irritates, producing pain, con- vulsions, stupor, and palsy. Lead is rarely found native, but mostly in the earthy, saline, or mineral- ized form, united with sulphur, and forming galena. It is made into utensils and vessels for various economical purposes, but not with- out danger in their use ; for its noxious qualities are soon commu- nicated to the substance they con- tain. Those who work in manu- factories where this metal is con- cerned, are continually attacked with colics (see Colica pictonum,) often accompanied with vomiting, and not unfrequently with palsies. The various preparations of lead, directed in our Pharmacopeias, should therefore be very cau- tiously administered internally ; nor should they, in very delicate habits, be very freely employed ex- ternally. Most of the preparations are esteemed as resolvent and anodyne applications to external inflammatory affections. Leipothymia, Fainting ; from Xtmu, to leave, and Svpor, the mind. See Syncope. Lemon (Common.) Citrus Li- mon, Linn. The college have re- tained the juice, the exterior rind of the fruit, and its oil called Es- sence: the exterior rind enters the Infusum Gentianae Compositum, formerly called Inf. Amar. Simp. the essential oil enters the Spiritus Ammoniae Compositus, formerly called Spir. Volat. Aromatic. Lens, is a term in optics for a convex or concave glass that is made to throw the rays of vision into a point; whence also the crys- talline humour of the eye, from its performance of the same office. is by some anatomists so called. LE LE Lenticular, a lenticular. It is also called a Rugine. Lenticulare Os, a name of the fourth bone in the first row in the wrist. It is also called Orbicularc, and Pisiforme. The bone in the ear called Os Orbiculare is part of the incus. Lenticulares(Glandule ) They are the small glands of the intes- tines, and are so called on account of their size. Lenticularis Febris. So called, because of the many eruptions that appear on the skin about the size of lentils. It is the same as Petechialis Febris. Lentigo. A brown spot upon the skin, resembling, in size and colour, a lens or tare. Lentor, hath been used by some ancient writers, to purposes now in neglect, and at present is chiefly retained from the example of Bel- lini, to express that sizy, viscid, coagulated part of the blood, which, in malignant fevers, ob- structs the capillary vessels, and is the chief instrument of all those mischiefs which then happen. See Bellini De Febribus ; particularly prop. 19 and 20, but chiefly the in- troduction to an English transla- tion of Bellini on that subject. Leontodon, dandelion. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates ten species. Leporina Labia, is when the up- per lip hath a natural defect in the middle, like a slit towards the nose, resembling that of an hair, whence it is commonly called an hair-lip. Lepra, Xtirpu, the leprosy. A disease in the class cachexia and order impetigines of Cullen, cha- racterized by the skin being rough and chapped, with white furfura- ceous scales and crusts, under which is frequently a moisture, with itching. M. M. Mercurials ; antimonials ; opium ; camphor ; guacum. The leprosy seems to have been a distemper much more common among the ancients, and in warmer climates, than among us in this part of the world ; or else they have been nicer in dis- tinguishing it into several kinds than it deserved ; as may be seen in most of the commentators upon the ancients, and especially the lexicographers. The greatest difference of it seems mostly to be owing to the difference of cli- mates, and ways of living : hence the Lepra Gracorum, and Lepra Arabum, appear differently de- scribed : but it concerns us little to know of those matters, or their method of cure, these northern le- prosies requiring amore efficacious management, as they will not give way but to the most powerful mer- curials ; though the addition of bathing is a greater help than most by their practice seem to be sen- sible of. Lethargy, XsQxpyoi;. So called; airorrii; XyQw, from oblivion, or for- getfulness, and a^yog, lazy, or slot/i- ful. A heavy and contant sleep, with scarce any intervals of wak- ing ; when awakened, the person answers, but, ignorant or forgetful of what he said, immediately sinks into the same state of sleep. It is symptomatic of fever, apoplexy, Stc. M. M. As in Apoplexy. Leucoma, XivxufjtM, the albugo of some. See Albuginea Oculi. It is a variety of Caligo Cornea in Cullen's Nosology. Leucophlegmatic. A term ap- plied by the older medical writers to a dropsical habit of body ; from Xtvxo;, white, and (pxtyfxx, phlegm. Leucorrhaa. Fluor albus. The whites. An increased secretion of white mucus from the vagina of women, arising from debility, and not from the venereal virus ; from Ast/xoj, white, and piu, to flow. M. M. An emetic; rhubarb 6 to 10 grs. with one of opium every night; flannel shirt; mucilage ; LE LE amber; cinchona; iron ; astrin- gent injections. Leucorrhois. It is that species of Diarrhea, in which there is a too copious discharge of mucus. Also when in cases of the piles the discharge isnot bloody, but mucous. Levator Anguli Oris. A muscle situated above the mouth, which draws the corner of the mouth upwards, and makes that part of the cheek opposite to the chin prominent, as in smiling. Levatores Ani. They arise from the symphysis of the os pubis, the internal part of the ileum, and the sharp process of the ischium, di- recting their course towards the Bphincter, and bending part of their fibres with those of it; wherefore they partly serve to ex- pel the faeces, but do not (as ge- nerally supposed) compress the vesiculae seminales in coition. Levatores Com. Labiorum. These muscles arise from the cavity on each side under the os jugale, in the os maxillare, and are inserted with the zygomaticus major and others into the angle of the lips. Levatores Costarum. These muscles arise from the transverse processes of the vertebrae, and are inserted into the ribs : they are divided into two classes, viz. the longiores and the breviores. The breviores are those which arise fromthe transverse processes, and are inserted into the next rib; the longiores run over one rib, and are inserted into the next. Levatorea Labii Inferioris. They arise from the sockets of the inci- sores, and are inserted into the lower lip. Levatores Labii Superioris. They arise from theosmaxillare,and de- scend obliquely under the skin of the upper lip. Levator Palati Mollis. This muscle arises from the basis of the skull, near the articulation of the lower jaw, runs down the fauces, passes inwards and forwards, spreads itself on the palatum molle, and goes to the uvula. Levator Palpebra Superioris. It arises (on each side) from the bot- tom of the orbit, by a small ten- don, and as the fleshy fibres of this muscle pass over the globe of the eye, they gradually spread, and afterwards terminate by a broad tendinous expansion, in the supe- rior part of the tarsus belonging to the upper lid. Levator Scapula, is a muscle which rises from the second, fourth, and fifth of the transverse proces- ses of the neck, by so many distinct beginnings, which unite, and are inserted into the superior angle of the scapula, which it draws up- ward, the word levator importing a lifter up. It is also called Mus- culus Patientia, because it is used to express grief. Levigation, from la vis, smooth, is reducing hard ponderous bodies, such as coral, tutty, and the pre- cious stones, into a light subtile power, by grinding upon a marble stone with a muller, as painters do their colours. This is much used in Pharmacy; but unless the grind- ing instruments are extremely hard, they will so much wear away, as to double sometimes the weight of the medicine so managed. Levisticum. Lovage. The odour of this plant, Ligustrum levisticum of Linnaeus, is very strong and pe- culiarly ungrateful ; its taste is warm and aromatic. It abounds with a yellowish gummy resinous juice, very much resembling opo- ponax. Its virtues are supposed to be similar to those of angelica and masterwort in expelling flatu- lencies, exciting sweat, and open- ing obstructions; therefore it is chiefly used in hysterical disorders and uterine obstructions. The leaves eaten in salad are accounted emmenagogue. The root, which is less ungrateful than the leaves, LI LI is said to possess similar virtues, and may be employed in powder. Lichen, liver-wort. A genus in Linnaeus's botany, of the order of Algas or Thongs. He enumerates one hundred and thirty species, and several varieties. In surgery Lichen is a species of impetigo, that appears in form of a solitary, red, dry, rough, and somewhat purient spot, that gives off very small furfuraceous scales. Lientcry, Xtwvmx,tromXitov,leve, smooth, evte^ov, inte3tinum, gut, and fjw, fluo, to flow; is a particular looseness or diarrhoea, where the food passes so suddenly through the stomach and guts, as to be thrown out by stool with little or no alteration. Its cure is perform- ed by the warm astringents. Ligament, from ligo, to bind; is a white and solid body, softer than a Cartilage, but harder than a mem- brane. Ligaments have no con- spicuous cavities, neither have they any sense, lest they should suffer upon the motion of the joint. Their chief use is to fasten the bones, which are articulated together for motion, lest they should be dislo- cated with exercise. Light. It is at present univer- sally acknowledged that light is a body of fluid, existing independent ©fall other substances, and possess- ing its own characteristic proper- ties, or phenomena, which are as follow: l.The motion of light is so rapid that it passes through nearly eightthousand leaguesin asecond: 2. The elasticity of the rays of light is such, that the angle of re- flection is equal to the angle of in- cidence : 3. The fluid of light is ponderous; for if a ray of light be received through a hole, and a blade of a knife presented to it, the ray is diverted from a right line, and is reflected towards the body. This circumstance shows that it obeys the law of attraction, and sufficiently authorizes its being classed among other ponderous bodies : 4. The great Newton succeeded in decomposing the so- lar light into seven primitive rays, which present themselves in the following order: red, orange, yel- low, green, blue, indigo, violet. Dyers present us with only three colours, which are red, blue, and yellow ; the combinations and pro- portions of these three principles form all the shades of colour with which the arts are enriched. The generality and importance of the atoms of light, like other substances, appear to derive their fluidity from the repulsive opera- tion of anticrouon (Caloric.) Pos- sessing a constitution capable of being more easily acted upon by this agent than any thing we know, their usual condition is that of an extremely subtile and active fluid. Lighthas been generally consider- ed as a fluid per \ se, or as being essentially so after the manner that anticrouon is supposed to be. This, however, seems to be a mistake ; for, besides the analogy of all other cases of fluidity being caused by the repulsive principle, late ex- periments have shown a nearer connection between light and anti- crouon than has been commonly understood. The just interpreta- tion of these leads to a belief that the sun-beam is composed of anti- crouon and light; and whenever, by any means, light is attracted or fixed by another body, the re- pulsive principle is disengaged. From this constitution of light, abundance of the phenomena rela- tive to the connection between heat and light can be well understood. LignumCampechense. Logwood. The wood of this tree, Hematoxy- lum campechianum of Linnaeus, is of a solid texture, and of a dark red colour. It is imported from Campeachy, in the bay of Hondu- ras, principally as a dying drug, cut into junks and logs of about LI LI three feet in length ; of these pie- ces the largest and thickest are preferred, as being of the deepest colour. Logwood has a sweetish subadstringent taste, and no re- markable smell; it gives a purp- lish red tincture both to watery and spirituous infusions, and tinges the stools, and sometimes the urine, of the same colour. It is employed medicinally as an adstringent and corroborant. In diarrhoeas it has been found peculiarly efficacious, and has the recommendation of some of the first medical authori- ties ; also in the latter stages of dysentery, when the obstructing causes are removed, to obviate the extreme laxity of the intestines, usually superinduced by the re- peated dejections. An extract is ordered in the Pharmacopeias.— Decoction of £ ij. to J iv. Extract of 9ss. to3i. Lilium Album. The roots of the common white lily, Lilium can- didum of Linnaeus, are directed by the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia ; they are extremely mucilaginous, and are chiefly used, boiled in milk and water, in emollient and sup- purating cataplasms. Lime. Calcareous earth. A substance obtained by decompos- ing calcareous matters by the ac- tion of fire, which deprives them of their acid. Stones composed of shells, marbles, and most calca- reous spars are the substances which afford the best lime ; but the hard calcareous stone, called lime-stone, is more commonly used. These are arranged in a furnace or kiln, so as to form a kind of vault, beneath which a wood fire is lighted, and kept up untila strong flame, without smoke is raised about ten feet above the furnace, and till the stones become very white. Good quick lime is hard, sonorous, becomes quickly and strongly heated by the addi- tion of water, and emits a dense vapour during its extinction. It is usually in the form of a stone of a dirty white colour ; its taste is burning, acrid, and urinous; and it is sufficiently strong to cause inflammation when applied to the skin. It is found native in the vicinity of volcanos. Lime exposed to the air, swells, breaks, and is reduced to powder, its bulk being considerably, increased : it isthentermedslack-lime. Quick- lime is employed by surgeons in combination with soap or other substances as a powerful caustic : and lime-water is of considerable utility both in the practice of phy- sic and surgery. Water of J iv. tolbj. Limon. The lemon. The tree which affords this fruit is the Citrus aurantium of Linnaeus, a native of the upper parts of Asia, but cultivated in Spain, Portugal, and France. The juice, which is much more acid than that of the orange, possesses similar virtues. It is always preferred where a strong vegetable acid is required. Saturated with the fixed vegetable alkali, it is in frequent extempo- raneous use in febrile diseases; and by promoting the secretions, especially that of the skin, proves of considerable service in abating the violence of pyrexia. As an antiscorbutic, the citric acid is also very generally taken on board of ships destined for long voyages; but even when well depurated of its mucilaginous parts, it is found to spoil by long keeping. To preserve it in purity for a con- siderable length of time, it is ne- cessary that it should be brought to a highly concentrated state; and for this purpose it has been recommended to expose the juice to a degree of cold sufficient to congeal the aqueous and mucila- ginous parts. After a crust of ice is formed, the juice is poured into another vessel; and by re- LI LI pcating this process several times, the remaining juice, it is said, has been concentrated to eight times its original strength, and kept Without suffering any mate- rial change for several years. The exterior rind of the lemon is a very grateful aromatic bitter, but less hot than orange-peel, and yiettts in distillation a less quantity of oil; which is extremely light, almost colourless, and is generally brought from the southern parts of Europe, under the name of Es- sence of Lemons. The lemon- peel, though less warm, is similar in its qualities to thatof the orange, and is employed with the same in- tentions. The Pharmacopeias di- rect a syrup of the juice, and the peel enters into vinous and aque- ous bitter infusions; it is also or- dered to be candied ; and the es- sential oil is an ingredient in the spiritus ammonie compositus, and other formula:. The juice 3i. to ^ss. The peel 9ss. to 3ss. Linctus. A term in pharmacy that is generally applied to a soft and somewhat oily substance, of the consistence of honey. Linea Alba. An aponeurosis that extends from the scrobiculus cordis straight down to the navel, and from thence to the pubis. It is formed by the tendinous fibres of the internal oblique ascending and the external oblique descending muscles, and the transversalis, in- terlaced with those of the oppo- site side. Lingualis. A muscle of the tongue, that contracts its substance and brings it backwards. Liniment. An oily substance, of a mediate consistence between an ointment and oil, but so thin as to drop. Linum. Common flax. Linum usitatissimum of Linnaeus. The seeds of this useful plant, called linseed, have an unctuous, mucila- ginous, sweetish taste, but no re- markable smell; on expression they yield a large quantity of oil, which, when carefully drawn, with- out the application of heat, has no particular taste or flavour : boiled in water they yield a large pro- portion of a strong flavourless mu- cilage, which is in use as an emol- lient or demulcent in coughs, hoarsenesses, and pleuritic symp- toms, that frequently prevail ill catarrhal affections; and it is like- wise recommended in nephritic pains and stranguaries. The meal of the seeds is also much used ex- ternally in emollient and maturat- ing cataplasms. The expressed oil is an officinal preparation, and is supposed to be of a more heal- ing and balsamic nature than the other oils of this class: it has therefore been very generally em- ployed in pulmonary complaints, and in colics and constipations of the bowels. Lihpitudo. An exudation of a puriform humour from the margin of the eye-lid. Liquiritia, or Liquorice, i. e. Gly- cyrrhiza. Liquor Amnii. A turbid and serous fluid contained in the cavity of the membranaceous ovum, sur- rounding the foetus in utero. Liriodendrum, tulip-tree. A ge- nus in Linnaeus's botany. He enu- merates two species. Litharge, XiQupyvpos. Massicot, exposed to a more intense heat, suffers a semivitrification; its par- ticles concrete into small thin scales, which still preserve their red colour, and it then bears the name of Litharge. Lithagogua, from X&&, a atone, and ovyu, to bring away; an epithet for a medicine that expels the stone. Lithiasis, X&ixw, from XiQo;, a stone, i. e. the gravel in the kid- neys, and stone in the bladder. Lithials, (Lithias, lis, s. m.) Salts-formed by the union of the LO LO lithic acid with different bases, or acid of the stone, sometimes found in the human bladder; thus, li- thiat of alumine, lithiat of ammo- niac, 8cc. Lithontriptics. From xSoi, a stone, and Qpwrru, to break: hence, from the strict sense and common acceptation of the word, this class of medicines should comprehend such as possess a power of dissolv- ing calculi in the urinary passages. It is, however, a question, whether there be in nature any such substan- ces. By the term,then,is meant those substances which possess a power of removing a disposition in the body to the formation of calculi. Those in the highest esteem are, aqua calcis, alkali causticum, unduva ursi. Lithotomia, A*0oTop«, from XiQo<;, a stone, and ts/u*«, to cut; Lithotomy, or cutting for the stone. Lixivium, is a liquor made by the infusion of ashes, or any burnt substances, which is more or less pungent and penetrating, as it is impregnated with the salts. And what is left, after the evaporation of such a liquor, is called a Lixivial, or, Lixiviate Salt; such as all those are which are made by incineration. Lobe, signifies any body of a roundish shape. In Anatomy, di- vers parts of the body are thus dis- tinguished ; as the lobes of the ears, lungs, liver, and the like ; which parts see. Lobelia. Blue lobelia, or cardi- nal flower. The root of this plant, Lobelia syphilitica, is the part di- rected by the Edinburgh Pharma- copeia, for medicinal use ; in taste it resembles tobacco, and is apt to excite vomiting. It derived the name syphilitica from its efficacy in the cure of syphilis, as experi- enced by the North-American In- dians, who considered it a specific in that disease, and with whom it was long an important secret, which was purchased by Sir William John- son, and since published by differ- ent authors. The method of em- ploying this medicine is stated as follows: a decoction is made of a handful of the roots in three mea- sures of water. Of this half a measure is taken in the morning fasting, and repeated in the even- ing; and the dose is gradually in- creased till its purgative effects become too violent, when the de- coction is to be intermitted for a day or two, and then renewed un- til a perfect cure is effected. Dur- ing the use of this medicine a pro- per regimen is to be enjoined, and the ulcers are also to be frequently washed with the decoction, or if deep and foul, to be sprinkled with the powder of the inner bark of the New-Jersey tea-tree,Ceanothus Americanus. Although the plant thus used is said to cure the dis- ease in a very short time, yet it is not found that the antisyphilitic powers of the lobelia have been confirmed in any instance of Eu- ropean practice. Locales. The fourth class of Cullen's nosology, which compre- hends morbid affections, that are partial, and includes eight genera, viz. dysaesthesiae, sysorexia,dysci- nesiae, apocenoses, epischeses, tu- mores, ectopia, and dialyses. Lochia. Ao^*«. The cleansings. The serous, and for the most part green couloured, discharge that takes place from the uterus and vagina of women, during the first four days after delivery. Lochiorrhea. An excessive dis- charge of the lochia ; from Xo^x, and psw, to flow. M. M. Cool air; refrigerants; sulphuric acid; digi- talis; cold vinegar to the pudenda and hypogastrium. Locked Jaw, or Trismus. A spe- cies of tetanus. See Tetanus. Longevity, signifies long life, to procure which, abstinence and re- gularity are supposed to be highly- conducive. 44 LU LU Longus Colli. A muscle situat- ed on the interior part of the neck close to the vertebrae, that bends the neck gradually forwards, and to one side. Lozenges, is a form of medicine, made into small pieces, to be held or chewed in the mouth till melt- ed or wasted. Lues Venerea. The venereal dis- ease. See Syphilis and Gonorrhea. Lujula. Wood-sorrel. Oxalis acetosella of Linnaeus. This deli- cate indigenous plant is totally in- odorous, but has a grateful acid taste, which is more agreeable than the common sorrel, and approaches nearly to that of the juice of le- mons, or the acid of tartar, with which it also corresponds in a great measure in its medicinal effects, being esteemed refrigerant, anti- scorbutic, and diuretic. Its princi- pal use, however, is to allay inor- dinate heat, and to quench thirst; for this purpose a pleasant whey may be formed by boiling the plant in milk. An essential salt is pre- pared from this plant, known by the name of Essential Salt of Le- mons, and commonly used for tak- ing ink-stains out of linen. Lumbago. A rheumatic affec- tion of the muscles about the loins ; from lumbi, the loins, and ago, to act; because the pains ge- nerally act very powerfully. Lumbricales. The four small flfexors of the fingers, which assist the flexion of the fingers when the long flexors are in full action ; so called from their resemblance to the lumbrici or round worms. Lumbricales Pedis. Four mus- cles like the former, that increase the flexion of the toes, and draw them inwards. Lumbrid, the round-worms. Lumbrici Lati, tape-worms. Lunare Os, the second bone of the first row in the wrist. It is so called, because one of its sides is in the form of a crescent. Lunatic, signifies being mad, from Luna, the moon ; because it has anciently been an established opinion, that such persons were much influenced by that planet; and a much sounder philosophy has taught us, that there is some- thing in it, but not in that particu- lar manner as the ancients ima- gined, or otherwise than what it has in common with other heaven- ly bodies, occasioning various al- terations in the gravity of our atmosphere, and thereby affecting human bodies. Lunga. Pulmones. Two vis- cera, situated in the cavities of the chest, by means of which we breathe. The lung in the right cavity of the chest is divided into three lobes, that in the left cavity into two. They hang in the chest, attached, at their superior part, to the neck by means of the trachea, and are separated by the medias- tinum. They are also attached to the heart by means of the pulmo- nary vessels. The substance of the lungs is of four kinds, viz. ve- sicular, vascular, and bronchial, and a parenchymatous substance. The vesicular substance is com- posed of the air cells. The vas- cular invests those cells like a net- work. The bronchial is through out the lungs, having the air cells at their extremities. And the spongy substance that connects the spaces between these parts is termed the parenchyma. The lungs are covered with a fine membrane, a reflexion of the pleura, called pleura pulmonalis. The internal surface of the air cells is covered with a very fine, delicate and sensible membrane, which is continued fromthe larynx through the trachea and bronchia. The arteries of the lungs are the pulmonary, which circulate the blood through the air cells to un- dergo a certain change, and the bronchial artery a branch of the LY LY aorta, which carries blood to the lungs for their nourishment. The pulmonary veins return the blood, that has undergone this change, by four trunks, into the left au- ricle of the heart. The bronchial veins terminate in the vena azy- gos. The nerves of the lungs are from the eighth pair and great in- tercostal. The absorbents are of two orders; the superficial and deep-seated : the former are more readily detected than the latter. The glands of these viscera are called bronchial. They are muci- parous, and are situated above the bronchia. Lupia, is a small, soft, round tumour, seated in a tendinous part of the joints of the fingers or toes, moveable every way, but unattend- ed with pain; being of much the same nature with a ganglion. Luxatio, ~) i. e. Luxation, is a Luxatura,) slipping of any thing out of its place, and is used to sig- nify the disjointing the bones in any parts whatsoever; which is done various ways, and they are to be reduced by as many, according to the particular formation and articulation of the joint; for which see the Books of Practical Surgery. Lycoperdon Vulgare. It is the LycoperdonBovista,Linn, the dusty mushrooms, or common puff-balls. Dr. Bisset says, this is the most powerful vegetable styptic yet known, when externally applied. Gooch prefers it to the agaric of the oak. It is softer and more ab- sorbent than lint. Lymph. A crystalline tasteless fluid contained in all the absorbent vessels, except the lacteals. It is absorbed from the cellular struc- ture of the whole body, from all the viscera and cavities of the vis- cera, and conveyed to the thoracic duct, there to be mixed with the chyle. Lymphatic Glands. See Conglo- bate Glands. Lymphatics. Absorbents that carry a transparent fluid or lymph. See Absorbents. Lymphatic Diseases. The dis- eases of the lymphatics are not nu- merous. They are Undoubtedly irritable, and in an inflamed state, at least, acutely sensible ; but they never seem to be affected with in- flammation from any cause but the acrimony of their contents. In hydrophobia, in lues venerea, and similar complaints, a hard, tender cord may be often traced from the wound previous to the inflammation of the gland. On the other hand, they seem sometimes deficient i\ ..... m irritability; a circumstance on whichScrofula apparently depends. Amongst these disorders, how- ever, Mr. White properly places the depot laiteux sur la cuisse of Puzos ; ischias a spargonosi of Sau- vages. Most writers have attri- buted this complaint to a redun- dancy of milk, and it hence has been often called edema lacteum ; by others phlegmatia dolens; but it might be more appropriately de- nominated ecchymomia lymphatica. Mr. White describes this disorder more accurately than any other writer, and is the first author who escaped from the trammels of the former doctrine. In about twelve or fifteen days after delivery, he observes, the patient is seized with a great pain in the groin of one side, accompanied with a consi- derable degree of fever, seldom preceded by a shivering fit and cold rigor. This part soon be- comes affected with swelling and tension, which extend to the labia pudendi of the same side only, and down the inside of the thigh, to the ham, the leg, the foot, and the whole limb: the progress of the swelling is so quick, that in a day or two the limb becomes twice the size of the other, and is moved with great difficulty; is hot and exquisitely tender, but without LY LY external inflammation. The pain in the groin is generally preceded by a pain in the small of the back, sometimes by a pain at the bottom of the belly, on the same side ; and the parts which suffer the most pain are the groin, the ham, and the back part of the leg, about its middle. The pain indeed extends over the whole limb, owing to the sudden distension ; but in a day or two it becomes less considerable. It is very hard, smooth, shining, pale, and equable, except where the conglobate glands are situated, which in some cases are knotty and hard, as in the groin, the ham, and about the middle of the leg, at its back part; neither pitting on pressure, nor discharging water when punctured. This disorder generally comes on about the se- cond or third week after delivery; but in one instance it occurred to Mi. White so early as twenty-four hours after delivery, and in ano- ther so late as five weeks; but each is uncommon. The first parts that begin to mend, both as to pain and swelling, are the groin, and the affected labium; the thigh next subsides, and lastly the leg. The fever, which is apparently hectic, in some patients declines in two or three weeks, in others it continues six or eight. It sometimes, though rarely, attacks both the extremities. After the disorder has subsided, it is not uncommonjbr the sound leg to swell towards evening, and be- come oedematous ; but the groin and thigh of that side are not af- fected ; the leg is much softer than the other, and pits when pressed. It attacks women of all ranks, and of different habits, and is not influenced by the discharge of the lochia, suckling, the nature and duration of the labour, or the mode of delivery, but rather attacks the side on which they lay during la- bour. The healthy and the dis- eased ; the strong and the weak; the lean and the corpulent; the se- dentary and the active; the young and the middle aged, equally suf- fer ; but it seldom happens after a miscarriage, nor to a woman more than once, though she has afterwards more children. It oc- curs at all seasons and situations; but neither attacks the arms, or other parts of the body; never suppurates, or proves fatal. The period of the attack, and the elasticity of the swelling, dis- tinguish it from every other dis- ease ; and Mr White supposes it to arise from the child's head pres- sing the lymphatic vessels, which arise from one of the lower extre- mities, against the brim of the pelvis, during a labour pain, so as to stop the progress of the lymph, and produce a rupture with a con- sequent effusion. The extravasa- tion in some habits is re-absorbed readily, in others with difficulty ; and by lying out of the course of its circulation, it will press against the uterus and bladder, and occa- sion forcing pains, and even sup- pressions of urine. When the ori- fice made in the ruptured ve.- sel is healed, and the diameter of the tube is contracted or closed, the lymph is retained in the lympha- tics, distending the glands of the limb and parts around, and the swelling always begins in that part next to which the obstruction is formed. When the obstruction is in part or wholly removed, or the lymph has found a fresh passage, the part next to it is consequently first relieved. This opinion has been opposed by different authors. Mr. Trye, in his work, published in 1792, considered the disease as owing to an inflammation of the lymphatic gland; Dr. Ferriar, in the third volume of his Medical Histories (1798), thinks its cause an inflammation of the lymphatics of the side affected. Dr. Hall, in an essay on this disease, which he LY LY styles phlegmatia dolens, published in 1800, supposes it to arise from inflammation and an effusion of coagulable lymph. We strongly suspect that the nature of the disease is not under- stood. The fever is apparently idiopathic, and the swelling seems to be a critical deposition, not of pus or of water, but of coagulable lymph. Were Mr. White's opi- nion correct, it should always ap- pear within a few days, and the fever should be the consequence of obstruction. Were Mr. Trye in the right, the gland should first inflame; and was Dr. Ferriar's system true, pain should be pre- viously felt in the course of the lymphatics. Dr. Hall seems to approach nearer the fact; but the nature of the fever, and the cir- cumstances which influence the deposition, are obscure. Milky depositions, as they have been cal- led, are not uncommon after deli- very, particularly in the perito- naeum,in the peritonitis puerpera- rum, and other parts ; but these are, perhaps, rather depositions of gluten than of milk, or are observ- able when the milk is checked. In this case the disease is not con- nected with the suppression of milk; and the only use we can make of the fact is, to show that in such cases the effusion of glu- ten is not uncommon. If, from fever, such effusion should take place in the legs, we know that, from its density, it cannot be rea- dily absorbed ; and it is probable also, that the lymphatics, by the pressure which usually occasions oedematous swellings in the latter months, may be weakened, so as to be still less equal to the convey- ance of the glutinous lymph to the thoracic duct. The circumstances of the delivery, or of the position of the child in utero, may have an effect of determining to one side rather than another. According to Mr. White, in the first or inflammatory stage, anti- phlogistics are necessary, in the degree which the patient's strength will permit. The bowels should be kept lax, the pains alleviated by opiates internally, by anodyne fo- mentations, and by the warm and vapour bath ; blisters on the up- per part of the thigh, and emolli- ent injections into the vagina, have been found useful; antimonials, the saline draughts given in the act of effervescence, cool acidulat- ed liquors, and cool air, are sup- posed useful in relieving fever. In the second stage, when the pain abates, the swelling and ten- sion of the parts lessen, though the quickness of the pulse and some degree of fever remains, the pa- tient may be allowed a little wine and a fuller diet. A dose or two of calomel, of two grains each, given at proper intervals, have seemed useful in this stage. Fif- teen grains of myrrh two or three times a-day, in a neutral draught in the act of effervescence, may be taken ; or to a saline draught, with myrrh, two grains of the ferrum ammoniacale may be added. The limb may be chafed with warm oil, and bathed at first in water of 82 degrees of Fahrenheit, and after- wards of 76. In the third stage, when no complaint remains, ex- cept the swelling of the limb, and perhaps a general relaxation, the bark, with or without steel, will be necessary, dipping the limb in cold water, or embrocating it with spirit of wine and camphor. A circular calico bandage applied to the limb will also assist in the re- d§very: and if the swelling is con- fined to the small of the leg, the bandage may be changed for a straight or laced stocking, or for a half-boot. Exercise on horseback, and gentle friction, will be of ad- vantage ; but walking, or whatever promotes a greater secretion of MA MA lymph, will be injurious in every stage of the disease. Mr. Trye endeavours at first to relieve the fever by evacuants, and then, according to his doctrine, at- tempts to relax the inflamed ves- sels by fomentations, leeches, and blisters ; to promote absorption by emetics, and in the latter stage by friction with mercurial ointment. Dr. Ferriar applies leeches, with cooling remedies; and Dr. Hull, like Mr. White, treats the com- plaint at first as inflammatory, and at last as asthenic. In our hands it has appeared an intractable dis- ease, though relieved at last by the efforts of nature. If the patient is truly such, and the practitioner so unprincipled as to continue medi- cines which he must know will have little effect, he will at last gain the credit of the cure which nature effects. In our hands the THIS letter in prescription is frequently used to signify an handful, and is sometimes also put at the end of a recipe for misce, mingle, or mixtura, a mixture. Thus m.f. Julepum, signifies mix and make a julep. Maceration, is an infusion either with or without heat, wherein the ingredients are intended to be al- most wholly dissolved. Machaon, is the proper name of an ancient physician, said to be one ofthesonsof ^Esculapius; whence some authors have fancied to dig- nify their own inventions with his name, as particularly a collyrium described by Scribonius, entitled, Asclepias Machaonis; and hence also medicine, in general, is by some called Ars Machaonia. Macies, diseases in which the body, or particular parts, waste or wither. Macis, mace. It is the middle fever has yielded to emetics, eva- cuants, and opiates. The deposi- tion, which soon assumes a chro- nic form, scarcely yields to any re- medics. The Dover's powder, at night, with occasional laxatives, and at last the bark and the squills, have appeared as serviceable as any of the boasted remedies. Lyra. Psalterium. The promi- nent medullary fibres that give the appearance of a lyre, at the infe- rior surface of the anterior crus of the fornix of the cerebrum. Lyssa, Xvo-rcc, or Xut]«, strictly signifies the madness of a dog, which is communicable by his bite, but is more laxly applied to the bite of any venomous creatures ; whence the Pulvis Antilyssus in the former London Dispensatory takes its name, as being account- ed good against such evils. bark of nutmegs. It is of a lively red colour when fresh, but grows paler with age ; it envelopes the shell which contains the nutmeg. Its qualities are similar to those of nutmeg, both as the subject of medicine and pharmacy ; but the mace sits easier on the stomach. Madarosis, Mo&xpwo-i?, from /ua&y, without hair. A defect, or loss of eye-brows, or eye-lashes, causing a disagreeable deformity, and pain- ful sensation of the eyes, in a strong light. Madder. See Rubia; also a name of several species of Galium. Madness. See Mania. Mador, such a sweat as arises during faintness. Magna Arteria, i. e. Aorta. Magnes, paym?, the load-stone, the wonderful properties of which have greatly puzzled and employ- ed the inquiries of many great men ; but their opinions thereup- M MA MA on are of no great use in medicine. It is an ore of iron. Magnesian Earth. Magnesia. Magnesia is usually obtained from Epsom salt; that which is found in the earth being almost always in combination with an acid. It is in form of very fine powder, con- siderably resembling flour in its appearance and feel; it has no sensible taste on the tongue; it gives a faint greenish colour to the tincture of violets, and converts turnsole to a blue. It is employ- ed medicinally as an absorbent, antacid, and purgative. 3i. to3ij. Magnesia, when pure, is white, loose, and light, of the specific gravity of 2.330 nearly. It is per- fectly infusible in the focus of the most powerful mirror, except when it contains particles of flint, which, if the alkali is impure, sometimes happens. When the volatile alkali is employed in the process, no flinty particles are found in it. Magnesia melts, how- ever, with borax, and with some of the earths, though more certain- ly when the earths and alkalis are united. A new manufactory of china, resembling the seve, is es- tablished at Berlin, in which, in- stead of the kaolin, a magnesian earth, containing flintand an alkali, is the chief ingredient. Magnesia is nearly insoluble in water, but retains a small portion of this fluid within the interstices of its parti- cles with some obstinacy. When, however, the carbonic acid gas is previously united with the water, the magnesia dissolves readily. Magnesia contributes to the dif- fusion and suspension of many re- sinous substances, and, triturated with camphor, renders this medi- cine more miscible with water. It is supposed also to increase the solubility of bark in water, if tri- turated with it previous to infusion or decoction ; but it seems to pro- duce some chemical change in the constituent principles of the me- dicine, as the colour is not only deeper but more red. Whether it is more active as a medicine than the common decoction has not, we believe, been ascertained. As magnesia contains about se- ven twelfth parts of fixed air, it should be calcined before it is ad- ministered, at least when flatulence abounds. The air, however, which is expelled by heat, is greedily re- covered by exposure to the atmos- phere, so that it should be kept in a phial carefully closed. The mag- nesia contracts no acrimony by cal- cination. Like all absorbents, it corrects acidities in the stomach, relieves the heart-burn and pain in the sto- mach, colics and convulsions in children, with every other com- plaint arising from acidity. It is preferred to other absorbents, on account of its laxative quality, when united with an acid. If mix- ed with rhubarb, it is said to pre- vent the rhubarb from leaving a costive habit. If the magnesia does not meet an acid, it is inert, and is sometimes supposed to load the stomach as a heavy cold mass. It has been doubted whether it is proper in bilious or putrid fevers, and much idle disquisition has been employed on this subject; for a prudent practitioner will be led, in such cases, to employ me- dicines of very different qualities. Magnesia can do no good in either disease. Magnetism. The property which iron possesses of being attracted by the magnet. Magnetism, Animal. Not many years have elapsed since what is called animal magnetism was supposed to cure every disease, and to free the mind from the trammels of the body, the load of earth which confines its active excursions, enabling it to pervade, at will, through distant regions, MA MA unlimited by time or space. This imposition has had a variety of professors in different countries ; and, at one time, seems to have fascinated minds even of a supe- rior order. It affected chiefly the imagination; and the delusion was, in general, confined to the female world, and the weaker classes of mankind. An hysteric paroxysm was produced, and the wanderings of a disturbed imagi- nation were received as the dic- tates of inspiration. In these wan- derings, medical questions were proposed and answered; but all the answers, like those of the an- cient oracles, were vague and in- decisive. The gesticulations of the professors were directed to particular parts, and supposed to remove the complaints of those organs.. While the fancy was in- flamed, the effects were thought supernatural. When that cooled, the power lost its influence. The professors have published their secret, which is a strange mixture of absurdity and fanaticism. They are powerfully to excite the atten- tion, to will an end, with views strictly benevolent, moral, and re- ligious. They were not conscious of any means, and this all-power- ful influence was to be excited by the volition of the weakest, mean- est, sometimes the most infamous, of mankind. The bubble is now burst, and the experience of this age will, for a time, prevent its re- vival. Magnum Os. Thus the third bone of the second row in the wrist is named. It is the largest of all the bones there. Maize, i. e. Zea. Majorana. Sweet marjoram. Origanum majorana of Linnaeus. This plant has been long cultivat- ed in our gardens, and is in fre- quent use for culinary purposes. The leaves and tops have a plea- sant smell, and a moderately warm, aromatic, bitterish taste. The medicinal qualities of the plant are similar to those of the wild plant. (see Origanum) hut being much more fragrant, it is thought to be more cephalic. It is directed in the pulvis sternutatorius by both Pharmacopeias, with a view to the agreeable odour which it diffuses to the asarabacca, rather than to its errhine power, which is very inconsiderable. In its recent state it is said to have been successfully applied to schirrous tumours of the breast. 3i. to 3ss. Oil of grs. ii. to iv. Mala, the prominent part of the cheek Mala Assyria, the citron. Mala Aurantia, the orange. Mala Aurea, the orange ; also the amoris poma. Mala Cotonea, the quince. Malachite, a species of copper ore, found in Siberia. Malacia, ^xXxxm, is a depraved appetite, when such things are coveted as are not proper for food; but the etymology of the term seems doubtful, unless it be from (j.x\xcrew, mollio, to soften, because too lax a tone of the stomach is generally the occasion of indiges- tion and unusual cravings. Malarum Ossa, the cheek-bones. They are the irregular square bones placed on the outside of the orbits. Malats, (Malas, tis, s. m.) Salts formed by the union of the malic acid, or acid of apples, with differ- ent bases ; thus, malat of copper, malat of lead, ifc. Malic Acid. This acid is obtained by saturating the juice of apples with alkali, and pouring in the acetous solution of lead, until it occasions no more precipitate. The precipitate is then to be edul- corated, and sulphuric acid pour- ed on it, until the liquor has ac- quired a fresh acid taste, without any mixture of sweetness. The «iA whole is then to be filtered, to se- parate the sulphate of lead. The filtered liquor is the malic acid, which is very pure, remains al- ways in a fluid state, and cannot be rendered concrete. The union of this acid with different bases constitutes what are called ma- lats Malignitas, (from malign us, evil.) Malignity, when applied to fevers, means a high degree of putridity ; and its signs are, a slight coldness and shivering, quickly followed by a great loss of strength, a small, quick, and contracted pulse, faint- ing, if in an erect posture, drowsi- ness without sleep, or the sleep not refreshing but followed by a greater decay of strength and de- lirium. There is little pain, thirst, or other troublesome symptom, and yet the patient is uneasy, the features contract and sink, the ex- tremities become cold, the pulse intermits, and death soon termi- nates the scene. Malis, a disease of the skin pro- duced by an insect lodging under- neath. It is very common in Per- sia, where the disease is produced by the worms called Gordius me- dinensis, or Dracunculus persicus ; in America, by the Pulex ; and it is sometimes produced in Europe by the Pediculus. Malleable, Malleability, from Malleus, a hammer, signifies any thing that is capable of being spread by beating; and is a qua- lity possessed in the most eminent degree by gold, that being more ductile than any other metal; andis opposite to friability or brittleness. Malleolus, the ankle, distin- guished into external and internal, or malleolus externus and internus. Malleus, signifies a hammer, or mallet, and is applied to one of the bones of the ear, from its resem- blance thereunto. Malum Mortuum, a disease that appears in the form of a pustule, MA which soon forms a dry, brown, hard, and broad crust. It is sel- dom attended with pain, and re- mains fixed for a long time before it can be detached. It is mostly observed on the tibiae and os coc- cygis, and very seldom on the face. Malva, common mallow. Mulva sylvestris of Linnaeus. This indi- genous plant has a strong affinity to the althaea, both in a botanical and a medical respect. See Al- thea. It is principally used in fo- mentations", cataplasms, and emol- lient enemas. Mamme, (from /xa^a. mamma, plural mamme). The Breasts. In the breasts we distinguish the mammillae, or nipples, the areola, the brownish circle around the nipples and the lactiferous vessels. The breasts are composed of a glandular substance and fat; the glandular part is hard, white, and irregularly mixed with fat, seem- ingly composed of tubes called tu- bi lactiferi. Tiiough the breasts are usually spoken of as single glands, they are in reality a congeries of glan- dular bodies, of a small size, and a somewhat flattened shape. Mr. Cruickshanks has described them as acini; but other authors, with more reason, have supposed these small bodies to be merely convo- luted vessels. From these small glands tubes emerge, which en- large and anastomose freely ; but, when approaching the nipple, near the areola, contract and open by distinct apertures. Fifteen of these are often counted on a small nip- ple, though other anatomists les- sen the number. The areola is co- vered with a skin much more soft and fine than that of the general surface, resembling rather the ephelion of the lips and mouth, and interspersed with sebaceous glands, obvious even to the sight, to defend this tender covering from the pressure and the saliva of i-5 MA the child's mouth. The nipple it- self is formed of a congeries of these small tubes. The different vessels, either lactiferous or se- cretory, are minutely divided by fat, and thus give the roundness, the fulness, and firmness of a well- proportioned mamma. The colour of the areola great^ ly differs even in different women; and, in some, it is so brown, as even in the natural state to give a sus- picion of impregnation. (See Me- dicina Forensis.) In chlorotic and unhealthy women it is pale; in the Samoeids and negresses black; and in brown persons of a deeper colour. The hue is evidently de- rived from a fulness of the arteries, though in what manner it is modi- fied we cannot easily say ; proba- bly by the colour of the rete mu- cosum ; for all the sexual organs have a brownish tint. In women of the most brilliant and delicate complexions, the colour of the are- ola resembles that of a rose. The female mamma sympathises very pointedly with every part of the'genital system, generally with the clitoris, more sensibly and strictly with the ovaria and the uterus. At the approach of the menses the breasts enlarge; at their cessation they wither. After the lochia cease, the milk begins to flow, and this connection is so intimate, that it has been attribut- ed to the anastomosis of the ex- treme branches of the epigastric and mammary arteries, on the ab- domen. This is, however, highly improbable; for their union is in- considerable, and not peculiarly distinct at any particular periods. The sympathy, however, is so striking, that the Hottentots and the Scythians (Herodotus) irritate the vagina to increase the flow of milk from their cows and mares. It is highly probable that the milk is carried to the nipple, and often discharged from it by the action of MA its own vessels, and that the child drains the breast, not so much from its own powers, as by excit- ing the action of the lactiferous tubes. Thus a sensation is felt, when the child approaches, of some internal commotion of the mamma, of which females distin- guish by the term warping, and they are excited so much by the irritation of the vagina, as to ren- der it doubtful if it is always pru- dent to deprive the hireling nurse of the company of her husband. A sentimental feeling also influ- ences the secretion: thus the milk does not flow so freely on the application of a strange child as of a woman's natural offspring; and exciting the attention, especially if this is accompanied with a little terror, will wholly suspend the discharge. The connection of the secretion of milk with the general state of the nervous system is also strong- ly marked. The maternal office of suckling is always attended with a calm serenity of mind, scarcely felt in other situations, and the suppression of the milk, on its first appearance, with irritability, languor, or despondence. The last, indeed, sometimes attends the period of suckling, though the milk continues to flow, from causes that cannot be ascertained. It seems to affect the young and the strong, rather than those of the middle period of life, or of weaker constitutions; the first lyings-in rather than future ones. The ap- prehensions of death, in those rare and inexplicable cases, are how- ever, so strong, that nothing can conquer them ; the dejection so firmly fixed as to bid defiance to medical aid. In some cases it has continued for some years, but an- other pregnancy is usually an in- fallible cure. Though the final cause of the connection of the uterine with the MA MA lactiferous system is obvious, yet, as usual, nature acts by general laws. Thus a false conception is attended with a fulness of the mammae, and the want of ovaria, as we have seen, has occasioned the breasts to remain in the state of the earliest periods. The irritation of a cancerous tumour in the ute- rus has, however, no effect of this kind, for it seems of a sedative na- ture ; or perhaps the principium and fons of the irritation must be in the ovary. It is a circumstance singular and inexplicable that men should have all the organs which produce and convey milk like women. Is it that the sex is determined after the rest of the body is formed, or that, in cases of necessity, men should be able to supply the office of the woman ? The first is high- ly improbable; and though we have one instance of a man afford- ing his motherless offspring this sustenance, the experiment has not been again tried, or not suc- ceeded. Yet, on birth, when all the fluids begin to circulate freely, male children, as well as females, have often milk in the breasts. On the whole, were men subject to a partial plethora like that which takes place in menstruation, and were there an established sympa- thy between the breasts and geni- tal organs, it is probable that they might become nurses. But nei- ther the plethora nor the sympathy exist; and though we have found tumours in the breasts of men, we have never heard of their becom- ing cancerous. Girls of the best character, by the irritation of a child sucking, have become able to support it. A woman of sixty- eight is recorded in the Philoso- phical Transactions to have suck- led a grand-child; and one of eighty, in a Swedish Journal, is said to have performed the same efface. Russel mentions a similar fact respecting a barren sheep, in his treatise De Tabe Glandulari, p. 64. The number of teats in different animals correspond to the usual number of their young ; but it is singular that, however the num- bers differ, they are always even. Animals that do not give suck are generally oviparous, but some of the vipers, and some reptiles styl- ed viviparous, are not strictly such ; for their young are enclos- ed in eggs, which are hatched some time previous to the birth- A step between these and animals who are really viviparous may be observed in the didelphis, of which the kangarou is a species. These animals produce their young in an unformed, imperfect state; but they are for a long time concealed, and protected in a second uterus, formed under the belly by a dupli- cature of the skin, in which the nipples are found. While thus speaking on comparative anatomy, we may add, that the horse was supposed to have no nipples ; but Daubenton discovered them under the prepuce. The arteries and veins are rami- fications from the arteriae and venae subclaviae, and from the axilla res. The nerves are principally from the costales, which communicate with the nervi sympathetici. The lymphatics pass through the axil- lary glands, though Meckel sus- pects that he has traced^them into the subclavian veins. Mammary Arteries. The internal mammary artery is a branch of the subclavian, and gives off the medi- astinal, thymal, and pericardiac arteries. The external mammary is a branch of the axillary artery. Mammary Veins. These vessels evacuate their blood into the sub- clavian vein. Mammiformis Processus, the mastoid, or breast-like process. See Mastoid. MA MA Mandibula, from mando, to chciv, a j a w . See Maxilla. Manducation, signifies the action of the lower jaw, in chewing the food, and preparing it in the mouth before it is received into the sto- mach. Manducatorii Musculi, are the same as the Masseters, which see. Manganese, a grey dark colour- ed mineral, which soils the fin- gers, and is employed in glass- houses in different proportions, either to colour, or to take away colour from glass. It ought to be considered as a peculiar semime- tal, because its analysis has not yet been made, and it is found to possess properties common to no other metallic substance. Mania, raving or furious mad- ness. A genus of disease in the class neuroses and order vesanie of Cullen, characterised by a concep- tion of false relations, and an erro- neous judgment, arising from im- aginary perceptions or recollec- tions, exciting the passions, and producing unreasonable actions or emotion, with a hurry of mind in pursuing a train of thought, and in running from one train of thought to another; attended with inco- herent and absurd speech, called raving, and violent impatience of either contradiction or restraint. M. M. See Insania. Manihota, i. e. Cassava, a species of Jatropha. Maniodes, maniacal. Manipulus, a handful. Manna, the condensed juice of the Fraxinus ornus, or flowering ash of Linnaeus, a native of the southern parts of Europe, particu- larly Sicily and Calabria Many other trees and shrubs have like- wise been observed to emit a sweet juice, which concretes on expo- sure to the air, and may be consi- dered of the manna kind, especi- ally the Fraxinus rotundifolia and excelsior. In Sicily these three species of fraxinus are regularly cultivated for the purpose of pro- curing manna, and with this view are planted on the declivity of a hill with an eastern aspect Af- ter ten years growth the trees first begin to yield the manna, but they require to be much older before they afford it in any considerable quantity. Although the manna exudes spontaneously upon the trees, yet in order to obtain it more copiously, incisionsare made through the bark by means of a sharp crooked instrument, and the season thought to be most favour- able for instituting this process is a little before the dog-days com- mence, when the weather is dry and serene. Manna is generally distinguished into different kinds, viz. the manna in tear, the cana- lated and flaky manna, and the common brown or fat manna. All these varieties seem rather to de- pend upon their respective purity, and the circumstances in which they are obtained from the plant, than upon any essential difference of the drug. The best manna is in oblong pieces, or flakes, mo- derately dry, friable, very light, of a whitish or pale yellow colour, and in some degree transparent: the inferior kinds are moist, unc- tuous, and brown. Manna is well known as a gentle purgative, so mild in its operation that it may be given with safety to children and pregnant women. Jss. to Jiij. Marasmus, a wasting away of the flesh ; ^t«pao-/xoj, from pxpxwu, to grow lean. Marcores, universal emaciation. The first order in the class ca- chexie of Cullen's nosology. Margarita, pearls. They are small morbid excrescences, of a calculous kind, formed on the in- side of the shell of the concha mar- garitifera, or mother-pearl-fish, and other shell-fish. The orien- MA MA tal are the best, and have a shin- ing silver-like hue. Marine Acid. It is obtained by decomposing sea-salt, by means of the vitriolic acid. With a basis of soda, it forms culinary or common salt. It is also called muriatic acid, and is a very agreeable, healthy, and antiseptic substance. It is ex- cellent both in food and medicine. It is always fluid, and cannot be procured under a concrete form. The most concentrated weighs nine drams and a half, in an ounce measure of water. (Beaume.)Or, according to Dr. Farr, its specific gravity is to water, as 12 to 10. The vapours which fly off from this acid are white. For a theory of the manner in which sea-salt acts in preserving animal sub- stances from putrefaction, see Dr. Mitchill's letter to Dr. Wood- house, inserted in the Med. Rep. vol. ii. p. 274. Marine Salt. Common culinary salt. This salt is more abundant in nature than any other; it is found in prodigious masses in the internal parts of the earth, in Ca- labria, in Hungary, in Moscovy, and more especially at Wieliczka, in Poland, near Mount Capax, where the mines are very large, and afford immense quantities of salt. It is also obtained, by seve- ral artificial means, from sea wa- ter. Marmalade, is the pulp of quin- ces, oranges, or any other fruit, boiled into a consistence with su- gar. Marrow. The fat substance se- creted by the small arteries of the internal periosteum, and contain- ed in the medullary cavities of the long cylindrical bones. Marrubium. Common white horehound. Marrubium vulgare of Linnaeus. The leaves of this indi- genous plant have a moderately strong smell of the aromatic kind, but not agreeable, which by drying is improved, and in keeping for some months is in great part dissi- pated ; their taste is very bitter, penetrating, diffusive, and durable in the mouth. That horehound possesses some share of medicinal power may be inferred from its sensible qualities, but its virtues do not appear to be clearly ascer- tained. It is a favourite remedy with the common people in coughs and asthmas. Marum Syriacum. Marum ger- mander, or Syrian herb mastich. This shrub, Teucrium marum of Linnaeus, grows plentifully in Greece, .figypt, Crete, and Syria. The leaves and younger branches, when recent, on being rubbed be- twixt the fingers, emit a volatile aromatic smell, which readily ex- cites sneezing ; to the taste they are bitterish, accompanied with a sensation of heat and acrimony. Judging from these sensible quali- ties of the plant, it may be suppos- ed to possess very active powers. It is recommended as a stimulant, aromatic, and deobstruent; and Linnaeus, Rosenstein, and Bergius speak highly of its utility. At pre- sent, however, marum is chiefly used as an errhine,and is an ingre- dient in the pulvis asari compositus of the London Pharmacopeia. Martial, is sometimes used to express preparations of iron, or such as are impregnated there- with ; as the Martial Regulus of antimony, &c. Massa, applied generally to the compositions out of which pills are to be formed. It is likewise, in a figurative sense, applied to some collections of fluids, and par- ticularly that of the blood ; for which it is frequently used. Masseter. A muscle of the lower jaw, situated on the side of the face, that pulls the lower jaw to the up- per one ; from ftxtro-xofLxi, to chew, because it assists in the action of chewing. MA MA Mastication. Chewing. A natu- ral function. The mixing together and dividing of the particles of the food in the mouth, by the action of the jaws, tongue, lips, and cheeks. By means of this function the food i"s lacerated and mixed with the saliva and the mucus of the mouth and fauces, and thus made into a bole of such a consistence as to be formed into a convenient size to be swallowed. See Deglutition. Masticatories, are such medi- cines as are intended for chewing, in order to evacuate more than or- dinary by the salival glands. Mastiche. Mastich. The tree which affords this resin is the Pis- tachio lentiscus, a native of the South of Europe. In the island of Chio the officinal mastich is obtain- ed most abundantly, and, accord- ing to Tournefort, by making transverse incisions in the bark of the tree, from whence the mastich exudes in drops, which are suffer- ed to run down to the ground, when, after sufficient time is al- lowed for their concretion, they are collected for use. Mastich is brought to us in small, yellowish, transparent, brittle tears or grains; it has a light agreeable smell, es- pecially when rubbed or heated ; on being chewed it first crumbles, soon after it sticks together, and becomes soft and white, like wax, without impressing any considera- ble taste. It is considered to be a mild corroborant and adstringent; and as possessing a balsamic pow- er it has been recommended in haemoptysis, proceeding from ul- ceration, leucorrhaea, debility of the stomach, and in diarrhoeas and internal ulcerations. Chewing this drug has likewise been said to have been of use in pains of the teeth and gums, and in some catarrhal complaints ; it is, however, in the present day, seldom used either externally or internally. 3i. to 3ss. Mastodynia. Phlegmon of the breast of women ; from p*roi, the breast, and o5iiv», pain.- It is cha- racterized by all the symptoms of acute inflammation, and mostly terminates in abscess. M. M. At first venesection ; cathartics ; re- frigerants and antiphlogistic regi- men ; opium; externally sugar of lead and cooling ointments When these fail, promote suppuration by a full diet and warm emollient poultices. Mastoid. Those processes of bones are so termed that are shap- ed like the nipple of the breast; from //.arof, « breast or nipple, and Et5b?, resemblance. Masturbatio ; manus trap atio, Ona- nismus, the sin of Onan, from a perverted passage in the Penta- teuch. The discharge of semen from a preternatural stimulus; the vice, it is said, of the solitary monk, and, perhaps, of other recluses, to whom more natural enjoyments are denied. It is a habit of the most destructive tendency, ener- vating, in the highest degree, both the body and mind. Nature seems to have fixed a strong mark on those disposed to every unnatural enjoyment, and however secret their practices may be, so indeli- ble is this mark, that they cannot escape detection from that tact which has been peculiarly distin- guished by the term of sensus me- dicus. In general, the countenance is sallow, with a peculiar dejection in the look. The voice is hurried and unsteady ; the face often co- vered with dark coloured pustules, hard in the skin, and the whole frame displaying peculiar debility. The dejection, at times, almost amounts to insanity, and every complaint appears to threaten in- stant death. The tremor and ap- prehension prevent the natural en- joyments, by which they might be otherwise weaned from this des- tructive habit; and the whole life MA MA is alternated with doubts, appre- hensions, and despair. Unfortu- nately, the practice is never for- saken, at least, notwithstanding every assurance, we have reason to think so. The apprehensions of discovery and the despair render those un- fortunate persons the dupes of quacks, and it may be remarked, that every quack bill holds out de- lusive hopes to those who expe- rience the bad effects of such in- dulgences. Regular practice ex- hausts the whole tribe of tonics and stimulants with little effect. The warm balsams, of which the quack medicines consist, are either re- jected from the hands of the phy- sician, or not continued a sufficient time ; and even cold bathing, the best remedy, does not fix the ima- gination so strongly as the solar tincture, or the balm of Gilead. If not too long continued, a prudent marriage may recover the patient; but it would be unjust, cruel, and impolitic, to condemn a healthy young woman to the shadow of a man. This remedy, however, we have often found effectual in cases where the constitution was not wholly exhausted. Mater, p.?iT*)p, a mother. In Ano- tomy, two membranes take this name, viz. the dura and the pia mater. They were so called by the Arabians, because they thought them the origin of all the other membranes of the body. Mater Tenuis. So called from its thinness, i. e. Pia Mater. Materia Medica, the whole col- lection of remedies; in a more li- mited sense, it is the pharmaceutic remedies commonly called Drugs. Matrix, Mnr^ij. The uterus. See Uterus. Maturation. A term in surgery, signifying that process which suc- ceeds inflammation, by which pus is collected in an abscess. Maxilla Inferior. Os maxillare inferiua. Mandibula. The lower jaw. A bone shaped like a horse shoe, forming the chin, and containing half the teeth of the mouth. Its principal prominences are, the condyloid, by which it is connect- ed with the temporal bone ; the coronoid, which is opposite to it ; the symphisis of the jaw ; the al- veolar margin; the angles of the jaw; and an external and internal spine of the chin. Its cavities are, a semilunar niche between the condyloid and coronoid processes; an anterior and posterior foramen, between which is a can?! in the bone, called the mental canal; and sixteen alveoli for the teeth. Maxilla Superior. Os maxillare auperius. The superior maxillary bone is situated in the middle of the face, -forms part of the face, palate, nose, nostrils, and orbits, and with its fellow the part that is opposed to the lower jaw. Its fi- gure is very irregular: its prin- cipal eminences are, the nasal, or- bital, jugal,and palatine processes, the alveolar arch, maxillary tube- rosity, nasal spine, and orbital mar- gin. Its cavities are, a large pitui- tary sinus, in the middle of the bone called the antrum of High- more, a depression for the lachry- mal sack, the nasal canal, the in- fra-orbital foramen and canal, an anterior and posterior palatine foramen, and an opening which leads to the antrum of Highmore. Maxillary Arteriea. These are branches of the external carotid. The external maxillary is the fourth branch of the carotid ; it proceeds anteriorly, and gives off the fascial or mental, the coronary of the lips, and the angular artery. The in- ternal maxillary is the next branch of the carotid; it gives off the spheno maxillar, the inferior alveo- lar, and the spinous artery. Maxillary Nerves. The superior and inferior maxillary nerves are branches of the fifth pair or tri- MA MA gemiui. The former is divided in- to the spheno-palatinc, posterior alveolar, and the infra-orbital nerve. The latter is divided into two branches, the internal lingual, and one more properly called the inferior maxillary. Maxillary Glands. The glands so called are conglomerate, and are situated under the angles of the lower jaw. The excretory ducts of these glands are called Warthonian, after their disco- verer. Mayze, Indian corn. Mean, expresseth the middle of any two extremes. Measles. See Rubeola. Meatus Auditorius, opening of the ear. See Auditorius Meatus. Meatus Urinarius, the passage of the urine, &c. Mecca, Balsam of. See Balsam of Gilead. Mecon, pnxw, the Greek name for a poppy. Meconium, pyxunov, from (jlyixw, papaver, a poppy ; is properly the condensed juice of poppies, or opium ; but it is used also for the excrements of a foetus which ad- here to the intestines after birth, because they have been imagined to have some resemblance to opium in colour. Median Nerve. The second branch of the brachial plexus. Median Veins. The situation of the veins of the arm is extremely different in most individuals: when a branch proceeds near the bend of the arm, inwardly from the ba- silic vein, it is termed the basilic median; and when a vein is given off from the cephalic, in the like manner, it is termed the cephalic median. When these two veins are present, they mostly unite just below the bend of the arm, and the common trunk proceeds to the eephalic vein. Medianus, the median nerve. See Cervicales. Mediastina, inflammation of the mediastinum. Mediastina Arteria, the arteries of the mediastinum. They arise from the subclavian arteries, and are spread about the mediastinum. Mediastina Vena, the veins of the mediastinum The right comes out from the trunk of the superior vena cava anterior, a lit- tle above the azygos: the left from the subclavia. Mediastinum, quasi in medio stare, to stand in the middle. This is a double membrane, formed by the continuation of the pleura, which comes from the sternum, and goes straight down through the middle of the thorax to the vertebrae, dividing the cavity in two. It contains in its doublings, the heart in its pericardium, the vena cava, the oesophagus, and the stomachic nerves. The mem- branes of the mediastinum are finer and thinner than the pleura, and have a little fat. The medi- astinum receives branches of veins and arteries from the mam- miliary and diaphragmatic, and one proper called Mediastina ; its nerves come from the stomachic ; it has also some lymphatics, which open into the thoracic duct. The mediastinum divides the thorax in- to two parts, to the end that one lobe of the lungs may officiate, if the other be hindered by a wound on the other side. Sometimes there is matter contained betwixt its membranes immediately under the sternum, which may occasion the trepanning of this place. Mediastinum Cerebri, is the same as Septum transversum, which see. Medicamentaria, pharmacy. It is the art of making and prepar- ing medicines. Medicaster, a false pretender to the knowledge of Medicine ; the same as Quack. Medicina Forensis et Politico. Medicine has for ages been the ME ME guide of the police and of justice, without ostensibly mingling in their contests. When Acron of Agrigentum is said to have kindled fires to promote the circulation of air in order to cheek the plague of Athens, or Numa constructed sewers to keep the imperial city from the noisome stench of impu- rities, they acted as able politicians and judicious philosophers ; and an early work of Hippocrates on a kindred subject should have par- ticularly fixed the attention of physicians. Many similar regu- lations are indeed the result of good sense, reduced to practice by an active mind and well-direct- ed views ; but many years elapsed before regulations of this kind were digested by a regular scien- tific publication, professedly on the subject. The Criminal Con- stitution of Carolina was the ear- liest work in which the rudiments of forensic medicine were deve- loped, and the first edition of this work appeared in the beginning of the 16th century. The origin of political medicine in modern times may be dated about forty years later, and its first publica- tion by Joach. Struppe, at Frank- fort, appeared in 1573. His work in quarto contains the necessary precepts for preventing the air from contamination by filth, by in- jurious occupations, and by sepul- cure in the midst of cities. He adds regulations respecting the occupations of millers, bakers, butchers, &c. on the proper in- structions necessary for midwives, on the establishment of infirma- ries, on the propriety of visiting the shops of apothecaries, and of guarding against the arts of quacks. In the same year he pub- lished his Anchor of the Hunger, Thirst, and the Health of Man- kind ; in which he particularly treats of the substances which may occasionally supply bread, and the means of preserving meat from putrefaction. At the end of the same century, For- tunatus Fidelis of Sicily publish- ed his work on the department of forensic medicine, De Rela- tionibus Medicorum ; and, un- der the name of Reinesius, his Schola Ictorum Medica. The subject was still further pursued by Paul Zacchias, principal phy- sician to the pope, who published his Quaestones Medico Legales in 1621, Sec. in nine volumes, quarto, at Rome. About the end of the same century Paul Amman, a native of Breslaw, and a professor at Leipsic, published the Medi- cina Critica seu decisoria, as well as the Irenicum Numae Pompilii cum Hippocrate ; and, in the same century, G. Welsck of Leipsic published his Rationale Vulnerum. Lethalium Judicium. We may just add, as objects of curiosity, that this author first described the purple miliary fever of child-bed women, as a new disease, in 1655 ; and, ab»ut the same time, a Ger- man clergyman first described the method of recovering persons apparently drowned. To pursue the history through the 18th century would be useless, and almost impracticable. We engaged in it chiefly from curi- osity, and need only add, that the minor works on this subject are collected by J. C Traugott Schle- gel, published in six small volumes at Longosalissa; but we must remark, that of this city and some others we have found it impossi- ble to discover the vernacular name. The obscure towns in Germany have not found a place in any Latin or geographical dic- tionary to which we have access. To account for the numerous German and French publications on this subject, we must observe that the laws of these countries are much more minute in their 46 ME ME distinctions respecting crimes than the criminal code of Britain. This may be one reason why the sub- ject has been so much neglected, that it has not formed any portion of a course of lectures ; and very lately only has a professor of foren- sic medicine been established in a British university. To treat of this branch of medicine therefore, with all the subtilty of a German lawyer, will be unnecessary, and we must confine ourselves to the outline of those topics, which must be the subject of inquiry in our courts of justice. We must first consider foren- sic medicine as it is a branch of medical investigation, and next as it is connected with the conduct of the surgeon. Mania is one of the most fre- quent subjects of forensic inquiry, in which the physician is called on to decide; and, to the disgrace of science, we find the most opposite opinions adduced by practitioners of eminence. Much depends on the period during which the phy- sician sees the supposed lunatic, and more on a few necessary dis- tinctions, which we fear are some- times designedly neglected. It is possible for an interested rela- tion to fix on a day when the pa- tient is calm and rational, an hour when he is usually collected, to introduce the physician who pro- nounces him sane. Another, in different circumstances, might pronounce him mad. It is neces- sary therefore to guard against such deceptions, to visit him fre- quently at different times, and at the most unsuspected hours. If this is refused, a collusion will be evident. We remember seeing a man, who was confined for a crime and defended on the plea of idiotic insanity. WTe visited him frequently, while unsuspecting any such examination, and found the plea strictly true. Yet, when called into court for the purpose of acquittal, when cleaned and dressed, roused also perhaps by the novel appearance of the scene, his look assumed a meaning, and he was almost rational. In the general relations of life, a man may be thoughtless, ridicu- lous, and extravagant, yet these errors will not be sufficient to fix the charge of insanity, which con- sists either in false perceptions or erroneous reasoning, on objects distinguished in their true colours. Many individuals of this kind re- quire guardians for their property as much as persons really insane ; bat the law intrusts no practitioner with such discretionary power. The difficulty arises when this wild absurd conduct is attend- ed with such inconsistencies as lead to the suspicion, that the per- ceptions or the reason are affected. This situation is a question of prudence, rather than of jurispru- dence, or medicine. The reflect- ing physician will not fix, unne- cessarily, the stigma of insanity on a whole race ; nor will he ex- pose a family to ruin by a too great delicacy. In this difficulty, he will rather take the opportunity of a calmer moment to induce the pa- tient to adopt such plans as may- prevent the ruin of the family, and may properly make use of the alternative as an argument, in case of refusal. But this, as we have said, is not a medical question. There is another doubtful state, in which the physician is called on to decide, viz. when from disease, from general weakness, or any constitutional cause, the mind is so much enfeebled as to render it uncertain whether the patient can judge of the proper disposition of his affairs. This too is a question of discretion, for the afflicted per- son may be taught to answer com- mon questions readily, or may be awed by some interested attendant. ME ME In this case, if the physician, when alone with his patient, talks to him of his affairs, suggests, for the sake of a reply only, some ob- jections to his arrangements, he will soon find whether the testator has judged properly, or only re- peats a lesson. The circumstances themselves often suggest doubts ; and when an infirm old man disin- herits obedient or near relations, for the sake of those connected with him only by accident, the presumption is, that his mind is not sound. By a fiction of the law every mania is supposed to be relieved by occasional lucid intervals, and if the act of a madman is reason- able and proper, it is a proof that the interval was a lucid one. Thus in the case, which has just been considered, whatever be the appa- rent state of the patient's mind, if his will be judicious and proper, there is no reason why the physi- cian should not pronounce him in a sound state. Yet, in criminal cases, the law is not equally in- dulgent, nor has it always, perhaps, been equally humane. Lucid in- tervals, in cases of murder, are not allowed, and the man who has been proved to be mad on the Monday and Wednesday, is not allowed to be sane on the interven- ing day; yet decisions have oc- curred of a different kind ; and an art in planning, a coolness in ex- ecuting, a deliberation in the con- duct, have been supposed to con- stitute soundness of mind. On these grounds lord Ferrers and Mr. Oliver were executed. Yet, if the motive is at any time con- nected with the hallucination, the subsequent action should certainly be considered as a part. In later trials the opinions have leant more on the side of humanity. The question of confirmed in- sanity must be decided by a com- parison of {he PJrtigRt's state with the pathognomonic symptoms. Yet there are many sources of doubt, and often room for hesita- tion. In many instances the mind wanders, at first, on one subject only; and, when the madman has any point to gain, he will, with great success, counterfeit a calm reasonable state. Each point must be carefully guarded ; yet the ex- perienced physician will not be easily baffled. A wildness of the eye, a tension of the skin of the temples, a dry furred tongue, often a hurried pulse, will explain the real state. The madman is also a coward, and we have drawn from this a good pathognomonic symptom. If threatened with some vehemence with any punishment, however wild and impracticable, he will shrink and tremble, forget- ting all his art, or returning to his original deviation of mind. Returning sanity is another point of doubtful distinction ; nor do we see that it is possible to lay down any rules, except the absence of the pathognomics of the disease. Yet we have often witnessed the return of persons from the appro- priate receptacles, with a wildness of the eyes, a quickness of utter.- ance, rapid unsteady motions, which showed corporeal disease, though the mind was calm. Such persons should not be pronounced secure ; and, though confinement may not be necessary, the most pointed caution should be continu- ed. Dissembled insanity might more properly belong to another head, morbi simulati; but we may more easily speak of it in this place. An experienced practitioner will soon detect the absurdities which assume the form of insanity ; for, though incoherences, wildness, and obscenity, may be imitated, the hurried look, the rapid pulse, the dry tongue, and the sleepless pigbts, csmuot be assumed. Aboye ME ME all, the cowardice, the apprehen- sion of punishment, the influence of threats, are seldom to be dis- covered. A French author details the symptoms of madness, for the purpose of this distinction, so ele- gantly as to induce us to copy the picture. " Thus to neglect what most de- serves attention, and to value what is least deserving of it; to rejoice or weep without an adequate rea- son ; to despise what is terrible, and to fear what is ridiculous ; to admire trifles, and to reject what is excellent; to love the objects of hate, and to hate those of love; to hope without an object, and to despair while in security; to be pleased with things which excite no agreeable sensations in others, and toflyfromwhatevery one would anxiously seek; to be timid with those who demand no deference, and bold to those whom they ought to respect; such are the infallible marks of a wandering mind." In either of these cases, an ex- cellent criterion may be found by inducing the supposed lunatic or the pretended convalescent to write. If engaged in a correspon- dence, particularly respecting his own affairs, he will soon betray insanity, should it remain. In the servile war, the slaves who oppos- ed the spears of their former mas- ters yielded, when they saw them armed with whips; so the most furious maniac will often submit on presenting him a pair of hand- cuffs, which will only irritate the counterfeit. Morbi simulati. Dissembled dis- eases sometimes claim attention in a court of justice, but perhaps more frequently in an infirmary, The latter is, as usual, the school. Insanity, of which we have already treated, is the most frequent, and, next to it, are the different ner- vous and spasmodic complaints. We must not, however, always accuse the patient. The timid girl will have the catchings and the gesticulations of chorea more frequent on the access of a stran- ger ; and the disease, to the attend- ants apparently cured, will appear to return. On the contrary, these and some other diseases will occa- sionally seem to lessen on the ap- proach of the physician. The wanderings of delirium will cease, and the wildness of the eye be converted to • an expression of meaning. These arc circumstan- ces which must be kept in view, as tending to explain the opposite course. The diseases counter- feited are catalepsy (commonly styled ecstacy) and convulsions. Some patients possess even a com- mand of the features, and others, it is said, of the pulse; but, in general, an unchanged ex- pression of countenance and an unaltered pulse will explain the deceit. Boerhaave is reported to have cured real fits by threatening, ea qua pollebat gravitate, to burn the next patient seized with a hot iron. To heat a poker with the same gravity has cured pretended ones, especially if they felt the heat approaching. Plunging the suspected patient in cold water is still more effectual, and it will not injure if the disease be real. Dashing cold water in the face, unsuspectedly, will succeed ; but, as the bathing requires prepara- tion, it will not be necessary, in case of deception, to proceed to extremities. Pains in the limbs, which some- times happen without fever, is a fertile source of deception, and blisters will often have little effect in detecting the fallacy. We have not, however, found patients of sufficient constancy to endure a few smart electrical shocks ; and the galvanic, if the skin is punc- tured, will be probably still more effectual. In cases where fever ME ME must necessarily attend, the de- tection is easy. No one can coun- terfeit the febrile symptoms; though by topical stimulants in- flammation and fever may be brought on. In the time of Galen, tumours were produced in the knee by the semen thapsi; and Zacchaeus, in his numerous quartos, has copied many tales of this kind. We have seen abscesses produced by insert- ing splinters under the skin, con- tinued ulcers by stimulating dress- ings, and even haemoptoe occasi- onally returning by artificially exciting cough. Yet while we awaken suspicion, we would not silence the feelings of humanity. We have seen cases where no de- ception could exist, where no mo- tive could be found for fallacy, that appeared at the first sight ficti- tious. We have known the urine retained six weeks without any remarkable vicarious discharge : we have known a nail of no incon- siderable size, such an one as fas- tens the hoops of small barrels, retained in the throat till it formed an abscess : yet in each case no deception could exist. The mendicant with his ulcers counterfeits both deafness and dumbness ; but these deceptions are best detected by the beadle, or by a little address. " How long have you been dumb, my good friend ?" says a passenger, with the most insiduous humanity.— " Three weeks, sir," replied the incautious deceiver. Impotentia. This disease rarely requires the interposition of a physician in a court of justice. The complainants, who are com- monly females, can relate their grievances in terms sufficiently guarded and clear. The extirpa- tion of the testicles is an opera- tion obviously designed to prevent generation. But in the human species, as we have seen, they are originally seated in the abdo- men, and fall through the rings of the muscles into the scrotum. If they do not appear in the scrotum it is no evidence of their absence, and it has been said that their in- fluence on the genital powers are more conspicuous while they re- main in their original seat. It ig at least certain that this influence is not less, so fallacious is the lo- gical maxim, when applied to me- dicine, De non apparentibus & non existentibus, eadem est ratio. If they did not exist, or were not evolved, the beard, the graver tone of voice, and every mark of virility would be absent. If they had been extirpated, the cicatrix would remain. It has been said that one, three, and even four, testes have been dis- covered. One has certainly been lost by accident, has decayed, or been extirpated, without injur- ing the generative power : some- times the other has enlarged, but more often continued of the same size, with little apparent diminu- tion of the powers. The stories of three and four testes we cannotdis- prove ; but there is much reason to suppose that many of these have arisen from an enlargement of one or each epidydimis. They at least furnish no grounds for a legal process. From what has been said, the physician will be sufficiently di- rected in his judgment; nor need we enlarge with the disgusting indecency with which the old au- thors expatiate on this subject, nor on the public display of the active powers in the venereal act, which some of the canons enjoined. The original authors seem plainly to hint that this indecency was only the prelude, like the modern ac- tions for crim. con. to a divorce, and designed as a justification of the most licentious conduct; for divorces, they add, were less fre- ME ME quent since such exhibitions were abolished. This practice began, it is said, early in the thirteenth century, and ended about a hun- dred and fifty years afterwards. Poisons. This frequent cause of violent and premature death is often the subject of inquiry in courts of judicature, and the phy- sician is usually called on for his opinion. Science has been often disgraced by the crude, the inju- dicious, and often the opposite, opinions offered on these occa- sions ; nor has humanity had less cause to regret the sacrifice of lives on the most vague and in- conclusive evidence. Poisons may be accidental or designed. We shall begin with the latter. The marks that poison has been administered are the sudden ap- pearance of extraordinary and un- suspected symptoms, as uneasi- ness, nausea, an acute pain in the stomach, palpitations, faintings, disagreeable and fetid eructations, vomiting of blood, and bile, hic- cough, sudden debility, smallness and inequality of the pulse, cold and clammy sweats", coldness of the extremities, paleness, livid nails, general cedematous swell- ings, windy distension of the ab- domen, sudden relief with an equally rapid return of pains, blackness and swelling of the lips, burning thirst, loss of voice, a livid countenance, vertigo, con- vulsions, rolling and starling eyes, loss of sight, with a dilated pupil, lethargy, suppression of urine, a fetid smell of the whole body, pur- ple eruptions, livid gangrenous spots, and an alienation of" mind. All these symptoms are undoubt- edly equivocal, and occasionally attend other diseases. They are marks of poison only when they come on suddenly, without any known cause ; when the food, if unsuspected as the vehicle, sud- den cold, violent affections of mind, or deleterious vapours, can- not be accused ; for these will in- duce many of the symptoms, though seldom in so considerable a degree as arises from poison. If the patient be not a suicide, and still retains his senses, he can explain the taste of the food, or medicine, which has induced these symptoms, so as to direct the fu- ture inquiries. When no satis- factory explanation can be obtain- ed, we must depend on the evi- dence collected on dissection. Poisons, so far as they are the ob- ject of our present inquiry, are violent inflammatory stimulants, or sedatives. The pungent sti- mulants betray themselves by the taste, the pain in swallowing, and the inflammation of the fauces; and they must be treated under the head of accidental poison, as they cannot be given without suspicion. The chief substance to be con- sidered here is arsenic, which is nearly tasteless, and violent in its action, even in trifling doses. Its power is shown by violent inflam- mation and gangrene in the sto- mach ; and it is discovered by cal- cining the contents of the stomach with the black flux, when the smell of garlic will betray even such an impregnation as will not often be fatal Some of the saline mercurials show no very decided action on the tongue or fauces, and will produce similar effects. These may be discovered by add- ing ammonia, and heating the whole in a close vessel, when the mercury will be so far revived as to whiten copper on rubbing. In this way mercury can be often discovered in those quack medi- cines where its existence is utterly denied ; for the ammonia contri- butes to precipitate the mercury, reduced in part to its metallic state, and enables it to appear on the copper. The suspected sub- stance, if arsenical, heated be- ME ME t,ween plates of copper, will give a whitish tinge to the part of the plates in contact with it. Inde- pendent of these trials, when the stimulant poisons have been the cause of death, the abdomen is greatly inflated, becomes rapidly putrid, dark spots appear on the body, erosion, inflammation, and gangrene are found in the fauces and stomach, the blood is black and collected in the veins ; above all, the villous coat of the stomach is destroyed. One other discriminating appearance, on dis- section, is mentioned by a respect- able author on jurisprudence. If, after a body has been long buried, should gangrened spots be found in the stomach, surrounded by a reddish circle, these were effects of changes during life. Should the colour of the whole be uniform, the putrefaction took place after death. There are other poisons which kill by a partial stimulus. The chief of these is cantharides ; but their peculiar action on the blad- der will point out the cause. The violent inflammation, the rapidity with which it hastens to gangrene, will at once betray the crime, and, at the same time, point out the culprit. No such can escape. Thecolocynth, the elaterium,and the tithymali, betray themselves by their taste, as well as by their local action, andean neither escape the detection of the person him- self who is the subject of the crime, nor the attendant physician. The narcotic poisons, like the others, produce vomiting; but the faintness which is the effect of the vomiting in the former cases is the apparent cause of it in the present. The rapidly sinking strength, the dilated pupil, con- vulsions, stupor, sleep, vertigo, swelling veins, and cold extremi- ties, point out the cause. Fortu- nately there are few such substan- ces that do not betray themselves' by their taste ; but there are such, though we shall not point them out; nor shall we mention any poison that can be secretly admi- nistered. It is incumbent, how- ever, on the practitioner to be cautious in these instances re- specting his decisions; for no che- mical analysis will assist him, and his only guide will be the dis- charge of substances which the powers of the stomach cannot change. He must compare with anxious attention the appearance of the symptoms after the suppos- ed cause ; trace with diligent cir- cumspection every other circum- stance that might have produced the effect; examine with care the patient's usual habits, his predis- positions, his complaints, and at last remember that every medical conclusion is doubtful. Should he then be positive when the life of a human creature is at stake ? One trial has been falsely consider- ed to be decisive, viz. the effects of what might remain of the sup- posed fatal beverage on animals. This will hold true of the stimu- lant poisons ; but by no means of the narcotic. The most innocent substances of this kind are occa- sionally fatal to animals ; the nar- cotics, most injurious to man, are to many animals innocuous ; and the human fluids changed by pu- trefaction are themselves poison- ous. Accidental poisons are received in the food, or are hastily swal- lowed by mistake instead of a medicine, before the taste betrays their nature. The former are chiefly copper, arsenic, and lead; the latter, nitre, camphor, ammo- nia, or the mineral acids. Copper is greatly dreaded, and has frequently been accused with little reason. Copper culinary- vessels, bell-metal mortars, and all the various means by which ME ME this metal can be introduced to the system, have received an indis- criminate sentence of banishment. Injuries have undoubtedly arisen from them, and we would earnest- ly join in deprecating their use. When, however, we have said this in the way of caution, we may be allowed to add, that the dangers have been greatly magnified. The taste of copper is so peculiar that it can scarcely be disguised, and it will not generally fail to give the alarm in doses far distant from dangerous ones. Hunger, or eager- ness to taste a luxurious dish, may, however, hastily impel us, and such vessels should be avoided. The effects are chiefly on the sto- mach, and the quantity taken must be considerable to endanger life. Arsenic has been swallowed ac- cidentally when joined with any sweet substance to poison flies, or with other substances to destroy rats. The effects are so marked and discriminating as not for a mo- ment to mislead, and they have been sufficiently detailed. It has been supposed that this metal may be accidentally introduced into the system when employed in fin- ing wine ; but for this purpose it is now wholly disused. Lead has been accused of pro- ducing the Poitou colic when united with cyder, either as this metal is presented to it in the in- struments employed in pressing the apples, or as added to correct the acidity of either wine or cyder. We cannot deny that in each in- stance it has produced the effect, since itis the peculiar consequence of swallowing any saturine prepa- ration. But these are by no means the constant, or indeed the most frequent, causes of the disease. Another source is said to be the glazing of the common earthen vessels, since lead is used in the process, and in such vessels pick • els are usually kept. .Lead is not, however, always the substance employed, or it is not dissolved by the acetous acid. We have kept vinegar in such vessels for many days in a warm place, without its discovering the presence of lead on the addition of the most deli- cate tests. The alarm, therefore, we think unfounded. In these circumstances caution is almost as necessary as in the former, where the life of an individual is at stake. The credit of a house, the character of a professional man, are involved ; and the feel- ings of those whose want of cau- tion may have occasioned the mis- take may be so excessive as to en- danger their lives. Though their negligence may merit punish- ment, yet that punishment may be too severe. Ignorant druggists have sold camphor and nitre instead of neu- tral salts ; and by mistaking the vials, the aqua ammoniae, some mineral acid, or other stimulating substance has been swallowed. The eagerness to escape from the taste of a disagreeable medicine hastens the act of deglutition, and the error is sometimes not discovered till the whole has been swallowed. The medical treat- ment is not our object in this place. The only connection this subject has with medical jurisprudence, is to ascertain the cause of death when such substances prove fatal. If taken as a medicine, the effects of the poison must be compared with the symptoms of the disease ; and should the latter be highly dangerous, the feelings of the mistaken attendant may perhaps be relieved by the humanity of the physician's declaration, in which, if he offers truth in her fairest and most favourable hue, he will do no injury to any indivi- dual. The symptoms which distinguish camphor swallowed in large doses ME ME arc, giddiness, vertigo, delirium, and convulsions. Nitre produces, with the common symptoms of narcotic poisons, bloody discharges from the bowels and the urinary organs. The mineral acids and ammonia do not greatly differ in their effects, which are those of violent stimuli, rapidly exhausting irritability. Inflammation in the mouth or fauces, with a burning heat at the scrobiculus cordis, are followed by vomiting, by the sense ef a heavy load in the stomach, and a consequent diminution of all its powers. From these symptoms, the remains of the medicine, and the report of the patient's feel- ings when it was swallowed, if he is able to report them, the nature of the deleterious draught may be ascertained. The case of the suicide is de- plorable ; yet he often repents be- fore the termination of the scene, and can lead us to form a judg- ment of the treatment necessary. The physician's testimony may be called for, and no rule of morality- can, we think, be violated by soft- ening the most offensive circum- stances. The feelings of the re- latives may be essentially hurt by marks of disgrace to the body, which we believe never once de- terred a determined suicide. Apparent death has been the subject of much discussion, and premature interment the object of universal apprehension. Nume- rous are the tales told on this sub- ject, many of which are exagge- rated, and the greater number pro- bably false, it is, indeed, possi- ble that a person not yet dead may be interred; but it is highly im- probable that any one should, in such a situation, recover their senses and recollection; for be- fore these returned they must be suffocated by the want of air. The complaints, in which such appa- rent dissolution is most common, are the spasmi and comata of Dr. Cullen,drunkenness,excessiveeva- cuations, narcotic poisons, stran- gulation, drowning, breathing de- leterious gases, excessive cold, sudden and violent terror, and vi- olent passions. The want of motion, of feeling, of respiration and pulsation in the arteries, are neither singly nor in conjunction signs of death The motion of the carotids, in the greater number of instances, con- tinues longest, and their state should be most carefully examin- ed. The experiment proposed by M. Bruhier is, to draw down the lower jaw, and if it approaches spontaneously the upper jaw, he thinks it a conclusive sign of some life remaining; but this may hap- pen from the elasticity of the liga- ments and other causes. It is cer- tainly an equivocal proof The eyes furnish the most certain signs, independent of putrefaction. If their transparency is lost, the eye- ball sunk and wrinkled, and the pupil dilated so as not to contract by the strongest light, resuscita- tion is no longer in our power. The sunk features, in the eyes of experience, are a proof almou. equally satisfactory ; but putrefac- tion furnishes the only unequivo- cal symptom. Yet this we cannot always wait for. If any legal ques- tion depends on the state oJ the internal parts, dissection must be attempted at an earlier stage, since putrefaction changes every appear- ance by which we are enabled to decide In cases of the slightest doubt, it is recommended to com- mence the dissection in the parts less essential to life, that if the stimulus of the wound excite the action of the remaining powers, no considerable injury may ensue. Violent death is apparently as- certained without difficulty ; and when the cause proceeds so far as to destrov the organization of a 47 ME ME part essential to life, little hesita- tion can be felt. Haemorrhages, and the appearance of contusions, are often fallacious. The former certainly take place from a variety of causes independent of violence, and the latter may arise from pe- techia?, or similar causes. We can scarcely, however, conceive a question to come before a court of judicature, where the difficulty would arise whether death was occasioned by a putrid fever or by blows ; and we think the decision of the father of forensic medicine, Zacchias, decisive in this respect. In case of violence, he observes, there is an extravasation Under the skin : the lividness from other causes only discolours the surface by a change in the skin itself. We know that Stoll in two cases disco- vered a considerable extravasation under petechiae; but these instan- ces are rare, and the danger of mistake very trifling. On the other hand, considerable extrava- sations may take place internally, without the surface being affected, as where the bruise consisted of a large heavy weight, which gave a considerable shock without mak- ing an impression on any particu- lar part. This cause of death may, however, be discovered by dissec- tion; though, undoubtedly, bruises after death may, before the blood has coagulated, occasion similar appearances. This source of er- ror must be carefully investigated in the particular cases. One very important subject of inquiry arises, however, out of these discussions. If a man, in an accidental or premeditated strug- gle with another, by any extraor- dinary exertion break a blood ves- sel and die, though the struggle occasioned the death, yet it is deemed accidental. If this strug- gle be a pugilistic contest, where personal animosity is unsuspected, and the person thrown dies on the spot, a doubt will arise how far his antagonist was the cause of * is death. Again, if in the violence and heat of a quarrel a per >on strike another with an inconsider- able weapon, and death follows as much from the passion as the blow, the doubt will be increased. In each instance the physician and surgeon are called on to decide; and we know no cases in which such contradictory evidence has been given. The principles on which the decision should rest ap- pear to be these. When, from prior complaints, any weakness or predisposition to disease, heredi- tary or otherwise, can be discover- ed ; when the violence is such that, in a sound healthy body, it would not probably produce any dangerous effect, the blow or the fall should not be accused. If a man subject to a spitting of blood in a struggle should break a blood- vessel ; if a person with a full flo- rid complexion, and a short neck, whose parent had died of apoplexy, and perhaps about the same age, should fall down dead in a trifling contest, where the exertion was inconsiderable, we should certainly not convict his antagonist of any- thing but imprudence and misfor- tune. When any contest has taken place, independent of personal animosity, and some slight injury has been seemingly received, the subsequent conduct of the patient should have great influence on the judgment of the practitioner. If he has received injury in his side or head, and, instead of a cautious mode of diet, should indulge in every irregularity, the pleurisy or phrenitis that might ensue should not, injustice, be attributed to the antagonist; nor, when the proper distinction is made, will the law, we believe, condemn him. This is not, however, the place to dis- cuss a legal question, but to point ME ME out the foundation for the physi- cian's opinion. The case is some- what different when an abscess has followed external injury, in- dependent of any irregularity of the patient's conduct The phy- sician must then decidedly attri- bute death to the consequences at least of the accident; and the le- gal distinctions will regulate the degree of criminality, and, of course, the punishment. We have for some time been trenching on the province of the surgeon; but to introduce those parts of our subject which are more peculiarly his object, we must offer some remarks on the DISSECTION OF BODIES, with a view to discover the disease which has proved fatal, or the nature of the wound, in complicated cases, which has been destructive. Dissections are opposed on ma- ny grounds. We shall notice only the objections which urge that by this means we discover effects rather than causes, and that com- plaints may have occurred either in the minuter parts, which can- not be detected, or in the nervous system, which are not cognizable by our senses. Undoubtedly we more often observe effects rather than causes ; but the objection will only apply when the anato- mist, from ignorance, cannot de- tect the difference, or, from haste, will not wait to examine. The source of great error has been the partial examination of the part apparently most affected. We remember the dissection of a per- son supposed to be starved. The stomach was empty and full of wind, but not contracted. Some doubt remained ; for the mesen- tery had not been examined, in which the conglobate glands were afterwards discovered in an enlarg- ed and schirrous state. Many si- milar instances might be adduced; and we may here add, that, in general, every cavity of the body should be examined with care, particularly the head. Complaints also may undoubtedly occur in parts of the body which even an exact anatomist may not think of examining; but these, we believe, will seldom prove fatal : nor, ex- cept from deleterious gases, is there any probability that the ner- vous system will be so much af-. fected as to produce death, with- out leaving evident corporeal tra- ces. In medical jurisprudence, how- ever, dissection is absolutely ne- cessary, as the law requires the best evidence that can be procur- ed, and various cases may be stated in which it is essential. A man, for instance, is found dead in a close apartment, in which char- coal has been burning, or which is in part consumed. The cause will appear evident: butdissection may discover traces of poison or of blows ; and the fire may have been lighted to prevent suspicion. When the dissection is deter- mined on for the discovery of the cause of death, it should be at- tempted early, before putrefaction can have changed the appearance of the parts, and with as little mo- tion as possible, that the relative situation of the viscera be not dis- turbed. The whole body, par- ticularly the head, sternum, and abdomen, should be cautiously ex- amined by gentle pressure. All the natural openings should be carefully sounded, and each part opened in succession, beginning with that which is most probably injured. The order of the ex- amination is of more consequence than has been supposed. If, for instance, in the dissection of the body of a new-born infant, to as- certain the cause of i.ts death, the heart and lungs be first opened, the copious discharge of blood will drain the large vessels, which will ME ME be found empty, and a strong sus- picion will consequently arise that the child died of a haemorrhage, by neglecting the ligature on the funis. So, in examining a wound and its direction every thing must be avoided which can disturb the relative situation of the parts ; for to establish the cause of death it is necessary that the direction of the instrument should be accu- rately ascertained. In ruptures of internal vessels this caution is of less importance ; yet, when there is any suspicion of the cause, it should be traced with as little dis- turbance of the relative situation of the parts as circumstances will permit The mode of examination is known to every surgeon ; but it is highly necessary that he should be" acquainted with the natural bulk and colour of the parts, and with the changes which fermen- tation, inflammation, and putre- faction will successively, at differ- ent periods, produce. The swel- led abdomen and livid spots on the side may give suspicion of poison; but they are the effect of a sepa- ration of air, and the necessary changes in consequence of a warm season. If an inconsiderable wound, from its place or its direc- tion, proves fatal only after some time, the previous inflammation will close it so that it shall appear too inconsiderable to be the cause of death. Rape. The ancient authors on forensic medicine are full on this subject, and unnecessarily minute a d indecent. The examination and marks of violence will alone determine the judgment of the practitioner ; and for this purpose the English law has wisely deter- mined that the complaint should be immediately made, since the injury can then only be best as- certained The existence of the membrane closing the entrance of the vagina, deified under the name of Hymen by'the ancients, has occasioned some controversy. The moderns have wisely cut the knot, and admitted, that though it is a sign of virginity, yet its absence is no proof of violation, since it may be destroyed in a va- riety of ways without suspicion of impropriety. An observation of Buffon, which we believe to be correct, will explain some of the apparent contradictions on this subject. He observes that this membrane is seldom found in young children, or in girls long previous to puberty. It is at that early period folded in wrinkles, and expands, as the custos horti, only near the age of womanhood. It is certain that its existence has been denied by anatomists of emi- nence, who, in order to " make assurance double sure," in such a doubtful point, have sought it in girls from four to ten years of age. The marks of violence, and the evidence of the young woman, according to our laws, alone de- cide, and these require no farther medical discrimination than we have stated. The swelling of the neck, which the "hesternum mo- nile" can no longer surround, the blackness under the eye, the sullied whiteness of the cornea, must be referred to the list of old women's stories, which sounder science spurns at. Suspected Pregnancy. On this subject a surgeon is often consult- ed, and we shall here give a gene- ral connected view of the sub- ject. If a woman, who has been pre- viously regular and in good health, at once complains of obstruction, without any well-founded cause, as cold, fright, 8cc suspicion must be kept alive, and active medi- cines be avoided. The complaints which arise from pregnancy, though of a similar nature from ME ME those owing to suppression, yet greatly differ. In the first weeks the pregnant woman feels no in- convenience, and then only from sickness, and chiefly in the morn- ing In the intervals of sickness the spirits are free, and in the evening the appetite is also good ; while, from obstruction, vomiting is an uncommon symptom, the languor comes on more slowly, and the symptoms are by no means worse in the morning. In the former case the complexion is clear, in the latter pale and dark; in the formerthe eyes often lively, in the latter uniformly dull. Not many weeks elapse before the breasts swell, and a pink or brown areola appears round the nipple. The former state of the breasts may not be known, and the areola in many women is naturally dark. Yet in a thin woman it will be at once seen, if the breasts are dis- proportionally full; and even in a more lusty one their firmness will betray an increased bulk, while in suppressed menses the breasts are much extenuated. The areola in a pregnant woman is also un- usually extensive. After the fourth month the swelling rises above the pelvis in the form of a round, circumscribed ball, and the sick- ness usually goes off, while the spirits become peculiarly free and cheerful. At this period the state of the os tincae may be discovered by the finger, and will at once preclude all hesitation. We have not mentioned the sensation of motion in the uterus, because we proceed on the suppo- sition of concealment. The same cause may prevent our knowing the state of the menstrual dis- charge ; but the vomiting, the tu- mour of the breasts, the darker areola, cannot be concealed, and the tumour of the abdomen at the subsequent period will be decisive. At this time also, and often more early, a slight pressure will pro- duce a flow of serum or milk from the nipple. Hebenstreit indeed ob- serves, that many women, not preg- nant, can bring on a discharge of milk at will ; but we have no rea- son to think that moderate pres- sure, independent of long conti- nued irritation, or suction, can produce it in this climate. Medical authors, kind to the fair sex, have been anxious to point out the fallacy of all these proofs ; and we shall so far join with them in urging the practitioner not to hasten the decision. Certainty is at no great distance, and it is pru- dent not to endanger driving the woman to despair. This may oc- casion the worst of crimes; and if, though guilty, she escape, she may live to repent, and repair to society the injury which her for- mer errors have occasioned. It sometimes happens that wo- men pretend to be with child, either to impose a fictitious off- spring on a credulous companion, or to avoid punishment. The de- termination is in this case more easy; but should it be prudent to delay the decision, a most unre- mitted vigilance is necessary. Suspected delivery very often claims the attention of the sur- geon. The signs, however, though singly equivocal, are, together, certain. The very considerable relaxation of the vagina, the laxity of the teguments of the abdomen, the want of the fourchette, the thin membrane which unites the labia below, the peculiar swelling of the breasts, the extended are- ola, milk peculiarly thin and se- rous, with the unequivocal smell of the lochia just going off, will decide. Exceptions may be made to all these as well as to the signs of pregnancy ; but the experienc- ed eye cannot be deceived. Retarded or premature delivery. Nothing can be conceived more ME ME ridiculous than the discussions of medical jurisconsults on this sub- ject. The ancients contended that every animal had a fixed period of gestation except the human fe- male; but this is by no means true: and the moderns have tortured their invention to explain why de- livery should be retarded. We need not enlarge on the subject; for our laws speak plainly, that if a woman lies in within eleven months after the death or the pos- sibility of the access of the hus- band, the child shall still be his ; and the axiom pater est quern nup- tia demonstrant, be uncontroverted. It is not our business to oppose the law, but to explain it, though we may still remark that it. is pe- culiarly complaisant or indulgent. On the other hand, the law, we believe, recognises only a living child of seven months to be legi- timate, if former access can be de- nied : a circumstance which can seldom happen. Abortion. This is a subject which by our laws, can scarcely be considered as an object of me- dical jurisprudence ; for no statute is in force to punish the means of procuring it. The civil law made many unscientific, and even ridi- culous, distinctions on this point, resting on the period when it was supposed the foetus began to live. We have now reason to think that life commences from the moment of impregnation. There is, how- ever, a nice distinction in the En- glish laws, which can never be applied without the most rash, un- warrantable decision of the phy- sician or surgeon. It, says Dr. Burn, whom we quote, by a me- dicine given the child is killed in the womb, " it is great misprison, but no murder ;" but " if the child be born alive and dieth of the po- tion, or other cause, this is mur- der." The opinion, we say, is inapplicable; for where is the phy- sician who will decidethat a weakly child might not have been so with- out the potion ? and the vague clausedistinguished by italics must make the whole " words of sound signifying nothing" There is, however, another view which we must take of the subject. An au- thor of the purest morality, the most extensive benevolence, and the soundest religion, Dr. Perci- val, has dropped a hint, that it may not be unlawful to procure abortion where the size of the pel- vis is not adapted for the birth of a living child. This is a latitude which we cannot sanction. A more recent (we believe a more recant) proposal of a celebrated accou- cheur, who suggests in such cir- cumstances, the propriety and ad- vantage of bringing on labour at the end of the seventy month, is greatly preferable. In this case, though the attemptis peculiarly dif- ficult, and can only succeed in the mostexperienced hands,the health of the mother is less endangered, and the child may be preserved ; nor, on the whole, does humanity so strongly revolt at the attempt. Yet as we have said, the whole should only be under the conduct of a man who unites resolution with discretion, and judgment with humanity. Infanticide. We know not when we have found greater difficulty in speaking on any subject than on the present. The weight of arguments seem often to bear hard on those who are the objects of the greatest compassion ; on unhappy women, deluded to their ruin, struggling with remorse, with the apprehen- sion of disgrace, acting from a momentary phrensy in self-defence, often inconsistently and improperly subjected to suspicion from cir- cumstances wholly beyond their power, and to conviction from the fortuitous occurrence of events not within their calculation. On ME ME this subject particularly, and in- deed in every branch of medical jurisprudence, we strongly advise the practitioner to be cautious. He may reason as a physiologist, but he should act as a man of feel- ing and reflection, who knows that no medical conclusion is certain, and that the life of a perhaps in- nocent individual may be sacrific- ed to his hasty oracular decision, perhaps to his inadvertency. The punishment of a crime, says B^c- caria, cannot be strictly called just 01 necessary, while the law has not employed the best possible means of preventing it. The law is in- deed silent; but modern refine- ment, the precision of outrageous virtue, which admits not of the penitence of a sinner, urges the unhappy culprit to the worst of crimes. In such circumstances the wo- man, from the causes already stat- ed, is alone, her mind agitated, her resolution weak, herself spiritless and indecisive. The labour is per- haps rapid, the child born during fainting or convulsions, and lost from want of that attention which no law enforces, and which the ap- prehension of disgrace prevents her calling for. A state of this kind may be ascertained by subse- quent faintings, peculiar debility, a low fluttering pulse, paleness, and subsequent oedema. Should these symptoms not occur, let us not yet decide without hesitation; for other circumstances should be also considered. The first question must be, was the life of the child so perfectly established as to be probably con- tinued after its birth ? This is an- swered by its appearance, and the perfect, the complete develope- ment of its organs. It may be again asked, was it not dead be- fore deliveiy? According to Al- berti, if dead previous to delivery, the limbs are flexible, the skin wrinkled or soft, the colour yelltfw or livid, the abdomen sunk, with marks of commencing putrefac- tion, particularly about the navel, and the umbilical cord empty, yel- low, livid, and apparently dissolv- ed. The appearance of the cord is, however, equivocal; for the access of the air will, in a short time, produce the same changes. Indeed all these appearances are the result of putrefaction, and the child may have died only a very short time previous to its birth ; nor are authorities wanting to show that, while the access of the ex- ternal air is prevented, putrefac- tion does not soon take place. The marks of apparent violence on the body are by no means decisive. If an infant has breathed, it is supposed to have lived; buthow many weakly infants are born alive, without breathing for many mi- nutes ? and how often, on the other hand, after a hard labour, does the child breathe once or twice, and then die ? That the child may breathe before the delivery is com- plete, and die before it is fully born, is a fancy within the verge of possibility only, but too impro- bable to induce us to enlarge on it. A child, indeed, wholly perfect, may be strangled in its birth by the twisting of the umbilical cord round its neck; and it has been doubted whether, in this case, it is suffocated or dies apoplectic. It is probable that death is rather the consequence of the stoppage of the circulation through the cord itself; but this is of little moment, as the mark remains. May not this mark, however, be the effect of violence ? It certainly may be so; and the famous experiment of the lungs sinking in water is adduced to determine the doubt. In a child that has not breathed the lungs occupy the upper part of the chest, so as to leave the heart and pericardium exposed to ME ME view. But when the lungs are distended by respiration they fill the chest, and become specifically lighter than water. The English courts do not admit this experi- ment as evidence, and we are un- willing to disturb their decisions. We shall, therefore, add a few words on it as philosophers rather than as forensic physicians. Heister observes, that the ex- periment ' is indecisive, because schirri in the lungs will make them specifically heavier than water; but who would be so weak as not to examine whether the experi- ment was tried on a morbid or a sound part ? for the morbid lungs even of" an adult will sink in wa- ter. He adds, that he has seen a child who had breathed twenty hours, whose lungs sunk in water ; but he here speaks of the whole viscus, not of any particular por- tion, on which the experiment ought to be made. Again it is contended that when putrefaction has taken place, the lungs of a child who has never breathed will swim. This fact is positively de- nied by at least equal authority ; and,in reality,thelungsare scarcely susceptible of putrefaction, even when it has taken place in a con- siderable degree in the other parts of the body. If there were, how- ever, any ambiguity, it may be at once removed by a slight atten- tion. The air, separated by pu- trefaction, may be observed in the water passing along the divisions of the lobules, while air within them is invisible. It is certainly possible that the mother, in attempting to revive a still-born child, may endeavour to inflate the lungs by her own breath. Anatomists of eminence have dif- fered on the possibility of success; and we own that it appears to us impracticable, since the force of the expiration must be sufficiently great to expand the thorax, and the nostrils must be at the same time closed. Humanity will, however, take this source of expanded lungs into consideration, when the life of an individual is at stake. The colour of the lungs, which is of a bright red previous to in- spiration, their situation in the tho- rax, and the situation of the liver and stomach, as well as the shape of the diaphragm, will afford more decisive proofs ; but we will not accumulate what may be adduced to criminate. Suppose it, however, ascertain- ed that an infant is born alive, doea it follow that the mother has been its murderer ? The English law- allows the concealment of preg- nancy, and the want of provision for the infant, to be presumptive proofs of her guilt; though this has been most wisely and humanely put out of view by constituting it a distinct crime, with its appro- priate punishment. But if chil- dren die soon after birth, when the most anxious attention is ex- erted to preserve them, is it not probable that, in circumstances like those we speak of, the fatal event will be more common ? Is it not rather surprising that any should live ? The dangers that attend this first state of existence are nume- rous, and the neglects which may prove fatal are equally so. It is not our present business to point out these ; and, indeed, we have, through the whole discussion, pur- posely avoided giving information that may be abused. The foreign authors on forensic medicine seem to aim at assisting criminal inten- tions, by industriously pointing out the means of their execution. Wounds. The surgeon is often called to decide on the degree of injury sustained by these, and on the cause of death which follows them. When not mortal, and mu- tilation only is the consequence, the recompense which the law ME ME awards is proportioned to the in- jury sustained. The English law, however, makes the lying in wait, to maim, a capital offence, and with great propriety, as the lurking as- sassin is far more dangerous than an open enemy; and when it was alleged in a criminal's defence that the design was to kill, not to maim, the objection was over-ruled, on the principle that omne majus con- tinet in se minus. It is not easy to kill without maiming. Wounds are fatal either in con- sequence of the effusion of blood, or the destruction of the organisa- tion of some part essential to life. It is not here our business to enter into the legal distinctions in this very complicated subject; but to point out to the surgeon, for his observation, the various circum- stances on which these distinctions are founded. The divisions of the civilians, and of the older forensic physicians, into wounds mortal or indifferent, necessarily or abso- lutely mortal, &c. we shall not en- large on, as they are not applica- ble to the system of English juris- prudence. Wounds may, how- ever, be fatal by accident, as a bone at some part of the skull may be penetrated, if peculiarly thin, by a slight blow ; a part essential to life may be in a preternatural situation, as a blow on the groin, which would do no injary, may bring on a fatal inflammation in case of a previous hernia ; or a fever, which a slight blow has occasioned, may excite an indolent vomica to sup- puration. In all these instances the English law inquires quo animo the injury was inflicted. Again, a trifling wound may become fatal during the prevalence of a malig- nant epidemic, in a constitution deeply tainted with scurvy, syphi- lis, &c. or in one of great nervous irritability, by inducing tetanus, or its lesser degree, a locked j&w. A state of pregnancy, infancy, or old age, will also render trifling inju- ries dangerous or fatal. The event is equally influenced by obstinacy or cowardice, which prevents the treatment necessary to preserve life ; by intemperance, violent passions, or despair; by neglecting the proper precautions enjoined ; the want of necessary assistance, its delay in inclement seasons, or the unskilfulness of the practitioner. It was a truly judicious remark of a judge in a late cause, that he could not try the skill of a surgeon; and we would here add, that in every case where the opinion of a professional man is called on the conduct of another, he should reflect that his judgment is enlightened by the subsequent circumstances. In the situation in which the first practi- tioner was at the early era of the accident or complaint, the ques- tion must be, could he, with pro- priety, have acted differently ? If that question is answered in the affirmative, another will arise ; and should a man, himself liable to er- ror, be forward in criminating a brother ? Wounds of the brain are seldom mortal, except the base, the cere- bellum, or the spinal marrow at its commencement, are injured. A large portion of either hemisphere has been evacuated without injury, and even without the slightest (ap- parent) diminution of the faculties. Depressions of the skull are much more dangerous; and compression, from a fractured skull or extrava- sated fluids, as well as that torpid inflammation which concussion,af- ter some time, brings on, are al- most equally fatal. It is not the present object to point out the symptoms of each ; but we must add the strongest injunctions in case of apparent compression, to examine with the strictest anxiety the part affected, in order to the application of the trepan. Thi? 48 ME ML is often very difficult to ascer- tain. Wounds of the nerves are not always dangerous ; but if a nerve is partly wounded it may bring on a fatal tetanus, when, from its si- tuation, the nerve cannot be divid- ed. Bohnius remarks, that wounds of a nervous plexus are usually mortal, and bruises on a nervous part, particularly where its nerves are connected with the vital organs, are generally dangerous. Micha- elis mentions bruises on the pit of the stomach, in the English pugi- listic combats, as frequent causes of death ; and indeed all wounds of the stomach and intestines are highly dangerous, though many miraculous stories are related in which the patients were cured. Wounds of the liver, spleen, kid- neys, bladder, and uterus, are also usually fatal, from the access of the air or the internal haemorrhages. In experiments made on animals each is carefully avoided; but, with every precaution, the Caesarian sec- tion is usually mortal. Injuries in the vital organs, and indeed all wounds of the larger vessels, must necessarily be fatal. The stoppage of respiration, from any cause, must also soon termi- nate in death. A question some- times occurs, whether the person may not have been suspended or drowned after life had been extin- guished ? This question can only be answered satisfactorily by dis- section. Indeed, when life is des- troyed by suffocation, the mark of the injury is conspicuous in a much greater degree than by common suspension; and, in cases of drown- ing, the pale livid colour of the face, with froth round the mouth, may determine the question ; but each sign is equivocal. In either case, however, the venous system, particularly of the vena cava, and of the head, is greatly distended; and in strangulation the pulmonary artery is unusually full. Whether death has proceeded from deleteri- ous vapours, in which the body has been confined, to avoid the suspi- cion of former violence, is not so easily discovered. The applica- tion of galvanism would, however, show the extraordinary diminution of irritability, which is usually the effect of such vapours; and, in each case, other marks of violence, and the injury of organs essential to life, will give strong suspicions, which dissection will confirm. To pursue, with forensic physi- cians, the wounds of every differ- ent part, would extend this article beyond its proper limits ; nor, in- deed, could we add any thing which a knowledge of anatomy and physiology will not supply. Wc must not suppose our readers ig- norant of either. Shocks and bruises. Shocks im- pair the irritability of the vessels, and produce chronic inflammation in the brain or liver, which, after some time, is often the cause of death. Each cause here mentioned will also produce internal effusions, generally from a rupture of arte- ries, which may be fatal. A late instance has occurred, in which the radial artery was broken through its whole substance, by the shock only of a fall from a horse ; and Pilatre de Rozier, the victim of aeronautic folly, fell on his feet, and died immediately from the shock, which was found to produce internal effusions. Blows with a stick, without inflicting any wound, will occasion internal, and some- times neighbouring, accumula- tions ; and military punishments, when not fatal from gangrene, are sometimes so from abscesses form- ing below the bruised part. It is necessary, therefore, in forensic medicine, to look beyond the im- mediate injury, and examine the effects of what may arise from the shock or its consequences. In ME ME three instances we have heard from practitioners of credit decid- ed testimonies that the blows were not the causes of death, because no mortal appearance attended the wounds. It was unlucky for the eausc of justice that they were so ignorant; but humanity might smile through her tears, and cha- ritably hope that the escape would prove a warning. Mrdicina Politico. Medical in- terposition, according to our laws, is seldom necessary in questions of police. Yet there are many cases where an intelligent physi- cian might afford satisfactory in- formation. Perhaps the neglect has arisen from that dogmatism which is the effect of ignorance, or of imperfect science, as in the instance mentioned by Dr. Perci- val, where two physicians contra- dicted each other respecting the dangers from a copper work. One swore positively it was dangerous, because copper ores usually con- tained arsenic; the other had as- certained, by experiment, that the ore in question contained none. In the article A'er we showed that weather, and a state of atmos- phere apparently the most insalu- brious, were sometimes found heal- thy ; and that neither reasoning a priori, nor experiment with the eudiometer, would always point out situations where the health can be preserved. The vicinity of marshes certainly renders situa- tions unwholesome ; but this is lia- ble to exceptions. If the prevail- ing winds blow from a marsh to a town,at the season when the marsh is covered with water, little dan- ger arises from it; but if the wind passes over it when in a moist state, diseases often follow. Dilution of the miasma,we have said,is the best security, and, therefore, at a cer- tain distance its power is lessened or destroyed; but, unfortunately, '^his. djstanve is $ot ascertained, nor is it certain that every marsh pro- duces deleterious vapours. Those covered with salt water at each re- turning tide,or even at each spring, are not always dangerous. We cannot ascertain the innocence of any other kind, except of those very generally covered with water or herbage. Stagnant water has indeed been accused ; but we sus- pect without reason : it certainly is not eminently injurious, and, fromthe "green mantling,"known to exhale oxygenous gas, it may probably be salutary. Towns, it may be said, cannot be removed; but if unhealthy, they will be gradually forsaken. A house may be removed toahealthier spot; but the more temporary situation of a camp or a barrack which may be chosen should be fixed with pe- culiar care. The reports of army surgeons frequently point out the fatal effects of inattention to this important circumstance; and it has been said that barracks have been heedlessly erected in spots pecu- liarly unhealthy; nor should we be surprised to find the same careless- ness respecting health that we have found of expenditure. A medical topography should be published of every district, comprehending the particulars of its situation, its pre- vailing winds, usrtial temperature, and reigning diseases. This plan, which has been adopted in France, would truly merit the attention of the legislature; and it might easily have been appended to the agri- cultural surveys, were we as atten- tive to the lives and health of man- kind as of the shape or breed of cattle. Nuisances often claim the atten- tion of courts of justice, and phy- sicians are sometimes called on to decide. Their object is, however, to determine only what manufac- tures are injurious to health. A brick-kiln, a lime-kiln, a pottery, and. an iron-foundery, are unplea- ME ME sant neighbours ; but can we say cither is unwholesome? Smelting- houses for lead, and, in general, for copper; dye-houses and tan- yards, erected so near the water as to corrupt the stream, are cer- tainly injurious. The manufac- ture of the mineral acids, the oxy- genation of the muriatic acid for bleaching, the singeing of velvets, currying of leather, are processes always offensive, and generally in- jurious ; for the workmen are usu- ally pale and weak, subject to ner- vous diseases, and seldom long-liv- ed. Yet it is said, that the improv- ed methods of burning the smoke prevent much of the inconvenience. The process of making candles is offensive, but apparently not un- wholesome It has been admitted into towns, but with reluctance ; and the manufacture is discourag- ed in populous cities when com- plained of. The business of the dyer or the butcher is certainly not injurious to the health of those who practise or who live near ei- ther, nor can we recollect, in a large populous and trading town, any peculiar complaint that could be traced to their quarters. The breath and the dung of the cows have been thought salutary ; but should they be so, the vicinity of pigs is certainly otherwise, and these should not be fed in popu- lous cities. Were the police to interfere in buildings,one circumstance should be indispensable, viz. that every house should have a free ventila- tion from the front to the back part: the smallest court behind would be sufficient, if not shut up by houses rising gradually higher on a hill. We have found no cir- cumstance so injurious to the ge- neral health of a family as a situa- tion where free ventilation is im- peded. The foreign authors on the me- dicina poliiica are full of numerous disquisitions, in which our laws speak positively, and require no medical aid. One of these points is the age proper for marriage; others are cohabitation, the Caesa- rian operation, punishments dur- ing pregnancy, Sec. One of these subjects calls, we think, for medi- cal interposition, viz. the danger of propagating the most dreadful diseases, as mania, scrofula, phthi- sis, &c. Yet we see not how phy- sicians can interfere ; for the child sometimes partakes of that parent's constitution which is per- fectly sound. Must that child, or such children, then, be deprived of existence because the life of others may be short or suffering I Humanity, reason, and religion, will at once forbid. A stronger case is, where a woman, from de- formity, cannot have a living child. Must her marriage be prevented ? Neither law nor religion will de« cide in the affirmative, though the child and the mother may be sa- crificed ; and such is the circum- stance lately mentioned, where the civilians have thought the pro- curing abortion justifiable. This, for numerous reasons, we must oppose, though we think bringing on labour at the seventh month a humane and judicious expedient: the impossibility of the woman's bearing a living child should, how- ever, be first ascertained, without any doubt. When the testimony of a physi- cian is called for in a court of jus- tice, his evidence should be clear, divested of technical language, and in modest, decent terms. He is sworn to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth; yet we have spoken of giving truth in her fairest garb, of softening what is harsh, and lean- ing to the side of humanity. We must explain. It is not our de- sign to recommend prevarication, much less concealment: yet in ME ME the most decided cases there must be doubts, there must be views, which will carry with them alle- viations It is neither prevarica- tion nor concealment to give each their full force ; to point out how far they may bear on circum- stances the most apparently posi- tive. It has been said that it is better ten criminals should escape than one innocent person suffer by insufficient evidence. Yet cri- minals are confessedly punished for the sake of example; and the frequency of escapes, we fear, en- courages new attempts. The maxim, therefore, though humane and benevolent, has been carried to an extreme ; yet, as involving some intricate disquisitions not applicable to medical evidence, we can only add, that as the ex- treme of justice is the extreme of injury, so excess of humanity may be the excess of cruelty. We have now finished a sub- ject, new in our language, and in which, though we have anxiously avoided error, we may have often committed it. The extent of our article is comparatively short, for we have endeavoured to compress volumes into pages; and as Eng- lish forensic disquisitions on me- dical subjects must relate to Eng- lish laws, many bulky inquiries were foreign to our purpose. Medicina Statica. During the prevalence of the mechanical sys- tems, when pondere mensura et numero Deus omnia fecit was the conduct held out to our imitation, the body was constantly weighed, ind the salubrity of food was esti- mated by its perspirability This plan, pursued at some lengths by Sanctorius, was soon found to give unsatisfactory results; for the va- letudinarian, in his statical chair, though the balance was carefully preserved, lost his strength and spirits ; and he saw, with surprise, that he was '«truly found want- ing." Many circumstances were not taken into the account, which would greatly alter the result; but these we need not stay to enumerate, as the folly has had its day, and is now forgotten. Medicine. The ordinary use of this term needs no explanation; but it is also frequently used to express the whole art of healing, and includes all the parts belong- ing thereto. By the schools it is divided into, 1. Physiologia ; 2. Pathologia ; 3 Semeiotice ; 4. Hy- gieine; 5. Therapeutice ; which see under their respective names. Meditullium, is that spongy sub- stance between the two plates of the cranium, and in the interstices of all laminated bones. Mi dius Venter, the middle ven- ter ; the thorax, or chest. Medulla. See Marrow. Medulla Cerebri, is the white soft part of the brain, covered on the outside with the cortical sub- stance, which is of a more dark or ashy colour. See Brain. Medulla Oblongata, the medul- lary substance, of the same use as the cerebrum, that lies within the cranium upon the basillary process of the occipital bone. It is formed by the connection of the crura cerebri and crura cere- belli, and terminates in the spinal marrow. It has several eminen- ces, viz. pons varolii, corpora py- ramidalia, and corpora olivaria. Medulla Spinalis, the spinal marrow ; a continuation of the me- dulla oblongata, which descends into the species vertebralis from the foramen magnum occipitale, to the third vertebra of the loins, where it terminates in a number of nerves, which, from their re- semblance, are called cauda equina. The spinal marrow is composed, like the brain, of a cortical and medullary substance: the former is placed internally. It is covered by a continuation of the dura ma- ME ME ter, pia mater,and tunica arachnoi- dea. The use of the spinal marrow is to give off through the lateral or intervertebral foramina thirty pairs of nerves, called cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral nerves. Megrim, i. e. Hemicrania. Meibomius's Glands, i. e. Ciliary Glands. ' Mel, honey. Melena, ) black bile, or Melaina, fitXaivx, 3 the disease the matter of which is black bile. The same as Melaina Nosos, or Morbus Niger. Melaina Aroscs. the black disease. Hippocrates applies this name to two diseases. In the first the pa- tient vomits black bile, which is sometimes bloody and sour; some- times he throws up a thin saliva, and at others a green bile, Sec. In the second the patient is as de- scribed in the article Morbus Niger. Melampodium, black hellebore. So called from Melampus, who first used it in medicine. Melanagogues, are such medi- cines as are supposed particularly to purge off black choler; from fxiXx:, niger, black, and ayu, duco, to lead ; but there is no such distinc- tion of choler now much regarded, and, consequently, this term is but little used. Melancholia. Melancholy mad- ness. M.iXx)>xoXix, from fj-iXxq, black, and x0^ ^'e » because the an- cients supposed that it proceed- ed from a redundance of black bile. A disease in the class neu- roses and order vesanie of Cullen, characterized by erroneous judg- ment, but not merely respecting health, from imaginary percep- tions or recollection influencing the conduct, and depressing the mind with ill-grounded fears ; not combined with either pyrexia or comatose affections; often appear- ing without dyspepsia, yet attended with costiveness, chiefly in per- sons of rigid fibres and torpid in- sensibility. See Dr. Crichton's late and valuable publication on Mental Derangement. M/ias. Vitiligo nigra. Morphea ni- gra Lepra Maculosa nigra. MiXac, black. A disease that appears upon the skin in black or brown spots, which very frequently penetrate deep, even to the bone, and do not give any pain or uneasiness. It is a disease very frequent in and endemial to Arabia, where it appears to be produced by a pe- culiar miasm. Melasma, a disease that ap- pears, not unfrequently, upon the tibiae of aged persons, in form of a livid black spot, which, in a day or two, degenerates into a very foul ulcer. Meliceris, an encysted tumour, whose contents resemble honey in consistence and appearance ; from ptXi. honey. M. M. Excision. Melilotus,from jueA», honey, and Xo- "toi,a kind of lotus; melilot It is the Trifolium Melilot us of Linnaeus. Melissa. Balm. Melissa offici- nalis of Linnaeus. A native of the southern parts of Europe, but very common in our gardens. In its recent state it has a roughish aro- matic taste, and a pleasant smell of the lemon kind. It was for- merly much esteemed in nervous diseases, and was very generally recommended in melancholic and hypochondriacal affections; but in modern practice it is only em- ployed when prepared as tea, as a grateful diluent drink in fe- vers, &c. Membrane. A thin expanded substance, composed of cellular membrane, whose elastic fibres are so arranged and woven toge- ther as to allow of great pliability. The membranes of the body are various, as the skin, peritoneum, pleura, dura mater, &c. &c Membrana Tympani. See Ear. Membranosus Musculus, is a muscle of the leg, so called from ME ME the large membranous expansion it is continued with, enclosing all the muscles of the tibia and tar- sus; whence it is also called Fascia lata. It hath a sharp fleshy be- ginning from the fore part of the spine of the os ilium, between the origination of the sartorius, and tendinous beginning of the glu- taeus magnus; and being dilated to a fleshy belly, which fills the interstice made by the first of the two last named muscles, and up- per part of the rectus, and fore part of the glutaeus medius, in its oblique descent becomes tendinous four fingers' breadth below the great trochanter, whence it passes directly over the vastus externus to its proper termination at the superior appendix of the fibula ; but in its progress thither it is con- joined with the tendinous expan- sion of the glutaeus magnus, which ariseth from the spine of the ilium, covering the external part of the glutaeus medius, and all the ex- ternal muscles of the tibia, as those of the thigh-bone ; and de- scending over the patella, compre- hends all the muscles of the tar- sus, and joins with the ligamentum anulare, which retains the tendons of the toes and feet. When this muscle acteth, the leg and thigh are drawn outwards. Membrum, a member or limb. Menagogues, are such medi- eines as promote the Ahx of the menses. Meninges, pwyyis, ? meninges, Meninx, /omvtyf, ) or matres, from being the supposed origin of all the other membranes. Both these words are used particularly for the dura and pi i mater. Meningos Arterie, i. e. Arterie Dure Matria. Menorrhagia. An immoderate flow of the menses ; from fmv, a month, and pwya?, a rupture. A genus of disease in the class py- rexia and order hemorrhagie of Cullen. Species : 1. Menorrha- gia rubra, proper; from women neither with child nor in child- birth : 2. Menorrhagia alba, serous; the fluor albus (see Leucorrhea :) 3 Menorrhagia vitiorum, from some local disease : 4 Menorrha- gia lochialis, from women after de- livery. See Lochiorrhea. M. M. Laxatives ; refrigerants ; acids ; recumbent posture ; cold ; digi- talis ; opium ; astringents ; iron ; sugar of lead; sulphate of cop- per. Menses, (from mensis, a month,) catamenia, menstrua, emmenia, gy- necia, periodical discharges of blood from the uterus, vagina, or both, from about the age of four- teen to about fifty. In warm cli- mates they appear at about eight or nine years of age ; in tempe- rate ones at thirteen to fourteen, and in the arctic regions not till nineteen or twenty. The quantity discharged is from four to ten ounces ; but in this there is much variety, and the discharge conti- nues from two to eight or ten days. In some relaxed constitutions there is occasionally not more than a week's interval, and in general the more lax the constitution the larger is the discharge, and the longer its continuance. The in- dolent, the sanguine, and the lux- urious, have generally a large pe- riodical evacuation. Usually, the earlier the period when they first appear, the sooner they disappear. In this country theydisappearabout the forty-fifth year,though,from ac- cidental circumstances, the cessa- tion may happen in the thirty-sixth, or be protracted to the fiftieth year. We have known instances of their continuing to the fifty-second, when they have not appeared at a late pe- riod. The tales so frequently de- tailed, of their returning at the ages of sixty, and even of eighty, do not merit any particular atten- tion, though often well founded ; ME ME for in these cases the discharge is truly haemorrhagic,generally tem- porary, and often critical. The menses flow chiefly from the uterus, and occasionally from the vagina alone, as happens some- times during pregnancy. When the natural discharge is stopped, a vicarious bleeding takes place from the nose, the lungs, the nip- ple, the haemorrhoidal veins, the stomach, the bowels, and even the gums, without any particular in- convenience. Before that peculiarstate of irri-, lability which disposes to an irre- gular balance of the circulation, and consequently to topical con- gestion, had its full weight in our physiological and pathological in- quiries, a discharge of blood im- plied, in the opinion of patholo- gists, plethora. That a general fulness was the cause of the men- strual discharge was scarcely doubted by the soundest physiolo- gists, for the fancies of the lunar influence and of fermentation were soon rejected. This opinion had undoubtedly many observations to support it The access of the ca- tamenia was marked by general load and oppression ; the breasts swelled; the stomach was often disordered ; and their suppression was followed by other sanguine discharges. Yet the acuteness of modern philosophers soon disco- vered that these views would not explain all the various phenome- na. They saw that the catamenia continued to recur, notwithstand- ing the system was exhausted; that the fullest habits had not, invariably, the most copious or frequent discharges ; for, on the contrary, these were usually ob- served in the weak and irritable. They perceived also, that a copious general bleeding would not stop their appearance, and the most co- pious discharge would not always relieve any internal inflammation. If also this view was correct, why did not the catamenia occur at other ages, when the vessels were distended ? why not in the inter- mediate periods, if the arterial system was unusually full ? The partial congestions, suggested by the writers of the Stahlian school, came therefore to their aid. The topical load, in a system so irrita- ble and so generally sympathizing as that of the uterus, would pro- duce equal uneasiness ; from the peculiar sympathy between the uterus and the breasts, the mammae would swell; and, when any the most purely topical discharge was suppressed, other irregular deter- minations were known in other in- stances to come on. Nothing appeared, therefore, to be incon- sistent with topical plethora ; and this satisfactorily explained all the difficulties of the former system. The idea had loosely floated in the minds of many physiologists be- fore the time of Dr Cullen; but to him we are indebted for its ex- pansion into a system at once ele- gant and correct. The genital systems of either sex experience a change about the same time, and as the vessels of the uterus easily admit of consider- able dilatation, congestion is the consequence, which is relieved by the exhaling arteries yielding to the impulse. No rupture of the veins or arteries takes place, for the discharge is steady, regular, and seldom considerable in a given time. After it has continued for even a short period, every incon- venience is removed, the previous load is no longer felt, and the fulness of the mammae subsides. The continuance of the discharge is different in different constitu- tions, but it usually continues from three to five days, when it ceases, sometimes leaving a serous dis- charge for a day or two, some- times a mucous one, which, if it ME ME continues, constitutes the disease called leucorrhxa, or fluor albus. The recurrence of the catame- nia is with more difficulty explain- ed. Women, from the sedentary life which they lead, and from a looser contexture of vessels, are more subject to plethoric conges- tions than men, and the uterus is, from its structure, more likely to receive these accumulated fluids. By degrees these topical conges- tions become habitual, and recur independently of any real general plethora. This explanation ap- pears to be supported by the irre- gular returns of the catamenia in the earlier periods, and the irregu- lar continuance of the discharge before the habit is established. Why the accumulation should re- quire a lunar month before it is equal to produce the effect, it is impossible to ascertain, as why the period of fourteen days should be most commonly required to produce the crisis of fever, or why the seventh and the fourteenth year should be marked by striking changes in the constitution. Such is the determination of Him "in whom we live, and move, and have our being." This view of the subject will ex- plain equally the pathologyand prac- tice in all their varieties. When the changes, which successively take place in the determinations to the different parts, commence, a great degree of irritability occurs, and sometimes considerable debility. This is particularly the case with the changes in organs so peculiarly irritable as those connected with generation. At this period, in young women, we find a pallid languor, want of appetite, terrors, tremors, and even convulsions. Where the constitution is more ro- bust and plethoric, violent pains, flushings in the face, and even fe- verish attacks. In the first in- stance, the determination is un- equal to the task ; in the second, some obstruction occurs in the ex- halents ; and, like every other im- pediment to the free circulation, excites a vis a tergo to overcome it. Similar symptoms follow ob- struction, joined with the inconve- niences which arise from the stop- page of an habitual discharge, added to those which result from the altered determination, which is the consequence. Menses deficientes, the amae- norrhaea of Dr. Cullen, including also, with less accuracy, the dys- menorrhcea, difficilis menstruatio of authors, constitute a disease di- vided into the emansio and suppres- sio mensium. The difficult men- struation may be a variety of the latter, as the discharge is tempo- rarily suppressed. The emansio mensium consists of a retention of the discharge at the period when it should take place, independent of pregnancy. To constitute a disease it must be at- tended with pain, uneasiness, or a disturbance of the functions, for, whatever time maybe fixed as the usual one, this period is protracted in some constitutions, without in- convenience. Much depends on the climate, the mode of life, the structure of the body, and the pe- culiarities of the constitution. Thus in a warm climate the period may be accelerated to the age of ten or eleven, and, in a cold one, retarded to eighteen : a girl, in- dulged in all the luxuries of mo- dern fashionable life, and the sedentary seamstress, or the labo- rious peasant, experience equal prematurity, or retarded expan- sion : a full-bosomed plethoric girl, and a thin attenuated one, with small delicate limbs and a torpid circulation, are respectively in the same circumstances. Some- what depends also, upon structure. In the case recorded in the Edin- burgh Journal, where the menses 49 ME ME never appeared, the ovaria were wanting. In similar circumstan- ces, the form, the manners, and general appearance, resemble that of a man ; so that, when we see the masculine manner and growth, it is highly, probable that the menses, if they appear at all, will be scanty, and impregnation im- probable, as the female structure is in some important respect de- fective. When the discharge does not take place, the whole system be- comes languid, the complexion pale, the mucous secretions are defective : and, in consequence, the foeculent discharges are imped- ed, and the nose is dry. The ap- petite is bad, or fanciful, often re- quiring substances not alimentary, though not, as has been said, al- ways antacid, nor in such circum- stances does acid abound in the stomach. The mind is whimsical and variable, the voluntary muscles convulsed; the sleep disturbed, the urine pale. In fact, the ani- mal functions are almost wholly suspended, and the vital ones feebly carried on, for the pulse is low and quick, the breathing labo- rious; consumption,or palsy ,seems to impend, and the patient appears to sink rapidly to the grave. In the worst stages of these com- plaints, a little mucous or serous discharge, perhaps somewhat co- loured,changes the scene,and gives some appearance of returning health : it recurs at distant and irregular intervals, attended, each time, with some amendment of all the symptoms, till at last, colour, appetite, spirits, Sec. return ; and the palid, chlorotic girl becomes a blooming, healthy young woman. While we are ignorant of the first principles by which nature acts, we know not the impediments to her action. We recognize, in the case before us, either a want of energy, or some resistance in the exhalent arteries ; each attended by an apparent sinking of the more active powers. If we observe the progress, the change at last ap- pears to take place from the ves- sels yielding, in consequence of debility, rather than from increased impetus, for the first appearances, the serous or mucous discharges are complaints, which, at future periods, arise from debility only. The change, though imperfectly taking place, is attended with be- neficial consequences; and the powers of nature, thus reanimated, gain additional force, to complete the more perfect state. The re- gular return however is not yet observed, for this is the conse- quence of habit. In this weak state young women often continue for many years; but we know not that the com- plaint has ever been fatal, for, if the discharge does not take place, they recover some share of strength and activity. The complant is of- ten taken for consumption, and many remedies of a secret kind have acquired credit from the ef- forts of nature alone. Many old women's remedies have, on the same ground, been highly praised; and the numerous female pills, so often advertised, have appeared to succeed, when nature has done the work. We mean not to deny that this often happens in regular practice, but the foundation of the plans, in this disease, we shall proceed to explain. The most obvious idea in these circumstances is to give strength and activity to the circulating sys- tem : another, though a subordi- nate one, is to relax either a sup- posed constriction, or to stimulate; topically,the neighbouring vessels. To give strength and activity to the circulation is attempted ge- nerally by tonics and stimulants. Such however of the former as combine astringency,are supposed ME ME to be injurious. The simple bit- ters are therefore often employed, particularly the camomile flowers, and the columbo root. The myrrh is a mrdicine of a more doubtful nature ; and, as a narcotic bitter, rm.y appear to combine a sedative power. It seems, very certainly, to lessen hectic exacerbations. Whether it has a peculiar power in promoting the menstrual dis- charge we dare not say. We never have observed such power, but have suspected, in hectics, where there is a tendency to hae- morrhage from the lungs, that it has contributed to promote haemop- tysis : it may, therefore, have a similar effect. Astringents have been accused of checking the dis- charge, and we believe with rea- son. They have been certainly in- jurious when employed too freely in critical menstruations, and in puerperal profluvia. The tonics most generally bene- ficial are the metallic. Of these the most useful, or rather the most used, are the iron and mercury. We have said, that perhaps, with the exception of lead, all the metallic bodies were tonics, but diat the two just mentioned, seemed to give a more decided ac- tivity to the circulation, and that the former even occasioned inflam- matory action. Iron, or rather, as it is styled inaccurately, steel, is the foundation of the more com- mon boasted panaceas for this com- plaint, and is often highly useful. Every form has been in turn ex- tolled, and each has perhaps suc- ceeded. We know not that art has contrived a better preparation than the scales found around the anvil, in a blacksmith's shop, or the green vitriol ; and whatever iron can effect will be found to re- sult from these remedies. The chalybeate mineral waters are also frequently used with success. Zinc has been occasionally employed, but we believe no other metal in the later periods, since the cordial and diaphoretic powers of gold and silver have been distrusted. Perhaps arsenic might succeed ; but the long time required for the continuance of remedies for this complaint will suggest the most suspicious caution respecting this metal. Cold bathiner has been sometimes employed for this pur- pose, but not so frequently as it might, and probably would have been, were not cold considered among the causes which retard menstruation. We have, however, often found it an useful remedy. The chalybeate mineral waters have been, as usual, rendered more effectual by exercise, change of scene, cheerful society, and pleas- ing objects ; for all assist greatly in producing the change in the constitution which facilitates the discharge. Indeed, every thing which establishes the general health, and gives vigour to the constitution, contributes to the same salutary object. The stimulants employed to give energy and activity to the circula- tion must be those which act stea- dily and with moderation, so as not to exhaust the excitability they are designed to support' The chief of these is warmth, rather of climate than the artificial warmth of fires, though these are some- times of use when combined with exercise ; and the patients iq an hospital, who soonest receive re- lief, are those employed in the kitchen. In other forms, heat has been employed as in warm bathing, particularly in the waters at Bath ; and more partially in the semicu- pium and pediluvium; but this re- medy is, in general, better adapt- ed to cases of suppression. The exciting passions, as joy, particu- larly from an object attained, ex- ercise of every kind, warm gene- rous food, with the moderate use ME ME of wine, frequent friction, parti- cularly of the lower extremities, electricity generally employed by sitting on the stool, and perhaps Galvanic shocks, may be useful. Breathing oxygen air seems not to have been employed ; yet, as in- creasing the activity of the circu- lation, and giving the blood a more florid colour, it promises success. The internal stimulating reme- dies are various. Ofthese the most useful are emetics. The ammonia, the animal oil of Dipple, the petro- leum, the balsam of Peru, guaia- cum, and the more irritating ca- thartics, are employed. The cathartics, however, most advantageous are those which act on the rectum, and topically stimu- late the organs adjoining the ute- rus. The chief of these is the aloes; and,ascostivenessis among the symptoms, so it is best reliev- ed by this medicine : in fact, aloes has a great share in all the secret remedies. Cantharides,as stimu- lating the bladder of urine, tur- pentine, as affecting, in the same way, the kidnies, and perhaps the urinary organs through their whole track, and black hellebore, which strongly irritates the whole of the intestinal canal, are useful reme- dies of the same kind. Shocks of electricity, passed through the pel- vis, are said to have succeeded ; and cupping-glasses have been ap- plied to the sides, and the thighs, to invite a larger proportion of the circulating fluids to these parts. The effects of the rubia tinctorum we do not know : it is enough to mention, in any part of this arti- cle, that it has been recommended. We mentioned, among the ex- citing passions, the attainment of any object; and if this be the ob- ject of love, the effects are stron- ger ; and matrimony is generally supposed to be an effectual cure. Yet this disease checks every warmer passion ; and, except in peculiar circumstances, the chlo- rotic girl scarcely looks forward to the wedded state as an object of desire. In our description of the symp- toms, we remarked, that the ute- rine vessels yielded apparently from debility, and there are many circumstances which concur in proving, that some degree of spasm in the weak chlorotic state prevents the discharge. There are several medicines recommended in the emansio mensium, which must chiefly act in this way ; among the rest, sitting over the steams of warm water is considered as highly useful. We shall find this remedy particularly so in suppressions, where spasm is more decidedly obvious. The fetid gums are of this kind, and other fetids, as rue, savine, castor, musk, and amber- gris, have been recommended. Camphor, which is highly useful, where spasm is certainly the cause, has been recommended in the chlo- rotic state, and perhaps the myrrh, with some other narcotic bitters, will be chiefly useful as antispas- modics. Though these are the usual symptoms of that variety of defi- cient menses, attended with debi- lity, and usually styled the chlo- rotic state, yet, in some instances, there is considerable fulness and pain, returning at irregular inter- vals, with vicarious discharges of blood from other organs. As such cases are, however, more common from suppression, or difficult men- struation, we shall speak of the pro- per remedies under these heads. Suppressio Mensium, When the habit is established, and the dis- charge continued monthly from this cause, it cannot be broken with impunity. The most frequent causes of suppression are expo- sure to cold, frights, falls, some- times fever, anxiety of mind, or confinement. Suppression from ME ME falls is a peculiarly obstinate dis- order, and the discharge is seldom restored ; for, as in other shocks, the irritability of the vessels is ap- parently injured. The attack of fever is often attended with the ap- pearance of the catamenia, and this, if at or near the regular period, is a favourable symptom. If at the intermediate part of the interval it is less favourable, though it affords no dangerous or fatal prognostic, as some practitioners have alleg- ed : suppression in consequence of long fevers is from weakness only, but the return is often pro- tracted. We have thought, that when the metises appear, on the attack of fever, out of their usual period of recurrence, the follow- ing suppression has been more obstinate. In general, the return of the discharge, after any violent degree of either cause, must not be soon expected. Suppression in wcakdelicate habits differs little, either in symptoms or remedies, from the species of emansio first described. In plethoric habits the symptoms are very different. If the cause occurs during the discharge a feverish attack often supervenes, the face is flushed, the eyes red ; pains in the head and back come on, with sometimes a bleeding from the nose. If a similar cause, oc- curring in the intervals, is conti- nued in its effects to the usual pe- riod of its appearance, symptoms Qf the same kind are observable ; and they recur at each expected re- turn, gradually however declining, till the chlorotic state comes on. In general, the sudden causes bring on the inflammatory, those more slow in their action the chlo- rotic, suppression. It has been usual, in cases of inflammatory suppression, to bleed copiously, and this is sometimes necessary, to prevent a vicarious haemorrhage either in the brain or lungs; but if it can be avoided, we shall also avoid the danger of establishing a new and dangerous habit. We gain much, in such complaints, by determining the fluids to the skin, by the relaxing diaphoretics ; and the sedative or antispasmodic power of camphor renders it a valuable medicine in this complaint. With either the antimonials, or with camphor, opium is also highly useful; nor should the practitioner neglect to invite the circulating fluids to the hypogastric region, by interposing active purgatives. About the pe- riod of the expected return, a smart emetic will prevent the re- currence of the spasm, especially if followed by the camphor, with opium ; and the discharge will ap- pear with its former regularity. It sometimes happens, that at the usual period of the return a fever comes on, which, as none of the causes of suppression had pre- ceded, or at least been observed, is usually considered as a common fever. If, however, it is at the period of menstruation, a circum- stance which every prudent physi- cian will keep in view, and the fever is of the inflammatory kind, it is highly probable that it pro- ceeds from some spasmodic ob- struction in the uterine vessels, and must be treated according to the directions already detailed. The Dysmenorrhea,or menstrua- tio difficilis, is a similar disorder, and a very important one, as it prevents the completion of the anxious wishes of those " who love their lords." The pain, on the occurrence of the discharge, is peculiarly violent; accompanied often with an obstinate constipation, or a suppression of urine. In fact, until the spasm of the uterine ves- sels is relieved, neitherthe kidnies nor the bowels yield, however powerful the medicine ; and the violence with which each return- ing discharge is attended, loosens ME ME the hold of any embryo, which, in the interval, may have been at- tached. No disease is more dis- tressing in its symptoms or its consequences : and the regularly returning confinement is disguised by a variety of ingenious inven- tions, while the consequences in advanced life are all the diseases of celibacy. The remedies are those of suppression, attended with violent pains, but the dysmenorr- hoea does not require bleeding. An active laxative at the expected period of the return, followed by a full dose of camphor and opium, will often succeed ; and, if re- peated at the next period, seldom fails to induce the discharge with- out the preceding pains. When these have been once and again conquered they seldom recur. In the inflammatory suppression and dysmenorrhcea, pediluvia, and sit- ting over the steams of warm wa- ter, are highly useful. The warm bath, raised to the heat of 94° or 96°, and continued so long as to produce slight faintness, will be often successful ; but the laxa- tives, joined with the relaxants, are not only conducted with more ease, but are more certainly effec- tual. In the whole of this considera- tion it will be obvious, that the great object is to correct the de- viations from health. When the healthy state is restored, the dis- charge will return. Medicines therefore should not be too fre- quently nor too constantly employ- ed ; and, on the other hand, too much should not be trusted to na- ture. It requires a minute dis- crimination to determine when art should interfere, and how long ar- tificial means should be continued. If our exertions are too violent, the constitution will sink under the double powers of the disease and the medicine ; if we are too remiss, the obstruction gains force, and years are required to restore the tone and the general health. There is, however, a period when the discharge will naturally cease. It is not that the constitu- tion does not supply the fluids as before, but that the diminished irri- tability of the vessels, or the di- minished resistance of the veins, no longer permits the haemorrha- gic effort This critical period of the female life, menses cessantes, must be attended to with care. The future health depends in a great degree on our conduct at this time ; and we are required to be peculiarly attentive, as female prejudices lead them to attribute every future complaintto some error at this time. The disappearance of the catamenia is preceded by a tem- porary suppression, continuingper- haps for two or three months, fol- lowed by an increased, and unu- sually continued, discharge. The discharge will sometimes recur at very short intervals, and in profuse quantities, leaving, when absent, a considerable degree of leucorr- hoea. The increased evacuation is not always attended with propor- tional debility, nor the temporary suppression with the symptoms al- ready described. The blood, in these instances, is apparently pour- ed from ruprtued veins, without any hemorrhagic effort. In this way the change is effected, often without disease, and almost unob- served ; but the suppression is sometimes attended with general load, with head-ache and wander- ing pains ; and the excessive dis- charge with considerable debility. Generally speaking, however, art should seldom interpose. The whole is the work of nature, which, as we cannot imitate, we cannot always assist. Experience, however, in the former variety, goes hand in hand with popular prejudice, and the general fulness is successfully relieved by laxa- ME ME lives. The domestic remedies are not however usually well cho- sen. Women, attached to their early experience, prefer the aloes, in their warmest preparations; but the object is to lessen the propor- tion of fluids in the abdominal vessels, and whatever effects this purpose with the least irritation, succeeds best. The salts alone are in general too cold, but they may be warmed with the tinctures of the more active purgatives, as of sena, rhubarb, or jalap. These, with the relaxant diaphoretics at night, particularly camphor and opium, will restore the circulation to its proper balance without incon- venience. The task is more difficult when the discharge is immoderate ; for female prejudice demands our ac- tive interference to check it, but this is always injurious. Young practitioners are commonly alert to show their skill; but it is wiser to rest, and to observe with care. In general, we have seldom known a more healthy old age than in those where the menses have dis- appeared with these profuse eva- cuations. If the woman has con- fidence in her medical attendant, she will remain at rest, in free air, lightly clothed, without exciting the circulation by aliment too rich, er drinks too stimulating; keeping with anxious care the bowels free by the most cooling laxatives. This conduct should, we think, be pursued, even when the debilityis considerable, nor should even opiates be interposed, except the pain is violent. In such cases, powerful astringents are highly injurious, and we have more than once seen apoplectic attacks from their imprudent use. In a few instances we have found it neces- sary to regulate the discharge, but seldom with advantage, and have had reason to suspect schirrosities of the uterus, ulcers, and cancers from the imprudent use of styptics. If called on, it is necessary to at- tempt relief in some way ; and we have generally found, that though no haemorrhagic effort is perceivable, we have done more service by cooling and sedative medicines, than hy bitters and as- tringents. Bitters may indeed be frequently allowed, and they will please, because an astringency is supposed to accompany every me- dicine of this kind. The Menorrhagia, Menses Im- modice, or an excessive menstrual dischaige, independent of the pregnant or puerperal state, is truly an haemorrhage, and may be either active or passive. The ac- tive maenorrhagia arises from cold, from blows or shocks, and almost exclusively occurs in strong ro- bust habits. The passive maenorr- hagia arises from debility of the ves- sels, too fluid blood, from frequent miscarriages or labours, which oc- casion local debility. There is, how- ever, an intermediate kind, viz. the excessive discharges, which occur in the indolent and luxuri- ous females of polished life. In these the vessels yield to exces- sive fulness, in part from debility, but generally with the assistance of some haemorrhagic effort. In the first variety bleeding is some- times necessary, though, as usual, a suspicious and uncertain remedy. It must, however, be often used, to prevent immediate bad consequen- ces ; but, in general, rest, in a cool free air, with nitre and camphor, very generally with opium, often in large and repeated doses, interpos- ing cooling saline purgatives, will relieve the complaint. The treat- ment of the second variety differs in no respect from that of other passive haemorrhages ; but the third often baffles our best endea- vours. It is difficult to induce the patient to avoid the principal causes, indo'ence and luxury; and ME ME to constringe distended vessels is the surest means of increasing their debility. If, however, she be obedient, lessening considera- bly the quantity and quality of her aliment, using, at the same time, free exercise in the open air, she will soon find a degree of languor and debility superior to what she before experienced; and it will be difficult to persuade her to con- tinue a disagreeable plan, when her feelings tell her that increased weakness is the consequence. The fact is, that the diminution of the fluids lessens the tension of the vessels ; and, as in the parocen- tesis, and numerous other cases, the diminution of tension produ- ces faintness, and sometimes even convulsions. It will require then no little confidence in the physi- cian, and no common resolution to persevere ; yet, with persever- ance, relief is certain. To steer between opposing prejudices and the best meansof relief isdifficult; nor do we know what rules to of- fer. The disposition of the patient must be consulted, and every address employed to lessen the powers of the aliment, to increase the discharge of the bowels by cooling laxatives, to lessen the activity of the circulation by opiates and refrigerants, while by every artifice bodily exercise is promoted. In the summer, sea- bathing, and in the proper season, Cheltenham, and other saline cha- lybeate waters, may be advised, as change of scene will lead to more frequent exercise in the open air. The fashionable physi- cian, who is contented with receiv- ing his daily fee, while he humours the fancies of his patient by some useless placebo, has the best chance of gaining credit in these cases ; as usual, not by assisting, but by pleasing. Yet some political advice will not be without its advantage. Wo- men look to the period of the ac- cess and departure of the ca- tamenia, as well as the monthly recurrence, as times of peculiar delicacy. They are unwilling to take any medicine unless it be consistent with their present cir- cumstances, and are apt to attri- bute any disappointment to the medicine that they may have been prevailed on to employ. The dis- charge is, however, an occurrence which we cannot always produce, and which we can seldom prevent, or supply by any vicarious evacua- tion. In general it requires no peculiar care ; but while popular prejudices exist against the use of any medicine at this time, a prudent physician will forbear to press it, unless absolutely necessa- ry. If it be so, the inconvenience, whatever it may be, must be met, and every bad effect may be obviat- ed by caution. Even a copious bleeding will often not stop the discharge ; purgatives will assist it; and opium, though it may oc- casionally retard, will be ultimate- ly injurious. When, however, the discharge is fully established, and has continued twenty-four or forty-eight hours, the danger of checking it, even in female ap- prehension, is inconsiderable. Menstruum. All liquors are so called, which are used as dissol- vents, or to extract the virtues or ingredients by infusion, decoction, &c. The principal menstrua made use of in Pharmacy, are water, vi- nous spirits, oils, acid and alkaline liquors. Mensura, a measure, in Botany. Plants are generally so various in their dimensions, that their parts can only be measured relatively to each other ; Tournefort, however, introduced positive geometrical mensuration : but Linnaeus, think- ing it inconvenient for a botanist to carry an artificial scale in his pocket, makes a natural scale of ME ME the human body, the degrees of which are these : capillus, linea, unguis, pollex, palmus, dodrans, spithama, pes, cubitus, brachium} orgya. Mentagra. An eruption about the chin, that forms a tenacious crust, like that on scald heads. Mentales, alienation of the judg- ment, in which the functions of the mind are disturbed. Mentha Piperitis. Peppermint. Mentha Piperitaof Linnaeus. The spontaneous growth of this plant is said to be peculiar to Britain. It has a more penetrating smell than any of the other mints; a strong pungent taste, glowing like pepper, sinking as it were into the tongue, and followed by a sense of coolness. The stomachic, an- tispasmodic, and carminative pro- perties of peppermint, render it useful in flatulent colics, hysterical affections, retchings, and other dyspeptic symptoms, acting as a cordial, and often producing an immediate relief. Its officinal pre- parations are an essential oil, a simple water, and a spirit. Oil of gt. i. to iii. Spirit of 9i. 3. ij. Wa- ter of 3*i. to 3ij- Mentha Sativa. Spearmint. Mentha viridis of Linnaeus. This plant grows wild in many parts of England. It is not so warm to the taste as peppermint, but has a more agreeable flavour, and is therefore preferred for culinary purposes. Its medicinal qualities are similar to those of peppermint; but the different preparations of the for- mer, though more pleasant, arc, perhaps, less efficacious. The officinal preparations of spearmint are an essential oil, a conserve, a simple water, and a spirit. Oil of gt. i. to iv. Spirit of 7,1 to |ss. Water of Jl to Jij- Mentula, a name for the penis. Mentum, is so much of the low- est part of the face as we distin- guish by the name of C!;,•':.-. Mephites, ^fn;, and Mephitical Exhalations, are poi- sonous or noxious steams, issuing out of the earth, from what cause soever. The most remarkable place of this kind is in the Grotto del Cani, near Puzzuoli, about two miles from Naples, in Italy ; the steams of which kill dogs or other animals, when brought within its reach : a very curious account of which, and the manner of its effi- cacy, is given by Dr. Mead, in his essay on Poisons. The Saratoga springs in New-York afford a simi- lar vapour. Both here and at Naples the noxious gas is carbonic acid. See Poisons. The word mephiticus signifies stinking, par- ticularly such a smell as arises from brimstone and water, or from corrupt water mixed with earth and brimstone. It is applied to fixed air also. Mercury. Quicksilver. Hy- drargyria. See Hydrargyria. Mercurials, are all medicines prepared with quicksilver. Merocele. A femoral hernia ; from j^Efo;, the thigh, and xi^n, a tumour. Mesaraica Vasa, and Mesenterica, ptwrspixct, Vasa, all signify the same thing, from the situation and fabric of those parts. Mesaraica Minor Vena, i. e. He- morrhoidalis Interna. Meseraic. The same as mesen- teric. See Mesenteric. Mesenteric Arteries. Two branch- es of the aorta in the abdomen are so called. The superior me- senteric is the second branch ; it is distributed upon the mesentery, and gives off the superior or right colic artery. The inferior mesen- teric is the fifth branch of the aorta; it sends off the internal hemorrhoidal. Mesenteric Glands. These are conglobate, and are situated here and there in the cellular mem- brane of the mesentery. The 50 ME ME chyle from the intestines passes through these glands to the tho- racic duct. Mesenteric Plexus of Nerves. The superior, middle, and lower mesenteric plexuses of nerves are formed by the branches of the great intercostal nerves. Mesenteric Veins. They all run into one trunk, that evacuates its blood into the vena portae. See Venafiorte. Mesenteritis. An inflammation of the mesentery. A species of peritonitis of Cullen. See Ente- ritis. Mesentery. The membranace- ous viscus in the cavity of the ab- domen, attached to the vertebrae of the loins, and to which the in- testines adhere; from /we, oculus, an eye ; mouse-eyed, or purblind, is when the eye is so convex, that the rayc unite before they come to the re- tina, which makes the eye also look small.—Those who by a natu- ral defect have the cornea and crystalline humour too convex,are called myopes. This figure, which increases the quantity of refrac- tion, tends to render the rays of such pencils as are formed in the MY MY eye more convergent, so that the point where these same rays meet is on this side of the retina. My- opes see distinctly those objects only which are near, which send towards the eye rays more diver- gent, and thereby less disposed to converge, through the effect of refraction in the crystalline and other humours This imperfection being the reverse of that which affects the eye of presbytae, is re- medied by the use of a glass slightly concave ; which, increas- ing the divergence of the rays re- ceived by the eye, prolongs the pencils that are formed in the or- gan, and causes their summits to fall more exactly on the retina. Myopes seem to have a fondness for minute objects; in general th'-y write a very fine hand, and read in preference works that are printed in a small type, because by choosing dimensions suited to the narrow scope of their sight, they continue to embrace a greater number of objects at once. They have the habit also of closing, in a certain degree, the eyelids, when they wish to see objects distinctly that are otherwise distant from them. Two advantages have been ascribed to this natural motion. On the one hand,bycontractingthelid, access is given to a smaller portion of light. Now those, who are my- opes see objects that are situated at a distance indistinctly, merely because the cones that are formed in the eye, as we have observed in the preceding paragraph, have their summit on this side the reti- na; so that the prolongations of the rays of which these cones are the assemblage, give rise to new cones, whose base meeting the bottom of the eye depicts a small circle there, instead of a simple point. Accordingly, when the number of rays introduced into the eye is diminished, that small circle is contracted, and the vision becomes less confused. On the other hand, the eye-lids, by clos- ing, exert a pressure on the or- gan that diminishes its convexity, and in part restores it to the form most favourable to the clearness of vision. Myosis, a contraction or too small perforation of the pupil; it is known by viewing the diameter of the pupil, which is smaller than usual, and remains so in an obscure place, where naturally, if not dis- eased, it dilates. Myositis, inflammation of a mus- cle. It is the term given by Sagar to accute rheumatism. Myotomy, the dissection of the muscles ; from pvw, a muscle, and TEjUVW, tO CUt. Myrrh. The tree that affords this gum-resin, by incision, grows on the eastern coast of Arabia Fe- lix. Good myrrh is of a foul black red colour; solid and heavy ; of a. peculiar smell, and bitter taste. Its medicinal effects are warm, corroborant, and antiseptic ; it has been successfully employed in pythisical cases as a pectoral, and although allied to some of the bal- sams, it is found to be more effica- cious and less irritating to the sys- tem. There are several prepara- tions of this drug in the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopeias.— Grs. v. to 3ss. Myrtiform Glands. See Glandu- le Myrtiformes. Myurus, an epithet for a sort of sinking pulse, when the second stroke is less than the first, the third than the second, &c. Of this there are two kinds ; the first is when the pulse so sinks as not to rise again ; the other, when it re- turns again, and rises in some de- gree. Both are esteemed bad pre- sages. NA NA N No. in prescription, is often used to signify the number of things. Caryophyllorum, No. vi. is six cloves. Nevi Materni, mother's marks. These marks are upon the skin of children, at birth, and are various in their nature, depending upon the longing or aversion of the mother; hence they resemble mulberries, grapes, bacon, &c The seat is mostly in the rete muscosum, or cellular membrane. Nails, ungues, horny laminae, si- tuated on the extremities of the fingers and toes. Naphtha, a very fluid species of petroleum, found chiefly in Italy. Narcosis, v»pxuo-n;, stupor, numb- ness, a stupefaction. Narcotics, vxpx&Tixx. Under this term is included all that part of the Materia Medica, which any way produces sleep, whether cal- led by this name, or Hypnotics, or Opiates. Nares, the nostrils. The cavity of the nostrils is of a pyramidal figure, and is situated under the anterior part of the cranium, in the middle of the lace. It is com- posed of fourteen bones, viz. the frontal, two maxillary, two nasal, two lachrymal, two inferior spon- gy, the sphaenoid, the vomer, the ethmoid, and two palatine bones, which form several eminences and cavities. The eminences are the septum narium, the cavernous substance of the ethmoid bone, called the superior conchae, and the inferior spongy bones. The cavities are three pair of pituitary sinusses, namely,the frontal, sphae- noid, and maxillary; the anterior and posterior foramina of the nos- trils ; the ductus nasalis,the sphae- no-palatine foramina, and anterior palatine foramina. All these parts are covered with periosteum, and a pituitary membrane which se- cretes the mucus of the nostrils. The arteries of this cavity are branches of the internal maxillary. The veins empty themselves into the internal jugulars. The nerves are branches of the olfactory, oph- thalmic, and superior maxillary. The use of the nostrils is for smel- ling, respiration, and speech. Nasi Ossa, the two small bones of the nose that are so termed, from the bridge of the nose ; in figure they are quadrangular and oblong. Nasturtium Aquaticum, water cresse. This indigenous plant, Sisymbrium nasturtium of Linnaeus, grows plentifully in brooks and stagnant waters. The leaves have a moderately pungent taste, emit a quick penetrating smell, like that of mustard seed, but much weaker. Water cresses obtain a place in the materia medica for their antiscorbutic qualities, which have been long very generally ac- knowledged by physicians. The most pleasant way of administer- ing them is in form of sallad. Nasus, the nose. Nates, the buttocks. Nates Cerebri, a name of two prominences of the brain, which are also called Testes. See Brain. Natron, Soda, mineral alkali. This alkali is chiefly imported from Spain and France. The best kind of the former is in dark co- loured masses, of a bluish tinge, very ponderous, sonorous, dry to the touch, and externally abound- ing with small cavities, without any offensive smell, and very salt to the taste ; if long exposed to the air, it undergoes a degree of spontaneous calcination. The best French natron is also dry, sono- rous, brittle, and of a deep blue colour, approaching to black. The natron which is mixed with small stones, gives out a fetid smell on. NA solution, and i3 white, soft, and deliquescent, is of the worst kind. The method of purifying this al- kali is directed both in the Lon- don and Edinburgh Pharmacope- ias The medicinal properties of natron are various ; it is much es- teemed by many in scrophulous diseases, given with bark ; in com- bination with the vitriolic acid it forms Glauber's salt, natron vi- triolatum, which is purgative ; with nitrous acid, cubic nitre ; with marine acid, common salt; and with cream of tartar, Rochelle salt, or sal saignette; and with ex- pressed vegetable oils, or animal fats, the different kinds of soaps. Naturalia, the pudenda. Natural Actions, those actions by which the body is preserved, as hunger, thirst, Sec. Natural Faculty, is that power arising from the blood's circula- tion, which is conspicuous in all the secretions performed within the body, that secretion alone ex- cepted which is made at the ori- gin of the nerves. Natural Functions, are those which convert the aliment into the substance of the body, and, there- fore, depend upon the viscera, ves- sels, and humours, that receive,de- tain, move, change, mix, separate, apply, discharge, and consume. Natural History. Natural his- tory, taken in its most extensive sense, signifies a knowledge and description of the whole universe. Facts respecting the heavenly bo- dies, the atmosphere, the earth, and indeed all the phenomena which occur in the world, and even those which relate to the external parts, as well as the actions of man himself, so far as reason can dis- cover them, belong to the province of natural history. But when we leave the simple recital of effects, and endeavour to investigate the causes of such phenomena, we overstep the boundaries of natural NA history, and enter on the confines of philosophy. This science, it must be evident, according to the above definition, is as extensive as nature itself; but in a more appro- priate and limited sense, it treats of those substances of which the earth is composed, and of those or- ganized bodies, whether vegetable or animal, which adorn its surtace, soar into the air, or dwell in the bosom of the waters. In this restricted sense natural history may be divided into two heads; the first teaches us the cha- racteristics, or distinctive marks of each individual object, whe- ther animal, vegetable, or mine- ral; the second renders us ac- quainted with all its peculiari- ties, in respect to its habits, its qualities, and its uses. To facilir tate the attainment of the first, it is necessary to adopt some sys- tem of classification, in which the individuals that correspond in par- ticular points may be arranged to- gether; and with this view we have preferred that of Linnaeus, as be- ing the most simple and perfect of any that has yet been presented to the public. A knowledge of the second head can only be acquired by a diligent and accurate investi- gation of each particular object. The study of natural history con- sists in the collection, arrange- ment, and exhibition of the various productions of the earth. These are divided into three great king- doms of nature, the boundaries of which meet in the Zoophytes. Minerals occupy the interior parts of the earth, in rude and shapeless masses. They are con- crete bodies, destitute of life and sensation. Vegetables clothe its surface with verdure, imbibe nourishment through their bibulous roots, re- spire by means of leaves, and con- tinue their kind by the dispersion of seed within prescribed limits NA NA They areorganizedbodies,posses- sing life, but not sensation. Animals inhabit the exterior parts of the earth, respire, and generate eggs; are impelled to ac- tion by hunger, affections, and pain, and by preying on other ani- mals and vegetables, restrain with- in proper limits and proportions the numbers of both. They pos- sess organized bodies, enjoy life and sensation, and have the power of ioco-motion. Man, who rules and subjugates all other beings, is by his wisdom alone capable of forming just con- clusions from such natural bodies as present themselves to his sen- ses. Hence an acquaintance with these bodies, and the capability from certain marks imprinted on them by the hand of nature, to dis- tinguish them from each other, and to affix to each its proper name, constitute the first step of know- ledge These are the elements of this m ience ; this is the great al- phabet of nature, for if the name be lost, the knowledge of the ob- ject must be lost also. The method pursued in natural history indicates that every body may, on inspection, be known by its peculiar name, and this points out whatever the industry of man has been able to discover respect- ing it, so that amid apparent con- fusion, the greatest order and regu- larity are discernible. The Linnaean system is divided into classes, orders, genera, spe- eies,and varieties, to each of which their names and characters are af- fixed. In this arrangement the classes and orders are arbitrary, the genera and species are natural. Of the three grand divisions of the imperium naturae,above refer- red to, the animal kingdom stands highest in the scale, next to it the vegetable, and lastly the mineral kingdum. With regard to the animal king- dom we may observe, that animals enjoy sensation by means of a liv- ing organization, animated by a medullary substance, perception by nerves, and motion by the exer- tion of the will. They are furnish- ed with members for the different purposes of life, organs for their different senses, ana faculties or powers for the application of their different perceptions. They all originate ab ovo The following is a brief abstract of the arrangement pursued by Linnaeus in his division of the ani- mal kingdom. CLASS I. MAMMALIA. ORDER. Primates Pecora Bruta Belluae Ferae Cete Glires CLASS II. AVES. ORDER. Accipetres Grallae Picae Gallinae Anseres Passeres CLASS III. AMPHIBIA. ORDER. Reptilia Serpentes CLASS IV. PISCES. ORDER. Apodes Abdominales Jugulares Branchiostegi Thoracici Condropterygii CLASS V INSECTA. ORDER. Coleop'era Hymenoptera Hemyptera Diptera Lepiuoptera Aptera Neuroptera CLASS VI. VERMES. ORDER. Intestina Zoophyta Mollusca Infusoria Testacea Nature, is a word used in divers significations. More strictly it is taken for a peculiar disposition of parts in some particular body ; as we say, it is the nature of fish to live in water. And again, it is ta- NE NE ken more largely for the universal disposition of all bodies, and in this sense it is nothing else but the Divine Providence ; for as much as that governs and directs all things by certain rules and laws, accommodated to their several con- ditions of existence. Sometimes it is taken for the essential pro- perties of some things, with the attributes belonging thereunto; as we say, it is the nature of God to be good, of a soul to think, or of a stone to gravitate. And, lastly, it is sometimes used for the sys- tem of the universe, and the whole visible and created world. Nausea, from vxvq, navis, a ship; the sickness induced by tossing at sea in a vessel; and is properly the sickness perceived on sailing ; but it is used to express all sorts of sickness, and propensities to vo- mit, whether called sickness, or nausea, qualm, loathing, or what- ever else. Though, strictly, nau- sea may be defined to be an ap- proach to sickness, it is such a sub- version of the stomach, as that it rests not in its natural easy state. Nauticus, i. e Tibialis Posticus. It is so called from the use which sailors make of it in climbing Naviculare Os, or Naviforme, from navicula, a little vessel. See Scaphoides. Neafiolitanus Morbus, the Nea- politan disease ; a name of the ve- nereal disease. Neck The parts which form the neck are divided into external and internal. The external parts are the common integuments; several muscles; eight pair of ser- vical nerves, the eighth pair of nerves of the cerebrum, and the great intercostal nerve; the two carotid arteries ; the two external jugular veins, and the two inter- nal ; the glands of the neck, viz. the jugular, submaxillary, cervi- cal, and thyroid. The internal parts are the fauces, pharynx, oeso- phagus, larynx, and trachea. The bones of the neck are the seven cervical vertebrae. Necrosis, ttxpww, from itxpos, dead; a sort of mortification commonly called the dry gangrene It gra- dually takes place without much preceding inflammation, the dead part becoming hard and dry. Nepenthe, vwnvGu?, was a name first given to an opitate or lauda- num, by Theodorus Zwingerus, from the great opinion he had of its giving ease in all manner of pain, the word importing as much. Nephralgia, pain in the kid- ney ; from w^poj, the kidney, and aXyog, pain. Nephralgia Rheumatica,the rheu- matism in the muscles of the loins. The same as Lumbago. Nephrebninthica Ischuria, sup- pression of urine from worms in the kidneys. Nephritica Ischuria, a suppres- sion of urine from inflammation of the kidneys. Nephritica, are those medicines which are good against such a dis- temper, by their power in dissolv- ing or breaking stony concre- tions in those parts. Nephritis, inflammation of the kidney; from «$poj, the kidney. It is a genus of disease in the class pyrexie, and order phlegmasia of Cullen ; known by. pyrexia, pain in the region of the kidneys, and shooting along the course of the ureter; drawing up of the tes- ticles ; numbness of the thigh; vomiting; urine high coloured, and frequently discharged; cos- tiveness, and colic pains. Ne- phritis is symptomatic of calculus, gout, &c. M. M. Venesection; cooling purgatives; refrigerants; diuretics ; mucilages; warm bath; opium. When it terminates in suppuration, balsam capivi, nitre and rhubarb. Nephrolithica Ischuria, suppres- NE NE son of urine from calculi in the kidneys. Nephrophlegmatica Iachuria, sup- pression of urine from phlegmatic or mucous matter in the kidneys. Nephroplegica Iachuria, sup- pression of urine from a paralytic state of the kidneys. Nephroplethorica Ischuria, sup- pression of urine from plethora. Nephropyica Ischuria, suppres- sion of urine from pus in the kid- neys. Ntphros, vifypot, a kidney. Nephrospastica Ischuria, sup- pression of urine from a spasm in the kidneys. Nephrotomia, nephrotomy. It is the extraction of a stone from the kidneys, by a wound made for that end. Nephrothromboides, suppression of urine from concreted blood in the kindeys. Nerve. Nerves are long white medullary cords that serve for sensation. They originate from the brain and spinal marrow; hence they are distinguished into cerebral and spinal nerves, and are distributed upon the organs of sense, the viscera, vessels, mus- cles,and every part that is endowed with sensibility. The cerebral nerves are the olfactory, optic, motores, oculorum, pathetici or trochleatores, trigemini or divisi, abducent, auditory or acoustic, par vagum and lingual. Heister has drawn up the uses of these nerves in the two following verses: Olfuciens, cerncns, oculoique movens pa- tientque, Gustuns, abducent, audiensque, vagans- que, loquensque. The spinal nerves are thirty pair, and are divided into eight pair of cervical, twelve pair of dorsal, five pair of lumbar, and five of sacral nerves. In the course of the nerves there are a number of knots ; these are cal- led ganglions; they are commonly of an oblong shape, and of a grey- ish colour, somewhat inclined to red, which is perhaps owing to their being extremely vascular. Some writers have considered these ganglions as so many little brains. Lancisi fancied he had discovered muscular fibres in them,but they certainly are not of an irritable nature A late writer, Dr. Johnson, imagines they are intended to deprive us of the pow- er of the will over certain parts, as the heart, for instance; but if this hypothesis were well found- ed, they should be met with only in nerves leading to involuntary muscles; whereas, it is certain that the involuntary muscles re- ceive nerves through ganglions. Dr. Munro, from observing the accurate intermixture of the mi- nute nerves which compose them, considers them as new sources of nervous energy. The nerves, like the blood-vessels, in their course through the body, commu- nicate with each other, and each of these communications consti- tutes what is called a. plexus, (rom. whence branches are again de- tached to different parts of the bo- dy. The use of the nerves is to convey the principles of motion and sensibility to the brain from all parts of the system, and from the brain to every part of the system. The manner in which this operation is effected, is not yet determined. The inquiry has been a constant source of hypothesis in all ages, and has produced some ingenious ideas, and many erroneous posi- tions, but without having, hitherto, afforded much satisfactory infor- mation. Some physiologists have considered a trunk of nerves as a solid cord, capable of being divid- ed into an infinite number of fila- ments, by means of which the im- pressions of feeling are conveyed to the common sensorium. Others have supposed each fibril to be NE NI a canal, carrying a volatile fluid, whi n they ^erm the nervous fluid Those who contend for their be- ing solid bodies, are of opinion that feeling is occasioned by vi- bration ; so that, for instance, ac- cording to this hypothesis, by pricking the finger, a vibration would be occasioned in the nerve distributed through its substance; and the effec.s of this vibration, when extended to the sensorium, would be an excitation of pain ; but the ineiasticiu, the softness, the connection, and the situation of the nerves are so many proofs that vibration has no share in the cause of feeling. Nervines, remedies for disor- ders of the nerves Nervous Fever, a species of typhus. See Typhus mi dor. Nervous Fluid. The vascula- rity of the cortial part of the brain, and of the nerves themselves, their softness, pulpiness, and natu- ral humid appearance, give rea- son to believe that between the medullary particles of which they are principally composed, a fine fluid is constantly secreted, which may be fitted to receive and transmit, even more readily than other fluids do, all impressions which are made on it. See Nerves. Neurology, the doctrine of the nerves; from vcvpot, a nerve, and Xoyos, a discourse. Neuron, twpov, a nerve. Neuroses, from nvpov, a nerve ; nervous diseases These form a class in Dr Cullen's Nosology; and under this title he compre- hends those preternatural affec- tions of sense or motion, which are without fever, as a part of the primary disease; and all those which do not depend upon a topi- cal affection of the organs, but up- on a more general affection of the nervous system, and of those pow- ers on which sense and motion more especially depend. Neutral Salts, secondary salts. Under the name of neutral or se- condary salts are comprehended such matters as are composed of two primitive saline substances combined together. They are called neutral, because they do not possess the characters of acid nor alkaline salts, which are primi- tive salts; such are Epsom salts, alum, nitre, 8cc Nickle, a mineral mostly found united with sulphur and arsenic. Its ores have a coppery red co- lour, and are almost always cover- ed with a greenish grey efflores- cence. It is very plentiful in Sax- ony. Nicotiana, tobacco. The Vir- ginian tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum of Linnaeus, is the plant employed medicinally. It is a very active narcotic and sternutatory. A de- coction of the leaves is much es- teemed in some diseases of the skin, and it is by some said to be a specific against the itch. The fumes and the decoction are em- ployed in obstinate constipations of the bowels, and very frequently with success; it is necessary, how- ever, to caution the practitioner against an effect mostly produced by its exhibition, namely, syncope with cold sweats; and, in some instances, death. If Ji. be infus- ed in ft)i. of water, gts. lx. to lx. may be given internally, or Ji. in an enema. Nictitans Membrana, the wink- ing membrane, is a thin mem- brane which several creatures have to cover their eyes with, to shelter them from dust, and guard them from thorns, or exclude part of the light when it is too strong; for it is so thin that they can see indifferently through it. Nidor, the smell of burnt animal substances. Hence eructations which have a flavour like putre- fied flesh, are called Nidorous. Nitrates, are salts formed by the NO NO combination of the nitric acid, with the different alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. Nitrites, are salts formed by the combination of the nitrous acid, i. e. with spirit of nitre, contain- ing less oxygen than nitric acid. Night Mare. Incubus. See Oneirodynia gravans. Nitre. Salt petre. A perfect neutral salt, formed by the union of the nitrous acid with the fixed alkali of tartar. Its taste is cool- ing, and it does not alter the co- lour of syrup of violets. Nitre ex- ists in large quantities in the earth, and is continually formed in inhabited places; it is found in great quantities upon walls which are sheltered from the rain. It is of great use in the arts; is the principal ingredient in gun-pow- der ; and burned with different pro- portions of tartar, forms the sub- stances called fluxes. It is of con- siderable importance in medicine, as a febrifuge, diuretic, and anti- phlogistic remedy.—Grs v. to 3L Noctambulatio, walking in the night, or when asleep. It is a spe- cies of Oneirodynia. Noli me Tangere. A species of herpes that is very difficult to cure, is so termed by authors, because it is exasperated by most applica- tions. Noma, noy.n; from vi/x*, to eat. A disease that sometimes attacks the cheek or vulva of young girls. It appears in the form of a red and somewhat livid spot; is not attended with pyrexia, pain, or tu- mour, and in a few days becomes gangrenous. Nomenclatura. It was the opi- nion of a poet of the middle ages, Nomina si pereunt, perit If cogni- tio rerum ; and the history of sci- ence shows, in the strongest light, that no impediment has so power- fully arrested its progress as a vague, imperfect, or a fanciful no- menclature. The list of synonyms has been thus unreasonably extend- ed ; and the student, misled by a name, has often found it difficult to recover the proper track As this subject has lately engaged the par- ticular attention of philosophers, a somewhat fuller account of their improvements, than would other- wise benecessary,may be required. The nomenclature of a science implies its peculiar and technical terms. These have been general- ly kept distinct from the language of common life, perhaps at first from a wish to preserve an air of mystery, and give to the author a fancied pre-eminence above the world in general. There are, how- ever, better reasons. In medicine we thus avoid the indelicacy of common appellations, and, in ge- neral, we escape the varying ca- prices of fashion; quern penes ar- bitrium if jus if norma loquendi. Some authors have adopted arbitra- ry appellations, particularly Van Helmont and Paracelsus, as we have seen in various articles; though it is not improbable that they had some fanciful allusion to the sources and action of the dis- eases and the remedies they de- signated. Later and more rational pharmaceutists have sometimes also adopted these arbitrary terms. Modern botanists, in their appella- tions of new genera, have equally employed them in honour of dif- ferent cultivators of their science, though probably without giving that perspicuous lustre to it which an opposite conduct might have afforded. How much superior, for instance, is the generic term epi- lobium, st» Xo$ov »ov, a violet on a si- liqua, toLinnaea, Thunbergia, and Commersonia? Mineralogists have in general preferred announcing the quality and appearance by an euphonous appellation; and we hope to make some advances in the same way in the neglected doc- trine of nosology. Such descrip- NO NO tive appellations have been prefer- red by anatomists, though not al- ways formed with the most accu- rate precision, and more lately in the improved nomenclature of the chemists. The object of a scientific nomen- clature is to convey in one word a sufficiently distinct idea of the bo- dy or organs, to preclude a repeti- tionof the description whenever it is mentioned. When, however, objects are numerous, and the dis- criminating points with difficulty seized, one word is not sufficient This induces us,inbotany, to adopt the first natural associations, styl- ed genera, and the appellation of the genus must accompany that of the species. In nosology it is ge- nerally less necessary; in pharma- cy it would be perhaps useless, as the form itself supplies the place of a genus, which in anatomy is understood from the part describ- ed. As nomenclature has received the last polish from philology, in the chemical department, we shall first notice the improvements in its language lately introduced. We there find,among some absurdities, the descriptive language laboured with no common care, and the nu- merous synonyms of former sys- tems are only retained as keys to the works of the elder chemists. Thegenusis,in this case, preserv- ed in the epithet. It is vitriolat- ed kali, arsenical soda, sulphurat- ed ammonia; and though we may dispute the propriety of some terms, as hydrogen or azote, they must be considered as constantly discriminating substances of dis- tinct properties. One great diffi- culty arises from some of these be- ing indeclinable. There is a want of euphony in oxygen gas, which disgusts the nicer ear ; and these harshnesses pervade every branch of pneumatic chemistry. Another error in this part of the subject is a wantof uniformity: tliustheazote generally implies a substance in a gazeous form; but though we use the term azotic gas, oxygenated or nitrogenated gas are not allowable. Was chemistry more peculiarly our object, we might point out other anomalies which require cor- rection. It is enough to notice those already adduced to lead che- mists to a still farther reform. Dr. G. Pearson has laboured success- fully in this field, and to his atten- tion we would willingly leave it. The subject cannot be in better hands. The improvements in the no- menclature of pharmacy have not kept pace with those of chemistry. The awkwardness arising from the indeclinable substances, kali and natron, might have been easily avoided by adopting the terms lixiva and trona ; the former adopted in one of the older editions of the Edinburgh Dis- pensatory, and the other by Dr. Black. Many errors in nomencla- ture might be noticed, of which a prominent one is the aqua, when applied to salts and earths in a li- quid form. These are strictly so- lutions ; and a distinction is neces- sary between these and the distil- led waters, which are properly aquae. The wines are also anoma- lies, which should have been avoid- ed. They are properly infusions or solutions; but if a distinction was necessary, the old word elixir would have been applicable. Bo- tanists employ single names as ge- nera, and very generally a single epithet as a trivial distinction. These, as we have remarked are sometimes descriptive, and the lat- ter generally such. Single words strike the mind at once, and con- vey the idea unimpaired. When such single words, therefore, are sanctioned by custom, and readily understood, science is, we think, injured by a change. Thus phi- NO NO Ionium, theriaca, cinnabar, and some other appellations which had become denizens in the language of pharmacy, might have been, like alcohol, ether, and some others, properly retained, or at least, if changed, might have re- ceived euphonous titles, graco fonte parce detorta ; nor is it easy to say why we should deny to the pharmaceutists what has been so liberally granted to the botanists, the honour of giving an appellation from a name. We might conse- quently have retained the confec- tio Fracastoriiand the pillulae Rufi, when the nature of these compo- sitions are generally understood, without any injury to science. The Edinburgh College, peculiarly ea- ger and zealous in reform, have made their titles descriptions. We in general want only the vehicle and the proportions to supply the whole formula from them; and we have sometimes not only the na- ture of the formula, but often the means of preparing it. Another redundance in their nomenclature is, the introduction of the trivial as well as the generic names of plants. In pharmacy, the pharma- ceutical term is only necessary. The botanical appellations are taught in other systems. The London College seems also to have refined too far, in adopting the genitive case of the substan- tive instead of the adjective, ac- cording to the sound principles of the new chemical nomenclature, as tinctura scillae, instead of tinc- tura scillitica- it is, in fact, a tinc- ture possessing the nature and qualities of squills. Pharmacy is, however, a science in which me- thod has not been introduced ; but its objects are so few that arrange- ment is less necessary. We may, however, make some attempts to give it a more regular form in that article. In anatomy the nomenclature is still very defective, and the syno- nyms, particularly of the mus- cles, consequently numerous. The terms superior and inferior, ante- rior and posterior, are fixed with little precision, and their meaning varies in different systems. Mus- cles are named from their shape, from their action, or the occupa- tions in which they are used. Were the whole of the nomen- clature reformed, much of mi- nute and uninteresting description might be avoided. Vicq. d'Azyr made some unsuccessful attempts to attain greater accuracy. Chaus- sier's improvements were more judicious, and in osteology they merit great, though not unreserv- ed, commendation. The same principle, however, viz. expressing by the terms the relations of prox- imity and connection, does not suc- ceed so well in the myology ; and the nomenclature of Chaussier, and his coadjutor Dumas, when applied to the muscles, exhibits an inelegant unharmonious combina- tion of unpleasing sounds. The error is not in the principle, but in the authors' pursuing it with too great rigour. If they had aimed at less exactness they would have succeeded better. Mr. Barclay, of Great-Britain, has attempted to reform the ana- tomical nomenclature with more success ; and though the change cannot be rapidly made, we trust it will be gradually introduced. We at first intended to have em- ployed it in the present work ; but language so singular to the student would have perplexed, and might have misled him. The terms superior and inferior are generally used with relation to the different parts of the human body in an erect position. Their force is, however, lost in a reclin- ed one, and neither is peculiarly applicable to the relative o-^ans in other animals. In the trunk, NO NO therefore, for these Mr. Barclay proposes the terms atlantal and sacral, from the two extremities of the spine ; for anterior and poste- rior, which are subject to similar ambiguities, sternal and dorsal; for internal and external, dermal and central; or, with respect to an organ,peripheral or central. When external and internal signify the side and middle of a surface, sup- pose a plane, styled mesion, to pass along the middle of the neck, the mediastinum and linea alba, through the body parallel to the surface, then lateral and mesial may be the terms employed. Instead of right and left, Mr. Barclay employs dex- tral and sinistral, as less equivocal in some parts of comparative ana- tomy, or, when there is no occasion for distinction, lateral will be suffi- cient. In the heart, what ana- tomists have styled the right and left ventricles are neither; and the terms anterior and posterior, though more correct, are not al- ways applicable to comparative an- atomy. Mr. Barclay's distinction in this case, perhaps less simple than the others, is to term the ves- sels which convey the blood from the lungs to the whole body, viz. the pulmonary veins, the left si- nus, auricle, and ventricle, with the aorto and its branches, syste- mic ; those which carry it to the lungs, the pulmonic ; and in mark- ing their relative situation to the trunk, or to each other, the terms atlantal, sacral, 8cc. already men- tioned, may be employed. The extremities are termed atlantal or sacral; the ends of the bones nearest or farthest from the trunk, proximal and distal. In the atlantal extremities the two lateral parts are, with Winslow, styled radial and ulnar, the two others anconal (from ancon, the Greek word for olecarnonj&nd thenal (from thenar, the Greek appellation of the palm) ; but the peculiar term for the palm, in Mr. Barclay's sys- tem, is vola. The distinguishing aspects of the sacral extremities will, by similar reasoning, be prox- imal and distal; dermaland central; tibial and fibular; popliteal and rotular. Planta is the term for the sole on the popliteal side of the foot. The usual terms of superior and posterior, &c when applied to the head, become very equivocal in those general discussions where the heads of animals, as well as men, are described. Mr. Bar- clay, therefore, proposes that the axis of the vertebral column should be, in imagination, pro- longed till it meet some bone in the head or face. This bone he would call the atlantal; those op- posite to them, at the basis of the skull, sacral. The terms sternal and dorsal, when applied to the head, are those parts in the same plane, or in planes parallel to the sternum and dorsum. Where these are parallel, the planes on the sternal side will always be sternal, and the contrary. In the human species the whole face and lateral sides of the head will be sternal; in sheep and oxen, the maxillary curves will be so only: and in frogs and serpents the ba- sis of the skull will be sternal, and the maxillary curves dorsal. With respect to the particular bones of the face, dermal, central,. distral, sinistral, and mesial, are ap- plicable ; but five new ones are re- quired ; for the base and crown, the hind fore part of the cranium, and for the face. The two first arc to be styled the basilar and coronal aspects; the occiput, the inal, from mov, its Greek name. The opposite side to the inial, where the bones of the nose are united to the os frontis, he styles glabel- lar, from its Latin appellation gla- bella The part pi the face, at the greatest distance from the occiput NO NO (ifiion), in a straight line, is styl- ed the antinion. If lines are drawn through these aspects, or from the right and left, they will form the corono-basilar ; the inio-glabellar, the inantilial, and the dextro-sinis- tral diameters. The measure of these different diameters will show the varying proportions of the heads of different animals, of the same species, or of others in the lower scales. The facial an- gle and its variation-, we have al- ready noticed. These terms, by altering the termination, may be used adverbially so as to signify a direction towards either aspect, and this termination is in ad, in- stead of ab and ar ; and by chang- ing it to en, it may express con- nection. Thus a radial artery or muscle may be either with a ra- dial aspect, while a radien artery enters the radius itself. Such is the plan of Mr. Barclay, which, it may be observed, is in embryo only, neither co-extensive with what anatomy has demon- strated, nor with the great variety of animated nature in its different branches. Yet, in its present state, this nomenclature merits particular commendation; and, if divested of some refinement, par- ticularly the mesion, which should perhaps be rendered more simple and familiar, might with great ad- vantage be adopted. We know nothing less easily comprehended by the untutored mind than the doctrines of planes. The nomenclature of muscles he has only slightly noticed in his introduction. We have already remarked, that the fixed point is named the origin, and the muscle is u inserted'* into the bone to be moved. This, however, is at times with difficulty ascertained ; nor is the motion usually performed by a single, or by a lew, muscles. Many concur in fixing the origin ; others m giving force and direc- tion to the motion. Mr Barclay proposes that the muscles should be classed from their origin and their insertion, and the name fixed from the most obvious distinction, neglecting the origin of the minu- ter bundles of fibres. Thus the sterno-humeral can mean nothing but the pectoralis major, which, in the nomenclature of Chaussier, is the sterno-costo-clavio-humeral. In the blood-vessels he poiHts out the necessity of an uniformity of lan- guage ; for the appellations of ar- teries often differ, as the names of the organs to which they are dis- tributed vary. This, of course, requires an uniformity in the ap- pellations of" the organs them- selves. The same name is at pre- sent often employed also to ex- press two different relations, as the artery which runs along the humerus, and that which enters it is equally called humeral. Branch- es of arteries, and often minute branches, are sometimes honour- ed with a name, while the trunk from which they proceed is not distinguished by any. Such ano- malies require a remedy ; and we should be happy to find the lan- guage of anatomy freed from its great uncertainty and barbarous language. Non-Naturals. Under this term physicians comprehend air, meat and drink, sleep and watching, motion and rest, retention and ex- cretion, and the affections of the mind. Nose. Na&us. See Narca. Nosocomium, Nosodochium, (from noiTOi, a disease, and xo^j, to take care of, or &x-J> t0 receive); an hospital. The institution of hospitals, co- eval probably wita the aeraof Jus- tinian, was the first effort of Chris-. tian charity taught by its great master, who commanded us to love one another, and that he was our neighbour who showed mercy. It 5*3 NO NO is impossible to conceive a more pure philanthropy than the insti- tution of a receptacle where the only claim to admission is the im- mediate necessity of relief; where to want is the only requisite to de- mand a supply. Ancient philoso- phy offers nothing so exalted ; and even the benevolent host of Ho- mer, who sat by the way-side to assist travellers, sum? yap , an eye ; night-blind- ness. Some have said it is those who see by night, others say it is those who cannot see by night; however, it is by the moderns ge- nerally understood to signify that disorder in which, as the night approaches, the patient loses his sight, and remains blind until the morning, at which time the sight returns, and continues all the day. Nymphe. Labia minora. Two membranous folds, situated within the labia majora, at the sides of the entrance of the vagina uteri. Nymphomania. Furor uterinus. A genus of disease in the class locales and order dysorexie of Cul- len, characterized by excessive and violent desire for coition in women ; from wptpix, nympha, and pavix, madness. M. M. An eme- tic ; milk ; sulphuret of antimony, or mercury; animal food and wine, but in small quantity ; cinchona -y iron; cold bath, general and topi- cal ; exercise. Nymphotomy, the operation of removing the nympha when too large ; from rj^ia, the nympha, and TlflXO, to cut. Nystagmus. Nuray/xoj, from wrxu, to sleep. A twinkling of the eyes, such as happens when a person is very sleepy. Authors also define nystagmus to be an involuntary agitation of the oculary bulb. OB OB O OAK (Poison.) See Toxico- dendrum. Oak Tree. See Quercus, and Robur. Obesitas, corpulence, or fatness, from obesus. Obliquus, a name for several pairs of muscles. Obliquus Ascendens Internus. A muscle of the abdomen, situated on its anterior part, that as- sists the obliquus descendens, but bends the body in the reverse di- rection. Obliquus Capitis Inferior. A muscle of the head, situated be- low the posterior part of the occi- put, that gives the rotatory motion to the head. Obliquus Capitis Superior. A muscle of the head, situated below the occiput, that draws the head backward. Obliquus Descendens Externus. This muscle forms a broad layer, and is situated on the anterior part of the abdomen. Its use is to sup- port and compress the peritonae- um and abdomen ; to assist the evacuations of the faeces and urine, and likewise in the exclu- sion of the foetus; to thrust the diaphragm upwards, and draw down the ribs in expiration ; to bend the body obliquely when the ribs are fixed, and to raise the pelvis obliquely. Obliquus Inferior Ocidi. An oblique muscle of the eye, that draws the globe of the eye for- wards, inwards, and downwards. Obliquus Superior seu Trochlea- ris. An oblique muscle of the eye, that rolls the globe of the eye, and turns the pupil downwards and outwards. Observation, in Medicine, re- quires the observer to give an ac- curate history of the disease he would describe, with regard to its ' auscs, ratunc. and effects; to give an exact account of the seve- ral things which appeared either beneficial, or disadvantageous ; which distemper is either left to nature, or treated by the rules of art; and, lastly, he ought to give the phaenomena which present themselves upon dissection of the body, if the disease proves mortal. Obstetric, belonging to mid- wifery; from obstetrix, a nurse. Obstipation, costiveness ; a genus of disease in the class lo- cales and order epischeses, compre- hending three species: 1. Obsti- patio debilium, in weak and com- monly dyspeptic persons: 2. Ob- stipatio rigidorum, in persons of rigid fibres and a melancholy tem- perament : 3. Obstipatio obstructe- um, from obstructions. M. M. 1. Animal food; calomel; senna ; aloes and soap; going to stool at the same hour daily. 2. Tama- rinds ; prunes; cassia; manna ; castor oil. 3. See enteritis, colicat and nephritis. Obturator Externus ; also called Marsupialis. This muscle covers the foramen magnum ischii, and rising from the bone before the foramen, runs backward under the head of the os femoris, covered by the quadratus femoris, and is in- serted into the trochanter major, contiguous to the internus, and is, like it, a rotator. Obturator Internus, or Marsupi- alis. This muscle takes its origin from the inner circumference of the foramen magnum ischii, and goes out playing round the is- chium, as on a pulley, and is in- serted into the trochanter major, contiguous to the pyriformis, and is a rotator of the thigh. Obturator Nervus. This nerve is a branch of the crural; it pas- ses through the foramen ovale, and is lost in the Inner muscles of the thi^h, oe od Gbturatrix Arteria. It is a branch of the hypogastric. It perforates the obturator muscle, whence its name It goes out of the pelvis at the upper part of the ligament of the foramen ovale, and sends out various branches about the neck of the thighbone. Obturatrix Vena. It is a branch from the hypogastric vein, and re- ceives this name when it enters in- to the internal obturator muscle. Occipitalis Arteria. It is the first external or posterior branch of the external carotid. It passes ob- liquely before the internal jugular vein, and having sent out twigs to the adjacent muscles, it runs be- tween the styloid and mastoid apo- physes, along the mastoid groove, and goes to the muscles and in- teguments which cover the occipi- tal bone. It communicates with the temporal, vertebral, and cervi- cal arteries. Occipital Bone. Os basilare. An oblong quadrate bone, situated in the posterior part of the cranium It has several processes, as the ex- ternal occipital tubercle, the basil- lary or cuneiform, and condyloid process, and internally a crucial spine. Its cavities are two niches, which, with the corresponding ones of the temporal bone, form the foramina lacera ; the great oc- cipital foramen ; two anterior, and two posterior condyloid foramina; and internally two superior fossae, that receive the posterior lobes of the brain ; two inferior fossae, that contain the cerebellum, and a de- pression in the basillary process, in which the medulla oblongata is situated. Occipitalis, and its partner, are short, but broad, thin, fleshy mus- cles, situated on the occiput, from whence they derive their names. When they act, they pull the hairy scalp backwards. Occipitalis Nervus, a branch from the tenth pair of nerves which pro- ceed from within the skull: they run on the upper and lateral parts of the head. Occipitalis Posterior Arteria. It is a branch fromthe vertebral. It spreads on the occiput. Occipitalis Vena, a branch from the posterior or upper external jugular; but it sometimes pro- ceeds from the vertebralis, or axillaris. It spreads on the oc- ciput. Occipitis Os. See Occipital Bone. Occipito-frontalis, from the occi- put and the skin of the os frontis. Albinus calls it Epicranium. It rises from the posterior part of the occi- put, goes over the upper part of the os'parietale and os frontis, and is lost in the eye-brows. It is a very thin muscle ; its office is to raise the eye-brows, and wrinkle the forehead. It is antagonist to the corrugator coiteri. Occiput, the hinder part of the skull. See Cranium. Octana, an erratic intermitting fever, which returns every eighth day. Oculi Cancrorum, crab's eyes. They are earthy concretions of what was at first but a milky juice, found in the head of the river craw fish. Two of them are in the head of each. They are a species of calcareous earth. Odontalgia, oSorraXyia, from ohi$, a tooth, and aXy&>, pain ; the tooth- ache. M. M Opium ; Camphor, or oil of organum to the tooth ; a blister behind the ear. Odontiasis, otiovrvxans, from oJaj, a tooth ; dentition. Odontica, remedies for pains in the teeth. Odontoides, o$bnoul\ic, from ohx, a tooth, and e»£oj, form ; the tooth- like process of the second verte- bra of the neck ; also such pro- cesses of the bones as resemble the shape of a tooth. Odontolithos, from o$3;, a tooth, and XjSoj, a stone. It is that stony OI OL roncretion which grows upon the teeth. Odoratua, the sense of smell. Odorifere Glandule. These are about the pudenda, arm-pits, &c. They are of the same kind as the Sebaceous glands. (Economy, from otx&>, domus, a house, and »e/uw, diztribuo, to distri- bute ; is strictly the management of family concerns ; but, in a figu- rative sense, is frequently enlarg- ed, among other things, to the mechanism and functions of the human body: so that animal oeco- nomy includes all that concerns the human structure in a state of health. Oedema. Oj£»/a« ; from otoiu>,'to swell; a synonym of Anasarca. See Anasarca. Oesophagus. The membranous and muscular tube that descends in the neck from the pharynx to the stomach ; from oj», to carry, and, to eat; because it con- veys the food into the stomach. It is composed of three tunics or membranes, viz. a common, mus- cular, and mucous. Its arteries are branches of the oesophageal, which arises from the aorta. The veins empty themselves into the vena azygos. Its nerves are from the eighth pair and great in- tercostal ; and it is every where under the internal or mucous mem- brane, supplied with glands that separate the mucous of the oeso- phagus, in order that the masti- cated bole may readily pass down into the stomach. Officinal, from officina, a shop. Any medicine directed by the col- leges of physicians to be kept in the shops is so termed. Oil, oleum, the fat or greasy part of animal and vegetable substances. It is supposed to consist of carbone and hydrogen chemically combin- ed. By fire it is resolvable into car- bonic acid gas, and water. Some- times when lean animal substan- ces putrefy, the azote escapes in the form of azotic air, and the re- siduary carbone and hydrogen coa- lesce into a sort of tallow, or thick fat, resembling spermaceti. The presence of azote seems to be the peculiar circumstance which makes the difference between fat and lean. Some oils, as ol. olivar, butter, suet, and lard, are good ar- ticles of diet; some, as castor oil, are good medicines ; others, as pe- troleum, oil of terpentine, Sec. are good external remedies Late ex* periments have shown, that sweet oil rubbed warm upon the whole surface of the skin relaxes it, and is a good sudorific. Oils are excellent ingredients to abate the causticity of naked alkaline salts, and are therefore used in soaps. They are highly valuable in mingling with the oxyds of lead, iron, copper, and other metals into paints. Olea, the olive-tree. A genus in Linnaeus's botany. He enume- rates four species. The olive oil is the produce of the Olea Euro- pea, Lin. Oleaginous, from oleum, oil, and ago, to compel; is such a substance as is oily, or of a consistence ap- proaching thereunto. Olecranon, the elbow or head of the ulna, upon which a person leans; from wXivn, the ulna, and xpeaot, the head. Olfactory Nerves. The first pair of nerves are so termed, because they are the organs of smelling. They are very numerous, arise from the corpora striata, perforate the ethmoid bone, and are distri- buted on the pituitary membrane of the nose. Olfactus, the sense of smelling. Olibanum. Thus. Frankincense. The gum resin that is so called is the juice of the Juniperus tycia. It is said to ooze spontaneously from the bark of the tree, appearing in drops or tears of a pale yellowish, and sometimes of a reddish co- lour. Olibanum has a moderately 54 OL OM strong and not very agreeable smell, and a bitterish, somewhat pungent taste; in chewing it sticks to the teeth, becomes white, and renders the saliva mil- ky. It is esteemed as an adstrin- gent, and though not in general use, is by many considered as a valuable medicine in fluor albus, and debilities of the stomach and intestines: applied externally in form of plaster, it is said to be corroborant, &c. and with this in- tention it forms the basis of the emplastrum thuris. Olivaria Corpora, are two pro- tuberances in the under part of the brain, placed on each side the corpora pyramidalia, towards the lower end, having their name from their figure, which is that of an olive. See Brain. Olivia, the olive. Olea Europea of Linnaeus. The olive, in all ages, has been greatly celebrated, and held in peculiar estimation, as the bounteous gift of Heaven : it was formerly exhibited in the re- ligious ceremonies of the Jews, and it is still considered as em- blematic of peace and plenty. The utility of this fruit is very extensive. Pickled olives, which are of two kinds, Spanish and French, are extremely grateful to many stomachs, and said to ex- cite appetite and promote diges- tion ; they are prepared from the green unripe fruit, which is re- peatedly steeped in water, to which some quick-lime or alkaline salt is added, in order to shorten the operation ; after this they are wash- ed and preserved in a pickle of common salt and water, to which an aromatic is sometimes added. The principal consumption, how- ever, of this fruit is in the prepa- ration of the common sallad oil, or oleum olive of the Pharmacopeias, which is obtained by grinding and pressing them when thoroughly ripe: the finer and purer oil issues first by gentle pressure, and the inferior sorts on heating what is left, and pressing it more strong- ly. The best olive oil is of a bright pale amber colour, bland to the taste, and without any smell: it becomes rancid by age, and sooner if kept in a warm situation. With regard to its utility, oil, in some shape, forms a considerable part of our food, both animal and vegetable, and affords much nou- rishment. With some, however, oily substances do not unite with the contents of the stomach, and are frequently brought up by eruc- tation : this happens more espe- cially to those whose stomachs abound with acid. Oil, consider- ed as a medicine, is supposed to correct acrimony, and to lubricate and relax the fibres ; and there- fore has been recommended inter- nally, to obviate the effects of va- rious stimuli, which produce irri- tation, and consequent inflamma- tions : on this ground it has been generally prescribed in coughs, catarrhal affections, and erosions. The oil of olives is successfully used in Switzerland against the tenia osculis superficialibus, and it is in very high estimation in this and other countries against nephritic pains, spasms, colic, constipations of the bowels, &c. Externally it has been found an useful applica- tion to bites and stings of various poisonous animals, as the mad dog, several serpents, &c also toburns, tumours, and other affections, both by itself or mixed in liuiments or poultices. Oil rubbed over the body is said to be of great service in dropsies, particularly ascites. Olive oil enters several officinal compositions, and when united with water, by the intervention of alkali, is usually given in coughs and hoarsenesses. Omentitis, inflammation of the omentum, a species of peritonitis. Omentum. Epiploon. The caul. OP OP An adipose membranous viscus of the abdomen, that is attached to the stomach, and lies on the ante- rior surface of the intestines. It is distinguished into the great and lesser omentum, or omentum co- licum, andomentale. Its arteries arc branches of the cceliac ; the veins empty themselves into the vena portae The use of the omen- tum appears to be, to lubricate the intestines, to keep them warm, to separate the vapour of the cavity, and to assist in its absorption. Omo. Names compounded with this word belong to muscles which are attached to the scapula; from fao;, the shoulder. As, Omohyoideus, a muscle situated between the os hyoides and shoul- der, that pulls the os hyoides ob- liquely downwards. Omoplata, the scapula; from tf/iej, the shoulder, and irXxrog, the side. Omphalocele, an umbilical her- nia ; from o/xipoAo?, the navel, and xnXit, a tumour. M. M. A bandage for truss; dashing cold water on the part. Omphalos, o^xXo;, the navel,also a rupture there. Oneirodynia, disturbed imagina- tion during sleep ; from ovupov, a dream, and aSwm, anxiety. A genus of disease in the class neuroses and order vesr.nie of Cullen, contain- ing two species: I. Oneirodynia activa, walking in the sleep : 2. Oneirodynia gravans, the incubus or night-mare. M. M. Tempe- rance, especially at supper ; reme- dies as in hypochondriasis. Onyx. Unguis. An abscess, or collection of pus between the la- mellae of the cornea; so called from its resemblance to the stone called onyx. Opal, a species of gem or silice- ous stone. Operation. The processes in Pharmacy, several manual parts of Surgery, as also the working or efficacy of medicines, are often thus termed. Ophthalmia, an inflammation of the membranes of the eye, or of the whole bulb of the eye, distin- guishable by redness, heat, pain, and tension of the parts, accompa- nied with intolerance of light, and infusion of tears; from oQ%Xfn.c;, the eye. It is a genus of disease in the class pyrexia and order phlegmasia of Cullen, and compre- hends two species : 1. Ophthalmia membranarum, inflammation of the coats of the eye: 2. Ophthalmia tarsi, in which small ulcers are seen of the sebaceous glands of the tarsus, discharging a glutinous matter. M. M. Venesection; leeches to the temples ; scarifica- tion of the eye; cathartics; re- frigerants ; a blister on the neck ; collyria of sugar of lead, sulphate of zinc or alum; calamine cerate. Ophthalmic Ganglion, lenticular ganglion. This ganglion is form- ed in the orbit, by the union of a branch of the third or fourth pair with the first branch of the fifth pair of nerves. Ophthalmic A'erve, a branch of the fifth pair of nerves. Ophthalmics,ave medicines used in distempers of the eyes. Ophthalmodynia,* vehement pain in the eye, without or with very little redness; from o^8«a^oj, the eye, and o$vtr„ pain. Ophthalmoptosis, a falling down of the globe of the eye on the cheek, canthus, or upwards, the globe itself being scarce altered in magnitude; from op9afyw>j, the eye, and tlwifi a fall. Opiates, medicines that pro- cure sleep, 8cc. See Anodynes. Opisthotonos. A chronic spasm of several muscles, so as to keep the body in a fixed position, and bent forwards ; from owi^v, back- wards, and teiw, to draw. Cullen considers it as a variety of tetanus. See Tetanus. OP OP Opium, a gummy juice obtain- ed by incisions from the head of the Papaver somniferum of Lin- naeus, in Persia, Arabia, and other warm regions of Asia It is im- ported into Europe in flat cakes, covered with leaves to prevent their sticking together : it has a reddish brown colour, and a strong peculiar smell; its taste at first is nauseous and bitter, but soon be- comes acrid, and produces a slight warmth in the mouth. The use of this celebrated medicine, though not known to Hippocrates, can be clearly traced back to Diagoras, who was nearly his cotemporary, and its importance has ever since been gradually advanced by suc- ceeding physicians of different na- tions. Its extensive practical uti- lity, however, has not been long well understood, and in this coun- try perhaps may be dated from the time of Sydenham. Opium is the chief narcotic now employed; it acts directly upon the nervous power ; diminishing the sensibili- ty, irritability, and mobility of the system ; and, according to Cullen, in a certain manner suspending the motion of the nervous fluid to and from the brain, and thereby inducing sleep, one of its principal effects. From this sedative power of opium, by which it allays pain, inordinate action, and restlessness, it naturally follows, that it may be employed with advantage in a great variety of diseases. Indeed, there is scarcely any disorder in which, under some circumstances, its use is not found proper ; and though in many cases it fails of producing sleep, yet, if taken in a full dose, it occasions a pleasant tranquillity of mind, and a drowsi- ness, which approaches to sleep, and which always refreshes the patient. Besides the sedative power of opium, it is known to act more or less as a stimulant, when given in a larger dose, exciting the motion of the blood. By u certain conjoined effort of this se- dative and stimulant effect, opium has been thought to produce intox- ication, a quality for Avhich it is much used in eastern countries. It is frequently employed in fevers where there is no inflammatory diathesis ; in haemorrhages, dysen- teries, diarrhoeas, cholera, and py- rosis; colic, tetanus, and all con- vulsive disorders. Respecting the external application of opium, au- thors seem not sufficiently agreed, Some allege, that when applied to the skin, it allays pain and spasm, procures sleep, and produces all the salutary or dangerous effects which result from its internal use ; while others assert, that thus ap- plied, it has little or no effect whati ever But there is no doubt that, when mixed with caustic, it di- minishes the pain which would otherwise ensue, probably by de- creasing the sensibility of the part. Injected up the rectum, it has all the effect of opium taken into the stomach, but to answer this pur- pose double the quantity is to be employed. Applied to the naked nerves of animals, it produces im- mediate torpor and loss of power in all the muscles with which the nerves communicate. Opium taken into the stomach in im- moderate doses, proves a narcotic poison, producing vertigo, tre- mors, convulsions, delirium, stu- por, stertor, and finally, fatal apo- plexy. The officinal preparations of this drug are, opium purificatum, pilule ex opio, pulvis opiatus, tinc- tura opii, and tinctura opii cam- phorata : it is also an iugredient in the pulvis sudorificus, balsamum anodynum, elcctuarium, japonicum, pulvis e creta compodta, Sec.—Grs. A to ij. Opodeldoc, the name of a plaster, said to be invented by Mindere- rus : it is often mentioned by Para- celsus. At present the medicine OP OR known by this name is the Lin. Saponac. Opoponax, the gummi resin- ous juice of the Pastinaca opofia- riaxof Linnaeus, obtained by means of incisions made at the bottom of the stalk of the plant, from which it gradually exudes, and by under- going spontaneous concretion, as- sumes the appearance under which we have it imported from Turkey and the East-Indies, viz. sometimes in little drops or tears, more com- monly in irregular lumps, of a reddish yellow colour on the out- side, with specks of white, inter- nally of a paler colour, and fre- quently variegated with large white pieces. Opopanax has a strong disagreeable smell, and a bitter, acrid, somewhat nauseous taste. It is only employed in the present practice as an antispasmo- dic, in combination with other me- dicines, although it was formerly in high estimation as an attenuant, deobstruent, and aperient. Its an- tispasmodic virtues are less pow- erful than galbanum, and more so than ammoniacum. It has no place in the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia, but it is directed by the London College in the pilule e gummi— Grs. v. to 31. Optic Nerves, from ovropai, to see; because they are the organs of sight. They are the second pair of nerves of the brain, arise from the thalami nervorum opti- corum, perforate the bulb of the eye, and in it form the retina. Optics, is a mathematical sci- ence that treats of the sight in ge- neral, and of every thing that is seen in direct rays ; and explains the several properties and effects of vision in general, and properly of that which is direct and ordi- nary : for when the rays of light are considered as reflected, the science which teaches their laws and properties is called Catoptrics; and when the retraction of rays is considered, and the laws and na- ture of it explained and demon - strated, the science is called Diop- trics. So that optics comprehend the whole, of which catoptrics and dioptrics are two parts. See Vision. Orbiculare Os, a very small round bone, not larger than a pin-head, that belongs to the internal ear. Orbicularis Labiorum. It is a muscle that draws the lips toge- ther, and is the same as Oscutato- rius, the kissing muscle, because it acts at that time. It is also called Sphincter Labiorum. Orbicularis Oris, i. e. Orbicularis vel Sphincter Labiorum. Orbicularis Palpebrarum, are thin fleshy muscles, whose fibres circu- larly surround the eye-lids, and act as the preceding. See Eye. Orbit. The two conoid cavities under the forehead, in which the eyes are situated, are so termed. The angles of the orbits are called canthi. Each orbit is composed of seven bones, viz. the frontal, maxillary, jugal, lachrymal, eth- moid, palatine, and sphenoid. The use of this bony socket is to con- tain and defend the organ of sight, and its adjacent parts Orchitis. Inflammatio testis. Hernia humoralis. An inflamma- tion of the testicle; from opxr, c testicle. M M. Venesection ; cooling purgatives ; refrigerants ; opium. Sugar of lead externally. Orchotomy, castration, the ope- ration of extracting a testicle ; from «px1^ a testicle,andrei*vu,to cut. Oreillons, i. e. Cynanche Paroti- dea, or the mumps. Organ, and Organical Part, is that part of an animal or vegetable body which is designed for the performance of some particular action, in opposi- tion to non-organical, which can- not, of itself, perform an action. Thus the organ of sight is the eye, with all its parts; the organ of hearing, the ear, kc« OS OS Origanum, wild marjorum. Ori- ganum vulgare of Linnaeus. This plant grows wild in many parts of Britain. It has an agreeable aro- matic smell, approaching to that of marjoram, and a pungent taste, much resembling thyme, to which it is likewise thought to be more readily allied in its medicinal qua- lities, and therefore deemed to be emmenagogue, tonic, stomachic, &c. The dried leaves, used in- stead of tea, are said to be exceed- ingly grateful. They are also em- ployed in medicated baths and fomentations. The word origa- num is by some said to be derived from opsyavo, the pride of the moun- tain, because it grows on moun- tainous situations ; and by others, from opx*, to see, and y%t*u>, to cla- rify ; being supposed to assist the sight. Ornithology, that part of natural history which treats of birds ; from ejws, a bird, and Xoyoj, a discourse. Orpiment. Sulphur combines with arsenic, and from their union there results a semi-transparent, very weighty mass, of a yellow or red colour, according to the pro- portion of sulphur,called Orpiment. Orthopnea, a very quick and la- borious breathing, during which the person is obliged to be in an erect posture ; from opfyo;, upright, and w»on, breathing. Oryza, rice; a genus in Lin- naeus's botany. There is but one species. Osculi, are the openings of the vessels ; as, Osculum Uteri, is the opening of the womb. Os Externum. In Midwifery, the entrance into the vagina is thus called, in opposition to the mouth of the womb, which is called the Os Internum. Qs Tince, i. e. Os Internum. Oschealis Hernia, or Oscheocele, a scrotal rupture. Oscitatio, yawning. Ossa Innominata, are two large bones situated on the sides of the os sacrum : in a foetus they may be each separated into three pieces, which, in adultS) unite and make but one bone, in which they dis- tinguish three parts. The first and superior part is called Os Ilium; the intestine ilium lieth between it and its fellow. It is very large, almost of a semicircu- lar figure, a little convex and un- even on its external side, which is called its Dorsum ; and concave and smooth on its inti.rnal side* which is called its Spine. It is joined to the sides of the three superior ver- tebrae of the os sacrum, by a true suture ; it is larger in women than in men. The second is the Os Pubis, which is the inferior and fore part of the os innominatum : it is unit- ed to its fellow of the other side by an intervening cartilage, by which means it makes the fore part of the pelvis or bason, of which the os sacrum is the back part, and the ilia the sides. The third is the inferior and pos- terior, called Ischium, or Coxendix; it has a large cavity called Aceta- bulum Coxendicis, which receives the head of the thigh-bone : the circumference of this cavity is tipt with a cartilage called its Super ci- lium, where it joins the os pubis ; it has a large hole called Foramen Ischii if Pubis, about the circum- ference of which the muscles cal- led Obturator internus and exter- nus arise ; and at its lower end it has a large protuberance, upon which we sit, and from whence the benders of the leg arise. And a little above this, upon its hinder part, it has another small acute process, betwixt which and the former protuberance lies the sinus of the ischium, through which the tendon of the obturator internus passes. Ossa Spongiosa inferiora, supe- OU ox riora, and ossa turbinata. They are the spongy bones of the nose. Ossification, is said of the bones, as in children they harden from a softer cartilaginous substance into ©ne of the former texture. Ossicula Auditus. The small bones of the internal ear are four in number, viz. the malleus, incus, stapes, and os obiculare ; and are situated in the cavity of the tym- panum. Osteocofius, caTEOKOTo?, from oaI- sy of one half of the body: 4. Pa- ralysis venenata, from the sedative effects of poisons Par.lysis is also symptomatic of several dis- eases, as worms, scrophula, sy- philis, kc M M Gentle emetics and purgatives; blisters; issues; stimulants internally and exter- nally ; leopard's bane. Paraphimosis, a permanent con- traction of the prepuce behind the corona glandis, so as to denudate the glans penis and strangulate it; from upxia, about, and Qtyov, to bind. M. M. Sugar of lead; pressing the blood back from the glans, and drawing the prepuce over it; di- viding the prepuce. Paraphonia, a depravity of voice. Dr. Cullen distinguishes six spe- cies. 1. Paraphonia Puberum; it is thatdisagreeable change ofvoice observed at about fourteen years of age. 2. Paraphonia Rauea, <• ;ien the voice is coarse and rough 3. Paraphonia Resonans, when, be- sides the disagreeable voice, it whistles, as it were, through the nose. 4. Paraphonia Palatina, in which the voice is obscure, con- fused, and hardly conveys an in- telligible sound. 5. Paraphonia Clangens, a shrill or squealing. 6. Paraphonia Comatosa, when the voice is sent out during inspira- tion, and resembles the snorting of people asleep. Paraphora, a slight kind of de- lirium, or light-headedness in a fever: some use this word for a delirium in general. Paraphrenesis, a delirium ; also the paraphrenias. Paraphrenias. Diaphragmitis. An inflammation of the diaphragm. A genus of disease in the clas->/iy- rexie and order phlegmasia ot Cul- len. M. M. Asin preumoma. PA PA Paraplegia, nxpxvXviyix, from wa- gs*, ignifying something injurious, and ivXwa-u>, to strike ; a paraplegy, or a palsy of all the parts below the neck. In Hippocrates, it seems to signify a palsy of any particular part, in consequence of apoplexy or epilepsey. Parasitic. Animals, &c. are so termed that receive their nourish- ment in the bodies of others, as worms, polypes, hidatids, ike. Paregoricus, vxpnyoptxo;, parego- ric, from tsx^yopm, to console, miti- gate, or assuage. All opiates are thus called, but it is an epithet for any medicine that relieves pain Pareira Brava. the root of the Cissampelos pareira, a native of South-America and the West-In- dies. It has no remarkable smell, but to the taste it manifests a nota- ble sweetness of the liquorice kind, together with a considerable bit- terness, and a slight roughness covered by the sweet matter. The facts adduced on the utility of the radix pareire brave in nephritic and calculous complaints, are prin- cipally mentioned by foreigners, and no remarkable instances of its efficacy are recorded by English practitioners. Parenchyma, the spongy and cel- lular substance that connects parts together ; from •aapiyxvu, to strain through ; because the ancients believed the blood was strained through it. It is now only applied to the connecting medium of the substance of the lungs. Paresis, napicris. Aretaeus says it is a palsy of the bladder, when the urine is either suppressed or discharged involuntarily. It is now understood to be an imperfect paralysis. Parietal Bones. Ossa vertiris. Ossa syncipitis. Ossa verticala vel bregmdtia Two arched and some- what quadrangular bones, situated one on each side of the superior part of the cranium. Parietaria. Wall pellitory. Pa- rietaria officinalis of Linnaeus. This plant has no smell, and its taste ia simply herbaceous. In the prac- tice of the present day it is wholly laid aside, though it was formerly in high estimation as a di untie. Paronychia. Panaris. Parani- tium A whitlow, or whitloe ; from irapa, about, and ow^, the nail. M. M. Sugar of lead ; ardent spi- rits ; when ii arises from no appa- rent cause, open it to the bottom immediately. Parorchidium, a tumour in the groin, occasioned by the testicle, which is passing into the scrotum. Parotid Gland, a large conglo- merate and salival gland, situated under the ear between the mamil- lary process of the temporal bone and the angle of the lower jaw ; from irxpa., about, and ac, the ear. The excretory duct of this gland opens in the mouth, and is cal- led from its discoverer, the Steno- nien duct Parotis, wapwnj, singular of Pa- rotides, and synonymous with Bu- bo ; also an inflammation or an abscess of the parotid gland. Paroxysm, wapofuer/xsj, from -sra- go£vw, exacerbo, to aggravate; is the height or fit of any distemper that returns at certain times Parturitio, labour, or childbirth. Partus, delivery, or the birth. See Fetus. Parulis, vxpovXn;, from taxpx, and ovXov, a gum ; an inflammation, boil, or abscess in the gums. Passio, a passion, affection, or disease; hence passio hypochon- dria ca, &c. Pastillum} or Pastillus, a little lump of paste, or ball, made to take like a lozenge, a troch, or pastil Patella. Rotula. The knee-pan. A bone somewhat resembling in figure, a heart, situated in the si- nus between the condyles of the femur, and above the tibia. Its PE PE use is to strengthen the knee joint, and to serve as a common pully for the extensor muscles of the tibia. Pathema, vrx^y-x, affectus animi, passion, or affection, or disorder. Pathetici, diseases in which the appetites and passions are princi- pally affected by excess or defect. Pathetici. Trochleatorea. The fourth pair of nerves are so called, because they direct the eyes to ex- press the passions of the mind; from in-aQoj, an affection. They arise fro in the crura of the cere- bellum laterally, and are distri- buted in the musculus obliquus superior seu trochlearis. Pa'hognomonicus, irx^oywyonxo;, pathognomonic, from wa0o>, a dis- ease, and yiwo-KU), to know; an epi- thet for a symptom, or a course of symptoms that are inseparable from a distemper, and are found in that only, and in no other. Pathologia, -wxQoXoyix, from wa9o,-, a disease, and Xvyu, to sfieak, or com- memorate ; the theory ot the dis- eased state of the body. It treats of the nature, differences, causes, effects, &c. of diseases : though the differences, or rather arrange- ment of diseases is generally term- ed Nosology. In order to under- stand a disease, we should consi- der the morbific causes, parts af- fected, symptoms, crisis, diagnos- tics, and prognosis : hence,patho- logy is divided into all these parts. Patrum Cortex, i. e- Cortex Pe- ruvianus ; so called from the Je- suits (called Fathers in the church of Rome,) who first spread its use in Europe. Peat, a vegetable substance, forming large masses in swampy and wet places : it is formed chief- ly of a little water-plant called sphagnum palustre. It is inflam- mable, and in many parts of the earth employed for fuel. It thrives more particularly in the cooler la- titudes. I'echedion, w^s&ovjtheperinaeum. Pechyagra, the gout in the el- bow. Pechys, vnxvs, the elbow. Pecquet's Duct. See the Tho- racic Duct. Pectinalis, a muscle of the thigh, situated on the outer and fore part of the pelvis, that brings the thigh upwards, and gives it a degree of rotation outwards. Pectoralis, pectoral ; medicines that are appropriated to disorders of the breast and lungs. Pectoralis Major, the first layer of muscles, situated on the ante- rior part of the thorax, that moves the arm forwards, and obliquely upwards, towards the sternum. Pectoralis Minor, a muscle situ- ated under the former, that brings the scapula forwards and down- wards, or raises the ribs upwards. Pectoris Os, the sternum. Pectus, the breast, most strictly includes the whole cavity, com- monly called by anatomists the Middle Region ; but by some wri- ters is more restrained to particu- lar parts of that division. Pedes Hippocampi, two columns of the fornix of the brain, which diverge posteriorly. They are so named from their resemblance to the feet of the hippocampus or sea- horse. Pedicelli, i. e. Phthiriasis, i. e. Acari, or small insects, particular- ly those which lodge between the cuticle and cutis of mankind. Pediculatio, pediculation, Mor- bus Pedicularis, by the Greeks, #)Ei§4«cr«j, is a particular foulness of the skin, very apt to breed lice ; and is said to be the distemper of the Egyptians, which we read of among the plagues with which God punished that people. Pediculi Inguinales, crab-lice. Pediluvium, from pedes, the feet, and lavo, to wash. It is a bath for the feet. Pedunculi Cerebelli. The two trunks from whence the arbor PE PE vitae in the brain arise, are thus named. Pelada,a species of baldness ; a shedding of the hair from a vene- real cause. Pelvis, the cavity below the bel- ly that is shaped like a bason; from vTiXvi, a bason. It is compos- ed of four bones, viz. two ossa in- nominala, the sacrum, and os coc- cygis. It contains the organs of generation, the bladder, and the rectum. Pelvis, a name of the cavity in the kidneys. Pelvis Aurium, the cochlea in the ear. Pelvis Cerebri,the infundibulum in the brain. Pemphigus, a fever attended by successive eruptions of vesicles about the size of almonds, which are filled with a yellowish serum, and in three or four days subside. The fever may be either synocha or typhus It is a genus of disease in the class pyrexie and order ex- anthemata of Cullen. M. M. As in synocha or typhus, according to the symptoms. If the vesicles ex- tend to the mouth, detergent gar- gles ; if to the bowels, mucilage. Penicilla, is a lozenge made round by rolling; the same as Turundula ; from penicillins, a pen- cil, which it resembles in shape. Penicillus, a pledget or tent. Penis Membrum virile. The cylindrical part that hangs down, under the mons veneris before the scrotum of males. It is divided by anatomists into the root, body, and head, called the glans penis. It is composed of common integu- ments, two corpora cavernosa, and one corpus spongiosum, which surrounds a canal, the urethra, that proceeds from the bladder to the apex of the penis, where it opens by the meatus ttrpnarius. See Urethra. The fold of the skin that covers the glans penis is term- ed the prepuce. The arteries of the penis are from the hypogastric aiK1 ischiatic. The vein ol the pe- nis- vena magna ipsius penis, emp- ties itself into the hypogastric vein. The absorbents of this or- gan are very numerous, and run under the common integuments to the inguinal glands; absorbents also arc found in great plenty in the urethra. The glands of the penis are Cowper's glands, the prostate, muciparous, and odorife- rous ghuids. The nerves of the penis are branches of the sacral and ischiatic. Penis Muliebris, i. e. Clitoris. Pennyroyal, pulegium. Pentaphyllum, common cinque- foil. The roots of this plant, Po- tentilla reptans of Linnaeus, have a bitterish styptic taste They were used by the ancients in the cure of intermittents; but the medicinal quality of cinquefoil is confined in the present day to stop diarrhoeas and other fluxes. Jss to Jij. Pecqucti Receptaculum, Pec- quet's receptacle, i. e. Recepta- culum Chyli. Peracute, very sharp. Diseases are thus called, when greatly in- flamed, or aggravated beyond mea- sure. Percolation, straining through, from per, through, and colo, to strain. It is generally applied to animal secretion, from the office of the glands resembling that of a strainer, in transmitting the li- quors that pass through them. Per Deliquium, by melting ; as salt of tartar, dissolved in water, attracted from the air, is pot-ash melted per deliquium, ike. Periblepsia, weptjSXf*!'*?, from ttipi- (Zxtnu, to stare about; that kind of staring look which is observed in delirious persons. Pcribrosis, an ulceration or ero- sion at the corners or uniting parts of the eye-lids. Pericarditis, inflammation of the pericardium. PE PE Pericardium, the membranous bag that surrounds the he^rt; from tsipi, about, and xxphx, h<- heart. Its use is to secrete and contain the vapour of the pericardium, which lubricates the heart, and thus preserves it from concreting with the pericardium. Perichondrium, the membrane that covers a cartilage ; from , to contract. A similar motion takes place in the Fallopian tubes, after conception, by means of which the ovum is translated from the ova- rium into the uterus. Peritoneum, the membrane lin- ing the abdomen, and covering the viscera; from irtptrtitu, to ex- tend around. It has vessels from the neighbouring parts, and ex- hales a vapour, to lubricate the viscera. Prritonitis. an inflammation of the peritonaeum ; a genus of dis- ease in the cins* pyrexie and or- der phlegmasia of Cullen, known by the presence of pyrexiae, with pain in the abdomen, that is in- creased when in an erect position. M M. As in hysteritis. Pernio, a chilblain ; a species of erythema of Cullen. Peroneus Brevis, a flexor mus- cle of the foot, situated on the leg, that assists in pulling the foot out- wards, and extending it a little. Peroneus, livomperone, the fibula. Peroneus Longus, a flexor mus- cle of the foot, situated on the leg, that moves the foot outw ards, and extends it a little. Perpetual Motion. Fromthe na- ture of matter and ot machinery, this seems to be an impossibility ; action and reaction being equai.and there not being known in common matter a power of commencing, renewing, and perpetuating mo- tion. Yet there ever have been, and now are, plenty of projectors, who declare they have discovered it. Several of these mechanical contrivers petitioned Congress on this subject in 1802. declaring they had found it, and the news- papers contai , to consume ; a ge- nus of disease in the class pyrexie and order hamorrhagia of Cullen ; known by emaciation, debility, cough, hectic fever, purulent ex- pectoration, haemoptysis, diarr- hoea. Species : 1. Phthisis inci- piens, incipient, without any ex- pectoration of pus : 2. Phthisis humida, with an expectoration of pus : 3. Phthisis scrophulosa, from scrophulous tubercles in the lungs, Sec. 4. Phthisis hemoptoica, from haemoptysis: 5. Phthisis exanthe- matica, from exanthemata: 6. Phthisis chlorotica, from chlorosis : 7. Phthisis syphilitica, from a ve- nereal ulcer in the lungs. M. M. In the inflammatory stage, the antiphlogistic regimen, repeated small bleedings, digitalis, blis- ters, antimonials and squills. A seton; nutritive diet; an eme- tic of sulphate of copper or ipe- cacuanha every second morning, and Griffith's myrrh mixture three times a day; exercise ; warm clo- thing; bitters or cinchona; opium. If sweating be troublesome, elixir vitriol; if diarrhoea, ripe fruits and catechu.. Phygethlon, ^uysSxov; a red and painful tubercle which often arises about the anus, and if badly treat- ed becomes fistulous. Phyma,$vy.x', (rom^vu, to produce. Tubercles in any part of the body. Physconia, enlargement of the abdomen ; from Qvcrxwv,a big-bellied fellow, a genus of disease in the class cachexie and order intumes- centie of Cullen, known by a tu- mour occupying chiefly one part of the abdomen, increasing slow- ly, and neither sonorous nor fluc- tuating. Species : 1. hepatica : 2. splenica : 3. renalis : 4. uterina : 5. ab ovaria : 6. mesenterica : 7. omentalis : 8. visceralis. PI Physiognomy, (fverioyvufjuu; from xXoi, from tsttvy-x, wind, and o/*0«A»j, the navel; an umbilical flatulent rup- ture. Pneumonia, inflammation of the lungs ; from tsnvyw, a lung; a genus of disease in the class py- rexia and order phlegmasia of Cul- len ; characterized by pyrexia, dif- ficult respiration, cough, and a sense of weight and pain in the thorax. The species of pneumo- nia, according to the above nosolo- gist, are : 1. Peripneumonia. The pulse not always hard, but some- times soft; an obtuse pain in the PQ VX> breast; the respiration always dif- ficult ; sometimes the patient can- not breathe, unless in an upright posture; the face swelled, and of a livid colour ; the cough for the most part moist, frequently bloody. 2. Pleuritis. The pulse hard; a pungent pain in one side, aggra- vated during the time of inspira- tion; and uneasiness when lying on one side ; a very painful cough, dry in the beginning of the dis- ease, afterwards moist, and fre- quently bloody. If these are not resolved, they are followed by vo- mica or empyema. M. M. Co- pious and repeated venesection ; cooling laxatives \ antimonials; refrigerants ; digitalis; demul- cents ; diluents; antiphlogistic regimen; blisters. Podagra, the gout; from xu;,the foot, and ovypa, a taking or a seizure ; a genus of disease in the class py- rexia and order phlegmasia of Cul- len ; known by pyrexia; pain in the joints, chiefly of the great toe, and especially the hands and feet, returning at intervals: previous to the attack, the functions of the stomach are commonly disturbed. Species : 1. Podagra regularis, the regular gout: 2. Podagra atonica, the atonic gout: 3. Podagra retro- grada, the retrocedent gout: 4. Podagra aberrans, misplaced or wandering gout. See Arthritia. Poison. Any substance, which, when received into the stomach or lungs, or applied externally to any part of the body, produces, by its peculiar properties, disease or death, is termed a poisom Poi- sons are divided, with respect to the kingdom to which they be- long, into animal, vegetable, mi- " neraJ, and halituous poisons, or vapours. Pollex, the thumb, or great toe. Polydipsia, excessive thirst; from iroXvj, much, and h^n, thirst ; a genus of disease in the class lo- cales and order dysvrcxia of Cul- len. It is mostly symptomatic of fever, dropsy,excessive discharges or poisons. Polypus, •moXvwus, having many feet; from iroXv;, many, and a-«j, a foot. This term is generally given to a sarcomatous substance, that frequently arises in the nostrils and uterus,from its having attach- ments or roots. The coagulable substance which is found in the cavities of the heart of those who are some time in articulo mortis is also improperly so called. M. M. When they are troublesome and continue to grow, scarifications and astringents; removal by knife, ligature, or forceps. Polysarchia, troublesome corpu- lency, or fatness; from woXvs, much, and o-ap|, flesh.; a genus of disease in the class cachexia and order in- tumescentia of Cullen. MM. Ve- getable, and spare diet; exercise; little sleep. Polyurica (Ischuria) a suppres- sion of urine from a neglect to dis- charge it. PomumAdami, the protuberance in the anterior part of the neck, formed by the fore part of the thy- roid cartilage. Pondo,or Pondus, a weight. The medical or troy pound is less than the averdupoise ; but the ounce and the dram are greater. The troy pound contains 5760 grains ; the averdupoise pound contains 7000 such grains. The troy ounce contains 480 grains; the averdu- poise contains only 437^- grains. The troy dram contains 60 grains ; the averdupoise rather more than 27. Pons Varolii, Varolius's bridge, is a process in the brain thus cal- led, because Varolius was the first that took notice of it. Poples, the ham or joint of the knee. Poplitea, Arteria. The arteria cruralis, in passing the ham, takes the name of Poplitea, which, whilst PO PO in the ham, is covered only by the integuments. It ends by dividing it into the tibialis anterior, and tibialis posterior. Poplitca, Vena. The crural vein takes this name just above the ham, and at the lower part of the musculus popliteus divides into the tibialis posterior, and the pe- ronaea. Popliteus. The sciatic nerve having reached the ham, takes this name ; it divides into two branch- es, which spread about the whole leg Popliteus, is a muscle that arises from the external and inferior protuberance of the thigh-bone ; and, passing over the joint ob- liquely, is inserted into the supe- rior and internal part of the tibia. This assists in bending the leg, and turns it inwards. Pori BUiarii, the biliary pores or ducts that receive the bile from the acini of the liver, and convey it to the hepatic duct. Porraceous, is said of many things resembling a leek in co- lour or scent; as of the bile, or what is sometimes discharged by vomiting or stool, and appearing of a green colour. Porrigo, a disease very common among children, in which the skin of the hairy part of the head be- comes dry and callous, and comes off like bran upon combing the head. Porta, the great vein of the liver. See Vena porta. Portio Dura. This nerve arises near the pons from the crus of the brain, enters the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and gives off a branch into the tympanum, which is called the chorda tym- pani. Portio Mollis. This nerve arises from the medulla oblongata and fourth ventricle of the brain, en- ters the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and is distributed by innumerable branches, not only to the cochlea, but also to the membrane lining the vestibulum and semicircular canals. Porus Opticus. It is also called Blind Point. It is the point on the retina where no object is seen. Posca, vinegar and water mixed. Posterior Annularis, an external interosseal muscle of the hand, that extends and draws the ring finger inwards. Posterior Indicts, an internal in- terosseal muscle of the hand, that extends the fore-finger obliquely, and draws it outwards. Posterior Medii, an external in- terosseal muscle of the hand, that extends the middle-finger, and draws it outwards. Posterior Musculus Auris, an external muscle of the ear. Posticus, that is, situate behind, or on the backside. Postpositio, postposition. When the paroxysm of a fever comes on later than it is expected, it is cal- led the Postposition of the Parox- ysm : when it begins sooner, it is called the Anticipation. Potash, potassa, or the common vegetable fixed alkali. It is a sa- line and concrete substance, not pre-existing in plants, nor formed during their putrefaction, but pro- duced while they are turning to ashes in the fire. It is commonly classed among the simple and ele- mentary bodies, but this is a mis- take. Several ingredients enter into its constitution, but it is not certainly known what or which they are. A certain degree of heat only is requisite to the perfect forma- tion and goodness of potash. If the fire is kept up too long, or too intense, the potash turns to a sub- stance called pearlash, which is much weaker and milder. And by urging the heat more fiercely and for a greater length of time, the alkali turns to what is termed PO furnace ashes, which, though fair to the eye, possess very little strength and virtue. Fire thus can destroy potash, and according to its intensity and duration, can give it various de- grees of excellence between the best and the worst sorts. Hence the various qualities of potash, pearlash, &c. known in the mark- ets, and familiar to all artists and manufacturers. Chemists and men of science have latterly indulged miserable mistakes on these points by affirming, first, that potash was an element; and, secondly, when pure, it was always one and the same invariable production. Now, neither ofthese assertions is true ; for potash is a compound, and six samples of the article may be equally pure, and yet be very un- like each other. Independent of adulteration, or mixture with fo- reign ingredients, such as lime, salt, sand, gypsum, and the like, different parcels of clean and un- mixed potash are daily found to vary very materially from one an- other. Potash has a very strong attrac- tion for water. This it attracts from the air in such quantity as to dissolve itself. Such spontaneous melting is called deliquescence. It combines also very powerfully with acids, forming neutral salts with the sulphuric, septic, muria- tic, acetic, tartaric, carbonic, and other oxygenated bases. After these acids have been united to potash, they may be recovered by decomposition of the neutral salt. But they are always found to have undergone some alteration of their properties. There is no more in- structive and beautiful example of this than is afforded by the septic acid. This offspring of putrefac- tion has been discovered to be a most active and venomous com- pound. Like other acids, septic acid can combine with potash. PO This neutral salt, formed from the acid of putrefaction, and the alkali of burned wood, is saltpetre, the principal ingredient of gunpow- der. Septic acid, which is the great agent of human woe in pes- tilence, is quite as mischievous and destructive in war. The septic acid, though neutralized by pot- ash, imparts to it qualities so noxious, that it can be safely swal- lowed only in small doses. See Saltpetre. When saltpetre is decomposed in close vessels, the septic acid is separated in a very new and alter- ed form. Some action going on between it and the potash, mate- rially changes the qualities of both, for the alkali is found, on examination, to be as much and as sensibly modified as the acid. Their union and their separation work great changes in both. The septic acid is thus changed in its constitution by the potash. It is further altered by the sul- phuric and muriatic acids employ- ed in the decomposition of the saltpetre, and further still by the high heat of the furnace. Ex- posed to so many causes of new modification and changes, the sep- tic acid,on being disengaged from potash, assumes another name, and other properties. It is less venomous and active than it ori- ginally was, and goes by the name of the nitrous acid. Even then, it is the most powerful and corrosive of all the acids. Through want of attention to this distinction, great mistakes have arisen in chemistry. Some ignorant, and some dull persons have pretended that nitrous and nitric acids ought to possess all the exact qualities of the na- tive septic acid. But they grossly deceive themselves. None of the experiments on the nitric acid of the shops, or any of its vapours, 8cc. have any tendency to lessen PR PR the evidence derived from septic acid and its gas as engendered in corrupting bodies, and exhaled from them into the air. Pracordia, from pra, before, and xxfikx, cor, the heart. The fore- part of the region of the thorax is thus called. Precursores, forerunners, is by Paracelsus, and some of his fol- lowers, used for the antecedent sign of a disease. Prapuce. The membranous cu- taneous fold, that covers the glans penis and clitoris, is so termed; from praputo, to cut off before ; because some nations used to cut it off in circumcision. Prasentatio, presentation. In Midwifery, it is the manner in which a child offers itself in its passage into the world ; and the different presentations are deno- minated according to that part of the child which is perceived at the mouth of the womb. Pret. JVhr.jand P. Na. are some- times put for preternatural. Praxis Medica, is that part of medicine which instructs us how to discover a disease when present in the body, or to order the pro- per remedies for its removal. Predisposing Causes. The most frequent predisposing causes of diseases are, the temperament and habit of the body, idiosyncracy, age, sex, and structure of the part diseased. Predisposition, that constitution or state of the < n'Ms or fluids, or of both, which disposes the body to the action of disease. Presbyopia, that defect of the sight by which objects near at hand are seen confusedly, but at remoter distances distinctly; from -rpfcKTu?, old, and c!.„ sight, because it is frequent wit i old men. Presbyi s, -nrp ■t%tz.., from «rg:a£v>, ■ere.v, old ; is a c sten">er of the eye , which old people ai> most subject to, wherein the globe of the eye falls so flat, that the visual rays pass the retina before they unite, whereby there can be no distinct vision, since the distinct base falls too far off beyond the re- tina. This defect is, therefore, to be helped only with convex glasses or spectacles, which will make the rays converge sooner, and if they are well fitted, exactly on the re- tina. Priapism, a continual erection of the penis ; from Priapus, a hea- then god, whose penis is always painted erect. Priapus, 'arpixvros, which some- times is put for the human penis. Prime Via, first passages. Thus the stomach and intestinal tube are called. Principles, Principia, the con- stituent part of things. By this word is frequently meant the rules or maxims of propriety which be- long to any subject or science; but it here signifies the elements or constituent parts of all natural bodies. Many of the natural productions by which we are surrounded, are of a very complicated nature. Elements of different kinds and qualities are blended together to make up the mass. This compli- cated structure obtains, in the ani- mal, the vegetable, and the mi- neral departments of creation. Nor are the fluids of the atmos- phere and the ocean exempt from this compound and heterogeneous structure. Indeed, so remarkable are the elements or principles of bodies mingled together, that per- haps there is no example of any one of them being found totally disengaged from the rest. All natural productions whatever are made up of a mixture of principal or elementary particles. By attending to the composition and decomposition of natural bo- dies, much has been discovered concerning their internal consti- PR PR tution. The elements are more numerous than the ancients sup- posed them to be. Modern expe- rience has enlarged the catalogue from the four principles of fire, water, air, and earth, to upwards of sixty simple or undecomposed forms of matter. The fir.t four of these principles are, 1. Anti- crouon, caloric, or the principle of repulsion ; 2. Light, or the fluid by means of which we see ; 3. Oxygen, the principle of sourness, the acid-maker ; 4. Phlogiston, or hydrogen, the principle of inflam- mability, or the material of which blaze is formed. The next four are the known bases of acids, and are called elementary atoms of, 5. Sulphur ; 6. Carbone, or charcoal; 7. Phosphorus ; and, 8. Septon, or azote. The earthy bodies come next, and are analyzed into, 9. Lime; 10. Argil, or clay; 11. Flint, or silice; 12. Barytes, or heavy earth; 13. Magnesia; 14. Strontian; 15. Jargon; 16. Glu- cine; 17. Augustine. There are three alkalies, which are undoubt- edly compound substances,though classed among the principles, be- cause their constitution is not per- fectly known: 18. Potash; 19. Soia; and, 20. Ammoniac. To these are added the whole list of metals, some of which form acids with oxygen, as, 21. Molybdena ; 22. Arsenic; 23. Tungstein ; 24. Chrome. Some are noble, or per- fect, as, 25. Gold; 26. Platina; 27. Silver. Some are imperfect or base, as, 28. Copper ; 29. Iron ; 30. Lead; 31. Tin; 32. Quick- silver. And others again are cal- led semi-metals, as, 33. Zinc ; 34. Bismuth; 35. Antimony ; 36. Nic- kel; 37. Tellurium; and four or five others of less importance. The other principles of bodies which seem to have been explor- ed, but of whose simple constitu- tion we are less certain, are the bases or radical elements of the remaining acids, such as those of the formic, bombic, acetic, muria- tic, citric, m wic, tartaric, oxyalid, and other acids, which form by connection with oxygen, the acid of ants, of silkworms, of vinegar, of sea-salt, of lemons, of apples, o:' tartar, of sugar, &c. These amount to nearly twenty ; but it is expected that the greater part of them, though now appearing to be principles, will turn out to be com- pounds. These elements are connected together by attraction, forming the various natural productions; and these, after having continued their stated times, are disorganized and dissociated by repulsion. And thus the circle of unceasing changes in the material world is unremitting- ly carried on. Probe, a chirurgical instrument of a long and slender form ; from probo, to try; because surgeons try the depth and extent of wounds, Sec. with it. Procatarctic Cause, occasional cause, remote cause, exciting cause. The procatarctic cause is that which, when applied to the body, induces a predisposition ; from irpoxxrxpx'o, to go before. Processus, from procedo, to go out, are several protuberances or prominences of the bones and other parts of the body, distin- guished according to the parts they are in. Procidentia, a falling down of any part; from procido, to fall down : thus, proadentia ani, uteri, vagina, &c. M. M. Astringents; replacing the parts and supporting them by bandages. Proctalgia, inflammation, with pain of the anus. Proctitis, i. e. Proctalgia. Proctoleucorrhaa, the same as Proctorrhea, but so named from the discharge resembling that of the whites. Proctorrhea, a mucous flux from PR PR the external haemorrhoidal ves- sels ; sometimes streaked with blood, and accompanied with itch- ing and heat about the anus. Prodromus, wpofyoyos, is used in various senses, but chiefly by phy- sicians for any one distemper that is often the forerunner of another, as a vertigo is frequently the pro- dromus of an apoplexy. Production, the same as Proces- sus. Profluvia, fluxes ; the fifth or- der in the class pyrexia of Cullen's nosology, characterized by py- rexia, with increased exertions. Profunda Brachii Vena, vel Pro- funda Superior. It is a branch from the basilica vena, sent off from it below the neck of the os humeri, and near the hollow of the axilla: it runs along the side of the brachial artery, and spreads itself in the adjacent muscles. Profusio, passive haemorrhage, such as happens from wounds, &c. and not the effect of fever. Dr. Cullen places this genus of disease in the class Locales and order Apocenoses. Proglossis, vpoyXtiio-cns, the tip of the tongue. Prognosis, *rpoyv«o-K; from ■srpo, before, and yivwo-xv, to know; the judgment of the event of a dis- ease by particular symptoms. Projectura, an apophysis. Prolabium, from pro, before, and hbium, the lip; the red part of the lips. Prolapsus, a protrusion; a ge- nus of disease in the class locales and order ectopia of Cullen ; dis- tinguished by the falling down of apart that is uncovered. Prolific, from proles, offspring, and facio, to make ; something that has the qualities necessary for ge- nerating. Pronation, the act of turning the palm of the hand downwards. It K performed by rotating the radi- us upon the ulna, by means of se- veral muscles which are termed pronators; as, Pronator Radii Quadratus, a pronator muscle of the fore-arm, that turns the radius, together with the hand, inwards. Pronator Radii Teres, a pronator muscle of the fore-arm, that rolls the radius, together with the hand, inwards. Prophylactics, any means made use of with a view to preserve health ; from wpo, before, and ,-, a resemblance. Ptenjgo-Palatinus, i. e. Spheno- ptrrygo -Palatinus. Pterygo-Pharyngai, from orTEpi/f, a wing, and $apvy%, the throat. It isanameoithe Cephalopharyngeus. In the edge of the internal alae of the apophyses pterygoidaei, these muscles rise, then run backward, and are inserted into the lynea al- ba of the pharynx. Pterygo-Staphylinus Superior. The muscles which bear this name are oriv the external portions of the spheno-salpingo-staphylini. I''. en/go -St a/, hylin u s I >•_ /e rio r. They are inserted at one extremity into the uncus pterygoidaeus, and by the other, into the septum, near the uvula. Ptilosis, «rnAa5-i?,abaldness of the eye-lashes, from a callous thicken- ing of the edges of the eye-lids, so that it is a complication of a madarosis, and a hard lippiiude. Ptisana vel Petissana, ,to guard an entrance, because it guards, as it were, the entrance of the bow- els. Pyosis, ttvuo-h;, i. e. Hypopyon. Pyramidales, Mnsculi, are a pair of muscles belonging to the abdo- men, so called, from their resem- blance to a pyramid in figures they rise with a fleshy beginning, from the outer and upper part of the os pubis, and growing narrow- er and narrower, are inserted in the linea alba, sometimes near the navel. Sometimes one and sometimes both these muscles are wanting. Pyrenus, from imve, ignis, fire, and o.v<&, vinum, wine; is Rectified Spirit of Wine, thus called because it is made by fire, or rather ren- dered of a fiery nature, so as to be totally inflammable. Pyrethrum, wypiGpov ; from wyj, fire ; by reason of its biting, fiery taste. Pellitory of Spain. An- themis pyrethum of Linnaeus. The ancient Romans, we are told, em- ployed the root of this plant as a pickle. In its recent state it is not so pungent as when dried, yet, if applied to the skin, it is said to produce inflammation. Its quali- ties are stimulant; but it is never used, except as a masticatory, for relieving tooth-achs, rheumatic affections of the face, and paraly- sisof the tongue, in which itaflbrds relief by stimulating the excretory ducts of the salival glands. Pyretica, pyre tics, from wvq, fire, or heal; such medicines as are good against fevers. Pyretologia, from the same deri- vation as the foregoing, and Xsyw, to describe ; a discourse upon, or description of fevers. Pyretos, tuvptrog, a burning, or inflammation. This word is used by the Greek physicians, and even by the four evangelists, to signify PY what is now called a high or ar- dent fever : an increased circula- tion of the blood, with strong action of the heart and arteries, with much augmentation of heat. Pyrexia. Tlvp^x, fever. Pyrexie. Febrile diseases ; from iwptZix, fever. The first class of Cullen's nosology ; character- ized by a frequency of pulse after a cold shivering, with increase of heat, and especially, among other impaired functions, a diminution of strength. Pyriformis, a muscle of the thigh, situated on the outside of the pelvis, which moves the thigh a little upwards, and rolls it out- wards. Pyrites, a yellow and frequently shining metallic composition, heavy, hard, and easily striking fire. It is a composition of clay, sulphur, and iron ; but is often mistaken by ignorant people for gold. It is sometimes crystallized into exact cubes, and at others gathered into roundish balls. Some sorts of it crumble to pie- ces in the air, and turn to copperas and allum. See Marcasite. Pyro-lignates, are salts formed by the union of the Pyro-ligneous acid, with the different alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. Pyro-mucites, are salts formed by the union of the Pyro-mucous acid, with the different alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. Pyro-tartarites, are salts formed by the union of the Pyro-tartare- ous acid, with the different alka- line, earthy, and metallic bases ; there are twenty-four species enu- merated in M- Fourcroy's Ele- ments of Nat. Hist, and Chem. Pyrophorus, from -avp, fire, and ipepaj, J bear; a chemical prepara- PY tion possessing the property of kindling, by being exposed to the air. It consists of carbone and a very concentrated vitriolic acid. On attracting the moisture of the air, so much heat is excited in it as to become luminous and to burn. Pyrosis, water-brash ; from to-ypwo-*;, a burning; a genus of disease in the class neuroses and order spasmi of Cullen ; known by a burning pain in the stomach, attended with copious eructation, generally of a watery insipid fluid. M. M. Antispasmodics ; nux vo- mica 3ss. to 3i. three times a day; smoaking or chewing tobacco. Pyrotics, are medicines that are actually or potentially hot, such as will burn the flesh, and raise an achar, from nav%, ignis, fire. Python, a devouring monster of the serpent kind, bred from the slime of the Nile, and killed by the shafts of Phoebus; It is de- rived fromwuOw, putrefacio, to cor- rupt ; and the story is one of the most beautiful and instructive of the ancient allegories. It has been literally dwelt upon and em- bellished by the poets; but its true and proper meaning seems to be, that noxious and pestilential va- pours were engendered in the mud of the receding river of Egypt, and overcome by the solar rays or beams of Apollo, as they dried the sand. Dr. Mitchill has given an in- terpretation of this elegant and no- ble allegory, in the Medical Repo- sitory, vol. ii. p. 431, which the curious scholar may consult with advantage. Pijuria, pyoturia, difficulty of making water, with great dis- charge of mucus. Pyuria Arthritica, difficulty of making water from gout. QU QU QUACK, a medical impostor, who « for the good of the public," and « by the blessing of God," undertakes with his pow- ders, potions, or balsams, to cure "all disorders." Thus,ignorance and blasphemy unite in picking the pockets and ruining the constitu- tion of thousands of credulous peo- ple in this and other countries. The pretension to infallibility in any one medicine, as a cure for any one disorder, is next to ab- surd ; much more ridiculous is it then to suppose, that any medicine will remove ail kinds of complaints. Every medicine possesses active properties, or it does not If it be active, it must be dangerous to ap- ply it, indiscriminately, to persons of every age, and without regard to their habits of living. An ac- tive medicine, which might be very useful in strengthening a debilitat- ed constitution, would be highly injurious if exhibited in an acute rheumatism,or other inflammatory disorder, and vice versa; conse- quently, an application of the same remedy in all cases can hardly fail of being fatal in some. Should the medicine be inactive, which happily is often the case, it can be of no other utility than to work upon the patient's imagination, and amuse him while his pocket is picked. Quacks, and Quack Medicines. The appellation oi'quack arose from quacksalber, the German appella- tion of quicksilver; since on the first appearance of lues the irre- gular practitioners only employed this reputedly-dangerous medicine. At present it is confined to those who sell a pretended nostrum, the preparation of which is kept se- cret: but may be applied to every practitioner who, by pompous pre- tences, mean insinuations, and in- direct promises, endeavours to ob- tain that confidence which neither success nor experience have entit- led him to. ♦ The human mind is captivated by confident promises, especially if, like the oracles of old, they are couched in ambiguous language, and if they are directed to those points which are most interesting, and which chiefly influence the imagination. We have often ob- served that the idea of a latent lues is with difficulty eradicated; and that no failure is so sensibly felt as that connected with the function by which the species is reproduced. For these reasons, remedies are held up with the most indecorous ostentation as infallible in such cases; and the mind is al- lured by promises that the medi- cine is equally safe and secret. We know a single individual who, on the latter pretence, for years expended from 70Z. to 100/. annu- ally in trash like the solar tincture, and the balm of Gilead; and the author of this article was asked if he had not a high opinion of Dr. Freeman, by a patient who pro- fessed himself almost ruined in the pursuit of quacks, and had de- termined to leave them. There are undoubtedly various remedies sold by plausible, capti- vating titles, which are truly in- significant ; others of some ser- vice ; others highly useful. Had the remedies of quacks been al- ways despised, we should have wanted the compound powder of ipecacuanha; the sudorific powder of Ward; some of the aloetic tinctures and pills ; the powder of Dr. James; the paste of Ward, &c. The nature of these reme- dies is now known; but there are others which are valuable, whose nature we know, though the parti- cular preparation we are unac- quainted with. QU QU We had intended to have notic- ed the quack remedies at some length, and could have pointed out the principles of many with some certainty; but we found that we "walked on burning coals, ill con- cealed by delusive ashes." We shall, therefore, add only a few re- marks on the different classes just distinguished. Of the trifling, insignificant re- medies, those recommended for coughs and consumptions are the most inert. The balsam of liquo- rice, of lungwort, and honey, are little more than opiatesin disguise; for it is well known that the valu- able parts of each medicine consist in mucilage, which is incapable of concentration. Godbold's balsam is of a similar kind. We have, however, reason to believe that it was first prepared from the vari- ous, supposed expectorants of an old herbal, since Godbold (the el- der), though an ignorant, seemed an honest, man ; and he professed that he had given us the receipt. This idea is since supported in a late periodical publication, the " Medical Observer." At present, however, it is certainly only vine- gar and honey, with a proportion ef laudanum, and some arbma- tic, varied apparently at different times. The solar tincture, the balm of Gilead, and the whole tribe of pretended restoratives are at best trifling, unless, as is sus- pected, the balm contains a stimu- lus, which gives temporary acti- vity at the expence of the little re- maining strength. Many of these cordials owe their reputation to the spirit; and we knew a lady who thought she could not live without them, till her brother fil- led an empty bottle with brandy only, which she continued taking without discovering the difference till ne explained it, and convinced her of her folly. Our own coun- trv, however, does not exclusively furnish dupes The continent* pa: cul i! . (i.rmany. swarms with them; .ind one of the latest as well as the grossest impositions of this kind was Dr. Lendhart's li- quor for accelerating delivery, which was found to be a solution of Glauber's and Epsom v its, disguised by an innocent colouring. But though in itself an i ipusition, it were to be wished that every quack remedy were ultimately so useful; for by inspiring confidence it reconciles the path nt to delay, when nature frequently succeeds in the attempt. Numerous are the valuable remedies introduced, in this secret way, first in Germany ; among the rest is the zinc, styled the tuna fixata Ludemanni, first de- tected byGaubius. There are certainly many medi- cines of some utility under this disgraceful form; and if those who object to the charges of an apothecary will be contented in this way to pay them ten times told, the revenue will gain, and no one be materially injured. There can be little doubt of Dr. James's ana- leptic pills being accurately pre- pared at a moderate expence, and Anderson's pills may undoubtedly be sold at an inferior price of equal goodness. The antimonial in the pills of Dr. James probably sug- gested to Mr. Barclay, as it did many years since to ourselves and many others, the union of emetic tartar with the resinous purgatives. It undoubtedly quickens and faci- litates their action ; and Barclay's pills are a warm, useful laxative, particularly convenient for those to whom aloes may be injurious. It is not to our purpose to add that every apothecary's apprentice could have composed an equally useful medicine, and one less in- convenient from its bulk, or that from any apothecary it could have been purchased at a much cheaper rate. Si fiopuhis, Sec. It reminds QU QU us, however, of an application made by a druggist to an apothe- cary to furnish a composition of this kind, which he engaged to vend in considerable quantities* by the simple expedient of affording a larger allowance to the retail tra- der than he received by any rival medicine. Whitehead's essence of mus- tard is a similar medicine, and an elegant form of turpentine, with camphor, perhaps opium, which was well known, and used long before Mr. Whitehead's ex- istence. The various remedies for the whooping-cough, when in- ternal, are either opiates or the white vitriol; when external, the polish embrocation of oil of amber, ammonia, Sec. The soda-water is well known ; and the sodaic pow- der, which is, however, a solution of soda, with a rapid extrication rather than the union of fixed air, we have already mentioned. If added to the water, and the whole immediately confined with wire in a strong jug, soda-water may un- doubtedly be prepared from it ; but an effervescing saline draught is, in its proposed form, an equally efficacious and a more elegant re- medy. There are other preparations which contain active medicines, which should not be entrusted to common hands. Ofthesethesecret remedies for the venereal disease, which stare every one in the face, at the appropriate corners, where the disease is most felt, are parti- cularly obvious. All these prepa- rations undoubtedly contain mer- cury in its most active forms, and the authors defy detection by the smallness of the dose, the deep colour, and the viscidity of the fluid which contains it. Modern che- mistry has, however, n my resour- ces, which cannot fail to discover the deception. Gowland's lotion is equally a mercurial, and highly pernicious. Numerous are the lives which have been sacrificed to it within our own observation ; and those who have escaped, have passed their remaining days in tor- ture or distress. Spilsbury's drops, a solution of muriated mercury, are less injurious, because the dose is small and they do not repel; butindiscriminately used have been highly injurious. The composition of Ching's lozenges is well known, and they contain calomel ; in the brown kind united to resin of jalap. They are undoubtedly active medicines, and often on that account injurious when indiscriminately employed; nor is it certain in these prepara- tions that the calomel is always properly prepared. The opium in Godfrey's cordial and Dalby's carminative is also frequently dan- gerous, by indiscriminate use, and many children's lives have been sacrificed to the impatience of nurses, though in proper hands each is a pleasing and useful ano- dyne. The concentrated essence of ginger, in the same manner employed in the relief of colic, has more than once induced inflamma- tion of the bowels under our own eye. We have thus selected some of the most common medicines as in- stances of the different forms which empiricism assumes, viz. merely picking the pocket, without any advantage ; demanding an ex- travagant price for common medi- cines ; and holding up confident promises by medicines of real ac- tivity, which, by undistinguishing ignorance,become really injurious. The legislature demands the re- ceipt of the remedy before it grants the patent; butthis is eluded by general directions, by multiplying useless steps in the process, as in Whitehead's specification, often concealing soiiie leading observa- tion essential to its success ; nor QU QU is any security given that the me- dicine shall be always prepared according to this process. Every patent requires, we apprehend, that the principle should be new ; and if it be not, an action cannot lie for its infringement. If this be true, we would engage to show the principle of every patent medicine in works long since published, and very often the process described much more accurately than in the specification. The confident promises are sup- ported by numerous attestations. How these are procured is well known, and common names, in re- mote parts of the metropolis, or in distant provincial villages, are secure from detection. The an- swer of one man, who had given a countenance, perhaps an attesta- tion to every quack who visited the town in which he lived, will perhaps explain the mystery. " I thought it an honest way of gain- ing half-a-crown ; for I did no one any injury." The conduct of those in supe- rior ranks of life, who sanction by their names the circulation of the most injurious medicines, demands some severer strictures. " What," it will be alleged, " should hin- der me from publicly saying that I was relieved from a given disor- der by such a medicine ?" The very circumstance that, as you know not the disease, you cannot ascertain the reality of the cure ; nor can you say it was owing to the medicine. A physician who has spent his life in study and ob- servation finds himself often baf- fled in these conclusions ; and yet they are rashly drawn by persons wholly unacquainted with the sub- ject, whose minds have received little cultivation, or who have di- rected their attention to very dif- ferent sciences. Credulity and con- fidence are the constant compa- hiqns of ignorance : and the wisest man must be ignorant of profes- sional subjects if that profession has claimed no share of his at- tention. Quadragemini, are four muscles of the thigh, the Pyriformis, the two Gemini, and the Quadratus, which see under their respective names. Quadratus Femoris. This mus- cle rises from the outside of the tuberosity of the ischium, and is inserted into the line between the trochanter major and minor, serv- ing to rotate the thigh. Quadratus Lumborum, ariseth from the posterior part of the spine of the ilium, and is inserted into the inside of all the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins. This muscle moveth the body upon the loins to one side, and both together help the rectus abdominis in bending the body forward. Quadratus Maxille Inferioris, is a broad membranous muscle, which lies immediately under the skin. It ariseth from the upper part of the sternum, from the claviculae, and from the acromi- um: it covereth all the neck, and adheres firmly to the lower edge of the lower jaw, and being pro- duced, covers also the lower part of the cheeks. When it acteth, it pulls the jaw downwards. Quadratus Radii, arises by a broad and fleshy beginning, from the lower and internal part of the ulna ; it passeth over the ligament that joins the radius,to the ulna, and is inserted as broad at its be- ginning into the external and low- er part of the radius. Q. PI. Quantum Placet, as much as you please. Q. V. Quantum vis, as much as you will. Q. S. Quantum sufficit, as much assufficeth. Quarantine, a term of forty-days. Sec Lazaretto. 59 QU QU Quartand Continua, continued quartan. Th« paroxysm returns every fourth day, after previous pandiculations and horripilations, but does not very exactly observe its period ; nor, when the parox- ysm abates, does it totally inter- mit, but is only milder on the in- termediate days than in that on which the paroxysm happens. The heat is also preternaturally intense, the pulse increased, the appetite languid, the strength low, the mouth dry, the head giddy, the sleep restless, the urine red, thick, with a high coloured sddiment Quartana Duplex, a double quar- tan. It is when within four days two succeeding paroxysms hap- pen, in such a manner that each preserves its proper type and pe- culiar time of accession, alter- nately corresponding to the pre- ceding paroxysm, and the third day only being totally free from the fever. Quartana Febris, an ague or quartan fever. It hath two fits in four days, or two days free from the fit, so on the first and the fourth the fever attends, and on the se- cond and third it is free ; the ac- cession of the fit is in the after- noon. Dr. Cullen places this ge- nus of disease in the class Py- rexie, and order Febrea. It is usually both more violent and ob- stinate than a tertian. Sometimes a quartan fever is double, that is, when the fits come on every other time at different hours, and so that the third day only is free from fever. It is called Spurious, when the fit begins at any other time of the day than about four or five o'clock in the evening. The fits return with greater regularity generally than is observed in other species of fevers. The cure is as related for intermittent fe- vers. Quassia, Bitter quassia. The root, bark, and wood of this tree, Qvsaia amara of Linnaeus, are all comprehended in the catalogues of the materia medica. Quassia has no sensible odour ; its taste is that of a pure bitter, more intense and durable than that of almost any other known substance : the medicinal virtues ascribed to it are those of a tonic, stomachic, antiseptic, and febrifuge ; it has been found very effectual in restor- ing the tone of the stomach, ex- citing appetite for food, assisting digestion^ expelling flatulency, and removing habitual costiveness, produced from debility of the in- testines, and common to a seden- tary life. Quassia derived its name from a negro named Quas- si (by Fermin written Coissi, and by Rolanda Quass,) who employed it with uncommon success as a se- cret remedy in the malignant en- demic fevers which frequently prevailed at Surinam. Quercua. The oak. This valu- able tree, Quercus robur of Lin- naeus, is indigenous to Britain. Its adstringent effects were suffi- ciently known to the ancients, but it is the bark which is now directed for medicinal use by our Pharma- copeias. Oak bark manifests to the taste a strong adstringency, accompanied with a moderate bit- terness. Like other adstringents, it has been recommended in agues, and for restraining haemorrhages, alvine fluxes, and other immode- rate evacuations. A decoction of it has likewise been advantage- ously employed as a gargle, and as a fomentation or lotion, inpro- cidentia recti et uteri. Galls, which in the warm climate of the East, are found upon the leaves of this tree, are occasioned by a small in- sect with four wings, called Cynips querci folii, which deposits an egg in the substance of the leaf, by making a small perforation through the under surface. The ball pre • RA RA tfently begins to grow to a consi- derable size. Two sorts of galls are distinguished in the shops: one said to be brought from Alep- po, the other from the southern parts of Europe. The former are generally of a blaeish colour, or of a greyish or black verging to blueness ; unequal and watery on the surface, hard to the break, acid of a close compact texture : the other, of a light brownish or whitish colour, smooth, round, easily broken, less compact, and of a much larger size. The two .sorts differ only in size and strength, two of the blue galls be- ing supposed equivalent in this respect to three of the others. Galls appear to be the most pow- erful of the vegetable adstrin- gents. As a medicine they are to be considered as applicable to the same indications as the oak-bark, and by possessing a greater de- gree of adstringent and stpytic power, seem to have an advantage over it, and to be better suited for external use. Reduced to fine pow- der, and made into an ointment, they have been found of great ser- vice in haemorrhoidal affections. Quicksilver, mercury. See Hy- drargyrus. Quietales, diseases in which the voluntary and involuntary motions, and the senses are diminished. Quinquina, the Peruvian-bark. Quinsey, the same as Angina, which see. Quotidiana Febris, a quotidian fever. It intermits, but returns every day, and that generally early in the morning.; when the fit ap- proaches at any other time of the day, it is called Spurious, or Ano- malous. Dr. Cullen places this genus of disease in the class Py- rexia, and order Febres. The blood is more dense in this spe- cies of intermittents than in any other. Quotidiana Soporose, i. e. Ter- tiana Carotica. R. RTHIS letter is placed at the . beginning of a prescription as a contraction of recipe, take : thus, R. Magnes. alb. 3J. signifies, take a drachm of magnesia. Rabies, i. e. Hydrophobia. When from the bite of a mad dog the patient hath a desire of biting, the canine madness is called Ra- bies. Rachialgia, i. e. Colic, particu- larly the colica Pictonum. Rachi*.ta, the rickets ; from f»X1^ the back bone; a genus of disease in the class cachexia and order intumescentia of Cullen ; known by a large head, prominent forehead, protruded sternum, flat- tened ribs, big belly, and emaci- ated limbs, with great debility. M. M. Cold bath ; exercise ; fric- tion ; spirituous embrocations on the spine j cinchona ; iron ; gen- tle emetics; phosphate of lime and soda, grs. x. each twice a day ; alkaline lotions. Racosis, pxxueii, excoriation of the relaxed scrotum. Radiaus Internus, is the second muscle of the wrist, and arises from the internal extuberance of the humerus, and upper part of the ulna, and stretching along the radius, is inserted into the first bone of the metacarpus that sus- tains the fore-finger, and with the cubitaeus internus, bends the wrist. They have their name from Ra- dius. Radialis, i. e. Radiaus. Radialis, Arteria. It is a branch of the humeral artery : it runs down the side of the radius, co- vered by the supinator longus : at the wrist it divides into two, one of which passing over the palm of RA RE the hand, is lost in the fleshy part of the thumb : the other passes on and between the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger, and the first bone of the thumb plunges- into the palm, and forms a sort of arch there. Radius, one of the long bones of the fore arm, situated on the external side towards the thumb, which serves for flexion, supina- tion, and pronation. At its upper extremity is an excavated head, forming the glenoid cavity, and a little tubercle ; and at its inferior extremity a styloid apophysis. Radius signifies a staff or beam. Ranine Artery, sublingual ar- tery. The second branch of the external carotid. Ranula, the name of a tumour seated under the tongue : it hath been thought to resemble a little frog, whence the name of Ranula, though some say it is thus named, because it alters the voice of the patient so as to make him croak like a frog: this tumour is formed in the salivary glands under the tongue, and is seated on either side the fraenum : it is generally of the scrofulous kind. Raphania. From gaQxvn, the ra- dish or sharlock ; because the dis- ease is said to be produced by eat- ing the seeds of that plant. A ge- nus of disease in the class neuro- ses and order spasmi of Cullen ; characterized by a spasmodic con- traction of the joints, with con- vulsive motions, and a most violent pain returning at various periods. Raphanus Rusticanus. Horse radish. The plant which affords this root is the Cochlearia armora- cia of Linnaeus. Horse radish has been long received into the materia medica, and is well known at our tables ; it affects the organs both of taste and smell with a quick penetrating pungency. External-: ly applied to the skin, it induces inflammation, and proves a rube- facient, and may be employed with advantage in palsy and rheuma- tism. Received into the stomach, it stimulates it, promotes diges- tion, and acts powerfully upon the kidneys. It is also in frequent use as an antiscorbutic. Rattle-Snake-Root. (Senega). See Senega. Raucedo,and Raucitas, a hoarse- ness : it is a diminution of the voice, sometimes attended with a preternatural asperity or rough- ness thereof: the parts affected are the aspera arteria, and parti- cularly the larynx. Dr. Cullen observes, it is generally a symp- tom of catarrh, but sometimes it is a species of Pharaphonia, which see. Realgar. A metalic substance of a red colour, more or less live- ly, and transparent, and often crystallized in brilliant needles. It is formed by a combination of arsenic with sulphur. Receptaculum Chyli. The ex- istence of such a receptacle in the human body is doubted. In brute animals the receptacle of the chyle is situated on the dorsal vertebrae where the lacteals all meet. Receptarii Medici ; so Langius calls those who set up for phy- sicians upon the stock only of a great many receipts, without being able to reason about their proper- ties or efficacies. Recipe, take. It is usually plac- ed at the beginning of prescrip- tions, and is generally wrote thus T}L, or with the character for tin If, over which metal Jupiter was supposed to preside, and so is used to denote the invocation of Jupi- ter before prescribing. Rectification. A second distil- lation, in which substances are purified by their more volatile parts being raised by heat careful- ly managed : thus, spirit of wine, aether, &c. are rectified by their RE RE separation from the less volatile and foreign matter which altered or debased their properties. Rectum Intestinum. The last of the large intestines called the Rectum, or straight gut, is every where covered with longitudinal fibres, and hath strong circular ones for expelling the faeces : it is not furnished with bands as the colon is, nor is it covered with the peritonaeum, as are the other in- testines. Rectus, is a muscle of the lower belly, which arises from the ster- num, the extremity of the last two ribs, and goes straight down to the fore part of the abdomen to be inserted in the os pubis. It hath three or four innervations, or rather tendinous coarctations of its fleshy fibres, which divide the belly of" it, as it were, into so many distinct muscles. It hath veins and arteries, which creep on its inside, from the mammillary and epigastric vessels, which com- municate, that the blood may re- turn by the mammillary veins, when the passage is stopped by the epigastric, which are com- pressed in women with child. Rectus, is also a muscle of the leg, that ariseth from the lower part of the spine of the ilium, and descending between the two vasti, is inserted with them. Like- wise, Rectus, is a muscle that lifts up the eyelids. It ariseth from the bottom of the orbit of the eye, where the optic nerves pierce the cranium, and passing above the superbus, is inserted, by a large tendon, into the border of the eye- lid. Rectus Major, is the third mus- cle that pulleth the head up or backwards. It ariseth from the spine of the second vertebra of the neck, and is inserted into the lower part of the occiput. And, Rectus Minor, is the fourth muscle for this office. It lies un- der the former, and cometh from the back part of the first verte- bra of the neck, and is inserted below the former. These are also, from their office, called Re- nuentes. Rectus Internus Major, ariseth from the fore part of the five inte- rior transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck, and is in- serted into the foremost appendix of the occipital bone, near its great hole. And the Rectus Internus Minor, lies on the fore part of the first verte- bra, like the rectus minor, on the back part, and is inserted into the anterior appendix of the os occi- pitis, immediately under the for- mer. These nod the headforwards, being antagonists to the recti mi- nores. These are also called Ann uentes. Recti Laterales, are another pair, which come from the transverse processes of the first vertebra, and are inserted near the proces- sus mammillaris. They help to move the head to one side. Recurrent Nerve, is a branch of the par vagum, bestowed upon the organs of speech, whence also called Vocal Nerve ; and thus, be- cause it descends and ascends again to supply the muscles of the larynx. Regimen, government, is used for that care in diet in living that is suitable to every particular course of medicine. Regionalis Morbus, an epidemic disease. Regius Morbus, the kingly dis- ease. The jaundice is thus called, but for what reason does not well appear. Regnum, kingdom, is by the writers in Physical and Natural History applied to certain classes of natural bodies, as the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. Sec. RE RE Remission, is when a distemper abates, but does not go quite off before it returns again, as is com- mon in fevers which do not quite intermit. Remote Cause. See Procatarctic Cause. Renales, Arteria : they are com- monly called Emulgents, are gene- rally two in number, and go out laterally from the lower descend- ing aorta, immediately under the mesenterica superior, one to the right hand, the other to the left: they run commonly without divi- sion, and almost horizontally to the kidneys, into the depressions of which they enter by several bran- ches : they sometimes send bran- ches to the glandulae renales, membrana adiposa of the kidneys, and even to the diaphragm. Renal Glands. Renal capsules. Supra-renal glands. Two hollow bodies of a triangular figure and glandular fabric, placed one on each side upon the kidney, and whose use is unknown. Renal Vessel*. See Emulgent vessels. Renes. The kidneys. Ato rn fw, because through them the urine flows. See Kidneys. Resins. The name of resin is given to a dry inflammable sub- stance, not miscible with water, soluble in oils and spirits of wine, and which,flows in a liquid state from the trees that produce them: such as elemi, mastich, sandrack, guaiacum, sanguis dra- conis, Sec. Resolvents. This term is applied by surgeons to sucti substances as discuss inflammatory tumours. Resolution, a termination of in- flammatory affections, in which the diseases disappear without in- ducing any other disease. Respiratio, (from respiro, to take breath,) Breathing, anapneuais, the action of taking in and dis- charging the air from the lungs, including, therefore, inspiration and expiration. This function is of the most ex- tensive importance,since there are few animated beings to whose cir- culating fluids the occasional ac- cess of air is not essentially neces- sary, either in its gaseous state, or as combined with water. In ge- neral the weight of the air is alone sufficient for its impulse, and it is necessary only to make some va- cuum to admit either air or water. In the amphibia, and in fish, the aperture of the mouth, and the action of the jaws propels the fluid, either air or water, into the lungs, or over the gills, that the blood may partake its salutary influence. In insects we find no apparatus to assist its action, though some such apparently exists, since the spi- racula lead to canals which pass through the whole body, anasto- mosing freely with each other. The numerous spiracles seem to show, independent of these anas- tomoses, some separate influence, since by varnishing them in suc- cession, so as to prevent the ac- cess of the air, the parts become successively paralytic; but the ani- mal does not die till the upper apertures are closed. In the human body air is receiv- ed into the lungs in consequence of a vacuum formed by the eleva- tion of the ribs. With their ac- tion the diaphragm seems to cor- respond ; and from a convex form towards the cavity of the thorax, it becomes nearly straight. It has been represented as becoming con- cave ; but this is wholly inconsis- tent with the phenomena of mus- cular action. When the action of the intercostals is remitted, the chest falls in consequence of the elasticity of its ligaments, and re- laxation is a constant alternating state with contraction in every mus- cle, unless when diseased. This statement is now generally acknow- RE HE ledged to be correct; nor need we enlarge on the very different opi- nions which have been offered on the subject, or attempt to eluci- date the difficulties, which, on other views, have been felt. The only remaining difference of opi- nion relates to the respective share of the diaphragm and intercostals in this function. The latter are said by some late authors to fix the ribs only, and that the enlargement of the chest is chiefly effected by the contraction of the diaphragm. Each, however, produces some ef- fect, though the chief agent is un- doubtedly the diaphragm. In wo- men the intercostals seem to have a greater share in enlarging the thorax than in men, from the great- er arches of the ribs, and the final cause is to assist respiration, when the motion of the diaphragm is impeded by the enlarged uterus. We have said, that all the ribs are raised, and this is perhaps strictly true, though Sabatier contends that the lower ribs descend. (Me- moires de l'Academie Royale, An- nee 1778.) Other physiologists have, however, drawn different conclusions, both from the struc- ture of the parts, and from obser- vation. It has been contended also, that as the external and in- ternal intercostals cross each other obliquely, their action must be dif- ferent, and even opposite; but this has been fully contradicted by an experiment of Haller. In this experiment, it was also found, that in inspiration the ribs did not ap- proach, but rather receded, and the space was, in part, gained by their protruding the sternum. If, as we find in pregnant wo- men, near the time of delivery, the intercostals carry on the function of respiration almost exclusively, so at other times it is chiefly, if not wholly, effected by the dia- phragm. The union of the ribs with the sternum has been anchy- losed sometimes with little injury to respiration, though more often with dyspnoea. When, from va- rious causes respiration is difficult, or, in other words, when water, inflammation, or other causes pre- vent the access of the air, or the elevation of the ribs, different neighbouring musclesare brought to the assistance of the usual agents,particularly those of the tho- rax in inspiration, and those of the abdomen in expiration. To give a more fixed point to the former the elevatores scapulae are exert- ed, and the shoulders are raised. In the whole of this function, the lungs are passive. Conti- guous to the pleura, or at least se- parated only by an halitus, they are in contact with that part of the membrane which lines the ribs, both in inspiration and expiration, following in each the motions of the chest. The apparent object in this function is to expose every particle of blood, in succession, to the air. The circulation seems to stagnate through serpentine ves- sels during expiration, and to flow freely when these are distended by the distention of the lungs. This, though apparently obvious, has been denied, chiefly on the principle, that the regular return of blood irritates the heart to re- gular contraction. Yet when the lobules are distended, the canals of the vessels are necessarily straiter, and when respiration i6 more frequent, the pulse is quick- ened. Whatever be the state of this function, there is always suf- ficient blood carried back to sti- mulate the heart to regular ac- tion. The blood-vessels, we have seen, dispersed freely on the cel- lules into which the extremities of the bronchiae terminate, and the containing coats are there so thin that the wax of the injection ex- udes. Whether air can pass or repass has beenthe subject of some RE RE controversy; and however dis- cordant the calculation respecting the extent of surface to which the blood is exposed, physiologists have generally agreed that it ex- ceeds considerably the whole sur- face of the body. The capacity of the thorax, the quantity of air taken in at each in- spiration, and that remaining after complete expiration, has been dif- ferently estimated. Dr. Goodwyn, Mr. Coleman, Dr. Menzies, Mr. Kite, and Mr. Davy, by different experiments, have endeavoured to determine these questions; but the results have greatly differed. The subject does not appear to us one of considerable importance, so that, without any extensive disquisition, we shall adopt the conclusions of Dr. Bostock, in his late Essay on Respiration. He thinks, that about forty cubic inches of air are taken in at each inspiration ; that the lungs, in their natural condition, contain about two hundred and eighty cubic inches; and that about one hundred and nine cubic inches are left after an ordinary expira- tion. Were we inclined to be cri- tically minute, we think we could show that each number is some- what too high ; though, oa the whole, these conclusions are sup- ported by the best physiologists. According to this calculation, how- ever, about one-seventh of the con- tents of the lungs are discharged byan ordinary, and somewhat more than half by a violent, expiration. A bulk of air nearly equal to three times the contents of the lungs will be thus discharged in a minute, and about four thousand one hun- dred and fourteen times their bulk in twenty-four hours. The uses of respiration were for a long time unknown ; and imagi- nary effects were imputed to this function, particularly a more inti- mate mixture of the blood, by its fancied rapidity through the lungs. The whole mass of blood was sup- posed to pass through the lungs in the same time that it did through the rest of the body, and, of course, it was thought that its course must be more rapid, though it would be apparently obvious, that if the cir- cuit was shorter, the celerity need not be so great. There is, how- ever, no evidence, except the most uncertain caIculation,thatthe whole mass does pass through the lungs in a corresponding period with its circulation through the whole sys- tem : nearly the same quantity is returned in the same time ; but if we can measure, or at least ap- proximate, the capacity of the ves- sels of the lungs, we are unac- quainted with the extent of the vessels of the general, or as it may be styled, the aortic system. The nerves, in their passage through the diaphragm and the liver, from the compression of this muscle, were supposed to be af- fected ; and the alternate contrac- tion and relaxation of the dia- phragm, as well as of the heart, were attributed to it. The nerves in general, however, pass through the more tendinous portion ; and, as the diaphragm in its contrac- tion is only less concave, the pres- sure on the liver cannot be consi- derable. The concurring actions of the stomach and abdominal muscles are the only powers which seem to emulge the biliary ducts. The influence of respiration on the course of the chyle in the tho- racic duct is wholly imaginary ; for pressure would only be useful if there were valves in it; but there are none ; and, in experi- ments on living animals, the chyle is seen to move in the duct, though respiration be impeded or pre- vented. The necessity of a supply of fresh air in respiration must have been known from the earliest pe- riods; but the source of this ne,- RE RE oessity was little understood, till Boyle found the respired air, load- ed with aqueous vapour, and di- minished in bulk. Mayow, whose fair fame has lately been rescued from oblivion, showed that some principle, which he called a vola- tile ethereal spirit, was imbibed from the air, and Dr. Black found that air respired contained carbo- nic acid gas. In this view of the subject, the unfitness of the-air for the continuance of life was attri- buted to its diminished elasticity ; for it was only suspected that car- bonic acid gas was not fit for the continuance of this function. At last, after a period of more than twenty years, the constitution of the atmosphere was taught by Scheele and Lavoisier. They found that the apparently homoge- neous atmosphere was composed of two gases of different proper- ties, the oxygenous and the azotic, in the proportions, if bulk be con- sidered, of 22 to 78, if the weight, of 26 to 74. This proportion of a fluid unfit for respiration, in air essentially necessary to life, was at first astonishing,till it was found that oxygen, like ardent spirit, was poisonous, by its destroying, from excessive stimulus, the excitabi- lity, and that, like it, to be innocu- ous, it must be lowered. Late ex- periments, however, seem to show that the azote is not wholly use- less. In explaining the process of animalization, we found the neces- sity of some principle, which could reduce the newly absorbed nutri- ment to an animal nature, and this appears to be azote. Yet the idea is encumbered with difficulties. Azote is an excrementitious fluid; and the changes produced in the blood, from its circulation through the lungs, are apparently those from oxygen only. It is not, how- ever, a very absurd idea that a principle, at first necessary, may in the end be injurious from ex- cess. In fact, Mr Davy, in some very accurate experiments, found a remarkable deficiency of azote, amounting in twenty-four hoars to about four ounces and a half. The changes produced in the at- mospheric air, from respiration, are found chiefly to affect its oxy- genous portion: this is diminish- ed ; and water, in the state of va- pour, with carbonic acid gas, are substituted. It is not certain whe- ther the latter gas is separated, or that its basis, carbone, with the oxygenous gas inspired, are its in- gredients. The latter is more probable; and, though air contains a small portion of this gas (about 0.01) naturally, its proportion in expired air is very considerable. The oxygenous portion is un- doubtedly that part most essential to life in general; and, from the highest order of animals to the lowest, the great difference seems to be, that in the latter the oxygen is more slowly and more com- pletely separated.- A man dies while the air still retains a com- paratively large proportion of oxy- gen ; snails separate the whole completely(Vauquelin, Annales de Chymie xii. 276; Spalanzani on Respiration.) In general, the greater the heat, the larger pro- portion of oxygen is necessary: birds, in general, die when two- thirds of this principle are ex- hausted. In the human body the greater the rapidity of the circu- lation, whether from increased temperature, muscular action or fever, the larger proportion of oxy- gen is required. From a hundred parts of oxygenous gas, were lost in respiration, during an hour and quarter, when the animal breathed with great difficulty, three and a half cflbic inches; and of the re- mainder, sixteen and a half were absorbed by potash. In another experiment, the propoitioi.s los: and absorbed were somewhat 60 RE RE greater; and it seems probable that the purer the air, the greater is the proportion of carbonic acid gas, as if at least a portion of the oxygen was converted into it. The quantity of oxygen, consumed by a man in twenty-four hours, is nearly 46,000cubic inches, or about two pounds eight ounces troy; and the quantity of carbonic gas form- ed probably exceeds three pounds troy. The diminution of the bulk of air by one respiration is about •£g of the whole. Mr. Abernethy supposed, that in common respira- tions the bulk of air was actually increased. It must undoubtedly be expanded by the heat of the body, a circumstance perhaps not sufficiently taken into the calcula- tion ; but he supposed also, that the carbonic acid gas was a super- added portion by exhalation from the vesicles of the lungs, while the diminution, apparent when an animal was long confined in air, arose, in his opinion, from its ab- sorption. The quantity of mois- ture which is discharged has been differently estimated. It appears to have varied from 11180.57 to 13704 grains in twenty-four hours: the average is 12442; but perhaps the quantity of watery fluid, dis- charged at different times, varies. It is supposed, by Lavoisier, that this water is formed by the union of the oxygen with hydrogen. Other physiologists have attributed it to a common exhalation ; but, when the quantity of oxygenous gas which disappears is accurately examined, it will be found greater than can be accounted for, if we even admit portions to be employ- ed in forming the water and the carbonic acid gas. It is highly probable, therefore, that it is in part absorbed. It is not, however, equally probable, that the water arises from the union of oxygen with hydrogen. In general, the union ofthese gases is effected with some difficulty, and we sus- pect that, in every instance, the co- operation of the electric fluid is requisite. This fluid is generally found free, in the atmosphere, and may become an intermede in the present process. In the change also from a vegetable to an animal nature, hydrogen is generally lost; so that, though some of the water in expired air arises from exhalation and evaporation, some perhaps may be formed. The changes produced on the blood by respiration are now more clearly understood than in the time of Booerhave and Haller. Blood which haspassedthrough the lungs is of a brighter colour than the venal blood, and has a greater ca- pacity of heat The colour we now know to be owing to the in- fluence of oxygenous gas, and the darker colour of venal blood to carbone. Blood, stagnating with- out the access of air, becomes of the colour and nature of venal blood; it assumes the same appearances, when exposed to any of the unres- pirable gases. When we consider the different nature of the alimentary substances taken in, which are generally in part vegetable, we find an accumu- lating portion of carbone, and sometimes of hydrogen, while in the animal fluid these in part dis- appear, and the predominating principle is azote. We can detect the source of the carbone in the blood, in conformity to this idea, from the thoracic duct, and we perceive that the newly formed aliment is anxiously conveyed, im- mediately on its reaching the blood-vessels, to the lungs. The oxygenous gas is therefore united with it, and carbonic acid gas im- mediately formed, which is car- ried off by the air. At the same time probably a portion of hydro- gen becomes water, while the azote taken in more completely RE RE animalizes this new fluid, and adapts it for furnishing the differ- ent secreted fluids. In the course, however, of the circulation, the oxygen more completely unites with the remaining carbone, so as to form an oxide, which thus assumes a dark colour, and re- quires a new supply of oxyge- nous gas, to change it to car- bonic acid air, and fit it for its dis- charge. The change thus induced by the circulation is chiefly chemical, since it may be imitated out of the body, and the successive varia- tions, from the florid colour to the darker hue, and the contrary, may be effected by confinement from air, and again restoring the blood to the access of oxygen. The oxy- gen, in this instance, will have its effect through a small bladder, or indeed any vessel of the body, if the cellular substance be removed. The effect therefore will be more certain and speedy through the thin vessels of the lungs, whose diameters admit but a small pro- portion of the blood. It acts also through the serum, and, as Mr. Davy supposes, by its previous solution in this fluid. The reason of the more striking change to the florid hue we do not, however, un- derstand, as we are so little ac- quainted with the nature of the red globules. Their colour is found from some late experiments to be owing to phosphorated iron, with perhaps some uncombined oxide of the same metal. That the oxy- gen and hydrogen may form this acidi which immediately unites with the uncombined oxide, is not an improbable, though an unsup- ported, suggestion; but we are apparently on the eve of obtain- ing more satisfactory information. The azote absorbed in this func- tion contributes to form the glu- ten of the blood, which probably differs, in this respect only, from albumen; and, in an increased pro- portion, the fibrin. Whether this last principle can supply any waste or destruction of the truly fibrous parts of the body is doubtful. We have never been able to detect any such supply, nor has, in any in- stance, a truly organic portion of the body been reproduced, within our observation or recollection. Where organs are reproduced, it is not probably in a single animal, but in a congeries of animals pro- pagated, analogously to vegetables, from buds. Were the heat of animals the effect of the chemical changes which take place in the lungs, this part of the body should be warmer than any other, which is by no means true. It is probable, there- fore, that if wholly owing to a che- mical change, it is produced by the gradual incorporation of the oxy- gen with the carbone, during the circulation, an opinion first suggest- ed many years since by Dr. Dun- can. The increase of heat which actually takes place in the lungs, from the play of affinities, is appa- rently compensated by the cold produced by the evaporation of the moisture. With respect to other gases, the hydrocarbonate is the only one decidedly injurious from powers certainly sedative ; for nitrous, vi- triolic acid, and alkaline airs, are only these substances in a gaseous form. The carbonic acid air can- not be breathed for any consider- able time, even when diluted, with- out pain; and hydrogen and azote appear to be only injurious inas- much as they exclude oxygenous gas. Carbonic acid air, unmixed, produces an immediate spasm on the lungs, and cannot be taken into them. The last experiments of Lavoisier (Memoires de l'Aca- demiedes Sciences, 1789,) we per- ceive, afford great room for doubt whether the last is capable of any RE RE great advantage or injury, unless from constant use. Resuscitatio, (from rcsuscito, to revive,) the art of reviving persons apparently dead. Apparent death, as remarked in the article Medicina forensis, arises from narcotic poi- sons, either fluid from intoxica- tion, or defoterious gases introduc- ed inin the lungs; excessive eva- cuations, extreme cold, sudden terror, hanging, or drowning. A stroke of lightning has been added to the causes; but the apparent death from this cause is real; the victim rarely recovers. The signs of death we have also enumerated in the same article; but having re- marked their equivocal nature, we need scarcely add, that unless the cause has long continued, or the symptoms are peculiarly decisive in their degree, they should not deter us from continuing our at- tempts. The principal cause of death in these instances is the destruction of the irritability of the muscular fibres, or a diminution of the ful- ness of the vessels to such a de- gree that they are no longer able to support the due tension of the brain. Hanging or drowning, as connected with topical injury, we shall reserve for a separate con- sideration, under the appropriate articles Suspensio and Submersio. The apparent death from loss of tension in the brain, occurs where the evacuations, chiefly the san- guineous ones, have been exces- sive, or where it has followed sud- den terror, which seems to para- lize the heart, or at least greatly to diminish its force. In the first case, if the sanguineous discharges continue, we must not too eager- ly attempt resuscitation, as death will probably ensue from the re- turn of the haemorrhage. It re- quires the most careful attention, and the exhibition of such restora- tives as will preserve life, but will not powerfully excite the action ot the heart and arteries ; such cases are not usually fatal, and we re- collect no instance where increas- ed discharges of any other kind produce apparent death, which re- quires the exertion of the medical powers qf resuscitation. Sudden terror partakes of each cause ; for though it immediately destroys the irrilabilityof the heart, yet it is fatal by depriving the brain of the tension which it derives from the fulness of the vessels. Its remedies will, therefore, be considered under the next head. To restore the irritability of the sanguineous and nervous system, plans apparently the most impro- bable and absurd have been em- ployed, sometimes with success. Bleeding is one of these, and when the immediate cause of the loss of irritability is a congestion in any system of vessels, or when a de- bilitating cause, from relaxation, occasions an accumulation of fluids, this evacuation is often useful. Thus it is equally beneficial in those cases of apparent death which follow a suddenly altered determination of the blood, or Which proceed from deleterious gases of a sedative nature. Taking off from the load will often occa- sion an immediate contraction, as we know from the observation of Mr. Coleman, so often repeated ; and v> hen a chain of actions is once begun, it is usually followed by those before associated with it, The blood in this case should be taken from a large orifice, that the necessary discharge may be made in the smallest space of time, and produce the desired alteration with as little debility as possible. For this reason topical bleedings, though directed to the affected part, are less beneficial, since the discharge is slow. Emetics have been directed from an indiscriminating empiricism, RE rather than sound argument or ju- dicious induction. Yet so general has been the practice, that it would be rash to deny their utility in some cases. The first action of emetics inducing nausea is un- doubtedly sedative; and during the whole of this introductory process, emetics are debilitating powers. We know not that on this account these remedies should be rejected, since relaxation, in many instances, is the novi motus initium. Yet reasoning of this kind is too fallacious to support their use. The action of vomiting, on the other hand, we have found useful, even, we suspect, in cases where there is a considerable congestion of blood in the head. If then we can produce this action, without any, or with a very slight preced- ing nausea, we may perhaps assist recovery without adding to the debility. This effect may be pro- duced by the vitriolated zinc, as- sisted by mustard whey, or cam- momile tea, with the aqua ammo- niac ; or, if we still want a more active power, by a few grains of vitriolated mercury. It is obvious, however, that this remedy is con- fined to that period of recovery, or that degree of asphyxia, where the patient has retained, or pos- sesses the power of swallowing. Catliartics are also confined to the period when the powers of life have been partly roused, or are not wholly lost; and they should be of the most active kinds ; but in the form of clysters they are among the earliest and most useful acids. In a moment of emergency three or four ounces of common salt may be dissolved in a pint and half of water, three or four ounces of soap, or a large table spoonful of the soft black soap in the same quantity. If more time be allow- ed, three drums of the pulp of colocynth may be boiled in a pint and half of water to a pint, and RE a bunch of groundsel, a weed found in every garden, will add to its activity. Tobacco clysters are subject to the same objections as emetics, and indeed are chiefly used for the relaxation they pro- duce. Those who adopt the idea of relaxation contributing to a new chain of associated motions may employ them ; but, though the theory might be rendered plausi- ble, experience will contradict it, and tobacco clysters, with nause- ating emetics, should be banished from the resuscitating powers. Of the diaphoretics warmth and friction are only admissible, and these, with a few exceptions, are to be very early employed, and steadily continued. Clysters con- tribute to resuscitation by their warmth ; and warm air blown in- to the lungs is highly useful. Ex- panding the chest we found the chief agent in the function of Res- piration, q. v. and in every case of apparent death there is usu- ally an accumulation of mucus in the lungs, which the warm air will contribute to dissolve. Air of a higher quality, if at hand. will be more useful. Carbonic acid gas, and, as we shall find, wa- ter in persons drowned, produce a constriction on the glottis, which may not be removed ; and indeed the difficulty of inflating the lungs, except by the most experienced operator, is considerable. Bronch- otomy has been therefore ad- vised ; and this operation may be easily performed by a small, flat trochar, which may be introduced safely through the rings of the trachea, after cutting the skin to lessen the resistance, which would otherwise require so great a force as might carry it beyond the pos- terior part of the tube. General stimulants of the most active diffusible kind are immedi- ately necessary, and the good ef- fects of friction are greatly in- Ke RH creased by every rubefacient, as common salt, flour of mustard, aqua ammonias, tinctura canthari- dum, diluted vitriolic acid, &c. When the patient can swallow, wine or spirits, as nearest at hand and most congenial to the feelings of the attendants, are generally employed, and they will not be improper: the volatile alkali is, however, always more useful, since these, though diffusible, are indirect stimulants. If given, they should be followed by warm fluids impregnated with some of the common aromatic herbs, and particularly by nourishing broths, warmed by condiments, as the cay- an or common pepper. Among the stimulants electricity and gal- vanism have been usually reckoned; but as higher degrees of each destroy by exhausting irritability, even the lowest are suspicious ; nor can either be safely admitted in the form of shocks. Drawing sparks by an electrical machine will undoubtedly stimulate with less danger; but in this view it is by no means a powerful agent, and we have not yet learned to manage galvanism in the same way. We have hinted at exceptions to the general directions respect- ing warmth, and we alluded to the cases of apparent death from in- toxication, deleterious gases, and perhaps sudden terror. In these cold water, dashed against the face and breast, is often quickly effica- cious. The seamen immerge their comrades in the sea; and the poor victims of the carbonic acid gas, in the Grotto del Cani, are recovered by throwing them into a neighbouring lake. Rete Mucosum. Corpus rcticu- lare. Corpus mucosum. Mucus Malphigii. A mucous substance deposited in a net-like form be- tween the epidermis and cutis, which covers the sensible cutane- ous papillae, connects the epider- mis with the cutis, and gives tlyt colour to the body : in Europeans it is of a white colour, in Ethiopi- ans black. Retina, the third or innermost membrane of the eye expanded round the choroid coat, like a net, to the ciliary ligament. It is the true organ of vision ; and is formed by an expansion of the pulp of the optic nerve. Rhabarbarum, rhubarb. The plant which affords the officinal rhubarb is the Rheum palmatum of Linnaeus. There are two sorts usually imported into this country, viz. the Chinese and the Turkey rhubarb. The first is in oblong pieces, flattish on one side and convex on the other, compact, hard, heavy, internally of a dull red colour, variegated with yel- low, and when recently powdered appears yellow, but on being kept becomes gradually redder. The second is the most valuable, and is brought to us in roundish pieces with a large hole through the middle of each. It is more soft and friable than the former sort, and exhibits when broken many streaks of a bright red colour. The marks of the goodness of rhubarb are, the liveliness of its colour when cut, its being firm and solid, but not flinty or hard ; its being easily pulverable, and appearing, when powdered, of a fine bright yellow colour; its imparting to the spittle, on being chewed, a deep saffron tinge, and not proving slimy or mucilaginous in the mouth. Its taste is subacrid, bit- terish, and somewhat styptic; the smell slightly aromatic. The vir- tues of rhubarb are purgative and tonic, opening the bowels and re- storing the tone of the stomach and intestines when it has been lost. It also possesses some de- gree of stipticity : and as this quality appears to act when that of the purgative has ceased, it h Rtt RI considered the most proper eva- cuant in cases of diarrhoea, when that class of medicine is indicated. The official preparations of this drug are a watery and a vinous in- fusion, a simple and a compound tincture: it is also an ingredient in different compositions, as the elixir ex aloe cum rheo, pil. sto- machic a, and some others. Grs. iv. to 3I Rhachis, pappj, the spine of the back. Rhachisagra, from pxx*, the spine of the back, and etypx,aprey ; a species of Gout, fixed in the spine of the back. Rhaum, rhubarb. Rhagades, malignant, dry, and deep cutaneous fissures j from fnyww, to break or bruise. Rhamnua, buck-thorn, or purg- ing thorn. Rhaphe. PuQt), a suture. The rough eminence which extends from the fraenum of the penis along its under surface, and di- vides the scrotum, is also so called, because it appears as if it were sewed. liheuma. Ptvy,ct ; from §tw, to flow. The discharge from the nostrils or lungs arising from cold; hence the following lines of the school of Salernita : Sifluit ad pectus, dicatur rheuma catarrhus, Ad fauces branchus, ad nares esto coryza. Rheumatism. Vivf*uno-y.og, a de- fluxion. This term is so called from its being formerly used in the same sense as rheuma ; but in the present day the meaning of this word is applied to a genus of disease in the class pyrexia, and order phlegmasia of Cullen ; cha- racterized by pyrexia ; pains in the joints, increased by the action of the muscles belonging to the joint; and heat on the part. The blood after venesection, exhibits an inflammatory crust. Rheuma- tism terminates in arthrodinia, lumbago, and ischias. M. M. Antiphlogistic regimen; venesec- tion ; cooling laxatives; sudori- fics ; nitre ; camphor; digitalis ; opium with antimonials or ipeca- cuanha; blisters and external sti- mulants. Dr. Hamilton recom- mends calomel grs v to i. with opium gr. i. i every sixth, eighth or twelfth hour, and a free use of tepid diluents. Dr. Fordyce re- commends immediate and free use of cinchona. Rhododendron. From fo3b», a rose, and &vJpov, a tree, the ole- ander or rose bay, so called from the similitude of the flowers of this plant to roses. It was first recommended by Koelpin as an efficacious medicine, not only in rheumatism and gout, but even in venereal cases ; and it is now very generally employed in chronic rheumatisms. The leaves, which are the part directed for medicinal use, have a bitterish subadstrin- gent taste. Taken in a large dose they prove a narcotic poison ; and in moderate doses they are said to occasion heat, thirst, a degree of delirium, and a peculiar sensation of the parts affected. 31J. infused in 3*x. water; in powder a few grains. Rhomboideus. From eoy£os, a geometrical figure whose sides are equal, but not- right angled, and uoos, resemblance. A muscle situated on the back, and divided into two portions, distinguished into major and minor, which as- sists the serratus posticus inferior in depressing the ribs. Rhyas. Poiaj, or euxs, a disease of the eye. A decrease or defect of the lachrymal caruncle. Ribes Nigrum, the black cur- rant. This indigenous plant, Ri- bes nigrum of Linnaeus, affords larger berries than those of the red, which are said to be peculi- arly useful in sore throats, and to RI RO possess a diuretic power in a very considerable degree. The leaves of the black currant are extremely fragrant, and have been likewise recommended for their medicinal virtue The officinal preparations of ;ne berries in the London Pharmacopeias are the syrupua ribis nigri aid the succus ribis nigri Inspisaatus. Ribea Rubrum, the red cur- rant. As the white currant treeis merely a variety of the red, and the fruit of both is perfectly ana- logous, therefore, what is said of the one applies to the other. The red currant is abundantly cultivated in gardens, and from its grateful acidity is universally accepted either as nature presents it, or va- riously prepared by art with the addition of sugar. Considered medicinally, it is esteemed to be moderately refrigerant, antisep- tic, attenuant, and aperient. It may be used with considerable advantage to allay thirst in most febrile complaints, to lessen an increased secretion of bile, and to correct a putrid and scorbutic state of the fluids, especially in sanguine temperaments; but in constitu- tions of a contrary kind, it is apt to occasion flatulency and indi- gestion. Ribs. Costa. The ribs are twenty-four in number, twelve on each side; and are situated ob- liquely in the sides, extending from the dorsal vertebrae to the sternum. The seven superior ribs are called true ribs, because they are attached to the sternum, and to distinguish them from the five inferior, which do not reach the sternum, and are called false or spurious ribs. Each rib has a head, a neck, and a lesser head, and a groove extending along its under surface, for the passage of the intercostal artery. The anterior part of each rib is cartilaginous, the rest bony and compact. The use of the ribs is to assist in forming the thorax, to defend the vital viscera, and to give adhesion to muscles that assist respiration. Ricinus. The Ricinus communis of Linnaeus, or common fialma chriati, is the plant that affords the seeds from which the oleum ricini, or castor oil, is obtained. This oil, when the stomach can be re- conciled to it, is one of the most agreeable purgatives that can be employed, as it commonly operates in two or three hours, and, when good, without producing any grip- ing. It appears to be more parti- cularly adapted to spasmodic colic, habitual costiveness, and worms. Oil of 3ss. to |i. Rickets, a disease common to children. See Rachitis. Rigor, is a convulsive shudder- ing from cold, or an ague fit. Rima, is any fissure or chink; hence it is applied to several parts of the body that have any resem- blance thereunto in shape; as the Rima Pudendi, or Fissura Magna, is the vulva ; and Rima Laryngis, is the aperture of the Larynx, &c. Ringworm. The same as Herpes. Risus Sardonicus, the Sardonic Laugh ; a sort of convulsion of the muscles of the face. Roasting, a chemical process generally performed in crucibles, by which mineral substances are divided, some of their principles being volatilized and others chang- ed, so as to prepare them for other operations. Roborantia, from robur, strength, are such medicines as strengthen the parts, and give new vigour to the constitution. Rosa Damascena, the Damask rose. The Pharmacopeias direct a syrup to be prepared l;., o the petals of this rose, Rota a..- i/llia of Linnaeus, which is found '.. ;ic a pleasant and useful laxative for children, or to obviate costiveness in adults. RU RU Rosa Rubra, red officinal rose. The flowers of this species, Rosa gallica of Linnaeus, are valued for their adstringent qualities, which are most considerable before the petals exp.tnd; and therefore in this state they are chosen for medici- nal use, and ordered by the phar- macopeias in different preparations, as those of a conserve, a honey, an infusion, and a syrup. The infu- sion of roses is a grateful, cooling subadstringent, and useful in hae- moptysis, and other haemorrhagic complaints ; its efficacy, however, depends chiefly on the acid. Rosmarinus, common rosema- ry. Rosmarinus officinalis of Lin- haeus. The leaves and tops of this plant have a fragrant aromatic smell, and abitterish pungent taste Rosemary is reckoned one of the most powerful of those plants which stimulate and corroborate the nervous system; It has there- fore been recommended in various affections, supposed to proceed from debility or defective excite- ment of the brain and nerves, as in certain head-achs, deafnesses, giddinesses, and in some hysteri- cal and dyspeptic symptoms. Oil of gt. ii. to iv. Spirit of |ss. to ^i. Rotula. In Anatomy it is the knee-pan. In Pharmacy it is a troche. It signifies a little wheel. Round Ligaments of the Uterus, a bundle of vessels and fibres contained in a duplicature of the peritonaeum, that proceed from the sides of the uterus, through the abdominal ring, and disappear in the pudenda. Rotundus, is one of the muscles of the Radius, thus called from its round shape. It arises fleshy from the internal extuberance of the Humerus, and goes obliquely to be inserted into the middle and ex- ternal parts of the Radius, with others helping to turn the palm upwards. Rn'"farirntia. Those epispa^- tics or attrahents are thus called which excite heat with a degree of inflammation. Rubedo. The same as Gutta Ro- sacea. The different varieties of rubedo are called Rubedo Simfdex, Rubedo Pustulosa, Rubedo Ulcerosa. Rubeola, the measles; from ru- bco. to become red. A geni's of disease in the class pyrexia and or- der exanthemata of Cullen ; known by synocha, hoarseness,dry cough, sneezing, drowsiness ; about the fourth day, eruptions of small red points, discernible by the touch, which after three days end in mealy desquamation. The blood after ve- nesection exhibits an inflammatory crust. M. M. Venesection; re- frigerants; diaphoretics; antiphlo- gistic regimen; pediluvium; pec- torals ; opium ; blisters. Rubia, Madder. Rubia Tincto- rum of Linnaeus. The roots of this plant have a bitterish, some- what austere taste, and a slight smell, not of the agreeable kind. It was formerly considered as a deobstruent, detergent, and diure- tic, but it is now very seldom used. Iss to Ji. Rubus Ideus. Rubus ideus of Linnaeus. The raspberry. The fruit of this plant has a pleasant sweet taste, accompanied with a peculiar grateful flavour, on ac- count of which it is chiefly valued. Its virtues consist in allaying heat and thirst, and promoting the na- tural excretions. A grateful sy- rup prepared from the juice is di- rected for officinal use by the Lon- don Pharmacopeia. Ructaticn, and Ructus, is a belching that arises from wind and indigestion ; and rather to be cured with proper stomachics than carminative and hot liquors. Rue. See Rut a. Ruminant, cud-chewers, is a ge- neral name for all those animals that rhow the cud. 61 SA SA Ruptura, a rupture. It is most properly spoken of a tendon, a li- gament, or a cartilage, when they are divided by violence. It then constitutes a species of wound, viz. the lacerated. Rupture. See Hernia and Rufi- tura. Ruta, common rue. Ruta gra- veolens of Linnaeus. Rue has a strong and grateful smell, and a bitter, hot, penetrating taste ; the leaves are so acrid, that by much handling they are said to irritate and inflame the skin; and the plant in its natural or uncultivated state is said to possess these sensible qualities still more powerfully. The imaginary quality of the rue, in resisting and expelling conta- gion, is now laid aside. It is doubtless a powerful stimulant, and is considered, like other me- dicines of the fetid kind, as pos- sessing attenuating, deobstruent, and antispasmodic poAvers. In the London Pharmacopeia it is direct- ed in the form of an extract, and it is also an ingredient in the pul- vis myrrha comp. Jss. to 3i« SA. The contraction of secun- . dum artem. S. or ss. immediately following any quantity, imports emis, or halfi Sabadilla, a vegetable said to be good for destroying the vermin that infest human bodies. Sabina, savine. Juniperus sa- bina of Linnaeus. The leaves and tops of this plant have a mode- rately strong smell of the disa- greeable kind, and a hot, bitterish, acrid taste : it is a powerful and active medicine, and has been long reputed the most efficacious in the materia medica, for producing a determination to the uterus, and thereby proving emmenagogue; it heats and stimulates the whole sys- tem very considerably, and is said to promote the fluid secretions. Externally savine is recommended as an escharotic to foul ulcers, sy- philitic wartsj &c. A strong de- coction of the plant in lard forms an useful ointment to keep up a constant discharge from blisters, &c—-3ss. to 5i. Sabulous, is that gritty or sandy- matter which often washes away by the kidneys, and settles in the urine, and is a concretion of lithic acid. Saccr, Morbus, given to the epi- lepsy, upon the apprehension of somewhat supernatural being con- cerned in its production, or cure. Saccharum, sugar. The cane from which the sugar is obtained in the West and East-Indies is the Saccharum officinarum of Linnaeus. It is prepared from the expressed juice boiled with the addition of quick lime or common vegetable alkali. Sugar, as an article of dietj is so well known as not to require any description of it here. It may be taken into the stomach in very large doses,without producing any bad consequences, although proofs are not wanting of its mischievous effects, by relaxing the stomach, and thus inducing disease. It is much used in pharmacy, as it forms the basis of syrups, lozenges, and other preparations. It is very use- ful as a medium to favour the so- lution or suspension of resins, oils, &c. in water; and is used as a pur- gative for infants. Saccholates, are salts formed by the union of the Saccho-lactic acid, with the different alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. Sacculi Adiposi, the cells of the cellular membrane filled with fat. Saccus Lachrymalis. The la- chrymal sac is situated in the in- ternal canthus of the eye, behind SA the lachrymal caruncle, in a cavi- ty form-.d iiy the os unguis. Sacro-Lumbralis, a muscle situ- ated on the posterior part of the trunk, between the sacrum and the ribs, which pulls the ribs down, and assists in making the trunk of the body erect. Sacrum, a bone of the pelvis, so called from sacer, sacred ; because it was formerly offered in sacrifices. It is situated in the posterior part, sustainingthe spine, and has seve- ral tubercles and foramina, which give it the appearance of the pro- cesses of the spine. Its use is to contain the terminations of the spinal marrow, to assist in form- ing the pelvis, and to sustain the spine. Sagapenum. It is conjectured thatthiscomplete gummi-resinous juice is the production of an un- belliferous plant. Sagapenum is brought from Persia and Alexan- dria in large masses, externally yellowish, internally paler, and of a horny clearness. Its taste is hot and biting: its smell of the alliaceous and foetid kind : and its virtues are similar to those which have been ascribed to assafcetida, but weaker ; and consequently it is less powerful in its effects. Grs. v. to gss. Sagittal Suture, the suture which unites the two parietal bones. Sago, a dry fccula, obtained from the pith of a species of palm in the islands of Molucca, Java, and the Philippines. Sago becomes soft and transparent by boiling in water, and forms alight and agree- able liquid, much recommended in febrile, phthisical, and calculous disorders, 8tc Saint Anthony's Fire. See Eri- sipelas. Saint Vitus's Dance. See Cho- rea sancti Viti. Sal (atharticus Amarus. This is also called by the college Sal Amarus, and Sulphate of Magnesia. SA Sal Ammoniacus, called by the college in their Pharmacopeia, Ammonia Muriata. is the compound of the muriatic acid, or acid of sea-salt, and the volatile alkali, called by the college Ammonia. Sal Muriaticus, or Culinary Salt, called by the college Natron Muri- atum, is the compound of the mu- riatic, or marine acid, and the fos- sil alkali, or natron. Common salt, when used to preserve meats, seems frequently to undergo decomposi- tion. For the sceptic acid of the meat combines with the soda of the salt intoaseptite of soda, while the muriatic acid combines with the beef into a muriate of meat. For the entire account of these processes see Dr. Mitchill's paper, in the Medical Repository, vol. ii. p. 274, 2d edit. Sales Medii, middle salts, -or neutral salts with earthy bases. Saline Substances. The num- ber of saline substances is very considerable, and they possess pe- culiar characters by which they are distinguished from other substan- ces, viz. 1. A strong tendency to combination: 2 A greater or less degree of sapidity: 3. A greater orlessdegreeofsolabilityinwater: 4. Perfect incombustibility. The saline quality of any substance is greater, the more of these proper- ties it possesses, and the greater their intensity. It must not, how- ever, be concluded, that substan- ces are not of a saline nature, be- cause their properties are scarcely evident in them ; as it may often happen that two species, which pos- sess them in a very small degree* exhibit them still less when they come to be united, and there are likevvise instances of the contrary effect taking place. The chemical natureof salts, though better known than formerly, is by no means yet perfectly understood. It is ascer- tained, that they, for the most part, contain a very great quantity of SA SA vital air, and that this fluid is fixed in combination with a combustible nu'ttor of a different nature^ in dif- ferent kinds of salts. Saliva. So called quod fere salis saporem habeat, vel quod in ore saliat, vel p;:r metath, a ?, resemblance. See Naviculare os. Scapula. Omoplata. The shoul- der blade. A bone of the upper extremity, of a triangular figure, situated in the upper and lateral part of the back. It has three margins, a spine, the acromion and the coracoid process, and an articular cavity for the head of the humerus. Scarf-skin. See Cuticula. Scarification, is an incision of the skin with a lancet, or such like in- strument ; and is most practised in cupping, which acts by stimula- tion as well as by evacuation. Scariflcatorium, is an instrument to scarify, and is of late very con- veniently ordered by a number of points set in a plane, which are all struck into the part at once. Scarlatina, the scarlet fever. A genus of disease in the class pyrexie and order exanthemata of Cullen ; characterized by conta- gious synocha ; the fourth day the face swells; a scarlet eruption ap- pears on the skin in patches; which after three or four days ends in the desquamation of the cuticle, or is succeeded by anasarca. It has two species : 1. Scarlatina sim- plex, the mild: 2 Scarlatina cynan- chica or anginosa, with ulcerated sore throat. M. M An emetic, refrigerants, antimonials ; laxa- tives ; digitalis ; vegetable alkali; blisters; antiphlogistic regimen. Dr. Currie recommends the affu- sion of cold water at the beginning of the disease. Scarlatina Anginosa. A species of Scarlatina. See Scarlatira. Sceletum, o-xtXerov, a skueton. This is the bones of the body pre- served together as much as can be in their natural situations: and in a human body are, The Os Frontis 1 Occipitis J Ossa Parietalia 2 Temporum I Ossicula Auditus 8 Os Ethmoides 1 Sphenoides 1 Ossa Malae 3 Maxillaria 2 Unguis 2 Nasi 2 Palati 2 so sc Os Vomer i Maxilla Inferior 1 Ossa Dentes Incisivi 8 Canini 4 Molares 20 Os Hyoides 1 60 Vertebrae Cervices 7 Dorsi 12 Lumborum 5 Vertebrae Ossis Sacri 6 Ossa Coccigis 3 Scapulae 2 Claviculae 2 Costae 24 Os Sternum 1 Ossa Innominata 2 64 The Humerus 2 Ulna 2 Radius 2 Ossa-Carpi 16 Metacarpi 8 Digitorum 30 60 Ossa Femoris 2 Rotulae vel Patel ae 2 Tibiae 2 Fibulae 2 Tarsi 14 Metatarsi 10 Digitorum 28 60 In all 244 besides the ossa sefamoidea, which are said to be found to the num- ber of 48. Scelotyrbe, um, the dia- phragm. See Diaphragm. 63 SE SE Septum Palati, i. c. Palatum Mollc. Strifluxua, a serous discharge, or flux of serum. Serosity. See Serous. Serous, from scrum, whey, is used to signify the watery part of the Blood, which see. Serpentaria Virginiana. Virgi- nian snake-root. The plant which affords this root is the Aristolochia serpentaria of Linnaeus. Snake- roothas an aromatic smell, approach- ing to that of valerian, but more agreeable ; and a warm, bitterish, pungent taste. It was first recom- mended as a medicine of extraor- dinary ,,power in counteracting the poisonous effects of the bites of ser- pents ; ihis, however, is now wholly disregarded; but as it possesses to- nic and antiseptic virtues, and is generally admitted to be a powerful stimulant and diaphoretic, it is em- ployed, in the present day, in some fevers where these effects are re- quired. A tinctura serpentarie is directed both by the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopeias. 3ss. to 3ss. Serpigo, a tetterous eruption like the herpes, or impetigo. Serpyllum. A serpendo, by rea- son of its creeping nature. Wild or mother of thyme. Thymus ser- pillum of Linnaeus. This plant has the same sensible qualities as those of the garden thyme (see Thymus), but has a milder and rather more grateful flavour. Serratus. Several muscles are ealled by this name from their re- semblance in shape to a saw. As, Serratus Anticus Minor, ariseth thin and fleshy, from the second, third, fourth, and fifth superior ribs; and ascending obliquely, it is insert- ed fleshy into the processus cora- coides of the scapula, which it draws forward. It also helps in respira- tion. Serratus Anticus Major, comes from the whole basis of the scapula, and is inserted into the seven true nbs, and first of the false ribs, by so many distinct portions, represent- ing the teeth of a saw. Serratus Posticus Inferior, arises with a broad and thin tendon from the three inferior spines of the ver- tebrae of the back, and from the two superior of the loins ; its fibres as- cending obliquely, grow fleshy, and are inserted by four indentations in- to the four last ribs. Serratus Posticus Superior, aris- eth by a broad and thin tendon from the two inferior spines of the ver- tebrae of the neck, and the three superior of the back; and growing fleshy is inserted into the second, third, and fourth ribs, by so many distinct indentations. These two help to draw the ribs upwards, and bring them to right angles with the vertebrae; and consequently make the cavity of the thorax wider and shorter. Serum, from serus, late, because it is the remainder of the milk after its better parts have been taken from it. The serum of the blood. The yellow and somewhat greenish fluid which separates from the blood when cold and at rest. Sesamoid Bones, from a-ntrxyri, an Indian grain, and ej&k, likeness. This term is applied to the little bones at the first joint of the great toes and thumbs, from their re- semblance to the grains of Indian corn. Sesqui. This word, joined with any number, weight, measure, &c. signifies one integer and an half, as sesqui granum, a grain and a half. Sessilis, is a name given to any low, flat tumours, or the eruptions in the small-pox, when they rise not well, and are indented at the top. Setaccum, a seton, is when the skin is taken up with a needle, and the wound kept open with a skein of silk, that humours may vent them- selves ; for the same purpose as is- sues, though generally with more efficacy. Farriers call this opera- tion in cattle, Ro%velling. SI SI Sevum ovillum, mutton suet: this is retained in the college Phar- macopeia: its preparation is describ- ed among the more simple prepa- rations : when prepared, it is an in- gredient in several plaisters and ointments. Sextana, an erratic intermitting fever, which returns every sixth day. Shingles. Zona. Zoster. Cinguli. An erysipelatous, herpetic erup- tion, extending sometimes round the body, in small distinct vesicles, which itch intolerably, and induce a high degree of fever. Sialagogues. Those medicines are so called, which excite an uncom- mon flow of saliva; from o-iaXov, sali- va, and xyu, to bring away ; such are mercurial preparations, pyre- thrum, &c. Sibbens. This word hath obtain- ed in some parts of Great-Britain, as expressive of a disease which resembles, but is said not to be, the venereal. Unhappily, the dis- ease is yet venereal, notwithstanding this change of its name. Sickness (Falling). SeeEpilepsy. Sight, or Vision, the sensation by which we perceive the visible qualities of substances surround- ing us. The organ of this sense is the retina of the optic nerve. Sigmoid. 'Ziyyoti&ns ; from the Greek letter S, and «5bj, a likeness ; resembling the Greek letter sigma. Applied to the valves of the heart, and sometimes to the cartilages of the aspera arteria, or the semilunar apophysis of the bones. Sign. See Diagnostic. Signs are universal, univocal or pathog- nomonic, equivocal or doubtful, commemorative. Galen defines it to be that which discovers or makes known what was formerly unknown. Signs, the same as Symptoms,but called Signs, as they indicate, and Symptoms, as they are the effect of disease. Silver, a perfect metal, of a white colour, and of the most lively bril- liancy ; it has neither taste norsmeli; its specific gravity is such, that it loses about the eleventh part of its weight by immersion in water ; and a cubit foot of this metal weighs 270 pounds. It is found in the greatest abundance in Peru and Mexico. Simarouba, Simarouba quassia. Quassia simarouba of the younger Linnaeus. The bark of this tree, which is met with in the shops, is obtained from the roots ; and, ac- cording to Dr. Wright, of Jamaica, it is rough, scaly, and warted: the inside when fresh is a full yel- low, but when dried paler : it has but little smell: the taste is bitter, but not disagreeable. It is esteem- ed in the West-Indies, in dysen- teries and other fluxes, as restoring tone to the intestines, allaying their spasmodic motions, promoting the secretions by urine and perspiration, and removing lowness of spirits at- tending those diseases. It is said also that it soon disposes the patient to sleep ; takes off the gripes and tenesmus, and changes the stools to their natural colour and consistence. 3ss. to 3ss. Simoom. A wind or haze was ob- served by Mr Bruce, in the course of his travels to discover the sources of the Nile, which is supposed to be in some respects analogous to the sirocco. It is called by him the simoom, and from its effects upon the lungs, we can entertain but lit- tle doubt, that it consists chiefly of carbonic acid gas in a very dense state, and perhaps mixed with some other noxious exhalations. Mr. Bruce, who, in his journey through the desert, felt the effects of the simoom, gives of it the fol- lowing graphical description : " At eleven o'clock, while we contem- plated with great pleasure the rug- ged top of Chiggre, to which we were fast approaching, and where we were to solace ourselves with plenty of good water, Idris, our guide, cried out, with a loud voice. SI SI ' fall upon your faces, for here is the simoom.' I saw from the south-east a haze coming, in colour like the purple part of the rainbow, but not so compressed or thick. It did not occupy twenty yards in breadth, and was about twelve feet high from the ground. It was a kind of blush upon the air, and it moved very rapidly ; for I scarce could turn to fall upon the ground with my head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its current plainly upon my face. We all lay flat on the ground as if dead, till Idris told us it was blown over. The meteor or pur- ple haze which I saw was indeed passed ; but the light air that still blew was of heat to threaten suffo- cation. For my part, I found dis- tinctly in my breast that I had im- bibed a part of it, nor was I free from an asthmatic sensation till I had been some months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two years afterwards." Though the severity of this blast seems to have passed over them almost instantaneously, it continued to blow so as to ex- haust them till twenty minutes be- fore five in the afternoon, lasting through all its stages very nearly six hours, and leaving them in a state of the utmost despondency. Simplex Oculus, a single-headed roller, used as a bandage for one eye ; when used for both eyes, it is rolled up into two heads. Sinapi. Zjvtjct. Common black mustard. Sinapis nigra of Linnaeus. The seeds of this species of mus- tard, which are directed by the Lon- don College, and those of the Sina- pis alba, which are preferred by that of Edinburgh, manifest no re- markable difference to the taste, nor in their effects, and therefore answer equally well for medicinal and culinary purposes. They have an acrid pungent taste, and when bruis- ed, this pungency shows its volati- lity by powerfully affecting the or- gans of smell. Mustard is consi- dered as capable of promoting ap- petite, assisting digestion, attenuat ing viscid juices, and by stimulating the fibres, it proves a general re- medy in paralytic affections. Joined to its stimulant qualities, it fre- quently, if taken in considerable quantity, opens the body, and in- creases the urinary discharge, and hence it has been found useful in dropsical complaints. Externally, flower of mustard is frequently- used, mixed with vinegar, as a sti- mulant or sinapism. Sinapism, is a cataplasm made chiefly of mustard, to apply out- wardly to any particular part. Sinciput, is the fore part of the head. See Cranium. Sine Para. Several muscles,, veins, arteries, 8cc. are so called which are without a fellow. See Azygos. Singultus. Hickup. A convul- sive motion of the diaphragm and parts adjacent. M. M. When symp- tomatic of fever, musk, volatile alkali, castor or opium. When it is idiopathic, a mouthful of water or diy bread ; an emetic ; sternu- tatories ; laudanum plaster on the scrobiculus. Sinfis, signifies any cavity, and an- atomists variously apply it to many- parts of a human body, as the Sinuses of the Dura Mater. The veins of the dura mater are so termed. They are several in num- ber, the principal of which are, 1. The longitudinal sinus, which rises anteriorly from the crista galli, as- cends and passes between the la- minae of the falciform process to where this process ends. It then opens into, 2. Two lateral sinuses, distinguished into right and left, which lie in the crucial spine of the os occipitis : 3. The inferior longitudinal, which is a small sinus situated at the acute inferior mar- gin of the falx. Sinus Ossium, are those cavities of the bones which receive the heads of other bones, and so of many other parts. so Sitiologicc, from o-fos, aliment, and Xtya, to speak ; that part of medi- cine which treats of aliments. Slum, creeping water parsnep. Sium nodiflorum of Linnaeus. This plant is admitted into the London Pharmacopeia in the character of an antiscorbutic. It is not nauseous, and children take it readily if mixed with milk. Skeleton, from erxiXXu, to dry. When the bones of the body are preserved in their natural situation, and deprived of the flesh, it is called a skeleton. Skin. See Cutis. Skull. See Cranium. Sleep, that state of the body in which the internal and external senses and voluntary motions are not exercised. The end and design of sleep is both to renew, during the silence and darkness of the night, the vital energy, which has been exhausted through the day, and to assist nutrition. Small-pox. Variole. A genus of disease in the class pyrexie and or- der exanthemata of Cullen; known by synocha, with an eruption of red pimples on the third day, which about the eighth day contain pus, and at length drying, fall off in crusts. It has two species ; 1. Va- riola discreta, the distinct; 2. Vari- ola confluens, the confluent. M. M. Venesection ; cathartics ; an eme- tic ; refrigerants ; blisters ; anti- phlogistic regimen; diaphoretics; anodynes ; cordials; cinchona. Smelling, the sensation by which we perceive the smell of bodies. The organ of this sense is the ner- vous papillae, which are distributed over the pituitary membrane of the nostrils. Soda, the heart-burn. It is a spe- cies of Dyspepsia; also the same as pyrosis or water-brash. Soleus, a muscle so called from its likeness to a sole-fish. Solitarii, diseases affecting any •ne part of the body. Solution of Continuity, is a term SO used by surgeons for every division of the parts made by wounds, ov any other causes. Solutives, opening, or laxative medicines. Somnambulo,one who walks in his sleep : it is a species of oneirodynia. Somniferous, from somnus, sleep, and fero, to bring ; the same as Narcotics, Opiates, Sec. which see. Hence also, Somnium, i. e. Somnambulo, more properly dreams and visions ; so an instance of oneirodynia. Somnolency, is any propensity to sleep, or a drowsiness. Sooins. It is a preparation in common use amongst the North Britons, and is thus made: Some oatmeal is put into a wooden vessel, hot water is poured upon it, and the infusion continues until the liquor begins to taste sourish, that is, un- til a fermentation comes on, which, in a place moderately warm, may be in the space of two days. The water is then poured off from the grounds, and boiled down to the consistence of a jelly. This is ren- dered palatable by the addition of sugar, wine, or such other mixtures as the palate, 8cc. may direct to. It is also called Flummery. Sophistication, is counterfeiting or adulterating any thing with what is not so good, for the sake of un^ lawful gain. This practice unhap- pily obtains in all the parts-of medi- cine which deal with simples or com- pounds; and in many cases the cheat is carried on so artificially as to prevent a discovery even from persons of the most discerning fa- culty. Sopor. Profound sleep. Sofloriferous, that which occa- sions sleep ; from sopor, sleep, and fero, to bring. Sordes Aurium, ear-wax. Sordes. When the matter dis- charged from ulcers is rather viscid or glutinous, it is thus named. This matter is frequently of a brownish red colour, somewhat re- SP SP' sembling the grounds of coffee, or grumous blood mixed with water. Sordes, Sanies, and Ichor, are all of them much more foetid than pu- rulent matter, and none of them are altogether free from acrimony; but that which is generally tenned Ichor, is by much the most acrid of them, being frequently so sharp and corrosive as to destroy large quanti- ties of the neighbouring parts. Spa-water. It is one of the best of the chalybeate kind in Europe. Spasm, o"7rxo-yog, or ntxryx ; from araw, to draw; a spasm or convul- sion. An involuntary contraction of the muscular fibres. Spasms are distinguished by authors into clonic and tonic spasms. See Clo- nic spasm and Tonic spasm. Spasmi,spasmodic diseases; from cwaw, to contract. The third order of the class neuroses of Cullen; cha- racterized by a morbid contraction or motion of muscular fibres. Spasmodic Medicines, are such as are good against convulsions ; and Spasmology, from Spasmus, and Xtyu, dico, to discourse ; is any trea- tise of convulsions. Spasmus Cynicus, the cynic spasm. Spasmus Iliacus, the colic. Spasmus Maxilla Inferioris, the locked-jaw. Spasmus Oesophagi, a difficulty of swallowing, from a spasm in the gullet. Spatula, is an instrument used by apothecaries and surgeons, where- with they spread their plasters, un- guents, &c. or stir their medicines together. Specifics, such remedies as have an infallible efficacy in the cure of disorders. The existence of such remedies is doubted. Sfiecillum, a probe. Speculum Oculi, from specio, to view; an instrument used by ocu- lists to keep the eye-lids open and the eye fixed. Speculum Oris, an instrument to force open the mouth. Spermaceti, from c-r'.pya, seed, a (Tirupu, to sow, and cete or cetus, the whale ; an oily, concrete, crys- talline, semi-transparent matter, ob- tained from the cavity of the crani- um of several species of whales. It was formerly very highly esteemed, when a great number of virtues were attributed to it; but it is now chiefly employed in affections of the lungs, primae viae, kidneys, 8cc. as a softening remedy, mixed with mu- cilages. It is also employed by sur- geons as an emollient in form of cerates, ointments, &c. 3i. to 3L Spermatica, Arteria, the sperma- tic artery : there is one on each side. Spermatica, Chorda, the sperma- tic chord : it is composed of the spermatic artery and vein, of nerves, lymphatics, the vas deferens, the cremaster muscle, and aponeurotic membrane. Spermatica, Vena, the spermatic vein. Spermatocele, from ciripyx ros, seed, and xnXn, a tumour; a swel- ling of the testicle or epididymis from an accumulation of semen. It is known by a swelling of those or- gans, pain extending to the loins without inflammation. M.M. When occasioned by inflammation, gene- ral and topical bleeding, cooling cathartics, and an antiphlogistic re- gimen ; when by the pressure of a tumour, extirpation or promoting the suppuration of the tumour. Sphacelismus, a-^xxtXto-yoi;, inflam- mation of the brain. . Sphacelus. 'ZtpxxtXoq, a primitive. A mortification of any part. See Gangrene. Sphanoid Bone. Os cuneiforme. From ; from o-Tp«- Gify, to squint. Squinting. An affec- tion of the eye, by which the per- son sees objects in an oblique manr ner, from the axis of vision being distorted. Cullen arranges this disease in the class localea and or- der dyscincsie. M. M. Ogles ; plac- ing the side from which the eye is dis- torted toward the light; sticking a piece of bright silk on the same side. Stramonium, common thorn-ap- ple. Datura Stramonium of Lin- naeus. This plant has been long known as a powerful narcotic poi- son. In its recent state it has a bit- terish taste, and a smell somewhat resembling that of poppies, espe- cially if the leaves be rubbed be- tween the fingers. Instances of deleterious effects of the plant are numerous, more particularly of the seed. An extract prepared from the seeds is recommended by Baron Stoerck in maniacal, epileptic, and convulsive affections. Externally the leaves of stramonium have been applied to inflammatory tumours and burns, and it is said with suc- cess. Extract of grs. i. to x. Strangury,(rrpxfynptx; (romrpxy^, a drop, and oupov, urine. A difficul- ty of making water, attended with pain and dripping. Stridor, the same as Sphincter, which see. Stridor, gnashing of teeth. Some- times the locked jaw is thus named. Strigil, or Strigilis,aninstrument to scrape off the sweat during the gymnastic exercises of the ancients, and in their baths. Strigils were made of metals, horn, ivory, and were curved : some were made of linen. Also the flesh-brush. Struma. This term is applied by some authors to scrophuk, and by others to an induration of the thyroid gland, which is endemial to the Tyrolese and Swiss. ST SU Slum. It is must, whose fer- mentation has been prevented or prematurely suppressed by fumi- gation with sulphur. Stufiefiers, the same as Narcotics, which see. Stupha, a stupe, the same as Fo- mentation. Stupor, numbness, occasioned by any accidental bandage that stops the motion of the blood and ner- vous fluid, or from a decay in the nerves, as in a palsy. Styliform, shaped like a bodkin or style : from stylus, a bodkin, and forma, a likeness. Stylo, names compounded of this word belong to muscles which are attached to the styloid process of the temporal bone ; as, Stylo-Glossus, a muscle, situated between the lower jaw and os hy- oides laterally, which draws the tongue aside and backwards. Stylo-Hyoideus, a muscle situ- ated between the lower jaw and os hyoides laterally, which pulls the os hyoides to one side, and a little upwards. Stylo-Mastoid Foramen, a hole between the styloid and mastoid process, through which the portio dura of the auditory nerve passes to the temples. Stylo-Pharyngeus, a muscle situ- ated between the lower jaw and os hyoides laterally, which dilates and raises the pharynx and thyroid car- tilage upwards. Styptics, o-tvvtixos, a rofyu, to ad- stringe ; a term given to those sub- stances which possess the power of stopping haemorrhages, such as tur- pentine, alum, Sec. Styrax, officinal storax. Sty- rax officinale of Linnaeus. There are two kinds of storax to be found in the shops ; the one is usually in irregular compact masses, free from impurities, of a reddish brown ap- pearance, and interspersed »vith whitish tears, somewhat like gum ammoniac or benzoin: it is extreme- ly fragrant, and upon the application of heat, readily melts. This ha» been called storax in lump, red storax,&nd in separate tears, storax in tears. The other kind, which is called the common storax, is in large masses, very light, and bears no ex- ternal resemblance whatever to the former storax, as it seems almost wholly composed of dirty saw-dust, caked together by resinous matter. Storax was formerly used in catarr- hal complaints, coughs, asthmas, obstructions, &c. In the present practice it is almost totally disre- garded, notwithstanding it is an effi- cacious remedy in nervous diseases. grs. v. to 9i. Subclavian Artery, from sub, under, and, clavis, a key, because the clavicles were supposed to re- semble the key of the ancients. The right subclavian arises from the arteria innominata and proceeds under the clavicle to the axilla. The left subclavian arises from the arch of the aorta, and ascends under the left clavicle to the axilla. The sub- clavians in their course give off the internal mammary, the cervical, the vertebral, and the superior inter- costal arteries. Subclavius, a muscle, situated on the anterior part of the thorax, which pulls the clavicle downwards and forwards. Subcostales. These muscles are situated more or less obliquely on the inside ofthe ribs, near their bony angles, and run in the same direc- tion with the external intercostals. Subcutaneous Glands. These are sebaceous glands lying under the skin, which they perforate by their excretory ducts. Sublimation, from sublimo, to raise or sublime. This chemical process differs from evaporation only in being confined to solid sub- stances. It is usually performed either for the purpose of purifying certain substances, and disengaging them from extraneous matters; or else to reduce into vapour, and com- bine under that form, principles su which would have united with greater difficulty if they have not been brought to that state of extreme division. Sublingual Glands, the glands which arc situated under the tongue, and secrete saliva. Their excreto- ry ducts are called Riverian, from their discoverer. Subluxatio, subluxation: it is where the head of a bone is not quite out of its socket, but rests upon the brim. Submersio, (from sub, under, and Tnergo, to plunge) ; drowning, a variety of the apoplexia suffocata of Cullen, asphyxia imm-ersorum of Sauvages. Drowning, since the institution of the Humane Society, has engaged the atten- tion of numerous practitioners; attention, however, which has not been rewarded by proportional improvement; for we believe the practice of the French guards on the Seine, described by Pia, is fully as judicious, and we think more successful, than that sug- gested by the refinements of Dr. Cullen, J. Hunter, and their minor satellites. We are indebted to Van Helmont for the first hints respecting recovery ; as, in the cure of hydrophobia, he immers- ed his patients in water so long as was sufficient to repeat the psalm, t; Miserere." He owns that they were often taken up apparently dead ; adding, that there was not much real danger in these appear- ances. The subject recurred to various authors who followed him; but has only, within these thirty years, claimed general attention. Persons immersed in water for five minutes are often recovera- ble, unless in their falling some blow has concurred in producing the event, or some sudden attack has occasioned their immersion. Even these considerations will not however, always account for the w^uit of success, and we are com- S"U pelled to admit that irritability is not in every person again recalled with equal ease. Beyond this time, the hopes of recovery are less, in proportion to the time a person has been immersed, and after remaining twenty minutes in the water there are slender hopes. Instances are indeed re- corded where recovery has follow- ed after the immersion for six- teen, eighteen hours, three days; and, when the water has been frozen, even after fifteen days. Medical records are full of sur- prizing stories, which require more than common faith to admit. It may be alleged, that the fora- men ovale may continue open ; and it has been said that negroes plunge their newly born infants in water, that they may become good divers, without knowing that such a foramen exists. Anatomy has indeed observed this passage per- vious in the adult; but the event is too rare to explain the facts, and recovery, after twenty minutes immersion, is no common event. The signs of drowning are those of death in general (see Medici- na forensis), with a darker livor on the countenance, and an absence of the marks of compression on the neck Suffocation from dele- terious gases is marked by a pale complexion. The reader who wishes, however, to acquire more minute information on this subject, may find it in Roderer's Opuscula de Submersis, et Colle Cosmitor Medicinae Triplex. The immediate cause of death from drowning has occasioned much controversy. The most obvious idea was that the lungs were filled with water, which suf- focated by preventing the access of air. De Haen supported this opinion by drowning cats in co- loured fluids, when he found the lungs tinged by them. Many other auihors, with Faissolle sv SJU and Champeaux, enlisted on the same side ; but Dr. Cullen soon suggested doubts against the con- clusion, though he allowed the fact; and it is now, we believe, admitted, that when water is disco- vered in the lungs, it passes in af- ter death, since animals, taken immediately from the water, are seldom found to have received any. The slightest irritation of any fluid,it is said, produces a stricture in the trachea, and prevents the access of the fluid ; and though Morgagni (deSedibus, &c. xix. 44), and others, found the epiglottis raised, this may have readily hap- pened in the relaxation that occurs after death. The other appearances, on dis- section, arc a collapsed state ofthe lungs, the heart on the right side turgid with blood, the left side and the venal system empty ; water sometimes in the stomach (Mor- gagni de Sebidus, Scc.xix. 41, 43); but the vessels of the brain are certainly not in every instance distended. The immediate cause of death from drowning has not been com- pletely ascertained. From the time of Walter it has been sup- posed to be apoplexy, and more late from an accumulation of car- bone in the lungs, which the air usually carries off. Both causes concur ; and the spasm, probably induced on the glottis by the ac- cess of the fluid, preventing re- spiration, accumulates the blood in the right side of the heart, and consequently prevents the re- turn from the veins. If the stop- page of respiration soon produces death, and we have said that the time is various from the different irritability of different persons, no considerable accumulation.will probably take place in the vessels of the head ; but, if life continues for any period, such may occur. We have remarked, that after about a quarter of an hour's im- mersion, recovery is improbable, and after twenty minutes ail ex- ertions are usually unavailing. We mean not, however, to preclude attempts while recovery is possi- ble ; and within the periods men- tioned, we are often obliged to continue our exertions with great perseverance for several hours before life returns. If the signs of death do not increase; if, on the contrary, a slight glow comes on; if the features recover their fullness, though in the most slight degree, it will be sufficient to urge the continuance of our efforts. Mr. Kite has recommended elec- tricity as a me ms of ascertaining whether any irritability, in other words, whether life remains. But we have reason to believe, that though electricity excites, it also exhausts irritability. Numerous useless refinements have been introduced into the science of resuscitation, as it has been quaintly called. The body, when taken up, should be wiped dry,covered, and carried,in at least a semi-erect posture, to a room where there is a large fire, and the necessary attendants only admit- ted. Warmth is most quickly ad- ministered, apd warm flannel should be immediately applied, warm bricks to the feet, and warm sand to the pit ofthe stomach. Yet these applications should be con- ducted with some reserve: the cold- er the body, the slower should be the approaches of heat. We sus- pect that this caution has not been sufficiently kept in view ; and, on this account, the "warm bath, so highly commended by some, has not succeeded in the experience of others. The chief change produced by drowning, we have seen, consists in the stoppage of respiration, and the consequent distension of the right side of the heart. Mr. su su' Hunter considers that all our ef- forts should be directed to restore the action ofthe lungs, which will alone relieve the over-distended ventricle. There may be some doubts from the arguments al- ready used, whether taking a lit- tle blood would not assist by un- loading the heart; but, when the circulation is wholly stopped, blood will not flow, or the only ef- fect will be to empty the veins around. Perhaps, therefore, Mr. Hunter has decided properly in forbidding venesection in the first instance, as not likely to be useful in lessening the load, and very certainly injurious in depressing the vis vitae. Inflating the lungs is of the utmost importance, and this is effected by bellows, com- municating with a pipe introduc- ed into the larynx, or sometimes through an aperture between the rings ofthe trachea. The breath of a healthy person is occasionally substituted, closing the nostrils ; but what would appear the most effectual is, the introduction of •warm atmospheric air of a some- what higher quality by a mixture of oxygenous gas. We should object to the air being heated, as well as to the introduction of pure gas, for the reasons which led us to object to a higher temperature. "While air or gas is introduced, the thorax should be pressed, and the abdominal viscera raised against it, to change,in some mea- sure, its capacity ; for we have al- ready observed, that, when a train of associated motions has begun, they are often continued, from whatever point the series has com- menced. Bronchotomy, we think, has been too rarely employed ; for in almost every other way the thorax is imperfectly dilated. Mr. Hunter supposes that the stimulus of the volatile alkali may be ad- vantageously comb^cd wifh that •f warm air. In each case the ac- cumulated froth often offers z powerful obstacle ; and the bel- lows recommended by Gren (Phy- sical Journal i.) and Hunter (Phi- losophical Transactions) is the best method of overcoming it. While the lungs are thus sti- mulated, the stomach, with which the whole system so evidently sympathises, should not be neg- lected. By means of'a flexible canula any stimulating fluid may be injected, and spirits, as well as volatile alkali, have been this way thrown in. The practice has not, however, been so common as from its obvious advantages may have been expected. The stomach brush, ventriculi excutia, is, we observe, recommended in the Berlin Transactions. A more ready access to the in- testines is through the rectum ; and the ease of the operation has appai'ently compensated for the- hss degree of sensibility of this extremity. Clysters have been very commonly employed, and they have been various in their nature and objects. Acrid pur- gatives thrown into the rectum was a measure of obvious utility ; and other stimuli, as ammonia, mustard, rum, and brandy, have been added to water for this pur- pose. We find also, what appears more singular, that air alone in- jected as a clyster has been use- ful, and Michaelis mentions the salutary effects of a clyster of vine- gar and water. We have already spoken (see Resuscitatio) ofthe disadvantages of clysters of tobac- co smoke, and, on examining the most approved authors, we find them generally reprobated in these cases. Other obvious stimuli are am- monia, applied to the nose, and sometimes injected into the nares; external frictions with salt, with mustard, &c. ; a stiong light di- rected to the eye, or harsh sounds su su to the ear ; and an electrical shock applied to the spine or the pit of the stomach. The first only ap- pears to be useful, as the stimulus is conveyed to the lungs, and ex- cites a convulsive action in them. The others are of a more doubt- ful nature, or evidently injurious. A singular irritation is mention- ed by Chardenon, in the Dijon Memoirs, viz. irritating the lungs themselves, through an incision made into the thorax. In the Gazette de Sante we are directed to lay bare the lungs ; but we need not add a remark on either plan. When life begins to return we are directed to persevere in, or even increase our efforts ; but slight ir- ritability, thus restored, would be soon exhausted by excess of stimu- lus. In this state there willbenoob- jection to a slight bleeding ; and it is often useful to prevent deter- minations of the newly-restored circulation to different parts before the equilibrium is properly estab- lished. Light, warm, nourishing food, perfect tranquillity, with some easy motions, procured by laxa- tives or clysters, very slightly stimulating, will be necessary. Patients in this state must be care- fully watched; for the latent «scintillula"will often quickly dis- appear. What, however, will ap- pear of more importance is, that after life is'fully returned, the ac- cumulated irritability often brings on the most active inflammations, which we can venture only to re- lieve by topical bleedings, diluting liquors, opiates, gentle laxatives, and rest. They are sometimes so violent as to demand general, and even active, venesection. Notwithstanding, however, the minute and scientific investigations of the ablest authors, the success of resuscitation is scarcely advanc- ed. If a person is recoverable, common and obvious methods will succeed. If irrecoverable, all the efforts ofthe most refined science will fail. We have scarcely ad- vanced farther than in destroying the popular prejudices of agitation, rollingonbarrels, Sec. The records of the Humane Society tell, how- ever a different story ; nor should we doubt the results if the same plans in the same circumstances had not so often failed under our own eyes. The cause of humani- ty, however, prevents us from ad- ding a word which would repress or chill any charitable exertion. Let every attempt be made : and should every thing fail, let the practitioner at least deserve suc- cess. In the first volume of Dr. Foth- ergill's Works, we find the fol- lowing popular detail of the method of treatment approved of by the Humane Society, which we shall for general information add. I. The body should not be roll- ed on the ground, or over a bar- rel, nor lifted up by the heels, or be any other way roughly handled, or violently shook; but be remov- ed to a convenient place, lying as on a bed, with the head a little rais- ed, in as natural a position as pos- sible. II. The body, well wiped with a cloth, should be placed in a warm bed or blanket; but not too near a large fire. Bottles of hot water should be laid to the bottoms of the feet, joints of the knees, and under the arm-pits. A warming-pan, moderately heated, or hot bricks wi apped in cloths, should be rubbed over the body, particularly along the back. The natural warmth of a healthy person, especially a child, lying close to the body, hath been found very efficacious The room should be kept open and airy, with few persons in it The shirt of an attendant, or skin of a sheep fresh killed and warm, may he nsed to advantage. Snould the acci- $5 su su dent happen in the neighbour- hood of a warm bath, brew-house, bake-house, glass-house, saltern, soap manufactory, or any fabric where warm lees, ashes, embers, grains, sand, water, &c. can be ea- sily procured, it will be very pro- per to place the body in any of these, moderated to a degree of heat very little exceeding that of a healthy person. 111. The body being placed in one or other of the above advanta- geous situations, various stimulat- ing means should be immediately employed. The most efficacious are, blowing with force into the lungs, by applying the mouth to that of the patient, closing at the same time his nostrils ; throwing the smoke of tobacco up the funda- ment into the bowels, by means of a clyster-pipe or fumigator; a pair of bellows may be employed until the others can be piocured ; rubbing the belly, chest, back, and arms, with a coarse cloth, or dry salt, so as not to rub off the skin, or with a flannel dipped in brandy, rum or gin; applying spirit of hartshorne, volatile salts, or the like, to the nostrils, and rubbing them on the temples frequently ; tickling the throat with a feather, to excite a propensity to vomit, and the nostrils also with a feather or snuff to provoke sneezing. The body should at intervals be shaken, and varied in its position. IV. If there be any signs of re- turning life, such as sighing, gasp- ing, twitching, beating of the heart, reiurn of natural warmth or colour, a spoonful of water may be admi- , nistered, to try if the power of swallowing be returned ; if it be, a spoonful or two of warm wine, or of brandy and water, may be given to advantage, but not before. Early bleeding has been found pernicious, and even fatal; it is not always applicable, though it may sometimes be employed by a per- son of skill, to remove or prevent symptoms of inflammation The above methods of restoring life are applicable to various other cases of apparent sudden death, whether from hanging, apoplectic and convulsive fits, cold, suffoca- tion by damps or noxious vapours proceeding from coal mines, con- fined air of wells, caves, cistons, or from the must of fermenting liquors. Subocci/dtales, Nervi. So the tenth pair of nerves are called, which proceed from the head. Suborbitarius, a branch of the upper maxillary branch of the fifth pair of nerves. Subscapularis, a muscle situated beneath the scapula, which rolls the humerus inwards, draws it to the side of the body, and prevents the capsular ligament from being pinch- ed ; from sub, under, and scapula, the shoulder blade. Subsultus tendinum, from sub- sulto, to leap; weak convulsive motions or twitchings of the ten- dons, mostly of the hands, generally observed in the extreme stages of putrid fever. Succinates, are salts formed by the combination of the succinic acid, or acid of umber, with differ- ent alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. Succinum, i. e. Amber, called also Carabe, or Karabe, and Electrum. The college have retained Amber in their Pharmacopeia; its preparation is noticed among the more simple preparations; its Salt, Sal; purified Salt, Sal Purificatus ; Oil, Oleum, and rectified Oil, Oleum Rectifica- tum, are directed: as is also its combination with the caustic vola- tile alkali and vinous spirit, called Spiritus Ammoniae Succinatus : this is Eau de luce. Sudamina. Hidroa. Boa. Ve- sicles resembling millet seeds in form and magnitude, which appear suddenly, without fever, especially in the summer time. su su Sudor, sweat. This differs much from perspiration, and is the conse- quence of* accelerating the blood's motion by stimuli, or exercise, or a relaxation of the pores; the latter is the cause of fainting, and cold sweats. See Perspiration, from an acquaintance with which, this will be best understood. Hence, Sudoriflcs, from sudor, sweat, and facio, to make ; are such medicines as promote sweat. Sudor Anglicus, the English sweat- ing sickness. Suffimentum, and Suffitus,is the same as Fumigation, by burning things upon live coals, and receiving the steam for many medicinal purposes. Suffocatio, (from miffoco) suffo- cation ; difficulty of respiration, from narrowness of the fauces, from a spasm there, 8cc. The symptoms of suffocation are described by Dr. W. Musgrave in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 240; but they are sufficiently known ; nor need we repeat what we have already observed on this subject, in the article Medicina Forensis. The most frequent cause is deleterious vapours, and of these the chief is the carbonic acid gas, either from fermentation, the fumes of charcoal, or of a lime-kiln. Other gases are the choke-damp of mines, probably hydrogenous gas, and one that prov- ed extensively fatal in France some years since, the gas from vaults, probably hydrocarbonate with hepa- tic gas. In all these cases the ves- sels of the brain are found to be turgid, the stomachfilled with a fro- thy fluid, the right ventricle of the heart, with the venae cavae, and pul- monary artery, distended with blood (Portal Memoires de Paris, 1775); agreeing with the appearances after drowning. Suffocation sometimes occurs from a wound in the lungs, and the consequent effusion of air, an in- stance of which occurs in Broinfield's Chirurgical Operations. Morbid organic affection of the trachea, as abscesses; caruncles ; polypi; wa- tery tumours; the broken rings of the aspera arteria, pressed inwards; scrofulous tumours ; chirri; and sphacelus of the cricoid cartilage, have been the causes of death by suffocation. Various foreign bodies, purulent matter, a part of the lungs themselves, worms, flies, a blade of grass, blood and pus have produced suffocation. A singular case is re- corded, in the Acta Naturae Curio- sorum, of suffocation following the distension of the oesophagus, by at- tempting to swallow the yolks of ten eggs. Diseases of the lungs themselves, as an effusion of water, broken ribs, a fleshy mass adhering to the pleura, are obvious causes of suffo- cation. Serum in the mediastinum, a polypus or aneurism of the heart, or even a distended stomach, have been enumerated as sources of death. Substances slopping in the back part ofthe fauces are sufficiently known; but even the tongue itself when the frenum is loose, may be swallowed, or at least turned back so far as to produce suffocation. This is said sometimes to happen to infants, and it has been the instrument of the suicide. Suppressed gout and sup- pressed evacuations produce dysp- noea ; but are seldom immediately fatal by inducing suffocation. When the causes are such as will admit of relief, they must of course be attended to ; but in other cases, the means mentioned under the ar- ticle Resuscitatio, are the most pro- mising. Pureair, and oxygenous gas, somewhat diluted ; applications of vinegar, and ammonia; dashing cold water; and Bucquet adds, in the Memoires de la Societe de Me- decine, 181, smoking spirit of salt and volatile spirit of sulphur. Suffocatio Stridula, (from suffoco, to choke, and stridco, to make a noise)} the Croup ; angina interna, latens if difficilis, angina membra- nacea,pcrniciosa tf polyposa, asthma su su infantum sfiasmodicum, cynanche str:dula, morbis strangulatorius trucuhntus infantum, is a disease that chiefly attacks children, rarely if ever any one after twelve years of age. Dr. Cullen names it cynanche trachealis, defining it a tracheal quinsy, attended with difficult res- piration, rin^ingsound in inspiration, cu ngous cough, no tumour com- monly in the throat, deglutition a lit- tle impeded, and inflammatory fever. Winter is the season in which this disease chiefly occurs: long con- tinued catarrhs from the measles, hooping-cough, or the small-pox, are predisponent causes; cold and moist weather is supposed to con- tribute, for it is most common about the sec, coast, and in low marshy si- tuations ; though sometimes met with in midland countries, and its attacks are sometimes repeated in the same child, if it should have the good fortune to recover. The seat of the disorder is the cavity of the wind-pipe, from a lit- tle below the glottis downward; and the disorder itself consists of the fibrin separated there, and becom- ing so thick that the air can no lon- ger pass freely into the lungs. The back part of the trachea, where there are no cartilages, seems, from the inspection of those who die of this disease, to be its first and prin- cipal seat, as this morbid membrane is often found exclusively there. It is not evidently contagious. The croup must be distinguished from the catarrhus suffocativus of Etmuller; from a severe cold; from peripneumonic complaints; and from such symptoms as arise from extraneous bodies lodged in the trachea; an instance of which Dr. Home mentions in his Enquiry into the Nature, ixc. of the Croup. In general the harsh sound of the breath, not of the cough, will point out the disease. The inflammatory affection ofthe early stage usually passes off with little notice, as it is not distinguish- able from a common cold. The croupy breathing then comes on suddenly, often in the first sleep, and the disease appears in all its vi- olence before it is apprehended. Suffocatorii, diseases attended with a sense of suffocation. Sugillatio, a sugillation, from su- go, to suck. This word is generally used as synonymous with Ecchy- mosis, and to signify the same thing, but in that case expresseth any dif- ferent cause, e. g. an Ecchymosis is caused by extravasation; Sugillation is when red, livid, &e. spots are formed in or under the skin, by suction, as when cupping-glasses are applied to it, which by removing the pressure of the air on the part, occasions the blood to rush there and distend the vessels; even to such as do not usually receive red blood. In these vessels the blood is impacted, and cannot easily re- turn, whence the discolouration. This notion of the cause is simi- lar with Boerhaave's doctrine of Er- ror Loci, which see. But Sugilla- tio seems to be more properly sy- nonymous with Enchymoma. Sulcus, a grove or furrow; generally applied to the bones. Sulphates. (Sulphas, tis.s.m.) Salts formed by the combination of the sulphuric acid with different bases; as, sulphat of alumine, sul* phat of iron, &c. Sulphites. (Sulphis, tis. s. m.)Salts formed by the combination of the sulphureous acid with different ba- sts ; as, alumnous sulphite, ammoni- acal sulphite, ifc. Sulphur, brimstone; a com- bustible, dry, very brittle body, of a lemon yellow colour, which has no smell unless heated, and whose taste is very weak, although sufficiently perceptible. It becomes electric by friction : if a piece of considerable size be exposed to a sudden, though gentle heat, as for example, by holding it in the hand, it breaks to pieces with a crackling noise. Sulphur is found naturally in su SU ^vcat quantities, sometimes pure, and sometimes in a state of combi- nation. It is a medicine in frequent use; and the only specific against the itch. 9i. to 3L. In Dr.Mitchill'snegociationwith Dr. Priestley, to compose the dis- putes among the chemists concern- ing phlogiston, he contends, that all the metals, sulphur, and phos- phorus, in their ordinary states, are mixtures of metallic, sulphuric, and phosphoric matter with phlogiston or hydrogen. The plan of accom- modation may be read in the Medi- cal Repository, vol. i. Sulphures, or Sulphurets, are combinations of sulphur, with dif- ferent alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. Sunstrokes. In hot climates, par- ticularly whereon some part ofthe day the sun darts its rays almost or quite vertically, it is dangerous at that time to be exposed to it: such an exposure sometimes suddenly produces an apoplexy, and imme- diate death ; aid at others, fevers, called by the French Coup de Soleil, which frequently prove fatal on the second or third day. Superbus, the same muscle as Attollens (which see) ; thus called, because, as it lifts up the eye-brows, it gives an air of pride. Supercilium, the eye-brow. Superfetation, from super, above or upon, and fetus, an embryo; the impregnation of a woman already pregnant. Supination, the act of turning the palm a nerve ; because mem- branes, ligaments, and tendons were considered by the ancients as nerves. Synezesis, a perfect concretion and coarctation of the pupil. Synocha, synochus, inflamma- tory fever Et^aroj, continued ; from avptx°> t0 connect or hold to- gether. A species of continued fever ; characterized by increased heat; pulse frequent, strong, hard ; urine high coloured ; senses not much impaired. See Febris Con- tinua. Synovia, a term of no radical meaning, coined by Paracelsus. An unctuous fluid secreted from certain glands in the joint in which it is contained. Its use is to lubri- cate the cartil iginous surfaces of the articulatory bones, and to fa- cilitate their motions. SynovieGlandule,synovi&l glands. Synthesis, from irv-Wriyt, ov*Q-ai;, compono, to compound; is sometimes used in opposition to Analysis, and signifies the combination of any thing together of different parts. Syphilis. Luec venerea. From Syphilis, the name of a shepherd, who fed the flocks of kin^ Alcithous, who, proud of their number and TA J A beauty, insulted the Sun ; as a pu ushment for which, fable re- lates, that this disease was sent on earth. A genus of disease in the class cachexia and order impetigi- nes of Cullen; known by affections arising from impure connexion, and appearing generally after a local affection of the organs, occasion- ing chancres, buboes, ulcers in the mouth and nose, clustered pimples of a copper colour, ending in scab- by ulcers, chiefly situated near the hairy scalp, blotches on the surface of the body, nodes, &c. M. M. Moderate salivation, kept up by blue ointment or small dosc^. of mercury, till two or three weeks after the symptoms have disap- peared; opium; guaiacum; sarsa- parilla ; mezereon ; nitric acid ; oxygenated muriate of potash. Syssarcosis, a species of sym- physis, in which one bone is unit- ed to another by means of an inter- vening muscle ; from avt, with, and «/ s>jo; w«9»», p. 539, 1. 28 ; Severinus de Efficacia Medicina, 223. If application is made before the febrile symptoms come on, the cure may be attempted by a course of asses milk, with chaly- beate waters, and the cold bath; but after the hectic heats and col- liquative sweats have actually tak- en place, there is little prospect of a recovery. Tactus, the touch* or sense of feeling. Tenia, the tape-worm ; a genu;: of intestinal worms, characterized by a long, flat, and jointed body. Species: 1. Tenia osculis margina- libus, the long tape worm, and the soleum of authors, which is pecu- liar to this country, Russia, France, 8cc. 2. Tenia osculir superflcialibus, the broad tape worm, which is pecu- liar to the inhabitants of Switzer- land, &c. M. M. Root of male fern 3iij. early in the morning ; two hours afterwards,calomel and scam- mony each grs. 11. camboge grs. 7. Talpe, and Nates, are tumours generally confined to the head, and appearing as the consequence ofthe venereal disease. The Talpe cLe- vate the skin from the pericranium, and generally denote a foulness of the bone beneath ; but the Nates are usually seated in the neck. Talus, a synonym of Astragalus. See Astragalus. Tamarindus, from tamar or tama- rindi, which is in the Arabian lan- guage a synonym of the dactylus or date. The tamarind. The tree which affords this fruit is the Tama- rindus indica of Linnaeus. The tamarind is employed as a laxative, cr-.d for abating thirst or heat in va- rious inflammatory complaints, and for correcting putrid disorders, es- pecially those of a bilious kind, in which the cathartic, antiseptic, and refrigerant qualities of the fruit have been found equally useful. The pulp of tamarinds is an ingre- dient in the electurium c cu$»ia, and electurium e sen?.::. Tanacetum, U-.nsy. Tanacetum vulgare of Linnccus. The leaves: and flowc-s of tansy have a s;;-ong, not verv disagreeable smell, and a 66 TA TE bittcr,_ somewhat aromatic taste. The virtues of tansy are tonic, sto- machic, anthelmintic, emmena- gogue, and resolvent. It has been much used as a vermifuge, and tes- timonies of its efficacy arc given by many respectable physicians. Tapping. See Paracentesis. Tarantati, are those who are bit by a tarantula. Of this very odd effect, with its cure, Baglivi, an Italian physician, hath wrote a very rational account, whereby it appears that the odd effects of this bite, and its method of cure by music, are by no means fabulous, as some have supposed. Tarantismus, a desire of dancing; a kind of St. Vitus's dance. Tarantula. It is a species of spi- der met with in Apulia. Taraxacum, from rxpxaaui, to al- ter or change, because it alters the state of the blood. The dandelion. Leontodon taraxacum of Linnaeus. The young leaves of this plant in a blanched state have the taste of en- dive, and make an excellent addition to those plants eaten early in the spring as salads; and Murray in- forms us that, at Goettingen, the roots are roasted and substituted for coffee by the poorer inhabitants, who find that an infusion prepared in this way can hardly be distinguished from that of the coffee berry. The expressed juice of dandelion is bit- ter and somewhat acrid ; that ofthe root is more bitter, and possesses more medicinal powers than any other part of the plant. It has been long in repute as a detergent and aperient, and its diuretic effects may be inferred from the vulgar name it bears in most of the Euro- pean languages, quasi lecti minga ; et urinaria herbi dicitur ; and there are various proofs of its efficacy in jaundice, dropsy, consumption, and some cutaneous disorders. Tarsus, Txpaoc. The tarsus is situated between the leg and meta- tarsus. It is composed of seven bones, placed in a double row', in the first row are the astragalus ami cal- caneus ; in the second row the os navicularc, os cubiforme, and three cuneiform bones, which are placed close to each other. The tarsus forms the basis of the foot, and serves for its motion. Tartar. This is found sticking to wine-casks, like a hard stone, either white or red, as the colour of the wine from whence it comes. The white is preferable, as contain- ing less dross or earthy parts. The best comes from Germany, and is the tartar of Rhenish wine. Tartar (Oil of), per deliquium. The fixed vegetable alkaline salt strongly attracts moisture from the air, and is thereby resolved into a liquor; in which state it is called 01. Tart, per Deliq. Tartar (Vitriolated). It is the vegetable fixed alkali, saturated with the vitriolic acid, or sulphate of potash. Tartarites, are salts formed by the combination of the tartareou:. acid, with the different alkaline, earthy, and metallic bases. Tartarum Emeticum, emetic tar- tar ; it is also calledStibiated Tartar,, or antimoniated tar trite of potash. Taste, the sensation by which we perceive the taste of sapid bodies. The organ of taste is the nervous papillae, which are situated at the apex and sides of the tongue. Tea, Then, the Chinese tea-tree. The two great divisions of tea are Green and Bohca ; of which all the teas at market are but varieties. Tea (Pennsylvanion Oswego), a species of Monarda. Tea-Tree (New-Jersey). See Ceanothus. Tears. Lachryme. The limpid fluid secreted by the lachrymal glands, and flowing on the surface of the eye. Technical, from te^v»», ars, art, is used for such terms as are peculiar to the rules and documents of parti- cular arts. Teeth. Dentes. The teeth are TE TE small bones fixed in the alveoli of the upper and under jaw. Inthe adult they are thirty-two in number, six- teen in the upper and sixteen in the lower jaw, and are distinguished by anatomists into the incisores, cuspi- dati, and molares. The incisors, so called from their cutting the food, are situated in the front of the mouth, four in each jaw: the cuspidati, so termed from their shape,' and known also by the name of canine teeth, are four in number, situated one on each side of the incisors. The re- maining teeth are called molares or grinders, from their action of di- viding the food, like mill-stones : that which is situated next to each cuspidatus is called by some authors bicuspis, because it is two-pointed ; and the last grinder in each jaw, dens sapientie, because it appears when the person is supposed to have arrived at years of wisdom. Each tooth is divided into a crown, which appears in the mouth above the gum ; a neck or circle, between the crown and root, and embraced by the gum ; and a fang or root, which is the part hidden within the socket. In each tooth there is a foramen, which begins at the extremity ofthe fang, leading to a small cavity in the internal substance of the tooth, which conveys the nerve, artery and vein of the tooth and the internal periosteum. The substance of each tooth is of two kinds, viz. bony and vitreous. The vitreous substance, or enamel, covers the crown of the tooth, and supplies the place of an external periosteum. The teeth generally appear about the sixth or seventh month after birth, first the incisors, then the cuspidati, and last of all the molares. This first den- tition distinguishes them into pri- mary, shedding, temporary, or milk- teeth. About the seventh year they gradually become loose, fall out and are succeeded by larger ones, which are called secondary or perennial, because they usually remain the rest of one's life. The use of the teeth is for mastication, and the pronunciation of dental syl- lables. Teeth have been analyzed by Mr. Pepys, who has found the constitu- ent parts of teeth, of different ages, to be in different proportions: phos- phate of lime, carbonate of lime, and cartilage. According to Fourcroy and Vau- quelin, the enamel is composed of Phosphate of lime ... 72.9 Gelatine and water - - 27.1 100 Teething. Dentition. The erup- tion of the teeth through the gums. See Teeth. It is preceded and ac- companied by salivation, swelling and heat of the gums, red spots in the cheeks, eruptions especially on the face and scalp, looseness, grip- ings, green or pale stools, local spasms, diminution or increase of urine, gonorrhoea, swelling of the feet and hands, thrusting of the fin- gers into the mouth,cough,dyspnoea, fever, convulsions and marasmus. M. M. Bleeding; cathartics ; di- vision of the gum and periosteum; anodyne and emollient applications to the gums; antimonials; blisters; nitre ; assafcetida ; volatile alkali ; magnesia ; prepared chalk ; car- minatives ; opium. Tegument, is the covering of any tiling: so the skin is a tegument of the body. Tela, a web of cloth. The cel- lular membrane is so called from its likeness to a fine web. Temples, tempora, the lateral and flat parts of the head above the ears. Temporal Artery, a branch ofthe external carotid, which runs on the temples, and gives off the frontal artery. Temporal Bones, two bones of an irregular figure situated at the sides and inferior p,\ri of the cranium. Each bone is divided into, 1. A pe- trous portion, which is very hard TE TE and surrounds the organ of hearing: 2. A squamose portion, which is thin and flat, and lies in part on the pa- rietal bone, like the scale of a fish : and, 3. A mamillary portion, which is shaped like a nipple. Besides thesb portions there is also a zygo- matic and styloid apophysis, an ar- ticular cavity, the meatus auditori- ous externus and internus, a stylo- mastoid foramen, the canal for the passage of the carotid artery, and the internal orifice of the aqueduct of Fallopius. The use of the tem- poral bones is to contain the middle lobes of the brain, part of the ce- rebellum, and to form internally part of the organ of hearing. Temporalis, a muscle, situated on the temple, which pulls the lower jaw upwards, and presses it against the upper, at the same time draw- ing it a little backwards. Tenaculum, from teneo, to hold, a chirurgical instrument, not much differing from the forceps. Tendon, from tendo, to stretch; the white and glistening extremity of a muscle. See Muscle. Tenesmus. Twsayos ; from tejvw, to constringc ; so called from the perception of a continual constric- tion or bound state of the part. A continual inclination to go to stool. Tension, expresses any thing stretched out, as the fibres or mem- branes are in certain circumstances. Tensor Palati sen Circumflcxus. See Circumfiexus. Tensor Tympani, a muscle of the car, which pulls the malleus and the membrane of the tympanum to- wards the petrous portion of the temporal bone, by which the mem- brana tympani is made more con- cave and tense. Tensor Vagina Femoris, a mus- cle, situated on the outside of the thigh, which stretches the mem- branous facia ofthe thigh, assists in . the abduction ofthe thigh, and some- what in its rotation inwards. Tepcdarium, was a room belong- ing to the ancient bathing-places, where persons gradually prepared themselves for entrance or going out. Tepidus, tepid, i. e. warm as milk from the cow. Terebinthina Chia, Chian or Cyprus turpentine. See Chio tur- pentine. Terebinthina Veneta, Venice turpentine ; so called because we arc supplied with it from the Vene- tians. This species of turpentine issues spontaneously through the bark of the Pinus larix of Linnaeus. It is usually- thinner than any of the other sorts ; of a clear whitish or pale yellowish colour ; a hot, pun- gent, bitterish, disagreeable taste; and a strong smell, without any thing of the aromatic flavour of the chian kind. For its virtues see Tur- pentines. Terebinthina Vulgaris, common turpentine. This species of tur- pentine flows very freely from the pinus picea of Linnaeus. For its medicinal uses see Turpentines. Teres, signifying any thing long and round, is a name given by some to a worm thus shaped, which is apt to breed in human bodies, chief- ly in children. Teres Major. Teres, round, smooth. A round muscle, situated along the inferior costa of the sca- pula, which rolls the humerus in- wards, and draws it backwards and downwards. Teres Minor, a round muscle, situated on the hinder part of the scapula, which rolls the humerus outwards, draws it backwards, and prevents the ligaments from being pinched between the bones. Teres Ligamentum, arises from the bottom of the cavity of the ace- tabulum, and runs obliquely back- wards to be inserted into the head of the os femoris. Terminthus,from r-pyrAos, the tur- pentine tree; black and ardent pustules, mostly attacking the legs of females; so called from its re- TE semblance to the fruit ofthe turpen- tine tree. Tera Japonica, Japan earth. This name was erroneously given to an extract obtained from the internal coloured wood of the Mimosa Japo- nica, which grows in the East-In- dies. Dr. Fothergill received the first information of the true method of obtaining this drug from Mr. James Kerr, a surgeon at Bengal, by means of Lieutenant-Colonel Ironside. SecLettsom's Fothergill. This extract is used in the Indies for dying, painting chintz, and even timber, &c. for houses. It is al- most entirely soluble in water, or in spirit of wine. Its taste is at first bitterish and styptic, and is af- terwards agreeably sweet, as an as- tringent. It is used in medicine. Tertian Ague. See Febris Inter- mittens. Tertium Quid, invented by the chemists to express that result of the mixture of some two things which forms somewhat very differ- ent from both. Testaceous, by naturalists, is a term given only to such fish whose strong and thick shells are entire and of a piece; because those which are joined, as the lobsters, &c. are called Crustaceous : but in M-dicinc, all preparations of shells and substances of the like kind are thus called. Testicles. Testes. Tesiiculi. Two small oval bodies situated within the scrotum, and covered by a strong, white, and dense coat, cal- led tunica albuginea testis. Each testicle is composed of small ves- sels, bent in a serpentine direction, arising from the spermatic artery, and convoluted into little heaps, which are separated from one ano- ther by cellular, partitions. In each partition there is a duct re- ceiving semen from the small ves- sels ; and all the ducts constitute a net which is attached to the tunica albuginea. From this nct- TH work twenty or more vessels arise, all of which are variously con- torted, and being reflected, ascend to the posterior margin of the testis, where they unite into one common duct, bent into serpentine windings, and forming a hard body called the epididymis. The sperma- tic arteries are branches of the aorta. The spermatic veins empty themselves into the vena cava and emulgent vein. The nerves of the testicle are branches of the lumbar and great intercostal nerve. The use of the testicle is tosecretc the semen. Tetanus, from t-.iw, to stretch, spasm with rigidity. A genus of disease in the class neuroses and or- der spasmi of Cullen ; character- ized by a spasmodic rigidity of al- most the whole, body. The varie- ties of tetanus are: 1. Opisthoto- nos, where the body is thrown back by spasmodic contractions of the muscles : 2 Emprothotonos, the body being bent forwards : 3. Tris- mus, the locked jaw. Tetanus is often symptomatic of syphilis and worms. M. M. Opium and vege- table alkali alternately and liberal- ly ; wine ; alkohol ; camphor : musk ; mercury ; cold or alkaline bath ; musk ; cauterizing of the wound. Tetters. See Herpes. Thulami Nervorum Opticorum, two bodies, which form in part the optic nerve, placed near to each other, in appearance white, protruding at the base of the late- ral ventricles, and running in their direction inwards, a little down- wards, and upwards. Theca Vertebralis. ©wn ; from rtSnp, to place. The vertebral canal. Theoria, from Sec^si', contemfilor, to contemplate; is the speculative part of any science that directs to the rules of practice. Therapeutic.; from $i;x-wtn, to cure. Therapia. Methodus me- TH dendi. The doctrine of the cure of diseases. Thirst, the sensation by which we experience a desire to drink. The seat of this sensation appears to be either in the fauces or the stomach. Thoracic Duct, the trunk of all the absorbents ; of a serpentine form, and about the diameter of a crow quill. It lies upon the dor- sal vertebrae, between the aorta and vena azygos, and extends from the posterior opening of the diaphragm to the angle formed by the union of the subclavian and jugular veins, into which it opens and evacuates its contents. In this course the thoracic duct re- ceives the absorbent vessels from every part of the body. Thorax. ®opx^. The chest. That part of the body situated be- tween the neck and the abdomen. The external parts of the thorax are, the common integuments, the breasts, various muscles, and the bones of the thorax. (See Bones.) The parts within the cavity of the thorax are, the pleura and its pro- ductions, the lungs, heart, thymus gland, oesophagus, thoracic duct, arch of the aorta, part of the vena cava, vena azygos, the eighth pair of nerves, and part of the great in- tercostal nerve. Thrombus. QpoyGo;; from Sjmw, to disturb. A small tumour which sometimes arises after bleeding, from the blood escaping from the vein into the cellular structure surrounding it. M. M. A com- press wet with ardent spirits, or a solution of muriate of ammonia in vinegar; an incision, and pur- gatives. Thus, frankincense. See Oli- banum. Thymus, thyme. Aro m §uyv, because it was used in faintings; or according to others,aro t^ Su^ao-ias xat T«? §vr,;, because the ancients used it in sacrifices. This herb, TH the Thymus vulgaris of Linnaeus, has an agreeable aromatic smell, and a warm pungent taste Its virtues are said to be resolvent, emmenagogue, tonic, and sto- machic ; yet there is no disease mentioned in which its use is par- ticularly recommended by any writer on the materia medica. Thymus Gland,®vy.os; from 9y/*a, an odour, because of its fragrant smell; a gland of considerable size in the foetus, situated in the anterior duplicatures or space of the mediastinum, under the supe- rior part ofthe sternum. An ex- cretory duct has not yet been de- tected, but lymphatic vessels have been seen going from it to the thoracic duct. Its use is unknown. Thyreo, names compounded with this word belong to muscles which are attached to the thyroid carti- lage ; as, Thyreo-Arytenoideus, a muscle, situated about the glossus, which pulls the arytenoid cartilage for- wards nearer to the middle of the thyroid, and consequently shortens and relaxes the ligament of the larynx. Thyreo-Hyoideus, a muscle, situ- ated between the os hyoideus and trunk, which pulls the os hyoideus downwards, and the thyroid carti- lage upwards. Thyroid Cartilage, scutiform car- tilage; the cartilage which is placed perpendicular to the cri- coid cartilages of the larynx, con- stituting the anterior, superior, and largest part of the larynx. It is harder and more prominent in men than in women, in whom it forms the pomum Adami. Thyroid Gland, from 9up=o, a shield, and uXo;, resemblance, from its supposed resemblance to a shield ; a large gland situated upon the cricoid cartilage, trachea and horns of the thyroid cartilage. It is uncertain whether it be con- globate or conglomerate. Its ex- TI TO ^retory duct has never been de- tected, and its use is not yet known. Tibia, the long bone situated on the side of the leg, between the femur and tarsus ; so called from its resemblance to an old musical pipe or flute. The superior part is termed the head, below which, anteriorly, is the spine and crista of the tibia ; inferiorly it forms the malleolus externus. Supe- riorly and inferiorly it forms an articular cavity. The use of this bone is to support the leg, and serve for the flexion of the lower extremity. Tibial Arteries, the two princi- pal branches of the popliteal arte- ry ; the one proceeds forwards, and is called the anterior tibial; the other backwards, and is called the posterior tibial ; of which the external tibial, the fibula, the ex- ternal and internal plantar, and the plantal arch, are branches. Tibialis Anticus, a flexor muscle of the foot, situated on the leg, which bends the foot by drawing it upwards, and at the same time turns the toes inwards. Tibialis Posticus, a flexor muscle of the foot, situated on the leg, which extends the foot, and turns the toes inwards. Tin, stannum ; an imperfect metal of a whiter colour than lead, but not quite so white as silver, obtained in great quantities from the mines in Cornwall. Itisametal well known for culinary purpo- ses ; and, although in general use, it is affirmed, that ragouts in which tin spoons have been left, as well as sugar contained in a vessel of this metal, have poisoned many persons : but this must have arisen from the tin containing a larger proportion of arsenic than usual, or from its admixture with lead, as the tin employed in this coun- try is, of all metals, the most in- nocent for culinary purposes. Tin filings are exhibited by many phy- sicians for the cure of worms. Grs. x. to §i. Tincture, from tingo, to dye ; is any coloured solution of animal or vegetable matters in vinous or spirituous menstrua. Tinea Os. The mouth of the uterus is so called by some writers, from its resemblance to a tench's mouth. Tinea Capitis, the scald-head. A genus of disease in the class locales and order dialyses of Cul- len ; characterized by small ulcers at the root of the hairs of the head, which produce a friable white crust. M. M. Lime water or decoction of the woods and purgatives internally. Sulphur ointment; infusion of tobacco, un- guentum citrinum, or unguentum picae with powder of white helle- bore ; a solution of soap and vege- table alkali externally. TolutanumBalsamum, the balsam Tolu : it is a resinous juice, flow- ing from incisions made in the bark of a tree, of which we have various accounts: it is the Tolui- fera Balsamum, Linn. Tonics, medicines which in- crease the tone of the muscular fibre ; such as stimulants, adstrin- gents, &c. Tonic Spasm, Tovixo;; from tewo.-, to pull or draw. Contractura a spasmo. A rigid contraction of the muscles, without relaxation, as in trismus, tetanus, &c. Tonsils. Tonsilla. Amygdala. An oblong, suboval gland, situated on each side of the fauces, and open- ing into the cavity of the mouth by twelve or more large excretory ducts. Topics, tokixx, from toto?, locus, a place, or part; are such things as are externally applied to any par- ticular part. Topographia Medica, (from rotto;, locus, and ypx$n, a description). A description of any situation with medical views. These accounts TO TO are highly useful in many respects, and comprehend the situation of any town, the neighbouring hills and plains, its prevailing winds, connected with these ; its air, the nature of its water, its seasons, weather and prevailing diseases We have few works of this kind in our language, and these are imperfect ; but we some time since made a catalogue ofthe pub- lications which had attracted our notice on this subject, and though long, we shall add it in a geogra- phical form. It may be highly- useful as a collection of references to direct inquiry. GREAT-BRITAIN. Huxham on air and diseases. Bisseti, medical constituuon of Great-Britain. Haygarth (philosophical trans, ixviii. 9.), Chester. Millar on the diseases of Great-Britain. Sims on epidemics. Boabis Ireland's natural history. Sydenham! opera. Claramontii de aere, locis, et aquis Anglia?, deque morbis Anglix vernaculis, Lond. 1672, 12mo. Wintringham on endeiiic diseases. DENMARK. Suter de statu sano et morboso accolarum maris Baltici. ' Batholinus de aere Hafniensi. Henricus de salubritate aeris Havniensis. Pontoppidan's natural history of Denmark and Nor- way. SWEDEN. Dalbcrg, tal om nagra, det Suenska. Climatets,Stockholm. 1777. Murray, bib. iii. 35. Endemici par tractum Suecia?, vide acta nalura cu- riosorum ii li3. I.itheniusde salubritate Succicx sciagrophia. Linnaei flora Laponica ........amcenitates academics, passim. Acta medicoruin Suecicorum. GERMANY. 1'ormey topographia von Berlin. Adolphi de salubritate Silesia?. Ilerz Versuch einermediniseken orsbeschreibung der Ukcrmarckischen Haupsladt Ptenzlau. Gravius de salubritate Ilass x. Deichnun desalubri aqua et aere Gottingensi. fechul/.e de salubritate Hake nostra?. Erlich de morbis et affectibus quibusdam Westpbalis familiaribus. Mezger adversaria Westplialiensis. Ludick de salubritate aeris in Varmia. Barfoth de salubritate Lundix. Adolplti de aere Lipsiensl. Braune typographic medica; urbis Lipsiensis speci- men. Buigrav de aere, &c. Francofurti ad Manum. F'i. z c- Krapp de salubritate Bamber^ensi. Ciariiji-uer de aere, aquis, tec. Trajcoti ad Viadrum. Huechsteiter observ dec. iv 1. Augusta: Vindelico- rum. Weikard verroische S<-hriften (Fuldcnsis). Oelsfedt- typographische besclueibung des Herzof- tbmus Madeburgh, &c. Ellisen medidnische onbeschreibung dcs Stackens lloya. Ruhling Beobachtungen der Stadt Northeim, undder umlieganden Gegand, &c. Williu- Beschreibungder Naturtichen, Beschaffenheit der Grafsrhaft Hochberg. Stenzel de prxsidiis sanitatis quibus Vittenberga abundat. Medinische national zeitung, 1798. Planer de aere. aquis, &c. territorii Erfordiensis. Spielman de aere, &c. Argent'nis. H:>'zben;er de aere &o. Argentina?. Hu eland's journal der practischen Arznykunde, vi. vii. rOLAND. End tell Warso via illustrata. Neuhauserin inedicin. national zeitung (Cracow). HUNGARY AND AUSTRIA. Faker de salubritate et morbis Hungarix. Baty descriptio morborum quorundam Hungarisen- demiorum. &c. Haidenreich medicina Aradiensis vel de morbis fa Dacia trequcntioribus. Packner de Austria morbosa per hyemem. Mayr de Austria morbosa autumno. Gamnigg de Austria morbosa xstatc. Haberman de Austria morbosa per ver. Gemory de indole aeris Ilungaria?. Fucker de salubritate et morbis Hungarian'. FRANCE. Histoire et memoires de la soriele royale de medicine passim. Journal de medicine v. 64, 65,66,68,56(Normandy). Menuret de Chambaud essai sur l'histoirc medico topographiquede Paris. Pousse an Versaliariarum salutaris aer. Pescharch an sit urbis et agri Parisiensis aer saluber- rimus. Deuxivoye ergo aer Pariscnsis salubris. Ferrit an Clivi Meudonici ut aminus sit salubris. Cabilloui in Hautsierke recueil i. iii. Chalons sur' Soanc. De la Berlhonye in Hautsierke i. 152, Toulon. Messac ?a?an Aurelianus, seu de laudibus salubritatis soli & cceli Aurelianensis. HOLLAND. Van Doeveren de sanitatis Groeninganorum ex uibis histona naturali derivaudis. Van Groenevclt de salubritate aeris urbis Lugduno Batavorum. Scheuchzerde Helvetia? aere, aquis, & locis. Emmeristentamcn medicum ad debellandum insalu- britaiem Zealand is. SWITZERLAND. Verdeil mem. de la societe des sciences de Lausanne (Lansannensis). TO TO Thilcnius medic, undchir. bemerkungen nebst Bej- clu-eibung von Lauterbach. Abhandel der naturforschendenGesellschaftinZurich Turica & Apper.zellensts. Adolphi dc incolatus montani salubritate. Blumenbach. bibliotu. med. salubi itas Bernx. ITALY. Cartegni trattado de venti in quanto si apparueno al medico & del sito della citta de Pisa. Cagnatus de aeris Romam salubritate. Pugh on the climates of Naples, Rome, and Nice. Smollett's travels. Lancisius dc adventitiis aeris Romani qualitatibus. Bononi de situ aquisque Ferraris, fee. Bumaldi de aere Ravenaie. Boschi o.servationi intorno alia proprieta salina dell' atmos'era Ligura. Testi Disinganno overo ragione fisiche fondati su 1'Autorita, fccche provanol'aria Veneziainter- amentesalubre. De Neris de Tiburtiani seris salubritate. Sarcone on the constitution and diseases of Naples. Donii de restituenda salubritate agri Romani. ■Constitutione medic, de Iiorenza, 17S0, 1/81. AFRICA. Adanson's natural history of Senegal. Memoires sur I'Egypte, 4 v. passim. Assaiini on the diseases ofthe army of the east. Goldbery's voyage to Senegal. ASIA. P. ussell'snaturat history of Aleppo. Ilasselquist reise nach Patastina. Bontiushistoria naturalis & medica Indite Orientalis. Murray de stupiditate India? Orientalis. MINORCA. Cleghorn on the diseases of Minorca. AMERICA. Rush, medical observations and inquiries. Currie'shistorical account of the climate and diseases of the United Staiesof America. JolisSaggio sulla storia naturale della provincia del , gran Chaco. Fcrmin traite des maladies Ies plus frequents de Su- rinambus. De Dusalos de morbis nonnullis Lima? grassantibus. Schoepf Reisen durch America. Chalmers on the climate and diseases of South- Caro- lina. Sloancs Jamaica. Des Portes histoire de maladie* de St. Domingue. Moseley on tropical diseases. fancer's medical assistant, Jamaica. Mitchill & Miller's New-York Medicaljtepository. Coxe's Philadelphia Medical Museum. Barton's Medical te 1'hysicaljournal. MADEIRA. Adams on the climate of Madeira. Sloane's voyage. This catalogue cannot be com- plete in any branch, but even in its present state may afford useful information, and may serve for a basis on which a more perfect su- perstructure may- be erected. A few little geographical inaccura- cies to accommodate the works to. the nature of the districts have been purposely admitted, to meet general ideas rather than political arrangements. The number of works might have been increased, but those omitted are of less im- portance and inferior merit on the same subjects with those admitted, and an objection may remain that the list might have been still shorter and more select. The references in France are few, the country where this science has been, we have said, chiefly cultivated. This was the reason of its limited extent, for the districts examined are so nume- rous that they would have doubled the number of works inserted, so that it was necessary to refer to the volumes where they are to be found :—these are the Journal de Medecine, and the Histoire and Memoires of the Society of Medi- cine at Paris. Two German Jour- nals, viz. Hufeland's, and the Medi- nischc National Zetung, are quot- ed for the same purpose of abridg- ment: the volume of 1798 is the only one that has reached us. See Webfer Dissertationes de morbis climatum ; Buchner de exploranda locorum salubritate; Fincke in versucheineralgemeinen medicinisch practischen geogra- phic ; Kannegieser de locorum aquarum et aeris salubritate; Mul- ler de extispiciis veterum in quan- tum ad indolemettemperiemregio- nis dignoscendam valent. Torcular Hcrophili, the press of Herophilus ; that place where the four sinuses of the dura mater meet together. Tormentilla, common tormenlil, or upright septfoil. Tormentilla' erecta of Linnaeus. The root is the onlv part of the plant which ii 67 TO TO used medicinally ; it has a strong styptic taste, butimparts no peculiar sapid flavour : it has been long held in estimation as a powerful adstrin- gent; and, as a proof of its efficacy in this way, it has been substituted for oak bark in the tanning of skins for leather. Tormentil is ordered in the pulvis e creta compositus of the London Pharmacopeia. 3ij. to Tormina, gripes; pains in the bowels. Torpor, a numbness, or deficient Sensation. Touch, or Feeling, sense of. When the mind has connected the com- plex ideas derived from the touch with the visible appearance of ob- jects, then the sight is indefinitely the most useful medium of know- ledge ; but in the earliest stages of the intellectual progress, the touch is the most useful; in fact, as man is formed, it then is absolutely necessary to render the sight pro- ductive of most of its present uti- lity. The sense of feeling differs from the other senses in belonging to every part of the body, external or internal, to which nerves are distributed. The term touch is most correctly applied to the sensibility which is diffused over the surface of the body. Touch exists with the most exquisite degree of sensibili- ty at the extremities of the fingers and thumbs, and in the lips. The sense of touch is thus very commo- diously disposed for the purpose of encompassing smaller bodies, and for adapting itself to the inequali- ties of larger ones. The sensations acquired by the ■sense of feeling are those of heat, hardness, solidity, roughness, dry- ness, motion, distance, figures, &c. and all those corporeal feelings which arise from a healthy or dis- eased state of the nerves, and the part of the body to which they be- long. The pains of this sense are more numerous and vivid than those de- rived from any other sense ; and therefore the relicts of them coa- lescing with one another, constitute the greatest share of our mental pains, that is, pains not immedi- ately derived from sensation. On the other hand, its pleasures being faint and rare, in comparison with others, and particularly those of the taste, have but a small share in the formation ofthe mental plea- sures. The touch is the original medi- um of our knowledge respecting the real qualities of substances,and is indeed the sole medium by which we gain a knowledge of external objects. It is by the touch, and by the touch alone, originally, that we distinguish our own bodies from other objects that surround us, and form the impression which everyone has,that the objects which affect the sight,thehearing,&c. are external. When we touch a sen- sible part of our bodies, we have sensations conveyed to the mind through two different nervous branches; when we touch any other body, we have only one sensation. The impression that they are ex- ternal objects, that is, objects out of ourselves, which give us the sensations of sound, taste, sight, and smell, is so continually forced upon us by the sensations of touch, thatthere probably never was found aperson who doubted the existence of the external world as the cause of his sensations, except those who have been led to it by reason- ing on false principles. Some very acute speculators have indeed given up the belief in an external world as the cause of their sensa- tions ; but their opinion never did, nor never can, gain much ground; for it is inconsistent with the per- ceptions, which by the constitu- tion of our frame, are necessarily formed from continually recurring sensations. The philosophic JBer-' TR TR keley, and a late writer, Drum* mond, are the principal supporters of this curious system. But if we had not the sense of touch, the other senses would have produced no such impressions; sensations would have appeared to arise in the mind without any connection with external causes of them. Some philosophers have suppos- ed, that it is the exquisite delicacy of feeling which exists in the hand: and the admirable mechanism by which it is applied, which is the cause of the superiority of know- ledge whichmanpossessesoverthe lower classes of animals. It can- not be just to attribute to this cause alone this superiority, but indisputa- bly, as man is constituted, it is es- sential to the degree of superior- ity now possessed; andweobserve, that that tribe of animals possesses the greatest degree of what may be called human wisdom, which has this sense most perfect; the bended muscle at the end of the elephant's trunk answering some of the purposes of the human fingers. Toxicology, tofyxoXoyo;; from to?ov, an arrow or bow, because the darts of the ancients were usually besmeared with some poisonous sub- stance ; and Xoyo;, a discourse; a dissertation on poisons. Trachea, rpxx"*, the wind- pipe, so called from its roughness ; from rpxxvs, rough ; a tube com- posed of cartilaginous and fleshy rings, which proceed from the larynx, before the oesophagus, to the lungs, where it bifurcates, and ra- mifies through the lungs under the name of bronchia, which terminate in the vesicula pulmonalcs. The cartilaginous rings of the trachea and bronchia arc not completely cartilaginous, being fleshy on their back. part. The internal surface of these tubes is lined by a nervous membrane continue, to cut ; a synonym of Bronchotomy. See Bronchotomy. Trachoma, r^xx^yx; from rgx- XVi, rough ; an asperity in the in- ternal superficies of the eye-hd. Tragacantha, from tpxyo;, a goat, and xxxvSx, a thorn ; so called from its thorns resembling the horns of a goat. Goat's-thorn. Milk-vetch. Astragalus tragacantha of Linnaeus. Gum tragacanth (which is forced from this plant by the intensity ofthe solar rays about Mount Ida, where it is concreted into irregular lumps or vermicular pieces, bent into a variety of shapes, and larger or smaller proportions according to the size of the wound from which it is- sues) differs from all other known gums in imparting to a very large quantity of water a thick and gluti- nous consistence. The demulcent qualities of this gum are to be con- sidered as similar to those of gum arabic. (See Arabic gum.) It is seldom given alone, but frequently in combination with more powerful medicines, especially in the form of troches, for which it is peculiarly well adapted : it gives name to an officinal powder, and is an ingre- dient in the compound powder of cerufs. Tragicus, a proper muscle of the ear, which puils the point ©f the tragus a little forward. TR TR Tragus, a small cartilaginous eminence of the auricular or exter- nal ear, placed anteriorly, and con- nected to the anterior extremity of the helix. It is beset with numer- ous little hairs, defending in some measure the entrance of the exter- nal auditory passage. Transfusio, (from transfundo, to pour from one vessel to another.) Transfusion ; or the art of trans- mitting the blood of an animal into the vessels of the human species. When every disease was supposed to reside in the blood, it was an ob- vious expedient to supply a deprav- ed fluid by a pure one, in a medical view ; and, by means of a syphon, the blood of a lamb, for instance, was directed into the human veins, while a proportional quantity was discharged from other veins. As usual with inventors, the plan w-as found wonderfully successful; but it sunk into disgrace from an acci- dent, with which the operation was by no means connected. As there are few causes of disease in the blood, the operation of this remedy must be limited; and there is little expectation of its revival, or of its utility. Very extensive details on this subject occur in the early vo- lumes of the Philosophical Trans- actions. Transpiration, from trans, through, and spiro, to breathe. A synonym of Perspiration. See Perspiration. Transversalis, a muscle, situ- ated on the anterior part of the abdomen, which supports and compresses the abdominal vis- cera. Transversalis Colli, a muscle, situated on the posterior part of the neck, which turns the neck obliquely backwaids, and a little to one side. l^ransvcrsalis Pedis, a muscle of the foot, which it contracts by bringing the great toe and the two outermost toes nearer each other. Transverpw Perinai, a jnusck ofthe organs of generation, which sustains and keeps the perinaeum in its proper place. Trapezium Os, the first bone of the second row of the carpus. Trapezius ceu Cucullaris, a muscle, situated on the posterior part of the shoulders, which moves the scapula according to the three different directions of its fibres: the upper descending fibres, drawing it obliquely up- wards ; the middle transverse straight fibres, drawing it directly backwards ; and the inferior as- cending fibres, drawing it ob- liquely downwards and backwards. IVapezoides Os, the second bone of the second row of the carpus; so called from its resem- blance to the trapezium or quadri- lateral geometrical figure. Traumatic, tpa.vy.xtixx\ from tpxv- yx, a wound;, any thing relating to a wound. Tremor, is an involuntary trem- bling ofthe nerves, like a palsy. Trepan, an instrument used by surgeons to remove a portion of bone from the calvaria. Trephine. This is an instru- ment used for the same purposes as the trepan, but preferable, be- cause of the great convenience of holding it, and leaning on one side or other of the saw, as we find if. necessary. Triangularis, or Sterno- Costalisr a muscle, situated within the' thorax, which depresses the car- tilages and extremities of the' third, fourth, and fifth ribs, and consequently assists in contracting the cavity ofthe thorax. Triangularis Labii, called also Depressor Labii Superioris ; is a muscle that ariseth from the lower edge of the lower jaw, between the masseter and the quadratus, and ascends by the angle of the mouth to the upper jaw. Triceps Adductor Femoris. Tri- ceps, from ires, three, and caput, a TR TR Mads having three heads. Under this appellation are comprehended three distinct muscles. See Ad- ductor brevis, longus, and magnua femoris. Triceps Extensor Cubiti, a mus- cle of the cubit or fore-arm, situ- ated on the hinder part of the os humeri, which extends the fore- arm. Trichiasis, Tpi^j««nj; from ?pi*, « hair. Irichosis. A disease of the eye-lashes, in which they are turned inwards, towards the bulb of the eye. M M. Extraction of the hairs and confining the new ones with adhesive plaster as they grow. Trichoma, a disease of the hair. See Plica Polonica. Trichomanes, common maiden- hair, or spleen-wort. Asplenium trichomanes of Linnaeus. This plant is admitted into the Edin- burgh Pharmacopeia; the leaves have a mucilaginous, sweetish, subadstringent taste, without any particular flavour : they are es- teemed useful in disorders of the breast, being supposed to pro- mote the expectoration of tough phlegm, and to open obstructions of the viscera. Trichuris, from rpi%, a hair ; the long hair-worm. Tricuspid Valves. Valvule tri- cuspides. The name of the three valves situated at the entrance of the left ventricle of the heart; so called from their being three- pointed. Trifolium Paludosum, water- trefoil or buck-bean. Menionthes trifoliota of Linnaeus. The whole plant is so extremely bitter, that in some countries it is used as a substitute for hops, in the prepa- ration of malt liquor. It is some- times employed in country places as an active eccoprotic bitter in hydropic and rheumatic affections. Cases are related of its good ef- fects in some cutaneous diseases of the herpetic and seemingly caucerous kind. Trigemini, the fifth pair of nerves, which arise from the cru- ra of the cerebellum, and are di- vided within the cavity of the cra- nium into three branches, viz. the orbital, superior and inferior max- illary. The orbital branch is di- vided into the frontal, lachrymal, and nasal nerves ; the superior maxillary into the sphseno-palatine, posterior alveolar,and infra-orbita! nerves ; and the inferior maxillary into two branches, the internal lin gual, and one more properly called the inferior maxillary. Triorchis, a person with three testicles. Triquetra Ossa; they are also called IVormiana, from Wormius, who first observed them; small bones in the lamboidal suture. rTrismus.Tpiayos, from T?fy,strideo, to gnash; the locked jaw, or teta- ny of the muscles that bring the lower jaw close to the upper. Dr. Cullen had placed this disease in the class Neuroses, and order Spasmi; he then ranked it as a different genus, but now considers it as a variety of the Tetanus ; he defines it to be a spastic rigidity of the lower jaw. Trismus Nascentium, commonly, but improperly, called the Falling of the Jaw. It is a tetanic com- plaint which attacks infants in the course of the second week after their birth. Its chief symptom is a locked-jaw, but the disorder does not appear to differ fromthe Teta- nus, which see. It is generally fatal in two or three days; and is never expected after the child is a fortnight old. Triteophya, tp^xK^vr,;, from rr-i- Ixm;, tertian, and Q-ji.-, of a like na- ture, or original. It is an epithet of a fever much of a nature with a tertian, and taking its rise from it. Some call it a Continued Tertiar.. It is remittent or intermittent. TU ru Trocar, corrupted from trois guan ; the name of an instru- ment used in tapping for the dropsy. Trochanters Two processes of the thip.i bone, which are distin- guished into the greater and les- ser, are so called, from t^m, to run, because the muscles inserted into them perform the office of running. Trochisci, rpox^rxoi. Troches is a form of medicine to hold in the mouth, to dissolve, as lozenges, or for the preservation of species that would otherwise decay. Trochlea, rpoxnX.x, a pulley; a kind of cartilaginous pulley, through which the tendon of one of the muscles of the eye passes. Trochlearis, a muscle of the eye. See Obliquus superior seu trochlearis Trcchoides, from rpo^oj, a wheel, and £»joj, resemblance; a species of dn.rthrosis, or moveable con- nection of bones, in which one bone rotates upon another ; as the fiibt cervical vertebrae upon the odontoid process of the second. Trochleatores seu Pathetici. The fourth pair of nerves are so called, because they are inserted into the musculus trochlearis of the eye. Tropiei Motbi, are such diseases as are most frequent under or near the tropics. Tuba Eustachiana, the Eusta- chian tube ; the auditory tube. This tube arises in each ear from the anterior extremity of the tym- panum by means of a bony semi- canal ; runs forwards and inwards, at the same time becoming gra- dually smaller ; and after perforat- ing the petrous portion ofthe tem- poral bone, terminates in a passage, partly cartilaginous and partly membranous ; narrow at the be- ginning, but becoming gradually larger, and ending in a pouch be- hind the soft palate. It is through this orifice that the pituitary mem- brane of the nose enters the tym-, panum It is always open, and af- fords a free passage for the air into the tympanum; hencepersonshear better with their mouth open. Tuba Fallopiana, the uterine tube. A canal included in two laminae of the round ligament which arises at each side of the fundus of the uterus, passes trans- versely, and ends with its extre- mity turned downwards at the ovarium. Its use is, to grasp the ovum, and convey the prolific va- pour to it, and to conduct the fer- tilized ovum into the cavity of the uterus. Tubercule, tubercles, are little tumours that suppurate and dis- charge pus, often found in the lungs. See Vomica. Tubercula Quadrigemina. Emi- nence quadrigemine Four white oval tubercles of the brain, two of which are situated on each side over the posterior orifice of the third ventricle and the aqueduct of Sylvius. The ancients gave them particular names of no good signification. Tuberculum Loweri, an eminence in the right auricle of the heart where the two venae cavae meet, so called from Lower, who first de- scribed it. Tulipifera, Virginian tulip-tree, or white-wood ; a species of Lirio- dendrum ; one of the most stately trees in the American forests. Tumor, from tumeo, to swell; an order in the class locales of Cullen's Nosology : It is the mor- bid enlargement of a particular part, without being caused by- inflammation. This definition, though plain and simple, is not, however, unexceptionable ; for dropsical swellings, from their extent, would be excluded, and yet hydrocele must be introduced, unless it be alleged that in this case the tumour extends above the organ affected. Mr. Aberne- TU TU thy limits, on the contrary, the meaning of the word too strictly, confining it to such swellings as arise from new productions ; yet he is compelled to admit enlarged glands, as their contents may be such, though it will be obvious that extirpation or death must take place before it be ascertained whether any given disease is in re- ality a tumour. With all these difficulties before our eyes, we may have erred in our arrange- ment, but this is now of little im- portance. The only other classification we have met with is in a work which seems to have rarely reach- ed Britain, Plenck's. The first part was published in Latin, at Vienna, in octavo, 1767, and some time afterwards,in the German lan- guage, at Dresden and Leipsic. He divides tumours into sixteen genera, inflammatory, purulent, gangrenous, indurated, watery, bloody, encysted, excrescential, bony, earthy, airy, salivary, bilious, milky, spurious herniary, and or- ganic. As the work is rare, we shall mention a few examples of the more important classes. The inflammatory tumours are the true erysipelatous ones without fever ; the indurated the strumous ; the aqueous the lymphatic, which is a smooth, round, white, indolent, and elastic swelling, arising from a ruptured lymphatic. Among the cystic tumours he mentions lipoma, which differs from steatom in con- taining fat only, though there is a species whose contents are differ- ent, referred to sarcoma. An in- stance of the excrescential tu- mours is the sercosis, a polypus from the uterus or vagina; of the bony, exostoses, tophi, or gumma- ta ; of the earthy, arthritic tophus, and the sublingual calculus. Pneu- matosis is a species of aerial tu- mours ; but, when general, is called emphysema ; ranula, of sali- val : apargano is, a painful swel- ling of the mammae, and the milky abscess, are species of the lacteal tumours. All enlarge- ments ofthe scrotum or umbilicus, if not organical, are styled by Plenck herniary. The iiparocele, which Morgagni calls steatocele, a fatty swelling of the cellular mem- brane which surrounds the scro- tum and testes ; and the lipompha- lus, a fatty hernia of the umbilicus, arc of this kind. The organic swellings are gibbosity of the ver- tebre, hernix, &c. Other authors divide tumours into watery, fleshy, cystic, flatu- lent, fungous, humoral, milky, stony, lymphatic, menstrual, me- tastatic, salival, phagadenic, poly- pous, bloody, schirrous, woimy, and solid ; but such minutenesses must not at present detain us. Mr. Abernethy, considering tu- mours as new parts, chiefly con- fines himself to the sarcomata. His first species is the common vascular or organized sarcoma ; the next the adipose, followed by the pancreatic, the cystic, the mam- mary, the tuberculated, the medul- lary, and the carcinomatous. The encysted tumours conclude. Our author seems to think that tumours possess an independent life. A clot of blood first effus<. d, suspended against any membrane by a short pedicle, is soon sup- plied with vessels passing through the pedicle, and these deposit the peculiar substance ofthe tumour, gradually enlarging it till the coats can no longer resist the dis- tending power. They then crack, the substance of the tumour sloughs off, and, though at first a tendency to cicatrisation is per- ceivable, it soon becomes a foul ulcer, and the discharge, with the debilitating power of the attend- ing fever, proves fatal. This short abstract of the pa- thology is sufficient to explain our TU TU author's system, and vvc shall add a few observations on it, as it mili- tates against what we consider a fundamental principle in physiolo- gy, the identity and unchangea- bleness of the primordial germ. With this view we remark, that the deviations in bulk are limited. When, however, the continuity of the containing membranes is bro- ken, and blood exudes,the exposed vessels will probably shoot to some distance, though no considerable One. In cases of tumours these vessels may be found in the neck ; but very few contain vessels in their substance, which the most dextrous anatomist can inject. Mr. Abernethy, too, injures his own system, by remarking that the coats of the tumour are the thickened cellular texture around, from which they are supplied with vessels, and the whole hypothesis •becomes unnecessary ; for the substance of the tumour, if gra- dually deposited at its base, will impel the former depositions, and proportionally distend it at its fundus: we know, from observa- tion, that such tumours really in- crease from their base. The po- sition, that such tumours are not organized bodies, does not rest wholly on the failure of injec- tions ; for the gradual changes of the tumours prove that all the ef- fects are produced from the coats, which are confessedly not new productions. The coats inflame, suppurate, and burst ; the con- tents, no longer confined, melt into a curdly mass, and the patient sinks from debility. Thus the whole system seems to totter; for the containing coat is the condens- ed cellular texture ofthe patient, and as there is little evidence of the vessels extending far into the substance of the tumour, these also have apparently no addition. The tumour itself "is seemingly se- creted from them, or the vessels permeating the coats, by what me- chanism we cannot pretend to ex- plain, as the whole mystery of se- cretion is involved in obscurity. If we consider the remedies, we shall find them applied to the coats to prevent increased action of their vessels: to these also our astringent and discutient applica- tions are directed. The rest of the mass has no life ; for when the coat is destroyed, the whole melts as it would do out of the body by the action of heat, air, and mois- ture. The first tumour mentioned by Mr. Abernethy is the common vas- cular or organized sarcoma, a swel- ling which more particularly me- rits the name of a new formation,as vessels pass through it, and the veins on its surface are peculiarly large. It seems to consist of co- agulable lymph, covered with the red globules; but so far from pos- sessing independent life, when the coat is removed, the contents slough away, in other words dis- solve, or portions separate without sloughing. The substance ofthe tumour itself is insensible, and has consequently no nerves : we can- not, therefore, admit of its being a living matter. The adipose sarcoma is a fatty tumour, yet its contents differ somewhat in appearance from fat; but it acquires its capsule from the cellular membrane ; and, if any vessels pass into its substance, they are so small, that, on turning out the tumour, they afford neither resistance nor pour out blood. The pancreatic sarcoma resem- bles, in its lobated appearance, the pancreas, and is apparently a con- geries of lymphatic glands, though sometimes a single one only is affected. We adopt this opinion from these being the only instan- ces of sarcoma where the coats of the gland swell, are affected with lancinating pains, and become fo«I TU TO ulcers; for they scarcely ever are cancerous. It occurs most fre- quently in the breast nearest the axilla, a part where the lymphatic glands are numerous; and we have seen it in the inguen, when we have distinctly traced the forma- tion of distinct lobes before they coalesced. A malignant par odd, before it breaks, has* sometimes assumed this appearance. A cystic sarcoma consists of dis- tinct cysts, formed evidently by an enlargement of the natural cryptae, and this tumour chiefly occurs in the testis, the ovary, occasionally in other parts. The cysts some- times contain an unctuous matter of the consistence of cheese. The mastoid or mammary sarco- ma resembles the mammary gland. It is peculiarly rare, and seems to approach a fungus, by the diseased part extending far below what ap- pears to be the tumour, and be- coming the source of a fresh de- viation from the healthy state. The tuberculoid sarcoma can scarcely be styled a separate tu- mour ; for it consists of enlarged lymphatic glands, which run to- gether in one part, but are found distinct over the whole body, and, on dissection, on the viscera. The skin breaks; but the glands do not slough: the pain and irrita- tion are so considerable and ex- tensive that the patient soon sinks. We doubt whether this species is properly distinguished from the pancreatic. The medullary sarcoma, is chiefly found in the testis, and it is filled with a pulpy substance not unlike that of the brain. It is adestructive complaint, and has been styled the soft cancer, though it differs from the true carcinomatous tumour. The case related by Mr. Abernethy proved fatal by an enlargement of the lymphatic glands of the groin, which were greatly distended, and inflamed the skin, terminating in suppuration. Their substance was tender, and it appeared that the substance of the original tu- mour had been absorbed in a softer state, since in the higher glands, within the abdomen, it had almost the consistence of cream. This tu- mour is neither like cancer, hard, disposed to ulcerate or to spread to contiguous parts ; but it is con- tinued along the absorbents with great rapidity, wherever it may- first appear; for it is not confined to the testis. The contents of the tumour are sometimes darker, be- ing of a hue between a brown and a blood colour; but the consis- tence is the same, and the differ- ence seems to arise only from the accidental mixture of some blood. The blood-vessels of the parts dis- eased are always highly irritated, and the veins peculiarly full, so that some effusion may be expected. Mr. Cooper's observation, quoted by our author, from his paper on obstructions ofthe thoracic duct, in the Medical Records and Re- searches, seems to confirm the suggestion. The last species is the carcino- matous sarcoma, in its incipient state a schirrus. Mr. Abernethy distinguishes this kind by the com- munication of the irritation to con- tiguous parts, and by the white bands, described by Dr. Adams, sometimes enlarging into white firm partitions, and giving the idea of an animal nature. It agrees with the mastoid sarcoma in the disease extending below the apparent base of the tumour. Encysted tumours are distin- guished by a regularity of surface and shape, and pulpy feel. Their contents are different in consistence, sometimes in colour,and from these they have been divided into steato- matous, atheromatous, and melice- ritous, to which Mr. Abernethy adds a horny substance, and occasionally hairs, particularly in encysted tu- 6S TIT txy mours of the ovary. Other authors, but of no very good authority, mention flatus, bones, worms, lice, eggs, and even frogs, in encysted tumours. The vessels of the cyst are apparently minute ; for our author acknowledges that, when they burst, they do not suppurate, but become flabby, and are not disposed to heah Mr. Abernethy gives a short account of some other cysts, containing serum, hydatids, or granular substances, not unlike pearl barley. We might perhaps rest the con- futation of our author's pathology on his own facts. We see indeed new formations, as every exuded fluid capable of concreting may be styled such, but no independent life; no new creation of vessels ; but the minute branches derived from the cellular substance which forms the capsula \ no nerves. The mass of matter contained in the cyst does not resemble, in any respect, the fluids ofthe body in any form, to which heat, stag- nation, and absorption, can alone reduce them. Even in the case of scrophulous glands, where we have reason to think that the sub- stance is the gluten ofthe blood, it is apparently changed by a se- cretion from the cavities of their cells. In every instance, except the first species, the substance of the tumour is equally different from any ofthe fluids, or any por- tion of the more compounded ones. The common, vascular,organized sarcoma seems only an effusion of the gluten, into which vessels un- doubtedly pass, but which seems never to attain any considerable size ; or at least before it does so the character is lost. What the cause of this new secretion may be, we are unable to ascertain; but Mr. Abernethy very properly observes, that its nature is not connectedj.with that of the adjoin- ing part; but it is not admissible. to conclude that this is a new cm-' bryo introduced with its own pe- culiar powers, till we know whyr from arteries nearly contiguous, serum and mucus, the perspirable and sebaceous matter, are evacu- ate dr To conclude, at once, with the volume before us, we shall men- tion Mr. Abernethy's very judi- cious plan of cure. Astheirritation of a tumour contributes undoubt- edly to its increase, we must en- deavour to lessen it by taking away its two principal causes, the blood and the heat : the first is attained by the repeated applica- tion of leeches, the second by the application of folded linens, wet- ted with sedative and refrigerant lotions. If we thus suspend the growth of the tumour, other mea- sures may be afterwards pursued. These are stimulants, such as friction with mercurial ointment, gentle pressure, and electricity. Those means -which excite a counter irritation, such as rubefa- cient plasters, solutions of salts, blisters, and issues, are often of service. Other applications of rather a sedative than a stimulant nature are, the colchicum (acetum colchici),hemlock,beladonna, dul- camara,lead, and galbanum. If the irritability of the cyst is destroyed, there will be little apprehension of its increase ; but we often find, that though by these means we can arrest the progress of the disease, we can seldom remove it. Extir- pation, either by a knife or liga- ture, is, if practicable, the only certain remedy. Tunic. A tuendo corpore, be- cause it defends the body. Tunica,a membrane or covering. Tunica Albuginea Oculi. See Conjunctive Tunica. Tunica Albuginea Testis. See Albuginea Tunica. Tunica Arachnoidea. See^racA* noide*. TU TY Tunica Choroidea. See Choroid membrane Tunica Conjunctiva. See Con- junctive Tunica. Tunica Cornea. See Cornea. Tunica Retina. See Retina. Tunica Vaginalis Testis, a con- tinuation of the peritoneum through the inguinal ring, which loosely invests the testicle and spermatic cord. Tunstats, (Tunstas, tis, s. m.) , Salts formed by the combination of the tunstic acid with different bases, as tuns tat of ammonia, tun- stat of iron, ifc. Turbinated Bones. Ossa turbi- nata. The superior spongy portion of the ethmoid bone, and the infe- rior spongy bones, are so called by some writers; from turbinatio, to sharpen at the top, shaped -like a sugar-loaf. Turpentines. The different tur- pentinesemployedmedicinally are, the Chian or Cyprus turpentine (see Terebinthina vulgaris,) the common turpentine, and the Ve- nice turpentine (see Terebinthina veneta.) All these have been con- sidered as hot, stimulating corro- borants and detergents ; qualities which they possess in common. They stimulate the primae viae, and prove laxative ; when carried into the blood-vessels they excite the whole system, and thus prove serviceable in chronic rheumatism and paralysis. Turpentine readily passes off by urine, which it im- bues with a peculiar odour; also by perspiration and by-exhalation from the lungs ; and to these respective effects are ascribed the virtues it possesses in gravelly complaints, scurvy, and pulmonic disorders. Turpentine is much used in gleets and fluor albus, and in general with much success. The essential oil, in which the virtues of tur- pentine reside, is not only prefer- red for external use as a rubefa- cient, but also internally as a diu- retic and styptic; the latter of which qualities it possesses in a very high degree. Formerly tur- pentine was much used as a diges- tive application to ulcers, £cc. but in the modern practice of surgery it is almost wholly exploded—9i. to 3iss. Tnrpelhum Minerale, Mer. Eme- tic. Flav. yellow emetic quicksilver. Turunda, and Turundula, signify a tent for a wound, or any thing to be thrust into an orifice or capacity. Tussilago, coltsfoot. Tussilago farfara of Linnaeus. The sensible qualities of this plant are very in- considerable : it has a rough mu- cilaginous taste, but no remarka- ble smell. The leaves have al- ways been esteemed as possessing demulcent and pectoral virtues, and hence they have been exhibit- ed in pulmonary consumptions, coughs, asthmas, and catarrhal affections. It is used as tea, or given in the way of infusion with liquorice-root or honey. Tussi- lago most probably is derived from. tussis, a cough, because it is in general use in that complaint. Tussis, a cough; a sonorous concussion of the breast. It is symptomatic of many diseases. Tussis Exanthematica, a cough attendant on an eruption. Tylosis, Titian;; from tiAoj, a callus; an induration or callus of the margin of the eye-lids. Tympanites, tympany ; from ?vy- Y; \-- mud intettintnn rectum, and ascends to the mouth of the uterus. It is composed of three tunics: vho first is cellular from the peritonae- um, the second muscular, and the third or innermost rugous. Be- tween the two last membranes a number of mucous glands arc situ- ated, which secrete the mucus of the vagina. Vagina of the Nerves, the outer covering of the nerves. By some it is said to be a production of the pia mater only, and by others ofthe dura mater, because it agrees with it in tenacity, colour, and texture. Vagina of the Tendons, a loose membranous sheath formed of cellu- lar membrane investing the tendons. Valeriana Sylvestris, officinal valerian. Valeriana officinalis of Linnaeus. The root of this plant b-.'S been long extolled as an effica- cious remedy in epilepsy, which caused it to be exhibited in a va- riety of other complaints termed nervous, in which it has been found highly serviceable. It is also in very general use as an antispasmo- dic, and is exhibited in convulsive hysterical diseases. A simple and volatile tincture are directed in the Pharmacopeias.—3i. to 3L Valves, membranous folds, situat- ed within certain vessels, as arteries, veins, and absorbents, whose office appears to be, to prevent the con- tents ofthe vessel from flowing back. Valvu:n,a diminutive of veuve; a little valve. Valvula Eusfachii, a membra- nous semilunar valve, which sepa- rates the right auricle from the in- ferior vena cava, first described by Eustachius. Valvule Connivev.tes, the semi- lunar folds formed of the villous coat ofthe intestine, and situated in the duodenum and jejunum. Their use appears to be to increase the surface ofthe intestines. Valvule Miiralcs. See Mitral valves. Valvule Semilunarcs. See Semi- lunar vfdv.i. VA VE Valvule Tricuspidales. See Tri- cuspid valves. Varicella, the chicken-pox. A genus of disease in the class py- rexia and order cxantheniatu of Cullen ; known by moderate syno- cha; pimples bearing some resem- blance to small-pox, quickly form- ing pustles, which contain a fluid matter, and after three or foui days from their first appearance desqua- mate. M. M. Antiphlogistic re- gimen ; cooling laxatives ; diapho- retics. Varicocele, a swelling of the veins in the scrotum, or spermatic cord ; hence it is divided into scro- tal varicocele,v.'h\ch is known by the appearance of livid and tumid veins on the scrotum; and varicocele ofthe spermatic cord, known by feeling hard vermiform vessels in the course of the spermatic cord. M. M. Removal of compression ; a suspensory bandage ; cold affusion; astringents. Fi. rio/a, the small-pox,which see. Varix, a dilatation of a vein. A genus oi' disease in the class lo- cals and order tumoves of Ciiilen ; known by a soft tumour on a vein which does not pulsate. M. M. As in aneurism. Vas Deferens, a duct \vhich arises from the epididymis, and passes through the inguinal ring in the spermatic cord into the cavity ofthe pelvis, and terminates in the vesicular scminales. Its use is to convey the semen secreted in the testicle, and brought to it by the epididymis, into the vesiculae se- minalcs. Vasa Brevia, the arteries which come from the spleen, and run along the large arch oi the stomach to the diaphragm. Vasa Vorticosa, the contorted vessels of the choroid membrane. Vastus I'.vtcruus, a muscle of the leg, situated on the anterior part of the thigh, which extends the leg. This muscle is called vastus from its size. Vastus Internus, a muscle of tin. leg, situated on the anterior part of the thigh, which extends the leg. Veins. Vcne. Long membra- nous canals, which continually be- come wider, do not pulsate, and re- turn the biood from the arteries to the heart. All veins originate from the extremities of arteries only, be anastomosis, and terminate in the auricles of the heart; c g. the vena cava in the right, and the pulmo- nary- veins in the left auricle They are composed, like arteries, of three tunics or coats, which are much more slender than in the ar- teries, and arc supplied with semi- lunar membranes or folds called vahes. Their use is to return the blood to the heart. Velum Pendulum Palati. Velum palatinum, the soft palate ; the soft part of the palate which forms two arches, affixed laterally to the tongue and pharynx. Vena, from ver.io, to come ; be- cause the blood runs through it; a vein. See Veins. Vena Porte, Vena portarum; the great vein, situated at the en- trance of the liver, which receives the blood from the abdominal vis- cera, and carries it into the sub- stance of the liver. It is so called, a fiortando, because through it things are carried. It is distin- guished into the hepatic and abdo- minal portion : the former is rami- fied through the substance oi the liver, and carries the blood destined for the formation of bile, which is returned by branches to the trunk ofthe vena cav..; the latter is com- posed of three branches: viz. the splenic, mesenteric, and ..iuraai hemorrhoidal veins. Vena sine Pari, or Vena Azygos, the vein which brings back to the heart the refluent blood of the inter- costal arteries and veins. See Azy- gos » tua. Venenum, (fliXtuov, from /3e?.-,.-, a dart, as usually conveyed by darts.) /'oiionn differ from medicines, not VE VE in qualities, but in doses ; and we usually annex the idea of poison to those things which produce de- leterious effects in very small quantities, and of whose action we are imperfectly acquainted. What kills by its mechanical action ex- ternally is not styled poison. Me- dicines of a peculiar nature, which unavoidably kill, but whose bad ef- fects are occasionally relieved by specifics, or for which we have no cure,a-e commonly called poisons. In this way, though we speak of the poison of cancer, of variola, and of putrid fever in common language, it forms no part of the present subject; nor indeed when a person, breathing the miasma of pestis confined in fomites, falls down without life, is he properly considered as having been poison- ed; for these are causes of disease which, if not violent and sudden in their termination, might be remov- ed by medicines suggested by in- dications ; yet when suffocated by carbone, by azote, &c. a person is said to be poisoned, because no specific disease results from a less degree of the application. The distinction is not perfectly correct and scientific; but it is unneces- sary in this place to innovate on popular opinions and common lan- guage. Poisons may be divided into animal, vegetable, and mineral. The volatile animal poisons are the vapours of putrefaction. Those from vaults have proved fatal in France. The vapours of graves, hastily opened and incautiously breathed, have had the same ef- fect ; and the highly fetid vapours from numerous persons labouring under dysentery and putrid lever have proved very suddenly fatal. The breath of some serpents is said to prove fatal: but this idea is now left, with the other talcs of the nursery, to ignorance and superstition; nor is it even admitted that the breath of the black snake fascinates birds The more fixed animal poisons are those of serpents, of the scorpion if really poisonous, of fish, and perhaps of the mad dog. The toad is said to be poisonous; but facts are wanting to establish its deleterious quality. Fishes of many kinds are poi- sonous ; but few at all times, and in every constitution, so that, as in muscles, it seems to depend on their food. The cancer terr, stria also of the West-Indies is only poisonous in dry seasons, when the deficiency of other food compels it to feed on the bark and leaves of the manchineel tree. The lob- ster, probably from its food, is occasionally poisonous. Fish in the more strict sense, are some- times dangerous; but the dele- terious kinds are chiefly inhabit- ants of the tropical seas, and, in the fishermen's opinion, may be distinguished by their want of scales. The yellow billed sprat is highly poisonous, while the black- billed, scarcely distinguishable from it by sight, is innocent. The ba- racuta is sometimes poisonous, though occasionally eaten with- out danger The cavallee (ihe scomber of Brown) is usually poi- sonous ; and the varieties s yled bottlenose andambar are the same, though the greenback is inno- cent. The king-fish (xiphias of Brown) is highly delicious, and only at some season injurious. The smooth bottle f h (ostracion glabellum) is at limes very dan? gerous. The rock-fish (ptrca ma- rina of Catesby) is apparently only dangerous when caught in particu- lar situations. In general,the poison offish ap- pears to lie in the intestines, as it probably arises from their food; for it is found that if these are im- mediately taken away, the fish well washed and salted, little dan- VE VE ger results from even the baracu- ta. The symptoms are alarming, but not highly dangerous. Car- dialgia and nausea are succeeded by severe vomiting and purging, cold sweats, fainting and vertigo. The face is highly flushed, the eyes inflamed, and agitated by spasmodic contractions. A burn- ing soon comes on in the face and eyes, extending to the extremities, accompanied, or succeeded, by a general efflorescence, witha prick- ing of the skin; and this affection of the surface attends the injuries received from every kind of fish ; in some constitutions from even the most innocent. The skin at last peels off. and shooting pains in the joints often continue for some time, and at intervals for many years. The poison must be soon evacuated, and the vitriolated ziric is recommended lor this pur- pose. The bowels must also be relieved, and after this the warm- est cordials of every kind are alone sufficient. The capiscum in large doses is often highly use- ful, and as a remedy always at hand ; when a ready active one is wanted, it is peculiarly advantage- ous. The sea insects, the blubbers, and many other inhabitants of the ocean are undoubtedly poisonous ; but their effects are little known, for their appearance is too dis- gusting to allow of their being eaten Of other insects the meloe vesicatorius (cantharis) is the only poison with which we are distinct- ly acquainted, but may add from Plenck's Toxicologia a list of the insects supposed to be venomous. Furia infernalis ; meloe majalis and proscarabaeus ; scorpio Afri- canus ; phalangium aranoides ; sirex gigas; buprestis; aranea domestica and tarantula ; pulex penetrans ; culex pipiens; puli- caris and* lanio ; apis mellifica; vespis vulgaris and crabo. The poisonous worms are, gordius me- dineinis and marinus ; hirudo me- dicinalis venenatus; tethys ma- rina ; urtica marina. Among the poisonous amphibia are, rana bufo; lacertagoekoand salamandra. The poison of many of these, however, consists only in their sting. To the fish formerly mentioned as poisonous we may add, from Plenck, the tetraodon ocellatus and linea- tus, perca venenosa and sparus pagurus. Anderson in the Phi- losophical Transactions, lxv. 544. Animal substances thut have passed through a considerable part of the process of putrefaction are often highly deleterious, and the mildest in its natural state is the most injurious, when putrefied, the egg. It has been doub'.cd whether animals killed with poi- soned weapons may be eaten with safety; but we believe the inno- cence of such food is now well esta- blished, though some facts seem to oppose it. It has been alleged that some poisons kill by their aroma, which spreads readily, and adheres tenaciously. This is, how- ever, an apparent refinement of little utility in our inquiries. The vegetable poisons are very- numerous, and may be divided into the volatile and fixed. The former rather refer to medical police than to a practical treatise ; but it may be of use to enumerate those vegetable substances which exhale an offensive, possibly-an in- jurious effluvium The odours which we shall add are sometimes when diluted pleasing, but oftener injurious. These are the Halitus. Anagyridis. Dracunculi. Juglandis. Sambuci. Santali albi. Alctac moscalac. Mancinella:. VE VE Cannabis. Lini. Toxicodendri. Vernicis. Dracontii polyphylk ---------foetidi. Hellebori albi. The onouns a»e, Violarum. Kosarum. Liliorum alborum. Caprifolii. Polyanthes. Phaseoli. Foeni recentis. Oleandri. Caryophyllorum. Asae fcetidae. Ambrae. Moschi. Castorei. Zibethi. Cantharidum. Hyosciami. Stramonii. Opii. Croci. Tabaci. Loliitemulenti. Cicutae. Conii maculati. Fungorum venenatorum. They are divided by Plenck, in which he is followed by almost every author, who is, however, anxious to keep him concealed, into narcotic, narcotico-acrid, mushrooms, acrid, and glutinous poisons. The two first distinctions we cannot perceive, nor do the effects of the poisonous mush- rooms appear to us to differ from those of the other narcotics. We shall include them therefore under the general title of narcotics, dis- tinguishing each by the Greek let- ters a, ft, y. t narcotic poisons. x Papaver somniferam. Physalis somnilera. Solanum lycopersicum. --------mammosum. ------— insanum. --------dulcamara- ------.— nigrum. Datura stramonium. ------melel. ------ferox. ------ tatula. At.opa mandragora. Ifyoscyamus nigc-r. -----------albus. -----------physalodes. -----------scopolia. Azelea pontica. Antirrhinum orontium. Actaea spicata. Lollium temulcntum. Ervum ervilia. Lathyrus cicera. Peganum harmela. Chaenopodium hybridum. Taxus baccata. Chelidonium glaucium. Lactuca scariola. ------- virosa. Prunus laurocerasus. Paris quadrifolia. P Hippomane mancinella. ------—------■ biglandulosa. Menispemum coculus-^ Coriaria myrtifolia. Strychnos nux vomica. --------colubrina. Ignatia amara. Nerium oleander. Atropa belladonna. Nicotiana tabacum. ------■— rustica. ------— panicula. --------glutinosa. Bryonia alba. Chaerophyllum sylvestre. --------------bulbosum. -----------■— temulentuna. .Ethusa cynapium. Sium latilolium. Cicuta virosa. Conium maculatum. VE VE Mercurialis perennis,. y Agaricus muscarius. ———«-----integer venenatus. — lactifluus venenatus. ■- viscidus. — piperatus. — fimetarius. — pustulatus. — necator. sanguineus. ----------viscidus. ----------clypeatusi Boletus vesicolor. -------elegans. Boleti parasitici. Phallus impudicus. ------mukusin. Lycoperdon carcinoma!is.. II. ACRID POISONS. Delphinia staphisagria. Semen sabadilli. Rhododendron crysanthemum. Fritillaria imperialis. Colchicum autumnale. Pedicularis palustris. Digitalis purpurea. Lobelia siphiiitica. .------ longiflora. Cyclamen europaeuni. Plumbago europaea. Convolvulus scamonca.- Cucumis colocynthis. Momordica elaterium. Cambogia gutta. Cerbera ahovai. ------manghas. Cynanchum erectum. -----------vimiale. Apocynum androsaemifoliumr ----------c.anabinum. ----------venctum. Asclepias gigantca Kyclrocotile vulgaris. Oenanthe fistulosa, ---- .. crocata. Scandix infesta. Thapsiu fectida. A'.isma planta Jatropha curcas. --------multifida. --------manihot. Ricinus communis. Phytolaca decandra. Croton tiglium. Daphne mezereum. ———— thymelaea. -------laureola. -------cneorum. -------gnidium. Cneorum tricoccum. Amyris toxifera. Rhus vernix. ----- radicans. -----toxicodendron. Scilla maritima, Excaecaria agallocha. Anacardium occidentals .----------- orientate. Caiyota urens. Arum maculatum. -----dracunculus*. ---,— dracontium., -----colocasia. ----- esculentum. virginicum. arborescens -----scgumum. Calla pallustris. Euphorbia officinalis. —.—.....■•- sntiquorum. VE vi; Euphorbia canariensis. ----------tirucalli. ----------peplus. ----------lathyris ----------helioscopia. ------■---verrucosa. ---------platyphyllos. —------— esula. ----------cyparissias. ■----------pallustris. ---------- hiberna. ----------characias. ----------amygdaloides. --------— sylvatica. ----------exigua acuta. ----------mauritanica. ----------ticrifolia. Ranunculus sceleratus. i-----------thora. ----- ----flam u la. -----------lingua. . ----fie aria. ----------illyricus. -----------buibosus. ----------«- alpestris. -----------polyanthemos. -----------aeris -----------arvensis. ------ ■ gramineus. -----------asiaticus. -----------aquatilis. -----------platanifolius. ----------- breynius. -----------sardous. Raphanus raphanistrum. Secale cornutum. Ustilago frumenti. Caries frumenti. Rubigo frumenti. III. GLUTINOUS POSIONS. Gluten aucuparium. ------visci querni. Fungus cynosbatos. Spongia marina. Mr. Wilmer, in his Observations on the Poisonous Vegetables found in Great-Britain, distinguishes, 1st. Those from which maniacal symptoms are to be expected, or different nervous affec:ions from a vertigo to a fatal apoplexy, in- cluding the Ifyoscyamus :dgcr, Si- lanum lethalc, Aconitum, Mercu- rialis sylvestris, Stramonium, Ci- cuta major fetida, Agaricus mus- carius, Agaricus piperatus. Se- condly, Those which produce epi- leptic symptoms, a loss of under- standing.speech,and allthe senses, within a few minutes after they are taken into the stomach : the muscles will be convulsed, ami death will close the scene in a few hours: QLnanthe cherophylli fuliis, Cicuta ayuatica, and Laurocerasus. The danger of the last is very great, as they do not offend the palate, nor produce any sickness in the stomach, so that tiny arc not likely to be discharged without the assistance of art; and are so quickly active, that they scarcely afford an opportunity for assist- ance. He adds, that poisonous vege- tables appear to act hy oppressing the nervous system, rather than by inflaming the stomach and duo- denum ; and that these vegetable poisons, in different constitutions, will have various and sometimes opposite effects. The antidotes of the narcotic poisons are said to be the vegeta- ble acids, given by the mouth, or in clysters, and coffee ; blisters to the neck, rubefacients, and stimu- lants of every kind must be added. As the face is full and flushed, bleeding has been generally recom- mended ; but the plethora is ve- nous only from relaxation, and bleeding decidedly injurious. The effects ofthe acrid vegeta- ble poisons are relieved chiefly by narcotics and by demulcents. If we know that they are naturally determined to any particulai ex- cretory, the discharge from the same organ must be promoted by the mildest means, to dilute the acrimony which will be soon brought there, and every means of sooth- ing general irritation adopted. VE VE Oils, as demulcents, are perhaps inferior to mucilages, and better adapted to mineral poisons; and soap, as containing an alkali, is the appropriated antidote of the latter. We need not add, that the chemical nature of vegetable poi- sons is too little known to enable us to add an antidote from affinity. The mineral kingdom, as it af- fords the most active remedies, so it abounds with the mostdeleterious poisons, which are sometimes fatal in the form of gas, more frequent- ly given with the most wicked de- signs, or accidentally injurious when prescribed by quacks, or the most undiscriminating inexperi- ence. The vapour of arsenic is often diffused in smelting houses, and undermines the health of the workmen ; of mercury in the quicksilver mines of Almaden and Idria ; of lead in various manu- factures. Copper is not apparently raised in vapour in an injurious form. Internal poisons are sometimes mechanical, as the filings of tin, given as anthelmintics, leaden bul- lets, and quicksilver, the supposed remedy of ileus. The others act by their violent irritation chiefly on the primae viae, but occasion- ally on the secretory organs, or their excretory ducts. We need not, however, be anxious on the latter point, as our chief attention must be directed to them while still retained in the stomach and bowels. They may be divided into alkaline, earthy, acid; neu- tral alkaline, neutral earthy, neu- tral metallic ; metallic oxides ; metals, and inflammables. The pure alkalis are highly caus- tic ; nor can they be swallowed without discovery, so that the vic- tims are the incautious and the suicides. Their obvious antidotes are the acids, and, if the throat is apt so mucjh excoriated as- to bear them, the vegetable acids soon re- lieve from immediate dinger. Should the excoriation be consi- derable, water impregnated with fixed air, or diluted acids sheathed with mucilaginous substances, must be taken. The consequences are, however,often highly inconvenient. Digestion is impaired ; the sto- mach seems a cold heavy mass; the bowels are constipated, and the strength decays. For many months these inconveniences have remain- ed, though they gradually recede, and are in a great degree, though not wholly, removed. The earthy poisons are little known. Pure lime, by its causti- city, may be poisonous if swallow- ed, and there is much reason to suppose the barytes highly dan- gerous. Of the strontia, as a me- dical agent, we know little, and the effects of the other newly dis- covered earths on the human body have not been ascertained. The, amianthos, under the name of plu- mose alum, is sometimes injurious from its spiculae, which produce itching on the surface, and may, therefore, be wholly referred to mechanical action. The poisonous acids are the stronger mineral, and the effects are the same, though the antidotes are more ready and easy. Alkalhi may not be easily swallowed; but soap diffused in milk, oils com- bined with water by means of pure alkalis, will always relieve. The effects, like those of alkalis, arise from excessive excitement. Neutral alkaline salts are seldom injurious, and we have preserved this title only to remark, that nitre swallowed in large doses is often poisonous. It seems to act as an indirect stimulus ; but is chiefly fatal by producing violent haemorr- hages. Neutral earthy salts-are the cal- careous sulphat (gypsum) and* the muriated barytes, perhaps, if inca'u- 71 VE VE tiously administered, the muriated \im . History has recorded the treachery of one of the Byzantine emperors who mixed powdered gypsum with the meal designed for the army of Conrad III. by which the greater part is said to have been destroyed. It some- times producesinconvenience when found in water, in that proportion which constitutes it hard, by bring- ing on constipation ; but it is sel- dom, in common life, dangerous or fatal. Neutral metallic salts are highly injurious, and their number is al- most as great as that ofthe metals whose medical power is known. The vitriolated copper and zinc are well known ; nor is the vitriolat- ed iron in large doses innocent. Nitrated and muriated silver are highly caustic and injurious. Dr. Fordyce remarked, that gold is only a cordial in the pocket, so it is only a poison to the mind. It is innocent of all bodily good or harm. The muriated antimony is ex- tremely caustic, and the oxymuriat of mercury, the corrosive subli- mate, equally so. The other pre- parations of these metals are not equally active and deleterious, though the saline compounds of each possess considerable acri- mony, particularly the vitriolated and nitrated'mercury ; and in large doses are often injurious. Leadis chiefly offered to us in a saline form as combined with the vegetable ncid; and so many are the oppor- tunities for this union, that its bad effects are supposed to be exten- sively diffused. Copper is soluble in such a variety of menstrua, that its introduction into the system has been universally dreaded, and we are taught to guard against it in ourculinary vessels, our medicines, and our spirit, as well as in the construction of our reservoirs for T$-ater. The fears of mankind are sufficiently alive to prevent them from incurring these perils, un- less from accident, and the taste of copper is too striking to prevent its incautious introduction It is discovered by the aqua ammoniae, which precipitates the copper in a blue colour, except when combin- ed with spirit. In this case soap is the criterion, and it dissolves in the spirit in greenish striae. The ar- senicated soda is highly deleterious. The oxides of mercury and an- timony, in particular circumstances are highly acrid. The red and white precipitates of mercury are dangerous, and often poisonous ; the crocus metallorum, the powder of algaroth, and the glass of anti- mony, scarcely less so: but the most destructive of the oxides is Arsenic The-only dangerous metal that we are acquainted with is lead, and the only poisonous inflammable phosphorus. Copper, if it meets with no acid, is innocent, but from the accidental occurrence of an acid in the stomach may become violently deleterious. There are, however, very few circumstances in which it is likely to be swallow- ed, and no inconveniences seem te have been observed, where swal- lowing is almost unavoidable. The counter-poisons are chiefly sulphur, in different forms; but the power of the metallic salts is weakened by the addition of those acids which have a stronger affinity to the metal than that with which it is combined, and which form a milder combination ; or alkalis, which leave the metal in a comparatively inert oxide. Our chief dependance, however, is on emetics and laxatives, first to discharge what may continue to irritate, and afterwards to sheath the bowels by demulcents. Oil with milk, soap dissolved in wa- ter, mucilaginous fluids of eveiy kind, often with opium, when the VE VE pain is violent, will succeed, if success remains in our power. Some other poisons remain, of Whose composition history has for- tunately left us no traces. The aqua toffana was pure and tasteless but certainly fatal, and might be given in any liquid. The " pow- der of succession" was sweetish, adapted for children, and equally certain Infernal miscreants,whose poverty rather perhaps than their wills consented, mixed freely in this horrible traffic from the tenth to the fifteenth centuries ; but we trust that the formulae are now lost for ever, and those acquainted with the powers of natural bodies, who may approach the composi- tion, would do well to conceal it. The upas, the celebrated poison tree of Java, is now known to be fabulous; and the ticunas is much less virulent than it has been re- presented, or it has lost it powers by keeping. The stories told of the formidable preparation of poison in South-America are, we understand, very greatly exagge- rated, perhaps wholly invented. It is necessary to add, that the power of poisons, as we have seen in those oi fish, are relative to the habits and constitution of the patient. Like the tyrant of antiquity, who used himself to all kinds of poisons that he might be proof against their attack, some may feed on what would be des- truction to others. This immu- nity is, however, limited. No con- stitution is proof against the great variety of mineral poisons which we now possess ; but we can for- tunately trace their symptoms, their progress, and even detect the substance in the stomach of the victims. No poisoner can NOW ESCAPE WITH IMPUNITY. Animals are singularly exempt from the powers of some medi- cines highly deleterious to man. A horse can take a dram of arse- nic daily, and improve in his coat and condition ; and the nux vomi- ca is not peculiarly dangerous to man, except in considerable doses.) though it soon destroys brutes. The aloes is a poison to dogs and foxes, and somewhat virulent in the horse ; for it is his only cer- tain laxative. The coculus indi- cus is deleterious to fish and lice; yet it makes, we believe, a very salutary ingredient in the best London porter. The phellandrium. aquaticum is fatal to horses and innocuous to oxen : the doronicum. kills dogs, but fattens antelopes, thrushes, and swallows. Parsley seed is injurious to birds, and pep- per to swine. Bitter almonds kill foxes, cats, and chickens. The seeds of hemlock are eaten with- out inj ury by stares, of stramonium by pheasants, of the lollium timu- lentum by jays, and the roots of henbane by pigs. We are generally led to suspect the exhibition of a violent and ac- tive poison by the sudden attack. If a healthy man, after a plain din- ner, a common drink, or an un- suspected medicine, is soon seiz- ed with vertigo, cardialgia, colic, vomiting, cholera, spasms, convul- sions, great debility, faintings, or coma; or, if the lips, the tongue, the fauces, and the stomach swell, with a sense of heat, we may sus- pect that poison has been swal- lowed If the discharge from the stomach given to a dog or cat kills it, or produces some violent dis- ease,the suspicion will bestrenuth- ened. Wre must, however, keep in view what we have just sad, that animals will often safely eat what is deleterious to man. If death ensues, and we have an opportunity of inspecting the body, the suspicion will be farther confirmed if the stomach is inflat- ed, or spasmodically contracted, gangrened, or spotty, without any previous disease to occasion these VE VE ' changes. If in the contents of the stomach, on dissection, we find any seed, root, leaf, or vegetable powder which we know to be dan- gerous ; or if any such are found in the house of the deceased, the suspicion will almost amount to a certainty. Should the poison be of the mineral kind, modern che- mistry has resources to discover it from the smallest quantity, how- ever disguised. The peculiar properties of each occur in the respective articles from which a discovery may be made, and many circumstances will lead to a pro- bable suspicion of what it may have been. Venerea Lues. See Lues. Veneris Oestrum,the heat of love, expresses the utmost ecstacy or desire of enjoyment in coition. And some are of opinion, that in- fectious women are most apt to communicate the poison to another when they are thus excited with desire; whereas with indifference they might admit the same inter- course without giving the infection. Venter, signifies any cavity, and is chiefly applied to the head, breast, and abdomen, which are called the Three Venters. Hence, sdso, Ventricle, is a diminutive of the former, and applied to more con- tracted divisions, as some particular parts of the Brain, Stomach, &e. which see. Verbascum, great broad leaved mullein. Verbascum thapsus of Linnaeus. Catarrhal coughs and diarrhoeas are the complaints for which verbascum has been inter- nally prescribed ; which diseases it appears to alleviate by its mucilagi- nous quality. It is also applied ex • ternally in form of fomentation and cataplasm to haemorrhoidal tumours and glandular indurations. Vermes, (from verto, to twist about). Worms ; elminthes, most commonly found in the intestinal tujjq i but occasionally in almost every other part of the body, par- ticularly in the secreted fluids. With worms were formerly confounded animals, but slightly connected with them, as the larae of insects, and some other ani- mals ; but worms, strictly so cal- led, are divisible into two classes ; those which have external organs, and those deprived of them. The latter are the most simple in their structure, and of these the intes- tinal worms are still more sim- ple than the others. Worms, however, possessing external or- gans have been found in the bow- els, and even the undisputed re- cords of medicine notice the dis- charge of some^singular worms of this kind. It is not improbable that ova may have been swallowed, and as whatever possesses life is unchangeable by the powers of di- gestion, the animal may have at- tained its larvated state when the irritation excited has brought on disease, or procured its evacua- tion. Numerous cases are re- corded of peculiar animals, dis- charged from the bowels, of the most singular shapes. To at- tempt to describe even the most remarkabLe kinds would be a tedious and an useless labour; for the forms and shapes are endless. The principal intestinal worms are confined to a few only, and the others must be considered as ac- cidental, Ghanged probably in their external appearance by their new situation and unnatural diet. The worms of the human body are those which live in the intes- tines, and those found in other organs. Those of the intestines seem to be coeval with our exis- tence, and a part of our constitu- tion. It is, therefore, as useless to account for their generation as to explain that of the various pedi- culi or other parasitic animals. If they are more common in children, it is probably from their bowel*. V£ V£ containing a larger proportion of mucus. Intestinal worms may be divided into the round and flat, each of which forms, according to the strict rules of classification, a genus. The species of the round worm are the Iumbricus, the as- caris, and the trichuris, the round, the thread, and the caudated thread-worm. The species of the flat worm are the cucurbutinus and the taenia. The ascarides are small worms of a yellowish white colour, re- sembling threads cut in small pieces. The head is obtuse, the tail pointed ; and at the head are three vesicles, between which the mouth of the animal is placed. A little below are two stigmata, ap- parently the organs of respiration. The sexes are distinct; but the male organs have not been dis- covered. The female is viviparous, and the young are excluded at an aperture about one-eighth of an inch from the head. The ascaris generally resides in the rectum, convoluted in mucus and »aeces: but it has been styled the maw-worm from its occasion- ally occurring in the stomach, and it has escaped farther into the co- lon, or from the rectum, into the pudenda. Though the ascarides seldom appear but in the rectum, they are very frequently attended with a pain in the stomach, which has probably procured them the name of maw-worms, producing an itch- ing in the anus, which often occa- sions such uneasiness as to induce faintness, and sometimes to de- prive the patient of sleep. The irritation is occasionally so great as to cause a sensible tumour round the anus ; but as these worms are voided in the stools, their presence is always certainly known by seeing them there : for every symptom is wanting in some patients. The trichuris is scarcely spe- cifically distinct from the Iumbri- cus and ascaris, differing only in the tail, which is twice as long as the body, and filiform. The ani- mal has a proboscis, which he can withdraw at pleasure. Goeze con- siders the proboscis as the male organ ; but the observations are not sufficiently extensive to as- certain these uncertain points. This worm inhabits chiefly the ileum ; but occasionally every por- tion of the canal. Strictly speaking, there is but one flat worm, the taenia ; but one of its varieties, the tenia solium of Linnaeus, t. osculis marginalibus of Dr. Hooper, suffers its joints to be readily separated from the parent head, and th^se are evacuated in separate worms, resembling a gourd seed, possessing, for a time, independent life, often es- caping involuntarily per anum. They have been consequently call- ed cucurbitini ; but until the whole worm, including the head, is sepa- rated, there is no security against their return. The joints them- selves, as Dr. Hooper observes, do not increase. This animal is by no means single, as has been re- presented ; but even a single one occasionally occupies a large por- tion of the ileum. Their motion is undulatory by the successive contraction of the joints. The. food is propelled through the ali- mentary canal in the same manner, often with considerable rapidity. The taeniae are hermaphrodite, and the oscula are the apertures for the passage of the ovula. Carlisle in the Linnaean Transactions, ii. 225. The true tenia is that with su-> perficial oscula down one side, and there is a variety with a double row of oscula (Amrenitates Aca- demicae, ii. 28.) In this species the ovaria are stellated round the oscula. The joints are shorter" and flatter, and on this account h VE is styled the flat tape-worm. Both Junds are whitish ; but this of the darker hue. .It is always in the small intestines, and seldom ex- ceeds five yards in length. Worms seem to form a part of a healthy constitution, and are scarcely injurious but from acci- dental circumstances. This cir- cumstance forms a striking dis- tinction between animalsand plants. Parasitic animals attack only debi- litated plants ; but the healthiest animals are chiefly affected with worms; and the observations which seem to contradict this arise from aneglect ofthe distinctionbetween the existence of worms and their appearing a source of disease from their accumulation. Their formation is assisted by accumula- tions of mucus, and consequently in children, sometimes in cachec- tic patients, they become inconve- nient; but are soon destroyed by every kind of fever. Sugar, fruit, and a variety of aliments, have been supposed to contribute to their formation or increase. It is not, however, the existence of worms, but their accumulation, and consequent irritation, that con- stitute disease. The signs of worms are few and equivocal; a pale complexion, picking the nose, grinding ofthe teeth during sleep,'fetid breath, a swelled hard belly, a swelling of the upper lip, attend scrofula, and particularly accumulations in the stomach and bowels There is no decided symptom but the discharge of worms ; nor is it then certain but tlvJ. all the tribe may be removed. Even a Iumbricus has been found single. The remedies of worms we have seen are such as to destroy or eva- cuate the animals. The male fern root undoubtedly kills the taenia, the helleborus foetidus the lum- brici; but for the ascarides we have no certain medicine, though VE many which are of singular utility' oily injections, infusions of tobac- co, of hepar sulphuris, solutions of asafoetida, and of aloes, followed . by calomel or aloetic purgatives, soon evacuate immense numbers; and, if continued, appear to dis- charge the whole mass But, for the reasons assigned, the seminium morbi seems in the stomach ; and warm tonics, with occasional aloe- tic purgatives, are necessary to prevent the return. These, how- ever, will not wholly succeed. In other parts of the body there is scarcely a cavity or a stagnating fluid which does not occasionally contain worms, nor need we mi- nutely follow the disgusting cata- logue. The worms of the intes- tines are discovered often in the cavity of the abdomen, escape at the navel, into the biliary ducts, or sometimes through the oesopha- gus ; but the indications which such appearances afford are easily followed. The other worms chiefly show the necessity of preventing stagnations of fluids, and the great advantages of the most nice clean- liness. The fasciola sometimes appears in the liver, particularly of sheep, said to be affected with, or die of, the rot; and a similar cause has been supposed to occa- sion cachexy in the human species. The position, however, is gratui- tous ; nor, if admitted, would it probably lead to any practical con- sequence. Dr Biss extols the bastard black hellebore as a most certain de- stroyer of the round worm ; but purging, by lessening the slime, always relieves; and probably the worms that are not forced away by this quickened motion of the in- testines may, for want of mucus, languish and die. It does not ap- pear that one kind of purge, if ac- tive, is preferable to another, let the kind of worms be what they will; the worms being al- VE VE ways defended from the immediate action of the medicine by the slime ; and, therefore, purges which act briskly, and of which a frequent repetition can be borne, are the best. Of this sort are purging waters, particularly the sulphureous, jalap, Sec. Dr. Stork says that he hath destroyed all sorts of worms, viz. the round, as- carides, and the tape-worm, by the following mixture, repeated as here directed. $• Sal. polychrest. pulv. rad. jalap. & rad. valer. silv. aa. 3i ox. scillit. |iv. m. exhibea- tur adultis quater per diem |ss. junioribus vero 3i aut 311. Vermicular, is applied to many parts of the body, for their resem- blance either in shape, or motion, to worms. Vermicular Pulse, an exceeding small and unequal pulse, a less de- gree of which is termed by Galen Formicans Pulsus. Vermiform Process of the Brain, Protuberantia vermiformis; the substance which unites the two hemispheres of the cerebellum like a ring, forming a process. It is called vermiform from its resem- blance to the contortions of worms. Vermifuge, from vermis, a worm, and fugo, to put to flight; is any medicine that destroys or expels worms. Vernacular, is any thing that is particular to a country. Whence diseases that reign most in any par- ticular country are thus called. Vcrnix. Juniperi Gummi.^ The resin obtained in warmer climates, particularly in Africa, is semi-pel- lucid, and of a pale yellowish co- lour ; it is in small masses, resem- bling mastich, but larger ; the san- daracha of the Arabians, ancl^ the gu a juniper of the shops. From its use it has been Called vernix, and the powder is employed to pre- vent ink running on paper, under the rame of pounce. This resin h.itn a light agreeable smell, and not much taste. It dissolves in rectified spirits, if violently shakeu in them ; and in oils both expressed and distilled, but is insoluble in water. Verruca, is a wart: and, Verruca, warts. A genus of disease in the class locales and or- der rumores of Cullen. M. M. Caustic; ligature. Verrucous, is applied to any ex- crescences resembling a wart. Vertebre, from verto, to turn. The bones of the spine are so called. Each vertebra has a body and seven apophyses, viz. a spinous process, two superior and two inferior ob- lique, and four transverse processes. The large cavity in each vertebra concurs to form the passage for the spinal marrow, and the lateral holes for the passage of the spinal nerves. The vertebrae are distinguished into the cervical, belonging to the neck, which are seven in number; dorsal, of which there are twelve ; and lumbar, which are five in num- ber. The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas ; it has no body nor spinous apophysis, but forms an arch which anteriorly surrounds the dentiform process of the second vertebra, and instead of two superi- or oblique apophyses there are two articular sinuses: the second ver- tebra, called also epistropheus and dentator, has an odontoid process at the upper part of the body. The peculiarities of the remaining cer- vical vertebra are, their being much smaller than the rest; the spinous processes being bifurcated, and the transverse processes having a pecu- liar foramen for the passage of the vertebral arteries. The dorsal ver- tebrae are distinguished from the vest by a depression at the sides of the bodies, and one also in the points of the transverse processes for the attachment of the ribs. The lumbar vertebrae are much larger than the dorsal, and the transverse processes have no de- pressions. The use of the vertebras is 10 form the spin-1 VE VE Vertebral Artery, a branch ofthe subclavian, proceeding through the vertebrae to within the cranium, •where, with its fellow, it forms the basilary artery, the internal audi- tory, and the posterior artery of the dura mater. Vertex, is the crown ofthe head, situated between the sinciput and «cciput: hence also figuratively it is used for the top of any thing. Vertigo, giddiness It is mostly symptomatic. Vesanie, the fourth order in the class neuroses of Cullen's nosologi- cal arrangement; comprehending diseases in which the judgment is impaired without either coma or pyrexia. Vesica, a diminutive of-yes, a ves- sel; a bladder. Vesicantia, blistering applica- tions. Vesica Fellis, the gall bladder. See Gall bladder. Vesica Urinaria, the urinary bladder. See Urinary bladder. Vesicatories, from vesica, a blad- der; because they raise a bladder. See Epispastics. Vesicula Pulmonales, a diminu- tive of vesica, a bladder; the air cells which compose the greatest part of the lungs, and are situated at the termination ofthe bronchia. Vesicule Seminales, two membra- nous receptacles, situated on the back part of the bladder above its neck. Its excretory ducts are call- ed ejaculatory ducts. They proceed to the urethra, into which they open by a peculiar orifice at the top of the verumontanum. They have vessels and nerves from the neigh- bouring parts, and are well supplied with absorbent vessels, which pro- ceed to the lymphatic glands about the loins. The use of the vesiculae seminales is to receive the semen brought into them by the vasa de- ferentia, to retain, somewhat inspis- sate, and ttrexcern it sub coitu into the urethra, from whence it is .pro- pelled into the vagina uteri. Vestibulum, a round cavity of the internal ear, between the cochlea and semicircular canals, in which are, an oval opening communicating with the Cavity of the tympanum, and the orifices of the semicircular canals. Vestitus, (avestiendo) Dp.ess. In considering this srjj^c* we must first notice the materials, and then the forms, of our garments. —The materials of our dress are, wool, cotton, flax, silk, and fur. Woollen garments are undoubt- edly the most salutary in this cli- mate, whose perpetual changes are by its means resisted ; and it is remarked that hectics have be- come incomparably more common in Scotland since the plaid was dis- used. From their structure, heat penetrates slowly, and the cold air is effectually guarded from the body, so that it preserves the same steady temperature. Ano- ther advantage is the affinity of woollen to water, which it retains rather in the form of a vesicular vapour than of a fluid, so attenuat- ed are the fluid particles by its minute fibres, which even the un- assisted sight can discover. This quality renders it highly useful when sweating naturally comes on, or is artificially induced. The water is immediately absorded, and its coldness concealed. If no longer in contact with the body, flannel is not cold, nor does it in- duce any chill. An inconvenience arises from its warmth, which is debilitating, and this effect is increased by the per- spiration which it excites. As its dirt is hid, the excrementitious fluids are allowed to remain; as they are not seen, it is not duly changed. The former inconveni- ence is lessened by choosing the thinnest flannels, and the latter by frequent washing in a manner which prevents its thickening, viz. by employing water of a very mo? VE VE derate temperature,not exceeding 98°. The constant stimulus which it keeps up on the surface is rather inconvenient than injurious. Cotton partakes of the advant- ages of flannel, though in a very inferior degree; yet, if the texture be loose, as in the calicoes, it is often a convenient substitute. But we still want a fabric which shall come near the swanskin (flannel) in substance, and preserve the softness of cotton. Raising the pile on the internal surface, as in the fleecy hosiery, makes it too warm for general purposes, and the com- mon calicoes are neither sufficient- ly soft nor thick. Cotton is now used as a substitute for linen in shirts, and we think the change highly advantageous; but to ac- commodate this material to pre- judice or fashion, its texture is too compact, and it is wove and finish- ed in a manner too nearly resem- bling linen. Thread, as a material of stockings, holds a middle rank between cotton and silk. Whatever may be the dictates of health, however wise the voice of the charmer, the comforts of linen will always secure a de- mand for this article. The luxury of a clean shirt of this material was one that the Romans, in the plenitude of their power, could not obtain, and to the healthy it is safe and salutary. To change it at night, and again in the morning is a modern refinement, which merits our commendation. It not only secures cleanliness, but, by renewing the air between the linen and the body, becomes an air bath, which greatly assists insensible perspiration. The advantage of re- newing the air is sensibly felt by nurses and all those obliged to sit up a whole night; for they find themselves always relieved by re- laxing the ligatures, and even shaking their linen, if they do not change it. Silk has no affinity to water, anJ should never be worn next the skin. A silk stocking will indeed keep the feet cool; but the foot is chafed by the perspiration, and, on cooling, a shiver is soon induced. Above the linen it may be worn with safety in hot climates; but the frequent changes of tempera- ture in these regions render it highly dangerous, unless the dis- advantages of sudden cold are guarded against by flannel below. Oil silk retains the heat of the body, and keeps up constant per- spiration : it is used, however, only as a topical diaphoretic, and not as an article of dress. Fur is seldom worn next the skin but for the same purpose. It partakes of the disadvantages of flannel, at least those which arise from its stimulus; but does not possess the advantages derived from its affinity to water. It is dirty also ; for it does not easily admit of cleaning, and is a harbour, not only for insects, but for infec- tions of the most fatal kinds. It is necessary in the higher latitudes, where the cold is intense, but should be banished from the more temperate. We now allude to its use next the skin, not to its em- ployment as an external ornament and defence. The changes of dress should be adapted to the seasons, being cau- tious to wear the winter clothes in this country till summer be fully arrived. Our ancestors thought the limits very extensive, when they advised keeping on " the win- ter clothes till May be done ;" but the seasons are at present later, as is evinced even by the May-duke cherries, which seldom ripen in the southern districts of England till the middle of June. The period should, therefore, be extended ; but modern refinement has inter- posed a demi saison, in which the winter dress is partly changed. 72 VE VE This too we consider as highly salutary ; for the change is not then too great at once, and the fre- quent change of clothes admits of their being at least aired, if not washed. We may be considered as advocates for modern fashions; but, in fact, it is a subject which we have for years considered with at- tention. Within our own remem- brance,-a man of fifty was sallow, dirty, often diseased. At this time the father and son appear scarcely to differ, and often differ very slightly. Though much may be ascribed to the art of the friseur and dentist, the change which time really makes is inconsiderable in comparison, and we ascribe this slight alteration in a great de- gree to the frequent changes of dress, on the principles already described. It was not unusual to wear the same suit from the gloss of novelty till it was no longer de- cent ; and to change the linen three times a week was an extra- ordinary sacrifice to appearance. The other circumstances of clean- liness, particularly in the hair and teeth, undoubtedly contribute to preserve health ; but the frequent changes of clothes and linen, with the use of such as require wash- ing, has highly contributed to the prevention of disease and prema- ture old age. The disuse of snuff and tobacco has also had its share in the event. Let us, however, re- peat, and strongly inculcate, that the changes of dress should not be sudden, that the first appear- ance of a sunny day should not draw us from our woollen clothes into nankeens and silks. Dryness and warmth of the ex- tremities are circumstances of the utmost importance to health ; and in gout, any complaint of the head or breast, or a disposition to cutaneous diseases, particular at- tention should be paid to the feet. The shoes should be carefully guarded, so as to admit no mois- ture, the stockings warm, and fre- quently changed, the feet often washed, and daily rubbed. The water employed should be tem- perate only, and very little exceed- ing the heat of springs, about 62° of Fahrenheit. The stockings most salutary are of worsted ; but cotton may be allowed, if chang- ed daily ; silk should not be worn, at least without woollen or cotton socks. The natural covering of the head is the hair, and, in every view this should be worn, if nature has not denied it. The substitute, a wig, is dirty, unhealthy,and incon- venient. It is not adapted to ab- sorb perspiration, which is conse- quently confined, and occasionally cold; nor does the discharge really compensate for the natural one of the hair and the mucus of its bulbs. A wig has all the incon- venience of a silk dress, and not a single advantage, except saving a little time and trouble. The hair must be daily combed : the wig is dressed in a shop, though often on the head. In general, the head should be kept cool ; for all salutary perspiration is promoted by coolness. Even our common felt black hats are too warm for summer. The form of dress requires some attention. All straight ligatures should be avoided, particularly about the neck ; and, in general, the breast should not be exposed to the air. The coat, for we now chiefly attend to the gentlemen, may be cut as fashion dictates, if its tyrannic sway does not order too strict confinement in the arms and a consequent compression on the axillary artery. The waistband of the breeches usually surround- ed the ossa ilea, which prevented any injurious pressure on the hy- pogastric region. We have now exchanged with the softer sex. VE VI who have rejected the pressure of the stays on the abdomen, and our breeches are raised to the pit of the stomach. They are, however, wisely supported by braces over the shoulders, and, instead of li- gatures, the stockings, if any are worn, (for the constant use of boots renders itdoubtful)should be kept up in a similar way. Garters over the knee do not compress any vessel of importance, as the tendons of the flexors of the leg guard them, but below the knee they oc- casion varices, swelled legs, ulcers, and a train of evils. Of shoes,much might have been said ; but fashion has wisely inter- posed, and both sexes now tread firm on the foot as nature made it. We follow too the advice of Cam- per, and have a shoe for each foot. It is fortunate when fashion is con- tent to follow the dictates of health. Boots compress the calf too much and impede the circulation. No- thing can be more inconvenient and unsuitable as a walking dress. Of female dress, we had intend- ed to speak ; but we find little to add, except the application of the principles already laid down. The female form is now permitted to expand luxuriantly ; but to give it fulness, the shoulders are forced back so as to impede the circula- tion in the upper extremities, and the clothes tightly bound around the lower part of the sternum. Much inconvenience is, however, avoided by supporting them over the shoulders by braces. The co- vering of the bosom is too close by day, and too inconsiderable in the evening ; for though the draw- ing room and the opera-house are warm, carriages and lobbies are cold, and many a victim is thus sacrificed to the shrine of fashion. The custom of wearing drawers is convenient; but we think not salutary. The chief female diseases cf those regions are from rcla\a- lion, and the free access of cool air is useful. We shall not inter- fere with the moralist in the rea- sons which he may adduce in their favour. Veterinaria, otherwise called Mu- lo-Medicina, is that part of medicine which has the bodies of cattle for its object, and was in good esteem among the ancients: if it were to fall into good hands, it might greatly conduce to the improvement of the art of physic in general. Vegetius has wrote a book upon this subject, under the title of Mulo-Medicina. Latterly, both in England and France the veterinary art has been much improved, but in America it is in a very rude condition as yet. Vibices. The large purple spots which appear under the skin in certain malignant fevers are thus named. Vibrlsse or Vibrisci, hairs grow- ing in the nostrils. Villi. Anatomists have given this term to those very delicate fibres observable on the internal surface ofthe intestines, particularly ofthe duodenum and jejunum, and other parts of the body. Vinum, (o»vo;, from the Hebrew term ion,) IVine, Bacchus. The juice of fruits, chiefly applied to the fermented juice of the grape. Wine generally contains the ex- tractive, tartar, some portion of unchanged saccharine matter, ar- dent spirit, and the aroma of the fruit. On the proportions of the first, and the different quality of the last, all the variety of wines depends. Wines may be divided into the sweet and dry. In the former is the greatest proportion of extractive and saccharine mat- ter, often the least of the ardent spirit, though, in a few instances, this is rather softened and dis- guised than absent. Of this kind is the Malmsey Madeira, the Ca- nary wine, the Constantia from the Cape of Good Hope, the vino tints VI VI (tent of Hungary,) Frontignac, some kinds of Florence, many of the Spanish white wines, as the pacherotti, &c. The dry wines are the hock, the Vin de Grave, Madeira, Vidonia, port, both red and white, mountain, sherry, &c. Many of the Portuguese,Spanish, and Italian wines hold a middle rank, as the Buccellos,the Lisbon, some kinds of Florence, &c. It has been usual to consider an acetous acid as an ingredient in wines ; but if it be ever found, the wine is imperfect, and a decompo- sition must have begun. The smartness, which has suggested the idea, and which led the fabri- cators of made wines to employ a portion of acid, seems to be owing to an admixture of the carbonic acid air, generated during fermen- tation. This seems to give the pungency to claret and Burgundy, as it more evidently does, in a more evolved state, to champaigne. We must not indeed deny, that wine may, from the grape, contain some malic or citric acid, as Chaptal in- forms us (Annales de Chimie, xxxv. &c.) that even the sweetest wine reddens the juice of litmus. He adds, that the remains, after the distillation of brandy, becomes sour, and this cannot be denied to be vinegar ; but it is of a poste- rior production, the effect of the acetous fermentation. The quan- tity of alcohol varies from one- third to one-sixteenth. The colouring matter is wholly extraneous, and does not add to the qualities of the wine. It is a resinous substance, soluble in al- cohol, and deposited as the qua- lity of the wine is deteriorated by age. It is destroyed also by pow- dered charcoal. Wine is highly grateful to the palate and stomach, giving an im- mediate and agreeable warmth to the whole system, and its pecu- liarly pleasing stimulus is felt, even at first, in the mouth. It completely answers the idea form- ed of an analeptic, as it appears immediately restorative. When we pursue its effects farther, wc shall find the strength and spirits renewed; the perspiration and other secretions, which may have languished from fatigue, restored; the thoughts follow each other with more freedom, and every motion is carried on with ease and comfort. If we examine this se- ries of symptoms with a marked attention, we shall at once per- ceive the combination of a stimu- lant with a sedative power; in other words, an indirect stimulus. The freedom, the serenity rising to hilarity, point out the narcotic influence, and show that wine can- not be considered as strictly and properly a stimulant. When we pursue still farther its effects, we shall find the ideas are irregularly associated; the face, though flush- ed on the cheeks, is pale round the nose and lips, the hand unsteady, the legs tottering,or spasmodically contracted. After sleep every symptom of debility in a consider- able degree follows. Wine, however, in moderation, is, like tea, salutary, and its nox- ious portion is guarded by the ex- tractive matter, perhaps the acid, from being, in general, injurious. In this it differs from ardent spirits, which not only want this sheathing, protecting ingredient, but seem to acquire additional deleterious pro- perties from the fire, particularly by the evolution of an acrid, often an empyreumatic, oily principle. Wines differ in their salubrity from the difference of their pro- perties. The dry strong wines, as old hock, are stimulant, with little mixture of the narcotic; or the austerity which accompanies the ardent spirit seems to correct its injurious properties. Some portion pf this is preserved in VI VI the Madeira, and a less in Vidonia, sherry, and mountain, successively, of which the last is sometimes sweet. The sweeter wines are cordial and nutritious, especially when they combine, with the saccharine matter, a lar- ger proportion of spirit. The Malmsey Madeira, the vino tinto, and the sweet Florences are of this kind. The Frontignac and Constantia are less nutritious, and cordial in a lower degree. The lighter sweet wines are generally drank with the desert, as the sweetness of its dishes would des- troy the flavour ofthe dryer wines. Port and sherry belong rather to the dry than the sweet wines. The astringency ofthe former counter- acts its narcotic powers, and the lat- ter approaches, in a slight degree, the austerity of the German wines. Claret, Burgundy, and Hermit- age seem to be progressively more generous in the order mentioned. Claret combines, at least, the effect of an acid. The race of Burgun- dy renders it more generous, and the Hermitage has, in general, a superior body. If the stomach can bear with impunity either, they are highly salutary, as they Contain a very inconsiderable de- gree of ardent spirit, and the malic acid probably, though disguised, in a considerable proportion. The aroma of Hermitage shows it to possess an additional principle, which we suspect renders the acid less injurious. In many cold, flatulent, weak stomachs, each is, however, injurious. Champaigne is more so : for its body is incon- siderable, and the quantity of air evolved renders it often inconve- nient in the stomach, not to men- tion that its effects on the head lead to a suspicion that it combines some more deleterious principle than the carbonic acid gas. The constant use of wine is « a custom more honoured in the breach than in the observance." Its advantages are lost from habit, and, when we want it as a cordial, we must employ a dose which will render its narcotic powers too sensible. If it be asked, which is the most wholesome wine ? we would say, with a few exceptions, that which is the best; in other words, that in which the fermenta- tion has been regularly conducted, in which its spirit is fully evolved, but still sheathed by the remaining extractive, if not some portion ot the saccharine, matter. The ex- ceptions are the rich wines in a weak over-loaded stomach ; and the thin acid ones in a cold and flatulent habit. Port, in general, unless kept until attenuated, is heavy, injures digestion, and is injurious from the quantity of spirit generally added to make it bear the motion of the ship ; and, on this account, the wine which has twice crossed the tropics is preferred. The spirit is, by the voyage, morev intimately combined,or evaporated. In ouranxiety, however,to procure a generous attenuated wine, we must not wait till its colour be lost. When the brilliant red at the bot- tom of the glass changes to a brown, even when almost imperceptible, the quality of the wine is injured. Fashion or prejudice in vain insists that it is of a superior kind; for the chemist knows that a decom- position has begun, and the physi- cian that it is no longer the gene- rous cordial it once was. The good effects of w,ine are shown by the cheerfulness and hilarity which it excites, by a free perspiration, the mouth not hot or dry; the intellectual functions free and well connected, without rapidity or irregularity. If the quantity is not in excess, the sleep is easy, sound, and undisturbed ; the morning not clouded by head- ach, the mouth not dry, and every occupation, mental, or corporeal, VI VI resumed with freedom and ala- crity. In pharmacy the following wines only are ordered : the vinumalbum Hispanicutn, or mountain wine ; vi- num album Gallicum, or French white wine; vinum Canarinum,Ca- nary or sack ; vinum Rhenanum, or hock ; vinum Rubrum, or red port. The qualities of each we have already mentioned; but we do not perceive that the choice of wine, as a menstruum, is regulat- ed by any fixed views, and it is now scarcely employed. As a vehicle for the more convenient division of the doses of metallic salts the mountain is preferable; but, in general, a portion of spirit should he added. Indeed, in every case the dry stronger wines are prefer- able to the sweet or weak. As a medicine wine is a most valuable codial in languor and de- bility, particularly useful in the low stage of typhus, raising the pulse, supporting the strength, promoting a diaphoresis, and re- sisting putrefaction more quickly nnd certainly than any other medi- cine. Delirium, from excessive irritability, and a defect of nervous energy, is often relieved by the judicious use of wine : during the prevalence of an intermittent epi- demic, or putrid sore throat, a moderate use of wine has proved asalutary prophylactic. In malig- nant angina, in the small-pox verging to putrescency, with great debility, in gangrenes and the plague, wine is considered an important remedy, and in almost every case of great prostration of strength, is a most grateful and efficacious cordial. Dietetically it is said to be beneficial to the weak and aged, and to those who are exposed to a warm and moist, or to a corrupted, air. Externally it stimulates, strengthens, and re- sists putrefaction. Dr. Harris or- ders ulcers to be washed with warm wine ; and external inflam- mations are said to be sometimes removed by it. In an erysipelas, warm wine and fomentations with the spirit of wine are sometimes useful. Wine, in fevers, is how- ever, often too heating, and to an equal proportion of milk and wa- ter, as much wine may then be added as will occasion coagulation. A wine whey, mildly cordial and diaphoretic, is thus formed, and may be given with good effect; or water may be added to wine for' the same purposes. Viola, sweet violet. Viola odora- ta of Linnaeus. The recent flowers of this plant are received into the catalogues of the materia medica. They have an agreeable sweet smell, and a mucilaginous bitterish taste. Their virtues are purgative oa- laxative, and by some they arc said to possess an anodyne and pec- toral quality. The offieinal prepa- ration of this flower is a syrup, which, to young children, answers the purpose of a purgative ; it is also of considerable utility in many chemical inquiries, to detect an acid or an alkali; the former changing the blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green. Virus, signifies strictly any poison. Hence Virulent, is used for a distemper attended with dreadful symptoms. Vis Insita. This property is de- fined by Haller to be that power by which a muscle, when wounded, touched, or irritated, contracts, in- dependent of the will of the animal that is the object ofthe experiment, and without its feeling pain. Vis Medicatrix, the healing pow- er, or the plastic power employed in extinguishing disease, and re- storing health. This is often ex- pressed by the words Nature, and Natural Cure. Vis Nervosa. This property is considered by Whytt to be another power ofthe muscles by which they act when excited by the nerves, VI VI Viscus, any organ or part which has an appropriated use, as the vis- cera of the abdomen, &c. Vision, is the act of seeing or of perceiving external objects by the organ of sight. As every point of an object sends out rays in all di- rections, some rays from every point on the side next the eye will fall upon the cornea, and by passing on through the humours and pupil of the eye, they will be converged to as many points on the retina, or bottom of the eye, and will thereon form a distinct inverted picture of the object; although it must be owned that the method by which the sensation is carried from the eye by the optic nerve to the common sen- sory in the brain, and there discern- ed, is above the reach of our con- ception. That vision is effected in this manner may be demonstrated experimentally. Take a bullock's eye, while it is fresh, and having cut off the three coats from the back part, quite to the vitreous hu- mour, put a piece of white paper over that part, and hold the eye to- wards any bright object, and you will see an inverted picture of the object upon the paper. The dia- meters of images at the bottom of the eye are proportional to the an-' gles which the objects subtend at the eye, the same as in a lens, and are reciprocally as the distances of the same object viewed in different places. The eye is in reality no more than a camera obscura, for the rays of light flowing from all the points of an object, through the pupil of the eye, do by the refrac- tion of its humours, paint the image thereof in the bottom of the eye : just so it is in the camera obscura, where all the rays refracted by a lens in the window-shutter, or pass- ing through a small hole in it, paint the image on the opposite wall. Some properties of the eye are these : the eye can only see a very small part of an object distinctly at once. For the collateral parts of an object are not represented dis- tinctly in the eye ; and therefore the eye is forced to turn itself suc- cessively to the several parts of the object it wants to view, that they may fall near the axis of the eye, where alone distinct vision is per- formed. When any point of an object is seen distinctly with both eyes, the axis of both eyes are di- rected to that point, and meet there ; and then the object appears single, though looked at with both eyes ; for the optic nerves are so framed, that the correspondent parts in both eyes lead to the same place in the brain, and give but one sensation, and the image will be twice as bright with both eyes as with one- But if the axis of both eyes be not direct- ed to the object, that object will ap- pear double, as the pictures in the two eyes do not fall upon corres- pondent or similar parts of the re- tina. The best eye can hardly dis- tinguish any object that subtends at the eye an angle less than half a minute, and very few can distinguish it when it subtends a minute. If the distance of two stars in the heavens be not greater than this, they will appear as one. Though men may see distinctly at different distances, by altering the position and figure of the crystalline, yet they can only see distinctly within certain limits, and nearer than that, objects appear confused. But these limits arc not the same in different: people. A good eye can see dis- tinctly when tho rays fall parallel upon it, and then the principal focus is at the bottom of the eye ; a man can judge at a small distance, with a single eye, by frequently observing how much variation is made in the eye to make the object distinct, and from this a habit of judging is ac- quired. But this cannot be done at great disUxnces, because, though the distance be varied, the change in the eye becomes then insensible. But a man can judge of greater dis- tances with both eyes, than he can VI VI with one. For the eyes being at a distance from one another, as long as that distance has a sensible pro- portion to the distance of the object, one gets a habit of judging by the position of the axis of the eyes, which are always directed to that point. For different distances re- quire different positions ofthe axis, which depend on the motions of the eyes, which we feel. But in very great distances no judgment can be made from the motion of the eyes, or their internal parts. Therefore we can only guess at the distances from the magnitude, colour, and the position of interjacent bodies. Dimness of sight generally attends old people, and this may arise from two causes. 1. By the eyes growing flat, and not uniting the rays at the retina, which causes in- distinctness of vision; or, 2. By the opacity of the humours of the eye, which in time lose their transparen- cy, in some degree ; from whence it follows that a great deal of the light that enters the eye is stopped and lost; and every object appears faint and dim. Hence the necessity of spectacles. If objects are seen through a per- fectly flat glass, the rays of light pass through it from them to the eye, in a straight direction, and pa- rallel to each other, and consequent- ly the objects appear very little either diminished or enlarged, or nearer, or further off, than to the naked eye ; but if the glass they are seen through have any degree of convexity, the rays of light are directed from the circumference towards the centre, in an angle pro- portional to the convexity of the glass, and meet in a point, at a greater or lesser distance from the glass, as it is more or less convex. This point, where the rays meet, is called the focus, and this focus is nearer or further off', according to the convexity of the glass ; for as a little convexity throws it to a con- siderable distance, so when the con- vexity is much, the focus is very near. Its magnifying power is also in the same proportion to the con- vexity ; for as a flat glass scarcely magnifies at all, the less a glass departs from flatness, the less of course it magnifies; and the more it approaches towards the globular figure, the nearer its focus is, and the more its magnifying power. People's different length of sight depends on the same principle, and arises from more or less con- vexity of the cornea and crystalline humour of the eye; the rounder these are, the nearer will the focus or point of meeting rays be, and the nearer an object must be brought to see it well. The case of short- sighted people is only an over- roundness of the eye, which makes a very near focus; and that of old people is a sinking and flattening of the eye, whereby the focus is thrown to a great distance, so that the for- mer may properly be called eyes of too short, and the latter eyes of too long a focus. Hence, too, the re- medy for the last is a convex glass, to supply the want of convexity in the eye itself, and brings the rays to a shorter focus ; whereas a con- cave glass is needful for the first to scatter the rays and prevent their coming to a point too soon. The nearer any object can be brought to the eye, the larger will be the angle under which it appears, and the more it will be magnified. Now, that distance from the naked eye. where the generality of people are supposed to see small objects best, is about six inches; consequently, when such objects are brought near- er than six inches, they will become less distinct; and if to four or three, they will scarce be seen at all. But by the help pf convex glasses we are enabled to view things clearly at much shorter distances than these : for the nature of a convex lens is to render an object distinctly visible to the eye at the distance of its fo- cus j wherefore the smaller alens is, VI vo and the more its convexity, the hear- er is it focus, and the more its mag- nifying power. If either the cor- nea, or crystalline humour, or both of them, be too flat, their focus will not be on the retina, where it ought to be, in order to render vision dis- tinct, but beyond the eye. Conse- quently those rays which flow from the object, and pass through the humours of the eye, are not suffi- ciently converged to unite, and therefore the observer can have but a very indistinct view of the object. This is remedied by placing a con- vex glass, of a proper focus, before the eye, which makes the rays con- verge sooner, and imprints the image duly on the retina. If either the cornea or crystalline humour, or both of them, be too convex, the rays that enter in from the object will be converged to a focus in the vitreous humour, and by diverging from thence to the retina, will form a very confused image thereon, and so of course the observer will have as confused a view of the object as if his eye had been too flat. This inconvenience is remedied by plac- ing a concave glass before the eye, which glass, by causing the rays to diverge between it and the eye, lengthens the focal distance, so that if the glass be properly chosen, the rays will unite at the retina, and form a distinct picture of the ob- ject upon it. Vita, life, the effect produced by stimuli acting upon the excitability of bodies. Thus, the capability of being acted upon is excitability. Heat, food, light, drink, &c. are sti- mulants : and sensation, articulation, voluntary motion, &c. are the effects or functions. This state is called excitement. See the Elements of Medicine, by John Brown, Experi- ments on the living Principle, by John Hunter, and Jones's Inquiry into the present state of Medicine. Vifal Functions, vital actions; those actions ofthe body upon which life immediately depends, as the cir- culation, of. the blood, respiration, heat ofthe body, Sec. See Function. Vitiligo, from vitio, to infect; a disease of the skin. See Aiphus. Vitis, the common vine. Vitis vinifera of Linnaeus. Vine leaves and the tendrils have an astringent taste, and were formerly used in diarrhoeas, haemorrhages, and other. disorders requiring refrigerant and styptic medicines. The juice or sap of the vine, called lachryma, has been recommended in calculous disorders, and it is said to be an ex- cellent application to weak eyes and specks of the cornea. The unripe fruit has a harsh, rough, sour taste ; its expressed juice, called verjuice, was formerly much esteemed, but is now superseded by the juice of lemons : for external use however, particularly in bruises and pains, verjuice is still employed, and con- sidered to be a very useful applica- tion. See also Uva Passa, Wine, and Acetum. Vitreous Humour, the pellucid body which fills the whole bulb of the eye behind the crystalline lens. The whole ofthe vitreous substance is composed of small cells which communicate with each other. Viviparous, from vivus, alive, and pario, to bring forth ; are all such creatures as bring forth their young living and perfect. Volvulus, i. e. iliac passion, or twisting of the guts. Vomer, so called from its resem- blance to a plough-share : a bone of the nose, situated in the cavity ot the nostrils, which it divides into two parts. . ,. ... Vomica Pulmonum, is used lnclii- ferently for a polypus, or any col- lection of foreign matter in the lungs ; but in strictness signifies an ulcer therein, which discharges a concreted matter sometimes mixed with blood from a corrosion ot the; vessels. In an open ulcer, the pu* exposed to the air, according to Mitchill, Drake, and Darwin, be- come", oxygenated, ;*:d ss thereby WA WA venomous, and capable of stirring up that form of quotidian inter- mittent called hectic fever. Vox, the voice. The gift of speech is the peculiar privilege of the human race, while sounds are common apparently to every animal that breathes with lungs. The sub- ject is, therefore, divided naturally into tones and articulation ; the for- mer possessed by animals, the latter peculiar to man. The organs by which they are produced are also different; for tones depend on the form, and structure of the larynx, articulation on the muscles of res- piration, on the tongue, the palate, and the lips. Vulnus, a wound. Boerhaave de- scribes a wound to be a recent bloody solution of continuity in the soft parts made by a hard sharp in- strument. Vulva. Pudendum muliebre. The parts of generation proper to wo- men. Vulva Cerebri, an oblong furrow in the brain, so called from its like- ness in figure to the vulva. W WATER, a transparent fluid, without colour, smell, or taste,ina very smalldegree compres- sible ; when pure, not liable to sponta- neous change ; liquid in the common temperature of our atmosphere, as- suming the solid form at 32° Fah- renheit, and the gaseous at 212°, but returning unaltered to its liquid state on resuming any degree of heat between these points, capable of dissolving a greater number of natural bodies than any other fluid whatever, especially of those known by the name of the saline ; perform- ing the most important functions in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and entering largely into their com- position as a constituent part. Wa- ter is formed of hydrogen, combined with oxygen, in the proportion of 14.42 to 85.58. Water is assumed as the standard, or unity, in all tables of specific gravity. A cubic inch of it weighs, at thirty inches of the barometer, and 60Q thermometer, 252,422 grains. Water does not enter the list of materia medica of any of the colleges, but it is so im- portant, both as an article of diet, and as an agent in the cure of dis- eases, that a brief account of its varieties and properties cannot but be proper in this place. The purest natural water is melted snow, or rain, collected in the open fields. That which falls in towns, or is col- lected from the roofs of houses, is contaminated with soot,animal efflu- via, and other impurities; although, after it has rained for some time, the quantity of these diminishes so much, that Morveau says, it may be rendered almost perfectly pure by means of a little barytic water and exposure to the atmosphere. Rain water, after it falls, either remains on the surface ofthe earth, or pene- trates through it until it meets with some impenetrable obstruction to its progress, when it bursts out at some lower part, forming a spring or well. The water on the surface of the earth either descends along its declivities in streams, which, gradually wearing channels for them- selves, combine to form rivers, which at last reach the sea ; or it remains stagnant in cavities of con- siderable depth, forming lakes or ponds, or on nearly level ground forming marshes. Although the varieties of spring waters are ex- ceedingly numerous, they may be divided into, 1. The soft, which are sufficiently pure to dissolve soap, and. to answer the purposes of pure wa- ter in general. 2. The hard, which contain earthy salts, decompose soap, and are unfit for many pur- poses, both in domestic economy and in manufactures. 3> The saline, WA Which are strongly impregnated with soluble salts. When spring waters possess any peculiar charac- ter, they are called mineral waters. See Waters, mineral. River water is in general soft, as it is formed of spring water, which by exposure becomes more pure : and running surface water, which although turbid from particles of clay suspended in it, is otherwise very pure. Lake water is similar to river water. The water of marshes, on the contrary, is exceed- ingly impure, and often highly fetid, from the great proportion of animal and vegetable matters constantly de- caying in them. So early as the year 1776, an ex- periment was made by Macquer to ascertain what would be the product of the combustion of inflammable air, or hydrogen gas. He accord- ingly set fire to a bottle full of it, and held a saucer over the flame, but no soot appeared upon it as he expected, for it remained quite clean, and was bedewed with drops which were found to be pure water. Various conjectureswerenow form- ed about the nature of the product of the combustion of oxygen and hydrogen gases. By some it was supposed the carbonic acid gas ; by Others it was conjectured it would be the sulphureous or sulphuric acid. The latter was the opinion of Mr. Lavoisier. Such were the experi- ments and opinions of the French chemists previously to the year 1781. About the beginning of that year, Mr. Warltire, a lecturer in natural philosophy, had long enter- tained an opinion that the combus- tion of hydrogen gas with atmos- pheric air, might determine the question, whether heat be a heavy body. Apprehensive of clanger in making the experiment, he had for some time declined it, but was at last encouraged by Dr. Priestley, and accordingly prepared an apparatus for the purpose. This was a cop- per vessel properly fitted, and fil- WA led with atmospherical air and hy- drogen gas, which was exploded by making the electric spark pass through it. A loss of weight of two grains was observed after the combustion. A similar experiment was repeated in close glass vessels, which, though clean and dry before the combustion, became immediate- ly wet with moisture, and lined with a sooty matter. This sooty matter, Dr. Priestley afterwards supposed, proceeded from the mercury which had been employed in filling the ves- sel. During the same year Mr. Cavendish repeated the experi- ments of Mr. Warltire and Dr. Priestley. He performed them se- veral times with atmospheric air and hydrogen gas, in a vessel which held 24,000 grains of water, and he never could perceive a loss of weight more than one-fifth of a grain, and often none at all. In all these experiments not the least sooty matter appeared in the inside of the glass. To examine the nature of the dew which appeared in the in- side of the glass, he burnt 500,006 grain measures of hydrogen gas, with about two and a half times that quantity of common air ; and in this combustion he obtained one hun- dred and thirty-five grains of water, which had neither taste nor smell, and when it was evaporated, left no sensible sediment. It seemed to be pure water. In another experiment, he exploded, in a glass globe, 19,500 grain measures of oxygen gas, and 37,000 of hydrogen gas, by means of the electric spark. The result ofthe experiment was thirty grains of water, which contained a small quantity of nitric acid. The experi- ments of Mr. Cavendish were made in the year 1781, and they are un- doubtedly conclusive with regard to the composition of water. It would appear that Mr. Watt entertained the same ideas on this subject. When he was informed by Dr. Priestley of the result of these ex- periments, he observes, " Let us WA WA consider what obviously happens in the deflagration of hydrogen and oxygen gases. These two kinds of air unite with violence, they become red hot, and when cooling totally disappear. When the vessel is cooled, a quantity of water is found in it equal to the weight of the air employed. The water is then the only remaining product of the pro- cess ; and water, light, and heat are all the products, unless there be some other matter set free, which escapes our senses. Are we not then authorised to conclude, that water is composed of oxygen and hydro- gen gases, deprived of part of their latent or elementary heat; that oxy- gen gas is composed of water, deprived of its hydrogen, and unit- ed to elementary heat and light; and that the latter are contained in it in a latent state, so as not to be sensible to the thermometer or to the eye? And if light be only a ■modification of heat, or a circum- stance attending it, or a component |part of the hydrogen gas, then oxy- gen gas is composed of water de- prived of its hydrogen, and united to elementary heat." Thus it ap- pears that Mr. Watt had a just view ■of the composition of water, and of the nature of the process by which its component parts pass to a liquid •state from that of an elastic fluid. ■Towards the end of the same year, HVI. Lavoisier had made some ex- Tierinients, the result of which sur- prised him ; for the product of the combustion of the oxygen and hy- drogen gases, instead of being sul- phuric or sulphureous acid, as he expected it, was pure water. This led him to procure an apparatus, with which the experiment might be performed on a large scale, and ■with more accuracy and precision. Accordingly the experiments were •performed on the twenty-fourth of June, 1783, in presence of several academicians, and also of sir Charles Elagden, who was at that time in Paris. A similar experiment wa.s. afterwards performed by M. Mongej with the same result; and it was repeated again by Lavoisier and Meusnier, on a scale so large as to put the matter beyond a doubt. The conclusion, therefore, from the whole was, that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. Water ex- ists in three different states; in the solid state, or state of ice, in the liquid, and in the state of vapour or steam. It assumes the solid form when it is cooled down to the temperature of 32Q. in this state it increases ^n bulk, by which it exerts a prodi- gious expansive force, which is ow- ing to the new arrangement of its particles, which assume a crystal- line form, the crystals crossing each other at angles of 60° or 120«. The specific gravity of ice is less than that of water. When ice is exposed to a temperature above 32° it absords caloric, which then be- ■ comes latent, and is converted into the liquid state, or that of water. At the temperature of 42 y>, water has reached its maximum of den- sity. According to the experiments of Lefevre Gineaux, a French cubic foot of distilled water, taken at its maximum of density, is equal to 70 pounds, 223 grains French, equal 529,452.9492 troy grains. An Eng- lish cubic foot at the same tempera- ture weighs 457,102.4946 grains troy. By Professor Robinson's ex- periments it is ascertained thatacu- bic footof water,at the temperature of 55°, weighs 998.74 avoirdupois ounces, of 437.5 grains troy each, or about 1^ ounce less than 1000 avoirdupois ounces. When water is exposed to the temperature of 212Q, it boils ; and if this tempera- ture be continued, the whole is con- verted into an elastic invisible fluid, called vapour or steam. This, as has been already shown, is owing to the absorption of a quantity of calo- , ric, which is necessary to retain it in the fluid form. In this state it is about 1800 times its bulk when in lhe state of water. This show$ WA WA what an expansive force it must ex- ert when it is confined, and hence its application in the steam engine, of which it is the moving power. Waters, mineral. The complete and accurate analysis of mineral waters is one of the most difficult subjects of chemical research, and requires a very extensive acquaint- ance with the properties and habi- tudes of a numerous class of sub- stances. Such minuteness, how- ever, is scarcely ever required in the experiments that are subservient to the ordinary purposes of life ; a general knowledge of the compo- sition of bodies being sufficient to assist in directing the most useful applications of them. Instead there- fore of giving a very ample detail of all the methods pointed out by Kir- wan and others, we shall describe the means which are most generally useful in researches of this kind. Before any proceeding is made in the analysis of a water, it is proper to inquire into its natural history, and to examine attentively its physi- cal characters. The temperature of the water must be carefully observ- ed, and the quantity inquired into, ■which it yields in a given time. The sensible qualities of taste, smell, de- gree of transparency, &c. are also best ascertained at the fountain-head. The specific gravity of the water must also be found. The readiest way of judging of the contents of mineral waters are by applying tests or re-agents, the chief of which are the following. Infusion of litmus is a test of most ■uncombined acids. If the infusion redden the unboiled, but not the boiled water, we may infer, that the acid is volatile, and most probably the carbonic. Sul- phuretted hydrogen gas, dissolved in water, also reddens litmus, but not after boiling. To ascertain whether the change be produced by carbonic acid, or by sulphuretted hydrogen, when ex- periment shows that the reddening cause is volatile, add barytic water. This, if carbonic acid be present, will occasion a precipitate, which will dissolve, with effervescence, on adding a little muriatic acid- Sulphuretted hydrogen may also be contained, along with carbonic acid, in the same water ; which will be determined by the tests hereafter to be described. Paper tinged with litmus is also reddened by the pre- sence of carbonic acid, but regains its blue colour on drying. Infusion of Litmus reddened by Phosphoric Acid—Tincture of Bra- zil-wood—Tincture of Turmeric, and Paper stained with each ofthese three Substances—Tincture of Red Cabbage.—All these different tests have one and the same object. Infusion of litmus, reddened by- phosphoric acid, or litmus paper reddened by it, has its blue colour restored by alkalies and earths, and by carbonated alkalies and carbonat- ed earths. Turmeric paper and tincture are changed to a reddish brown by alkalies, whether freed from carbonic acid or not; by earths, freed from carbonic acid, but not by carbonated earths. The red infusion of Brazil-wood, and paper stained with it, become blue by alkalies and earths, and even by the latter, when dissolved by an excess of carbonic acid. In the last mentioned case, however,the change will either cease to appear, or will be much less remarkable when the water has been boiled. Tincture of cabbage is, by the same causes, turned green ; as is also paper stained by the juice of the violet, or with the scrapings of radishes. Tincture of galls___Tincture of galls is employed for discovering iron, with which it produces a black tinge. The iron, however, in or- der to be detected by this test, must be in the state of a red oxide, or, if oxydized in a less degree, its ef- fects will not be apparent, unless after standing some time in contact; WA WA with the air. By applying this test before and after evaporation, or boil- ing, we may know whether the iron be held in solution by carbonic acid, or by a fixed acid ; for, 1. If it produce its effect before the application of heat,and not after- ward, carbonic acid is the solvent. 2. If after, as well as before, a fixed and vulgarly called mineral acid is the solvent. 3. If, by the boiling, a yellowish powder be precipitated, and yet galls continue to strike the water black, the iron, as often happens, is dissolv- ed both by carbonic acid gas and by a fixed acid. Sulphuric Acid.—Sulphuric acid discovers by a slight effervescence the presence of carbonic acid, whe- ther uncombined or united with al- kalies or earths. 2. If lime be present, the addition of sulphuric acid occasions, after a few days, a white precipitate. ?. Barytes is precipitated in- stantly, in the form of a white pow- der. 4. Nitric or muriatic salts, in a dry state, or dissolved in very little water, on adding sulphuric acid, and applying heat, are decomposed : and if a stopper, moistened with so- lution of ammonia, be held over the vessel, white clouds will appear. For distinguishing whether nitric or muriatic acid be the cause of this appearance, rules will be given here- after. Oxalic Acid and Oxalates.—This acid is a most delicate test of lime, which it separates from all its com- binations. 1. If a water, which is precipitat- ed by oxalic acid, become milky on adding a watery solution of carbo- nic acid, or by blow ing air through it from the lungs, by means of a quill or glass tube, we may infer that lime (or barytes which has never yet been found pure in waters) is present in an uncombined state. 2. If the oxalic acid occasion a precipitate before, but not after boiling, the lime is dissolved by an excesR of carbonic acid. 3. If after boiling, by a fixed acid, a considerable excess of any of the mineral acids, however, prevents the oxalic acid from occasioning a precipitate, even though lime be present; because some acids de- compose the oxalic, and others, dis- solving the oxalate of lime, prevent it from appearing. The oxalate of ammonia, or of potash, are not liable to the above objection, and are preferable, as re- agents to the uncombined acid. Yet even these oxalates fail to detect lime when supersaturated with mu- riatic or nitric acids; and, if such an excess be present, it must be sa- turated, before adding the test, with ammonia. A precipitate will then be produced. The quantity of lime contained in the precipitate may be known, by first igniting it with access of air, which converts the oxalate into a carbonate; and by expelling from this last the carbonic acid, by a strong heat, in a covered crucible. According toDr.Marcet, 117 grains of sulphate of lime give 100 of oxa- late of lime, dried at 160Q Fahren- heit. Fluate of ammonia is also a most delicate test of lime. Barytic Water.—.1. Barytic wa- ter is a very effectual test for de- tecting the presence of carbonic acid, with which it forms a precipi* tate, which is soluble with effer- vescence in dilute nitric, or better in muriatic acid. 2. Barytic water is also a most sensible test of sulphuric acid and its combinations, which it indicates by a precipitate not soluble in mu> riatic acid. Metals.—Of the metals, silver, bismuth, and mercury, are tests of the presence of hydro-sulphurets, and of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. If a little quicksilver be put into a bottle, containing water impregnated with either of these substances, its WA WA surface soon acquires a black film, and, on shaking the bottle, a black- ish powder separates from it. Silver leaf and bismuth are speedily tar- nished by the same cause. . Sulphate, Nitrate, and Acetate of Silver.—These solutions arc all, in some measure, applicable to the same purpose. They are peculiarly adapted to the discovery of muriatic acid and of muriates, with which they form a white precipitate. A precipitation, however, may arise from other causes, which it may be proper to state. The solutions of silver in acids are precipitated by car- bonated alkalies and earths. The agency of the alkalies and earths may be prevented, by previously sa- turating them with a few drops of the same acid in which the silver is dissolved. The nitrate and acetate of silver are decomposed by the sulphuric and sulphureous acids; but this may be prevented by adding, previously, a few drops of nitrate or acetate of barytes, and, after allow- ing the precipitate to subside, the clear liquor may be decanted, and the solution of silver added. Should a precipitate now take place, the presence of muriatic acid, or some of its combinations, may be sus- pected. To obviate uncertainty, whether a precipitate be owing to sulphuric or muriatic acid, a solu- tion of sulphate of silver may be employed, which, when no uncom- bined alkali, or earth, is present, is affected only by the latter acid. The solutions of silver are also precipitated by sulphuretted hy- drogen, and by hydro-sulphurets; but the precipitate is then reddish, or brown, or black; or it may be at first white, and afterwards become speedily brown or black. It is so- luble, in great part, in dilute nitrous acid, which is not the case if occa- sioned by muriatic or sulphuric acid. The solutions of silver are pre- cipitated by extractive matter ; but in this case also the precipitate has a dark colour, and is soluble in nitrous acid. Acetate of Lead.—Acetate of lead is a test of sulphuretted hydro- gen and of hydro-sulphurets of al- kalies, which occasion a black pre- cipitate ; and if a paper, on which characters are traced with a solution of acetate of lead, be held over a portion of water containing sul- phuretted hydrogen gas, they arc soon rendered visible, especially when the water is a little warmed. Muriate, Nitrate, and Acetate of Barytes.~-These solutions are all most delicate tests of sulphuric acid and of its combinations, with which they give a white precipitate, inso- luble in dilute muriatic acid. They are decomposed, however, by car- bonated alkalies; but the precipi- tates, occasioned by carbonates, is soluble in dilute muriatic or nitric acid, with effervescence, and may even be prevented by adding pre- viously a few drops of the same acid as that contained in the baiytic salt, which is employed. One hundred grains of dry sul- phate of barytes contain (according to Klaproth, vol. i. p. 168.) about 45^ of sulphuric acid, of the speci- fic gravity 1850 ; according to Clay- field, (Nicholson's Journal, 4to. iii. 38.) 33 of acid, of specific gravity 2240; according to Thevnard, af- ter calcination, about 25; and ac- cording to Mr. Kirwan, after igni- tion, 23.5 of real acid. The same chemist states, that 170 grains of ignited sulphate of barytes denote 100 of dried sulphate of soda; while 136.36 of the same substance indi- cate 100 of dry sulphate of potash; and 100 parts result from the pre- cipitation of 52.11 of sulphate of magnesia. From Klaproth's experiments, it appears that 1000 grains of sulphate of barytes indicate 595 of desiccated sulphate of soda, or 1416 of the crystallized salt. The same che- mist has shown, that 100 grains ef WA WA sulphate of barytes are produced by the precipitation of 71 grains of sulphate of lime. Prussiat es of Potash and of Lime. —Of these two, the prussiates of potash is the most eligible. When pure, it does not speedily assume a blue colour, on the addition of an acid, nor does it immediately preci- pitate muriate of barytes. Prussiate of potash is a very sen- sible test of iron, with the solutions of which in acids it produces a Prtissian blue precipitate, in conse- quence of a double elective affini- ty. To render its effects more cer- tain, however, it may be proper to add, previously, to any water sus- pected to contain iron, a little mu- riatic acid, with a view to the sa- turation of uncombined alkalies or earths, which, if present, prevent the detection of very minute quan- tities of iron. 1. If a water, after boiling and fil- tration, does not afford a blue preci- pitate, on the addition of prussiate of potash, the solvent of the iron may be inferred to be a volatile one, and probably the carbonic acid. 2. Should the precipitation ensue in the boiled water, the solvent is a fixed acid, the nature of which must be ascertained by other tests. In using the prussiate of potash for the discovery of iron, consider- able caution is necessary, in order to attain accurate results. The prussiate should, on all occasions, be previously crystallized ; and the quantity of oxide of iron essential to its constitution, or at least an in- variable accompaniment, should be previously ascertained in the follow- ing manner: Expose a known weight of the crystallized salt to a low red heat in a silver crucible. After fusing and boiling up, it will become dry, and will then blacken. Let it cool ; wash off the soluble part; collect the rest on a filter; dry it, and again calcine it with a lit- tle wax. Let it be again weighed, jnd the result will show the propor- tion of oxide of iron present in the salt which has been examined. This,varies from 22 to 30 and up- wards per cent. When the test is employed for discovering iron, let a known weight of the salt be dis. solved in a given quantity of water; add the solution gradually ; and ob- serve how much is expended in effecting the precipitation. Before collecting the precipitate, warm the liquid, which generally throws down a further portion of Prussian blue. Let the whole be washed and dried, and then ignited with wax. From the weight of the oxide ob- tained, deduct that quantity, which, by the former experiment, is known to be present in the prussiate that has been added; and the remainder will denote the quantity of oxide of iron present in the liquor which is under examination. Succinate of Soda and Succinate of Ammonia are also tests for iron. In applying these agents, it is ne- cessary not to use more than is suf- ficient for the purpose ; because an excess of them re-dissolves the pre- cipitate. The best mode of pro- ceeding is to heat the solution con- taining iron, and to add gradually the solution of succinate, until it ceases to produce any effect. A brownish precipitate is obtained, consisting of succinate of iron. This, when heated with a little wax, in a low red heat, gives an ox- ide of iron containing about seventy per cent, of the metal. The succinates, however, preci- pitate aluminc, provided there be no considerable excess of acid in the aluminous salt. On magnesia they have no action, and hence they may be successfully employed in the separation of these two earths. Phosphate of Soda.—An easy and valuable method of precipitat- ing magnesia has been suggested by Dr. Wollaston. It is founded on the property which fully neutraliz- ed carbonate of ammonia possesses, first to dissolve the carbonate of WA WA ihagnesia formed, when it is added to the solution of magnesian salt. For this purpose a solution of car- bonate of ammonia, prepared with a portion of that salt which has been exposed, spread on a paper, for a few hours to the air, is to be ad- ded to the solution ofthe magnesian salt sufficiently concentrated ; or to a water suspected to contain mag- nesia, after being very much reduc- ed by evaporation. No precipitate will appear, till a solution of phos- phate of soda is added, when an abundant one will fall down. Let this be dried in a temperature not exceeding 1000 Fahrenheit. One hundred grains of it will indicate nineteen of magnesia, or about six- ly-four of muriate of magnesia. Muriate of Lime.—Muriate of lime is principally of use in disco- vering the presence of alkaline car- bonates, which, though they very rarely occur, have sometimes been found in mineral waters. Of all the three alkaline carbonates, muri- ate of lime is a sufficient re-agent; for those salts separate from it a car- bonate of lime, soluble, with effer- vescence, in muriatic acid. With respect to the discrimina- tion of the different alkalies, potash may be detected by muriate of pla- tina. Carbonate of ammonia may be discovered by its smell; and by its precipitating a neutral salt of alumine, while it has no action ap- parently on magnesian salts. To estimate the proportion of an alkaline carbonate present in any water, saturate its base with sul- phuric acid, and note the weight of real acid which is required. Now 100 grains of real sulphuric acid saturate 121.48 potash, and 78.32 soda. Analyais of Waters by Evapora- tion.—The reader who may wish for rules for the complete and accu- rate analysis of mineral waters, will find in almost every chemical work a chapter allotted to this subject. He rrcn consult Kirwan'.s " Essay on the Analysis of Mineral Waters,'t London, 1799. Before evaporation, however, the gaseous products of the water musC be collected, which may-be done by filling with it a large glass bottle, or retort, capable of holding about fifty cubic inches, and furnished with a ground stopper and bent tube, The bottle is to be placed up to its neck in a kettle filled with brinex which must be kept boiling foi an hour or two, renewing, by fresh portions of hot water, what is lost by evaporation. The disengaged ' gas is conveyed, by a bent tube, into a graduated jar, filled with, and in- verted in, mercury, where its bulk is to be determined. On the first im- pression ofthe heat, however, the wa- ter will be expanded, and portions will continue to escape into the graduated jar till the water has obtained its maximum of temperature. This must be suffered to escape, and its quantity to be deducted from that ofthe water submitted to experiment. In determining, with precision, the quantity of gas, it is necessary to attend to the state of the baro- meter and thermometer. The gases most commonly found in mineral waters, are carbonic acid; sulphuretted hydrogen; nitrogen; oxygen gas ; and, in the neighbour- hood of volcanoes only, sulphureous acid gas. To determine the proportion of the gases, constituting any mixture obtained from a mineral water in the foregoing manner, the follow- ing experiments may be made. If the use of re-agents has not detect- ed the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, and there is reason to be- lieve, from the same evidence, that carbonic acid forms a part of the mixture, let a graduated tube be nearly filled with it over quicksil- ver ; pass up a small portion of so- lution of potash ; and agitate this in contact with the gas; the amount of the diminution will show how much carbonic, acid has been 74 WA WA absorbed ; and, if the quantity sub- mitted to experiment was an ali- quot part of the whole gas obtained, it is cr.-sy to infer the total quantity present in the water. The unab- sorbable residuum consists, most probably, of oxygen and azotic gases ; and the proportion of these two is best learned by the use of Dr. Hope's eudiometer. If sulphuretted hydrogen be pre- sent, along with carbonic acid, the separation of these two is a prob' lem of some difficulty. Mr. Kir- wan recommends, that a graduated glass vessel, completely filled with the mixture, be removed into a vessel containing nitrous acid. This instantly condenses the sulphuretted hydrogen, but not the carbonic acid gas. It seems to be a more eligible mode to condense the sulphuretted hydrogen by oxymuriatic acid gas, (obtained from muriatic and hyper- oxymuriate of potash,) adding the latter gas very cautiously, as long as it produces any condensation. Or, perhaps, a better plan of ef- fecting the separation is the follow- ing, recommended by Mr. Henry : Half fill a graduated phial with the mixed carbonic acid and sulphuret- ted hydrogen .gases, and expel the rest of the water by oxymuriatio acid gas. Let the mouth of the bottle be then closed with a well ground stopper, and let the mix- ture be kept twenty-four hours. Tjhen withdraw the stopper under water, a quantity of which fluid will unmediately rush in. Allow the bottle to stand half an hour without agitation. The redundant oxymu- riatic acid gas will thus be absorb- ed ; and very little of the carbonic acid will disappear. Supposing that to ten cubic inches of the mixed gases, ten inches of oxymuriatic gas have been added, and that after ab- sorption, by standing over water, five inches remain, the result of this ex- periment shows, that the mixture consisted of equal parts of sulphuret- ted hydrogeaand carbonic acidgasjes. Whenever this complicated adr- mixture of gases occurs, as in ths Harrowgate, and in some of the Cheltenham waters, it is advisable to operate separately on two poi tions of gas, with the view to determine, by the one, the quantity of carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen ; and that of azote and oxygen by the other. In the latter instance, re- move both the absorbable gases by caustic potash, and examine the re- mainder in the manner already di- rected. Nitrogen gas sometimes occurs in mineral waters, almost in an unmixed state. When this hap- pens, the gas will be known by the characters already described as be- longing to it. Sulphureous acid gas maybe detected byitspeculiarsmell of burning sulphur, and by ks dis- charging the colour of an infusion of roses, which has been reddened by the smallest quantity of any acid- adequate to the effect. (a) The water should next be evaporated to diyness. The dry mass, when collected and accurately weighed, is to be put in a bottle, and highly rectified alcohol poured on it, to the depth of an inch. After having stood a few hours, and been occasionally shaken, pour the whole on a filter, wash it with a little more alcohol, and thy and weigh the re- mainder. (b) To the undissolved residue add nine times its weight of cold distilled water ; shake the mixture frequently; and, after some time, fil- ter; ascertaining the loss of weight. (c) Boil the residuum, for a quar- ter of an hour, in sometimes more than five hundred times ks weight of water, and afterwards filter. (d) The residue, which must be dried and weighed, is no longer so- luble in water or alcohol. If it has a brown colour, denoting the pre- sence of iron, let it be moistened with water, and exposed to the sun's rays for some weeks. I. The solution in.alcoholic) may WA WE colitain one or all of the following salts: muriats of lime, magnesia, or barytes, nitrates of the same earths. Sometimes, also, the alco- hol may take up sulphate of iron, in which the metal is highly oxy- dized, as will appear by its reddish brown colour. , 1. In order to discover the quality and quantity of the ingredients, evaporate to dryness ; weigh the residuum ; add above half its weight of strong sulphuric acid; and ap- ply a moderate heat. The muriatic or nitric acid will be expelled, and will be known by the colour of their fumes; the former being white, and' the latter orange-coloured. 2. To ascertain whether lime or magnesia be the basis of the salts, let the heat be continued till no more fumes arise, and let it then be raised to expel the excess of sul- phuric acid. To the dry mass, add twice its weight of distilled water. This will take up the sulphate of magnesia, and leave the sulphate of lime. The two sulphates may be separately decomposed, by boiling with three or four times then-weight of carbonate of potash. The car- bonates of lime and magnesia, thus obtained, may be separately dissolved in muriatic acid, and evaporated. The weight of the dry salts will in- form us how much of each the al- cohol had taken up. Lime and magnesia may also be separated by the use of phosphate of soda. II. The watery solution (b) may contain a variety of salts, the ac- curate separation of which from each other is a problem of consi- derable difficulty. 1. The analysis -of this solution may be attempted by crystallization. I or this purpose let one half be eva- porated by a very gentle heat, not exceeding 60° or 90°. Should any crystals appear on the surface of the solution, while hot, in the form of a pellicle, let them be se- parated and dried on bibulous pa- per. These are muriate of soda, or common salt. The remaining solution, on cooling very gradually, will perhaps afford crystals dis- tinguishable by their form and other qualities. When various salts, however, are contained in the same solution, it is extremely difficult to obtain them sufficiently distinct to ascertain their kind. 2. The nature of the saline con- tents must therefore be examined by tests, or re-agents. The presence of an uncombined alkali, &.s well as uncombinexl acids, will be discovered by the stained papers, and tests already pointed out. The vegetable alkali, or pot- ash, may be distinguished from the mineral, or soda, by muriate of pla- tina. If neutral salts be present in the solution, we have to ascertain both the nature of the acid, and that of the base. This may be done by at- tention to the rules already given, for the application of tests, which it is unnecessary to repeat inthis place. III. The solution by boiling wa- ter contains scarcely any thing be- sides sulphate of lime. IV. The residuum (d) is to be digested in distilled vinegar, which takes up magnesia and lime, but leaves, undissolved, alumine and highly oxydized iron. Evaporate the solution to dryness. If it con- tain acetate of lime only, a substance will be obtained which does not attract moisture from the air; if magnesia be present, the mass will deUquesce. To separate the lime from the magnesia, proceed as in I. The residue, insoluble in acetous acid, may contain alumine, iron, and silex. The two first may be dis- solved by muriatic acid, from which the iron may be precipitated, first by prussiate of potash, and the alu- mine afterwards by a fixed alkali. Water-brash. So the Pyrosis is called in Scotland. Wen, a soft, insensible, and move- able tumour -ruder the skin. Dr. Cullen calls it Lupiar mid places WI wi it as a genus of disease in the elass Locales, and order Tumores. Dr. Aitkin describes it as a swelling that is cold, humoral, circumscribed, co- lourless, for the most part indolent, slow in its formation and progress, Us contained matter more or less pultaceous : he divides it into spe- cies, first, from its contents, as the Atheroma, Meliceris, and Stealoma ; secondly, from its situation, as a Mole, a^Stye, and a Bronchocele. White Swelling, apainful swelling of a joint, with wasting of the mus- cles of the lower part of the limb. The skin covering the tumour re- tains, for some time, its natural co- lour ; but, at length, inflames and suppurates. It has two species: 1. In the rheumatic white swelling, the pain and tumour extend, from the beginning, over the whole joint. 2. In the scrophulous white swelling the pain and tumour are, at first, confined to a small extent. M- M. The antiphlogistic regimen ; local blood letting ; cooling laxatives ; a blister kept open on the joint; mer- curial ointment; friction; pouring on warm water from a considerable height; amputation. '2. Amputation. Whitlow, i. e. Paronychia. Wind, is defined to be the Stream or Current of the Air ; and where such current is perpetual and fixed in its course, it is necessary that it proceed from a permanent uninter- mitting cause. Wherefore some have been inclined to propose the diurnal rotation ofthe earth upon its axis, by which, as the globe turns eastward, the loose and fluid parti- cles of the air, being so exceeding light as they are, are left behind, so that in respect of the earth's surface they move westwards, and become a constantly easterly wind. This opi- nion seems confirmed, in that these winds are found only near the equi- noctial, in those parallels of latitude where the diurnal motion is swiftest: but the constant calms in the Atlantic sea, near the equator, the westerly ivinds near the coast of Guinea, and the periodical westerly monsoons un- der the equator, in the Indian seas, seemingly declare the insufficiency of that hypothesis. Besides, the air being kept to the earth by the principle of gravity, would in time acquire the same degree of velocity that the earth's surface moves with, as well in respect to the diurnal ro- tationas of the annual about the sun, which is about 30 times swifter. It remains therefore to substitute some other cause, capable of producing a like constant effect, not liable to the same objections, but agreeable to the known properties ofthe elements of air and water, and the laws ofthe- motion of fluid bodies. Such an one is the action of the sun's beams upon the air and water, as he passes every day over the oceans, consider- ed together with the nature of the soil, and the situation of the adjoin- ing continents. Therefore, accord- ing to the Laws of Statics, the air, which is less rarefied or expanded by heat, and, consequently, more pon- derous, must have a motion round those parts thereof, which are more rarefied and less ponderous, to bring it to an equilibrium; also the pre- sence of the sun continually shifting to the westward, that part towards which the air tends, by reason of the rarefaction made by his greatest meridian heat, is with him carried westward, and, consequently, the tendency of the whole body of the lower air is that way. Thus a ge- neral easterly wind is formed, which being impressed upon all the air of a vast ocean, the parts impel one another, and so keep moving till the next return of the sun, whereby so much of the motion as was lost, is again restored: and thus the eas- terly wind is made perpetual. From the same principle it follows, that this easterly wind should on the north side of the equator be to the northward of the east, and in south latitudes to the southward thereof; for near the line the air is much more rarefied than at a greater dis3 Wl WI tance from it, because the sun is twice in a year vertieal there, and at no time distant above 23 degrees ^ ; at which distance the heat being at the sine ofthe angle of incidence, is but little short of that of the per- pendicular ray. Whereas, under the tropics, though the sun stays long vertical, yet he is a long time 47 degrees off; which is a kind of winter, wherein the air so cools, as that the summer-heat cannot warm itto the same degree with that under the equator. Wherefore the air to- wards the northward and southward being less rarefied than that in the middle, it follows, that from both sides it ought to tend towards the equator. This motion compounded with the former easterly wind, an- swers all the phenomena ofthe gene- ral trade-winds; which, if the whole surface ofthe globe were sea, would undoubtedly blow all round the world, as they are found to do'in the Atlantic and Ethiopic oceans. But since so great continents do interpose and break the continukyof the oceans, regard must be had to the nature of the soil, and the position ofthe high mountains, which arc the two prin- cipal causes ofthe several variations of the wind from the former gene- ral rule ; for if a country lying near the sun prove to be flat, sandy, and low land, such as the deserts of Li- bya are usually- reported to be, the heat occasioned by the reflection of the sun's beams and the retention thereof in the sand, is incredible to those that have not felt it: whereby the air being exceedingly rarefied, it is necessary that this cooler and more dense air should run thither- wards to restore the equilibrium. This is supposed to be the cause why, near the coast of Guinea, the wind always sets in upon the land, blowing westerly instead of easter- ly, there being sufficient reason to believe, that the inland parts of Afri- ca are prodigiously hot, since the northern borders thereof were so .intemperate -«- to give the ancients cause to conclude, that all beyond the tropics was made uninhabitable by excess of heat. From the same cause it happens, that there are such constant calms in that part of the ocean, called the Rains ; for this tract being placed in the middle, be- tween the westerly winds blowing on the coast of Guinea, and the eas- terly trade-winds blowing to the westward thereof, the tendency of the air here is indifferent to either, and so stands in equilibrio between both ; and the weight of the incum- bent atmosphere, being diminished by the continual contrary winds blowing from hence, is the reason that the air here holds not the copi- ous vapour it receives, but lets it fall in such frequent rains. But as the cool and dense air, by reason of its greater gravity, presses upon the hot and rarefied, it is demonstrative, that this latter must ascend in acon- tinual stream as fast as it rarefies ; and that being ascended, it must disperse itself to preserve the equilibrium ; that is, by a contrary current the upper air must move from those parts where the great- est heat is; so by a kind of circulation, the north-east trade- wind below will be attended with a south-westerly above, and the south- easterly with a north-west wind above. That this is more than a bare conjecture, the almost instantaneous change of the wind to the opposite point, which is frequently found in passing the limits ofthe trade-winds, seems to assure us : but that which above all confirms this hypothesis is, the phenomenon of the monsoon, by this means most easily solved, and without it hardly explicable. Supposing, therefore, such a circu- lation as above, it is to be considered, that to the northward of the Indian ocean, there is every where land within the usual limits of the lati- tude of 30, viz. Arabia, Persia, In- dia, Sic. which, for the same reason as the Mediterranean parts of Afri- ca,ure subject to insufferable heats, WI WI when the sun is to the north, pass- ing nearly vertical; but yet are tem- perate enough when the sun is re- moved towards the other tropic,be- cause of a ridge of mountains at some distance within the land, said to be frequently in winter covered with snow, over which the air, as it passes, must needs be much chilled. Hence it comes to pass, that the air coming according to the general rule, out of the north-east in the Indian sea, is sometimes hotter, sometimes colder, than that by which this circulation is returned out of the south-west: and by consequence sometimes the under current, or wind, is from the north-east, some- times from the south-west. That this has no other cause, is clear from the times wherein these winds set in, viz. in April: when the sun begins to warm those countries to the north, the south-west monsoons begin, and blow during the heats till October; when the sun being retired, and all things growing cooler northward, and the heat increasing to the south, the north-east enters, and blows all the winter till April again. And it is undoubtedly from the same principle, that to the south- ward of the equator, in part of the Indian ocean, the north-west winds succeed the south-east, when the sun draws near the tropic of Ca- pricorn. On the Atlantic coast of America, north-east storms begin in the south- west, and proceed thence to wind- ward, at the rate sometimes of about one hundred miles an hour. It has been remarked long ago by Dr. Franklin, thatstorms fromthe north- east, on the eastern side of this con- tinent, begin in the opposite point, or to leeward. Whether this rule universally obtains may perhaps as yet admit of some doubt. But dur- ing the uncommonly mild winter of 1801__2, there was a strong confir- mation of it. On the 21st, 22d, and 23d ot February, 1802, there wis one of the most remarkable and long con- tinued snow-storms that had been known for twenty years. It raged with extreme violence on the land, and was the cause of several ship- wrecks along the sea-coast. Many lives, and much property were lost. The movements in the atmosphere were felt first to the southward, and gradually progressed northward, so as to be sensible there; but not until after some hours. The facts were collected by Dr. Mitchill, at Washington, the seat of the National Government, during the session of Congress, when they could be ascertained with the great- est expedition, correctness and care, and are as follow : After a fine, warm andclearmorn- ing, the air, toward evening, grew cloudy, and it became rainy and stormy. The time of its commence- ment near the capitol, on the banks of the Potowrmack, as observed by Gen. Smith, was about half an hour past five in the afternoon; and before eight the rain was excessive,and the wind boisterous. Here the weather did not become cold enough for snow until towards morning. The city of New-York, which is situated rather more than 240 miles to the N. E. did not feel this com- motion ofthe atmosphere until about eleven. Then the city-watchmen observed that the weather was chang- ed from clear to cloudy, and that snow began to fall; and at twelve, Mrs. Mitchill, who opened a win- dow and looked out, observed that the ground was already white with snow. The tempest was brewing, and, properly speaking, was formed at two. That night Mr. Humphrey Wood was on board a sloop bound from Newport (R. I.) to New-York. The tempest drove the vessel ashore, be- fore morning, on Mount-Misery Neck, upon Long-Island. They sailed from Fisher's Island, where they had been waiting for a fair wind, at 10 o'clock at night, with a WI WI wind at E. S. E. and Warm and pleasant weather. But by midnight it hauled E. N. E. and blew a gale, with snow. Fisher's Island may be computed to be about 140 miles E. N. E. of New-York. Mr. Webster observed some of the phenomena of this change of weather in its beginning, at New- Haven. This place is 89 miles from New-York, or 331 from Washing- ton. Here the weather was clear in the early part of the evening, but was overcast by nine. The stormy commotion of the atmosphere seems to have begun about twelve.—At Boston it was rather more than an hour later. Mr. Blair, an officer who was on board one of three ships from Salem -in Massachusetts, that were lost on Cape-Cod during the storm,related, after his escape, that the weather,on the day of their sailing, Sunday, Feb. 21, was remarkably fine and favour- able. At sun set they were about four leagues from Cape-Ann light- house, with a lightbreeze from S.E. After midnight the weather grew very threatening ; and at half past two in the morning ofthe 22d the wind veered to the N. E. and it snowed so fast that the ships could hardly discern each other.—The shipwrecks during this storm were numerous and dreadful. Many per- sons were frozen to death. Salem is distant from Washington 499 miles, or 257 from New-York ; so that this latter place is about mid- way between the two places. At Portland, in Maine, distant 603 miles from Washington, the snow began between day-light and sun rise. It was observed by young Mr. Vaughan, who was travelling- en the morning of the £2d. At 8 A. M. the wind blew violently. The storm began still later at Hallowell, on the Kennebeck River. This place is 683 miles from Wash- ington. There the sun rose clear oii the morning of the 22d. The air became cloudy in about a quar- ter of an hour. The snow began about eleven, and the storm had be- come furious within two hours af- ter. Professor Waterhouse and Benjamin Vaughan, Esq. have par- ticularly attended to these curious meteorological facts. At Poughkeepsie, 82 miles N. of New-York, and situated beyond the first range of mountains, the storm began about 4 o'clock on the morn- ing of the 2 2d. And at Albany, 165 miles N. of New-York, it did not begin until a little before day- break on the morning of the 22d. At Providence (R. I.) Dr. Whea- ton observed the eveningof the 21st to be clear and pleasant. The watch- men informed him " the weather changed before twelve o'clock, and continued cloudy, with variable winds, until the violence of the storm began, which was at half past three on the morning of the 22d." Providence is 439 miles from Wash- ington. Accounts from Charleston (S.C.) state that it began there on the 21st, between two and three o'clock iir the afternoon.—The distance of Charleston from Washington is 550 miles.—By the newspapers it ap- pears to have been felt in the Baha- ma Islands. It will be found, on calculation, that between Charleston and Cape- Ann, along the coast, this stormy movement proceeded to windward at the rate of nearly one hundred miles an hour : for, as it began at Charleston, say at three o'clock, at New-York at eleven, and off Cape- Ann at two the next morning, there is a difference of eight hours be- tween Charleston and New-York, and of three hours between the lat- ter city and Salem, making in the whole eleven hours. Now, com- puting the distance from Charleston to New-York at about 800 miles. and from New-York to Cape-Ann more than 250, there will be a sea- coast of almost. 1100 miles swept over by tins storm ia somewhat YA YE more than eleven hours. But this computation applies only to the sea- coast : for if we take any given point, as the city of New-York for example, and instead of N. E. reck- on due N. it will be found that the progress is considerably slower; for it took all the time between eleven at night and day break next morning to reach Albany, only 165 miles distant in that direction. Now, these remarks explain some meteorological facts, which, though of common observation, have hi- therto seemed paradoxical or un- accountable: for mariners know, that to form a good judgment of wind and weather, they must keep a look out for clouds and changes of atmosphere to leeward. In New- York, the rain or snow which ac- companies a N. E. storm can be seen, by labourers along the docks and wharves, in the S. W. at Staten- Island, ten or eleven miles distant, for some time before it begins in the city, so as frequently to break off work, and put away their tools. And it is confirmed, by long obser- vation among the farmers in that vicinity, that snow-banks, as they term them, are to be seen in the S. W. many hours before the atmos- phere where the observers are is clouded in the smallest degree, or any current of air perceptible. They remark, further, that a judgment can be formed of the weather by noting whether the gathered clouds lowering in the distant horizon are visible to the northward or south- ward of the setting sun. If at sun- set they are to the S. of the sun, they predict a north-east storm, with snow ; if to the N. a south-east storm with sleet or rain. Wine. See Vinum. Winterana, Winter's bark-tree, called also Winterana aromatica c the bark is called Cortex Magella- nicus, as well as Cortex Winter- anus. Most writers have con- founded the bark of this tree with the Cortex Canella Alba. But Dr. Fothergill gives a description of the Winter's Bark-tree. See Lett- som's edition of Fothergill'a Works, vol. ii. p. 163, &c. XANTHORHIZA Tinctorio, yellow dying root ; a fine shrub growing in Carolina. Its qualities as a medicine and a drug have been written by Dr. Wood- house. It is agreeably bitter, and affords a delicate stain. See Med. Repository, vol. v. p. 159, where there is a plate and a description of it. Xerasia, from foot, dry, a species of Alopecia, consisting in a dryness of the hairs for want of due nou- rishment, whence they fall off Xerodes, fauh;, expresses any tumour attended with the property of dryness. Xerophthalmia, %rifo' ('Af, A»<'/< /<,'//,< ,,<*'f/'A>-7ft / //i~V- '*""* A\ mot. dci/tcAC) Ycs/Jre*it>+* '*(.'ic/t/t*. >>+ 'AAT'rrArtAru < A/yyf/^orryy^A/f^^^^Jr^^f/^^^ /. , 'liu?*,*//, #*'*%+ Z.£}Ji fas/to**"*/**" ^ fy» '.' 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