THE ANATOMIST'S VADE-MECUM; CONTAINING THE ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY. THE THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. BY ROBERT HOOPER, OF PEMBROKE COLLEGE, OXFORD, M. D. F. L. S. &C. Nisi utile est quod facimus, stulta est gloria. LOND0N: Printed for Murray and Highley, Fleet Street; And J. Harding, St. James's Street. 1800. Printed by S. Gosnell, Little Queen Street, Holborn. (iii) INTRODUCTION. It is the intention of the writer, In the following Compendium, to present to the student a useful anato- mical conspectus, or pocket manual of anatomy and physiology; giving a short but accurate description of the different parts of the human body and their func- tions; with a glossary, or explanation of the principal terms used in that science. The utility of such a performance will be generally acknowledged, especially when it is considered that there is no such work written upon a similar plan. The motive that induced the author to form and collect together, in one small pocket volume, this ele- mentary production, was his having himself experi- enced the want of such an assistant when applying to that branch of philosophy. He, therefore, solicits permission to recommend it to students, not as a work wherein any thing new is to be met with, but merely as their occasional companion in the prosecution of their studies. St. Marylebone Infirmary, September 23, 1800. A2  (v) CONTENTS. Page Introduction—iv Anatomy, Division of—i Osteology—ib. Table of the Bones—3 Bones of the Cranium—5 Face—18 Cavities of the Face—24 Bones of the Trunk—27 —Chest—29 —Loins—30 —Pelvis—ib. —upper Extremity—32 —lower Extremity—36 Periosteum—39 Cartilages—ib. Osteogeny—40 Connexion of Bones—42 Syndesmology—44 Myology—50 Muscles of the Cranium—52 —Eyelids—ib. —Eyeball—53 —Nose and Mouth—ib. —external Ear—55 —internal Ear—56 —lower Jaw—57 Muscles about the Neck—58. 70 —Fauces—61 —Pharynx—62 —Glottis—63 —of the Abdomen—64. 68 —Male Organs—65 —Anus—66 —Female Organs—67 —Thorax—69 —upper Extremity—75 Muscles (vi) Page Muscles of the Os Humeri—77 —on the Fore-arm—78 —Hand—81 —of the lower Extremity—82 —on the Thigh—84 —Leg—86 —Foot—88 Physiology and Phenomena of muscular Mo- tion—90 Bursalogy—92 Angiology 99 Arteries—ib. Action of Arteries—109 Veins—110 Action of Veins—115 Absorbents—116 Physiology of Absorption—120 Sanguification—121 Neurology—ib. Nerves of the Brain—122 —spinal Marrow—128 Great intercostal Nerves—132 Physiology of the Functions of the nervous System—133 Smelling—134 Seeing—ib. Hearing—135 Tasting—136 Touching—ib. Adenology—137 Glands of the Skin—138 —Cranium—ib. —Neck—140 —Thorax—141 —Abdomen—ib. —Male Organs—142 —Female Organs—143 Physiology of Secretion—144 Splanchnology—145 Common Integuments—146 Physiology of Perspiration—147 Viscera of the Head—148 Dura Mater—149 Membrana arachnoidea—ib. Pia Mater—150 Brain—ib. Cerebellum—151 Medulla (vii) Page Medulla oblongata—151 —Spinalis—ib. Action of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla oblon- gata, and Medulla spinalis—152 Eye—153 Ear—155 Nose–156 Mouth—ib. Physiology of Mastication—157 Tongue—ib. Fauces—158 Pharynx—ib. Oesophagus—159 Physiology of Deglutition—ib. Larynx—160 Physiology of the Voice—161 Speech—ib. Ventriloquism—ib. Trachea—ib. Breasts—162 Pleura—163 Diaphragm—ib. Lungs—164 Physiology of Respiration—165 Pericardium—166 Heart—ib. Circulation of the Blood—169 Of the Abdomen and its Viscera—171 Peritoneum—ib. Omentum—ib. Stomach—172 Digestion, or Chymisication—173 Intestines—174 Chylification—176 Expulsion of the Fæces—ib. Mesentery—ib. Liver—177 Gall—bladder—178 Spleen—ib. Pancreas—179 Lacteals—ib. Kidneys—180 Excretion of the Urine—ib. Supra-renal Capsule—181 Of the Pelvis—ib. Urinary Bladder—ib. Male Organs of Generation—182 Penis (viii) Page Penis—182 Testicles—183 Secretion and Excretion of the Semen—184 Vesiculæ feminales—185 Female Organs of Generation—186 Vagina—ib. Uterus—ib. Physiology of Menstruation—187 —Conception—188 Of the gravid Uterus—189 Placenta—ib. Funiculus umbilicalis—190 Membranous Ovum of the Fœtus—ib. Liquor Amnii—ib. Fœtus—191 Peculiarities in the arterial and venal System of the Fœtus—ib. Circulation of the Blood in the Fœtus—192 Hygrology—ib. The Blood—193 The Lymph—194 The Vapour of the Sheaths of the Nerves—ib. Fluids in the Cavity of the Cranium—ib. —Nostrils—195 —Mouth—ib. —Fauces—ib. —Eyes—ib. —Ears—197 —Neck—ib. —Thorax—198 —Breasts—ib. —Abdomen—199 —Parts of Generation in Men—200 —Women—201 —Articulations—202 —Bones—ib. —of the common Integuments—ib. A Glossary—205 ANATOMY, ANATOMY, A SCIENCE which explains the structure and use of every part of the human body. The examination of brute animals, fishes, rep- tiles, plants, polypi, &c. in order to illustrate more clearly, or to demonstrate by analogy the struc- ture and functions of man, is called Comparative Anatomy. Anatomy is divided into nine parts—namely, Osteology, Syndesmology, Myology, Bursalogy, Angiology, Neurology, Adenology, Splanchnology, Hygrology, or doctrine of the Bones. Ligaments. Muscles. Bursæ mucosæ. Vessels. Nerves. Glands. Viscera. Fluids. OSTEOLOGY, or DOCTRINE OF THE BONES. Bones are hard substances composed of animal earth and gluten, which support and form the sta- B ture (2) ture of the body, defend its viscera, and give adhe- sion to its muscles. Substance. Compact, as in the bodies of the long bones; spongy, as in the extremities of the long bones; and reticular, called also the cancelli of bones, as in the cavities of bones which have mar- row. Colour. Whitish. Figure. Various. Divi- sion. Long and irregular shaped bones are divided into a body and extremities; and flat bones into body and margins. Bones are variously named; some from their situation, as the frontal, parietal, occipital, nasal, malar, &c.; others, from their figure, as the ethmoid bone, clavicle, os cuboides, naviculare, ti- bia, &c.; and some from their use, as the sphænoid bone, the maxillary bone, the femur, &c. The pro- cesses and cavities of bones are named after their figure, as the acetabulum of the os innominatum, the odontoid process of the second cervical verte- bra, the coracoid process of the scapula, &c.; or from their use, as the trochanters of the thigh bone; or from their situation, as the nasal, palatine, orbitar processes, &c. &c. When the bones are deprived of their soft parts, and hung together, in their natural situation, by means of wire, the whole is termed an artificial skeleton: but when they are kept together by means of their ligaments, it is called a natural skeleton. A Table (3) A Table of the Bones. No. Bones of the Head. The bones of the cranium, or skull Os frontis—1 Ossa parietalia—2 Os occipitis—1 Ossa temporalia—2 Os ethmoides—1 —sphæmoides—1 The bones of the face Ossa maxillaria sup.—2 —jugalia—2 —nasalia—2 —lachrymalia—2 —palatina—2 —spongiosa infer. 2 Os vomer—1 —maxillare infer. 2 Dentes, or teeth. Incisores—8 Cuspidati—4 Bicuspides—8 Molares—8 Sapientiæ—4 Bone of the tongue, or Os hyoides—1 Bones of the internal ear, situated with- in the temporal bone Malleus—2 Incus—2 Stapes—2 Os orbiculare—2 Bones of the Trunk. The spine Vertebræ Cervical—7 Dorsal—12 Lumbar—5 Sacrum—1 Os coccygis—1 The thorax Sternum—1 Ribs—24 The pelvis Ossa innominata—2 B2 Bones (4) No. Bones of the Upper Extremities. The shoulder Clavicula—2 Scapula—2 The arm Os humeri—2 The fore-arm Ulna—2 Radius—2 The hand Carpus, or wrist Os naviculare—2 lunare—2 cuneiforme—2 orbiculare—2 trapezium—2 trapezoides—2 magnum—2 unciforme—2 Metacarpus—10 Phalanges—28 Bones of the Lower Extremities. The thigh Os femoris—2 The leg Patella—2 Tibia—2 Fibula—2 The foot Tarsus Os calcis—2 Tarsus astragalus—2 cuboides—2 naviculare—2 cuneiformia—6 Metatarsus—10 Phalanges—28 240 Sesamoid bones of the thumb and great toe, oc— casionally found—8 Total 248 The skeleton is divided into head, trunk, and extremities. OF (5) OF THE HEAD. The head is divided into the cranium and face. OF THE CRANIUM, OR SKULL. Shape. Various, according to the customs of dif- ferent nations, the bones of the child being so tender as to be moulded into almost any form. It is com- posed of eight bones—viz. one os frontis, which forms the forehead; two ossa parietalia, situated at the upper part and sides of the head; two ossa tem- porum, placed below the parietal bones; one occi- pital, forming the back part of the head; one sphænoidal, placed in the middle of the basis of the cranium; and one ethmoid, situated behind the root of the nose. Upon viewing the superior part of a skull exter- nally, several zigzag lines are observable: that which extends from one temple across over the head to the other temple is termed the coronal suture; it unites the frontal bone to the two parietal: that which pro- ceeds from behind one ear upwards across to the other is the occipital or lambdoidal suture; it unites the occipital bone to the two parietal: and the suture which extends upon the crown of the head, from the lambdoidal to the coronal, uniting the two parietal bones, is called the sagittal. They are sometimes termed the true sutures, to distinguish them from B3 two (6) two spurious or squamous, which are found, one on each side of the cranium, extending from the temple backwards, in the form of an arch, and uniting part of the temporal bone to the parietal. There are, sometimes, one or more triangular- shaped bones observed in the course of some of the sutures; these are called ossicula triquetra, triangu- laria, or Wormiana. Besides these suture, there are several prominences upon the upper part of the cranium; two in the frontal bone, one immedi- ately over each eye between it and the suture; one in the middle of each parietal bone; and one in the middle of the occipital: these eminences point out the centre of ossification of those bones. Upon the internal surface of the upper part of the cranium there are a number of grooves, in an arborescent form; they are made by the spi- nous artery of the dura mater. The sutures are here seen in the form of a line, not dove-tailed, and the whole surface appears more polished than the external. The bones forming the upper part of the skull, or, as it is sometimes called, the calvaria, are com- posed of an external and an internal table, which are of a compact structure, and of a spongy intervening substance, called the meditullium, or diploë. The internal surface of the basis of the cranium is divided naturally into eight considerable depres- sions, adapted to the lobes of the brain and cere- bellum. (7) bellum. The two anterior are immediately over the orbits, and are separated from each other by an obvious eminence, above the root of the nose, called crista galli. Immediately before this emi- nence is a small hole, called the foramen cæcum; and on each side of it are a number of perforations, which transmit the olfactory nerves into the nose; they are called the foramina cribrosa. Passing backwards, there are two round holes, near each other, one going to the bottom of each orbit; these are for the passage of the optic nerves, and are call- ed foramina optica: beyond these holes there is a small cavity, which will admit the end of one's little finger, surrounded by four processes, two of which are anterior and two posterior; these are termed clinoid processes, and the cavity in their middle, which contains the pituitary gland, the sella turcica. Under each anterior clinoid process is a considerable fissure, the foramen lacerum orbi- tale superius, which communicates with the orbit, and transmits the third, fourth, the first branch of the fifth, and the sixth pair of nerves, and the ophthalmic artery. Beyond this fissure, proceed- ing backwards, there is a round and then an oval hole; the first is the foramen rotundum, through which the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves passes; the other, the foramen ovale, for the passage of the third branch of the fifth pair of nerves. Contiguous to the foramen ovale is a small hole, the foramen (8) foramen spinosum, through which the spinous ar- tery of the dura mater enters. Between the fora- men ovale and the posterior clinoid process, on each side of the sella turcica, there is a considerable ragged aperture, the carotid canal, which is partly filled up with cartilage in the fresh subject, and is for the entrance of the carotid artery and the exit of the great intercostal nerve. A projecting portion of bone next presents itself, called the petrous portion of the tem- poral bone: it has upon its posterior surface an oval opening, the meatus auditorius internus, through which the nerve for the organ of hearing, and the facial nerve, enter. Immediately below this is an irregular oval opening, formed by the junction of the occipital with the temporal bone; this is the foramen lacerum in basi cranii: through the anterior part passes the eighth pair of nerves, and the posterior part transmits the blood from the lateral sinus of the dura mater, whose course is marked by a deep groove leading to the foramen lacerum, into the jugular vein. The portion of bone which proceeds backwards from the posterior clinoid processes, between the petrous portions of the temporal bone, is the cuneiform process of the occipital bone; it is somewhat hollowed for the reception of the medulla oblongata, which lies upon it. At the bottom of this process of bone is a considerable opening, called the foramen mag- num occipitale; it transmits the spinal marrow, the vertebral (9) vertebral arteries, and the accessory nerves of Willis, and a process of the second vertebra of the neck lies in its anterior part. Between this opening and the foramen lacerum in basi cranii is the foramen condy- loideum anterius, which gives passage to the lingual pair of nerves. Beyond the great occipital foramen is a crucial eminence, to which precesses of the dura mater are attached; the horizontal eminence separates the two superior occipital cavities from the two inferior. FRONTAL BONE. Situated in the anterior part of the skull, form- ing the forehead and upper part of the orbits. Fi- gure like a cockle-shell. Processes. Two frontal eminences, which mark the centres of ossification; two frontal tuberosities, which are situated over the frontal sinuses; two superciliary ridges or arches, which give origin to the frontal muscles, and whose extremities are called the angular or orbitar precesses; an external frontal spine, upon which the ossa nasi rest; an internal frontal spine, to which the dura mater adheres; and two orbitar plates, which separate the orbits from the cavity of the cranium. Cavities. The cerebral cavity, which contains the anterior portions of the hemispheres of the brain: a large notch between the orbitar plates for the situation of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone; two frontal or pituitary sinuses 2 within (10) within the bone, above the root of the nose; two orbital cavities, in which are two depressions for the situation of the lachrymal gland; a notch in each superciliary ridge for the trochlea of the superior oblique muscle; a superciliary foramen, through which passes the frontal artery and nerve; the foramen cæcum, situated below the beginning of the internal frontal spine. Connexion. The frontal bone is connected with the two parietal by means of the coronal future; with the two ossa nasi, the two superior maxillary bones and the two lachry- mal bones, by means of what is called the transverse suture; with the sphænoid bone by means of har- mony, called harmonia sphænoidalis; with the ethmoid bone by harmonia ethmoidalis, and with the os ju- gale, by means of suture. The use of the frontal bone is to constitute the forehead, pituitary sinuses, part of the orbit, and to contain and defend the anterior lobes of the brain. PARIETAL BONES. Situation. One on each side of the superior part of the cranium. Figure. Arched, and somewhat quadrangular. Division. Into an external and an internal surface and four angles, viz. the frontal, sphænoidal, called also the spinous process, the occi- pital and mastoid. Cavities. A semicircular ridge, from which the temporal muscle originates; and the (11) the foramen parietale, which is near the sagittal su- ture, and transmits an artery and a vein of the dura mater. Upon its internal surface are the grooves of the spinous artery; and when the two bones are united, there is a deep cavity extending along the sagittal suture, for the longitudinal sinus of the dura mater. Each parietal bone is connected with its fellow by means of the sagittal suture; with the frontal bone by the coronal suture; with the occipital by the lambdoidal suture; and with the tem- poral by the squamous suture. The use of these bones is, to form the superior part of the cranium. —Synonims. Ossa verticis, syncipitis, verticalia vel bregmatis. OCCIPITAL BONE. Situation. In the posterior part of the cranium. Figure. Quadrate oblong. External pro- cesses. The occipital tubercle, in the middle of the bone to which the ligamentum nuchæ adheres; a transverse spine, proceeding from each side of the tu- bercle, to which the trapezius and complexus muscles are attached; a lesser transverse spine, be- low the former, for the insertion of the recti muscles; a prominent ridge running downwards from the occipital tubercle, and forming, with the above-mentioned ridges, a crucial spine; the cu- neiform or basilary process, situated before the great foramen; two condyloid processes or condyles, which are united to the first vertebra of the neck. Inter- (12) Internal Processes. An internal crucial spine: the superior branch gives adhesion to the longitudi- nal sinus of the dura mater, the two lateral, to the lateral sinuses and the inferior to the septum cere- belli. Cavities. The foramen magnum occipitale, through which the spinal marrow proceeds into the spine, and the vertebral arteries and accessory spi- nal nerves into the cranium; two anterior condy- loid foramina, for the passage of the lingual pair of nerves; two posterior condyloid fora- mina (which are sometimes wanting), for the pas- sage of the occipital vein into the lateral sinus; two notches, which, with two corresponding notches of the temporal bones, form the fora- mina lacera in basi cranii, for the passage of the blood from the laternal sinuses into the jugular vein and the exit of the par vagum; a consi- derable groove leading to the above notches, in which the lateral sinuses are situated. The inter- nal surface has also four considerable depressions formed by the crucial spine; the two superior con- tain the posterior lobes of the brain, and the two inferior, the two lobes of the cerebellum. Con- nexion. The occipital bone is connected by the cuneiform process to the sphæsnoid bone, in the adult by synostosis; hence Professor Sœmmering describes them as one bone, os occipito-sphænoidale; but in youth by synchondrosis; with the two parietal and two temporal bones by the lambdoidal suture; with the (13) the first vertebra of the neck by ginglymus, and with the second by syndesmosis. The use of the occipital bone is to constitute the posterior and infe- rior part of the cranium; to contain the posterior lobes of the brain, the cerebellum and medulla ob- longata, and to serve for the articulation of the head with the spine. Synonims. Os basilare, os memoriæ, and os nervosum. SPHÆNOID BONE. Situated in the middle of the basis of the cranium, extending underneath from one temple across to the other. Figure. Irregular, compared to a bat with its wings extended. External processes. Two alæ majores, whose anterior part forms a portion of the orbit; the inner surface has lying upon it a portion of the middle lobe of the brain, and the whole external surface is covered by the temporal muscle. Two spinous processes, a nar- row point projecting behind each foramen spino- sum. The sphænoidal spine, or azygous process, upon which the basis of the vomer lies. Two ptery- goid processes, each of which is distinguished into a root and two extended plates, or wings; one ex- ternal, which gives origin on its external surface to the pterygoideus externus muscle, and on its inter- nal surface to the pterygoideus internus muscle; and the other internal. Two hamuiar or hook-like processes, one on the end of the internal wing of each pterygoid C process, (14) process, over which the tendon of the circumflexus or tensor palati muscle turns. Internal processes. Two alæ minores, which form the upper part of the superior orbital fissures. Four clinoid processes, two anterior, and two posterior. External cavi- ties. The sphænoidal pituitary sinus, which is in the middle of the bone, has a communication with the nostrils, and is divided by an intermediate sep- tum. Two pterygoid depressions, one between each greater and lesser wing, for the reception of a part of the palate bone. Two foramina, each leading to a canal, called the pterygoid or Viduan canal, in the root of the pterygoid process, through which the recurrent or Viduan branch of the fifth pair of nerves passes into the cranium. Internal cavi- ties. The sella turcica, or ephippium, which is sur- rounded by the four clinoid processes, and contains the pituitary gland. Two foramina optica, one before each anterior clinoid process, which transmit the optic nerves. Two grooves, one on each side of the sella turcica, between the anterior and posterior clinoid pro- cesses, formed by the pulsation of the carotid arteries. Two foramina lacera orbitalia superiora, between each greater and lesser wing, through which the third, fourth, first branch of the fifth, and the sixth pair of nerves, and the ophthalmic artery pass out of the cranium. Two foramina rotunda, for the passage of the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves. Two foramina ovalia, for the third branch (15) branch of the fifth pair. Two foramina spinosa, through which the spinous artery of the dura ma- ter enters the cranium. The sphænoid bone is connected with all the bones of the cranium; with the frontal, the ethmoid, the two parietal, and the two temporal by harmony, and with the oc- cipital by synostosis: it is also united to the two cheek bones, the two superior maxillary bones, and the two palate bones, by harmony, and to the vomer by gomphosis. Its use is to form the basis of the cranium, to concur in forming the orbits, the pituitary sinuses of the nose, the temples, &c. and to contain the middle lobes of the brain. Sy- nonims. Os multiforme, os cuneiforme, os ptery- goideum. TEMPORAL BONES. Situation. At the sides and inferior part of the cranium. Figure. Irregular. Division. Into a squamous portion, which is flat, and forms the squamous suture; and a petrous portion, which is very irregular, and is situated in the ba- sis of the skull. Processes. The zygomatic pro- cefss, which, with a process of the os jugale, forms the zygoma, yoke, or arch of the temples, under- neath which the temporal muscle moves, and from whose lower edge several muscles of the face arise, particularly the masseter and zygoma- tic. The mastoid or mammary process, which pro- C2 jects (16) jects from under the ear, and has inserted into its an- terior part the sterno-cleido-mastoideus muscle, and into its posterior part the complexus, the obliquus, and trachelo-mastoideus. The styloid process, which is long and pointed, and gives origin to a ligament of the os hyoides, also to the stylo-hyoideus, stylo- pharyngeus, and stylo-glossus muscles. The vagi- nal process, which surrounds the root of the styloid. The auditory process, or outer bony circle of the au- ditory passage, to which the membrana tympani and cartilage of the ear are fixed. Cavities. The meatus auditorius externus, which leads to the ca- vity of the organ of hearing. The meatus auditorius internus, which begins on the internal and posterior surface of the petrous portion, and transmits the seventh pair of nerves; it has immediately within it the internal opening of the aqueduct of Fallopius. Each temporal bone is connected with the pa- rietal by the squamous future; with the occipital by the lambdoidal suture; with the sphænoid and ju- gal bones by harmony, and with the lower jaw by arthrodia. Substance. The squamous portion consists of two tables and a diploë; the mammary process of cells which communicate with the ca- vity of the organ of hearing; and the petrous portion is very hard and compact. Use. To con- tain the middle lobes of the brain, and the organ of hearing; and to concur in forming the temples and the basis of the cranium. ETHMOID (17) ETHMOID BONE. Situation. In the anterior part of the basis of the cranium, above the root of the nose and be- tween the orbits. Figure. Cube-like. Pro- cesses. A cerebral or cribriform plate, which lies horizontally above the root of the nose within the cavity of the cranium: it is every where perso- rated by a number of small foramina, through which the olfactory nerves pass into the cavity of the nostrils. The crista galli, a process somewhat like a cock's comb, which proceeds upwards from the middle of the cribriform plate, and has attached to it the falciform process of the dura mater. Two orbitar plates, called also ossa plana, and plana pa- pyracea, which are very smooth externally, and form the inner side of the orbits. The septum ethmoidale, nasal plate, azygous process, or perpendi- cular lamina, a considerable process, descending di- rectly under the crista galli into the cavity of the nose, and forming with the vomer the septum na- rium. Two cavernous substances, which are curled, like a piece of parchment, one on each side of the septum, called the superior turbinated, or spongy bones. Cavities. A number of cribriform fora- minula, situated on each side of the crista galli. Two foramina orbitalia nasi, one situated in the line of union between the frontal bone and orbitar plate of the ethmoid, for the passage of the nasal C3 branch (18) branch of the orbital nerve. A number of cells, which compose the internal part of the bone, and form the pituitary sinuses of the ethmoid bone. The ethmoid bone is connected with the os frontis, the two nasal bones, the two superior maxillary, the two palatine, the sphænoid bone, and the vomer by harmony. Use. To form an extensive surface for the organ of smell, to consti- tute part of the nose, orbits, and cranium. OF THE FACE. The bones of the face are fourteen in number, and are divided into those of the upper and under jaw. The upper jaw is formed of thirteen bones, viz. two superior maxillary, two nasal, two pala- tine, two jugal, or malar, two inferior spongy, two lachrymal, and the vomer, which are, united to the cranium, and with one another, by har- mony. The under jaw consists of one bone. There is an obvious line, beginning at the external angle of the orbit, where the frontal bone is united to the cheek bone, which leads to the inferior open- ing in the orbit, proceeds upwards to the nose, whose root it crosses, and then traverses the other orbit to the external angle: this is called the transverse suture, The other harmonies of the face are named after the bones which they unite, as the zygomatic, nasal, palatine harmonies, &c. SUPERIOR (19) SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES. Situated in the anterior and middle part of the face. Figure. Irregular. Processes. The na- sal process, which forms the side of the nose. The orbitar process, or plate, which forms part of the orbit. The malar process, by which it is uni- ted to the cheek-bone. The alveolar process, in which the teeth are situated. The palate process, which forms the palate. A spine, formed, by the union of each palate portion, upon which the vo- mer rests. The orbital margin. Cavities. The antrum maxillare, called also, antrum Highmori and finus maxillaris pituitarius, in the body of the bone, between the orbital and palate processes; it has an opening into the nostrils. The infra-orbital canal, which opens under the margin of the orbit, and transmits the infra-orbital nerve. The lachrymal depression, situated in the superior and internal part of the nasal process, for the situation of the lachry- mal sac; it leads to the canalis nasalis, which con- veys the tears into the nostrils. The posterior pala- tine foramen, near the last tooth on the inside, for the passage of the alveolar nerve. A notch on the anterior part of the palatine process, which with the corresponding notch of the other superior max- illary bone, forms the foramen palatinim anticum, or foramen incisivum, which transmits the anterior palatine (20) palatine nerve and artery. Connexion. Each superior maxillary bone is connected with its fel- low, with the os frontis, one os nasi, one lachry- mal bone, the ethmoid, sphæmoid, one os ju- gale, one palatine bone, and one inferior spongy bone, by harmony, and with the vomer and teeth by gomphosis. Use. The use of these bones is to form part of the face, palate, nose, nostrils, and orbits, and to afford a convenient situation for the organ of mastication. JUGULAR, OR MALAR BONES. Situation. At the sides of the face. Fi- gure. Almost quadrate. Processes. The upper orbitary process, which forms part of the orbit and the sharp edge of the temple. The inferior orbi- tary process, opposite to the former, and consti- tuting in part the bottom of the orbit and the edge of the cheek. The internal orbitary process, which also forms a part of the orbit. The maxil- lary process, by which it is joined to the superior maxillary bone. The zygomatic process, which is joined to the temporal bone, to form the zygoma. Connexion. The os jugale is united to the frontal, superior maxillary, sphænoid and temporal bone. The use of these bones is to assist in forming the face and orbits. OSSA (21) OSSA NASI, OR BONES OF THE NOSE. Situated in the superior and middle part of the nose. Figure. Quadrangular and oblong. Substance. Compact. Use. To form the bridge and external part of the nose. Each bone is connected with its fellow, and the superior maxillary bone by harmony and with the frontal and ethmoid by the transverse suture. LACHRYMAL BONES. Situation. In the internal angle of the orbit- Figure, like the nail of the finger. Cavities. A groove, which holds the lachrymal sac. Sy- nonim. Os unguis. Connexion. Each bone is connected with the frontal, ethmoid, superior maxillary and inferior spongy bone by harmony. INFERIOR SPONGY BONES. Situated in the side and lower part of the nostrils. Figure. Spiral, and convoluted. Use. To augment the surface of the organ of smelling. Connexion. Each bone is united with the supe- rior maxillary, the palate, lachrymal and ethmoid bone by harmony. Synonims. Ossa turbinata in- feriora, conchæ inferiores. PALATINE BONES. Situated in the posterior part of the nose, from which they ascend laterally to the orbits. Figure. (22) Figure. Irregular. Division. Into palatine, pterygoid, nasal, and orbital portions. Pro- cesses. The palatal plate, which forms the pos- terior part of the roof of the mouth. The ptery- goid process, which is situated behind the last grinder. The nasal process, which arises perpen- dicularly from the palate, and covers a part of the antrum of Highmore. The orbitary process, which is situated in the orbit. Cavities. The palatine cells, which communicate with, and form part of the sphænoid cells. Use. To form the posterior part of the palate and part of the nose and orbit. Each bone is connected with its fellow, with the superior maxillary bone, the sphæ- noid, ethmoid, inferior spongy bone and vomer by harmony. VOMER. Situated in the middle of the cavity of the nostrils, which it divides into two parts. Figure. It resembles a ploughshare. Use. To sustain and divide the cavity of the nostrils. Connexion. Superiorly it is united with the sphænoid bone by gomphosis, and with the ethmoid by harmony; inferiorly with the superior maxillary and palatine bones by harmony; anteriorly it is united to the cartilaginous septum of the nose. LOWER (23) LOWER JAW-BONE. Situation. In the inferior and anterior part of the face. Figure, like an horseshoe. Pro- cesses. Two condyloid, or articulatory processes, which are received into the articulatory cavities of the temporal bones. Two coronoid processes, which are sharp pointed, and give adhesion to the tem- poral muscles. The alveolar process, in which the teeth are fixed. The symphysis of the jaw, in the middle of the chin. The inferior margin, whose ends form the angles of the jaw. Cavities. A semilunar notch, between each coronoid and condy- loid process. Two posterior maxillary foramina, one above each angle, on the inner surface of the jaw, which transmit the lower maxillary nerve and artery into a canal in the middle of the bone, called ca- nalis mentalis, which conducts the same artery and nerve to the anterior maxillary foramina, upon the external surface of the bone, one on each side of the chin, from whence the artery and nerve again emerge upon the chin. Use. To retain the roots of the teeth in the alveolar margin; to consti- tute the inferior segment of the cavity of the mouth, and to afford a point of adhesion to the muscles of the face, neck, larynx, and tongue. Connexion. The lower jaw is connected with the temporal bones by ginglymus, with the teeth by gomphosis, and with the os hyoides and other parts by syssarco- sis. Synonim. Mandibula. OF (24) OF THE CAVITIES OF THE FACE IN PARTICULAR. ORBITS. Situated under the forehead, at the root of the nose. Figure, conoid. The angles of the orbits are called canthi. Cavities. A depression for the la- chrymal gland; a notch of the orbital trochlea; a depression for the lachrymal sac; the canalis nasalis for the passage of the tears; a superior and inferior, or sphæno-maxiilary orbital sissure. The superciliary fora- men; the infra-orbital canal; the foramen nasale, and the optic foramen. Composed of seven bones; the frontal, maxillary, jugal, lachrymal; ethmoid, pa- latine, and sphænoid. Use, to contain and defend the organ of sight and its adjacent parts. CAVITY OF THE NOSTRILS. Situated under the anterior part of the cra- nium, in the middle of the face. Figure, py- ramidal. Prominences. The septum narium; the cavernous substance of the ethmoid bone, im- properly called the superior spongy bones; and the inferior spongy bones. Cavities. Three pair of pi- tuitary sinuses, namely, the frontal, sphænoid, and maxillary; the caverns of the ethmoid labyrinth; the anterior foramina of the nostrils; the ductus nasalis; the sphæno-palatine foramina, and the an- terior (25) terior palatine foramina. Composed of 14 bones, viz. the frontal; two maxillary; two nasal; two lachrymal; two inferior spongy; the sphænoid, vo- mer, ethmoid, and two palatine bones. Use, to form the organ of smelling and the pituitary sinuses of the nostrils, and to serve also for speech and respiration. CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. Situated between the upper and under jaw. Figure, anteriorly ovate. Divided into upper and under jaw. Composed of five bones, viz. two superior maxillary; two palatine; the lower jaw-bone, and 32 teeth. Use, for mastication, speech, and respiration. TEETH. Situated in the alveoli or sockets of the jaws. Number, commonly 32, 16 in each jaw. Di- vided into four kinds, incisores, or front teeth, four in each jaw; cuspidati, one on each side of the incisores; bicuspides, two on the side of each cus- pidatus; and molares, or grinders. Each tooth is divided into a crown, neck, and root. The sub- stance of the root and internal part of the crown is compact; the external surface is very hard, of a shining white colour, and is called the enamel. Use, for mastication, and pronunciation of dental syllables. The teeth are connected with the jaws by gomphosis. D CAVITY (26) CAVITY OF THE FAUCES. Situated under the basis of the cranium, within the superior bodies of the vertebræ and posterior part of the nostrils. Figure, superi- orly quadrate. Composed of 10 bones, viz. the occipital; two palatine; the vomer; the bodies of the three first vertebræ; the os hyoides, and the two temporal bones. Use, for the situation of the fauces, larynx, pharynx, and os hyoides. OS HYOIDES. Situated in the fauces, between the basis of the tongue and larynx. Figure, semilunar. Pro- minences, two cornua majora, and two cornua mi- nora. Use, to serve for the adhesion of the tongue; for deglutition; and for a point of adhe- sion to many muscles. Synonim. Os linguale. Connexion. It is connected with the styloid pro- cess of the temporal bone, the scapulæ, lower jaw, and sternum, by various muscles, and with the la- rynx by ligament. CAVITY OF HEARING. Situated internally in the petrous portion of each temporal bone. Division, into meatus audi- torius externus; cavity of the tympanum; laby- rinth; and meatus auditorius internus. In the ca- vity of the tympanum are, the orifice of the Eusta- chian tube; the mastoid sinuosity; the fenestra ova- lis; (27) lis; the fenestra rotunda, and the ossicula auditus. The labyrinth consists of the cochlea, vestibulum and semicircular canals. The cochlea has a basis, apex, modiolus, scala vestibuli, scala tympani, and a spiral lamina. The vestibulum has a foramen ovale, and the orifices of the semicircular canals. Use. The cavity of hearing is the organ in which hearing is performed. OSSICULA AUDITUS. Situated in the cavity of the tympanum. Num- ber 4, viz. malleus; incus; stapes, and os orbicu- lare. Substance, compact. Use, for hearing. OF THE TRUNK. The trunk of the skeleton is divided into the spine, chest, loins, and pelvis. SPINE. A long column, or pillar, which extends in the posterior part of the trunk from the occipital bone to the os sacrum. Composed of 24 bones, called vertebræ, viz. 7 of the neck, 12 of the back, and 5 of the loins. Each vertebra is divided into a body, and 7 processes, viz. the spinous, 2 superior oblique, 2 inferior oblique, and 4 transverse pro- cesses. Cavities. The fpinal canal, called spe- cus, or theca vertebralis; and the lateral foramina of the vertebræ. Connexion. The first bone of the spine is connected with the occipital bone by gin- D2 glymus. (28) glymus. The second vertebra is united with the first by trochoides, and with the occipital bone by syndesmosis. The bodies of the vertebræ are con- nected with one another by a peculiar intervertebral substance; and posteriorly by a yellow elastic liga- ment and by their oblique precesses. Use, to sup- port the head and trunk, and to contain and de- fend the spinal marrow. Synonims. Spina dorsi, columna spinalis, columna vertebralis. CERVICAL VERTEBRA. The first vertebra is called atlas. Peculiarities. No body nor spinous processes, but forms an arch, which anteriorly surrounds the dentiform process of the second vertebra. Instead of upper oblique precesses, there are two articular sinuses. The second vertebra is termed epistrophæus, or dentatus. Pe- culiarities. An odontoid or dentiform process at the upper part of the body. All the transverse processes of the remaining cervical vertebræ have a peculiar foramen for the passage of the vertebral arteries. DORSAL VERTEBRÆ. Peculiarities. At the sides of the bodies is a depression, and a superficial one in the points of the transverse processes, for the attachment of the great and little heads of the ribs. LUMBAR (29) LUMBAR VERTEBRAE. Peculiarities. They are much larger than the dorsal, and the transverse processes have no depressions. OF THE CHEST, OR THORAX. The thorax is composed of the 12 dorsal verte- bræ, 24 ribs, and the sternum. RIBS. Situated obliquely from the dorsal vertebræ to the sternum. Figure, semicircular. Num- ber 24, twelve on each side. Division, into 7 true, which are uppermost, and 5 spurious. Emi- nences. The great head, which is connected to the bodies of the dorsal vertebræ; the neck; the lesser head, which is joined to the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebræ; and the angle of the rib. Cavities, a longitudinal groove, for the inter- costal artery. Substance, anterior part carti- laginous, rest bony and compact. Connexion. Anteriorly with the sternum, and posteriorly with the bodies and transverse processes of the dorsal vertebræ. Use, to form the thorax; to serve for respiration; to defend the vital viscera, and to give- adhesion to muscles. STERNUM. Situated in the anterior part of the thorax, between the true ribs. Figure, somewhat like a D3 dagger. (30) dagger. Cavities, the jugular sinus, at the su- perior and inner part; two clavicular sinuses, for the attachment of the clavicies; and 7 costal de- pressions, to which the ribs adhere. Substance, somewhat spongy. Use, to form the thorax, and give adhesion to the mediastinum. Connexion. The sternum is connected by arthrodia with the cla- vicle, and with the seven true ribs by synchondrosis. OF THE LOINS. The bones of the loins are five lumbar verte- bræ. OF THE CAVITY OF THE PELVIS. Situated in the lower region of the trunk. Figure, somewhat like a barber's bason. Com- posed of 4 bones, viz. two ossa innominata, the os sacrum, and os coccygis. Use, to contain the organs of generation; the bladder; intestinum rectum; and to support the spine. OSSA INNOMINATA. Situated at the sides of the pelvis. Figure, irregular. Division, each bone into three por- tions, viz. ilium the uppermost, ischium the low- est, and pubis the anterior. Eminences. The crista of the ilium, from which the oblique and transverse muscles of the abdomen arise-at its posterior part are two spinous processes, which give adhesion to ligament—at its anterior part are also two (31) two spinous processes, the superior gives adhesion to the sartorius, tensor vaginæ femoris, and the liga- ment of the thigh; the inferior anterior spinous pro- cess, about an inch from the former has arising from it the rectus femoris. The external surface of the iliac portion is covered by the glutæi muscles; the internal by the internal iliac. Upon the internal surface there is a line even with the pubis; this is called linea innominata, or rim of the pelvis; it divides the cavity of the abdomen from the pelvis. Upon the ischiatic portion or ischium are, the tuberosity of the ischium, upon which we sit; the spinous process of the ischium, which projects back- wards, and gives adhesion to the uppermost sa- cro-sciatic ligament; the ramus ischii, which joins the pubis. Upon the pubic portion, or pubis, are, the body, near the socket; the angles and arches of the pubis. Cavities, a notch between the anterior spines of the ilium; an anterior and posterior ischiatic notch; the acetabulum, which re- ceives the head of the os femoris, and the fo- ramen thyroideum, or ovale. Each os innominatum is connected with its fellow anteriorly by sym- physis, with the sacrum posteriorly by strong carti- lages and ligaments, and with the head of the thigh bone by enarthrosis. Use, to form the pelvis; to retain the gravid uterus in its situation, and to constitute the acetabulum for the thighs. OS (32) OS SACRUM. Situated at the posterior part of the pelvis. Figure, triangular, bent forwards. Eminences, two superior oblique processes; appearances of the spi- nous processes; appearances of the oblique and transverse processes, and the appearances of the vertebral bodies. Cavities, four pair of exter- nal, and four pair of internal foramina, and five longitudinal middle canals. Use, to constitute the pelvis, and sustain the spine. Connexion. Su- periorly with the last lumbar vertebræ, laterally with the ossa innominata, and inferiorly with the os coc- cygis. OS COCCYGIS. Situated at the apex of the sacrum. Figure, irregular. Use, to sustain the rectum, and prevent the rupture of the perinæum in parturition. It is connected to the apex of the sacrum. OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES. The bones of the upper extremities are, on each side, the clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, bones of the carpus, metacarpus, and fin- gers. CLAVICLE. Situated obliquely in the upper and lateral parts of the thorax. Figure, like the letter s. Cavities, a furrow, or groove, of the subcla- vian vessels on the inferior surface. Use, to connect (33) connect the scapula and humerus to the thorax, and to defend the subclavian vessels. Connexion. Anteriorly it is articulated to the sternum, and pos- teriorly to the scapula, by arthrodia. SCAPULA. Situated in upper and lateral part of the back. Figure, triangular. Eminences. The spine, which is in the middle of the external sur- face. Its anterior termination is called the acro- mion. The coracoid process which stands out oppo- site to the acromion. The borders of the bone are called costæ, and the corners angles. The circle below the articular cavity is called the neck. Ca- vities. The articular or glenoid cavity, which receives the head of the humerus. The scapula is united with the clavicle by arthrodia, with ribs and os hyoides by muscle, and with the humerus by arthrodia. Use, to defend the back, and give articulation to the humerus. Synonim. Omo- plata. OS HUMERI, OR OS BRACHII. Situated between the scapula and fore-arm. Figure, long. Eminences, the head, which is rounded on its superior part; the neck, which is immediately below the head; the greater tubercle, near the neck, which receives the supra spinatus mus- cles; and the lesser tubercle, which is near the former, and has fixed to it the subscapularis. On the inferior extremity are three condyles, namely, 2 an (34) an external and an internal condyle, which give ori- gin to the flexor and extensor muscles of the arm; and the trochlea of the humerus. Cavities, a furrow between the tubercles, for the long tendon of the biceps. In the inferior extremity, a posterior fossa, for the anconoid process of the ulna, and an anterior depression, for the coronoid process. Use, to constitute the arm. Connexion. The hume- rus is connected with 3 bones; with the scapula by arthrodia, and the cubit and radius by ginglymus. CUBIT, OR ULNA. Situated in the inside of the fore-arm, to- wards the little finger. Figure, long, and thicker above than below. Eminences, the olecranon, or anconoid process, upon which we lean, and the co- ronoid process which is opposite to it. In the lower extremity are the lower head, the neck, and the styloid process, which gives a strong adhesion to the ligament which secures the wrist. Cavi- ties, the sigmoid cavity, at the upper end. Use, to constitute the chief support of the fore-arm Connexion. Superiorly with the trochlea of the humerus by arthrodia, inferiorly with the carpus by arthrodia, and with the radius by trochoides, as in pronation and supination. RADIUS. Situated in the external side of the fore-arm towards the thumb. Figure, long. Emi- nences, (35) nences, upper head, which is excavated; the little head, and the styloid process at the inferior extremity. Cavity, the glenoid cavity. Use, to assist in forming the fore-arm, and to serve for flexion, supination, and pronation. The radius is connected to the humerus by ginglymus, to the cubit by an interosseous ligament and trochoides; and to the carpus by arthrodia. CARPUS, OR WRIST. Composed of 8 bones, which lie close to each other, in a double row. Situated between the fore-arm and metacarpus. Division, into two rows, superior and inferior. In the superior row are (from the thumb to the little finger), os scaphoides, or naviculare; os lunare; os cunei- forme; and os orbiculare, or sub-rotundum. In the lower row, os trapezium, os trapezoides, os magnum, and os unciforme. METACARPUS. Situated between the carpus and fingers. Composed of 5 longitudinal bones; one of the thumb, and four metacarpal bones of the fingers. Use, to form the middle part of the hand. FINGERS. Situated at the inferior extremity of the me- tacarpus. Composed of a thumb and four fin- gers. The thumb has two bones, and each finger three, which are called phalanges. Use, to form the (36) the fingers, which are the instruments of touch, defence, and labour. OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. The bones of the inferior extremity are, the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, the bones of the tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. FEMUR. Situated between the pelvis and tibia. Fi- gure, long. Eminences, the head, which is re- ceived into the acetabulum of the os innomina- tum, and has a small dimple in its middle, for the attachment of the round or restraining ligament; the neck, upon which the head stands, it is rough, and gives attachment to the capsular ligament; the great trochanter, which is a large eminence below the neck, for the insertion of the glutæi muscles; the little trochanter, which receives the psoas and iliacus internus; and a rough line on the body of the bone, called linea aspera. On the inferior ex- tremity are the external and internal condyle, and be- tween them posteriorly a deep notch, for the passage of the great artery, vein, and nerve of the leg. Use, to form part of the lower extremity. The femur is connected to the acetabulum of the os inno- minatum by enarthrosis, and to the tibia and patella by ginglymus. Substance. Compact on its out- side; spongy in the extremities; and cancellated in- ternally. TIBIA. (37) TIBIA. Situated in the inside of the leg, between the femur and tarsus. Figure, longitudinal. Eminences, the upper head of the tibia; the spine of the tibia, to which the great ligament of the patella, is fixed; and the lower head of the tibia, which forms the outer ankle. Cavities, two articular sinuses, in the upper head, for the reception of the condyles of the femur; and the articular cavity at the side of the head for the reception of the fibula. Use, to support the leg, and serve for the flexion of the lower extremity. The tibia is connected to the femur and patella by ginglymus, to the fibula by syneurosis, and to the astragalus by arthrodia. FIBULA. Situated in the outer part of the leg, by the side of the tibia. Figure, longitudinal. Eminences, the head of the fibula, at the upper part, and the malleolus externus, or outer ankle, at the lower end. Connexion. It is connected to the tibia by an in- terosseous ligament, and to the astragalus by arthrodia. Use, to form a fulcrum for the tibia, and assist in forming the leg. PATELLA, ROTULA, OR KNEE-PAN. Situated in the sinus between the condyles of the femur, and above the tibia. Figure, somewhat resembles an heart. The patella is con- E nected (38) nected to the condyles of the femur by gingly- mus, and with the tibia by synenrosis. Use, to strengthen the knee-joint, and to serve as a com- mon pulley for the extensor muscles of the tibia. TARSUS. Situated between the leg and metatarsus. Figure, in the superior part, headed, and broad below. Composed of seven bones, placed in a double row: in the first row are the astragalus and os calcis; in the second row, the os naviculare; os cubiforme; and three cuneiform bones, which are placed close to each other. Eminences, head of the astragalus, and the tuberosity of the heel. Use, to form the basis of the foot, and to serve for its motion. The connexion of the bones of the tarsus is with the tibia and fibula by ar- throdia, and with the metatarsal bones, and also with one another, by amphiarthrosis. METATARSUS. Situated between the tarsus and toes. Com- posed of five longitudinal bones. Use, to form the back and sole of the foot. TOES. Composition. The great toe is composed of two small bones; each toe, of three small bones, called phalanges. SESAMOID BONES. Situated in the joints, under the phalanges of the thumb and of the great toe. PERIOS- (39) PERIOSTEUM. Definition. A membrane which invests the ex- ternal and internal surface of all the bones except the crowns of the teeth. Names. Pericranium on the cranium; periorbita on the orbits; perichondri- um, when it covers cartilages; and peridesmium, when it covers ligaments. Substance, fibrous, furnished with arteries, veins, nerves, and absorb- ent vessels. Use, to distribute the vessels on the external and internal surfaces of bones. CARTILAGES. Definition. White, elastic, glistening sub- stances, growing to the bones. Division, into obducent, which cover the articulatory surfaces of bones; inter-articular, which are not accreted to the bones, but adhere to the capsular ligament, and lie between the articulating extremities, as in the knee-joint, &c.; and uniting cartilages, which unite bones firmly together, as the symphysis pubis, bodies of the vertebræ, &c. Use, to lubricate the arti- culation of the cartilages; to connect some bones by an immoveable connexion; and to facilitate tiie motion of some articulations. E2 OSTEO- (40) OSTEOGENY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE FORMATION AND GROWTH OF BONES. Ossification is a specific action of small ar- teries, by which ossific matter is separated from the blood, and deposited where it is required. The first thing observable in the embryo, where bone is to be formed, is a transparent jelly, which becomes gradually firmer, and is formed into cartilage. The cartilage gradually increases to a certain size, and when the process of ossification commences, vanishes as it advances. Cartilages previous to the ossific action are solid, and without any cavity; but when the ossific action of the ar- teries is about to commence, the absorbents be- come very active, and form a small cavity in which the bony matter is deposited; bone continues to be separated, and the absorbents model the mass into its required shape. The process of ossification is extremely rapid in utero: it advances slowly after birth, and is not completed in the human body till about the twen- tieth year. Ossification in the flat bones, as those of the skull, always begins from central points, and the ra- diated (41) diated fibres meet the radii of other ossifying points or the edges of the adjoining bone. In long bones, as those of the arm and leg, the clavicle, metacarpal and metatarsal bones, a cen- tral ring is formed in the body of the bone, the head and extremities being cartilage, in the centre of which ossification afterwards begins. The central ring of the body shoots its bony fibres towards the head and extremities, which extend towards the body of the bone. The head and extremities at length come so close to the body as to be merely separated by a cartilage, which becomes gradually thinner until the twentieth year. Thick and round bones, as those of the tarsus, carpus, sternum, and patella, are at first all cartilage; ossification begins in the centre of each. At birth the bones of the fœtus are very im- perfect. The extremities and processes of almost all the long bones are connected to the body of the bone by cartilage. These portions of bone are called epiphyses. The cranium has no su- tures; its bones are connected together by a firm and almost cartilaginous membrane. On the ante- rior part of the cranium, between the parietal bones and the frontal, is a considerable membranous space, called the anterior fontanel, and a similar but smaller one between the parietal bones and the. occipital, termed the posterior fontanel. E3 The (42) The frontal bone consists of two bones, and the occipital of four. The teeth are partly formed, especially the enamel, and are placed in a double series. The external auditory foramen is surround- ed by a bony circle, in which there is a groove for the attachment of the membrana tympani. This cir- cle gradually elongates into the meatus auditorium. The articular cavities of all the bones are much more shallow than in the adult. The os innomina- tum consists of three bones, the ilium, ischium, and pubis, which are connected together by very firm cartilage. The bodies of the vertebræ and its processes are united by cartilages. OF THE CONNEXION OF BONES. Bones are connected with one another, so as to admit of motion, and this kind of union is termed diarthrosis; or so as to admit of no motion, which is termed synarthrosis; and when connected with one another by an intervening substance, the union is termed symphysis. Diarthrosis, synarthro- sis, and symphysis, are to be considered as the ge- nera only of articulations, each genus compre- hending several species, which are arranged as fol- lows. DIARTHROSIS, (43) GENERA. SPECIES. Diarthrosis, or moveable Connexion. Enarthrosis, when the round head of one bone is received into the deep cavity of another, so as to admit of motion in every direction; as the head of the os femoris with the acetabu- lum of the os innominatum. Arthrodia, when the round head of a bone is received into a superficial cavity of another, so as to admit of motion in every direction; as the head of the humerus with the glenoid ca- vity of the scapula. Ginglymus, when the motion is only flexion and extension; thus the tibia is articulated with the os femoris; and the cubit and radius with the os humeri. Trochoides, when one bone rotates upon another; as the first cervical vertebra upon the odontoid process of the second, and the ra- dius upon the ulna, or cubit. Amphiarthrosis, when there is motion, but that very obscure; as the motion of the me- tacarpal and metatarsal bones. Synarthrosis, or im- moveable Connexion. Suture, when the union is by means of dentiform margins; as in the bones of the cranium: hence the fagittal, lambdoidal, or occipital and coronal sutures. Harmony, when the connexion is by means of rough margins, not dentiform; as in the bones of the face. Gomphosis, when one bone is fixed within another, like a nail in a board; as the teeth in the alveoli of the jaws. Symphysis. (44) GENERA. SPECIES. Symphysis, or mediate Connexion. Synchondrosis, when a bone is united with another by means of an intervening cartilage; as the vertebræ and bones of the pubis. Syssarcosis, when a bone is connected with another by means of an intervening muscle; as the os hyoides with the sternum. Syneurosis, when a bone is united to ano- ther by an intervening membrane; as the bones of the head of the fœtus. Syndesmosis, when a bone is connected to another by means of an intervening ligament; as the radius with the ulna, &c. Synostosis, when two bones, originally sepa- rated, are united to one another by bony mat- ter. SYNDESMOLOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE LIGAMENTS. Ligaments are elastic and strong membranes connecting the extremities of the moveable bones. Division, into capsular, which surround joints like a bag, and connecting ligaments. Use. The capsular ligaments connect the extremities of the moveable bones, and prevent the efflux of synovia; the external and internal connecting ligaments strengthen the extremities of the moveable bones. Ligaments (45) Ligaments of the lower jaw. The con- dyles of the lower jaw are connected with the ar- ticular sinuses of the temporal bone by two liga- ments, the capsular and lateral ligament. Ligaments of the occipital bone, and vertebræ of the neck. The condyles of the occipital bone are united with the articular depressions of the first vertebra by the capsular, broad, anterior, and posterior ligaments, the liga- ments of the odontoid process, and ligamentum nuchæ. Ligaments of the vertebræ. The verte- bræ are connected together by means of their bo- dies and oblique processes. The bodies by a soft cartilaginous substance, and the processes by liga- ments, viz. the transverse ligament of the first vertebra; the anterior and posterior common; the interspinous; the intertransverse; the interverte- bral ligaments; the capsular ligaments of the ob- lique processes; and the ligaments of the last ver- tebra of the loins with the os sacrum. Ligaments of the ribs. The posterior ex- tremity of the ribs is united with the vertebræ; the anterior with the sternum. The ligaments of the posterior extremity are, the capsular ligaments of the greater and lesser heads; the internal and external ligaments of the neck of the ribs; and a ligament peculiar to the last rib. The ligaments of the anterior extremity are, the capsular liga- ments (46) ments of the cartilages of the true ribs, and the ligaments of the ribs inter se. Ligaments of the sternum. The liga- ments connecting the three portions of the ster- num to the ribs are, the membrana propria of the sternum; and the ligaments of the ensiform carti- lage. Ligaments of the pelvis. The ligaments which connect the ossa innominata with the os sa- crum are, three ligamenta ileo-sacra; two sacro- ischiatic ligaments; two transverse ligaments of the pelvis; the ligamentum obturans of the fora- men ovale, and the ligamentum Poupartii, or in- guinale. Ligaments of the os coccygis. The ba- sis of the os coccygis is connected to the apex of the os sacrum, by the capsular and longitudinal ligaments. Ligaments of the clavicle. The anterior extremity is connected with the sternum and first rib; and the posterior extremity with the acro- mion of the scapula, by the interclavicular, the capsular ligament, the ligamentum rhomboideum, and in the posterior extremity, the capsular liga- ment. Ligaments of the scapula. The proper li- gaments which connect the scapula with the poste- rior extremity of the clavicle are, the conoid and trapezoid ligaments. Liga- (47) Ligaments of the humerus. The head of the humerus is connected with the glenoid cavity of the scapula by the capsular ligament. Ligaments of the articulation of the cubit. The elbow joint is formed by the infe- rior extremity of the humerus, and superior extre- mities of the ulna and radius. The ligaments connecting these bones are, the capsular, the bra- chio-cubital, and the brachio-radial ligaments. Ligaments of the radius. The radius is affixed to the humerus, cubit, and carpus, by pecu- liar ligaments, namely, the superior, inferior, ob- lique, and interosseous ligaments. Ligaments of the carpus. The ligaments which connect the eight bones of the wrist toge- ther, and with the fore-arm and metacarpus, are, the capsular ligament of the carpus; the first and second transverse ligament; the oblique ligament; and the capsular ligament proper to the bones of the carpus. Ligaments of the metacarpus. The bones of the metacarpus are in part connected with the second row of bones of the carpus, and in part together, by the articular and interosseous ligaments. Ligaments of the fingers. The fingers and phalanges are connected together, and with the metacarpus; and the thumb with the carpus, by the lateral ligaments of the fingers, and ligament of the thumb with the os trapezium of the carpus. 5 Liga- (48) Ligaments which keep the tendons of the muscles of the hand in their pro- per place. The ligaments which keep the ten- dons of the muscles of the hand in their place, are situated partly in the palm, and partly on the back of the hand. In the back of the hand are, the external transverse ligament of the carpus, the vaginal, and the transverse ligaments of the ex- tensor tendons. In the palm of the hand are, the internal transverse ligament of the carpus, the vaginal or crucial ligaments of the flexor tendons of the phalanges, and the accessory ligaments of the flexor tendons. Ligaments of the articulation of the femur. The head of the os femoris is strongly annexed to the acetabulum of the os innominatum, by two very strong ligaments, the capsular liga- ment, and ligamentum teres, or restraining ligament. Ligaments of the articulation of the knee. The knee joint is formed by the con- dyles of the os femoris, head of the tibia and the patella. The ligaments are the capsular, the poste- rior, the external and the internal lateral ligaments, the crucial and the alar ligaments, the ligaments of the semilunar cartilages, and ligaments of the pa- tella. Ligaments of the fibula. The fibula is connected with the tibia by means of the capsular ligament of the superior extremity, the interosseous ligament, (49) ligament, and the ligaments of the inferior extre- mity. Ligaments of the articulation of the tarsus. The inferior extremity of the tibia and fibula forms the cavity into which the astragalus of the tarsus is received. This articulation is ef- fected by the anterior, middle, and posterior liga- ment of the fibula, the ligamentum tibiæ deltoides, the capsular ligament, and the ligaments proper to the bones of the tarsus. Ligaments of the metatarsus. The bones of the metatarsus are connected in part together, and in part with the tarsus, by means of the cap- sular ligament, the articular ligaments, the trans- verse ligaments in the back and sole of the foot, and the interosseous ligaments of the metatarsus. Ligaments of the toes. The phalanges of the toes are united partly together, and partly with the metatarsus, by the capsular and lateral ligaments. Ligaments which retain the tendons of the muscles of the foot in their proper place. These ligaments are found partly in the back and partly in the sole of the foot. They are the vaginal ligament of the tibia, the transverse or crucial ligaments of the tarsus, the ligaments of the tendons of the peronei muscles, the laciniated liga- ment, the vaginal ligament of the extensor muscle and flexor pollicis, the vaginal ligaments of the flexor tendons, the accessory ligaments of the flexor P tendons, (50) tendons, and the transverse ligaments of the exten- sor tendons. MYOLOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE MUSCLES. A muscle is a fibrous body. Division, into head, belly, and tail. Adhesion, the head and tail are firmly attached to the bones; the place of attachment of the former is called its origin; it is usually that part nearest the trunk of the body: the latter is termed the insertion, which is more re- mote from the trunk of the body, and is implanted into the part to be moved. The body adheres laxly to other parts, by means of the cellular mem- brane, in order that it may swell when the muscle acts. Substance, fleshy in the belly, tendinous in the extremities. The former is composed of fleshy fibres, which are irritable and sensible; the latter of white fibres, which are neither sensible nor irritable. When the tendinous extremity of a muscle is rounded, it is called a tendon; when broad and expanded, aponeurosis, and sometimes fascia. Muscles are variously named, according to the ar- rangement of their fibres, or from their action; or from their origin and insertion; or from their figure or situation: thus when the fibres go in the same I direc- (51) direction, it is said to be a simple muscle; when they are in rays, a radiated muscle; when arranged like the plume of a feather, a penniform muscle; and when two penniform mus- cles are contiguous, a compound penniform. Mus- cles sometimes surround certain cavities of the body, forming a thin lamina, as in the intestinal canal, blad- der, &c. When they are situated around any open- ing, so as to shut or open it, they are termed sphinc- ters. There are many muscles named from their ac- tion, as the flexors, extensors, depressors, levators, corrugatores supercilii, &c. The muscles which receive names from their origin and insertion are very numerous; as the sterno-cleido mastoideus, stylo-hyoideus, stylo-glossus, &c. The deltoid, pec- tineus, pyramidalis, &c. are named from their figure, and the pectoralis, lingualis, temporalis, pterygoideus, &c. from their situation. Muscles that concur in producing the same action, are called congeneres; but those that act contrary to each other, antagonistæ. Vessels. Arteries, veins, and absorbents, abound in the fleshy part; but very few indeed in the tendinous. Nerves of muscles are also numerous in the fleshy parts, and wanting in the tendinous. Use. Muscles are the organs of motion. F2 MUSCLES (52) MUSCLES OF THE INTEGUMENTS OF THE CRANIUM. Name. Occipito-frontalis *. Corrugator super- cilii †. Arises from The upper ridge of the occipital bone; its aponeurosis covers the upper part of the head. Above the root of the nose. Inserted into The skin of the eye- brows and root of the nose. The inner part of the occipito-frontalis. Use. To pull the skin of the head backwards- raise the eyebrows and skin of the forehead. To wrinkle the eye- brows. MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS. Orbicularis palpe- brarum. Levator palpebræ superioris. Around the edge of the orit. The bottom of the orbit, near the optic foramen. The inner corner of the eyes. The cartilage of the tarsus of the upper eye- lid. To shut the eye. To open the eye, by raising the upper eye- lid. † The reader will be pleased to observe, that although all the muscles (a few only excepted, which are marked thus *) are in pairs, mention is made here only of the muscles on one side. (53) MUSCLES OF THE EYEBALL. Rectus superior. Rectus inferior. Rectus internus. Rectus esternus. Trochlearis, Obliquus superior seu Trochlearis. Obliquus inferior. Around the optic foramen of the sphæ- noid bone, at the bot- tom of the orbit. Near the optic fora- men, and passes thro' a trochlea in the inter- nal canthus of the eye, and is reflected to be The ductus nasalis, and is inserted The anterior part of the tunica sclerotica, opposite to each other. The posterior part of the bulb, between the rectus and the en- trance of the optic nerve. Opposite to the for- mer. To raise it upwards. To pull it downwards. To turn it to the nose. To move it outwards. To roll the eye, and turn the pupil down- wards and outwards. To roll the eye. MUSCLES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH. Levator labiisupe- rioris alæque nasi. Levator labii supe- rioris proprius. The nasal process of the superior maxillary bone. The upper jaw, un- der the orbit. The upper lip and ala of the nose. The middle of the upper lip. It raises the upper lip, and dilates the nostrils. To pull the upper lip directly upwards. Levator (54) Name. Levator anguli oris. ZYgomaticus major. Zygomaticus minor. Buccinator. Depressor anguli oris. Depressor labii in- ferioris. Arises from The orbitar foramen of the sup, max. bone. The os jugale, near the zygomatic suture, and runs downwards. Above the zygoma- ticus major. The sockets of the last molares, and the coronoid process of the lower jaw. The lower edge of the under jaw, near the chin. The inferior part of the lower jaw, next the chin. Inserted into The orbicularis, at the angle of the mouth. The angle of the mouth, with the de- pressor of the lip. The angle of the mouth. The angle of the mouth, and is perfo- rated by the duct of the parotid gland. The angle of the mouth. The middle of the under lip. Use. To raise the corner of the mouth. To inflate the cheek and raise the angle of the mouth. To raise the angle of the mouth outwards. To contract the mouth, and draw the angle of it outwards and backwards. To draw the corner of the mouth down- wards. To draw the under lip downwards and outwards. (55) Orbicularis oris *. Depressor labii su- perioris alæque nasi. Constrictor nasi. Levator menti vel labii inferioris. This muscle surrounds the lips, and is in a great measure formed by the buccinator, zygo- matici, and others, which move the lip. The sockets of the upper incisor teeth. The root of one wing of the nose, and The lower jaw, at the root of the inci- sors. The root of the ala nasi and upper lip. goes across to the other. The skin in the cen- tre of the chin. To shut the mouth, by contracting the lips. To pull the ala nasi and upper lip down. To compress the wings of the nose. To raise the under lip and skin of the chin. MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR. Superior auris, or attollens aurem. Anterior auris. Posterior auris, or retrahens auris. The tendon of the occipito-frontalis, a- bove the ear. Near the back part of the zygoma. The mastoid pro- cess, by two and some- times three fasciculi. The root of the car- tilaginous tube of the ear. The eminence be- hind the helix. The septum that di- vides the scapha and concha. To draw the ear up- wards, and make it tense. To raise this emi- nence forwards. To draw the ear back, and stretch the concha. Helicis (56) Name. Helicis major. Helicis minor. Tragicus. Antitragus. Transversus auris, Arises from The upper, ante- rior, and acute part of the helix. The inferior and anterior part of the he- lix. The outer and mid- dle part of the concha, near the tragus. From the root of the inner part of the helix. The upper part of the concha. Inserted into The cartilage of the helix, a little above the tragus. The crus of the he- lix. The upper part of the tragus. The upper part of the antitragus. The inner part of the helix. Use. To depress the up- per part of the helix. To contract the fis- sure. To depress the con- cha, and pull the tragus a little outwards. To dilate the mouth of the concha. To draw these parts towards each other. MUSCLES OF THE INTERNAL EAR. Laxator tympani. The spinous process of the sphænoid bone. The long process of the malleus. To draw the malleus obliquely forwards, to- wards its origin. (57) Tensor tympani. Stapedius. The cartilaginous extremity of the Eu- stachian tube. A little cavern in the petrous portion, near the cells of the mas- toid process. The handle of the malleus. The posterior part of the head of the stapes. To pull the malleus and membrane of the tympanum towards the petrous portion. To draw the stapes obliquely upwards to- wards the cavern. MUSCLES OF THE LOWER JAW. Temporalis. The lower part of the parietal bone and os frontis; squam- mous part of the tem- poral hone; back part of the os jugale; the temporal process of the sphænoid bone, and the aponeurosis which co- vers it. The coronoid pro- cess of the lower jaw, its fibres being bun- dled together and press- ed into a small com- pass, so as to pass under the jugum, or zygoma. To move the lower jaw upwards. Masseter. (58) Name. Masseter. Pterygoideus inter- nus. Pterygoideus exter- nus. Arises from The sup. max. bone, near the os jugale; and from the anterior part of the zygoma. The internal ptery- goid process of the sphænoid bone. The external ptery- goid process. Inserted into The angle of the lower jaw upwards to the basis of the coro- noid process. The lower jaw, on its inner side, and near its angle. The condyloid pro- cess of the lower jaw and capsular ligament. Use. To raise and move the jaw a little for- wards and backwards. To raise the lower jaw, and draw it a lit- tle to one side. To move the jaw, and to prevent the li- gament of the jaw from being pinched. MUSCLES WHICH APPEAR ABOUT THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK. Platysma myoides. Sterno-cleido-mas- toideus. The cellular mem- brane covering the pec- toral and deltoid mus- cles. The upper part of the sternum, and fore part of the clavicle. The side of the chin and integuments of the cheek. The mastoid pro- cess, and as far back as the occipital suture. To draw the cheeks and skin of the face downwards. To move the head to one side, and bend it forwards. (59) MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER JAW AND OS HYOIDES. Digastricus. Mylo-hyoideus. Genio-hyoideus. Genlo-glossus. Hyo-glossus. Lingualis. A fossa at the root of the mastoid process. The inner surface of the jaw-bone. The inside of the chin. The inside of the chin. The horn, basis, and cartilage of the os hy- oides. The root of the tongue laterally. The lower and ante- rior part of the chin. The basis of the os hyoides. The balls of the os hyoides. The tongue, form- ing part of its sub- stance. Into the tongue la- terally. The extremity of the tongue. To draw the lower jaw downwards. To move the os hy- oides upwards. To move the os hy- oides upwards. To move the tongue in various directions. To draw the tongue downwards and in- wards. To shorten and draw the tongue backwards. MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE OS HYOIDES AND TRUNK. Sterno-hyoideus. The sternum and clavicle. The basis of the os hyoides. To draw the os hy- oides downwards. Omo- (60) Name. Omo-hyoideus. Sterno-thyroideus. Thyrco-hyoideus, or Hyo-thyroideus. Crico-thyroideus. Arises from Near the coracoid process of the scapula. The upper and inner part of the sternum. Part of the basis and horn of the os hyoides. The side of the cri- coid cartilage. Inferted into The basis of the os hyoides. The thyroid carti- lage. The side of the thy- roid cartilage. The inferior horn of the thyroid cartilage. Use. To draw the os hy- oides downwards. To pull the thyroid cartilage downwards. To raise the carti- lage, and depress the bone. To pull the thyroid cartilage towards the cricoid. MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER JAW AND OS HYOIDES, LATERALLY. Stylo-glossus. Stylo-hyoideus. The apex of the sty- loid process. The basis, and about the middle of the sty- loid process. The side of the root of the tongue. The basis of the os hyoides. To pull the tongue backwards. To draw the os hy- oides upwards. (61) Stylo-pharyngeus. Circumflexus, seu Tensor palati. Levator palati mol- lis. The root of the sty- loid process. Near the Eustachian tube,and passes through the hamulus of the pte- rygoid process, to be The point of the os petrosum, the Eusta- chian tube, and sphæ- noid bone. The edge of the pharynx, and back of the thyroid cartilage. The velum pendu- lum palati. The velum pendu- lum palati, being ex- panded upon it. To dilate the pha- rynx, and raise the car- tilage. To draw the velum pendulum palati ob- liquely downwards,and stretch it. To pull the velum pendulum backwards and upwards. MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE ENTRY OF THE FAUCES. Constrictor ist hm faucium. Near the root of the tongue, on each side, and goes round, to be The middle of the velum pendulum pa- lati, near the uvula. To raise the tongue, and draw the velum towards it. Palato- (62) Name. Palato-pharyngeus. Azygos uvula*. Arises from The middle of the soft palate, goes round the entry of the fauces, the tendon of the cir- cumflexus palati, and velum pendulum pa- lati, to be The commissure of the ossa palati. Inserted into The upper and pos- terior part of the thy- roid cartilage. The extremity of the uvula. Use. To contract the arch of the fauces. To shorten and raise the uvula. MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE PHARYNX. Constrictor pharyn- gis inferior. Constrictor pharyn- gis medius. The cricoid and thy- roid cartilages. The horns, and ap- pendix of the os hy- oides. The middle of the pharynx. The ambit of the pharynx. To compress part of the pharynx. To compress the pharynx, and draw the os hyoides upwards. (63) Constrictor pharyn- gis superior. The pterygoid pro- cess,the lower jaw, and the cuneiform process of the os occipitis. The middle of the pharynx. To move the pha- rynx upwards and for- wards, and to com- press its upper part. MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE GLOTTIS. Crico-arytænoideus posticus. Crico-arytænoideus lateralis, or obliquus. Thyreo-arytænoi- deus. Arytænoideus obli- quus*. Arytænoideus trans- versus*. Thyreo-epiglottdeus. The cricoid carti- lage posteriorly. The side of the cri- coid cartilage. The back of the thy- roid cartilage. The root of one arytænoid cartilage. One of the arytæ- noid cartilages. The thyroid carti- lage. The back of the ary- tænoid cartilage. The side of the ary- tænoid cartilage. The fore part of the arytænoid cartilage. The extremity of the other. The other arytænoid cartilage. The side of the epi- glottis. To open the glottis. To open the glottis. To draw the arytæ- noid cartilage forward. To draw them to- wards each other. To shut the glottis. To pull the epiglot- tis obliquely down- wards. Arytæno- (64) Name. Arytæno-epiglotti- deus. Arises from The upper part of the arytænoid cartilage laterally. Inserted into The side of the epi- glottis. Use. To move the epi- glottis outwards. MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE ABDOMEN. Obliquus descen- dens externus. Obliquus ascendens The lower edges of the eight inferior ribs near their cartilages. The spinous pre- cesses of the three last lumbar vertebræ, back of the sacrum, and spine of the ilium. The linea alba †, ossa pubis, and spine of the ilium ‡. The cartilages of all the false ribs, linea al- ba, and pubis, and sternum, by a flat ten- don. To compress the abdomen. To compress the abdomen. † A long, but narrow, tendinous expansion, which reaches from the cartilage ensiformis of the sternum, down to the middle of the pubis. ‡ In this course it forms Poupart's ligament. (65) Transversalis ab- dominis. Rectus abdominis. Pyramidalis. The cartilages of the seven lower ribs, and the transverse pro- cesses of the four lower lumbar vertebræ and spine of the ilium. The outside of the sternum and xyphoid cartilage. The anterior upper part of the pubis. The linea alba, throughout its whole length, and into the ensiform cartilage. The side of the sym- physis of the pubis. The linea alba, be- low the umbilicus. To compress the ab- dominal viscera. To compress the abdomen, and bend the trunk. To assist the lower portion of the rectus. MUSCLES ABOUT THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. Darto. *. Cremaster. By some said to be a muscle: appears, however, to be no more than a con- densation of cellular membrane lining the scrotum, which admits of being corrugated and relaxed. The inguinal ring, and Poupart's liga- ment. The tunica vaginalis of the testicle. To draw up the testicle. Erector (66) Name. Erector penis. Accelerator urinæ seu Ejaculator feminis, Transversus peri- næi. Arises from The tuberosity of the ischium, embraces one crus of the penis. The sphincter of the anus, and above the bulb of the urethra. The fatty membrane covering the tuberosity of the ischium. Inserted into A strong tendinous membrane, that covers the corpora cavernosa. The line in the mid- dle of the bulb. The accelerator uri- næ, and sphincter ani. Use. To compress the urethra. To compress the urethra. To dilate the bulb of the urethra †. MUSCLES OF THE ANUS. Spincter ani *. The skin and fat surrounding the anus on both sides. The perinæum, ac- celeratores urinæ, and transversus perinæi. To shut the passage through the anus into the rectum. † There is often another muscls behind this, called Transversus periæi alter. It assists the former. (67) Levator ani *. The internal surface of the pubis, ilium, and ischium, of both sides, in a radiated manner. The sphinster ani, acceleratores urinæ, & os coccygis; and sur- rounds the rectum, neck of the bladder, &c. like a funnel. To draw the rectum up after the dejection of the fæces, and to assist in shutting it. MUSCLES OF THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. Erector clitoridis. Sphincter vaginæ. The crus of the is- chium internally. The sphincter ani, and side of the vagina which it surrounds. The upper part of the crus and body of the clitoris. The union of the crura clitoridis. To draw the clitoris downwards, and make it tense. To contract the mouth of the vagina. MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE PELVIS. Obturator internus. The foramen ovale obturator ligament, ili- um, ischium, and pu- bis. A large pit, between the trochanters of the femur. To roll the femur obliquely outwards. Coccygeus. (68) Name. Coccygeus. Arises from The spinous process of the ischium. Inserted into The extremity of the sacrum and os coccy- gis. Use. To move the coc cyx forwards and in- wards. MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE CAVITY OF THE ABDOMEN. Diaphragma *. Quadratus lumio- rum. Psoas parvus. Psoas magnus, Iliacus internus. The student will find described in Splanchnology. The posterior part of the spine of the ilium. The transverse pro- cess of the last dorsal vertebra. The bodies and pro- cesses of the last dorsal and all the lumbar vertebræ. The internal surface of the spine of the ili- um. The transverse apo- physes of the loins and last spurious rib. The brim of the pelvis, near the place of the acetabulum. The os femoris, a little below the tro- chanter minor. The femur in com- mon with the psoas magnus. To support the spine and draw it to one side. To bend the loins forwards. To bend the thigh forwards. To assist the psoas magnus. (69) MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE THORAX. Pectoralis major. Subclavius. Pectoralis minor. Serratus major an- ticus. The clavicle, ster- num, and seven true ribs. The cartilage of the first rib. The third, fourth, and fifth ribs. The eight superior ribs. The upper and in- ner part of the hume- rus. The under surface of the clavicle. The coracoid pro- cess of the scapula. The basis of the scapula. To draw the arm forwards, or obliquely forwards. To move the clavi- cle downwards. To roll the scapula. To bring the sca- pula forwards. MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE RIBS AND WITHIN THE THORAX. Intercostales ex- terni. Intercostales interni. Triangularis vel Sterno-costalis. The lower edge of each upper rib. The superior edge of each lower rib. To elevate the ribs. Like the former, their fibres are directed from behind forwards. The middle and in- ferior part of the ster- num. The cartilages of the five last true ribs. To depress the car- tilages of the ribs. MUSCLES (70) MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK, CLOSE TO THE VERTEBRÆ. Name. Longus colli. Rectus internus ca- pitis major. Rectus internus ca- pitis minor. Rectus capitis la- teralis. Arises from The bodies of the three upper dorsal and transverse processes of the four last cervical. The transverse pro- cesses of the five last cervical vertebræ. The fore part of the atlas. The transverse pro- cess of the atlas. Inserted into The anterior tuber- cle of the dentatus. The cuneiform pro- cess of the os occipi- tis. The os occipitis, near the condyloid process. The os occipitis, near the mastoid process. Use. To pull the neck to one side. To bend the head forwards. To assist the former. To move the head to one side. MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE TRUNK. Trapezius seu Cucullaris. The os occipitis and the spinous processes of all the vertebræ of the neck and back. The clavicle, part of the acromion, and the spine of the sca- pula. To move the scapu- la, bend the neck, and pull the head back- wards. (71) Latissimus dorsi. Serratus posticus inferior. Rhomhoideus. Splenius. The spine of the ili- um, spinous processes of the sacrum, lumbar and inferior dorsal ver- tebræ; adheres to the scapula and inferior false ribs. The spinous pro- cesses of the two last dorsal and three lum- bar vertebræ. The spinous pro- cesses of the three last cervical, and four first dorsal vertebræ. The spines of the four last cervical, and four superior dorsal vertebræ. The os humeri, be- tween its two tuberosi- ties in the edge of the groove for the tendon of the biceps muscle. The lower edge of the three or four low- ermost ribs, near their cartilages. The basis of the sca- pula, at its upper and lower part. The two first cervi- cal vertebræ, and the side of the os occipitis. To draw the os hu- meri backwards, and to roll it upon its axis. To draw the ribs outwards, downwards, and backwards. To move the scapula upwards and back- wards. To move the head backwards, and also to one side. Serratus (72) Name. Serratus superior posticus. Spinalis dorsi. Levatores costarum, or Supra-costales. Sacro-lumbalis. 4 Longissimus Sacro-lumhnlis. Arises from The spinous process- es of the three last cer- vical, and two superior dorsal vertebræ. Two spinous pro- cesses of the loins, and three lower of the back. The transverse pro- cesses of the last cer- vical and the dorsal vertebræ. The sacrum, spine of the ilium, and the spinous and transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ. Inserted into The second, third, and fourth ribs, by three neat fleshy tongues. All the spinous pro- cesses of the back, ex- cept the first. The angles of the ribs. The lower edge of each rib, by a flat tendon. Use. To expand the tho- rax, by elevating the ribs. To extend the ver- tebræ. To lift the ribs up- wards. To draw the ribs downwards, to move the body upon its axis, to assist the long, dorsi, and to turn the neck back, or to one side. (73) Longissimus dorsi. Complexus. Trachelo-mastoi- deus. Levator scupulæ. Semi-spinalis dorsi. The same parts as the former, and by one common broad tendon. The transverse pro- cesses of the four infe- rior cervical, and se- ven superior dorsal ver- tebræ. The transverse pro- cesses of the five lower cervical and three up- per dorsal vertebræ. The transverse pro- cesses of the four supe- rior cervical vertebræ. The transverse pro- cesses of the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th dorsal vertebræ. The transverse pro- cesses of all the dorsal and one cervical ver- tebræ. The middle of the os occipitis, at its tu- bercle. The os occipitis, be- hind the mastoid pro- cess of the temporal bone. The upper angle of the scapula. The spinous process- es of the four superior dorsal and the last cer- vical vertebræ. To stretch the ver- tebræ of the back, and keep the trunk erect. To draw the head backwards. To draw the head backwards. To move the sca- pula forwards and up- wards. To extend the spine obliquely backwards. H Multifidus (74) Name. Multisidus spinæ, Semi-spinalis colli, or Spinalis cervicis. Transversalis colli. Rectus capitis pos- ticus major. Rectus capitis pos- ticus minor. Obliquus capitis superior Arises from The sacrum, ilium, oblique and transverse processes of the lum- bar, the transverse of the dorsal, and four cer- vical vertebræ. The transverse pro- cesses of the six upper dorsal vertebræ. The transverse pro- cesses of the five upper dorsal vertebræ. The transverse pro- cess of the second cer- vical vertebra. The first vertebra of the neck. The transverse pro- cess of the atlas. Inserted into The spinous process- es of the lumbar, dor- sal, and cervical verte- bræ, except the atlas. The spinous process- es of the five middle cervical. The transverse pro- cesses of the cervical vertebræ. The lower ridge of the os occipitis. The os occipitis, at its tubercle. The end of the low- er occipital ridge. Use. To extend the back, and draw it backwards or to one side, and pre- vent the spine from being too much bent forwards. To stretch the neck obliquely backwards. To turn the neck obliquely backwards, and to one side. To extend the head, and draw it backwards. To assist the rectus major. To draw the head backwards. (75) Obliquus capitis inferior. Scalenus. Interspinales. Inter-transversales. The spinous process of the dentatus. The upper surface of the first and second rib. Between the spinous processes of the six in- ferior cervical verte- bræ. Between the trans- verse processes of the vertebræ. The transverse pro- cess of the atlas. The transverse pro- cesses of the cervical vertebræ. The spinous process- es of the vertebræ a- bove. The transverse pro- cesses of the vertebræ above. To draw the face to one side. To move the neck forwards, or to one side. To draw the spinous processes towards each other. To draw the trans- verse processes towards each other. MUSCLES OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES. Supra-spinatus. Infra-spinatus. The basis, spine, and upper edge of the sca- pula. The cavity below the spine of the sca- pula. A large tuberosity at the head of the os humeri. The upper part of the same tuberosity. To raise the arm. To roll the os hu- meri outwards. H2 Teres (76) Name. Teres minor. Teres major. Deltoides. Coraco-brachialis. Subscapularis. Arises from The inferior edge of the scapula. The inferior angle and edge of the sca- pula. The clavicle, and the acromion and spine of the scapula. The coracoid pro- cess of the scapula. The basis, superior and inferior edge of the scapula. Inserted into The greater tubero- sity of the humerus. The side of the groove for the long tendon of the biceps. The anterior and middle part of the os humeri. The middle and in- ner side of the os hu- meri. The protuberance at the head of the os hu- meri. Use. To assist the former. To assist in rotating the arm. To raise the arm. To roll the arm for- wards and upwards. To roll the arm to- wards. (77) MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE OS HUMERI. Biceps flexor cubiti. Brachialis internus. Triceps extensor cu- biti. Anconcus. Two heads, one from the coracoid process, the other, called the long head, from the edge of the glenoid ca- vity of the scapula. The os humeri at each side of the tendon of the deltoides. The neck of the scapula, and the neck and middle of the hu- merus. The external con- dyle of the humerus. The tuberosity at the upper end of the radius, at its fore part, and a little below its neck. The coronoid pro- cess of the ulna. The upper and out- er part of the olecra- non. The back part or ridge of the ulna. To bend the fore- arm, which it does with great strength, and to assist the supina- tors. To assist in bending the fore-arm. To extend the fore- arm. To assist in extend- ing the fore-arm. H3 MUSCLES (78) MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE FORE-ARM. Name. Supinator radii lon- gus. Extensor carpi ra- dialis longior. Extenfor carpi ra- diahs brevior. Extensor digitorum communis. Extensor minimi di- giti. Extensor carpi ul- naris. Flexor carpi ulna- ris Arises from The external con- dyle of the humerus. The external con- dyle of the humerus. The external con- dyle of the humerus. The external con- dyle of the os humeri. The outer condyle of the humerus. The outer condyle of the os humeri. The inner condyle of the humerus and olecranon. Inserted into The radius, near the styloid process. The metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. The metacarpal bone of the middle finger. The back of all the bones of the fingers. The second joint of the little finger. The metacarpal bone of the little finger. The os pisiforme, at its fore-part. Use. To assist in turning up the palm of the hand. To extend the wrist. To assist the former. To extend the fin- gers. To assist in extend- ing the fingers. To assist in extend- ing the wrist. To assist in bending the hand. (79) Palmaris longus. Flexor carpi radia- lis. Pronator radii teres. Supinator radii bre- vis. Extensor ossis meta- carpi pollicis manus. Extensor primi in- ternodii. The internal con- dyle of the os humeri. The internal con- dyle of the os humeri. The internal con- dyle of the humerus and coronoid process of the ulna. The outer condyle of the humerus, and edge of the ulna. The middle of the ulna, interosseous liga- ment, and radius. Near the middle of the ulna, interosseous ligament, and radius. The annular liga- ment of the wrist, and. there forms the apo- neurosis of the hand. The metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. The outer ridge of the radius, about the middle of its length. The anterior, inner, and upper part of the radius. The os trapezium, and first bone of the thumb. The convex part of the second bone of the thumb. To bend the hand. To bend the hand. To roll the hand in- wards. To roll the radius outwards, and assist the anconeus. To stretch the first bone of the thumb outwards. To extend the se- cond bone of the thumb outwards. Extensor (80) Name. Extensor secundi in- ternodii. Indicator. Flexor digitorum sublimis. Flexor digitorum profundus vel perfo- rans. Flexor longus pol- licis. Pronator radii qua- dratus. Arises from The back of the ul- na and interosseous li- gament. The middle of the ulna. The inner condyle of the os humeri, co- ronoid process of the ulna, and upper part of the radius. The upper part of the ulna, and interos- seous ligament. The upper and fore part of the radius. The inner and low- er part of the ulna. Inserted into The third and last bone of the thumb. The metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. The second bone of each finger, after be- ing perforated by the tendons of the profun- dus. The fore part of the last bone of each of the fingers. The last joint of the thumb. The radius opposite to its origin. Use. To stretch the thumb obliquely backwards. To extend the fore- finger. To bend the second joint of the fingers upon the first, and the first upon the meta- carpal bones. To bend the last joint of the fingers. To bend the last joint of the thumb. To roll the radius inwards. (81) MUSCLES SITUATED CHIEFLY ON THE HAND. Lumbricales. Flexor brevis polli- cis manus. Opponens pollicis. Ah dull or tollicis manus. Abductor pollicis manus. Abductor indicis mantus. Palmaris brevis. The tendons of the flexor profundus. The os trapezoides, ligament of the wrifst, and the os magnum. The os scaphoides and ligament of the wrist. The annular liga- ment, and os trape- zium. The metacarpal bone of the middle finger. The first bone of the thumb, and os tra- pezium. The annular liga- ment, and palmar apo- neurosis. The tendons of the extensor digitorum communis. The ossa sesamoidea and second bone of the thumb. The first bone of the thumb. The root of the first bone of the thumb. The root of the first bone of the thumb. The first bone of the fore-finger posteriorly. The metacarpal bone and skin of the little finger. To bend the first and extend the second phalanx. To bend the second joint of the thumb. To bend the thumb. To draw the thumb from the fingers. To pull the thumb towards the fingers. To move the fore- finger towards the thumb. To contract the palm of the hand. Abductor (82) Name. Abductor minimi digiti manus. Adductor minimi digiti. Flexor parvus mi- nimi digiti. Arises from The annular liga- ment and os pisiforme. The os cuneiforme and carpal ligament. The annular liga- ment and os cunei- forme. Inserted into The first bone of the little finger. The metacarpal bone of the little finger. The first bone of the little finger. Use. To draw the little finger from the rest. To move that bone towards the rest. To draw the little finger from the rest. Interossei interni and Interossei externi. Between the metacarpal bones, to the sides of which they are attached. To extend the fin- gers, and move them towards the thumb. MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. Pectinalis. The anterior edge of the os pubis. The upper part of the linea aspera of the femur. To bend the thigh. (83) Triceps adductor femoris. Adductor longus femoris. Adductor brevis femoris. Adductor magnus femoris. Obturator extermus. Gluteus maximus. Gluteus medius. The upper and fore part of the pubis. The fore part and ramus of the os pu- bis. The lower and fore part of the ramus of the pubis. The obturator liga- ment, and half of the thyroid hole. The spine of the ilium, posterior sacro- ischiatic ligaments, and os sacrum. The spine and supe- rior surface of the ili- um. The middle and back part of the linea aspera. The inner and up- per part of the linea aspera. The whole length of the linea aspera. The femur near the root of the great tro- chanter. The upper part of the linea aspera of the femur. The great trochan- ter of the os femoris. To bend the thigh. To bend the thigh, and move it inwards. To move the thigh inwards, and assist in bending it. To pull forwards, and rotate the thigh. To extend the thigh, and assist in rotatory motion. To assist the gluteus maximus. Gluteus (84) Name. Gluteus minimus. Pyriformis. Gemini. Quadratus femoris. Arises from The outer surface of the ilium and border of its great notch. The anterior part of the os sacrum. The spine and tube- rosity of the ischium. The tuberosity of the ischium. Inserted into The root of the great trochanter. A cavity at the root of the great trochanter. The same cavity as the pyriformis. A ridge between the two trochanters. Use. To assist the two former. To roll the thigh outwards. To roll the thigh outwards. To move the thigh outwards. MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE THIGH. Fascialis, or Tensor vaginæ fe- moris. Sartorius. Gracilis. The upper spinous process of the ilium. The upper spinous process of the ilium. The fore part of the ischium and pubis. The inner side of the membranous fascia which covers the thigh. The upper and in- ner part of the tibia. The upper and inner part of the tibia. To stretch the fascia. To bend the leg in- wards. To bend the leg. (85) Rectus femoris, vel Rectus cruris. Vastus externus. Vastus internus. Cruralis, or Cruræus. Semi-tendinosus. Semi-membranosus. Biceps flexor cruris. The lower spinous process of the ilium, & edge of the acetabu- lum. The root of the great trochanter, and linea aspera. The trochanter mi- nor, & the linea aspera. The anterior part of the lesser trochanter. The tuberosity of the ischium. The tuberosity of the ischium. The tuberosity of the ischium. The upper and fore part of the patella. The upper and la- teral part of the pa- tella. The upper and in- ner part of the patella. The upper part of the patella. The upper and in- ner part of the tibia. The back part of the head of the tibia. The upper and back part of the tibia, form- ing the outer ham- string. To extend the leg. To extend the leg. To extend the leg. To extend the leg. To bend and draw the leg inwards. To bend the leg. To bend the leg. Popliteus. (86) Name. Popliteus. Arises from The external con- dyle of the thigh bone. Inserted into The upper and in- ner part of the tibia. Use. To assist in bending the leg. MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE LEG. Gastrocnemius exter- nus or Gemellus. Gastrocnemius inter- nus, or Soleus. Plantaris. Tibialis anticus. Tibialis posticus. The internal and ex- ternal condyle of the femur. The head of the fi- bula, and back part of the head of the tibia. The outer condyle Of the os femoris and capsular ligament. The upper and fore part of the tibia. The back part of the tibia, interosseous ligament, and adjacent part of the fibula. The os calcis, with the tendon of the so- leus. The os calcis, by a common tendon, which is called tendo Achillis. The os calcis, near the tendo Achillis. The os cuneiforme internum. The middle cunei- form bone, and upper part of the os navicu- lare. To extend the foot. To extend the foot. To assist in extend- ing the foot. To bend the foot. To move the foot inwards. (87) Peroneus longus. Peroneus brevis. Extensor longus di- gitorum pedis. Extensor proprius pollicis pedis. Flexor longus digi- torum pedis †, profun- dus, perforans. The head of the ti- bia, and upper and outer part of the fibula. The outer and fore part of the fibula. The upper part of the tibia, interosseous ligament, and inner edge of the fibula. The upper and fore part of the tibia. The upper and in- ner part of the tibia. The metatarsal bone of the great toe. The metatarsal bone of the little toe. The first joint of the smaller toes by four tendons. The convex surface of the bones of the great toe. The last bones of all the toes, except the great toe, by four ten- dons. To move the foot outwards. To assist the pero- neus longus. To extend the toes, and separate them from one another. To extend the great toe. To bend the last joint of the toes. † The tendons of this muscle pass through the perforations in those of the flexor digitorum brevis. There is, about the middle of the foot, a fleshy mass, which unites with this muscle, called after Jacobus Sylvius, who first described it. I2 Flexor (88) Name. Flexor longus polli- cis pedis. Arises from A little below the head of the fibula. Inserted into The last bone of the great toe. Use. To bend the great toe. MUSCLES CHIEFLY SITUATED ON THE FOOT. Extensor brevis di- gitorum pedis. Flexor brevis digi- torum pedis, perfora- tus sublimis. Lumbricales pedis. Flexor brevis polli- cis pedis. The upper and an- terior part of the os calcis. The lower part of the os calcis. The tendons of the flexor longus digito- rum pedis. The fore part of the os calcis, and external cuneiform bone. The first bone of the great and other toes, except the little. The second phalanx of each of the small toes, by four tendons, which are perforated by those of the flex. long. dig. ped. The tendinous ex- pansion at the upper part of the toes. The first joint of the great toe, by two ten- dons. To extend the toes. To bend the second joint of the toes. To draw the toes inwards. To bend the first joint of the great toe. (89) Abductor pollicis pedis. Adductor pollicis pedis. Abductor minimi digiti pedis. Flexor brevis mini- mi digiti pedis. Transversales pe- dis. The inner and low- er part of the os calcis. The ligament ex- tended from the os cal- cis to the os cuboides. The tuber of the os calcis, and metatarsal bone of the little toe. The root of the me- tatarsal bone of the lit- tle toe. The ligament con- necting the bones of the tarsus. The first joint of the great toe. The outer sesamoid bone, or first joint of the great toe. The first joint of the little toe externally. The root of the first bone of the little toe. The tendon of the adductor pollicis. To move the great toe from the rest. To draw the great toe nearer to the rest, and to bend it. To draw the little toe outwards. To bend the little toe. To contract the foot. Interossei pedis interni. Interossei pedis externi. Between the metatarsal bones. To draw the smaller toes towards the great toe, and assist in ex- tending the toes. I3 PHYSIOLOGY (90) PHYSIOLOGY AND PHENOMENA OF MUSCULAR MOTION. Muscular motions are of three kinds; namely, voluntary, involuntary, and mixed. The vo- luntary motions of muscles are such as pro- ceed from an immediate exertion of the active pow- ers of the will: thus the mind directs the arm to be raised or depressed, the knee to be bent, the tongue to move, &c. The involuntary motions of muscles are those which are performed by organs, seemingly of their own accord, without any atten- tion of the mind or consciousness of its active power; as the contraction and dilatation of the heart, arteries, veins, absorbents, stomach, intes- tines, &c. The mixed motions are those which are in part under the control of the will, but which ordinarily act without our being conscious of their acting; as is perceived in the muscles of respiration, the intercostals, the abdominal mus- cles, and the diaphragm. When a muscle acts, it becomes shorter and thicker; both its origin and insertion are drawn towards its middle. The sphincter muscles are al- ways in action; and so likewise are antagonist muscles, even when they seem at rest. When two antagonist muscles move with equal force, the part which they are designed to move remains at rest; but if one of the antagonist muscles remains at rest, (91) rest, while the other acts, the part is moved towards the centre of motion. All the muscles of living animals are constantly endeavouring to shorten themselves. When a muscle is divided, it contracts. If a muscle be stretched to a certain extent, it contracts, and endeavours to acquire its former dimensions, as soon as the stretching cause is removed: this takes place in the dead body; in muscles cut out of the body, and also in parts not muscular, and is called by the immortal Haller vis mortua, and by some vis elastica. It is greater in living than in dead bodies, and is called the tone of the muscles. When a muscle is wounded, touched, or other- wise irritated, it contracts independent of the will; this power is called irritability, and by Hal- ler vis insita; it is a property peculiar to and inhe- rent in the muscles. The parts of our body which possess this property are called irritable, as the heart, arteries, muscles, &c. to distinguish them from those parts which have no muscular fibres. With regard to the degree of this property pecu- liar to various parts, the heart is the most irritable, then the stomach and intestines; the diaphragm, the arteries, veins, absorbents, and at length the vari- ous muscles follow; but the degree of irritability depends upon the age, sex, temperament, mode of living, climate, state of health, idiosyncrasy, and likewise upon the nature of the stimulus. When (92) When a muscle is stimulated, either through the medium of the will or any foreign body, it con- tracts, and its contraction is greater or less in pro- portion as the stimulus applied is greater or less. The contraction of muscles is different according to the purpose to be served by their contraction: thus, the heart contracts with a jerk; the urinary bladder, slowly and uniformly; puncture a mus- cle, and its fibres vibrate; and the abdominal mus- cles act slowly in expelling the contents of the rec- tum. Relaxation generally succeeds the contrac- tion of muscles, and alternates with it. The use of this property is very considerable; for upon it depends all muscular motion, and the func- tion of every viscus, except that of the nerves. BURSALOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE BURSÆ MUCOSÆ. Bursæ mucosæ are mucous bags, composed of a proper membrane, containing a kind of mucous fat, formed by the exhaling arteries of their inter- nal surface. They are of different sizes and firmness, and are connected here and there by cellular membrane, with the capsular liga- ments of cavities, tendons, bones, or ligaments. Their (93) Their internal surface is highly vascular, smooth, and shining. Situation. Various. Division, into vaginal and vesicular. Use. To lubricate the muscles and tendons, which are very frequently in motion. BURSÆ MUCOSÆ OF THE HEAD. 1. A bursa of the superior oblique muscle of the eye, situated behind its trochlea in the orbit. 2. The bursa of the digastricus, situated in the internal surface of its tendon. 3. A bursa of the circum- flexus, or tensor palati, situated between the hook- like process of the sphænoid bone and the tendon of that muscle. 4. A bursa of the sterno-hyoideus muscle, situated between the os hyoides and larynx. BURSÆ MUCOSÆ, SITUATED ABOUT THE SHOULDER JOINT. 1. The external acromial, situated under the acro- mion, between the coracoid process, deltoid mus- cle, and capsular ligament. 2. The internal acro- mial, situated above the tendon of the infra-spi- natus and teres major: it often communicates with the former. 3. The coracoid bursa, situated near the root of the coracoid process: it is sometimes double, and sometimes triple. 4. The clavicular bursa, found where the clavicle touches the cora- coid process. 5. The subclavian bursa, between the tendon of the subclavicularis muscle and the first rib. 6. The coraco-brachial, placed between the com- mon origin of this muscle and the biceps and the capsular (94) capsular ligament. 7. The bursa of the pectoralis major, situated under the head of the humerus, between the internal surface of the tendon of that muscle and another bursa placed on the long head of the biceps. 8. An external bursa of the teres major, under the head of the os humeri, between it and the tendon of the teres major. 9. An in- ternal bursa of the teres major, found within the muscle where the fibres of its tendon diverge. 10. A bursa of the latissimus dorsi, between the tendon os this muscle and the os humeri. 11. The humero-bicipital bursa, in the vagina of the tendon of the biceps. There are other bursæ mucosæ about the humerus, but their situation is uncertain. BURSÆ MUCOSÆ, SITUATED NEAR THE EL- BOW JOINT. 1. The radio-bicipital, situated between the ten- don of the biceps, brachialis, and anterior tuber- cle of the radius. 2. The cubito-radial, between the tendon of the biceps, supinator brevis, and the ligament common to the radius and ulna. 3. The anconeal bursa, between the olecranon and tendon of the anconeus muscle. 4. The capitulo- radial bursa, between the tendon common to the extensor carpi radialis brevis, and extensor com- munis digitorum and round head of the radius. There (95) There are other bursæ, but as their situation va- ries, they are omitted. BURSÆ OF THE INFERIOR FART OF THE FORE-ARM AND HAND. On the Inside of the Wrist and Hand. 1. A very large bursa, for the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus. 2. Four short bursæ on the fore part of the tendons of the flexor sublimis 3. A large bursa behind the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus, between it and the fore part of the radius, capsular ligament of the wrist, and os trapezium. 4. A large bursa behind the tendons of the flexor digitorum profundus and on the fore part of the end of the radius, and fore part of the capsular ligament of the wrist. In some sub- jects it communicates with the former. 5. An oblong bursa, between the tendon of the flexor car- pi radialis and os trapezium. 6. A very small bursa between the tendon of the flexor carpi ul- naris and os pisiforme. On the hack Part of the Wrist and Hand. 7. A bursa between the tendon of the abductor pol licis longus and the radius. 8. A large bursa between the two extensores carpi radiales. 9. Another below it, common to the extensores car- pi radiales. 10. A bursa, at the insertion of the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis. 11. An ob- long (96) long bursa, for the tendon of the extensor pollicis longus, and which communicates with 9. 12. A bursa, for the tendon of the extensor pollicis lon- gus, between it and the metacarpal bone of the thumb. 13. A bursa between the tendons of the extensor of the fore, middle, and ring fingers. 14. A bursa for the extensors of the little finger. 15. A bursa between the tendon of the extensor carpi ul- naris and ligament of the wrist. There are also bursæ mucosæ between the musculi lumbricales and interossei. BURSÆ SITUATED NEAR THE HIP JOINT. On the fore Part of the Joint. 1. The ilco-puberal, situated between the iliacus internus, psoas magnus, and the capsular ligament of the head of the femur. 2. The pectineal, be- tween the tendon of the pectineus and the thigh- bone. 3. A small bursa of the gluteus medius muscle, situated between it and the great trochan- ter, before the insertlon of the pyriformis. 4. A bursa of the gluteus minimus muscle between its tendon and the great trochanter. 5. The gluteo- fascial, between the gluteus maximus and vastus externus. On the posterior Part of the Hip Joint, 6. The tubero-ischiatic bursa, situated between the obturator internus muscle, the posterior spine of the ischium, and its tuberosity. 7. The obturatory 3 bursa, (97) bursa, which is oblong, and found between the ob- turathanter. BURSÆ MUCOSÆ, SITUATED NEAR THE KNEE JOINT. 1. The supra-genual, which adheres to the ten- dons of the vastus and cruralis and the fore part of the thigh bor internus and gemini muscles and the capsu- lar ligament. 8. A bursa of the semi-membranosus, under its origin and the long head of the biceps fe- moris. 9. The gluteo-trochanteral bursa, situated be- tween the tendon of the psoas muscle and the root of the great trochanter. 10. Two gluteo-femoral bursæ, situated between the tendon of the gluteus maximus and os femoris. 11. A bursa of the quadratus femoris, situated between it and the lit- tle trochanter. 12. The iliac bursa, situated be- tween the tendon of the iliacus internus and the little trocone. 2. The infra-genual bursa, situ- ated under the ligament of the patella, and often communicates with the above. 3. The anterior ge- nual, placed between the tendon of the sartorius gracilis and semitendinosus and internal and lateral ligament of the knee. 4. The posterior genual, which is sometimes double, and is situated be- tween the tendons of the semi-membranosus, the internal head of the gastrocnemius, the capsular ligament, and internal condyle. 5. The popliteal, conspicuous between the tendon of that muscle, K the (98) the external condyle of the femur, the semilunar cartilage, and external condyle of the tibia. 6. The bursa of the biceps cruris, between the exter- nal part of the tendon, the biceps cruris, and the external lateral ligament of the knee. BURSÆ MUCOSÆ, SITUATED IN THE FOOT. On the Back, Side, and hind Part of the Foot. 1. A bursa of the tibialis anticus, between its tendon, the lower part of the tibia, and capsular ligament of the ankle. 2. A bursa between the tendon of the extensor pollicis pedis longus, the tibia and capsular ligament of the ankle. 3. A bursa of the extensor digitorum communis, between its tendons, the tibia and ligament of the ankle. 4. A large bursa, common to the tendons of the peronei muscles. 5. A bursa of the peroneus brevis, proper to its tendon. 6. The calcaneal bursa, be- tween the tendo Achillis and os calcis. In the Sole of the Foot. 1. A bursa for the tendon of the peroneus longus. 2. A bursa common to the tendon of the flexor pollicis pedis longus, and the tendon of the flexor digitorum pedis communis longus profundus. 3. A bursa of the tibialis posticus, between its tendon, the tibia, and astragalus. 4. Five bursæ for the flex- or tendons, which begin a little above the first joint of each toe, and extend to the root of the third phalanx or insertion of the tendons. 5 ANGIOLOGY, (99) ANGIOLOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE VESSELS. Vessels are long, membranous canals, which carry blood, lymph, or chyle. Division, into arteries, veins, and absorbents. Situation. Ex- cept the epidermis, membrana arachnoidea, and nails, every part of the body has vessels, which injections demonstrate. OF ARTERIES. Arteries are elastic membranous canals, which pulsate: they always become narrower as they pro- ceed from the heart towards the extremities. Ori- gin, from the ventricles of the heart; namely, the pulmonary artery from the right, and the aorta from the left, ventricle: so that there are only two arteries, of which the rest are branches. Termina- tion, in veins, exhaling vessels, or they anasto- mose with one another. Composed of three membranes, called coats; an external one, a mid- dle coat, which is muscular, and an inner one, which is smooth. Use, to convey blood from the heart to the different parts of the body, for nutri- tion; preservation of life; generation of heat; and the secretion of different fluids. K2 OF (100) OF THE AORTA. The aorta arises from the left ventricle of the heart, forms an arch towards the dorsal vertebræ, then descends through the opening of the diaphragm into the abdomen, in which it proceeds by the left side of the spine to the last vertebra of the loins, where it divides into the two iliac arteries. In this course it gives off, just above its origin, two coro- nary arteries to the heart, and then forms an arch. The arch of the aorta gives off three branch- es, which supply the head, neck, and arms, with blood; these are, I. Arteria innominata, which divides into the right carotid and right subclavian arteries. II. The left carotid. III. The left subclavian. The carotid arteries, having emerged from the chest, run up along the neck one on each side of the trachea, to the angle of the lower jaw, where they divide into external and internal. The external carotid gives off eight branches to the neck and face. 1. Arteria Thyroidea, which is very tortuous, sup- plies the thyroid gland, and gives off branches to several adjacent muscles. 2. A. Lingualis, which lies flat upon the side of the tongue, and gives off the ramus hyoideus, dorsa- lis linguæ, sublingualis, and ranina. 3. A (101) 3. A. Labialis, called also the external maxillary, the angular, and facial artery: it gives off the palatina inferior, the submentalis, and the coronary of the lips. 4. A. Pharyngea inferior, which sends a number of small twigs about the fauces and basis of the cranium. 5. A. Occipitalis, from which the posterior tempo- ral arises. 6. A. Posterior auris, which furnishes the parts about the cartilages of the ear with blood, and transmits the arteria tympani and stylo-mastoidea. 7. A. Maxillaris interna, which is extremely tor- tuous, and gives off—the spinous artery to the dura mater—the lower maxillary artery, which is included in the lower jaw, and supplies the teeth and face— the pterygoid arteries, which nourish the pterygoid muscles—two deep temporal arteries, which lie wider than the temporal muscle. The internal maxil- lary then gives off a branch, which almost imme- diately divides into the alveolar and infra-orbital; then an artery to the palate, the superior palatine; the upper pharyngeal, which plays about the sphæ- noid sinus; and, lastly, the nasal artery, which is transmitted through the sphæno-palatine foramen to the cavity of the nostrils. 8. A. Temporalis, which perforates the parotid gland, and sends off the transversalis faciei, which inosculates with the arteries of the face; and several K3 branches (102) branches which go to the ear, forehead, and about the temples. The internal carotid leaves the external at the angle of the jaw, and proceeds by the par vagum and intercostal nerve to the carotid canal in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, where it is shaped like the letter s, and enters the cranium at the side of the sella turcica, having given off two very small twigs to the pituitary gland, and 3d, 4th, and 5th pair of nerves; and when it has reached the anterior clinoid process, it sends off— 1. Arteria Ophthalmica, which is distributed on the eye. 2. A. Anterior cerebri, which proceeds before the sella turcica, unites with its fellow, and forms the circle of Willis, from which a branch proceeds to the third ventricle, septum lucidum and the arteria corports callosi. 3. A. Media cerebri, which runs between the an- terior and middle lobes of the brain, gives off the artery of the choroid plexus, and is lost on the middle lobe of the brain. 4. A. Communicans, which proceeds backwards, and soon inosculates with the vertebral. The subclavian artery arises on the right side, from the arteria innominata, and on the left, from the arch of the aorta. Each subclavian gives off five branches. 1. The (103) 1. The internal mammary, from which arise the A. thymica, A. comes phrenici, the pericardiac, and the phrenico-pericardiac. 2. The inferior thyroid, from which arise the ramus thyroideus, the tracheal arteries, the ascending thy- roid, and the transversalis humeri. 3. A. Vertebralis, which proceeds into the verte- bral foramina, to ascend into the cavity of the cra- nium, where it unites upnn the cuneiform process of the occipital bone with its fellow of the other side, and forms the basilary artery, which immediately gives off the posterior artery of the cerebellum; it then proceeds upon the tuberculum annulare, to give off four branches, two to the right, and two to the left, which constitute the A. anterior cerebelli, which branch to the crura cerebelli, the cerebellum, ver- mis, crura cerebri, corpora quadrigemina, pineal gland, and fourth ventricle; and the A. posterior ce- rebri, which is joined by the communicans, and supply the thalami nervorum opticorum, the cen- trum geminum, infundibulum, and crura fornicis, and the posterior lobes of the brain, inosculating with several arteries. 4. A. Cervicalis profunda. 5. A. Cervicalis superficialis, both of which are distributed about the muscles of the neck. 6. A. Intercostalis superior, which lies between the two upper ribs. 7. A. (104) 7. A. Supra-scapularis, which sometimes arises from the A. thyroidea, when it is called the transversalis humeri. As soon as the subclavian has arrived in the axilla, it is called the axillary artery, which runs into the arm, where it is termed the brachial. The AXILLARY ARTERY gives off, 1. The four mammary arteries, called thoracica su- perior; thoracica longior; thoracica humeriana, and thoracica alaris or axillaris, which supply blood to the muscles about the breast. 2. The sub-scapularis, which supplies the lower surface of the scapula. 3. The circumstexa posterior. 4. Circumstexa anterior, which ramify about the joint. The brachial or humeral artery gives off, 1. Many lateral vessels. 2. A. Profunda humeri superior. 3. A. Profunda humeri inferior. 4. Ramus anastomoticus magnus, which anastomoses round the elbow joint. The brachial then becomes the ulnar, and gives off the radial. The ulnar or cubital artery sends off, 1. The recurrent branches, which anastomose with the ramus anastomoticus magnus. 2. A. Interossea communis. It then sends small branches to the adjacent muscles, as it proceeds down (105) down to the wrist; just before it arrives here, it gives off A. dorsalis ulnaris, which goes round to the back of the little finger. At the wrist it gives off A. palmaris profunda; then forms a great arte- rial arch, called the superficial palmar arch, which supplies branches to the fingers. The radial gives off the radial recurrent, pro- ceeds to the wrist, where the pulse is felt, and gives off the superficialis volæ, and then divides into the A. dorsalis pollicis, A. radialis indicis, A. magna pol- licis, and A. palmaris profunda. The descending aorta gives off, in the breast, 1. The bronchial, which nourish the lungs. 2. The æsophageal, which go to the æsophagus. 3. The intercostals, between the ribs. 4. The inferior diaphragmatic. Within the abdomen, it gives off eight branches. I. The CŒLIAC, which divides into three branches. 1. Arteria Hepatica, which gives off, α. A. Duodeno-gastrica, which sends off the right gastro-epiploic and the pancreatico-duodenalis. The latter transmits the pilorica inferior and the transverse pancreatic. β. A. Pilorica superior hepatica. The hepatic artery then ramifies through the li- ver. 2. A. Coronaria ventriculi, or Gastrica, which gives off the superior coronary and superior piloric arteries. 3. A. (106) 3. A. Splenica, from which atrise the pancræ- tica magna and pancreaticæ parvæ, the posterior gastric arteries, the left gastro-epiploic artery, and the vasa brevia. 2. The superior mesenteric, or meseraic, of which the colica media, colica dextra, and the ileo-colica are branches. 3. The renal arteries, or emulgents, which are short, and divide into three or four branches in the pelvis of the kidney. 4. The spermatic arteries, which are very small and long, and proceed with the spermatic cord to the testicles. 5. The inferior meseraic, from which arises the left colic artery and the internal hæmorrhoidal. 6. The lumbar arteries, which nourish the mus- cles and vertebræ of the loins. 7. The middle sacral artery, which is distributed about the sacrum. The aorta then bifurcates, and becomes the iliac arteries. The iliacs soon divide into internal and external. Each INTERNAL ILIAC or HYPOGASTRIC AR- TERY gives off five branches: 1. The lateral sacral arteries, three or four in number. 2. The gluteal, which ramify upon the back of the haunch bone, and supply the gluteal muscles. 3. The (107) 3. The ischiatic, which turns downwards along the hip, and gives off the coccygeal artery. 4. Arteria pudica communis, which is sometimes a branch of the sciatic artery; it proceeds out of the pelvis, through the sciatic notch, returns into the pelvis, and runs towards the symphysis of the pubis. In this course it gives off branches to the vesiculæ seminales and prostate gland; and the lower or ex- ternal hæmorrhoidal artery to the anus, and then- forms the A. perinei, the A. penis, which proceed one on each side; and a branch which plunges deep into the substance of the penis. 5. The obturatory, which passes through the oval foramen, and is distributed on the thick muscles in the centre of the thigh. Each EXTERNAL ILIAC gives off, 1. The epigastric, which is reflected from Pou- part's ligament upwards, along the abdomen. 2. A. Circumflexa iliac a, which runs backwards the crista ilii. THE EXTERNAL ILIAC then passes under Pou- part's ligament, becomes the FEMORAL or CRU- RAL ARTERY, and is continued along the thigh into the popliteal. In this course it gives off near the groin, 1. The profunda femoris, which gives off the A. perforans prima; the A. perforans secunda magna; the A. perforans tertia; the A. perforans quarta, which nourish the muscles of the thigh. The fe- moral (108) moral artery then makes a spiral turn round the os femoris, and sends off small branches of no im- portance to adjacent muscles. About two hands breadth from the knee it gives out. 2. The Ramus anastomoticus magnus, which ra- mifies about the knee joint. The femoral artery having reached the ham is called the POPLITEAL, which gives off several small branches about the joint, and divides below the ham into the tibialis antica and tibialis postica. The TIBIALIS ANTICA soon perforates the in- terosseous ligament, and passes along the tibia over the bones of the tarsus, and then inosculates with the back arteries. In this course it gives off. 1. The recurrent, which inosculates with the articular branches of the popliteal: it then sends off small branches to neighbouring muscles, as it passes down the leg. 2. A. Malleolaris interna, about the inner ankle. 3. A. Malleolaris externa, about the outer ankle. 4. A. Tarsea, which lies upon the bones of the tarsus. 5. A. Metatarsea, to the tendons of the pero- nei muscles. 6. Dorsalis externa halucis, which runs along the metatarsal bone of the great toe. The TIBIALIS POSTICA passes along the back part of the tibia, goes round the inner ankle, and (109) and divides at the heel into the two plantar arteries. In this course it sends off, 1. A. Nutritia tibiæ, which gives branches to the popliteus, soleus and tibialis anticus muscles, be- fore it enters the bone. 2. Many small branches, as it passes downwards. 3. A. Plantaris interna, which runs along the inner edge of the sole of the foot, and sends off four branches about the foot. 4. A. Plantaris interna, which forms an arch and inosculates with the anterior tibial artery, and gives off the digital branches to the toes. PULMONARY ARTERY. The pulmonary artery arises from the right ven- tricle of the heart, and conveys the blood into the lungs, that is returned to the heart by the veins; not for their nutrition, but to receive from the air in the lungs a certain principle, necessary for the continuance of life, and which the arterial blood distributes to every part of the body. It soon divides into a right and left, the right going to the right lung and the left to the left lung, where they divide into innumerable ramifications, and form a beautiful net-work, or plexus of vessels, upon the air vesicles, and then terminate in the pulmonary veins. THE ACTION OF THE ARTERIES. The arteries, by the impulse of the blood from the ventricles of the heart, are dilated and irritated, L and (110) and by means of their muscular coat contract upon the blood, and thus propel it to the glands, muscles, bones, membranes, and every part of the body for their nutrition and the various secretions, and then into the veins. This dilatation and contraction is called the PULSE, which is perceptible in the trunks and branches of the arteries, but not in the capillary vessels, except when inflammation is going on. OF VEINS. VEINS are membranous canals which do not pulsate: they gradually become larger as they ad- vance towards the heart, in which they terminate, and bring back the blood from the arteries. ORIGIN. From the extremities of the arteries by anastomosis. TERMINATION of all the veins is into the auricles of the heart. DIVISION, into trunks, branches, ramuli, &c. SITUATION. They run by the sides of arteries, but more superficially. COMPOSED like arteries of three membranes, but which are semi-transparent and more delicate. VALVES are thin semi-lunar membranous folds, which prevent the return of the blood in the vein. The blood is returned from every part of the body into the right auricle:—the vena cava supe- rior receives it from the head, neck, thorax, and superior extremities:—the vena cava inferior from the abdomen and inferior extremities:—and the co- ronary (111) ronary vein receives it from the coronary arteries of the heart. THE VENA CAVA SUPERIOR. This vein terminates in the superior part of the right auricle, into which it evacuates the blood, from The right and left subclavian veins, and the vena azygos. The right and left subclavian veins receive the blood from the head and upper extremities, in the following manner. The veins of the fingers, called digitals, receive their blood from the digital arteries, and empty it into, 1. The cephalic of the thumb, which runs on the back of the hand along the thumb, and evacuates itself into the external radial. 2. The salvatella, which runs along the little finger, unites with the former, and empties its blood into the internal and external cubital veins. At the bend of the fore-arm are three veins, called the great cephalic, the basilic, and the median. THE GREAT CEPHALIC runs along the superior part of the fore-arm, and receives the blood from the external radial. THE BASILIC ascends on the under side, and receives the blood from the external and internal cubital veins, and some branches which accompany the brachial artery, called venæ satellitum. L2 THE (112) THE MEDIAN is situated in the middle of the fore-arm, and arises from the union of several branches. These three veins ail unite above the bend of the arm, and form THE BRACHIAL VEIN, which receives all their blood, and is continued into the axilla, where it is called THE AXILLARY VEIN. This receives also the blood from the scapula, and superior and inferior parts of the chest, by the superior and inferior thoracic vein, the vena muscularis, and the scapularis. The axillary vein then passes under the clavicle, where it is called the SUBCLAVIAN, which unites with the external and internal jugular veins, and the vertebral vein which brings the blood from the ver- tebral sinuses; it receives also the blood from the mediastinal, pericardiac, diaphragmatic, thymic, inter- nal mammary and laryngeal veins, and then unites with its fellow, to form the vena cava superior, or, as it is sometimes called, vena cava descendens. The blood from the external and internal parts of the head and face is returned in the following man- ner into the external and internal jugulars, which terminate in the subclavians. The frontal, angular, temporal, auricular, sublin- gual, and occipital veins receive the blood from the parts after which they are named; these all converge to each side of the neck, and form a trunk, called the EXTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN. The (113) The blood from the brain, cerebellum, medulla ob- longata, and membranes of these parts, is received in- to the lateral sinuses, or veins of the dura mater, one of which empties its blood through the foramen lacerum in basi cranii into the INTERNAL JUGULAR, which descends in the neck by the carotid arteries, receives the blood from the thyroideal and internal maxillary veins, and empties itself into the subclavians within the thorax. The vena azygos receives the blood from the bronchial, superior œsophageal, vertebral and intercos- tal veins, and empties it into the superior cava. VENA CAVA INFERIOR. The vena cava inferior is the trunk of all the abdominal veins and those of the lower extremities, from which parts the blood is returned in the follow- ing manner. The veins of the toes, called the digital veins, receive the blood from the digital arteries, and form on the back of the foot three branches, one on the great toe called the cephalic, another which runs along the little toe, called the vena saphena, and one on the back of the foot, vena dorsalis pedis; and on the sole of the foot they evacuate themselves into the plantar veins. The three veins on the upper part of the foot coming together above the ankle, form the anterior tibial; and the plantar veins with a branch from the calf of the leg, called the sural vein, form the L3 posterior (114) posterior tibial: a branch also ascends in the direction, of the fibula, called the peroneal vein. These three branches unite before the ham, into one branch, the sub popliteal vein, which ascends through the ham, carrying all the blood from the foot: it then proceeds upon the anterior part of the thigh, where it is termed the crural or femoral vein, receives several muscular branches, and passes under Pou- part's ligament into the cavity of the pelvis, where it is called the INTERNAL ILIAC. The arteries which are distributed about the pel- vis evacuate their blood into the external hæmorrhoi- dal veins, the hypogastric veins, the internal pudendal, the vena magna ipsius penis, and obturatory veins, all of which unite in the pelvis, and form the INTER- NAL ILIAC VEIN. The external iliac vein receives the blood from the external pudendal veins, and then unites with the internal iliac at the last vertebra of the loins, and form the VENA CAVA INFERIOR, OR ASCEN- DENS, which ascends on the right side of the fspine, receiving the blood from the sacral, lumbar, right spermatic veins, and the vena cava hepatica; and having arrived at the diaphragm, it passes through the right foramen, and enters the right auricle of the heart, into which it evacuates all the blood from the abdominal viscera and lower extremities. VENA (115) VENA CAVA HEPATICA. This vein ramifies in the substance of the liver, and brings the blood into the vena cava inferior from the branches of the VENA PORTÆ, a great vein which carries the blood from the abdominal vis- cera into the substance of the liver. The trunk of this vein, about the fissure of the liver in which it is situated, is divided into the hepatic and abdomi- nal portions. The abdominal portion is composed of splenic, meseraic, and internal hæmorrhoidal veins, These three venous branches carry all the blood from the stomach, spleen, pancreas, omentum, me- sentery, gall-bladder, and the small and large intes- tines, into the sinus of the vena portæ. The he- patic portion of the vena portæ enters the sub- stance of the liver, divides into innumerable ra- mifications, which secrete the bile, and the su- perfluous blood passes into corresponding branches of the venæ cavæ hepatiæ. THE ACTION OF THE VEINS. Veins do not pulsate; the blood which they re- ceive from the arteries flows through them very slowly, and is conveyed to the right auricle of the heart, by the contractility of their coats, the pres- sure of the blood from the arteries, called the vis a tergo, the contraction of the muscles, and respira- tion; (116) tion; and it is prevented from going backwards in the vein by the valves, of which there are a great number. OF THE ABSORBENTS. ABSORBENTS are very thin and pellucid vessels, which carry the lymph from every part of the body; substances applied to the surface of the body, and the chyle from the intestines; into the thoracic duct. DIVISION, into lacteals and lymphatics. They are call- ed lacteals in the intestines and mesentery, and lympha- tics in every other part. FIGURE, branching, becom- ing broader as they proceed towards their termina- tion. VALVES, numerous, giving them a knotted appearance. SITUATION. It is supposed that they exist in every part of the body, although they have not been as yet detected in some, as the brain, &c. ORIGIN. The cellular membrane, the viscera, the excretory ducts of the viscera, the external sur- face, and every part of the body. TERMINATION, in the thoracic duct, or subclavian veins. LYMPHA- TIC or CONGLOBATE GLANDS are situated every where in the course of the lymphatics. SUBSTANCE. They consist of tender, pellucid, strong tunics. The USE of the absorbents is to carry back the lymph from different parts; to convey the chyle from the intes- tines to the thoracic duct, where they become mixed and diluted; and to absorb substances from surfaces and parts on which they originate. 2 ABSORB- (117) ABSORBENTS OF THE HEAD AND NECK. Absorbents are found on the scalp and about the viscera of the neck, which unite into a consider- able branch that accompanies the jugular vein. Absorbents have not been detected in the human brain; yet there can be no doubt of there being such vessels: it is probable that they pass out of the cranium through the canalis caroticus and fora- men lacerum in basi cranii, on each side, and join the above jugular branch, which passes through some glands as it proceeds into the chest to the angle of the subclavian and jugular vein. ABSORBENTS OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. The absorbents of the upper extremities are di- vided into superficial and deep-seated. The super- ficial absorbents ascend under the skin in every direction to the wrist, from whence a branch pro- ceeds upon the posterior surface of the fore-arm to the head of the radius, over the internal condyle of the humerus, up to the axilla, receiving several branches as it proceeds. Another branch proceeds from the wrist along the anterior part of the fore- arm, and forms a net-work with a branch coming over the ulna from the posterior part, and ascends on the inside of the humerus to the glands of the axilla. The deep-seated absorbents accompany the larger blood- (118) blood-vessels, and pass through two glands about the middle of the humerus, and ascend to the glands of the axilla. The superficial and deep-feated ab- sorbents having passed through the axillary glands, form two trunks, which unite into one, to be in- serted with the jugular absorbents into the thoracic duct, at the angle formed by the union of the subclavian with the jugular vein. ABSORBENTS OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. These are also superficial and deep-seated. The superficial ones lie between the skin and muscles. Those of the toes and foot form a branch which as- cends upon the back of the foot over the tendon of the cruræus anticus, forms with other branches a plexus above the ankles, then proceeds along the tibia over the knee, sometimes passes through a gland, and proceeds up the inside of the thigh to the subinguinal glands. The deep-seated absorbents follow the course of the arteries, and accompany the femoral artery, in which course they pass through some glands in the leg and above the knee, and then proceed to some deep-feated subinguinal glands. The absorbents from about the external parts of the pubis, as the penis, perineum, and from the external parts of the pelvis, in general proceed to the inguinal glands. The subinguinal and ingui- nal glands send forth several branches, which pass through (119) through the abdominal ring into the cavity of the abdomen. ABSORBENTS OF THE ABDOMINAL AND THO- RACIC VISCERA. The absorbents of the lower extremities accom- pany the external iliac artery, where they are joined by many branches from the uterus, urinary bladder, spermatic chord, and some branches accompanying the internal iliac artery: they then ascend to the sa- crum, where they form a plexus, which proceeds over the psoas muscles, and meeting with the lac- teals of the mesentery form the thoracic duct, or trunk of the absorbents, which is of a serpentine form, about the size of a crow-quill, and runs up the dorsal vertebræ, through the posterior opening of the diaphragm, between the aorta and vena azy- gos, to the angle formed by the union of the subcla- vian and jugular veins. In this course it receives The absorbents of the kidneys, which are superfi- cial and deep-seated, and unite as they proceed to- wards the thoracic duct. The absorbents of the spleen, which are upon its peritoneal coat, and unite with those of the pan- creas. A branch from a plexus of vessels passing above and below the duodenum, and formed by the ab- sorbents of the stomach, which come from the lesser and greater curvature, and are united about the py- lorus (120) lorus with those of the pancreas and liver, which converge from the external surface and internal parts towards the portæ of the liver, and also by several branches from the gall-bladder. PHYSIOLOGY OF ABSORPTION. Absorption is the taking up of substances which are applied to the mouths of absorbing vessels; thus the chyle is absorbed from the intestinal tube by the lacteals, the vapour of circumscribed cavi- ties, and of the cells of the cellular membrane by the lymphatics of those parts; and thus mercury and other substances are taken into the system, when rubbed on the skin. The principle by which this absorption takes place is a power inherent in the mouths of absorb- ing vessels, a vis insita, dependent on the high de- gree of irritability of their internal membrane by which the vessels contract and propel the fluid for- wards. Hence the use of this function appears to be of the utmost importance, viz, to supply the blood with chyle; to remove the superfluous va- pour of circumscribed cavities, otherwise dropsies, as hydrocephalus, hydrothorax, hydrocordis, as- cites, hydrocele, &c. would constantly be taking place; to remove the superfluous vapour from the cells of the cellular membrane dispersed through- out every part of the body, that anasarca may not take (121) take place; to remove the hard and soft parts of the body; and to convey into the system medicines which are applied to the surface of the body. SANGUIFICATION. Sanguification appears to be nothing more than the mixing, by the action of the blood-vessels, of the chyle with the blood; for as it passes from the subclavian vein, it changes its colour, and when it has reached the heart, cannot be distinguished from the mass of circulating blood. NEUROLOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE NERVES. NERVES are long whitish cords, compofed of bundles or fasciculi of fibres, which serve for sen- sation. ORIGIN. The cerebrum, cerebellum, me- dulla oblongata, and medulla spinalis. TERMINA- TION. The organs of sense; viscera; vessels; mus- cles; bones, &c. FIGURE, branched. DIVIDED into trunks, branches, ramuli, capillary fibres, papillæ, nervous plexuses, and ganglions, or knots. SUB- STANCE, pulpy. DIVISION, into cerebral and spinal. Number, thirty-nine pair; nine pair of cerebral nerves, and thirty pair of spinal. The M nine (122) nine pair of cerebral nerves are, 1. The olfac- tory. 2. The optic. 3. Oculorum motorii. 4. The pathetic, or trochleatores. 5. The trigemini, or divisi. 6. The abducent. 7. The auditory and facial. 8, The par vagum, or great sympathetic nerves. 9. The lingual pair. The thirty pair of spinal nerves are divided into eight pair of cervical, twelve pair of dorsal, five pair of lumbar, and five pair of sacral nerves. USE, for sensation in sensible parts, for the five external senses, as touch, sight, hearing, smelling, and taste; and for the mo- tion of muscles. OF THE NERVES OF THE BRAIN. THE FIRST PAIR, or Olfactory nerves, arise from the corpora striata, pass forwards over the sphænoid and frontal bones, one to each side of the crista galli, where they send off a number of branches, which go through the cribriform fora- mina of the ethmoid bone, to be distributed on the pituitary membrane of the nose. USE, for smelling. THE SECOND PAIR, or Optic nerves, a rise from the thalami nervorum opticorum, decussate each other, then pass through the foramina optica, and perforate the bulb of the eye, and in it form the retina, which is the organ of vision. THE (123) THE THIRD PAIR, or Oculorum motorii, arise from the crura cerebri, near the pons Varolii, pass forwards towards the top of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, where they perforate the dura mater, and proceed to the orbital fissure, to be inserted into the muscles of the bulb of the eye, which they move. THE FOURTH PAIR, or The Pathetic nerves, arise from the crura of the cerebellum laterally, pass forward, and pierce the dura mater below the third pair, and proceed with them through the or- bital fissure, to be inserted into the trochlearis mus- cle of the eye. THE FIFTH PAIR, or Trigemini, arise from the anterior part of the crura of the cerebellum, and are divided within the cavity of the cranium into three branches, viz. the ophthalmic or orbital, and the superior and inferior maxillary. The orbital nerve gives off a branch, near its origin, which unites with a branch of the sixth pair, to form the great intercostal nerve: it then divides into three branches, the frontal, which goes through the superciliary foramen to the muscles and integuments of the forehead; the lachrymal, which goes to the lachrymal gland; and the nosal, which goes forwards to the inner canthus of the eye, where it gives off a branch or two, then returns into the cranium, and passes through the cribriform M2 plate (124) plate of the ethmoid bone, and is distributed on the pituitary membrane. The superior maxillary nerve goes through the fo- ramen rotundum, is divided into, 1st. the sphæno-pa- latine, which goes through the sphæno-palatine fora- men, sends twigs to the internal pterygoid muscle, then enters the cavity of the nostrils, and is lost on the Eustachian tube, soft palate, and pituitary sinus of the sphænoid bone; 2d. the posterior alveolar branch, which descends through the foramen by the last grind- er, and is distributed to the molares: 3d. the infra-orbi- tal nerve, which goes through the infra-orbital fora- men, and is distributed on the muscles of the cheek, nose, lips, and communicates with the facial nerve. The inferior maxillary goes out of the cranium, through the foramen ovale, giving branches to the muscles and glands in its course, and to the facial nerve, and divides as it passes over the pterygoid muscle, into, 1st. the internal lingual, which is con- nected with the chorda tympani, and supplies the sublingual glands and contiguous muscles, but more especially the tongue: 2d. the more proper inferior maxillary, which goes into the canalis men- talis of the lower jaw, and gives a branch to each tooth, and comes out again, to supply the lower lip and chin. THE SIXTH PAIR, or Abducent verves, arise from the posterior part of the pons Varolii, proceed for- wards, (125) wards, perforate the dura mater, and send off some branches near the sella turcica, which unite with branches of the ophthalmic nerve of the fifth pair, to form the great intercostal nerve; they then accom- pany the third and fourth pair through the orbital fissure, and are distributed on the recti exteni muscles of the bulb of the eye. THE SEVENTH PAIR, or Auditory nerves, as they are commonly called, originate on each side by two branches, the portio dura and portio mollis. The portio dura is, in fact, a nerve of the face, and is therefore, with more propriety, called the Facial nerve: it arises from the fourth ventricle of the brain, passes through the petrous portion of the temporal bone, where it gives off the chorda lym- pani, proceeds through the stylo-mastoid foramen, perforates the parotid gland, and then divides into seven or eight branches, which constitute the pes anserinus, and supply the ear, parotid gland, and muscles of the face, and communicate with the branches of the fifth pair on the face. The portio mollis arises from the medulla ob- longata and the fourth ventricle, enters the inter- nal auditory passage, and is distributed by innu- merable branches on the membrane of the cochlea, vestibulum, forming the immediate organ of hear- ing. THE EIGHTH PAIR, or Par vagum, arise by se- veral branches, partly from the medulla oblongata M3 and (126) and partly from the fourth ventricle behind the pons Varolii. It is connected at its origin with the accessory nerves of Willis, which ascend through the great occipital foramen from the fifth cervical nerve: these nerves proceed together through the foramen lacerum in basi cranii. The accessory nerves then separate from the par vagum, and vanish in the sterno-clido mastoideus and cucullaris muscles: the par vagum then gives off branches in the neck to the tongue, larynx, and thyroid gland, from which parts they acquire names, and then descends into the cavity of the thorax, where it gives off, 1st. The right and left recurrent; the former arides on the right side, near the subclavian artery, which it surrounds, and then returns upwards to the thyroid gland; the latter arises under the arch of the aorta, which it surrounds, and then ascends to the œsophagus. Both nerves are lost in the mus- cles of the larynx and pharynx. 2dly. Several branches which proceed to the supe- rior part of the pericardium, to form with other nerves the cardiac plexus, which fends branches to the heart. 3dly. The par vagum then extends on the pos- terior surface of the lungs, on each side, and gives off some branches, which, with others from the car- diac plexus and recurrent nerves, form a right and left pulmonic plexus, which supplies the lungs and trachea. 4thly. (127) 4thly. Both trunks of the par vagum then de- scend with the œsophagus, and give off many ra- mifications, which form the œsophageal plexus, from which the œsophagus and adjoining parts are supplied. 5thly. Having passed the diaphragm with the œsophagus, they form, about the cardia, two sto- machic plexuses: the anterior is expanded over the anterior surface of the stomach and its greater cur- vature; the posterior over the posterior surface and lesser curvature, and it transmits also branches to the liver, pancreas, and diaphragm. 6thly. The par vagum also sends some branches to unite with the great intercostal, and thus con- curs in forming the hepatic, splenic, and renal plexuses. THE NINTH, or Lingual pair of nerves, arise from the medulla oblongata, between the corpora olivaria and pyramidalia, pass out of the skull through the foramina condyloidea anteriora, and commu- nicate with the par vagum and first pair of cervi- cal nerves: they then proceed forwards between the jugular vein and carotid artery, to be distributed on the muscles of the tongue and os hyoides. Thus it appears that the olfactory, ophthalmic, and oculorum motorii arise from the cerebrum; the trochleatores and trigemini from the cerebel- lum; and the auditory, par vagum, and linguales, from the medulla oblongata. OF (128) OF THE NERVES OF THE MEDULLA SPINALIS. Those nerves are called SPINAL which pass out through the lateral or intervertebral foramina of the spine. They are divided into cervical, dorsal, lumhar, and sacral nerves. CERVICAL NERVES. THE CERVICAL NERVES are eight pairs. The first are called the occipital; they arise from the begin- ning of the spinal marrow, pass out between the margin of the occipital foramen and atlas, form a ganglion on its transverse process, and are distributed about the occiput and neck. The second pair of cervical nerves send a branch to the accessory nerve of Willis, and proceed to the parotid gland and external ear. The third cervical pair supply the integuments of the scapula, cucullaris, and triangularis mus- cles, and send a branch to the diaphragmatic nerve. The fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth pair all converge to form the brachial plexus, from which arise the six following NERVES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 1. THE AXILLARY, which sometimes arises from the radial nerve. It runs backwards and (119) and outwards around the neck of the humerus, and ramifies in the muscles of the scapula. 2. THE EXTERNAL CUTANEAL, which perfo- rates the coraco-brachialis muscle, to the bend of the arm, where it accompanies the median vein as far as the thumb, and it is lost in its integu- ments. 3. THE INTERNAL CUTANEAL, which descends on the inside of the arm, where it bifurcates. From the bend of the arm, the anterior branch accompa- nies the basilic vein, to be inserted into the skin of the palm of the hand; the posterior branch runs down the internal part of the sore-arm; to vanish in the skin of the little finger. 4. THE MEDIAN nerve, which accompanies the brachial artery to the cubit, then passes between the brachialis internus, pronator rotundus, and the perforatus and perforans, under the ligament of the wrist to the palm of the hand, where it fends off branches, in every direction, to the mus- cles of the hand, and then supplies the digital nerves, which go to the extremities of the thumb, sore and middle fingers. 5. THE ULNAR nerve, which descends between the brachial artery and basilic vein, between the internal condyle of the humerus, and the olecra- non, and divides in the sore-arm into an internal and an external branch. The former passes over the ligament of the wrist and sesamoid bone, to the (130) the hand, where it divides into three branches, two of which go to the ring and little finger, and the third forms an arch towards the thumb in the palm of the hand, and is lost in the contiguous muscles. The latter passes over the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris and back of the hand, to supply also the two last fingers. 6. THE RADIAL nerve, which sometimes gives off the axillary nerve. It passes backwards, about the os humeri, descends on the outside of the arm between the brachialis externus and internus mus- cles to the cubit; then proceeds between the supi- nator longus and brevis to the superior extremity of the radius, giving off various branches to ad- jacent muscles. At this place it divides into two branches: one goes along the radius, between the supinator longus and radialis internus to the back of the hand, and terminates in the interosseous mus- cles, the thumb and three first fingers:—the other passes between the supinator brevis and head of the radius, and is lost in the muscles of the fore-arm. DORSAL NERVES. THE DORSAL nerves are twelve pairs in number. The first pair gives off a branch to the brachial plexus. All the dorsal nerves are distributed to the muscles of the back, intercostals, ferrati, pecto- ral, abdominal muscles and diaphragm. The five inferior pairs go to the cartilages of the ribs, and are called costal. 3 LUMBAR (131) LUMBAR NERVES. The five pair of LUMBAR nerves are be- stowed about the loins and muscles, and skin of the abdomen and loins, scrotum, ovaria, and dia- phragm. The second, third, and fifth pair unite and form the obturator nerve, which descends over the psoas muscle into the pelvis, and passes through the foramen thyroideum to the obturator muscle, triceps, pectineus, &c. The third and fourth, with some branches of the second pair, form the crural nerve, which passes under Poupart's ligament with the femoral artery, sends off branches to the adjacent parts, and descends in the direction of the sartorius muscle to the internal condyle of the femur, from whence it accompanies the saphena vein to the internal ankle, to be lost in the skin of the great toe. The fifth pair are joined to the first pair of the sacral nerves. SACRAL NERVES. There are five pair of SACRAL nerves, all of which arise from the cauda equina, or termination of the medulla spinalis; so called from the nerves resembling the tail of a horse. The four first pair give off branches to the pelvic viscera, and are afterwards united to the last lumbar, to form a large plexus, which gives off the ischiatic nerve, the largest in the body. The ischiatic nerve im- mediately at its origin sends off branches to the bladder (132) bladder, rectum, and parts of generation; pro- ceeds from the cavity of the pelvis through the ischiatic notch, between the tuberosity of the is- chium and great trochanter, to the ham, where it is called the popliteal nerve. In the ham it divides into two branches, 1. The peroneal, which de- scends on the fibula, and distributes many branches to the muscles of the leg and back of the foot. 2. The tibial, which penetrates the gastrocnemii muscles to the internal ankle, passes through a notch in the os calcis to the sole of the foot, where it divides into an internal and external plantar nerve, which supply the muscles and aponeurosis of the foot and the toes. OF THE GREAT INTERCOSTAL OR SYMPATHE- TIC NERVES. The great intercostal nerve arises in the cavity of the cranium from the union of a branch of the sixth with a recurrent branch of the fifth pair, called the Viduan nerve. It passes out of the cranium through the carotid canal, and descends on the sides of the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebræ and sacrum, in which course it is joined by filaments from all the spinal nerves, forming small ganglions at their junctions. In the neck it forms only three cervical ganglions, from which arise the cardiac nerves and pulmonic plexuses, which fend nerves to the heart and lungs. In the thorax there arise five branches from the third, (133) third, fifth, seventh, eighth, and ninth ganglions, which descend in the course of the vertebræ, and pass through the diaphragm, where they unite on each side into one trunk, the splanchnic or anterior intercostal nerve, which soon unite together, and form the GREAT SEMILUNAR GANGLION, from which nerves are given off to all the abdominal viscera, forming ten plexuses, which communicate with one another, and are named after the adja- cent viscera, viz. the cœliac plexus, situated near the cœliac artery, and supplying the stomach; the splenic, near the spleen; the hepatic, near the portæ of the liver; the superior, middle, and inferior me- senteric plexus; two renal and two spermatic plex- uses. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Nerves are the organs of our senses. Bodies ap- plied to certain parts of our system produce changes in those parts, which changes arc conveyed in an unknown manner to the brain by means of the nerves only, and SENSATION is produced; so that sensation is a property peculiar to the nervous fibre, as irritability is to the muscular fibre; and hence all sentient parts are supplied with nerves, although they cannot be detected by the eye. The senses are distinguished into internal and external. N THE (134) THE INTERNAL SENSES are ideas which the sensorium commune, or mind, forms to itself, and may be produced from the external senses, or they may be excited spontaneously; such are, memory, imagination, conscience, the passions of the mind, and reasoning, by the superior excellence of which, man differs so eminently from the brute. THE EXTERNAL SENSES are, smelling, seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching. OF SMELLING. Smelling is a sensation by which we perceive the smell of substances. The organ of smell is the nervous papillæ of the olfactory or first pair of nerves, which are distributed on every part of the pituitary membrane of the nose. OF SEEING. Seeing is a sensation by which we perceive bo- dies around us, and their visible qualities. The or- gan of sight is the retina, an expansion of the optic or second pair of nerves. The object of sight is the rays of light which penetrate the bulb of the eye and stimulate the retina. Light is a subtile and solid material, which emanates from the sun or any lucid body with a very rapid motion, in right lines, which are called rays of light, and penetrate to the retina in the following manner: the rays of light fall on the pellucid and convex cornea of the eye, by whose density and convexity they are united into (135) into a focus, which passes the aqueous humour and pupil of the eye, to be more condensed by the crystalline lens. The rays of light thus concen- trated, penetrate the vitreous humour, to stimu- late the retina, upon which they impress the image of external objects to be represented to the mind through the medium of the optic nerves. OF HEARING. Hearing is a sensation by which we perceive the found of any sonorous body. Sound is a tremulous motion of the air excited by striking any sonorous body. Sound is con- veyed to an enormous distance in the atmosphere, in straight lines, which are called sonorous rays. Soft bodies diminish or stifle sound; elastic ones increase it. The organ of hearing is the portio mollis of the seventh pair of nerves, whose pulp is beautifully distributed in the vestibulum, semicircular canals, and cochlea of the ear. Hearing is performed in the following manner: the rays of sound ema- nating from a sonorous body arrive at the ear, which, by its elasticity and peculiar formation, concentrates them, that they may pass along, the external auditory foramen to the membrana tym- pani, which they cause to vibrate. The trem- bling tympanum communicates its vibrations to the malleus, which is in contact with it: the malleus conveys them to the incus, the incus to N2 the (136) the os orbiculare, and the os orbiculare to the stapes. The stapes adhering to the senestra ova- lis causes it to vibrate. The trembling senestra ovalis communicates its vibrations to the water con- tained in the vestribulum and semicircular canals, and causes very gentle motions of the nervous ex- pansion contained therein, which transmit them to the sensorium commune, where the mind is in- formed of the presence of sound, and judges of its difference. Gravity and acuteness of sound depend upon the number of vibrations given at the same time. OF TASTING. Tasting is a sensation by which we distinguish the qualities of bitter, sweet, sour, &c. substances, The nervous papillæ of the ninth or lingual pair of nerves, which are situated in the apex and margins of the tongue, are the chief organs of taste. The parts sub- servient to taste are—The tongue, which gives a con- venient situation to the nervous papillæ, and by its extensive motion applies them to the substance to be tasted—The epidermis of the tongue, which mode- rates any excessive stimuli—The saliva and mu- cus of the mouth, which assist the organ of taste when it is necessary that the substances should be dissolved in order to be tasted, and which also keep the nervous papillæ moist. OF TOUCHING. Touching is a sensation by which we distinguish the (137) the qualities of hardness, softness, heat and cold, &c. of substances, and by which we perceive any substance that comes incontact with the skin, parti- cularly at the points of the fingers. The organs of touch are the nervous papillæ of the skin, which are extremely numerous and sensible at the points of the fingers. Too great a sensation is moderated by the epider- mis, which also defends the papillæ; from being dried by the air. ADENOLOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE GLANDS. A GLAND is a small round body, which serves for the secretion or alteration of a fluid. DIVISION, into folliculose, globate, glomerate, and conglome- rate; they are also divided from the liquid they se- crete or change, into sebaceous, muciparous, lym- phatic, lachrymal, salival, bilious, lacteal, &c. A folliculose gland consists of an hollow vascular membrane, having an excretory duct; as the mu- ciparous and sebaceous glands. A globate gland consists of a glomer of lympha- tic vessels, connected together by cellular mem- brane, and has no cavity nor excretory duct, as the lymphatic glands of the lymphatic vessels. A glomerate gland is formed of a glomer of san- guineous vessels; has no cavity, but is furnished N3 with (138) with an excretory duct, aa the lachrymal and mam- mary glands. A conglomerate gland is a gland composed of many glomerate glands, whose excretory ducts unite, and form one large canal, or duct. The pancreas and salival glands belong to this class. The excretory duct of glands is a thin canal; which goes out of the gland, and excerns the secreted fluid, by the contractility of its coats. The nerves and vessels of glands are numerous, and come from the neighbouring parts. Glands are connected with other parts by cellular membrane. They are larger in infants than in adults. USE, to secrete or change a fluid. GLANDS OF THE SKIN. The subcutaneous glands are sebaceous, and situated under the inferior surface of the skin, which they perforate by their excretory ducts. GLANDS IN THE CAVITY OF THE CRANIUM. 1. Glands of the dura mater, called also, after their dis- coverer, Bacchonian, are situated near the superior longitudinal sinus of the dura mater, in peculiar fo- veolæ of the os frontis and parietal bones. They ap- pear to be globate. 2. Glands of the choroid plexus are globate, and situated in the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles of the brain. 3. The pituitary gland, situated in a duplicature of the dura mater, in, the fella turcica of the sphænoid bone. The infundibulum of the brain terminates in this gland. GLANDS (139) GLANDS OF THE EYES. 1. Meibomius's glands. These are small and numerous sebaceous glands, situated under the skin of the eyelids, near their margins. Their excretory ducts open on the mar- gins of the tarsi, and are called puncta ciliaria. 2. The lachrymal gland, which is glomerate, and situated above the external angle of the orbit, in a peculiar depression of the os frontis. This gland has six or eight excretory canals, through which the tears are conveyed, and' which open upon the internal surface of the upper eyelids. 3. The ca- runcula lachrymalis, a small and red prominence, ob- vious in the internal angle of the eye, between the tarfi of the eyelids. It consists of small sebaceous glands, which secrete a sæculent humour. GLANDS OF THE NOSTRIDS. The pituitary membrane lining the nostrils and its sinuses, is every where furnished with muciparous glands, which secrete the mucus of the nose. GLANDS OF THE EAR. The ceruminous glands are situated under the skin of the meatus audito- rius externus, and secrete the wax of the ears. GLANDS OF THE MOUTH. The glands, of the mouth, which secrete the saliva, are called salival, and are, 1. The parotid, two, large conglomerate glands, situated under the ear between the ma- millary process of the temporal bones and angle of the lower. The excretory canal of this gland opens in the mouth, and is called, from its disco- verer, the Stenonian duct. 2. The maxillary, which (140) which are conglomerate glands, situated under the angles of the lower jaw. The excretory ducts of these glands are also called, after their discoverer, Warthonian. 3. The sublingual glands, situated under the tongue. 4. The glands of the cheek, situated on the internal surface of the cheeks. 5. The labial glands, on the internal surface of the lips, under the common membrane of the mouth. 6. The molar glands, situated on each side of the mouth, between the masseter and buccinator mus- cles, and whose excretory ducts open near the last dens molaris. EXTERNAL GLANDS OF THE NECK. 1. The jugular glands, which are globate, and found un- drr the skin of the neck about the external jugu- lar veins: they are in general about 20 in num- ber. 2. The submaxillary glands, also globate, and situated in the fat under the jaw. 3. The cervical, found under the cutis in the fat about the neck. 4. The thyroid, a large gland lying upon the cricoid cartilage, trachea, and horns of the- thyroid cartilage. It is uncertain whether it he globate or conglomerate. Its excretory duct has never been detected, and its use is unknown. GLANDS OF THE FAUCES. The glands situated under the membrane which lines this cavity, are muciparous, and divided, from their situation, into palatine, uvular, tonsil, lingual, laryngeal, and pha- ryngeal. 5 GLANDS (141) GLANDS OF THE BREASTS. The mammary, or lacteal glands, are situated under the fat of the breasts. Their excretory ducts are called tubuli lactiferi, tabuli galactoferi, and run from them to the nipple, in which they open. GLANDS OF THE THEORAX 1. The thymus, a large gland, peculiar to the fœtus, and which disap- pears soon after birth: it is situated in the anterior duplicature or space of the mediastinum, under the superior part of the sternum, and above the pericar- dium. An excretory duct has not been as yet de- tected, but lymphatics are seen going from this gland to the thoracic duct. 2. The bronchial, which are large blackish glands near the end of the trachea, and beginning of the bronchia, and which secrete a blackish mucus. 3. The œsophageal glands, found under the internal membrane of the œsophagus, and which secrete the mucus of that canal. 4. The dorsal glands, situated upon the 4th or 5th ver- tebra of the back, between them and the posterior surface of the œsophagus. They have no excretory ducts. GLANDS OF THE ABDOMEN. 1. The gastric glands, which are muciparous, and situated under the external membrane of the stomach 2. The intestinal glands, which are also muciparous, and found under the internal membrane of the intes- tines, especially the large. 3. The mesenteric glands, situated here and there in the cellular mem- brane (142) brane of the mesentery. The chyle from the in- testines passes through these glands to the thoracic duct. 4. The hepatic glands, also called acini biliosi which form the substance of the liver, and separate the bile into small ducts, which, at length, terminate in the ductus hepaticus. 5. The cystic glands, which are muciparous, and found under the internal membrane of the gall-bladder, espe- cially about its neck. 6. The pancreatic glands, which constitute the pancreas; a small duct arises from each gland, which unite to form the ductus pancreaticus. See SPLANCHNOLOGY. 7. The epi- ploic, or omental glands, which are globate, and situated in the omentum. GLANDS OF THE LOINS. 1. The supra-renal glands, situated in the adipose membrane, one above each kidney. An excretory duct has never been detected, and their use is unknown. 2. The kid- neys. See SPLANCHNOLOGY. 3. The lumbar glands, which are globate, and situated about the beginning of the thoracic duct. 4. The iliac glands, found about the beginning of the iliac vessels. 5. The sacral, which are globate glands, and adhere to the os sacrum. GLANDS OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATIONS OF Man. I. The odoriferous glands of the glans pe- nis, which are sebaceous, and situated around the corona glandis. 2. The mucous glands of the urethra, situated under the internal membrane of the ure- thra. (143) thra. The mouths of their excretory ducts are called lacunæ. 3. Cowper's glands (so called from their inventor) are three large muciparous glands, two of which are situated before the prostate gland under the accelerators urinæ, and the third more forward before the bulb of the urethra. 4. The prostate, a very large, heart-like, firm gland, situ- ated between the neck of the urinary bladder and bulbous part of the urethra. It secretes a lacteal fluid, which is emitted into the urethra by ten or twelve ducts near the verumontanum, during coition. GLANDS OF THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENE- RATION. 1. The odoriferous glands of the labia ma- jora and nymphæ, which are sebaceous, and situated under the skin of those parts. 2. The odoriferous glands of the clitoris, which are numerous, situated about the basis of the clitoris, and are of the same nature as the former. 3. The mucous glands of the urethra, situated under the internal membrane of the female urethra. 4. The mucous glands of the va- gina, situated under the internal membrane of the vagina. GLANDS OF THE EXTREMITIES. The glands in the groin, or inguinal glands, are globate, or lym- phatic, are situated in great numbers in the cellular membrane of the inguinal region, and receive the lymphatic vessels from the glans penis, and lower extremities. The subaxillary glands are also glo- bate, and are situated in the cellular membrane of the (144) the arm-pit: they are also numerous, and receive the lymphatic vessels from the breast and superior extremities. GLANDS OF THE JOINTS. The small fat- like masses, situated within the moveable joints, are erroneously called synovial glands: their structure is not glandular, they are composed of adeps and an arrangement of the internal vascular membrane of the joint, which gives them a fimbriated ap- pearance. By these little masses the synovia is sepa- rated from the blood for the easy motion of the joint. PHYSIOLOGY OF SECRETION. Secretion is a particular function in an animal body, by which a fluid is separated from the blood, different in its properties from the blood. The organs which secrete the various humours are the glands. The proximate or immediate cause of secretion is a specific action of the arteries of the glands; for every secretion is formed from the extre- mities of arteries (the secretion of the bile is no ex- ception to this law, for the vena portæ takes upon it- self the function of an artery); thus the mucous glands secrete mucus, the salival glands saliva; the acini of the liver, bile; the penicelli of the kidnies, urine, &c. The secreted fluids are the proper stimuli to the receptacles and ducts through which the secretion is to pass to its place of destination; so that the secre- tions (145) tions move along the excretory ducts by means of the contractility of the coats of the ducts and the as- sistance of neighbouring moving powers. SPLANCHNOLOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE VISCERA. BODY, divided externally into head, trunk, and extremities. HEAD, divided into face, and hairy part. HAIRY PART, into vertex, or crown, sin- ciput, or the fore part, occiput, or hinder part, and sides. FACE, into forehead, temples, nose, eyes, mouth, cheeks, chin, and ears. TRUNK, divided into neck, thorax, and abdomen. NECK, into an- terior and posterior part. THGRAX, into anterior and posterior part and sides. AEDOMEN, into ante- rior, posterior, and lateral regions. ANTERIOR RE- GION, subdivided into three regions, 1. the epigas- tric, which lies over the stomach, and whose sides are termed the hypochondriac regions; 2. the umbilical, sur- rounding the navel, and whose sides are called the slanks; 3. the hypogastric, which lies over the urinary bladder, and whose sides are called groins. The PUBES is the hairy part under the abdomen, be- tween the groins. Under the pubes an the parts O of (146) of generation—in men, the scrotum and penis-in women, the labia and rima vulvæ. The space be- tween the genitals and anus is called the perinæum. EXTREMITIES, divided into superior and inferior. SUPERIOR EXTREMITY, into top of the humerus, brachium, fore arm, and hand. HAND, into car- pus, metacarpus, and fingers. FINGERS, into pol- lex, index, digitus medius, digitus annularis, digi- tus auricularis. INTERIOR EXTREMITY, divided into femur, or thigh, crus, or leg, and extremity of the foot. FOOT, into tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. INTERNAL DIVISION of the body, into three cavities, viz, cavity of the cranium, thorax, and abdomen. COMMON INTEGUMENTS. These are so called, because they are the common coverings as it were to the body; they consist of epidermis, rete mucosum, cutis, and membrana adiposa. EPIDERMIS, OR SCARF-SKING A thin, pellucid, insensible membrane, covering the external surface of the body. CONNEXION, with the cutis, hairs, exhaling and inhaling vessels. COLOUR, white. USE, to cover the sensible cu- taneous papillæ. RETE (147) RETE MUCOSUM. A mucous substance, disposed in a net-like form, between the epidermis and cutis. COLOUR, white in Europeans, black in Ethiopians, &c. &c. USE, to cover the sensible cutaneous papillæ, to connect the epidermis with the cutis, and give the colour to the body. SYNONIMS. Mucus Malpi- ghianus. CUTIS, OR TRUE SKIN. A thick membrane between the rete mucosum and adipose membrane, covering the whole body. SUBTANCE, fibrous, vascular, and nervous. USE, for the situation of the organ of touch, ex- halation, and absorption. See pages 120 and 136. PHYSIOLOGY OF PERSPIRATION. Perspiration is a species of secretion by which the blood is freed of a quantity of aqueous fluid by the exhalent arteries of the skin. It is divided into in- sensible and sensible perspiration: the former is conti- nually going on, by which means the surface of the body is kept smooth and moist, and may be detected by placing any part of the skin near a looking-glass, which will become foiled. The latter, commonly termed sweat, is observed only occasionally. UNGUES, OR NAILS, Are horny laminæ, situated in the extremities of O2 the (148) the fingers and toes. USE, to defend the nervous papillæ from contusion. PILI, OR HAIRS. Thin, elastic, dry filaments, growing out from the skin. COLOUR and SITUATION, various. CALLED capilli on the head; supercilia, or eye- brows, above the eyes; cilia, or eye lashes, on the margin of the eyelids; vibrissæ in the nostrils; pili auriculares in the meatus auditorius; mystax on the upper lip; barba on the lower jaw, &c. &c. ADIPOSE AND CELLULAR MEMBRANE. A membrane formed of small membranous cells, which are sometimes distended with fat. SITUATION, under the cutis, and in some soft parts. USE, to co- ver and defend the muscles; to unite the soft parts; and to render the muscular fibres flexile. When without fat, it is called tela cellulosa, or cellular mem- brane, which forms the substance of almost all the membranes, and connects various parts together. OF THE HEAD. The parts which form the head, are DIVIDED into external and internal. The external parts are the common integuments; hair; a tendinous ex- pansion; three pair of muscles; pericranium; and cranium itself. The internal parts are, the dura mater; (149) mater; membrana arachnoidea; pia mater; cere- brum; cerebellum; medulla oblongata; nine pair of nerves; four arteries, and twenty-two venous sinuses. DURA MATER. A thick membrane, which strongly adheres to the internal surface of the cranium, especially about the futures. PROCESSES. The falciform process, which divides the hemispheres of the brain; tento- rium cerebelli, which separates the brain from the cerebellum; and septum cerebelli, which separates the- two lobes of the cerebellum. COMPOSED of two strong membranous layers adhering together by fibrous texture. ARTERIES. Meningea anterior, media and posterior. VEINS are called venous sinuses; in number they are twenty two, the princi- pal of which are the superior longitudinal, lateral, and inferior longitudinal, all of which evacuate their blood through the foramen lacerum in basi cranii, into the internal jugular veins. NERVES, none. GLANDS, situated about the longitudinal sinus, are called Bacchonian. USE, to form the inter- nal periosteum of the cranium, and to contain and defend the cerebrum and internal parts of the brain from compression. MEMBRANA ARACHNOIDEA. A very delicate and transparent membrane, SI- TUATED between the dura and pia mater, sur- rounding the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla ob- O3 longata, (150) longata, and medulla spinalis. SUBSTANCE, very thin and filamentous, and apparently without vessels and nerves. USE, not known. PIA MATER. A thin membrane, firmly accreted to the convo- lutions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla ob- longata and spinalis. SUBSTANCE, almost wholly vascular. USE, to distribute the vessels to, and contain the substance of, the cerebrum. CEREBRUM, OR BRAIN. A great viscus in the cavity of the cranium. FI- GURE, oval. SIZE, larger in man, in proportion to his size, than in any other animal. SUBSTANCE, cor- tical and medullary. DIVIDED into two hemispheres, right and left. Each hemisphere subdivided on its inferior surface into three lobes, an anterior, middle, and posterior. PRINCIPAL CAVITIES, two anterior or lateral ventricles, in each of which are several eminences and a loose vascular production of the pia mater, called the plexus choroides; a third and fourth ventricle. PRINCIPAL PARTS; corpus callosum, seen when the hemispheres are separated from each other; septum pellucidum, which divides the lateral ven- tricles; the fornix; the digital processes; pedes hippo- campi; corpora striata, and thalami nervorum opti- corum, which are found in the lateral ventricles; valvula magna cerebri; commissura anterior et pos- terior; corpora quadrigemina, i. e. nates and testes; glandula (151) glandula pinealis; glandula pituitaria; eminentiæ candicantes, and the crura cerebri, all of which can only be learnt upon the subject, ARTERIES, branches of the internal carotids and vertebrals. NERVES, none, but emits nine pair. VEINS, re- turn from the cortex of the cerebrum, and eva- cuate themselves into twenty-two venous sinuses of the dura mater. USE. It is the organ of all the senses. CEREBELLUM, OR LITTLE BRAIN. A small brain situated under the tentorium in the inferior occipital depression. FIGURE, round. DIVISION, into a right and left lobe. SUB- STANCE, externally cortical; internally medullary. EMINENCES, two crura cerebelli; an anterior and posterior vermiform process, and the arbor vitæ. CAVITIES, none. VESSELS, common with the cerebrum. USE, the same as the cerebrum. MEDULLA OBLONGATA. A medullary part lying upon the basilary or cuneiform process of the occipital bone, formed by the connexion of the crura of the cerebrum and cerebellum. EMINENCES, pons Varolii; cor- pora pyramidalia; and corpora olivaria. USE, the same as the cerebrum. MEDULLA SPINALIS. A continuation of the medulla oblongata, which descends into the specus vertebralis, from the fora- men magnum occipitale to the third vertebra of the loins, (152) loins, in which conrse it transmits between the vertebræ thirty pair of nerves. FIGURE, cylin- drical. TERMINATES in various nerves, which form the canda equina. INTEGUMENTS, the dura mater; tunica arachnoidea: and pia mater. SUB- STANCE, externally medullary; internally cortical. ARTERIES, anterior spinal. USE, to emit thirty pair of nerves, called spinal. OF THE ACTION OF THE CEREBRUM, CERE- BELLUM, MEDULLA OBLONGATA, AND ME- DULLA SPINALIS. The most important functions of an animal body are those of the brain. In order to explain these accurately, it is necessary to mention a few experiments which have been made upon animals. Upon dividing, compressing, or tying a nerve, the muscles to which the nerve goes become pa- ralytic. If the nerve thus divided, compressed, or tied, had any particular sensation, that sensa- tion no longer exists; but upon untying or remov- ing the compression, its peculiar sense returns. If the cerebrum, cerebellum, or medulla ob- longata, be irritated, dreadful convulsions take place all over the body. If any part of the brain be compressed, that part of the body is deprived of motion which has nerves from the compressed part. From these phenomena, it is evident that the cause (153) cause of every sensation and motion in an animal body arises from the brain and spinal marrow, and that from these parts it is conveyed to every sentient part through the medium of the nerves, Hence it follows, that the nerves are the organs by which the various sensations are produced. The manner, however, in which the nerves exercise sense and motion; how the will is conveyed from the brain to the different parts, and how, from the different parts sensations are conveyed to the brain, remains involved in obscurity; several hypotheses have been deduced to explain it, but none ap- pear to be satisfactory. See also page 133. EYE. The parts which form the eye are divided into external and internal. The EXTERNAL PARTS are the supercilia, or eyebrows; the palpebræ, or eye- lids; the cilia, or eyelashes; the lachrymal gland; the lachrymal caruncle, a small fleshy substance at the inner angle of the eye; the puncta lachryma- lia, two small openings on the nasal extremity of each eyelash; the canalis lachrymalis, formed by the union of the ducts leading from the puncta lachrymalia, which meet and constitute it at the internal angle of the eye; the saccus lachrymalis, a dilatation of the canalis lachrymalis, and which ends in the ductus nasalis, a continuation of the same canal, (154) canal, which conveys the tears into the nose; the muscles of the eyelids; the muscles of the bulb of the eye, and the fat of the orbit. The BULB OF THE EYE consists of eight membranes, two cham- bers, and three humours. The bulb is covered an- teriorly by an exquisitely sensible and delicate mem- brane, which begins from the edge of the eye- lash, and is reflected over the eye to the edge of the other eyelash. This membrane is the seat of in- flammations of the eye, and is called the tunica conjunctiva. MEMBRANES. 1. The sclerotic, which is white, and the outermost. 2. The choroid, which is highly vascular, and whose vessels are called, from their direction, the vasa vorticosa. 3. The retina, which is the innermost; and, 4. The hyaloid, or arachnoid, which includes the vitreous humour. In the ante- rior part are, 5. The cornea transparent, which is a part of the sclerotic. 6. The iris, a part of the cho- roid: it is of various colours; hence white, black, blue eyes, &c. 7. The uvea, which is the posterior part of the iris; and, 8. The capsule of the crystal- line lens. The CHAMBERS OF THE EYE are distinguished into anterior and posterior. The anterior is the space between the transparent cornea and the fore part of the iris; the posterior the space between the uvea and capsule of the crystalline lens. The HUMOURS are the aque- ous, the crystalline lens, and the vitreous. See hygrology. CONNEXION OF THE BULB. Ante- riorly, (155) riorly, it is connected with the membrana con- junctiva; posteriorly, with the orbit, by means of muscles and the optic nerve. ARTERIES, or- bitalis interna, the centra!, and the optic. VEINS, empty themselves into the external jugulars.— NERVES. The optic, or first pair, and branches from the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth pair. USE. It is the organ of vision. See Physiology of Vision, page 134. EAR. The soft parts which form the ear are divided into external and internal. The EXTERNAL SOFT PARTS are, the auricula, in which are various pro- minences and sinuses, as the helix, antihelix, tragus, antitragus, concha auriculæ, scapha, seu fossa navi- cularis, and lobulus; the meatus auditorius exter- nus, and membrana tympani. The INTERNAL SOFT PARTS are the periosteum, a proper mem- brane, which lines every part of the internal ear, and the Eustachian tube, which begins by a large opening in the fauces, and gradually diminishes as it passes along its bony canal into the ear. AR- TERIES, auditoria interna and externa. VEINS, empty themselves into the external jugular. NERVES of the external ear are, branches of the seventh pair, or nervus auditorius durus; and those of the internal part are branches also of the seventh pair, but of the portio mollis. USE. It is the organ of hearing. See Physiology of Hearing, page 135. NOSE. (156) NOSE. A prominence of the face between the eyes and mouth. DIVISION, into root, back, apex, and alæ. SOFT PARTS. Common integuments, mus- cles, cartilages, periosteum, perichondrium. SOFT PARTS OF THE NOSTRILS. A pituitary membrane, which lines the internal surface of the nose and all its cavities, contains the mucous glands, and has distributed on it the olfactory nerves; and the pe- riosteum. ARTERIES, branches of the internal maxillary. VEINS, empty themselves into the in- ternal jugulars. NERVES, branches of the olfac- tory, ophthalmic, and superior maxillary. MUCI- PAROUS GLANDS, situated everywhere in the pi- tuitary membrane. USE, for smelling, respiration, and speech. See Physiology of smelling, page 134. CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. The parts which form this cavity are external and internal. The EXTERNAL are the lips, the philtrum, the chin, and the cheeks. COMPOSI- TION, common integuments and the muscles of the upper and under jaw. ARTERIES, of the ex- ternal part are branches of the infra-orbital, in- ferior alveolar, and facial. VEINS, empty them- selves into the external jugular. NERVES, from the fifth and seventh pair. The INTERNAL parts of the mouth are the palate, two alveolar arches, the gums, tongue, cavity of the cheeks, and 5 three (157) three pair of salival glands. USE, for mastication, speech, respiration, deglutition, suction, and taste. PHYSIOLOGY OF MASTICATION. Mastication is the comminution, of the food be- tween the teeth, effected by the jaws, the tongue, cheeks, and lips. The powers which move these parts are their various muscles, by which the lower jaw is pulled from the upper and again brought to it, whilst the tongue perpetually puts the food between the teeth, and the cheeks and lips impede it, when masticated, from falling out of the mouth. By this process, the food is divided, lacerated, and, as it were, ground, and mixed with the saliva and mucus of the mouth and the atmospherical air, and thus rendered fit to be swallowed and digested; so that mastication is in fact an incipient digestion. TONGUE. A muscular body, moveable in every direction, situated in the cavity of the mouth. DIVISION, into basis, body, sides, apex. CONNEXION, with tire os hyoides, bottom of the infra-lingual cavity, and lower jaw. The NERVOUS PAPILLÆ, which are situated at the apex of the tongue, are pyrami- dal, fungiform, or conoid. SUBSTANCE, fleshy, covered by cuticle, rete mucosum, cutis, and cel- lular membrane. LINGUAL ARTERIES, branches of the external carotid. VEINS, empty them- selves into the external jugulars. NERVES, from P the (158) the fifth, eighth, and ninth pair. GLANDS are muciparous. USE, for speech, mastication, de- glutition, suction, and taste. See page 136. OF THE NECK. The parts which form the neck are divided into external and internal. The EXTERNAL PARTS are the common integuments; the muscles of the neck; eight pair of cervical nerves; two carotid arteries; two vertebral arteries; two external jugular veins; two internal jugular veins; the jugular glands; the thyroid gland; the eighth-pair of nerves of the cerebrum; and the great intercostal. The INTER- NAL PARTS are, the fauces; pharynx; œsophagus; larynx, and the trachea. FAUCES. The cavity behind the tongue and the curtain of the palate, or velum palatinum. SOFT PARTS, common integuments and muciparous glands. AR- TERIES, branches of the external carotid. VEINS, empty themselves into the internal jugular. MUS- CLES, see Myology. NERVES, from the fifth and eighth pair. USE, for deglutition, respiration, speech, and hearing. PHARYNX. A muscular sac, like a funnel, situated behind the larynx, adhering to the fauces, and terminat- ing (159) ing in the œsophagus. CONNECTED, by means of muscles, with the cranium; vertebræ; and os hyoides. USE, to receive the masticated food, and convey it into the œsophagus. ŒSOPHAGUS. A membranous muscular tube, descending from the pharynx to the stomach. COMPOSED of three membranes, viz. a common, muscular, and vil- lous. ARTERIES, branches of the aorta. VEINS, empty themselves into the vena azygos. NERVES, from the eighth pair and great intercostal. MUCI- PAROUS GLANDS, every where. USE, for de- glutition. PHYSIOLOGY OF DEGLUTITION Deglutition is the conveying of the masticated food from the cavity of the mouth into the fauces, and from the fauces through the œsophagus into the stomach. This is performed by the jaws shutting, so as to prevent the food from falling out of the mouth; the tongue is then applied to the palate, by which the food lying upon the back of the tongue is pressed into the cavity of the fauces, where it is received by the dilated pharynx. The pharynx then is irritated to contract, by which the food is expelled into the œsophagus, by the contraction of whose muscular fibres it is conveyed through the cardia into the stomach. The pharynx is dilated by its dilatatory muscles, and by the root of the tongue, os hyoides, and la- P2 rynx (160) rynx being drawn forwards and backwards by their proper muscles. The food is prevented during the act of swal- lowing from passing into the posterior opening of the nostrils, the Eustachian tube, and larynx, by the velum pendulum palati and uvula being pressed against the former, and the epiglottis be- ing bent backwards over the glottis. When a fluid is to be drank, the head inclines backwards, the same actions take place, and the fluid passes on each side of the epiglottis. During deglutition the food is covered with the mucus of the fauces and œsophagus. LARYNX. A cartilaginous cavity, situated behind the tongue in the anterior part of the fauces. COMPOSED of five cartilages; various muscles; and an internal nervous membrane. CARTILAGES, the epiglottis, at the root of the tongue; the thyroid, or scutiform, which is the largest, and two arytænoid cartilages; and the cricoid cartilage, which is below the thy- roid. A very sensible membrane covers their internal surface. The superior opening of the larynx, through which the air passes, is called the glottis. ARTERIES, branches of the external carotid. VEINS, empty themselves into the external jugu- lar. NERVES, branches of the eighth pair. GLANDS, (161) GLANDS, the thyroid. USE. It is the organ of the voice, and serves also for respiration. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE. The voice is caused by the sound of the air pro- pelled through the glottis; so that the organ of the voice is the larynx and its muscles. The shrillness and roughness of the voice depends on the diameter of the glottis, its elasticity, mobility, and lubricity, and the force with which the air is expelled: thus when the diameter is increased, the voice is more bass, and vice versa. SPEECH Is the modification of the voice in the cavity of the mouth and nostrils. VENTRILOQUISM Consists in the motion of the uvula, epiglot- tis, and fauces, by which the sounds are modu- lated without the lips, teeth, or palate. The moutth being nearly shut, and the voice resounding between the larynx and cavity of the nose, the sound is re- turned as if emitted by some one at a distance. TRACHEA. A tube, composed of cartilaginous rings conti- nued from the larynx, and situated before the œso- phagus. It descends to the sternum, and there divides into two branches called bronchia. The F3 bronchia, (162) bronchia, entering the substance of the lungs, di- vide into innumerable little branches, which termi- nate in the vesiculæ pulmonales, or air-cells. The cartilaginous rings of the trachea and bronchia are not completely cartilaginous, but fleshy on the back part. The internal surface is lined by a very sen- sible membrane continued from the larynx. VESSELS and NERVES, common with the larynx. USE, for respiration and speech. OF THE THORAX. The cavity situated between the neck and abdo- men is called the thorax, or breast. The EXTER- NAL PARTS are, the common integuments; the mammæ, or breast; various muscles and bones. The INTERNAL PARTS are, the pleura; lungs; heart; thymus gland; œsophagus; thoracic duct; the arch of the aorta; branches of the vena cava; the vena azygos; the eighth pair of nerves, and part of the great intercostal nerve. MAMMÆ, OR BREASTS. Two soft hemispheres adhering to the anterior and lateral region of the thorax, most conspicu- ous in females. On the middle of the external sur- face is the papilla, around which is the coloured orb or disc of the papilla, called areola. SUB- 4 STANCE, (163) STANCE, common integuments; adipose sub- stance; lacteal glands and vessels. ARTERIES, external and internal mammary. VEINS empty themselves into the axillary and subclavian vein. NERVES, branches of the costalis superior. LYM- PHATICS, empty themselves into the subaxillary glands. USE, to suckle new-born infants. PLEURA. A membrane lining the internal surface of the thorax, and covering its viscera. It forms a great process, called the mediastinum, which is a mem- branous septum to the cavity of the thorax, dividing it perpendicularly into two cavities, arising from the duplicature of the pleura. It is CONNECTED with the ribs, muScles, sternum, bodies of the dorsal vertebræ, pericardium, and diaphragm. SUB- STANCE, fibrous and vascular. ARTERIES, from the intercostals. VEINS, empty themselves into the intercostals. NERVES, very few. USE, to divide the thorax into two cavities, and render the surface moist by the vapour it exhales, and to give a membrane to the lungs and pericardium. DIAPHRAGM. A fleshy and tendinous division, separating the cavity of the thorax from the cavity of the abdo- men. ADHESION, anteriorly with the sternum and ribs, posteriorly with the vertebræ. SUBSTANCE, in (164) in the centre, tendinous; in the ambit, fleshy: its superior surface is covered by the pleura; its infe- rior by the peritoneum. APERTURES, a right fo- ramen, through which the vena cava ascendens passes to the right auricle of the heart, a left fo- ramen, through which the œsophagus and the par vagum pass into the cavity of the abdomen, and a posterior opening, which transmits the aorta into the abdomen, and the thoracic duct and vena azygos, into the thorax. ARTERIES, from the descending aorta. VEINS, empty themselves into the vena azygos. NERVES. The diaphragmatic, or phrenic nerves, arise from the spinal nerves of the neck. USE, for respiration, situation of the heart, expulsion of fæces, and parturition. LUNGS. Two viscera, situated in the cavities of the tho- rax, by which we breathe. DIVISION, into right and left lung; the right has three lobes, the left only two. CONNEXION, with the neck and heart. SUBSTANCE, vesicular, vascular, and bronchial, connected together by a parenchymatous substance. It has an external membrane from the pleura. VESSELS, pulmonary and bronchial. NERVES, from the eighth pair and great intercostal. LYM- PHATICS, are to be seen on its external surface. GLANDS, called bronchial. USE, for respiration, sanguification, and voice. PHYSIOLOGY (165) PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION. Respiration consists of inspiration, or the in- gress of the air into the lungs, and expiration, or the egress of the air from the lungs. During sleep, respiration is performed without our knowledge, and therefore termed spontaneous; but when it can be augmented or diminished accord- ing to our will, it is termed voluntary. The excit- ing cause of inspiration is the air rushing into the lungs and irritating its nerves, which irritation is by consent of parts communicated to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, and compels them to con- tract. The contraction of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm, and the pressure of the elastic air, therefore dilate the chest. The air being deprived of its stimulus, the intercostal muscles and diaphragm become relaxed, the cartilages of the ribs and ab- dominal muscles, before expanded, return to their former state, and thus the air is expelled from the lungs. The small branches of the pulmonary artery form a beautiful net-work of vessels on the internal membrane of the air vesicles. During expiration, the air-vessels are collapsed; consequently the blood- vessels become tortuous, and the blood is prevented passing. In inspiration then, the air vesicles being dilated, the tortuous vessels are elongated, and a free passage afforded to the blood: the very delicate coats of these vessels are also rendered so thin as to suffer a chemical (166) a chemical action to take place between the air in the vesicles and the blood in the vessels. This con- stitutes the primary use of respiration; viz. the blood absorbing the oxygen from the atmospheric air, by which the nervous energy is increased, and it is generally believed, heat generated; but this subject is yet undetermined. PERICARDIUM. A membranous sac surrounding the heart. AD- HESION, with the diaphragm, pleura, sternum, cartilages of the ribs, œsophagus, aorta descendens, and the veins and great arteries going to and from the heart. ARTERIES, branches of the internal mammary and mediastinal. VEINS, empty them- selves into the internal mammary. NERVES, from the superficial cardiacs. USE, to contain the heart, and to separate a fluid, which may lubricate and preserve it from concretion with the pericardium. HEART. A muscular viscus, situated in the cavity of the pe- ricardium, which serves for the motion of the blood. DIVISION, externally into base, surfaces, and mar- gins; internally, into auricles and ventricles. SI- TUATION oblique, not transverse. The CAVITIES OF THE HEART are called auricles and ventricles. The auricles are situated upon the base of the heart, and are so named from their resemblance to dogs ears. They are composed of muscular fibres, which (167) which are very delicate, and are lined by an ex- tremely sensible and contractile membrane. They surround the origin of the aorta and pulmonary ar- teries, when distended, and are separated from each other by the septum auricularum. THE RIGHT AURICLE has opening into it, at its upper part, the vena cava superior, at its lower part the vena cava inferior, and at one side the large coronary vein; so that its office is that of re- ceiving the blood from every part of the body. Besides these openings, it has one much larger, communicating with the right ventricle, from the margin of which there hangs into the right ventricle, connected with the chordæ tendineæ, a valve, called, from its shape, the tricuspid, or triglochine valves. The LEPT AURICEL is composed of the same materials as the right; it has opening into it the four pulmonary veins; So that the blood of the pulmo- nary artery passes through the lungs into the left auricle. Besides the openings of the four pulmo- nary veins, the left auricle has a communication with the left ventricle, and from the margin of this opening there hangs into the left ventricle a valve, which, from its resemblance to a bishop's mitre, is termed the mitral valve. It is also connected to the chordæ tendineæ of the ventricle. The ventricles are situated in the substance of the heart, and are divided from each other by a thick muscular septum, called septum cordis. The pa- 2 rietes (168) rietes of the ventricles are very thick, and compesed of strong muscular fibres. In the ventricles are a number of fleshy cords, running in various di- rections; these are called carneæ columnæ, and many of them are connected with the valves of the auricular openings by tendinous cords, termed chordæ tendineæ. The ventricles are lined by a similar membrane to that which lines the au- ricles. The RIGHT VENTRICLE has a communication with the right auricle, as before mentioned, in order to receive its blood; it has also an opening into the pulmonary artery, which arises from it, and through which organ the blood is expelled from the ventri- cle. At the origin of the artery three large valves are placed, called, from their shape, semilunar valves. The LEFT VENTRICLE is much stronger than the right: besides the opening for the entrance of the blood from the left auricle, it has also an opening through which it transmits its blood, and this is into the aorta, which arises from it, and has, like the pulmonary artery, three semilunar valves placed at its origin. VESSELS are common and proper: the common are the aorta, pulmonary artery and veins, and the vena cavas; the proper are the coronary arteries and veins. NERVES, branches of the eighth pair and great intercostal. USE. It is the primary organ of the motion of the blood. CIRCULA- (169) CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. The blood is continually in motion, passing from the auricles of the heart into the ventricles; from the ventricles into all the arteries of the body, and from the arteries into the veins, which return it again to the auricles. The blood is brought from every part of the body to the heart by the two venæ cavæ (the superior bringing it from the head, upper extremities, and thorax, and the inferior from the abdomen and inferior extremities), which terminate in the right auricle. The right auricle, when distended with blood, contracts, and empties itself into the right ventricle; the right ventricle then contracts, and propels the blood into the pulmonary artery, the opening between the ventricle and auricle being shut by the tricuspid valves. The pulmonary artery conveys the blood by its numerous ramifications into the small branches of the air-cells of the lungs, where it undergoes a change, and passes into the veins which bring it by four trunks into the left auricle of the heart. It is prevented returning from the pulmo- nary artery into the right ventricle, by the three semilunar valves which are placed at its origin. The blood having thus passed through the lungs, and become of a florid colour, distends the left au- ricle, which is then stimulated to contract, and pours the blood into the left ventricle. The left 2 ventricle (170) ventricle next contracts, and propels the blood through the aorta, to be conveyed by its branches to every part of the body. The mitral valves, which are placed at the auricular opening into the left ventricle, prevent the blood from returning, when the ventricle contracts, into the auricle: and left the blood should be prevented by any impedi- ment passing immediately along the aorta, the three semilunar valves placed at its origin prevent its re- gurgitating into the ventricle. From the numerous arteries of the aorta the blood is conveyed into the veins, where it loses its florid colour, and becomes darker, to be returned, in the way above mentioned, to the right auricle. Thus the blood of the right auricle and ventricle, and of the pulmonary arte- ries, is of a dark colour; and that of the pulmo- nary veins, left auricle, ventricle, and all the arte- ries (except the pulmonary), of a florid hue. From what has been said, it is evident that the ac- tion of the heart consists in the alternate contrac- tion and dilatation of its auricles and ventricles. The dilatation of the heart is termed diastole, and the contraction systole. The excessive sensibility of the membrane which lines the auricles and ventricles disposes them to contraction, which is effected by the irritation of the stimulus of the blood, and by that of the distension of its cavities. OF (171) OF THE ABDOMEN. A cavity situated between the thorax and pelvis. Divided into several regions, as has already been mentioned. The EXTERNAL PARTS are the com- mon integuments, five pair of abdominal muscles, and the peritoneum. The INTERNAL PARTS, or VISCERA, are the omentum, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gall-bladder, mesentery, lac- teal vessels, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, supra-renal glands, aorta descendens, and vena cava ascen- dens. PERITONEUM. A membrane lining the internal surface of the abdomen, and covering all its viscera. CONNECT- ED, by means of cellular membrane, with the diaphragm, abdominal muscles, vertebræ of the loins, bones of the pelvis, urinary bladder, ute- rus, intestinum rectum, and all the viscera of the abdomen. VESSELS OF THE PERITONEUM, from the adjoining parts. USE, to contain and strength- en the abdominal viscera, and to exhale a vapour to lubricate them. OMENTUM, OR EPIPLOON An adipose membrane, a production of the pe- ritoneum, attached to the stomach, and lying on the anterior, surface of the intestines. DIVISION, Q2 into (172) into large and small omentum. The former hangs pendulous from the great curvature of the stomach. The small omentum fills up the space between the small curvature of the stomach, liver, &c. Imme- diately behind the biliary ducts there is an opening which will admit the finger, called the foramen of Winslow. ARTERIES, branches of the cœliac. VEINS, empty themselves into the vena portæ. USE, to lubricate the intestines; keep them warm; and to preserve them from concretion. STOMACH A membranous receptacle, which receives the ingesta from the œsophagus. SITUATED in the epigastric region. DIVIDED, when empty, into an anterior and a posterior surface; a great and little curvature; the cardia, or superior opening; and the pylorus, or inferior opening. CONNEXION, with the œsophagus, duodenum, omentum, and pancreas. COMPOSED of three membranes, or coats, viz. a common, muscular, and villous coat. ARTERIES, branches of the cœliac—the corona- ria, which goes to the small curvature—the gas- trica sinistra, which is distributed to the great and arises from the splenic artery,—gastrica dextra, which passes to the great curvature, and the pylo- rica, supplying the pylorus; all of which unite with each other, and form a net-work of blood- vessels. GASTRIC VEINS empty themselves into the (173) the vena portæ, corresponding with the trunks of the arteries. NERVES, branches of the par va- gum. ABSORBENTS, those of the small curvature terminate in the thoracic duct, where the cœliac artery is given off, and those passing along the great curvature join with the absorbents of the spleen. GLANDS, muciparous, under the inter- nal tunic. USE, to receive the ingesta from the œso- phagus, and to retain, mix, digest, and expel it into the duodenum. DIGESTION, OR CHYMIFICATION. Digestion, or chymification, is the change which food undergoes in the stomach, by which it is con- verted into chyme. The circumstances necessary to effect a healthy digestion of the food are- 1. A certain degree of heat of the stomach. 2. A free mixture of saliva with the food in the mouth, 3. A certain quantity of healthy gastric juice. 4. The natural peristaltic motion of the sto- mach. 5. The pressure of the contraction and relaxa- tion of the abdominal muscles and diaphragm. From these circumstances, the particles of the food are softened, dissolved, diluted, and intimately mix- ed into a soft pap. called chyme, which passes through the pylorus of the stomach into the duodenum. Q3 INTES- (174) INTESTINES. The membranous tube, six times longer than the body, in the cavity of the abdomen, variously con- torted from the pylorus of the stomach to the anus, is so called. DIVISION, into small and large. The SMALL are the duodenum, which begins at the pylo- rus of the stomach, and is reflected over the Spine under the peritoneum. It is about twelve fingers breadth in length, and has an oblique perforation near its middle, which is the common opening to the pancreatic duct and ductus communis choledochus. The jejunum and ileum compose the remainder of the small intestines. They always hang from the mesentery into the cavity of the pelvis. There is no alteration of structure in any part of the small intestines, the termination of the one and begin- ning of the other is imaginary. The jejunum constitutes the first half from the duodenum, the other half is ileum. The small intestines have internally a number of annular folds, which aug- ment the surface for the situation of the lacteal and other vessels; these are called valvulæ conniventes. They are peculiar to the small intestines. The LARGE intestines are divided into the cæcum, colon, and rectum. The cæcum lies upon the right hip over the iliacus internus muscle, to which it is attached by cellular membrane: it is a large cul de fac: the small intestine opens obliquely into it, in (175) in such a manner as to form a valve to impede the return of the fæces; and nearly opposite to this valve there arises from the cæcum a small ver- miform canal, imperforated at its extremity, called the appendicula cæci vemiformis. The intestine is now called colon; it ascends towards the liver, and is called the ascending portion of the colon, and having reached the liver, forms a transvese arch across to the other side. The colon then descends, forming what is termed its sigmoid flexure into the pelvis, where the gut is termed the rectum, which terminates in the anus. The large intes- tines are lobulated, have sometimes little fat por- tions adhering to them called appendiculæ epiplo- icæ, and also three longitudinal bands upon their ex- ternal surface. COMPOSED of three membranes, or coats, one common, a muscular one, and the third villous. CONNEXION, with the mesentery, kid- dies, os coccygis, and urinary bladder, and in women with the vagina. ARTERIES, branches of the superior and inferior mesenteric, duodenal, and internal hæmorrhoidal. VEINS, run into the meseraic. Their NERVES are, productions of the eighth pair and intercostals. LACTEAL VESSELS. These arise from the small intestines, and run into the mesenteric glands. GLANDS muciparous, un- der the villous coat. USE, to receive the chyme, and retain it for a time; to mix it with the ente- ric juice and bile; to separate and propel the chyle into the lacteal vessels; and to eliminate the fæces. CHYLIFI- (176) CHYLIFICATION. This is the change of the chyme in the small intes- tines into chyle. The chyme in the duodenum is mixed with the pancreatic juice, the bile, and en- teric juice; from which mixture, effected by the continual peristaltic motion of the intestines, a milk-like fluid is separated, which is termed chyle, and is absorbed by the pendulous opening of the lacteals, and conveyed through the mesentery into the thoracic duct, to be lent into and mixed with the blood, to form new blood. Chylification is performed quicker than chymi- fication, and both are effected within three hours. The excrementious particles of the food, called the fæces, are propelled into the cæcum, through the colon, and where they acquire a peculiar smell, into the rectum, to-be expelled. EXPULSION OF THE FÆCES. The irritation of the fæces, in the rectum induces it to contract, the sphincter relaxes, and the fæces, are protruded through the aperture of the anus, by the pressure of the abdominal muscles, and the anus closed again by the contraction of its sphincter and levator muscles. MESENTERY. A membranous duplicature, formed of a pro- duction of the peritoneum, to which the intes- tines (177) tines adhere. DIVISION, into mesentery, to which the intestines adhere, and mesocolon, to which the colon adheres. CONNEXION, with the lumbar ver- tebræ. ARTERIES, inferior and superior, mesente- ric, branches of the aorta descendens. VEINS, empty themselves into the vena portæ;. NERVES, branches of the eighth pair and intercostals. The GLANDS, which are situated in the mesentery, are called mesenteric glands. The lacteals proceed to these glands, and from them to the thoracic duct. USE, to strengthen the intestines, and afford a situa- tion to the lacteal vessels, glands, and nerves, blood-vessels, &c. of the intestines. LIVER. The largest of the abdominal viscera, placed in the right hypochondriac region, and somewhat in the epigastric. DIVISION, into three lobes; the great, small, and a less one, called the Spigelian. CONNEXION, with the diaphragm, by means of the suspensory and other ligaments. SUBSTANCE, vascular. The GLANDS which compose the sub- stance of the liver are called acini biliosi. The EXCRETORY DUCTS OF THE GLANDS are termed pori biliari; they arise from the acini of the liver, form larger trunks, called ductus hepatici, which converge together, and constitute a common ca- nal, the ductus hepaticus, which unites with the cystic duct, and forms the ductus communis cho- ledochus. USE, to secrete bile. 5 GALL- (178) GALL-BLADDER. An oblong membranous receptacle, situated un- der the liver, in the right hypochondriam. DIVI- SION, into bottom, body, and neck, which termi- nates in the ductus cysticus. The ductus cysticus arises from the gall-bladder, proceeds to the duo- denum, and unites with the ductus hepaticus, to form the ductus communis choledochus, which perfo- rates the duodenum, and conveys the bile into the intestines. The gall-bladder is COMPOSED of three membranes, a common, fibrous, or muscular and villous. ARTERIES, branches of the hepatic. VEINS, empty themselves into the vena portæ. ABSORBENTS, very numerous. NERVES, from the eighth pair and intercostals. GLANDS, muci- parous. USE, to retain the gall, which regurgi- tates from the hepatic duct, there to become thicker, more bitter, and acrid. SPLEEN. A spongy viscus, situated in the left hypochon- drium, near the fundus of the stomach, under the ribs. FIGURE, oval. CONNEXION, with the omentum, diaphragm, pancreas, and colon. ARTERIES, the splenic artery is a branch of the cœliac. VEINS, empty themselves into the vena portæ. ABSORBENTS, very numerous. NERVES, from the par vagum and great intercostal. USE, unknown. PANCREASE. (179) PANCREASE. A glandular body, of a long figure, compared to a dog's tongue, situated in the epigastric region, under the stomach. COMPOSED of innumerable small glands, the excretory ducts of which unite and form the pancreatic duct. Its external mem- brane is from the mesocolon. ARTERIES, from the neighbouring parts and splenic artery. VEINS, evacuate themselves into the splenic. The pan- creatic duct perforates the duodenum with the ductus communis choledochus, and conveys its secretion into the intestines. USE, to secrete a humour similar to saliva, and carry it into the duodenum. LACTEAL VESSELS. The absorbing vessels of the mesentery are so termed, because they convey the chyle, a milk- like fluid, from the intestines into the thoracic duct. ORIGIN, from the surface of the duode- num, jejunum, and ileum. TERMINATION, in the thoracic duct, or trunk of the absorbents, which runs near the aorta on the spine, and emp- ties its contents into the jugular vein. As they run through the mesentery, they pass through a number of glands, in which the chyle is altered, and then proceed to their trunk. USE. To carry the chyle from the intestines into the blood. See the PhysioLogy of Absorption and the Absorbents, pages 116. 120. KIDNEYS. (180) Two viscera, which secrete the urine. SI- TUATED behind the sac of the peritoneum, near the bodies of the superior lumbar vertebræ. SUB- STANCE, of three kinds; cortical, tubular, and papillous. INTEGUMENTS, or COVERINGS, adi- pose membrane, and a membrana propria. The RENAL ARTERIES, or EMULGENTS, are branches of the aorta descendens. The VEINS empty themselves into the cava inferior. The NERVES of the kidneys are branches of the eighth pair and intercostal. The excretory ducts of the kidneys are called the URETERS, canals which con- vey the urine from the kidneys into the bladder. USE, to secrete urine. EXCRETION OF THE URINE. The urine is separated from the blood by the extremities of the renal arteries, which open in the substance of the kidney into the tubuli urini- feri, from whence it is received into the pelvis of the kidney, and passes along the ureter into the urinary bladder guttatim, where it usually re- mains a few hours, in consequence of the sphinc- ter of the bladder being contracted. It is pre- vented returning into the ureters by their en- trance being oblique and valvular. The urine having remained a few hours in the bladder, ex- cites a desire to void it, by which stimulus the sphincter (181) sphincter becomes relaxed, the muscular structure of the bladder contracts, and by the assistance of the abdominal muscles and the acceleratores urinæ the urine is propelled along the urethra. SUPRA-RENAL GLANDS. Two triangular flat bodies, SITUATED, one above each kidney. USE, not known. Of THE PELVIS. The pelvis is a cavity below the abdomen and under the pubes, containing the urinary bladder, rectum, and organs of generation. URINARY BLADDER. A membranous sac under the peritoneum, in the cavity of the pelvis. SITUATION, in men, be- tween the pubes and rectum; in women, between the pubes and uterus. DIVISION, into fundus, body, and neck. COMPOSED of three mem- branes, like the intestines. ARTERIES, branches of the hypogastric and hæmorrhoidal. VEINS, empty themselves into the hypogastric. NERVES, branches from the intercostal and sacral nerves. GLANDS, muciparous. USE, to receive, retain, and expel the urine. R THE (182) THE MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. These are, the penis, testicles, and vesiculas se- minales. PENIS, Also called membrum virile, or yard, is that cylindrical part which hangs down under the mons Veneris, before the scrotum. DIVISION, into root, body, and head, called glans. The hairy prominence, which covers the pubes, is called mons Veneris. SUBSTANCE. It consists of common integuments, two corpora cavernosa; the corpus spongiosum urethræ; and the urethra. The cor- pora cavernosa, which form the chief bulk of the penis, are composed of a cellular and very elastic substance, and arise by two crura, one from each ascending ramus of the ischium. The corpus spongio- sum begins before the prostate gland, and surrounds the urethra. At its beginning it forms the bulbous part of the urethra, and then proceeds forwards, to be expanded at the extremity of the penis into a very vascular substance, called glans penis, which is natu- rally covered by a fold of the skin, called the pre- puce. The urethra is a membranous canal, which proceeds from the bladder through the corpus spon- giosum urethræ to the meatus or opening in the glans penis. It is endowed with a high degree of sen- sibility (183) sibility and contractility. The verumontanum, or caput gallinaginis, is a cutaneous eminence in the urethra, before the neck of the bladder. GLANDS, muciparous; odoriferous; Cowper's glands; and the prostate. See Adenology, The penis is CONNECTED with the urethra, pubes, and ischium. ARTERIES, are branches of the hypo- gastric and ischiatic. The DORSAL VEIN of the penis, called vena magna ipsius pinis, empties itself into the vena hypogastrica. ABSORBENTS, run under the common integuments, to the inguinal glands. NERVES, branches of the sacral nerves and ischiatic. USE, for erection, coition, effusion of semen, and of urine. TESTICLES. Two oval bodies contained in the cavity of the scrotum. The EPIDIDYMIS is an hard vascular substance, formed of convoluted vas deferens, ly- ing on the testicle. INTEGUMENTS of the tes- ticle are, the scrotum; tunica albuginea, which is smooth, and adheres very firmly to the body of the testicle; and the tunica vaginalis, which descends with the spermatic chord, and surrounds the testicle, as the pericardium does the heart. COMPOSED of white slender canals, which terminate in the epi- didymis, and form into one great canal, the vas deferens, which proceeds from the testicle into the abdomen, over the os pubis, and then descends R2 into (184) into the pelvis, to be inserted into the vesiculæ seminales. SPERMATIC ARTERIES, are branches of the aorta. SPERMATIC VEINS, empty them- selves into the vena cava, and left vena renalis. NERVES, branches of the lumbar and great in- tercostal. ABSORBENTS, ascend from the testicle through the chord. The funiculus spermaticus, or spermatic chord, consists of the vas deferens, sper- matic artery and vein, spermatic nerves, absorbent vessels, and tunica vaginalis, which the cremaster muscle surrounds. USE, to secrete and prepare semen. SECRETION AND EXCRETION OF THE SEMEN. The semen is secreted by minute branches of the spermatic arteries, that deposit it into corre- sponding seminal vessels, which compose the great- est part of the body of the testicle. The semen is the proper stimulus to these vessels, which are therefore stimulated to contract, and by a very slow motion convey it into the epididymis and vas deferens, by which it is carried through the inguinal ring into the pelvis, to be deposited in the vesiculæ seminales, where it excites a desire to emit it. The cells of the corpora cavernosa penis are distended with blood by the venereal stimulus; hence the penis swells, and is inclined for coition, during which action, at the time of the æstrum venereum, the vesiculæ seminales contract, and the semen (185) semen is thrown with an immense force, through, the ejaculatory ducts, opening into the urethra, where it is mixed with the secretion from the prostate gland, which is expelled at the same moment, and passes with it along the urethra, to be propelled by the contraction of the eja- culatory muscles into the cavity of the uterus. VESICULÆ SEMINALES. Two membranous receptacles, which receive and contain the semen from the vasa deferentia. They are SITUATED on the back part of the bladder, above its neck. SUBSTANCE, mem- branous, white, and covered with a fibrous sub- stance. The ejaculatory ducts are some lines long, and enter the cavity of the urethra from each ve- sicle, by a peculiar orifice at the top of the ve- rumontanum. VESSELS and NERVES, from the neighbouring parts. ABSORBENTS VESSELS, arise from the vesiculæ seminales, and run to the lym- phatic glands about the loins. USE, to contain, retain, inspissate, and excern the semen into the urethra. THE ORGANS of GENERATION IN WOMEN. The parts which serve for generation in wo- men are divided into external and, internal. The R3 EXTER- (186) EXTERNAL PARTS are the mons Veneris;, the la- bia majora, two cutaneous folds, situated exter- nally; the labia minora, or nymphæ, also two cu- taneous folds, like a cock's-comb, placed at the sides of the vagina; the clitoris, a small glandi- form body, like a penis in miniature, placed un- der the superior commissure of the nymphœ; and the hymen, a membrane for the most part semi- lunar, situated at the entrance of the virgin vagina. The INTERNAL PARTS are the vagina; uterus; Fallopian tubes; ovaria; broad and round ligaments of the uterus; and the urethra. VAGINA. An elastic canal leading from the external open- ing of the vulva to the uterus. COMPOSED of three membranes; the outermost is cellular, the middle muscular, and the internal rugous. GLANDS, mucous; situated under the internal membrane. USE, to receive the penis, and for the passage of the child in delivery. UTERUS, OR WOMB. A spongy receptacle, like a flattened pear; situ- ated in the pelvis between the urinary bladder and rectum. DIVISION, into fundus, body, neck, and orifice, called os tincæ. SUBSTANCE OF THE UTERUS, spongy, interwoven with muscular fibres. ARTERIES, the spermatic, which are branches of the aorta; and the uterine, which are from the hypogas- (187) hypogastric and hæmorrhoidal. UTERINE VEINS are without valves, and empty themselves into the spermatic, hypogastric, and external hæmorrhoi- dal veins. ABSORBENTS run into the iliac glands. NERVES are branches of the sacral and ischiatic. GLANDS, mucous. USE, for conception, nutri- tion of the fœtus, parturition, and menstruation. PHYSIOLOGY OF MENSTRUATION. By a law of nature women menstruate in this climate from about the age of fifteen to forty-five. Menstruation is the efflux (by some thought to be a secretion) of blood from vessels opening into the cavity of the uterus. During pregnancy, the ca- tamenia, or menses, for so the discharge is called, stop, except in some few instances, where it is supplied by the vessels of the vagina. The nature of menstrual blood, if women be healthy, differs only from other blood in its not coagulating, which may be caused by its slow exit, and its mixture with the secretions of the uterus and vagina. It differs, however, in quantity, the period of its first appearance, its duration, and the symptoms which precede and accompany it, ac- cording to the age, temperament, habit of body, climate, season of the year, mode of living, and other circumstances. Women are said to be most susceptible of the action (188) action of the vivifying principle of the semen dur- ing the period of menstruation. PHYSIOLOGY OF CONCEPTION. The congress between man and woman is called coition, which is so well known as to require no description. During coition the nymphæ and clitoris are tu- mid with blood, and the fimbriæ of the Fallopian tubes, by a power inherent in them, are stretched out, and applied over the surface of an ovum in the ovarium. The pleasure which women experience during coition is very great, and a quantity of mucus is suddenly emitted from the glands of the vagina, during the venereal orgasm, which in former times was erroneously supposed to be the semen of the female, but now it is the opinion of physiologists that women have no semen, as anatomy cannot de- tect any organ by which it can be secreted. In order that a woman may conceive, it is requi- site that she shall have menstruated; that the ovum in the ovarium shall have arrived at a state of ma- turity, and that the fimbriæ of the Fallopian tube shall be stretched around the mature ovum, so as to let the cavity of the Fallopian tube come im- mediately over it. In this state, the male semen is emitted into the uterus, and its vivifying part, which is extremely subtile, and called the aura seminis, (189) seminis, flies through the cavity of the uterus along the Fallopian tube to the mature ovum, to which it imparts a principle by which it begins to circulate its fluids and is animated. The ovum be- ing thus vivified, enlarges and ruptures the slen- der tunic of the ovarium, in which it was en- closed. At the time of its rupturing, the fimbriæ of the Fallopian tube embrace it, and it is rolled, by the peristaltic motion of the latter, into the cavity of the uterus, there to be perfected, and at the expiration of nine months to be sent into- the world. OF THE GRAVID UTERUS. The parts of the gravid uterus are, the uterine placenta, the umbilical chord, the membranous ovum of the fœtus, the liquor amnii, and the fœtus. UTERINE PLACENTA. A spongy mass, like a cake, generally adhering to the fundus of the gravid uterus, composed of a net-work of very numerous vessels. SUBSTANCE, cellular, like a sponge filled with vessels. AB- SORBENTS have been lately discovered. NERVES, none. USE, to receive and prepare the blood from the uterus for the fœtus, and give off branches to the umbilical vein. FUNICULUS (190) FUNICULUS UMBILICALIS, OR UMBILICAL CHORD. A chord of an intestinal form, which runs from the navel of the fœtus to the centre of the pla- centa. LENGTH, mostly about half a yard. COMPOSED of a cutaneous vagina, or sheath, a cellular substance, one umbilical vein, and two umbilical arteries. USE. The umbilical vein of the fœtus conveys the blood from the placenta to the fœtus, and the two umbilical arteries return it from the fœtus to the placenta. MEMBRANOUS OVUM OF THE FŒTUS. The fœtus is enclosed in a membranous ovum or bag within the cavity of the uterus. The ovum consists of three membranes; an outer, or fila- mentous, called decidua; a middle one, called the chorion; and an inner one, termed the amnion. USE, to include the liquor amnii, to prevent its flowing into the uterus, and at the commencement of parturition, to assist in dilating the os uteri. LIQUOR AMNII, OR LIQUOR OF THE AMNION. A lymphatic liquid, enclosed in the cavity of the ovum surrounding the fœtus, secreted by the exhaling arteries of the membranes of the ovum. QUANTITY, about the time of parturition, two or three pounds. PROPERTY, gelatinous, like 5 turbid (191) turbid serum of milk. USE, to defend the fœtus from the pressure of the uterus, to give it nourish- ment, to dilate the orifice of the uterus in labour, and to lubricate the vagina. FŒTUS. During the first month of pregnancy, the ovum is about the size of a pigeon's egg; the fœtus swims in the middle of the liquor amnii, and represents a little cloud, which gradually enlarges, and its parts become more firm and perfect. The parts of the fœtus at birth differ from the adult, in having a foramen ovale, a canalis arteriosus, and a canalis ve- nosus. The lungs are black, collapsed, and sink in water. The liver is large. All the small glands are also proportionately large, and the large intes- tines are filled with meconium. All the canals and vessels peculiar to the fœtus are obliterated after birth, and become ligaments. PECULIARITIES IN THE ARTERIAL AND VENAL SYSTEM OF THE FŒTUS. The fœtus has—an umbilical vein, which goes to the liver, and two umbilical arteries, which arise from the internal iliac—a canalis venosus, or vein, which proceeds from the sinus of the vena portæ into the vena cava inferior—an opening in the septum of the auricles, called the foramen ovale— and a cana'is arteriosus, or artery which arises from the (192) the pulmonary artery, and passes obliquely into the aorta. After birth these vessels gradually be- come impervious, and at length are removed by the absorbents. CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD IN THE FŒTUS. The fœtus receives its blood from the mother through the umbilical vein of the funis, which transmits it along the ductus venosus into the vena cava, to be carried to the right auricle of the heart; from the right auricle it passes partly through the fo- ramen ovale into the left auricle, and partly into the right ventricle. From the right ventricle it is pro- pelled inco the pulmonary artery, which sends a very small proportion through the lungs and the remain- der through the canalis arteriosus into the aorta. The blood is returned from the fœtus by the two umbilical arteries, along the chord, to the mother. HYGROLOGY, OR DOCTRINE OF THE FLUIDS. THE fluids of the body are divided into crude, as the chyle; sanguineous, as the blood; lymphatic, as the lymph of the lymphatic vessels; secreted, or those separated from the blood; and excrementitious, as urine, fœtus, &c. The (193) The secreted fluids are subdivided into lacteat, as the juice of the prostate gland; aqueous, as the aqueous humour of the eye; mucous, as the mucus of the nostrils; albuminous, as the serum of the blood: oleous, as the oil of the adipose membrane; and bilious, as the bile. Fluids are also divided, from their motion, into cir- culatory, which continually circulate in the vessels; commorant, which circulate with a flow motion, as the semen, oil of the adipose membrane; stagnant, which remain for a certain time in any receptacle, as cystic bile, &c. FLUIDS COMMON TO THE WHOLE BODY. THE BLOOD A red fluid, which circulates in the cavities of the heart, arteries, and veins. COLOUR, in the arteries, of a florid hue; in the veins darker, except in the pulmonary veins, in which it is of a lighter cast. Blood exposed to the atmosphere spontane- ously separates by degrees into two parts, viz. the serum, a yellow and somewhat greenish fluid; and a cake, called also the cruor, or crassamentum, which resembles a red mass swimming like an island in the serum. USE, to stimulate the cavities of the heart and vessels to contraction; to generate the heat of S the (194) the body, and propagate it to every part; to nou- rish every part; and to supply all the secretions, they being all separated from the blood. THE LYMPH OF THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. A tasteless crystalline liquid, contained in the lymphatic vessels. ABSORBED from the surface; tela cellulosa; viscera; and cavities of the viscera of the whole body; and CONVEYED into the thoracic duct. USE, to return the superfluous nu- tritious fluid, the vapours of cavities, and sub- stances applied to the skin, to the thoracic duct. THE VAPOUR OF THE SHEATHS OF THE NERVES. The aqueous vapour contained in the vaginæ and between the fibrils of the nerves. SECRETORY ORGAN, the arteries of the sheath. USE, to moisten the nervous fibrils. FLUIDS PROPER TO EACH PART. THE VAPOUR IN THE VENTRICLE OF THE BRAIN. A thin vapour contained in the cavity of the ventricles of the brain, and SECRETED by the exhaling arteries of the choroid plexus. USE, to prevent (195) prevent the concretion of the ventricles, and keep the medulla moist. IN THE CAVITY OF THE NOSTRILS. THE MUCUS OF THE NOSTRILS. The mucus SECRETED by the muciparous glands of the pitui- tary membrane, lining the septum and conchæ of the nostrils. USE, to preserve the nervous pa- pillæ of the olfactory nerves moist, and to mode- rate excessive sensibility. IN THE CAVITY OF THE MOUTH. THE SALIVA. A fluid secreted by the salivary glands into the mouth. THE SECRETORY ORGAN is composed of the parotid; sub-maxillary; and sub-lingual glands. USE, to augment the taste of the food; to mix with, dissolve, and resolve the food into its principles; and to moderate thirst. IN THE CAVITY OF THE FAUCES. THE MUCUS OF THE FAUCES. A mucus se- creted by the muciparous glands of the tonsils, pha- rynx, &c. USE, to lubricate the fauces. IN THE EEYES. THE AQUEOUS HUMOUR OF THE EYE. The very limpid water which fills the anterior and pos- terior chambers of the eye. SECRETORY organ, the floating vessels of the corpus ciliare, and ex- haling vessels of the iris. USE, to distend the cor- S2 nea; (196) rea; retain the crystalline lens and vitreous hu- mour in their places; and to transmit the focus of the rays of light to the crystalline lens. THE CRYSTALLINE LENS. A lentiform, pellu- cid, cellular body, distended by a very limpid aque- ous fluid, enclosed in a membranous capsule, and situated in a depression in the anterior surface of the vitreous humour. USE, to transmit and refract the focus of the rays of light to the vitreous hu- mour. THE VITREOUS HUMOUR. The pellucid vitri- form body, which fills the whole bulb of the eye behind the crystalline lens. COMPOSED of small cells distended with a limpid water. USE, to ex- pand the bulb, and transmit and moderately aug- ment the focus of the rays of light from the crys- talline lens to the retina. THE WATER IN THE CAPSULE OF THE CRYS- TALLINE LENS. SECRETED by the pellucid branches of the artery of the crystalline lens. USE, to prevent the concretion of the crystalline lens with its capsule. THE PIGMENT OF THE IRIS. The coloured mucus, which covers the anterior and posterior surface of the iris. USE, to reflect the rays, of light. THE PIGMENT OF THE CHOROID MEMBRANE. The black or brownish mucus, which covers the anterior surface of the choroid membrane, and the interior of the corpus ciliare. THE (197) THE TEARS. A limpid fluid secreted by the lachrymal gland, and flowing on the surface of the eye. USE, to moisten the surface of the eye and eyelids. THE JUICE OF MEIBOMIUS'S GLANDS. The unctuous humour secreted by the sebaceous glands of Meibomius, and lubricating the tarsi of the eyelids. USE, to lubricate the tarsi of the eyelids, and involve the saline acridity of the tears. IN THE CAVITY OF THE EARS. THE CERUMEN, OR WAX OF THE EARS. The bitter ceraceous fluid secreted by the ceruminous glands of the meatus auditorius externus. USE, to lubricate the sensible membrane of that canal, and to prevent insects from entering. THE WATER OF THE LABYRINTH. An insipid water contained in the cavity of the tympanum. USE, to preserve the nervous fibrils of the auditory nerve soft and moist, and to moderate the tremors of founds. IN THE NECK. THE JUICE OF THE THYROID GLANDS. Of a yellowish white colour, especially in infants. USE, not known. THE MUCUS OF THE ŒSOPHAGUS. Secreted by the muciparous glands, situated in the cellular membrane. USE, to lubricate the cavity of the œsophagus, and prevent the concretion of its sides. S3 IN (198) IN THE CAVITY OF THE THORAX. THE MUCUS lining the internal surface of the trachea, bronchia, and vesiculæ pulmonales. SE- CRETORY ORGAN, the muciparous glands situated under the internal membrane of those parts. USE, to prevent the surface of the trachea, bronchia, and vesiculæ pulmonales from becoming dry by the continual passing of the air. THE VAPOUR IN THE CAVITY OF THE THO- RAX. A vapour which exhales from the exhaling vessels of the pleura of the lungs and ribs, into the cavity of the thorax. USE, to preserve the pleura soft, moist, and flexile; and to defend and prevent it from the friction of, and concretion with, the lungs. THE VAPOUROR LIQUOR PERICARDII. Se- creted by the arterious exhaling vessels, which open upon the external surface of the heart and internal of the pericardium. USE, to prevent the concre- tion of the heart with the pleura; to diminish the friction; and preserve the parts soft. THE JUICE OF THE THYMUS GLAND. A milky juice secreted by the arteries opening into the cells of this gland. USE, not known. IN THE BREASTS. THE MILK OF THE BREASTS. A white, sweetish fluid, secreted by the glandular fabric of the breasts I of (199) of women. USE, to be an aliment to new-born children. IN THE ABDOMEN. THE GASTRIC JUICE. A limpid colourless fluid, secreted by the exhaling vessels of the very nume- rous arteries, which bedew every part of the sto- mach. USE, to digest the food. THE PANCREATTIC JUICE. The limpid juice se- creted by this gland, and conveyed through its ex- cretory duct into the duodenum. USE, to assist in the formation of chyle. BILE. A yellowish-green bitter juice, secreted by the glandular substance of the liver, and con- veyed by the biliary ducts, in part, into the duo- denum, and in part into the gall-bladder: hence cystic and hepatic bile. USE, to extricate the chyle from the digested mass of food; to stimulate the in- testines; and to prevent the abundance of mucus and acidity in the primæ viæ. CHYLE. A white fluid, separated from the food in the primæ viæ, and observed some hours after eating in the lacteal vessels of the mesentery, and in the thoracic duct. USE, to form the blood. THE ENTERIC JUICE. A limpid liquor, secreted by the exhaling arteries in the whole course of the small and large intestines. USE, to assist in di- gestion; and to cleanse and moisten the intes- tines. THE (200) THE MUCUS OF TH EPRIMÆ VIÆ. Secreted by the muciparous glands situated under the vil- lous coat of the primæ viæ. USE, to lubricate that canal. THE VAPOUR OF FLUID IN THE CAVITY OF THE ABDOMEN. An aqueous vapour, secerned by the exhaling arteries of the peritoneum. USE to preserve moist and prevent the concretion of the abdominal viscera. URINE. A saline liquid, of a citrine colour, se- creted in the kidneys, and dropping down from them guttatim through the ureters into the cavity of the urinary bladder. USE, to liberate the body from the superfluous water, &c. THE MUCUS OF THE BLADDER. Secreted by the muciparous glands situated under the innermost membrane. USE, to lubricate and defend the in- ternal and very sensible surface of the urinary bladder. IN THE PARTS OF GENERATION IN MEN. THE MUCUS OF THE URETHRA. Secreted by the muciparous glands situated under the internal membrane. USE, to lubricate and defend the very sensible surface of the urethra against the acridity of the urine. THE SMEGMA OF THE GLANDS PENIS. An unctuous humour, secreted by the sebaceous folli- cles on the surface of the glans and prepuce. USE, to (201) to lubricate and defend the sensible surface of the glans, and prevent its concretion with the pre- puce. THE VAPOUR OF THE TUNICA VACINALIS TESTIS. The aqueous vapour, which exhales from the arteries into the cavity of the tunica vaginalis testis. USE, to prevent the concretion of the testes with the tunica vaginalis, and preserve them moist. THE LIQUOR OF THE PROSTATE GLANDS. A milky juice, separated by the arteries of the pro- state gland, and sent through its ducts, sub coitu, into the urethra with the semen. USE, to serve as a vehicle to the semen. THE SEMEN. The prolific liquor secreted in the testes, and carried through the epididymis and vas deferens into the vesiculæ seminales. USE, to be emitted, sub coitu, into the female vagina, and there, by its aura, to penetrate to, and impregnate, the ovulum in the female ovarium. IN THE PARTS OF GENERATION IN WOMEN. THE SMEGNA OF THE LABIA AND VULVA. The unctuous juice secreted by the sebaceous glands, and covering the internal surface of the labia and nym- phæ. USE, to lubricate their sensible surface, and prevent any irritation post mictum, THE MUCUS OF THE VAGINA. Secreted by the muciparous glands under the internal mem- brane. (202) brane. USE, to lubricate the vagina, left it be pained by friction, sub coitu, and to prevent the concretion of its sides. THE LIQUOR OF THE CAVITY OF THE UTE- RUS. Secreted into it by the exhaling arterious vessels. CONSISTENCE, in the virgin uterus, se- rous and turbid; in the gravid, milky. USE, to moisten the cavity, and prevent its concretion. IN THE ARTICULATIONS. THE SYNOVIA. An unctuous fluid, secreted by the internal membrane of the capsular ligaments surrounding the articulations of the bones. USE, to lubricate the cartilaginous surfaces of the arti- culatory bones, and facilitate their motions. THE JUICE OF THE BURSÆ MUCOSÆ. An unc- tuous and somewhat mucilaginous juice, secreted by the vessels of the internal membrane of the bursæ mucosæ. USE, to lubricate the tendons for motion. IN THE BONES. THE MARROW OF BONES. The oily substance secreted by the arteries of the internal periosteum, and contained in the medullary cavities of the long bones, and spongy substance of others. FLUIDS OF THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS. THE MUCUS OF MALPIGHI, OR RETE MUCO- SUM. The mucus situated between the epidermis and cutis of the whole body, and secreted by the arterious (203) arterious vessels of the skin. USE, to congluti- nate the epidermis to the cutis; to moderate the sense of touch; to moisten the nervous cutaneous papillæ; and give the external colour to the body; hence it is white in Europeans, black in Æthiopi- ans, &c. THE OIL OF THE ADIPOSE MEMBRANE. Se- creted by the arteries of the cellular membrane. USE, to facilitate muscular motion. SWEAT. The aqueous perspirable matter excreted through the exhaling arteries of the skin. USE, to keep the skin moist. A GLOS-  (205) A GLOSSARY, OR EXPLANATION OF ANATOMICAL TERMS. A. ABDÕMEN. The cavity of the helly; from abdo to hide, as including the intestines and other viscera. ACETÃBULUM. The cavity which receives the head of the thigh bone; from acetum vinegar: so called, because it represents the acetabulum or faucet of the ancients, in which vine- gar was held for the use of the table. ACINI. The glands of the liver; from acinus a grape. ACRÕMION. A process of the scapula; from αxpos extremity, and ωμos the shoulder. ADENÕLOGY The doctrine of the glands; from αδηv a gland, and λoγos a discourse. AMNION. A membrane that surrounds the fœtus, which is soft and shaggy; from αμvios a lamb's skin. AMPHYARTHRÕSIS. A Species of connexion of bones, which admits of an obscure motion; from αμφω both, and αpΦpωδis an articulation. T ANASTO- (206) ANASTOMÕSIS. The communication of vessels with one another; from ανα through, and soμα a mouth. ANATOMY. The dissection of the human body; from ανα, and Τιμνω to diffect. ANCON. The elbow; from αyxαζoμxι to embrace, αxo Τμ αyxιισφαι ιTιρω oςιω τo oςιν; because the bones meeting, and being there united, arc folded one into ano- ther. ANCONEUS. A muscle; so called from αyxων the elbow. ANCONOID. Procefs of the cubit; from ayxuv the elbow, and ωδos shape. ANGIÖLOGY. The doctrine of the vessels; from αyyuoν a vessel, and χoyox a discourse. AORTA. Aoprn; from αnζ air, and τxριω to keep: an artery so called because the ancients supposed that only air was contained in it. It may rather be derived from αιιρ to convey, as serving to convey the blood to the rest of the body. APONEURÕSIS. A tendinous expansion; from αno from, and vιvpoν a nerve; from an erroneous supposition of the an- cients, that it was formed by an expansion of a nerve. APÕPHYSIS. A process of a bone; from αxoφvμ to proceed from. A synonym of process. ARACHNÕIDES. A net-like membrane; from αρyyη a spider, and ιιooι likeness. ARTERY. From αηζ air, and τηριω to keep; because the an- cients supposed that only air was contained in them. ARTHRODIA. A species of connexion of hones from αρφρoω to articulate. ARYTMNÕIDES. The name of two cartilages of the larynx; also applied to some muscles of the larynx; from αρvταιyαa fun- nel, and ιιoos shape. ASTRÃGALUS. A bone of the tarsus so called from its resem- 5 blance (207) blance to a die used in ancient games, from αςραyαλος a cockal or die. ATLAS. The first vertebra of the neck; so called, because it sustains the head; from the fable of Atlas being suppesed to have supported the world; or from ατλαω to sustain, be- cause it sustains the head. AZYGOS. A term applied to parts without a fellow, from a priv. and ζoyos a yoke, because it has no fellow. B. BRÃCHÎUM. The arm; hence os brachii, brachialis externus &c. from βριχus short, because in a well-proportioned man it is shorter from the shoulder to the hands than from the hip to the feet. BRÕNCHIA. The ramifications of the trachea or windpipe; from βριχus a-to pour, because the ancients believed that the flu- ids were conveyed into the stomach by the bronchia. BYRSA. A bag; from βuρσα generally applied to the bursæ mucosæ. BURSÃLÖGY. The doctrine of the bursæ mucosæ; from fιvρσα a bag, and λoyos a discourse. C. CALVÃRïA. The top of the cranium ; from calvus bald. CANCELLI. Lattice work; generally applied to the reticular substance in bones. CÃRDÎA. The superior opening of stomach; from χαροια the heart, because it is situated near it. CARÕTID. The name of some arteries of the neck and head; from χαρoω to cause to sleep; for, if tied with a ligature, the animal becomes comatose, or has the appearance of being asleep. CARPUS. Kαρχos; the wrist. T2 CHÖRÎON. (208) CUÕBÎON. The external membrane of the fætus In utero. χαριv, from χωριω to escape, because it always escapes from the uterus with the fætus. CHOROID membrane and plexus; from χopιoy the chorion, and υδos likeness; so caller! on account of its many blood- vessels resembling the chorion. CLAVÎCULA. The clavicle or collar hone, a diminutive of ela- vis a key; so called from its resemblance to an ancient key. CLINOID. Four processes of the sella turcica of the ethmoid bone; are so called, from χλιvη a bed, and ιιoos likeness, from their supposed resemblance to a couch. CLÎTÔRIS. A part of the female pudenda, enclosed by the labia majora; from xXλιω to enclose or hide. COLON. The fist of the large intestines from xuλoy, quasi xo.λoy, from xoιλos hollow; it generally being found emp- ty, and full of wind, in the dead body. CÕNDYLE. An eminence in any of the joints; xoyδυλos, from xovoυ an ancient cup shaped like a joint. CORÃCO. Names compounded with this word belong to muscles, which are attached to the coracoid process of the scapula; as coraco-hyoideus, &c. CORÃCOID process of the scapula; from xoραζ a crow, and tiδor resemblance, it being shaped like the beak of a crow. CORÕNARY. From corona a crown. The vessels of the heart, stomach, &c. are so called because they surround the parts in the manner of a crown. CORÖNOID. A process so called, from xopωvn a crow, and υδos likeness. from its resemblance to a crow's beak. CÕTYLOID cavity of the os innominatum, which receives, the head of the thigh bone; from xoyυλη the name of an old measure, and υδos resemblance. CRÃNÎUM. The skull; ρχαyιov quasi from xαραvιov, from xαρα the head. CRE- (209) CREBASTER. A muscle so called; from xριμαω to suspend, because it suspend the testicle. CRÍBRÍFORM, or ethmoid bone of the skull; from cribrum a sieve, it being perforated like a sieve. CRICOID. Annular, round, like a ring; from xριxos a ring, and μδos likeness. CRURA. The plural of crus, a leg or root; applied to some parts of the body from their resemblance to a leg or root, as crura cerebelli, &c. CUUÕÍDES. A bone of the foot; from xδαos a cube, and ιιδos likeness; because it resembles a cube. CUNEIFORM. Some bones are so called; from cuncus a wedge, and forma likeness; being shaped like a wedge. D. DARTIS. A muscle of the scrotum; from διρω to excoriate. DELTOID. A muscle resembling the Greek letter △; from △ and ιιδos resemblance. DIAPHRAGM. The muscle which separates the thorax from the abdomen; from διαΦρατζω to divide. DIARTHRÕSIS. A moveable connexion of bones; from διxρζρoω to articulate. DIGASRIC muscle; from διs twice, and a belly; having two bellies. DEPLÔE. The spongy substance between the two tables of the skull; from διxλoω to double; DUODÊNUM. The first portion of the small Intestine; so called because the ancients supposed that it did not exceed the breadth of twelve fingers; from duodenus, consisting of twelve. DURà MATÂR. The outer most membrane of the brain; called dura, because it is much harder than the other mem- branes, and neater, from the ancients supposing it was the source of all the other membranes. T3 EMBRYO. (210) E. EMBRYO. The child in the womb is so called before the fifth, month, after which it is termed fætus; from ιμζρvω to bud forth. ENARTHRÕSIS. An articulation of bones; from , from Ο in, and αρΦρovω a joint or articulation. ENTÊRIC. Belonging to the intestines; from ιτιρov an entrail or intestine. EPIDERMIS. The scarf or outermost skin; from ιxι upon, and διρμα the skin. EPIDIDYMIS. The small oblong body which lies above the testi- cles; from ιxι upon, and διδvμos testicle. EPIGÃSTRIC. The superior part of the abdomen; from ιxι upon, and yαςης the stomach. ERIGLÖTTIS. A cartilage of the larynx so called; from ιxι upon, and yλωΤΠs the aperture of the larynx, being situ- ated upon the glottis. EPÎPHYSIS. A portion of bone growing upon another bone, but separate from it by cartilage; from ιxι upon, and cvω to grow. EPÎPLOON. The membranous viscus of the abdomen, which co- vers the intestines, and hangs to the bottom of the stomach; from ιxιωλιω to swim upon. EPÎSTROPHÆUS. The second vertebra of the neck; from ιxι- τρoΦαω to turn round, because the head is turned upon it. ETHMOID bone of the cranium; so called, from Ιθμos a sieve. and ιιδos resemblance, it being perforated like a sieve. F. FASCÎA. An expansion of a muscle, enclosing others like a band; from Φασxιαa band. FALCÎSORM. Shaped like a scythe; from falx a scythe. FAS- (211) FASCÎCÛLUS. A little bundle. FAUCES. The plural of faux, the top of the throat. G. GALACTOPHÔROUS ducts the breasts of women; from γαλs milk, and φιρω to carry, because they convey the milk to the nipples. GANGLÎON. Γαyyλιoγ, a knot in the course of a nerve. GASTROCNEMÎUS. The muscle which forms the thick of the leg; from yαςηζ a belly, and xyημη the leg. GENÎO. Names compounded with this word belong to mus- cles which are attached to the chin, as Genio-glossus— Genio-hyoideus—Genio-pharyngeus, &c.; from yιyιιoγ the chin GENU. The knee; from yoγμ, ωαρα Τo ειs yμs yεvτιγ, because by it the body is bent towards the earth. GINGLYMUS. An articulation; from yιyyπυμo a hinge. GLENOID. cavity; from yληγη a cavity, and υδos resemblance. GLOMER. A convoluted bundle of vessels; generally applied to the lymphatic glands. GLOSSO. Names compounded with this woid belong to muscles, from their being attached to the tongue; as Glosso-phyryngeus—Glosso-staphylinus, &c from ςλδδαα the tonue. GLOTTIS. The superior opening of the larynx at the bottom of the tongue; from yλωγδα the tongue. GLUTÆUS. The name of a muscle; from yλΤos the buttocks. GOMPHÔSIS. ΓoμΦωαιε inclavation, a species of immoveable connexion of bones; from yoμΦos a nail, because one bone is fixed in another bone like a nail in a board. H. HARMÖNIA. A species of immoveable connexion of bones; from αρω to fit together. HELIX. (212) HÉLIX. The outward circle of the ear; from ειλω to tura about. HÊPAR. The liver. 'Hπας, an abdominal viscus. HYÃLOID membrane of the eye; from υαλos glass, and εδΟε likeness; so called from its transparent and glassy appear- ance. HYGRÒLÒGY. The doctrine of the fluids; from δyρos a fluid, and λoyos a discourse. HYMEN. The membrane situated at the entrance of the virgin vagina; from δμηγ hymen. HYO. Names compounded with this word belong to mus- cles which are attached to the os-hyoides, as hyo-glossus —hyo-pharyngeus—hyo-thyroides; from δoειδεs the os hyoides. HYOIDÊS. A bone of the tongue so called from its resemblance to the Greek υ; from υ and ειδos resemblance. HYPOCHÔNDRÎIUM. That part of the body which lies under the cartilages of the spurious ribs; from δxo under, and χoγδρos a cartilage. HYPOGASTRIC. The lower region of the sore part of the abdo- men; from υγo under, and yαςηζ the stomach. I. ILÊUM. A portion of the small intestines; from ειλεω to turn; being always convoluted. ILIUM. Part of the os innominatum, so called because it sup- ports the ειλειαor small intestines. ISCHÏUM. The part of the os innominatum upon which we fit; from ιδχυω to sustain. L. LÂCÛNA. The excretory duct of the glands of the urethra and vagina; from lacus a channel. LAMDOIDALfuture; so called because it is shaped like the letter λ: from λ and υδos resemblance. LARYNX (213) LARYNX. the superior part of the windpipe; λαρυyζ the La- rynx. M. MASSÊTER. A muscle of the face, which assists in the action of chewing; from μασσαoμαι to chew. MASTOID process; so called, from μoxςos a breast, and μδδs likeness, being shaped like a nipple or breast. MEDIASTÎNUM. The production of the pleura, which divides the thorax into two cavities; from medium the middle, quafi in medio stare. MESENTERY. The membranes to which the intestines are at- tached; from μsδos the middle, and ιγτιρoγ an intestine, because it is in the middle of the intestines. MESOCÕLON. That part of the mesentery in the middle of the colon; from μιτos the middle, and xoλoγ the colon. METACARPUS. That part of the hand between the carpus and fingers; from μιτα after, and xαρπos the wrist. METATARSUS. That part of the foot between the tarsus and toes; from μιτα after, and ταpδos the tarsus. MYLO. Names compounded with this word belong to muscles, which are, attached near tire grinders, as mylo- hyoides; mylo-pharyngeus, &c.; from , μυλη a grinder tooth. MYÕLÕGY. The doctrine of the muscles; from μυs muscle, and λoyos a discourse. N. NEURÕLÕGY. The doctrine of the nerves; from γιυρoγ a nerve, and λoyos a discourse. O. ODONTOID, or tooth-like process; from oδus a tooth, and ειδos resemblance. ŒSOPHÃGUS. The canal leading from the pharynx to the sto mach; from, osω to carry, and Φαyω to eat; because it carries the food into the stomach. OLECRA- (214) OLECRANON. The elbow or head of the ulna; from μλιγo the cubit, ami xραγoγ the head. OMENTUM. An abdominal viscus; so called from omen a guess; because the soothsayers prophesied from the inspec- tion of this part. OMO. Names compounded with this word belong to mus- cles which are attached to the scapula, as omo-hyoideus, &c. from ωμos the shoulder. OMOPLÃTA. The scapula or shoulder-blade; from ωμos the shoulder, and ωλατυs broad. ORGASM. A violent salaciousness, attended with turgescence in the parts; from oρyαω to desire vehemently. OSTEÕLÕGY. The doctrine of the bones; from oςεoγa bone, and λoyos a discourse. P. PANCREASE. A viscus of the abdomen; so called from its fleshy consistence; from ωαγ all, and xρoxs flesh. PARENCIIYMA. The substance connecting together the vessels, &c. of the lungs is so called, from ωαρεyxυω to pour through. PAROTID gland; from ωαρα near, and oυs the ear; because it is situated near the ear. PELVIS. A hony cavity shaped like a bason; from ωιλυs a ba- son. FERICARDÎUM. The membrane which surrounds the heart; from ωιρι around, and xαρδιoγ the heart. PERICRANÎUM. The membrane which covers the bones of the skully from ωερι around, and xραγoγ the cranium or head. PERIOSTÊUM. The membrane which surrounds the bones; from ωερι around, and osεos a bone. PERISTALTIC motion of the intestines; from ωιριsιλλω to con- tract PERITO- (215) PERITONÊUM. The membrane lining the abdomen, and covering its viscera; from ωιριτυγω to extend around. PHALANX. The bones of the fingers and toes are called pha- lanxes, from their regular situation, like a Φαλαyξ, or army of soldiers. PHARYNX. A membranous bag at the end of the mouth; ατo τo Φιρυγ, because it conveys the food into the stomach. PHRENIC or diaphragmatic nerve, Φριγιs the diaphragm; from Φρηγ the mind, because the ancients supposed it to be the feat of the mind. PHYSIOLOGY. That part of natural history which treats of the actions and functions of an animated body; from Φυδιs na- ture, and λoyos a discourse. PÍA MATER. The innermost membrane of the brain; so called, because it embraces the brain as a good mother solds her child. PLACENTA. The after-birth; from ωλαxos a cake, from its resemblance to a cake. PLATYAMA-MYOEDES. A muscle of the neck; from ωλατδs broad, μυs a muscle, and τιδos resemblance. PLEURA. The membrane lining the thorax; , ωλιυρα the side. PLEXUS. A kind of net-work of vessels or nerves; from plecto, to weave together. PRÆPUCE, or foreskin of the penis; from præputo, to cut off before, because the eastern nations usually cut it off. PSOAS. A muscle so called; from ♆oα the loin, being situ- ated in the loin. PTERYODID process; from ωιρυζ a pen or wing, and ειδos likeness; so called from its likeness to a pen or wing. PYLÕRUS. The lower orifice of the stomach, which opens into the intestines; from ωυλoω to guard an entrance, because it guards as it were the entrance of the bowels. RAPHE. (216) R. RAPHÊ. A future. 'ΡαΦη, from ραxlω to few. RENÊS. The kidneys, ααo τυ ρτιγ, because through them the urine flows. RETÎNA. The net-like expansion of the optic nerve, on the inner surface of the eye; from rete a net. RHOMBOIDÊS. A muscle so called from its shape; from ρoμos a geometrical figure, whose sides are equal but not right angled, and ειδos a likeness. ROTHÜLA. The knee-pan; a dim. of rota a wheel, from its shape. S. SACRUM. A bone so called; from sacer sacred, because it was once offered in sacrifices. SELVATELLA. A vein of the foot, so called because it was thought the opening it preserved health, and cured me- lancholy; from falvo to preserve. SANGUIS. The blood; απo τυ σαειγ yυια, because it preserves the body. SARTORÏUS. A muscle so called, because taylors cross their legs with it; from sartor a taylor. SCÃPHA. The depression of the outer ear before the anti-helix; from σxαρη a little boat or skiff; from σxαπlω to dig, be- cause skiffs were formerly only trees made hollow. SCAPHÕIDÊS. A bone of the carpus, so called from its resem- blance to a skiff; from σxαΦηa skiff, and ειδos a likeness. SCLEROTIC. A term applied to the outermost or hardest membrane of the eye; from αxληρoω to make hard. SELLA TURCÏCA. Part of the sphænoid is so called from its supposed resemblance to a Turkish saddle. SESÃMOID bones; from σησαμη an Indian grain, and ειδos a likeness, from their resemblance to the semen sesami. SIGMOID. (217) SIGMOID. Parts are so called from their resemblance to the letter Σ; from Σ the letter Sigma, and υδos likeness. SPHÆNOID BONE; from σΦηγ a wedge, and υδos likeness, it being shaped like a wedge. SPHINCTER. The name of several muscles, whose office it is to shut up the aperture around which they are placed; from σΦιyyω to shut up. SPLANCHNÕLÕGY. The doctrine of the viscera; from σxλαy Χγoγ an entrail, and λoyos a discourse. SYMPHYSIS. A connexion of bones; from αυμΦυω to grow to- gether. SYNARTHRÕSIS. A connexion of bones; from συγ with, and αρθρoγ a joint. SYNCHONDRÕSIS. A species of union of bones by means of cartilage; from συγ with, a cartilage. SYNDESMÕLÕGY The doctrine of the ligaments; from αυγ- δισμos a ligament, and λoyos a discourse. SYNDESMÛSIS. A species of union of bones by means of liga- ment; from συγδισμos a ligament. SYNEURÕSIS. A species of connexion of bones by means of mem- brane; from συγ with, and γτυργ a nerve; because mem- branes, ligaments, and tendons, were by the ancients considered as nerves. SYSSARCÕSIS. A species of connexion of bones by means of mus- cle; from συγ with, and σαρξ flesh. SYSTÕLE. The contractile motion of the heart and arteries; from σαςιλλω to contract. T. TENDON. From τπιγω to extend. THÊCA. The spinal canal is called theca vertebralis; from from ɘηxη to ɘημι put. THORAX. ♏︎ωyαζ The breast or chest; from ɘoρεω to leap, because in it the heart beats. U THYRO. (218) THYRO. Names compounded with this word belong to muscles which are attached to the thyroid cartilage. THYROID cartilage; from ɘυρεos a shield, and υδos like- ness, because it is shaped like a shield. TRACHEA. The wind-pipe; so called from its roughness, from τραχυs rough. TRAPEZOID bones of the carpus; from τραπεζιoγ a four-sided figure, and τιδos likeness. TROCHANTER. A process of the thigh-bone, so called from τρεχω to run, because the muscles inserted in these parts perform the office of running. TROCHLËA. A kind of cartilaginous pulley, through which the tendon of one of the muscles of the eye passes; from τρεχω to run. TROCHOIDES. A species of articulation of bones; from τρoχos a wheel, and υδos likeness; because one bone moves round upon another, like a wheel upon its axle-tree. U. ULNA. A name for the cubit; from ωλεγη the cubit. URÊTER. The canal which conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder; from θρoγ urine. URÊTHRA. The passage through which the urine passes from the bladder; from θρoγ the urine. UVEA. The posterior lamina of the iris, so called because in beasts (which the ancients chiefly dissected) it is of the colour of unripe grapes; from uva an unripe grape. UVULA. The glandular substance which hangs down from the middle of the soft palate; so called from its resemblance to a grape. A dim. of uva a grape. V. VALVES. Little membranes, that prevent the return of the blood in the veins and arteries; from valvæ folding doors. I VERTE- (219) VERTEDRÆ. The bones of the spine are so called, from verto to turn. VOMER. A bone of the nose, so called from its resemblance to a ploughshare; from vomo to turn up. X. XIPHOID cartilage, so called from its resemblance to sword; from a sword, and ζιφos likeness. Z. ZYGÕMA. The cavity under the zygomatic process of the tempo- ral bone; from ζυyos a yoke, because it transmits the ten- don of the temporal muscle like unto a yoke. END Printed by S. GOSNELL, Little Queen Street, Holborn. BOOKS lately published by the same Author. THE HYGROLOGY, or Chemico-physiological Doctrine of the Fluids of the human Body. Translated from the Latin of J. J. Plenck, of Vienna. 8vo. Price 5s. board. Boosey, Broad Street; Murray and Highley, Fleet Street. A Compendious MEDICAL DICTIONARY, explaining the Terms in Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry, Materia Me- dica, and the Practice of Physic. Selected from the most ap- proved Authors. 8vo. Price 5s. 6d. boards. Murray and Highley, Fleet Street. The STRUCTURE AND ECONOMY of PLANTS. With an Analogy between the Animal and Vegetable. 8vo. 3s. 6d. boards. The Author's OBSERVATIONS ON HUMAN INTESTI- NAL WORMS, being an Attempt at their Arrangement into Classes, Genera, and Species, accompanied by five elegant Engravings, are published in the last Volume (5th) of the Memoirs of the Medical Society of London. Preparing for the Press, Anatomical and Physiological Dialogues, AND THE ELEMENTS OF SURGERY.