3 oi . SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS. AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 77th Street and Central Park West New York City SEPTEMBER 22-28, 1921 ABSTRACTS OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS Bring this to all sessions at which papers will be read. RESUME DES CO AIMUNICATIONS SCIENTIFIQUES Veuillez apporter la presente a toutes les Seances oil des communications seront lues. EXTRACTOS DE TRABAJOS CIENTtFICOS Lleve V. Este A Todas Las Juntas Donde Trabajos Seran Leidos. ESTRATTI DALLE MEMORIE SCIENTIFICHE I Membri sono pregati di portare il presente con loro a tutte le session! quando si leggeranno le Memorie. OVERSIGHT OM VIDENSKABLIGE FOREDRAG Dette bedes medbringes til alle Moder hvori Foredrag holdes. For all information concerning the Congress, inquire Information Bureau, First Floor, American Museum. Pour toute information concernant le Congres, veuillez vous adresser au Bureau d'Information, au rez-de-chaussee, a 1'American Museum. Pfdase informacion respecto del Congreso a los encargados de la Oficina de Informacion, primer piso, Museo Americano. Per tutte le informazioni riguardante il Congresso, rivolgersi all' Ufficio d'in- formazioni, al Primo Piano, nel Museo. For Oplysning med hensyn til Kongressen bedes at henvende til Information Bureau, forste Etage, American Museum. Hotel Headquarters for Members of the Congress will be the HOTEL MAJESTIC, West 72d Street at Central Park. Information concerning rooms may be had from the Manager of that Hotel, or at the American Museum of Natural History, ground floor. Le logement des Membres du Congres sera arrange par les soins de 1'Hotel Majestic, West 72d Street, a Central Park West. Toute information concernant les chambres sera fournie par le Gerant de cet h6tel ou au rez-de-chaussee & 1'American Museum of Natural History. El centre para los miembros del Congreso lo constituira el Hotel Majestic, West 72d Street y Central Park West. Pfdase informacidn respecto de las habitacidnes al gerente de dicho hotel 6 a los encargados del American Museum of Natural History, primer piso. L'Hotel Majestic, situate alia 72 Strada e Central Park West sard 1'hotel desig- nate quale residenza dei Membri del Congresso. Per qualunque informazione riguar- dante rate ecc. rivolgersi al Direttore dell' Hotel o all' Ufficio d'lnformazioni al prime piano nel Museo. Hotel-hovedkvarteer for Medlemmer af Kongressen er Hotel Majestic, West 72d Street at Central Park. Underrettelse med hensyn til Vaerelser faaes fra Besty- reren af Hotelet eller ogsaa fra Information Bureau, forste Etage, American Museum. The papers are grouped by Sections and are listed in the order of their presenta- tion. Les communications sont groupees par Sections' et sont arrangees suivant 1'ordre dans lequel elles seront presentees. Los titulos de los trabajos se han clasificado por seccidnes, y en las listas aparecen en el orden en que han de leerse. Le Memorie sono raggruppate in sezioni, e sono listate nel ordine della loro presentazione. De indtegnede Foredrag er grupperede i Fag-sektioner og skal presenteres i den nedenfor givne Orden. EXCURSIONS FOR MEMBERS OF THE CONGRESS Sunday, September 25. Groups will be escorted to the New York Zoological Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Members will indicate their choice of these excursions upon registration. EXCURSIONS POUR LES MEMBRES DU CONGRES Dimanche, le 25 septembre. Les Membres seront escortes par groupes au Jardin Zoologique de New York, au Jardin Botanique de New York et au Musee Metropoli- tain d'Art. Au moment de signer le Registre de Presence les Membres voudront bien indiquer leur choix de ces excursions. EXCURS10NES PARA MIEMBROS DEL CONGRESO El domingo, 25 de septiembre. Grupos de los miembros visitaran, acompanados de representantes del Congreso, el New York Zoological Park, el New York Botanical Garden y el Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sirvanse los senores miembros indicar, al inscribirse, su preferencia respecto de estas excursi6nes. ESCURSIONI PER I MEMBRI DEL CONGRESSO Domenica, 25 Settembre. A gruppi i Membri saranno condotti a visitare il Giardino Botanico, il Parco Zoologico e il Museo Metropolitano di Arte. I Membri sono pregati di scegliere e far conoscere se aderiscono o non di prender parte a queste escursioni. EXKURSION FOR MEDLEMMER AF KONGRESSEN Sondag, den 25- September. Adskellige Grupper ledsages til New York Zoblogiske Have, New York Botaniske Have, og til Metropolitan Kunst-Museum. Medlemmer bedes tilkjendegive deres behag naar de indmelder ved Kongress-regist™- toren. ADDRESSES AT OPENING SESSION Major Leonard Darwin, Sc.D., London, England. " The Aims and Methods of Eugenical Societies.'" Major Darwin said he had just crossed the Atlantic to land in a country where racial problems had long been keenly investigated; and this made him diffident. The aim of the Congress was to consider how to improve the racial qualities of future generations. He hoped that Eugenical Societies would be founded in many cities with this object. Heredity should be their guiding star, but they should show warm sym- pathy with all striving to improve human surroundings. Eugenics had been called a dismal science, but it should be described as an un- tried policy, a policy which would more truly justify a hopeful outlook than any efforts ever previously made. Many prejudices have to be overcome. To own that we do not all start even in the race of life is disliked because it is in truth to own that others are naturally superior to ourselves. The wisdom of paying attention to breed in cattle is uni- versally admitted; but it did not follow that the methods of the animal breeder should be adopted by man. They advocated nothing contrary to the highest religious ideals. It was especially important to interest teachers in racial problems, because the ideas of the citizens of to-morrow will depend largely on the opinions of the teachers of to-day. Eugenists had been accused of wishing to abolish love as a guide to conduct; but this was false, for they only wished to purify it of all harmful influences. The desire for wealth and the wish to rise in the social scale often stood in the way of the right choice of a mate, and the moralist unknown to himself was often striving to improve the natural qualities of future generations. It is wrong to bring a child into the world without a pros- pect of its being able to Eve up to a certain standard of civilization. It is wrong also unduly to limit the size of the family when parents are up to standard in all ways; for the seed of such stock should not be lost to posterity. Moral principles must always be kept in the foreground, and in regard to parenthood trust must for the present be largely placed in common sense and a wise doctor. We should encourage the discussion of all reforms, but should be cautious in recommending governmental interference. If action be too bold, progress will be slow; for the wrong road will often be taken. If discussion be not bold, progress will also be slow; for a nation cannot grope its way quickly in the darkness of ignorance. Nearly every subject should be discussed, the occasion being properly chosen. Politicians mainly settle how far the teachings of 1 2 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS science shall affect legislation, and this they do largely to catch votes. But the votes of posterity cannot now be caught, and their interests will receive scant attention in democratic countries. There is not the slight- est chance of eugenic reform moving forward with too rapid steps. We should discuss long and freely, and when we advance, advance boldly. The segregation of the feeble-in-mind is perhaps now the most important question; but personally he would like to see steps taken to lessen the fertility of the habitual criminal, the wastrel, and the grossly unfit generally. The most formidable foe the eugenist had to meet was ignorance. But perfect knowledge would not quite smooth their path; for the want of attractiveness of their programme was due to looking to human welfare in the future rather than to present day comfort. The reforms they wished to plant would bear excellent fruit, though it would only be gathered by their children and children's children. The belief that man had been slowly developed from some ape-like progenitor gave rise to a new hope that this upward march would be continued in the future; and out of this hope sprang the eugenic ideal. To imitate Nature we must be content to advance by a long succession of small steps. Progress on eugenic Unes would make mankind become continually nobler in character, happier and healthier, whilst those who thought their sole aim was to make man a stronger animal were ignorant of the eugenic ideal. But science, whilst giving hope, issued a grave warning concern- ing the danger of national deterioration from the unchecked multiplica- tion of inferior types. A determination to avoid such a fate is the senti- ment felt by all animated by the eugenic ideal, an ideal to be followed Eke a flag in battle without thought of personal gain. Dr. Charles B. Davenport, Director Department of Genetics, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. "Research in Eugenics." Need and scope of eugenical research. Methods of this research; field workers and experiments upon mammals, statistical analysis of data. Results of eugenical research in relation to genetics; apphcations to law, to psychiatry and to psychology. Relation of heredity to en- docrine conditions. The investigation of mate selection, of differential fecundity and mortality, and of immigration. Relation to heredity and environment; application of eugenical research. Dr. Lucien Cuenot, Nancy, France. " Genetics and Adaptation." Modern genetic research in which American investigations hold a predominant position, has taught us that the hereditary legacy, the genetic material which passes from parents to descendants, is constituted partly by the complicated cytoplasm of the egg, and partly by the nuclear substances; the differentiation of the last stages of development is influenced equally by the egg and the spermatozoon, that is, by the factors contained in the chromosomes. These factors may be thought of as very small material quantities of definite chemical composition, susceptible of changes or mutations which will condition a somatic change in a following generation, the somatic change being possibly extremely small or possibly constituting an abrupt and considerable departure from the normal type. If it is not known how to provoke such mutations by experiment, it is nevertheless permissible to believe that they are in distant relationship with changes in the environment (excessive variability) of domestic races and of insular forms such as the Achatinelles of the Sandwich Islands, etc.). Mutation may take place as well in the sexual cells as in the primitive cells of any buds (geminate mutations). What is the position of the Mendelians or Mutationists on these big questions of the heredity of acquired characters, of the origin of adaptations and of orthogenesis? I will leave aside the third problem, whose solution depends largely, for that matter, on those given for the first two. An acquired character is a modification appearing in an individual, at any age, which is clearly the effect of an external and accidental cause, to such a degree that if the latter did not exist, the modification would not be produced: such are mutilations, the effects of germ diseases, of factors of environment (light, nourishment, etc.), of use and disuse, the acquirements of training and instruction. It has been defi- nitely shown that certain acquired characters are not at all transmiss- ible (Mutilations, effects of Brown-Sequard Traumas and of Training); but for the other categories the question has a new face since the experi- ments of M. Guyer and E. A. Smith (1920). In injecting into fowl the crushed crystalline lens of rabbits, they obtained a crystallolytic serum; injected into pregnant rabbits, the crystallolysine, passing through the placentas, affects in a certain number of cases the crystalline lenses of the embryos, which are born with ocular malformations; now, this SECTION I 3 4 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS authenticatedly acquired character has been proved hereditary almost in the manner of a Mendelian recessive character, and has been found transmissible to the eighth generation. If this experiment is confirmed, it will carry important significance. Since the germinal cells are speci- fically affected by the crystallolysine, as well as the crystalline lenses of the foetus, they contain a representative portion of the crystalline lens, for example, a definite colloid, more or less analogous to the colloids of the embryonic crystalline lens; and if there is one (colloid) for the crystal- fine lens there must also be for the other cells of the body-renal, pig- ment producing, etc. Thus we return to a particular conception of hereditary traits, based on chemical determinants, a theory which Delage presented (1895); it has, however, nothing contradictory to the Men- delian conception, for the chemical determinant, or representative colloid seems identical with the Mendelian factor. The word "adaptation" so frequently employed in biology, not without confusion, designates sometimes functional accommodation strictly limited to an individual, sometimes the general accord of the characteristics of a species and the physical and biologic conditions of the environment in which it lives and persists. Natural selection is the balance which weighs the sum of the characters of the species and of the mutations, and which discards those which are found to be too light; thus the adaptation of an organism to its environment is a complete phenomenon not taking place until after the event, by definition exact and sufficient, whatever the details. It has not been sufficiently noted that Lamarck and Darwin, as well as their immediate successors, have not in any way sought to explain complete adaptation; their theories all bear on a very special point, that of the evolution of adaptations and regressions, in short, on orthogenesis. Referring to an opinion of which a trace is already found in Buffon, I claim with Davenport and Morgan that the animal "holds its destiny in the organs with which it is born," that is to say that it cannot live and endure unless it finds an environ- ment adequate to its structure, to which it can accommodate its physiology indeed, that is demonstrated by the manner of population of the vacant places in nature: none succeed and become established save the species or the individuals, proceeding from neighboring environments differing in the least degree, which are preadapted to the new special conditions. Contrary, then, to current opinion, there is no causal link between complete adaptation to an environment and the conditions of the en- vironment; mutations that are inactive or of little use in a given en- vironment may be of decisive importance for the occupation of a neigh- boring environment, and may constitute preadaptations to it. ABSTRACTS 5 For example, the feathers of the bird, indispensable to flight, must have appeared before flight, and I am convinced that there will some day be found a reptile-bird preceding Archaeopteryx, flightless, but already feathered. But if modern genetic doctrine rests solidly on the tripod of Mendelism, mutation and preadaptation, truth obliges us to add some shading to the picture; I would speak of coaptations, reciprocal ad- justments of different organs, of a curious mechanical perfection: for example, the buttons-the means which, in the Cephalopods of the Seiches group attach the mantel to the funnel, and in the aquatic Hemip- tera attach the hemelyties to the thorax, identical with those which man has invented for attaching his garments; the rails and grooves of guid- ance of the ovipositors of the grasshoppers and of the sting of the bee, in the Nipes, the folding back of the anterior tibias on the femurs in the manner of a closed knife, the coaptation of the front legs of the Phasmides with the head in the position of repose, etc. Now, all these dispositions already appear in the embryo, without any mechanical cause, and from birth the coaptative apparatus is ready to function. There is an astound- ing parallelism between these coaptations and human inventions, the solution found by Nature differing from that of the workman only in its much greater perfection, its elegance and the sureness of its function- ing. One may boldly declare that none of the theories of evolution en- ables us to understand the genesis of these organs of definite intention; perhaps there are, in addition to the active causes already known, other factors which have escaped the penetrating minds of our great biologists of the past century and of our own time, and which would enable us to understand the evident intended design of these structures. Dr. A. Franklin Shull, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. "Sex Determination in Rotifers." Sex determination in rotifers is closely bound up with the life cycle or mode of reproduction. The two questions are nowhere wholly separ- able, as they may be in some other parthenogenetic species. Obligatory parthenogenesis in these forms is equivalent to female-production, facultative parthenogenesis to male-production. The capacity of a given line of rotifers for producing facultatively parthenogenetic eggs is in- herited, being exhibited in different lines to very different degrees. Nevertheless, the actual extent to which such eggs are produced may be greatly altered by environmental conditions. The number of males may be reduced by means of certain substances in the water, and may be 6 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS increased by certain other substances and more particularly by the kind of food. The number of males also diminishes for unknown reasons dur- ing long continued parthenogenesis under uniform conditions. In neither of these modifications of the extent of male production is there, probably, any change in the inherited capacity. The irrevocable event leading to the determination of the sex of any given parthenogenetically produced individual occurs in the maturation of the egg from which that individual's mother develops. This event does not, however, involve a change in the number of chromosomes. The males differ from the females in chromosome number, but the mothers of males and the mothers of females, in which the decisive event has already occurred, have the same number of chromosomes. Probably a definite chemical change in the proteins of the chromosomes occurs at the time of maturation. In other animals in which sex is associated with chromosome number it is presumably not the number that is important. In those forms a chemical result is attained by a process involving the number of chromosomes, whereas the chemical event finally responsible in rotifers leaves the number of chromosomes unaltered. Although the event referred to occurs suddenly in the rotifers, the metabolic theory of sex with its assumption of gradual change and finely graduated differ- ences is wholly tenable in the light of all present knowledge. Dr. A. M. Banta and Mr. L. A. Brown, Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. "Some Data on Control of Sex in Cladocera." In experiments with certain Cladocera the writers find evidence that under favorable laboratory conditions parthenogenetic reproduction may continue indefinitely without there being resort to sexual reproduc- tion. Thus the long-accepted, internal sexual cycle is shown to be non- existent for this material and environmental influences would perhaps seem responsible for such irregular and sporadic sexual forms as occur. Indirect evidence that sexual forms,-males and sexual (ephip- pial) females,-are called forth by certain environmental factors is seen in the simultaneous occurrence of sexual forms in Cladocera in outdoor pools and among other types of Cladocera, reared in water from the same pond as a culture medium, in the laboratory. Direct evidence has now been obtained that the simple expedient of crowding the mothers may cause the production of males among a population usually wholly female. In most of these experiments there are few crowded bottles in which males fail to appear and it is exceptional to ABSTRACTS 7 find males from mothers in any of the control bottles. A satisfactory measure of sex control has been obtained for every strain adequately tested. This involves three species of Moina, three species of Simoce- phalus, and one of Daphnia. Dr. T. H. Morgan, Columbia University, New York City. 11 The Physical Basis of Inheritance.'" (Abstract not received). Dr. H. J. Muller, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. "Mutation." It is now evident that under the term "mutation" there were originally included a number of distinct phenomena which, from a genetic point of view, have nothing in common with one another. The term "mutation" must therefore lose its usefulness, unless it be redefined so as to be in conformity with modern genetic knowledge. The most useful of such new definitions, which at the same time follows the spirit of the older meaning, is that "mutation is alteration of the Gene." So de- fined, mutation must include all the primary genetic changes which fur- nish the material for evolution. But the variations in the evening prim- rose-which furnished the chief body of data for the " mutation theory " in its earlier form-now appear not to come under this newer definition. It, therefore, becomes all the more important to take stock of our newer data, concerning real gene changes. The newer data comprise (1) direct data, in which the occurrence of the gene change can be proved,-the only considerable body of such data is from the Drosophila work, but the scattered results obtained elsewhere are amply corroborative, when considered collectively; (2) indirect data, based on examination of Mendelian factor-differences; since the latter may have been subjected to a selective process before the observation began, they cannot furnish accurate data concerning relative frequencies of mutations of different types. On these data together we may found our new mutation theory. There is evidence for the following principles:-(1) Most genes, whether mutant or "normal," are exceedingly stable, with a stability comparable to that of radium atoms; (2) Certain genes are, however, vastly more mutable than others. (3) External agents cannot ordinarily increase the mutability enough to cause an obvious "production" of mutations. (4) The changes are not exclusively of the character of losses, tho 8 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS such changes do occur. (5) Change in a given gene is not always in the same direction and does not always involve the same character. (6) The direction of mutation in a given gene is, however, preferential, occurring oftener in certain directions, and being oftener of certain magnitudes. (7) The mutability and preferential direction may itself become altered thru the mutation. (8) Mutation usually occurs in only one kind of gene at a time. (9) When one gene of the given kind changes, the other of the same kind, in the same cell, generally remains unaffected. (10) The change may occur at almost any time during the life history. (11) Genes "normal" to a species tend to have more dominance than the mutant genes arising from them. (12) Most mutations are deleterious in their effects. (13) Mutations with small effects are probably more frequent than those with large effects, and more often take part in evolu- tion. (14) The range of those mutations whose effect is of a magnitude appropriate for visibility is probably very small, in comparison with the entire "spectrum" of mutations, so that there are many more lethals than "visible mutations," and probably more sub-liminal than visible. The meaning of most of these facts and inferences is as yet unknown. For the immediate future, it is especially important to obtain accurate data concerning the effect of various conditions upon the rate of muta- tion; this seems to be a necessary preliminary to the artificial production of mutations, and consequent more perfect control of evolution. How- ever, data obtained upon the normal rate of mutation in Drosophila may already be of interest to evolutionists and eugenists, in that it in- dicates the necessity of continued selection, not only for the improvement of a race, but merely to prevent its degeneration thru the accumulation- by mutation-of lethal factors. Dr. E. G. Conklin, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. " The Role of Cytoplasm in Heredity." 1. Recent experimental work on heredity has demonstrated that the chromosomes of the germ cells contain the factors or genes of Mende- lian characters, and many investigators assume that the cytoplasm of the cells serves only as food or as environment for the chromosomes and has nothing to do with heredity in the strict sense. But it has also been demonstrated that the polarity and symmetry of the egg and embryo, the localization of parts, and in general the orientations of development are determined by the egg cytoplasm. In many instances this organiza- tion of the cytoplasm may be recognized in the egg before it is fertilized and there can be no doubt that in such cases the egg transmits more than ABSTRACTS 9 the sperm because it alone contributes this cytoplasmic organization. It is not known whether this cytoplasmic organization of the egg is inherited in Mendelian fashion; if it is, the factors which determine it are probably located in the chromosomes of the egg-mother cells and this is a case of "Preinheritance"; if not, it is a case of inheritance through the cytoplasm. 2. In mitotic cell-division the chromosomes always divide equally so that every embryonic cell contains the same kinds of chromosomes and the same kinds of genes. It is both logically and biologically impos- sible to locate all the differential factors of development in non-differen- tiating genes. How then is it possible to explain the differentiations of development? Evidently only by the differential divisions of the cyto- plasm. But these differential divisions are the results of definite orienta- tions of mitotic figures, and these of a definite polarity and symmetry of the egg cytoplasm. If chromosomes do not undergo differentiation in the course of development, and they do not, it follows that some of the differential factors of development and heredity must be located in the cytoplasm. Dr. Louis Legrand, Tunis, Africa. "A Simple Explanation of the Hereditary Mechanism" Characters may be said to be of two sorts, Fixed and Unfixed. To the former belong the fundamental differences of Morphology on which classification is built up-such as four limbs and hair for Mammals; retractile nails for a carnivore, and a single occipital condyle and feathers for birds. To the latter belong characters which vary between individu- als of a species, such as sex, skin and hair color, cephalic index, stature, and finally abnormalities such as hemophilia, Albinism, etc. Fixed characters are vastly the more important. The theory is advanced that the nucleus contains the "unfixed" characters and the egg cytoplasm the fixed characters. Diagrams show- ing such an organization and the theoretical probabilities which it in- volves are given. Dr. H. S. Jennings, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. 11 Inheritance in Unicellular Organisms." To students of racial improvement, inheritance in unicellular organ- isms is of interest chiefly in relation to the frequency and rate of evolu- tionary changes in a stock. These organisms reproduce for long periods without that kaleidoscopic regrouping of the hereditary substances which 10 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS so greatly complicates inheritance in higher forms, and thus so greatly obscures the occurrence of evolutionary change; their offspring are produced for thousands of generations by division of a single parent. The study of this method of reproduction reveals an extraordinary con- stancy of the hereditary constitution; a constancy so great as to give the impression that no heritable variations occur; that evolutionary change is absent. But in some of these organisms, long continued exact study shows slow and apparently gradual evolutionary changes occurring in the hereditary constitution. The cause of this is unknown. In the lower unicellular forms, particularly the bacteria, hereditary change resulting from environmental action appears to be rather common, and to be adaptive in character; although this conclusion is rendered somewhat insecure by the very great difficulty here of determining critically the facts. In the more complex unicellular forms, as in the multicellular organisms, hereditary change resulting from environmental action appears rare or almost absent. Dr. A. F. Blakeslee, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. "Variations in the Jimson Weed {Datura stramonium) Caused by Differences in the Number of Chromosomes." In normal (diploid) plants there are 12 pairs of chromosomes or a total of 24 in each vegetable cell. If there is a single extra chromosome in a definite one of the 12 sets (making a total of 25), the plant shows specific peculiarities of structure. Thus, if the single extra chromosome is present in the chromosomal set which carries the determiners for the Mendelian characters purple or white flower color, the plant has among other peculiarities, the arrange- ment of leaves which suggested the name Poinsettia for this mutant; if the single extra chromosome is in the set which carries the determiners for the presence or absence of spines on the capsules, the capsule is narrow suggesting the fruit of the Cocklebur for which the mutant has been named. An extra chromosome in a third set makes the plant a Globe mutant with globose capsules. Theoretically there are at least 12 "simple trisomic" mutants possible with 25 chromosomes, each having 3 chromosomes in one particular chromosomal set and 2 in all the remaining 11 sets. The chromosomes contain factors or determiners for all the struc- tures in the plant. One chromosomal set may contain determiners which ABSTRACTS 11 tend to make the capsule long and narrow; another set may contain determiners which tend to make the capsule short and thick; and simi- larily for the leaves and other parts of the plant. The structure of the normal (diploid) plant is due to the resultant balance between the more or less opposing tendencies of the 12 chromosomal sets. In the simple trisomic mutants with a single extra chromosome in a specific set, the balance is disturbed and the determiners in this set have an increased influence upon the make up of the plant producing such mutants as Poinsettia, Cocklebur, and Globe. Plants may have 1 extra chromosome in each of the 12 sets as in "Triploids" or 2 extra chromosomes in each set as in "Tetrapioids," but in such plants the influence of the several sets is balanced and the plants are not greatly different in appearance from normals (diploids). Table I gives the chromosomal types already observed. Simple trisomic mutants produce normals (diploids) and similar simple trisomic mutants in their offspring; diploid and tetrapioid plants breed true, while triploids produce normals and the different trisomic mutants. TABLE I Chromosomal types of mutants in the Jimson Weed (Datura Stramonium). The somatic number of chromosomes is given in paren- theses after each type. BALANCED TYPES (12n) Diploids (Normal) (24) Triploids (36) Tetrapioids (48) UNBALANCED TYPES (12n+x) Modified Diploids (24+x) A. Simple Trisomic (24+1) 1 Globe 2 Poinsettia 3 Cocklebur 4 Ilex 5 Mutilated 6 Sugar loaf 7 Rolled 8 Reduced 9 Buckling B. Simple Tetrasomic (24-J-2, the 2 extras in the same set) 1 Round-leaf Globe C. Double Trisomic (24+2, one extra in each of 2 different sets) 1 Ilex-Buckling (?) and a number of other double 12 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS 10 Glossy 11 Microcarpic 12 Spinach Modified Tetrapioids (48-|-x) A. Simple Pentasomic (484-1) 1 Globe 2 Poinsettia 3 Cocklebur 4 Ilex 5 Rolled 6 Reduced 7 Glossy 8 Microcarpic mutants not yet analyzed by breeding tests. B. Simple Hexasomic (48-J- 2, the 2 extras in the same set) 1 Globe C. Simple Trisomic (48-1, a single deficiency in one set) Dr. J. Belling, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. " The Attraction Between Homologous Chromosomes." This attraction is a preliminary condition for the regular assort- ment of the chromosomes in most normal plants. In triploid plants of Canna and Datura, the homologous chromosomes are in threes before the maturation divisions; usually two forming a ring and one attached at a junction, like the ring and handle of a butterfly net. Each of these sets of three divides into 2 and 1, and is oriented at random with respect to the poles of the cell. In a number of tetrapioid Daturas examined, the chromosomes are in sets of four before the maturation divisions, each set of four commonly forming a double ring like a figure of 8. Many of these groups of four can be seen to divide into 2 and 2; but some must apparently often divide into 1 and 3, for only two-thirds of the divisions on the whole give equal numbers of chromosomes. In fact some of the fours can often be seen to separate crosswise. In Daturas with one extra chromosome, there are 11 paired chromo- somes in the pollen-mother-cells, and one set of three. The three chromo- somes of this set belong in different plants to a particular one of the six size classes into which the chromosomes of Datura have been arranged. In most Daturas with two extra chromosomes there are 10 pairs and two sets of three, the two sets belonging to different size classes. Tetrapioid forms with an additional chromosome show before the maturation divisions 11 sets of four and one set of five. ABSTRACTS 13 Dr. C. S. Bridges, Columbia University, New York City. ''Abnormal Behavior of Chromosomes." (No abstract received.) Dr. C. E. McClung, National Research Council, Washington, D. C. "Evolution of the Chromosome Complex." The evolution of the chromosome complex is of significance to genetics and its applications in eugenics because the evidence is now over- whelming that the chromosomes are the bearers of factors which govern the development of the body. Since the individual stands as the ex- emplar of the group and an epitome of its history, a study of the heredi- tary mechanism should inform us, not only of the processes of embryology, but also of those of descent. Such a study is however fraught with the greatest difficulties and we have now only a small amount of workable information. It is clear that we are not safe in drawing any general conclusions from incidental observations made upon widely separated groups. Our wisest procedure is an intensive study of a limited group. Such an investigation has long been in progress upon the family Acrididse of the Orthoptera. In this ancient group there occurs a common series of chromosomes, marked by peculiarities of size, form, and behavior. With sufficient knowledge these chromosomes may be compared individually and con- clusions drawn regarding their phylogenetic history. In some cases it is thus possible to form a classification by chromosome characters which is more exact than that made from body characters. Such studies give promise of a reasonable analysis of phylogenetic processes through a knowledge of the changes in the hereditary mechanism. Dr. J. A. Detlefsen, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. " Variable Linkage Values and Selection." Selection for low cross-over values in Drosophila melanogaster, involving white-eye and miniature-wing in the sex chromosome, yielded marked results in four separate series. A genetic analysis of the low cross-over stock thus produced shows that: 1. One of the two homologous chromosomes alone has been affected, namely, the one carrying red-eye and long-wing. The other chromosome carrying white-eye and miniature-wing is apparently unaffected by selec- tion. 2. The region to the right of long-wing and up to bar has been slightly reduced in cross-over value, although this region was not in- volved in the process of selection. 14 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS 3. The regions from red to cross-veined and from cross-veined to not-cut are about 13 and 7 units long respectively, but in our low selected series these regions have been very greatly reduced, perhaps to less than one unit. The region from not-cut to long-wing is about 16 units normally, but has been reduced to about one-fourth of this value. The total distance between red-eye and long-wing is about 33 units normally but in our low series it has been reduced to 5 units, or at least the percentage of crossing-over is about 5 per cent. Dr. P. W. Whiting, The Iowa Child Welfare Research Station, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. "The Analysis of Genetic Differences Through Haploid Parthenogenesis." The parasitic wasp, Hadrobracon, reproduces males by haploid parthenogenesis, reduced eggs developing without fertilization into haploid males. Females in all cases produced sexually, will, when isolated as virgins, produce male offspring only. These occur in one to one gametic ratio, when their mother is heterozygous for a certain eye-color factor. A variation affecting venation has its genetic basis in a simple Mendelian difference, but its appearance depends also upon temperature, food, and chance conditions of growth. Apparent ratios are, therefore, extremely variable. One true-breeding stock shows the variation in ninety percent of its individuals, while another, the type stock, almost never shows it. A system of inbreeding and crossing to type stock is being carried out which tests the genetic constitution of each male what- ever his apparent character. The system eliminates all differences from type except the one under consideration. A heterozygous female is isolated and the apparent ratio of her sons is observed. Some of these showing the variation are then crossed to type females and their hetero- zygous daughters again isolated. Thus a sexual generation is alter- nated with a parthenogenetic. At any time the gametic ratio from a female may be ascertained by testing all of her sons. R. A. Fisher, M. A., Joint Honorary Secretary, Eugenics Education Society, and Statistician at Rothemsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, England. "Darwinian Evolution by Mutations." Danger of misunderstanding the applicability of Darwin's teachings to present day conceptions of genetics has arisen because of the rapid progress of the experimental phases of the science. The bearing of the theories of the gene and of the fact of mutation upon the acceptance of Darwin's teachings are considered and formulae for calculating the chance of persistence of a given variation are given. ABSTRACTS 15 Dr. Halsey J. Bagg, Department of Anatomy, Cornell University Medical College, New York City, and Huntington Fund for Cancer Research. "Disturbances in Mammalian Development Produced by Radium Emana- tion." In one group, adult rats were treated before and after mating, with small doses of radio-active solutions of radium emanation. The injec- tions were made ieither subcutaneously or intravenously. In a second group, nearly full term pregnant rats were exposed to heavily filtered gamma-ray radiation. The usual dose was about 1350 millicurie hours. Usually an amount of radium emanation, which was initially equivalent to over a gram of radium bromide, was used for about one hour. Characteristic radium changes were found in the young of females previously injected with radio-active solutions. These occurred as subcutaneous areas of extravasation, mainly located along the dorsal mid-line of the embryos. It is interesting to note that in three separate litters widely scattered lesions were found in the young of mothers that were treated several days previous to fertilization. Many such changes resulted in embryos exposed to radio-activity after development had begun, but usually the embryos were killed by the treatment and were later absorbed or aborted. Young rats treated with gamma-ray radiation three days before birth, showed the same type of lesions noted above, but in addition, marked developmental arrests were later found in the case of the central nervous system, the reproductive system, and especially in the formation of the eyes. Several of these animals had practically no neopallium, but save for the fact that they were blind, they showed no abnormal neuro- logical reactions. In this group several animals lived for over a year and grew to a normal size. Dr. E. C. MacDowell, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Habor, N. Y. " The Genetic Significance of the Alcoholic Treatment of White Rats." This discussion is based upon an experimental study of growth, fertility and habit formation in white rats treated with alcohol fumes, and their descendants. From the growth curves of 472 animals it is shown that, 1) the administration of alcohol reduces the rate of growth as compared with the untreated brothers and sisters; 2) that the un- treated offspring of the treated rats grow faster than their controls; 3) that the treated offspring of treated rats are practically the same as 16 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS their controls; 4) that the untreated grandchildren tend to be slightly heavier than their controls. From the numbers of litters produced by 177 pairs in the various generations, it was found 1) that, given equal time, the treated rats produced 60% fewer litters than the controls; 2) that the treated offspring of treated rats gave 35% fewer than their controls; 3) that the untreated children and grandchildren of treated rats produced 30-50% more litters than their controls. Considering the number of rats in these various litters it appeared 1) that the litters from the treated rats were 10% smaller than the Utters of the controls; 2) that similar reductions in the sizes of the litters from treated ancestors were found in all the other generations. From the records of 8784 trials in learning the correct path in a circular maze, the treated rats and their descendants were found to be somewhat less successful than the controls; the differences are not large, but for the treated rats and their untreated grandchildren they are statistically significant. These results can be reconciled by supposing the alcohol has 1) an immediate physiological effect which modifies growth and causes the elimination of inferior germinal material, and 2) modifies certain features of the germinal material that is handed down. Dr. C. R. Stockard, Cornell University Medical College, New York City. "A Summary of the Effects of Excessive Alcohol Treatments on Heredity and Development in Mammals." The results of a series of experiments extending over a period of ten years and involving almost 5,000 individual mammals will be considered as bearing on the possible effects of foreign chemical stuffs in develop- ment and inheritance. The alcohol treatments have not induced muta- tions or hereditary modifications of individual characters, but following long continued and excessive applications there has been a definite change in the developmental behavior of the germ-cells. Neither eggs nor spermatozoa from an alcohohzed fine are capable of producing a lot of Individuals of the same high average quahty as are the control progeny derived from originally similar stocks. If the function of the fertilized egg be the development of a normally formed and viable individual, we may look upon the treatment used in these experiments as having interfered with the proper expression of this function. Such a modification or inhibition of development may not only be noticed in the progeny from directly treated animals but con- tinues to show itself during following generations. ABSTRACTS 17 Throughout almost all of the experiments the fumes of alcohol were administered to the animals by inhalation. The treatments were started when the animals were comparatively young and were continued daily with a considerable degree of intensity. The conditions were not in- tended to parallel the use of alcohol by man. Dr. R. Ruggles Gates, University of London, King's College, London, England. "A New Type of Variability in Plants." Crosses between large-and small-flowered species of Oenothera gave an Fi with flowers of intermediate sizes, and an F2 in which the mean flower size varied in different plants, also in which flowers of vari- ous sizes occurred simultaneously on the same plant, and even petals of different lengths in the same flower. This segregation may be con- tinuous or discontinuous and is clearly non-Mendelian. In F3 and F4 the same behaviour is obtained, but with a decreasing range of variability. The curve of variability for a whole population may superficially re- semble an ordinary fluctuation curve, but it generally shows negative skewness. The curves obtained from individuals are, however, of many types. The element of inheritance, the somatic segregation, and the absence of a normal fluctuation curve in most individuals constitute this a new type of variability, differing from both mutation and fluctuation. Probably other cases of inheritance of petal size when analyzed in the same way will show similar non-Mendelian behaviour without fixed units, although various attempts have been made to describe inheritance of size of flower in Mendelian terms. It is possible that size and shape characters in general will be found to follow the new law and not to be Mendelian in their inheritance. Dr. Sewall Wright, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. "Effects of Inbreeding on Guinea Pigs." Experiments on the effects of inbreeding on guinea pigs have been carried on by the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry since 1906, over 35,000 animals have been recorded. There has been a decline in the average vigor in every respect studied, including frequency and size of fitters, growth from birth to maturity, mortality at birth and later, and resistance to tuberculosis. Nevertheless, certain families are still vigorous after more than 20 generations of brother-sister mating. 18 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS The inbreeding can not be said to have had a specific deleterious effect on general vigor. In general, a particular combination of vigor in some respects with weakness in others has become characteristic of each of the 23 families. The differences are clearly hereditary and due to independent factors, there being no correlation between the standing of a family in one respect and in others. On crossing two inbred families, there is marked improvement in every respect, either in the first or second generation, depending on whether the character is one which depends on the heredity of the young themselves (as adult weight and resistance to tuberculosis) or on the dam (as size of litter, and to a large extent birth weight and mortality at birth). Other characters depend on both dam and young (later mortality, early gains) or on both sire and dam (frequency of litters). The improvement, in general, goes far beyond the better of the two parental families. These and other results are in complete accord with the Mendelian theory of inbreeding-viz. that the primary effect is the automatic increase in homozygosis, and that the usual decline in vigor is due to tendency for deleterious factors to be recessive. Henry A. Cotton, M. D., Medical Director of the New Jersey State Hospital at Trenton. "Inheritance in Mental Diseases." A discussion of the general misconception of the role of Heredity as a causative factor in mental disorders, especially of the so-called "Functional Types." The misconception of the role of Heredity as a causative factor in mental disorders, especially of the so-called "functional types," is the outcome of the error in considering mental diseases as diseases of the mind, rather than disturbances of the brain. "Insanity in the family" is often the only evidence produced which is meagre and insufficient and without value in the determination of this important factor. The absence of Heredity in at least 30% of the cases tends to weaken its importance, and lack of definite facts as to the nature of the mental disorders in the antecedents leaves much to be determined. There is a fundamental difference in the modern biological concep- tion and the antiquated medical hypotheses of hereditary transmission. The doctrine of direct hereditary transmission of mental disorders from parents to offspring is not in accord with modern biological teaching and is unsupported by modern medical investigation of the causation ABSTRACTS 19 of mental disorders. This doctrine is entirely fatalistic and has stifled investigation of other possible causes of mental disorders. It is doubtful if there is any inherited tendency to mental disorders. There is probably a constitutional lack of resistance to various toxins and poisons and not an inherited mental instability which causes the mind to break down under mental "stress and strain." Recent investigations by the writer of the causes of mental dis- orders show that such disorders arise from toxic poisoning of the brain tissue, from toxemia of chronic infections, and disturbances of the endo- crine system, with or without any hereditary taint. Experience has shown that Heredity does not influence the prognosis of cases properly treated. Eugenics still has an important function but should not be limited to the study of the hereditary factors alone. Dr. Abraham Myerson, 483 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. "Inheritance of Mental Diseases." (1) Mental diseases are of varying biological natures, and the vari- ous types have no organic relationship one to the other. Thus such mental diseases as are due to tumor have the biological background of tumor, such diseases as are due to the Spirocheta pallida belong to the province of syphilis. Cretinism is an endocrinal disorder and more related to diseases of the adrenal body than to the other mental diseases. Mental diseases due to arterio-sclerosis have biologically a greater rela- tionship to heart and to kidney disease than to other forms of mental disease. (2) There is no evidence to show that such mental diseases as are due to syphilis, brain tumor, or arteriosclerotic insanity are at all hereditary or have any hereditary value. In fact, whatever evidence exists shows there is no hereditary importance in these diseases. There is a group of mental diseases in which there is a liability to transmission from one generation to another, and also it is common for these diseases to exist in several members of the same generation. These diseases are dementia prgecox, manic depressive insanity, and the involution psy- choses. Figures are given in relation to these diseases, the transmission from generation to generation, and in their occurrence in members of the same generation. (3) A criticism is made of the theories of Moral and others as to the transmission of mental diseases and also of the principles of Mendel as applied to mental diseases by Davenport, Rosanoff, and Rudin. The theory that mental diseases of the family type may be related to germ- plasm injury is favorably discussed. 20 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Dr. A. J. Rosanoff, Clinical Director, Kings Park State Hospital, Kings Park, N. Y. "Inheritance of Mental Disorders." The object of this communication is to present a summary of the more important known facts concerning the inheritance of mental dis- orders and to attempt a synthetic treatment of them. The following facts are considered: (1) Heritable nature of certain mental disorders. (2) Atavistic heredity. (3) Dissimilar heredity. (4) Constitutional mental disorders behave like Mendelian recessives in their manner of transmission by heredity. (5) Clinically distinguished entities bear to one another and to normal mental states some sort of relationship, as shown particularly by so-called transitional, mixed, and borderline cases. (6) Each clinical entity represents a mental trait or group of traits varying quantitatively within wide limits. (7) Each seems to present possibilities of qualitative variation which has led clinicians to the conception of neuropathic equivalents. (8) Each mental trait, as exhibited by the clinical entities, seems to present two aspects for consideration: a temperamental aspect, whereby it is qualitatively distinguishable from other traits, and an intellectual aspect, which is not specific for the given trait and which seems to vary only quantitatively. Some problems in eugenics in relation to mental disorders are briefly discussed. One of the most urgent tasks of fundamental research is judged to be the devising of methods for the more precise measurement of tempera- mental traits. Dr. R. J. Terry and Dr. Lee D. Cady, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Mo. " Comparison of the Incidence of the Supracondyloid Process in Groups with Normal and Abnormal Mentality." The claim has been made that the incidence of the variation known as the supracondyloid process is considerably higher in the insane than in people of normal mentality. Since the amount of evidence in support of this conclusion is not in our opinion adequate we have undertaken to test the question by examination of more extensive groups of the normal and mentally defective. The investigation was carried on in the living for it was found that processes to a minimum of 4 mm. in length could be discovered by palpation. Results were verified by the X-ray. In one thousand dispensary patients (taken as mentally sound) the incidence of the variation as determined by the number of persons presenting it ABSTRACTS 21 was 0.7 per cent for processes of 4 to 7.24- mm. in length. Incidence determined by Testut and Hrdhdka, including smaller processes, is 1 per cent. Examination of one thousand patients of the St. Louis In- firmary (for the insane) showed twelve individuals having the variation- an incidence of 1.2 per cent; one man in 500 presented the process; 11 women in 500 bore the variation. Therefore, whereas in this test a some- what higher incidence for the insane than for the normal was discovered, the marked discrepancy indicated by the figure of Nicholas (5.2 per cent) was not revealed. Further study of larger groups is necessary before a convincing conclusion can be made. Dr. Leo Loeb, Department of Comparative Pathology, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. 11 The Inheritance of Cancer in Mice?' The significance of heredity in the etiology of cancer has been studied through long observation of 12,000 female mice. In general, the follow- ing facts have been established: (1) The cancer rate of any family is a definite characteristic of that family. (2) These differences persist through successive generations. (3) The behavior of the tumor rates in hybrid strains is discussed. (4) Tumor age is also characteristic of different strains. (5) In general the cancer rate in mice is not sex-linked. (6) The hereditary tendency to cancer may be expressed in a quan- titative manner. (7) In such determination the hereditary and the other internal factors can be distinguished. (8) Relation of cancer tendency to vigor, prolificity, size, and color can be studied. (9) There may be an exception to complete independence of the hereditary transmission of the tendency to cancer. (10) The tendency to die from causes other than cancer at a cer- tain period of life is also inherited. (11) The endemic occurrence of cancer in animals is due primarily to heredity but with possible additional cause in the case of certain external metazoon parasites. (12) It is probable that in principle these conditions also hold true for man. 22 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Dr. C. C. Little, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. "Inheritance of a Predisposition to Cancer in Man." Tabulation of family histories on file at The Eugenics Record Office of the Carnegie Institution of Washington show that there is clear evidence for the inheritance of a predisposition to the formation of "cancer" in man. For this analysis all types of malignant tumors are lumped together under the term "cancer." The influence of inheritance is shown by the occurrence of a marked excess of "cancerous" individuals, over the rate of the general popula- tion, in 1. The sibs of ' ' cancerous ' ' individuals. 2. The progeny of "cancerous" mothers by non-cancerous fathers. 3. The progeny of "non-cancerous" mothers by cancerous fathers. The fact of inheritance is clear, but the type of inheritance needs further investigation. It does not appear to be simple Mendelian inheri- tance. This does not however preclude the possibility that it will be found to be dependent upon multiple Mendelizing factors. Dr. Paul A. Lewis and Dr. Sewall Wright, The Henry Phipps In- stitute, the University of Pennsylvania, and the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. " Inheritance of Resistance to Tuberculosis." The resistance to tuberculosis has been tested in over eleven hundred guinea-pigs belonging to five closely inbred families, the crosses between these families and a random bred control stock. It has been found that sex, and even threefold differences in age, rate of gain and weight have only a slight effect on length of fife after inoculation. The lack of appreciable correlation between litter mates in the control stock, might also seem to rule out heredity as an important factor. In striking contrast with these negative results, are the great differ- ences among the inbred families. The situation is parallel to that found by one of the authors with respect to fertility, weight and vitality. Though heredity can hardly be demonstrated in the foundation stock, widely divergent strains appear in all cases on inbreeding. That in- dependent hereditary factors are involved, not merely differences in general vigor, is shown by the lack of relation between the rank of the families in resistance to tuberculosis and in the other respects. ABSTRACTS 23 The progeny of crosses are in general at least equal to the better of the two parental families. Resistance is thus dominant over suscepti- bility. There is equal transmission by sire and dam, and to sons and daughters. In particular crosses, the average of the progeny is con- sistently superior to either parental line indicating that the latter are susceptible for different reasons, each being able to supply what the other lacks. In the total crossbred stock, over 30% of the observed variation is determined by the amount of blood of the best inbred family, as compared with less than 10% due to age, weight and rate of gain combined and leaving over 60% due to conditions at or following inoculation. Dr. Lucien Howe, 520 Delaware Avenue, Buffalo, N. Y. "Hereditary Defects of the Eye." Up to the present, a little over fifty forms and varieties of hereditary defects of the eye have been described. These are described in " Bibli- ography of Hereditary Eye Defects," Bulletin No. 21, of the Eugenics Record Office. Thus far we have been content simply to collect such family histories and arrange them in order. But a distinct step has been made in advance by Guyer of the University of Wisconsin. By serologic methods he has been able to produce cataract and other defects not only in one generation of rabbits, but to have these or similar defects transmitted to subsequent genera- tions. These rabbits have been studied by the writer and some are shown by him among the exhibits of the Congress. Such experiments suggest the nature of changes produce in hereditary eye defects and disprove former theories of heredity. Attention is also called to the possibility of lessening the number and cost of hereditary eye defects by legislation which would require the parties to an intended marriage, one or both of whom might have any hereditary defects, to give bonds that if any children are born to them, they should not become public charges. Dr. C. H. Danforth, Washington University Medical School, St. Louis, Mo. "The Frequency of Mutation and the Incidence of Hereditary Traits in Man" In the germplasm of an unselected population the frequency of a gene with reference to an allelomorphic gene may be determined in- directly from the observed phaenotypes. The ratio of one alternative 24 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS gene to the other may be altered by selection or by mutation, but in the absence of these the proportion of each class tends to remain constant through successive generations. Several hereditary human traits (muscular variation, hair condition, polydactyly) give evidence of such antiquity that, had they had any appreciable selective value, they should long since have become universal or have reached the highest incidence permitted by inhibiting genes. Statistical and genetic evidence shows that neither of these results has been attained, from which it is inferred that the traits in question are of negative or indifferent value. On this assumption an attempt is made to calculate the minimum rate of muta- tion which could account for the different incidence of the traits in stocks presumed to have had a common origin. Mr. E. J. Lidbetter, London, England. "Pedigrees of Pauper Stocks." Pauperism is a consequence of inherent and transmissible defects of character, and is dependent upon mental and moral and physical defects, standing in relation to pauperism as cause to effect. From pedigrees collected for a large number of families it appears that there exists a definite race of chronic pauper stocks. Modern methods of charity tend to encourage its increase. Discusses bearing of observed facts on Poor Law Administration. R. A. Fisher, M. A., Joint Honorary Secretary, Eugenics Education Society, and Statistician at Rothemsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, England. "New Data on the Genesis of Twins." Advances additional data bearing on the question as to whether the ordinary modes of genesis of human twins is intermediate in char- acter between the fraternal and identical modes of genesis; and whether, while the maternal inheritance is identical, the paternal inheritance is fraternal. Major C. C. Hurst, Burbage, Leicestershire, England. "The Genetics of Fecundity in the Domestic Hen." Involves a series of experiments involving the recording of more than 50,000 eggs and 430 pullets. White wyandottes and white leghorns used. Fecundity in the domestic hen has been found to depend on the combined action and reaction of many genetic factors. Seven pairs of such Mendel- ized factors are recognized as follows: ABSTRACTS 25 E e Early and late sexual maternity of Pullets. W w Fast and slow rate of winter production. S s Fast and slow rate of spring production. M m Slow and fast rate of Autumn production. H h Broody and non-broody instincts. N n Small and large egg-mode. C c Brown and white egg-mode. All these factors seem to be influenced by "sub-factors" (modifiers). SECTION n Dr. Lucien March, Paris, France. " The Consequences of War and the Birth Rate in France." A total loss of more than 2,000,000 has been experienced by France as a result of the war. In addition, infant mortality, alcoholism, tuber- culosis and venereal diseases are likely to influence the race. Birth prevention is discussed and the opportunity to intervene by selection in favor of a better race is brought out. Selective increase of one class of the population at the expense of the residue is considered and no eugenic reason for such procedure is found. The economic value of an increased population is discussed. Shows that in some cases the employer may have a larger family than the workman, contrary to the usual belief. Urges aid for care of children and reviews what France is now doing along these lines. Dr. Helen Dean King, Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia, Pa. "Is Inbreeding Injurious?" A brief statement of the reasons for the general belief that inbreed- ing is necessarily injurious. A short summary of the results obtained from inbreeding 40 genera- tions of albino rats (comprising over 20,000 individuals obtained by the mating of brothers and sisters from the same Utter). These experiments show that in body growth, in fertihty and in general constitutional vigor inbred rats are superior to stock Albinos reared under similar conditions of environment and of nutrition. Conclusions that may be drawn from these experiments regarding the conditions under which inbreeding may be used to improve a race. Mrs. Ruth Moxcey Martin, Woodbury, Conn. " Intermarriage of Blood Relatives in Three Old New England Com- munities" The town of X originally settled by eight or ten famihes whose descendants are still the principal people of the town, closely intermarried and exclusive. Many have large incomes and are intefligent, highly educated people. There is a noticeable heredity of musical skill, Uterary abihty and other arts, but also insanity, and the town is called "suicide town." 27 28 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Y was settled by wandering, roistering, loafing, seagoing helpers on fishing vessels. They are closely inbred even to incest in some cases, and are breeding true to type. Petty thieving, promiscuity in sex rela- tions, pauperism, feeble mindedness and loafing are the prevailing char- acteristics. Z was settled by a seceding church which pushed back inland for their religious convictions. They were men of great religious zeal, sought to convert the Indians and have furnished many preachers, theologians and foreign missionaries, and for various reasons have kept nearly free from intermarriage. Their fear of the intrusion of world- liness has kept out factories, railroads and even when offered the county seat it was declined. There has been, therefore, a continual exodus of the more progressive which, coupled with an influx of undesirables, has worked for a very evident decadence. Reflections as to the future of these towns as seen from present tendencies. Dr. Herbert J. Spinden, Peabody Museum of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. "Formal Inbreeding in Human Society with South American Examples." Inbreeding of human beings can rarely be studied to advantage since common marriage is outbreeding. The natural family develops into several type structures. In the usual form of the extended family the two sides (mother's side and father's side) are of equal importance and there is a taboo of close marriage. The type of extended family called clan eliminates the father's side while the gens eliminates the mother's side. Although both these are exorganic yet inbreeding may take place since only half of the field of consanguinity is under control. But there is also a formally inbred type of family commonly en- countered in South America. Here the normal marriages are between cross-cousins, uncles and nieces, aunts and nephews. There are clear references to these close marriage customs, but the most unexpected proof is linguistic. On account of the coincidence of relationship terms in affinity with those in consanguinity, the word for maternal uncle also means father-in-law, that for paternal aunt means mother-in-law, and cousin means husband, wife, brother-in-law and sister-in-law. It is suggested that somatological research among these various tribes may show intensification of family traits. It should be possible to study three or four generations of living persons and obtain from the oldest ones a background of two or three additional generations of in- bred ancestors. ABSTRACTS 29 Prof. W. S. Anderson, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. " The Effect on the Germ Plasm of Isolation in a Mountain Section.'' Two families almost one hundred years ago took possession of a broken and unproductive strip of land lying along the foot hills of the Kentucky mountains. Both families were unambitious, satisfied with a bare subsistence and made no attempt to improve their material sur- roundings. Only a few miles away there was to be had tor the taking any quantity of limestone land. The two families, however, preferred the sandstone soil because it put their cabins closer to the hunting grounds. The husband of one family was afflicted with chorea. Of the children of this family only one son was afflicted. The normal brothers and sis- ters left this section and all their descendants are unafflicted by chorea. From the afflicted son who married a daughter of the other family there are now descendants in about one hundred fifty families. In two- thirds of these families, which is now the fifth generation removed from the original settlers, there is chorea in some form or other. The disease has become intensified with each new generation due to the fact that the isolation has encouraged cousin marriages. The feebleminded tendency of the original stock seems also to have been intensified by the same inter- marriages and the present generation has less energy, less ambition and less ability than any of the previous generations. The most unfortunate feature of the affliction is the early and severe onset of the chorea as it has been manifest in the last two or three generations. In some instances appearing in childhood or in early manhood, and in some of these cases assuming the form of complete mental irresponsibility along with the customary lack of muscular control. As a whole the women are very productive although the primitive conditions under which they five and the lack of care exercised by the mentally deficient mothers causes a very large infantile death-rate. It is no exaggeration to state that the isolation, the disease and the feeblemindedness together with cousin marriages has resulted in injuring the germplasm. The subnormal mental constitution of the original stock has not only not made any improvement but it also is now characterized by a more serious subnormal condition. The taint of chorea has, by the same processes, got into the germ plasm and is being passed on with as much regularity as is the feeblemindedness. Dr. David Starr Jordan, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stan- ford University, Calif. "Some Scientific Aspects of Genealogy." (Abstract not yet received.) 30 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Dr. J. J. Izquierdo, M. S. A., Mexico City, Mexico. "A Brief Genealogical Sketch of the Izquierdo Family." The origin of the Izquierdo family dates back to the twelfth century, as di 1 the greater part of the Portuguese nobility, from the famous battle of Ourique in the year 1139. Don Diego de Guipuzcoa, a native of the mountains of Burgos in the old Castile (Spain), lost his right arm in this battle while defending his standard against the Moors who made re- peated attempts to take it from him. He continued to fight with his left arm until the end of the battle when the forces led by Alonso I of Portugal were victorious. For this deed he was known as Izquierdo (the left- handed one) and was officially given this name by the King as a family name. The first of the family known in any detail was Don Juan Izquierdo de Rocas, Senor de la Torre de Rocas (Master of Roses) in the valley of Soba. He was the founder of three branches-that of Izquierdo Ruiz which gave origin to the Mexican branch, that of Baron of Maabe (Spanish) and the present Spanish branch of the family, that of Lopez Izquierdo Montenegro. The writer traces the lineage of his family in the male line from the Senor de Rocas to Juan Izquierdo Gonzales Orduna, born in 1676, who came to New Spain (Mexico) and originated the Mexican branch. He was one of the aidermen of the city of the Pueblo de Los Angeles, by virtue of royal title bestowed upon him by Philip V. The descendants of this man have been in public life in Mexico from then until now and have taken an active part in the formation of the state of Mexico. The politi- cal activities of these people are described in part. The narration of the male lineage continues on to that of the writer, born 1893, a physician, he being the first member of the family to become a professional man. He is a member of the scientific society "Antonio Alzate," is chief of the laboratory of Physiology and Biology in the National School of Medicine and is a member of the National Academy of Medicine and founder of the Mexican Society of Biology. Dr. E. L. Thorndike, Columdia University, New York City "Measurement of Family Resemblance in Intellect." (Abstract not yet received.) ABSTRACTS 31 Miss Hazel Stanton, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. "An Experimental Investigation of Musical Inheritance." The first attempt to establish the technique for investigating the inheritance of musical talent by means of quantitative measurement was initiated in the year 1920. Six family groups in which one member of each group was conspicuously talented in music were studied. Supplemented by a short association test and an interrogation covering individual case histories, individual musical experiences, direct and indirect ancestral musical items, four of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent, the sense of pitch, the sense of intensity, the sense of time, and tonal memory, were given to each of the available members of the family groups. The four capacities which are measured were selected for a study of the inheritance of musical traits because extensive experi- mentation has revealed their apparent basic nature and has shown them to be little affected by practice, age, musical training, sex, or intelligence. In so far as tentative conclusions may be drawn from the limited material available these conclusions are in harmony with certain Men- delian principles. Dr. Howard J. Banker, Eugenics Record Office, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. " The Learned Blacksmith-An Aristogenic Type." Elihu Burritt, the "learned blacksmith" without educational ad- vantages, acquired a knowledge of over thirty languages while laboring at the forge. He is generally believed to be of obscure parentage and of a mediocre family. A study of his family history shows that at least on his mother's side he was closely related to a group of persons of marked intellectual activity. Dr. Frederick Adams Woods, Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. " The Conification of Social Groups; Evidence from New England Families." The word "conification" is used to describe a process of social or national change whereby a few people, figuratively speaking, climb upon the shoulders of the masses, so that for graphic or statistical purposes a cone is formed, more and more elevated, and pointed at the top. Theoretical reasons are given, why this process is always at work, in civilized countries. The forces leading to conification spring from the tendency of like to mate with like, combined with heredity, and an in- creasingly uneven distribution of property. 32 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Actual evidence is brought forth to show that this social conifica- tion has taken place in Boston and vicinity in two important aspects. In the first place, wealth has become much more unevenly distributed. During the early colonial period the richest man of his day was worth less than £8,000 or about fifty times as much as the average citizen, whereas during the last half century the richest men have left estates valued at many thousand times the average. Secondly, the descendants of the old Puritan stock are now much more divided into distinct social classes than formerly. This is shown by the marriage records. Statistics have been collected, based upon an intensive and objective study of 71 leading families settled in the colony of Massachusetts Bay prior to 1692, having representatives in the male lines at the present time. The total number of persons included exceeds 3,000. These records reveal the fact that members of the aristocracy of today only rarely (less than ten per cent) marry outside of their own circle, and that this has been true for about a hundred years. Before that time, marriages of members of the gentry with persons ouside of, and below their own class were so frequent as to constitute nearly fifty per cent of the total. In other words, the early Puritans were all very much alike. Starting with a group of comparatively similar people, a larger group of comparatively dissimilar people has been produced, the two extremes of which no longer mix from the eugenic standpoint. They have become less democratic rather than more so. The conclusion appears unescapable that no matter how much we may contemplate environmental forces, making for equality and democracy, here the real result has been in the opposite direction, namely, class differentiation and conification due presumably to the accumulating forces, assertive mating, heredity, and the possibilities of transmitted wealth. Dr. Corrado Gini, Editor of "Metron," Rome, Italy. 11 The War from the Eugenic Point of View." Questions the views of Jordan and Kellogg on the influence of war on delayed marriage, venereal disease and fraility of children. Discusses influence of forced separation between husband and wife upon nature of child and health of mother. The recent war, more than others, gave greater equalization of exposure to danger for strong and weak, because of the great numbers conscripted and used. Teachers which survived the war were of as high grade as those that died. The post-bellum mortality ABSTRACTS 33 though excessive, has a favorably selective influence. Children born in the period immediately following the war are apt to be remarkably healthy due to improved physical condition of the mother. The increase of abortions and premature births is harmful. There is, however, an in- crease of plural births after war. Military conscription in Italy seems to have been favorable rather than harmful. Dr. Frederick S. Crum, Assistant Statistician, The Prudential Insur- ance Company of America, Newark, N. J. " The Size of Families in the United States from 1680 to 1890." The author, in this paper, reviews briefly the literature and findings of previous investigators of the subject of his own paper. Dr. Crum's paper presents the results of a personal statistical investigation and survey of twenty-five genealogical records of families of native American stock. The study embraces the marital records of over 15,000 wives and over 75,000 children of these wives. The findings of this extensive investigation show that during the period of over 200 years covered in the study the average number of children per wife has declined from 7.4 in the period previous to 1700 to about 2.5 during the decade 1880-89. In the early colonial period, according to this investigation, less than two per cent, of the mothers had only one child, while during the latter period about nineteen per cent, had only one child. On the other hand, in the period previous to 1700 over 24 per cent, of the mothers had ten or more children each, while in the decade 1880-89 only a little more than three-tenths of one per cent, had ten or more children. During the period covered by the study, the average age of brides has increased from 21.4 years previous to 1770 to an average age of about 23 years in the decade 1880-89. Another interesting fact brought out in this study is that in the period previous to 1700 less than two per cent, of the wives had no children, while in the decade 1880-89 more than eight per cent, of all the wives had no children. In all cases for which the records were compiled an allowance of about thirty years has been made for the completion of the family statistics. In brief, the study discloses in a very specific and concrete manner the startling fact that there is such a thing as race suicide in the sense of that term as used by the late Theodore Roosevelt and other writers on the decadence of our native American stock. 34 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Prof. W. F. Willcox, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. "Distribution and Increase of Negroes in the United States." The rate of increase of Negroes between 1910 and 1920 was about three tenths of that between 1870 and 1880 and four tenths of that of the whites between 1910 and 1920. The entire increase of Negroes in the Southern States between 1910 and 1920 was only 163,000, or less than two per cent; in the rest of the country it was 473,000, nearly thrice that in the South and at a rate of 44 per cent. The increase was confined to cities for the number of Negroes in the rural districts of the United States decreased. What figures for births and deaths are at hand show that in the cities of the United States both North and South Negro deaths of recent years have outnumbered Negro births. In country districts of the North and West the same is true. It is only in rural districts of the South that Negro births outnumber Negro deaths. We infer that in cities through- out the country and in country districts of the North and West the Negroes are not biologically self supporting. Thus the rapid increase of Negroes in the North and West and the cities of the South, and the rapid fall in the rate of increase of all Negroes of recent years are probably related as cause and effect. Dr. Hilda Herrick Noyes and George Wallingford Noyes, A. B., Kenwood, N. Y. " The Oneida Community Experiment in Stirpiculture." The institution afterwards known as the Oneida Community was founded by John Humphrey Noyes at Putney, Vermont, in 1841. In 1848 under pressure of persecution the Community removed to Oneida, New York, which at that time was a frontier settlement. In its new loca- tion the Community grew and prospered until January 1, 1881, when, for reasons which need not here be detailed, it was re-organized as a joint-stock company. Since that date the joint-stock successor of the Community has carried on its business with extraordinary success, its net assets having increased from about $550,000.00 in 1881 to nearly $7,000,000.00 at the present time. Noyes first published his views regarding human "stirpiculture," as he called it, in the "First Annual Report of the Oneida Community" in February, 1849. He says: 6We are not opposed to procreation. But we are opposed to involuntary procreation. We are opposed to excessive and, of course, oppressive procreation, which is almost univer- sal. We are opposed to random procreation, which is unavoidable in the marriage system. But we are in favor of intelligent, well-ordered pro- ABSTRACTS 35 creation. We believe the time will come when scientific combination will be applied to human generation as freely and successfully as it is to that of other animals." For twenty-seven years after its foundation the Oneida Community was engaged in working out the immediate problems of its new order of society, and could not undertake an experiment in scientific propagation. But in 1868 it found itself in a situation favorable for such an experiment in the following respects: 1. A social system based on their religion, called "complex mar- riage," which allowed any man to mate with any woman, and vice versa, subject only to the conditions that such mating should be within the limits of and approved by the Community. 2. Sufficient income. From 1841 until 1855 expenses exceeded income. After 1855 income exceeded expenses, and during the period 1868-1872 the net income above all expenses averaged more than forty- seven thousand dollars per year. 3. Sufficient number of members to admit a considerable degree of selection. The membership during the eleven years of the stirpi- cultural experiment ranged from 271 to 306, with a slight excess of women over men. 4. Good leaders. Noyes himself was a graduate of Dartmouth College, had studied theology at Andover and Yale, and his manage- ment of the Community during twenty-seven years had fully demon- strated his unusual ability. He was surrounded by a cabinet of men and women (among them a number of college graduates), who had shown the qualities of true leadership in positions of high responsibility. 5. Confidence on the part of the members in their leaders and in the stability of the Community. The members were practically un- animous in believing that Noyes and his subordinate leaders were in- spired, and that the Community was the earthly representative of the Kingdom of God. Without this superlative confidence they would not have been willing to engage in such an experiment. 6. A high degree of passional control due to the fact that dis- cipline and effort had from the beginning been constantly directed toward perfection of character. In the early days no little trouble had been caused by jealousy and exclusiveness, but by 1868 these anti-Commun- istic traits had been so far conquered that altruism- in the love relation which would not be deemed possible in ordinary society was common- place in the Community. 7. Extraordinary religious devotion. This characteristic made a large majority of the Community members fervently desirous not alone 36 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS negatively to avoid selfishness, but positively to engage with all their powers in any enterprise which they thought in the interest of the Kingdom of God. Such pre-eminently was the enterprise of human redemption by "combining regeneration with scientific generation." Observations, Tables, Charts. Group A. Pre-stirpicultural Births. Exhibit A 1. Chart showing distribution of births by years during pre-stirpicultural period, 1847-1868 inclusive. Average number of members about 235. 44 births in 22 years. Average two births per year. Exhibit A 2. Table showing actual number of deaths, 1847-1920 inclusive in a group of 44 pre-stirpicultural births 1847-1868 inclusive, compared with expected number of deaths in U. S. total population 1870, Elliott Table. Exhibit A 3. Graph showing (the same). Group B. Parents of Stirpicultural Children. Exhibit B 1. Two charts showing 40 fathers and 41 mothers repre- senting 51 distinct family stocks, the 25 principal stocks being shown in color. Exhibit B 2. Table showing actual number of deaths, 1809-1921 inclusive, in a group of 81 parents of stirpicultural children compared with expected number of deaths in U. S. total population 1870, Elliott Table. Group C. Stirpicultural Births. Exhibit C 1. Chart showing distribution of 25 principal family stocks in color. Exhibit C 2. Chart showing distribution of births by years during stirpicultural period, 1869-1879 inclusive. Average number of members about 292. 58 births in 11 years. Average 5.2 births per year. Un- shaded squares represent survivors August 1,1921. Exhibit C 3. Table showing actual number of deaths, 1869-1919 inclusive, in a group of 58 stirpicultural births, 1869-1879 inclusive, compared with expected number of deaths in New York State total population 1910 and in U. S. total population, 1870, Elliott Table. Exhibit C 4- Table derived from Exhibit C 3, showing percentage of actual to expected number of deaths, according to four standard tables. Exhibit C 5. Graph of mortality results shown in table form in Exhibit C 3. ABSTRACTS 37 Group D. Children, One or Both of Whose Parents Were Stirpicultural. Exhibit D 1. Table showing distribution of births by years in a group of 98 children, born 1890-1917 inclusive. Unshaded squares represent survivors August 1, 1921. Exhibit D 2. Table showing actual number of deaths, 1890-1920 inclusive, in a group of 98 children, born 1890-1917 inclusive, compared with expected number of deaths in New York State total population 1910; also percentage of actual to expected number of deaths. Group E. Children, Both of Whose Parents Were Stirpicultural. Exhibit E 1. Table showing distribution of births by years in a group of 28 children, born 1897-1917 inclusive. Unshaded squares represent survivors August 1, 1921. Exhibit E 2. Table showing actual number of deaths, 1897-1920 inclusive, in a group of 28 children born 1897-1917 inclusive, compared with New York State total population 1910. Dr. Amos W. Butler, Secretary, Board of Charities, State of Indiana, Indianapolis, Ind. "Some Families as Factors in Anti-Social Conditions." (Abstract not yet received). Dr. Arthur H. Estabrook, Eugenics Record Office, Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. " The Tribe of Ishmael; a Study in Cacogenics." History of the original study of the Ishmaelites of Indiana by the Rev. O. C. McCulloch, published in 1888. About 1915 the writer, under the auspices of the Eugenics Record Office, took up the study of this degenerate tribe where McCulloch had left it and has brought it down to the present. The investigation has shown that the different families of the Tribe originated in the seaboard colonies and similarity of names points to their derivation from the pauper, criminal and servant classes deported from England to Virginia at an early date. It is estimated that the Tribe numbered 6,000 people in 1885, com- ing from about 400 different family heads and are now scattered through the Central West. The three outstanding characteristics of the members of the Tribe are, pauperism, licentiousness and gypsying. Many are professional 38 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS beggars and adepts in the art. Loose marriage relationship has been one oi the outstanding features, and prostitution was common. Illegitimacy is greater than in either the Jukes or Nams. The practice of "gypsying " or summer wandering is traced to one John Ishmael as early as 1825. They lived off the country by begging, stealing, fishing and hunting, returning to the city for the winter. A smaller group gypsied to the south in the winter and returned in the spring. A few have bettered themselves, but the greater portion are still cacogenic and are breeding true to the type. Miss Elizabeth Greene, Waverley House, New York City. "A Study of 150 Adolescent Runaways." The largest group of delinquent girls brought to the New York Probation and Protective Association are the adolescent runaways. Many have a hereditary history of wanderlust, some are hyperkinetic, but others show entire lack of this quality. Though young they often go long distances, a few from Michigan, Kentucky and Missouri. They range from 14 to 23 years of age, the largest group being the 16 year olds. Various reasons are given for running away, dissatisfaction with home conditions being the most frequent. As a whole the group grades mentally considerably higher than the sex-offenders, more than half fall in the normal or dull normal classes. They are largely the children of immigrants who are not well settled in their American environment. Dr. Roswell H. Johnson, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. "Mate Selection." 1. Mate Selection in man is important as the agency which is peculiarly concerned in the evolution of the emotional and colorful aspects of our mentality, which are so greatly concerned in conduct and states of mind. 2. With the greatly accelerated evolution of the mind in passing from our anthropoid ancestors to man, mate selection has passed from a state where it is almost wholly a product of instinct to a state where in- stinct while still of great effectiveness has a joint role with intelligence. 3. The role of intelligence is at the point of the greatest effective- ness prior to and in the early stages of courtship, that of instinct most effective in middle and later stages of courtship. Failure to recognize this time aspect is responsible for much of the current derogation of the role of intelligence in mate selection and common expressions of impos- sibility of improving its action. ABSTRACTS 39 4. An analysis of the elements of attractiveness. 5. An evaluation of these from the standpoint of relative desir- ability. 6. The modification of the action of mate selection from savagery to present condition. 7. Tendencies of change not apparent. 8. Extent to which these are approvable. 9. Possible modification of the action of sexual selection by legis- lative means, by educational means, and by other means. Dr. Wilhelmine E. Key, Race Betterment Foundation, Battle Creek, Michigan. 11 Heritable Factors in Human Fitness and Their Social Control." The foundations of national power are in the last analysis biological. We no longer look upon the fife of a people as something unfolding itself in a manner wholly mysterious and then as certainly going down to decadence and death. Increasingly, we are being won to the view that the elements of a nation's strength lie in the inherent traits and tendencies of its people. Passing events as they crystallize into history are but the interplay between these traits and tendencies and various external influences as expressed through the science and art of the period. Breed- ing from the best elements of the population brings a growing preponder- ance of those fitted to take highest advantage of these influences. But science and art, in so far as they are not borrowed, are of themselves the abiding effect of this breeding from the best. Since their refinements of method too often encourage the survival of the unfit, the question of a nation's continuing integrity resolves itself into a nice balance between certain genetic and social forces which inhere in the bloodlines of its people. Intensive study of family networks shows widely different poten- tiality of the various lines. If we go back far enough we may find the difference arising as a comparatively slight deviation. Suppose it to be a difference in planfulness, purpose and foresight of two brothers. Though slight, the balance in favor of the better-endowed has actually been found to bring about alliance with a superior strain, and the divergence once begun has in a few generations sufficed to place the present day representatives of the two lines at the extremes of the social scale. Studies in the quantitative variation of such traits and of the ability with number, point to a segregation of factors to produce, on the one hand, accentuation and on the other progressive degeneration with regard 40 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS to these traits, according to the type of mating made. These findings attain significance when we consider the great fecundity of degenerating fines and their proneness to draw to themselves the weaker individuals of other mixed strains to form centres of degeneracy and defect. They emphasize as one of the chief functions of our institutions for the care of the defective and diseased, a sufficiently detailed study of the family history of their patients to determine the blood fines from which they come with a view to allowing their genetic potentialities due weight in deciding the fate of the cases. Since public sentiment in many parts of the country is still so lax or unformed that individuals belonging to many such tainted blood lines have not as yet been committed to an institu- tion, this work should be supplemented by surveys on the part of the state and appropriate action taken. The abilities known as the aptitudes have also been found to follow blood lines. The personalities that have given us our development in industry, science and art, as well as our peculiar political organizations have arisen by a fortunate crossing of able lines. Hitherto this process, at least under the social conditions pertaining in this country, has seemed to take care of itself. There are, however, grave indications that a change is setting in. The dying out of many highly gifted lines and the low fecundity of others, which though less able would, if producing larger families, increase their chance of producing gifted individuals are among the signs of this change. The salient economic factors involved in this situation have yet to be evaluated. It seems clear though that no such single measure as birth control, a return to simpler standards of living or the giving of bonuses to the parents of large families will suffice to meet it. Among the means to be developed are active campaigns of education which will tend to foster "the eugenic conscience," the encouragement on the part of our numerous foundations, not of celibacy and compara- tive sterility on the part of their members but types of remuneration and reward based not only on individual ability but on genetic poten- tiality. Another promising field, at present, hardly touched, lies in the study of heredity in relation to vocational selection. This could bring about the recording of the heritable traits making for social fitness of every child in our public schools. The mere taking cognizance of such would emphasize their importance in the mind of the child and prove a valuable means of eugenic education. As our knowledge proceeds, we should more and more secure early and proper economic and social adjustment for our youth, which in its turn would play a valuable part in the proliferation of our abler blood lines. SECTION III Dr. G. V. deLapouge, Poitiers, France. "Race Among Mixed Populations. " Race is characterized by the hereditary transmission of characters of a value less important than those constituting a species. Race is not based on religion, language, and customs, but rather on skull shape, skin color, and character. It would, however, not be possible to establish frontiers according to racial lines. There are no longer pure races or anything close to them. The failure, however, to study racial mixtures from the point of view of their biology is colossal. In most individuals many traits characteristic of the primary races that went into their make- up remain. Rare exceptions include the formation of an apparently fixed secondary race, and the frequent reappearance of a dominant race. The proportion of races in a population varies almost ceaselessly. The great losses of the war have reduced Europe to a pitiable condition eugenically. If artificial selection is introduced mankind may be saved. It rests with America to take this step and to save humanity. Dr. Jon Alfred Mj0en, Christiania, Norway. 11 Harmonic and Disharmonic Matings or Crossings. (Nordic Race Types and Hybrids with Lapps'). " 1. Crosses between two different races of rabbits (5 generations). 2. Crosses between three different races of rabbits (5 generations). 3. Crosses between two different races in Northern Norway (Lapps and Norwegians). 4. Crosses between three or more different races in Finland, Nor- way and the Russian frontier. Dr. Frederick L. Hoffman, Third Vice-President and Statistician, The Prudential Insurance Company of America, Newark, N. J. "Race Amalgamation in Hawaii." In 1915 I made a reasonably thorough personal investigation into the facts regarding present and possible future results of race intermixture in Hawaii, the preliminary results of which were incorporated in an address entitled "The Sanitary Progress and Vital Statistics of Hawaii," which was subsequently enlarged by additional data which has not yet been published. The population of Hawaii increased from 57,985 in 1878 to 255,912 in 1920, but no analysis in detail as regards the racial composition of the 41 42 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS 1920 population is as yet available. For the present purpose, however, 20,631 transcripts of registered death certificates were secured and the information transferred to cards, so that practically any combination of results can be worked out. Race intermixture in the Islands is much more restricted than is generally assumed to be the case, and that which does occur follows the line of intermixture with native-born Hawaiian women or with women of a similar racial affiliation 1 in conformity with what Westermarck has called the "law of similarity." The data available indicate nothing that is suggestive of promiscuous racial intermixture, or the breaking down of the social barriers which keep separate the different races, and there is probably nowhere in the world a lesser amount of racial strife and an- tagonism, so that the nonintermarriage is governed by the higher law of racial similarity rather than by political or economic advantage. Both of these factors, however, figure conspicuously in the preference which men of other countries show (when they intermarry at all with other races) for women of native Hawaiian origin. In brief, the proportion of the population having had like racial origins, that is, where the father and mother were born in the same country, is as follows: Japanese 99.0%; Hawaiians 98.2%; Filipinos 97.5%; Portuguese 85.8%; Chinese 78.3%; Americans 66.8%; English 48.6%. Dr. Leslie C. Dunn, Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Storrs, Conn. "Some Results of Race Mixture in Hawaii." From an analysis of data collected in Hawaii by Dr. Tozzer, accord- ing to a plan worked out in collaboration with Dr. Hooton, it is found that hybridization between the native Hawaiians and other races is in its incipient stages. Most of the hybrids observed were of the first genera- tion, and in very few cases was hybridization found to have proceeded beyond the second generation from the original cross (F2 or Backcross). The result is a hybrid population in the making, presenting a favorable opportunity for genetic analysis. Of the race mixture involving Hawaiians as one element, about 57% in the present sample of 344 cases was found to be attributable to crosses with one of the "white" races, chiefly with North European and Portuguese; about 31% involves crosses of Hawaiian and Chinese; only 2% involves Hawaiians and Japanese, and the other 10% consists of crosses of Hawaiians with other races and stocks: Negro, Amer Indian, Philipino, Malay, Hindoo, ABSTRACTS 43 Syrian, etc. By far the commonest tri-racial mixture is Hawaiian- Chinese-" White. " Of the races involved the South Chinese (coolies from Quantung) is found to be the purest type and the most conservative in all its char- acteristics. A comparison of these Chinese in Hawaii and as studied by Hagen in Sumatra (1889), with the native Hawaiians and with Chinese- Hawaiian hybrids indicates a very close resemblance between the Chinese in the two environments; differences between the Chinese and the Hawaiians in head form, stature and its segments, nose shape, hair form, etc., and resemblances between the Chinese and the Hawaiians in bodily proportions and certain other characteristics. The condition of these characteristics in a small number of hybrids indicates the formation of a type intermediate in respect to some characteristics (e. g. stature) resembling the Chinese in others (e. g. hair form) and in others present- ing an appearance different from either parent race (e. g. head form). The possibility of the production of new types by recombination and segregation of heritable factors is briefly discussed. Dr. Maurice Fishberg, New York City. 11 Intermarriage Between Jews and Christians." For centuries intermarriages between Jews and Christians have been prevented by religion, and in countries in which religion is part and parcel of the State, the law fortified the religious prohibition. Racial differ- ences have not been in the way in Europe and America, despite the assertions to the contrary by certain pseudo-scientists. In fact, through- out the past four thousand years there has been a constant fusion of the Jews with the peoples among which they have dwelt. There is an abund- ance of historical and anthropological evidence to that effect. From the sociological standpoint, it appears that the most potent factors in preventing intermarriages have been the Jewish ritual dietary laws, which seem to have been invented for the purpose of isolating the "Chosen People" and keeping them away from fusion with those among whom they happen to live. As long as a Jew could not eat at one table with one of another faith, he could not get intimately acquainted with others, the prerequisite of marriage. But during the past fifty years this religious bar against intermarriage has been raised more or less in Western countries; among the younger generation of Jews of to-day there are comparatively few who will not partake of a meal which has not been prepared in accordance with the dietary laws. Moreover, the secular laws against intermarriage have been abrogated in western 44 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Europe during the past fifty years, and since the recent revolution, also in Russia and Poland. As a result of these social and political changes in the life of modern Jews, intermarriages with those of other faiths have become very com- mon; more common than is generally appreciated. In some countries, where the official vital statistics take into consideration the religion of the population, we have exact data as to the frequency of these marriages. Thus, in Germany, where they have been legalized since 1875, over twenty- five per cent of Jews who marry, enter into unions with Christians and dissenters. In Prussia and Bavaria, more than thirty per cent of marriages in which Jews are concerned are contracted with persons of other faiths. In Italy there are but few native Jewish families without Christian relatives. In Scandinavian countries, in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the proportion of Jews who marry outside the pale is larger than that marrying within the pale. The same is true of France and other western countries in greater or lesser degree as regards the native Jews. Even Eastern European countries have not escaped since the legal bars have been raised. This is the fact in Hungary, where over ten per cent of marriages in which Jews are concerned are contracted with Christians. In Austria a strict legal prohibition existed till the dissolu- tion of the empire two years ago. But, inasmuch as the religious bar has become surmountable recently, a way was found to circumvent the legal prohibition. While marriages between Jews and Christians were illegal, one with a dissenter or freethinker was permitted. The result was that when a Jew wanted to enter into matrimony with a Christian, one of the contracting parties declared himself or herself a dissenter, and thus legalized the marriage. In this manner over fifteen per cent of Jews in Vienna married Christians. In Anglo-Saxon countries mixed marriages are very frequent, though exact statistical evidence is not available. But in Australasia official publications show that between twenty-five and fifty per cent of Jews who marry, marry Christians. In England the native Jews marry non- Jews at least as often as those in Australia. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews, who have been there for over three hundred years, have thus almost disappeared through fusion with the English. There is a similar lack of statistical data as to the number of mixed marriages in the United States. But we must, when considering Anglo- Saxon countries, separate native Jews from those who have immigrated within the past forty years. Among the former, intermarriage is very ripe, and not less frequent than in Germany, or Italy. This is proven by ABSTRACTS 45 the fact that of the Jews who have been here for seventy-five years very few have left descendants within the fold. It appears that they have been fused into and absorbed by the Christian population of this country through intermarriage. Otherwise, there would have been here over 200,000 Jews who can trace back their ancestry for over 75 years as citizens of the United States. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews, who have been here since Colonial days, have almost completely disappeared. Intermarriage robs Judaism of its best elements. It appears that success in any vocation in life, be it material, intellectual or artistic, means that the descendants will marry outside the pale, and the children, surely the grandchildren, will be raised as Christians. Hardly any of the well known capable and talented Jews of the first half of the nineteenth century have left descendants within the fold. The few exceptions that may be mentioned have so many Christian relatives through inter- marriage, that, from the Jewish viewpoint, they are considered doomed. While some sociologists fear racial intermixture because of the alleged dangers that inferior strains may thus be introduced, leading to racial deterioration, this cannot be said of the Jews among whom excep- tionally talented elements are in abundance. When we contemplate that the Jews constitute much less than one-fourth of one per cent of white humanity, and then observe the enormous number of great and talented men and women among them, it is clear that fusion with them can only prove beneficial to white humanity of any country. The only losers appear to be the Jews, because the best from among them are thus diverted into other social groups. Dr. Radcliffe N. Salaman, Barley Herts, England. "Some Notes on the Jewish Problem," Under the above title, an attempt is made to regard this question from a strictly scientific point of view, and to that end certain aspects of the problem hitherto unconsidered, are discussed. The chief of these are: (a) The Jewish masses of East Europe from whence immigrants come, constitute a human mass entirely unsegregated as to social class. (b) Owing to circumstances arising from persecution and ghetto life, this mass when it does segregate, is seen to consist almost entirely of the middle class, whilst both the highest and the lowest social strata are absent. In this respect contrasting violently with emigrants from other countries who are, in the main, recruited from the lower class. (c) The Jewish middle-class has one outstanding character, viz., the high grade of its intelligence. 46 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS (d) Owing to the absence of previous class segregation and the gen- eral superiority of intelligence, the emigrant Jew reacts to his environ- ment differently from other emigrants. He rises with amazing rapidity in the social and civic world, thus rendering himself at once invaluable and conspicuous, a combination which may be fraught with discomfort both to himself and others. (e) The examination of vital statistics demonstrates that from birth the Jew starts with a balance in the bank of life-his avoidance of alcohol, his superior sexual morality and, above all, the high development of his home life, all helping towards maintaining that favourable balance. The spiritual forces, both constructive and destructive, in the Jew- ish masses, are discussed, as well as the influence of heredity and environ- ment. The conclusion is reached that immigrants from the Jewish masses from Eastern Europe form an invaluable asset to the country in which they settle. Dr. Paul Radosavljevich, New York University, New York City. "Eugenic Problems of the Slavic Race." (Abstract not yet received.) Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, U S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. "The Physical and Physiological Characteristics of Old Americans." The paper presents results of a study extending over eight years and involving upwards of 1700 representatives of families at least three generations native American, from all parts of the United States. The greatest care was taken throughout to ensure all practicable accuracy of observations as well as measurements. The results show, in brief, that the environmental conditions of the new country have had their effects; but that these effects have not as yet been strong enough to overcome the more deeply rooted hereditary endowments of the different families, and that in consequence while there is some approach to a unity of type-an American type,-there still persists a considerable physical heterogeneity. The Old Americans are found to be as a class the tallest of all the larger groups of Whites now existing. They occupy about the mid- position in regard to pigmentation and show the effects of slow progres- sive darkening. Pure adult blonds are rare, as are also pure blacks and reds. The eyes are prevalently "mixed." The head form shows a wide range of variation, with mesocephaly in the majority. The face is rather long and narrow, with a tendency in the well nourished to a typical oval. ABSTRACTS 47 The prominence of the cheek bones and of the angles of the lower jaw is largely subdued; alveolar and facial prognathism practically nonexistent. The body proportions in men are very good; in women there is some evidence of subdevelopment of the chest, with frequently the breasts reduced. The detailed physical and physiological measurements as well as observations show many points of interest. On the whole, the stock, while still far from presenting a uniform type, shows plainly advances towards such a type in physiognomy and various other directions, and with some exceptions among the women may be characterized as one of the best and strongest of the existing strains of the white race. It is expected that the detailed report will be published in the Ameri- can Journal of Physical Anthropology. Dr. Earnest A. Hooton, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. ''Observations and Queries as to the Effect of Race Mixture on Certain Physical Characteristics." Observations of certain morphological features characteristic of human groups as affected by race mixture enable one to form working hypotheses as to the persistence of various details. All of these hypotheses require verification. The miscellaneous group of features under discus- sion include, (a) Skeletal features. (b) Variations in the soft parts. Skeletal features are probably less plastic and more permanent than such variations of the soft parts as are exhibited in hair form, eye form, nose form, pigmentation, etc. Many of these skeletal features seem less readily modifiable through environmental agencies. Observations lead to interesting speculations as to the behaviour of the following peculiari- ties: negroid skull, texture; European, sutural complexity; form of the nasal bridge, and nasal aperture; prognathism, dentition; head form; face form; pelvic form, etc. There are indications that in race mixtures many of the more primitive features yield to those winch are possibly highly evolved. Interesting combination of racial features may be observed in soft parts of racial hybrids. Some of these are original variations in the head form, hair, regional, variations in nose form, unsymmetrical and progres- sive pigmentation, tanning, etc. The antecedents of modern races of composite origin probably can be determined by the analysis of the re- sults of modern mixtures. 48 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Miss E. M. Vicari, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. 11 Genetic Basis of Behavior in a Racial Cross of Japanese Waltzing and Albino Mice." Two homozygous races of mice, Japanese waltzing and albino were crossed. The Japanese waltzers are a tame, agitated race lacking vigor, the albinos are tame and normal in behavior. The problem was to see how these two races reacted in a simple maze and to trace any differences found in the offspring. The results are based on 45 japs, 75 albinos, and 110 Fi hybrids. When compared on the basis of the number of perfect trials, number of consecutive perfect trials, the Japanese waltzing and the albino races are very similar. The time per trial averages of the albinos tend to be lower than that of the japs. The Fi hybrids show these results: 10% of the mice made more perfect trials than either parent, they excel the parent races in the maximum number of consecu- tive perfect trials, the curve based on time averages is not intermediate between the parent races but much lower. The same results are found when each family is considered separately. Perhaps a combination of factors occurred which worked for greater vigor and to this is due the superiority of the hybrids over the parent races. Though the offspring are at first less apt to make a single perfect trial (which may be due to greater sensitiveness, fear), still they show greater ability to retain and repeat consecutively perfect trials. The facts show that the 1st filial generation is neither intermediate between the two parent races nor like either parent. It shows rather a greater capacity for learning accurately and of taking less time per trial. This demonstrates that the phenomenon of heterosis shown in physical characters may also be found in behavior. Dr. Robert Bennett Bean, University of Virginia, University, Va. " The Distribution of Human Types." The four great masses of peoples, Asiatic, African, American and European, are the fundamental stocks that carry evolution. For these four stocks a normal standard stature, sitting height and sitting height index were obtained from thousands of records. For males Stature Sitting height Sitting height index 165.0 85.0 52.5 For females 155.0 80.0 53.5 49 ABSTRACTS This may be called the normal world standard. Europe and Asia have this exact normal world standard stature. Africa and America are taller. Africa has the standard sitting height, the other three countries are taller. Europe has the standard sitting height index. America and Asia are higher and Africa is relatively very low. The people of frozen desert and tropical forest, where life is hard and food difficult to procure, have an extremely high sitting height index. The negroes, due to their sinuous vertebral column and long legs, have an extremely low sitting height index. Among the four great masses of peoples there are three types vary- ing between the extremes above mentioned, the Hyperphylomorph with a low index, the Hypophylomorph with a high index and the Meso- phylomorph with an intermediate index. The Filipinos, with 10 centimeters less stature than American whites and American negroes, have the same sitting height index as the American whites, whereas the American negroes have a lower sitting height index than either of the other two. The period of most rapid growth of sitting height in girls is from 11 to 13 years, and in boys from 14 to 16 years. Among Asiatics the lower extremities are retarded early and the bust accelerated early and retarded late, resulting in a long torso and short lower extremities in the adult. Among Africans the lower extremities grow to a late age, and the rapid growth of the sitting height is late and short, resulting in a short torso and long lower extremities in the adult. This condition is exag- gerated by the sinuous vertebral column of the negro. The European is intermediate between the Asiatic and African in the growth of both the torso and the lower extremities. The morphologic index is devised as a factor which represents the percentage difference of racial groups from a standard taken as the basis for computing the percentage difference. This standard should be as near the average of the four great masses of peoples as possible, and it may be used with any measurement such as stature, or with any index such as the sitting height index. It affords a ready means of comparing individual measurements, indices, etc., persons, types or groups of people with each other and with other measurements or indices. 50 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Dr. Louis I. Dublin, Statistician, Metropolitan Life Insurance Com- pany, New York City. "Mortality of Foreign Race Stocks." 1. Studies made of the mortality rates in the various race stocks in Pennsylvania and New York show important differences in the several groups. The native born of native parentage have the lowest mortality rate and the foreign born, the highest. 2. The foreign born and the native born of foreign or mixed parent- age agree much more closely with each other than with the native stock. 3. Among the foreign born groups, the Russians, who are mostly Jews, the Italians, and the Austro-Hungarians, present the most favor- able conditions. The British, the Germans, and the Irish have death rates very much in excess. Pulmonary tuberculosis, pneumonia and the degenerative diseases are largely responsible for this unfavorable mortality of the three stocks last named. 4. The figures appear to indicate that the immigrants of New York State and Pennsylvania are not representative of the most vigorous in their own races, the death rates being often higher here than in their own countries. Dr. C. E. Seashore, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. "Racial Differences in Musical Ability." (Abstract not yet received.) Prof. W. McDougall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. " The Correlation Between Native Ability and Social Status." Results of seven independent researches by statistical and experi- mental methods all of which concur in indicating a high positive correla- tion between good native ability and good social and economic status. Dr. Emery Filbey, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. " Vocational Problems with Respect to Racial Groups. ' ' (Abstract not yet received.) Major Leonard Darwin, Sc.D., London, England. " The Field for Eugenic Reform." Major Darwin said that they were dealing with the practical applica- tion to human affairs of knowledge acquired by practical research. Differences of opinion existed, but they should remember that uniformity always means stagnation. Competition is beneficial in everything, opinions included. The aim of the Eugenist is to increase the rate of multiplication of good stocks and to decrease that rate amongst the less fit. Some thought that racial progress is certain, but that it can be hastened by the elimination of the unfit; whilst others fear a slow and progressive deterioration of all civilized peoples. In regard to certain grossly defective individuals, all that had to be done was to prevent parenthood. In the United States there are at least 300,000 or 400,000 feebleminded persons, and it is certain they will pass on this defect to many of their children, whilst their normal offspring may also be endowed with power of transmitting it to posterity. These unfortunates should as a rule be segregated or confined in comfort, the sexes being separated; this being the kindest course to adopt. The feebleminded, however, often attract affection, and their removal from home is frequently re- sented. Permission to live at home should be granted when all conditions are suitable and when parenthood is improbable. If sterilization were further investigated, if it proved to be harmless, and if it were voluntarily adopted, might it not be allowed to tell in favour of such permission being granted? He favoured its introduction as a voluntary and experimental measure; for if successful, its racial advantages were obvious. Turning to the consideration of good qualities, it has often been suggested that a number of highly endowed persons should be selected, induced to marry, and encouraged to produce large families. If the money of a few mil- lionaires were to be distributed broadcast amongst the people, each re- cipient would receive but a minute share of the booty; and in like manner the creation of a few men of genius would be very disappointing as far as ultimate racial results were concerned. Their main endeavour ought to be to raise the level of the whole people in regard to their inborn qualities. But why not let things alone? Looking to the future, young men endowed with good natural qualities will nearly certainly win a fair livelihood, whilst members of small families will win their way more easily to the front than members of large ones. The result of these two selective processes will be that the naturally well endowed will take a SECTION IV 51 52 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS smaller and smaller share in the production of the coming generations' with racial deterioration as an inevitable tendency. Moreover history teaches that ancient civilizations have often disappeared in the past. The United States, with such a mighty future before it, should consider whether its best or its worst stocks are now multiplying most rapidly. If it be the worst stocks, this country may in consequence miss an opportunity of filling a most glorious page in future history. The forces producing such deteriorating influences must be counteracted by remedies affecting great numbers. It must be widely felt that it is both immoral and unpatriotic for couples sound in mind and body to unduly limit the size of their families. There ought to be a moral campaign against selfish regard for personal comfort and advancement, for these must in a measure be sacrificed. As to economic influences on fertility, to increase the taxation on the more fit in order to ease the strain of family life amongst the less fit would do a double dose of harm; by de- creasing the output of children where it should be increased, and increas- ing it when it should be diminished. We must, however, pay attention to the needs of sufferers. These economic principles, therefore, involve many puzzling questions; but to neglect them altogether is to court a great racial danger. As to the grossly unfit, the length of detention of habitual criminals should be increased after every conviction and its severity diminished, ending in permanent segregation with the abandon- ment of all idea of punishment. But thus to deal with the obviously unfit would not alone stem the tendency to racial deterioration. The fewer persons in any country who cannot maintain a family in decency the better it will be for that country. Now bad surroundings tend to increase the number of social failures; a cause of failure which will, however, become less operative with advancing civilization. A large proportion of those incapable of supporting a family will however always in future be characterized by inborn defects, and we should check rather than increase the size of families born in squalid surroundings. Con- sequently state and charitable aid should not be given in such profusion as to prevent each additional child from causing some additional financial strain on the household. Every reform does harm as well as good, and all we can do is to make reasonably certain that the good preponderates. If we fearlessly advocate what we hold to be right in spite of its un- popularity, we shall secure untold benefits for mankind in all the long long ages to come. If our politicians would in future pay more attention to the advice of scientific experts, and if the general public would be guided by common sense in regard to heredity, then they would have ABSTRACTS 53 more right to look to the future with confidence than ever has been the case since the dawn of civilization. Dr. Raymond Pearl, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. "Some Eugenic Aspects of the Problem of Population." This paper presents a mathematical theory of the law of population growth, past, present, and future. This theory is able, by means of a single equation, to account for normal, continued population growth, cyclical or epochal changes due to changing cultural conditions, decline of population following growth, and all other changes yet observed to occur in changing human populations. It enables probable future population to be predicted. By means of lantern illustrations it is shown that the known popula- tion history of the following countries is described by the equation with the utmost accuracy and completeness: Belgium, Denmark, England and Wales, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Norway, Scotland, Servia, Sweden, United States. As a further demonstration of the truth of the mathematical hypo- thesis of population growth set up, it is shown that the equation describes accurately and completely the growth of experimental populations of Drosophila in limited universes. The eugenic bearings of these results are discussed. Dr. E. M. East, Bussey Institution, Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Boston, Mass. "Population in Relation to Agriculture." The population of the world probably has increased more rapidly during the past generation than ever before in spite of the positive checks of war and famine and the much discussed preventive check known as birth control. The reason is the abundance of food made possible by bringing new land into cultivation, by tilling it with extensive, low-yield, machine-made methods, and by distributing the produce rapidly through cheap means of transportation. But new land is fast being exhausted. Asia and Europe are over- populated, taken as a whole. The United States has entered on the era of diminishing returns in agriculture. The western hemisphere exclusive of the United States, Africa, and Australia are the only spots having increasing returns, and for this reason able to export food. Most of this land lies in the tropics where the white man cannot thrive. The re- mainder is comparatively small, and is rapidly filling with people. 54 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Soil fertility is being dissipated rapidly by the white man's methods. If a soil-conserving permanent system of agriculture is not adopted in the temperate regions within a century, the Age of Steel starts down- ward. The agrarian problems and the population problems allied to them, more than all other questions of the present day, need the concen- trated attention of farseeing statesmanship. Dr. D. F. Ramos, University of Havana, Havana, Cuba. "Homiculture in Its Relation to Eugenics in Cuba." Prof. E. Hernandez of Havana and I understand that Homiculture is what our Master, Prof. A. Pinard of Paris, has defined as Puericulture, that is, "the science which has as its object the research and application of knowledge concerning the reproduction, conservation and improve- ment of the human species." We have completed Pinard's work not only by giving a more proper name to that part of the science of breed- ing where man is concerned, but we have furthermore marked its bound- aries and pointed out what its natural divisions must be, by following the different stages of antropogeny. These divisions are: 1. Progonoculture (Eugenics or care of engagement). 2. Matripatriculture (Sexual Hygiene or care of marriage). 3. Matrifeticulture (Child Hygiene-prenatal care-or care of Pregnancy). 4. Matrinaticulture (Child Hygiene-Postnatal care-or care of infancy). 5. Puericulture (School of Hygiene or care of Childhood). 6. Postgenitoculture (Senility Hygiene or care of old age). Parts 2d, 3d, 4th and 5th represent the care that must be given in the different phases of the evolution of man in each generation. Part 1st, or Eugenics, represents the selection that should exist between the in- dividual of each generation, for the betterment of future generations, that is, in which way the individuals must be influenced, bearing in mind the species, and Part 6th represents the care that the individual must take of himself when he has served the purpose of the species. New terms have been introduced with the object in mind of depart- ing from the time-worn words "hygiene" and "hygienic" derived from mythical sources, as it is only from the biological viewpoint and with a biological basis of the consideration of man as an animal that further betterment will be accomplished by the application of rules that could, slightly modified, hold true for any other living anatomical structure. ABSTRACTS 55 The Health Department of Cuba after the pure public health work, that is, the campaign against infective diseases, was accomplished, went into different stages of Homiculture by working in Sexual Hygiene, School Hygiene and Child Hygiene in prenatal and post-natal cases, and now will be the time to go into Eugenics, as Eugenics has a great importance for such a country as Cuba, where, as here, the population increase is greatly influenced by immigration. I think that the connection of Public Health with Eugenics follow- ing the programme of Homiculture is what should be done for the scientific betterment of man, making the coming human species the out- come of a scientific artificial selection and providing the environment in which it is going to live artificially modified by science having to over- come existing conditions that would make extremely hard its struggle for life. Dr. Ladislav Haskovec, President, Eugenics Society of Prague, Prague, Bohemia. " The Eugenic Movement in the Cszechoslovak Republic." In 1896 Bohemia was interested in Eugenics. In 1900 the need for physical examination before marriage was recognized. Such legislation was proposed in 1901; Infants Protective Commission was founded in 1908, in 1914 writings on Eugenics, and in 1915 The Cszek Eugenics Society of Prague by which has been issued educational publications of several sorts. A bill providing for compulsory physical examination drawn up in 1919 is still being considered. Mr. Paul Popenoe, Thermal, Calif. "Eugenics and Islam." (Abstract not yet received.) Dr. Rudolph M. Binder, New York University, New York City. "Health and Eugenics." 1. The five principal factors which have influenced civilization are food, geographic and climatic conditions, social heredity, physical heredity or eugenics, and health. This paper is concerned only with health in relation to eugenics. 2. Eugenics aims at mating of the best. The best may be very poor, e. g., a first-class crab apple is still poor compared to the pippin. 3. Back of eugenics lies health. It forms the basis of all eugenic endeavor. The average health must be improved if eugenics is to attain its aim. 56 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS 4. Proof: (a) From tropics, e. g., malaria and hookworm are of very general occurrence, and the selection of the best has not produced anything that was much good. (b) The ancient Greeks and Romans thrived physically and mentally, until their health was undermined; then they degenerated. (c) The greatest geniuses have enjoyed at least fair health, or were born with good constitutions, e. g., Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Goethe; the great scientists have nearly all enjoyed good health. (d) The geniuses of today are usually in good health. 5. Eugenists must endeavor to pay greater attention to all factors contributing to improve health. This is in entire harmony with the definition of Galton. 6. If health is improved generally three results may be looked for: (a) The field for eugenic marriages will become much larger. (b) The number of talents and geniuses will increase, and may approximate eventually the ratio of Athens. (c) Eugenics will be more readily adopted, because 1 healthy persons prefer healthy mates. Dr. S. Adolphus Knopf, 16 West 95th St., New York City. 11 Eugenics In Its Relation to the Tuberculosis Problem." Although it is generally conceded that tuberculosis is not heredi- tary, that is to say, that direct bacillary transmission is exceedingly rare, the author maintains that through the maternal circulation the blood in the placenta and foetus may be impregnated with the toxins of tuberculosis thus infecting the cells of the future child, and that in this way the foundation for a predisposition to the habitus phthisicus is laid. The many sources of post natal infection added to the predisposition, will eventually cause the child to become tuberculously diseased. While the majority of mankind may have been infected with tuberculosis in in- fancy and the system thus rendered immune to a certain extent for some time, the tuberculous infection becomes tuberculous disease most frequently between the ages of 18 and 35. The causes of the develop- ment of the tuberculous disease may be lowered resistance from other ABSTRACTS 57 diseases or hardship or a new contact infection in adult life. This infection may come from typical tuberculous patients or from a so-called healthy tuberculosis carrier. The latter may be totally unaware that he is spread- ing the germs of the disease. The author warns particularly against this little known source of infection and advises the examination for tuber- culosis of all individuals wishing to enter wedlock or desiring to take up such occupations as nursing, dairy work, or the handling of milk, meat, or other food substances. The author's statistics in tuberculosis show that in large families, particularly among the poorer classes, it is usually the latter born (the 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, etc.) who contracted tuberculosis. The healthiest children are produced as a rule by young couples and the author advocates early marriages, also that only such men and women should be allowed to marry who are found to be physically and mentally sound. At the time of marriage a carefully prepared pamphlet for in- struction in parenthood should be handed to the prospective bride and groom. If either partner is slightly ill or below par and marriage is nevertheless necessary, having children should be deferred. Birth control clinics should be permitted by law and supervised by competent physi- cians of good repute. In judicious and humane birth control Dr. Knopf believes we will find not only an invaluable adjuvant in the solution of the tuberculosis problem but also a solution of many other social prob- lems threatening our civilization. In addition to a wise birth control the author suggests for overcoming predisposing causes to tuberculosis and for general race improvement that there should be more outdoor life, particularly more open air schools and outdoor instruction, more outdoor sports for old and young, compulsory military training for boys and girls, better housing, better sanitation for the workers, more parks and play- grounds, and the utilization of the roofs in cities where sufficient space for playgrounds for children and rest-places for mothers and babes is not available. Dr. Horatio M. Pollock, Statistician, New York State Hospital Commission, Albany, N. Y. "Eugenics As a Factor in the Prevention of Mental Disease." The burden of mental disease is each year becoming heavier. The ratio of patients with mental disease under treatment in institutions per 100,000 of population increased from 118.2 in 1890 to 220.1 in 1920. The economic loss to the nation on account of mental disease now amounts to over $200,000,000 per year. As less than one-fourth of those who develop psychoses are cured no permanent relief can come from treating patients in hospitals. 58 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS The fact of inheritance of the neuropathic constitution may be taken for granted. Evidence has been adduced which indicates that such inheritance occurs in accordance with Mendelian laws but the subject needs further study. Mental disease may occur in a person of any type of intellectual and temperamental makeup. Psychopathic personalities easily give way while stronger personalities yield only to extraordinary mental strain. The whole etiology of a case of mental disease must be studied before the family stock can be safely discredited. More than half of the ascertained cases admitted to the New York State Hospitals have no discoverable hereditary basis. In 1920 it was found that of the ascer- tained cases 61 per cent, were temperamentally normal and87percent, were intellectually normal. Only 7 per cent, were both temperamentally and intellectually abnormal. To lessen the burden imposed on society by the prevalence of mental disease three Unes of action are suggested; environmental stresses may be lessened and natural resistance strengthened, procreation of defective stock may be checked, and procreation of normal stock may be increased. Physical and mental hygiene and prompt treatment of incipient cases are recommended. Little can be hoped from the sterilization of the defective. Segregation is the prevailing method of limiting procreation. Its eugenic value is beyond question but the enormous cost limits its appli- cation. Much is to be hoped from the colony plan. The development of the new institution at Napanoch for defective delinquents has large eugenic significance. Marriage of persons of marked temperamental or intellectual abnormalities should be entirely prohibited. Genealogical and eugenic bureaus should be established in cities and villages. These by emphasizing the importance of family stock and by supplying information to interested persons would promote marriages among persons of good stock. Dr. Sante Naccarati, New York City. "The Morphologic Characteristics of Psychoneurotics and Their Prophy- lactic T'eaching. " (Abstract not received.) 59 ABSTRACTS Dr. Wm. S. Sadler, Professor at the Post-Graduate Medical School of Chicago; Senior Surgeon to Columbus Hospital; Director Chicago Therapeutic Institute, Chicago, Ill. " Endocrines, Defective Germ-Plasm, and Hereditary Defectiveness." The present status of opinion in America regarding the relative frequency of defective germ-plasm and disturbances of the functions of the internal secretory glands as the cause of mental defectiveness, social delinquency, and certain of the insanities. Is demantia praecox an inheritance or an acquirement? The relation of this, our chief form of insanity, to disturbances of the endocrine or ductless gland system of the body. A consideration as to what extent the dullards and backward children of this and the next generation may expect to find relief and help in the administration of hormones or ductless gland substances from the lower animals. Consideration of the fact that mental defectiveness and other heredi- tary abnormalities are so frequently associated with dysfunction of some sort in the endocrine system. The relation of hormones in prenatal life to deformity, and the pos- sible inheritance of acquired characters. A discussion of Professor Guyer's recent work in this connection. Also a consideration of alcohol and syphilis in their possible role as11 racial poisons' ' in relation to apparent inherent defectiveness. Lastly, suggestions for further research work and experimental inquiry as to the role of the hormones of the endocrine system in rela- tion to hereditary defectiveness. Dr. S. J. Holmes, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. " The Selective Elimination of Male Infants under Different Environmental Influences." (Abstract not yet received.) Dr. Bird T. Baldwin, Research Professor in Educational Psychology, and Director of Iowa Child Welfare Research Station, University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. " The Scientific Prediction of the Physical Growth of Children." A study of various individual growth curves for one thousand boys and girls for periods of eight to twelve years each furnishes data which enable one to prophesy how children under good conditions will grow. As functions of physiological age the curves are strikingly similar for 60 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS boys and for girls. High coefficients of correlation obtain between stature, for example, at early and later ages with a mean probable error of prediction of from three to four centimeters. During childhood, after seven years of age, boys as a rule have higher coefficients of variability than girls in standing height, sitting height, weight, breathing capacity, and various strength traits. In stature children attain at seven years of age approximately three fourths of the final stature reached at seventeen (with slight acceleration of girls.) Comparisons with groups of siblings furnish significant data. Dr. Harriette A. Dilla, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. "Control of Parenthood in Relation to Eugenics." Introduction. Fundamental Distinctions preliminary to Discussion. (a) Heredity and mere Transmission. (b) Socially responsible and irresponsible. A. Negative Eugenics and Control of Parenthood. Elimination of racially undesirable traits. (1) Mental defect: Only those higher forms, frequently the most invisible and menacing where there is sufficient intelligence and control to render control of parenthood possible. Social control o the propagation of the irresponsible is recog- nized as tremendously important, through permanent custodial care or sterilization. In other words, Control of Parenthood and last two policies are mutually supple- mental. Authorities for believing higher types responsible. (2) Insanity, and Psychopathic and Neuropathic Conditions Again, only those forms are concerned where volitional powers are not impaired, Discussion of the theories of heredity and of the chances of occurrence as result of impaired germ-plasm from various causes. (3) Epilepsy: Discussion of the factor of heredity. (4) Tuberculosis: A problem not of literal heredity, but of constitu- tional predisposition through transmission. Significance of controlled parenthood in the elimina- tion of tuberculosis. The relation of other pathologic states. ABSTRACTS 61 (5) Venereal Infection: Extent of infection among present and potential parents. New aspects of old figures. (6) Alcoholism: Its difficult definition and relationship to other pathologic states. Sequence of pathologic states. Sig- nificance for controlled parenthood. (7) Physical Defects not previously enumerated, and hereditary or transmissible. Discussion of the views relative to this class. Sum- mary of this division, Negative Eugenics and Control of Parenthood. Policy of the past identifying marriage and parent- hood. Questions as to the success of this plan. (1) In what proportion of cases has it been possible to prevent marriage because parenthood was deemed undesir- able? (2) Where marriage was consummated, did parenthood ensue, and thereby defeat the aim of Eugenics?" (a) If it did not, why? (b) If it did, why? (3) Would the power to control parenthood have rendered these marriages non-injurious racially? (4) Finally, with our knowledge of human nature, how far can racial conscience prevail against racial instinct? Or, to what extent can sex be rendered racially non- injurious? By what methods? Positive Eugenics and the Control of Parenthood. Encouragement of the parenthood of the racially desirable, of The rendering possible marriage of the responsible and thought- ful-minded, who feel it impossible to assume the responsi- bility of rearing a potentially numerous family, but who are willing to enter upon a self-determined parenthood. Results: (a) Enlarging the circle of desirable parenthood, by removing the obstacle to marriage. With this class, is not the choice that between a controlled family or none? If so, which is racially the better? (b) The reduction in the demand factor or prostitution, by making possible normal physical life and family asso- ciations. Conclusion. 62 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Dr. Louts I. Dublin, Statistician, Metropolitan Life Insurance Com- pany, New York City. "The Higher Education of Women and Race Betterment The higher education of women as conducted in American colleges has not proved to be the powerful aid to the movement for race better- ment that its advocates had hoped for. In one respect, at least, it has become a distinctly disgenic influence. Very generally, college women do not marry and, when married, they bear but few children. They have set a very undesirable fashion in this respect which other women follow. These tendencies, it is thought, are, in large measure, the result of the kind of education which women receive. Their comparative isolation during the four critical years of early womanhood, the particular courses of study which glorify the cultural elements of life rather than the practical necessities, and their constant association with unmarried women teachers, often to the exclusion of men, all result in educating the young college girls away from home interests. Other ambitions are created which, in a very real sense, are antagonistic to the development of family and home ties. In women's education, the ideal of marriage is subordinated to that of personal culture. To meet this situation, the writer suggests a number of changes in the organization of institutions for the education of women. He urges the development of more coeducational schools. He recommends the appointment to the faculties of a larger number of men and of married women. He puts most emphasis on a revision of the curriculum and stresses those studies which will more adequately prepare the students for efficient home making and for more practical participation in the larger community life. By way of illustration and as an entering wedge in this process of reorganization, he has outlined a plan for the teaching of the biological sciences. Emphasis is placed on instruction in personal hygiene and on public health work especially as it affects the schools and care of mothers and children. Similar practical applications are suggested for the other lines of college study. The author has in mind throughout the college course the development of such interests on the part of the students as will attract them to the activities of home life as a personal idea and as will develop ability to participate in construc- tive community activities. It is assumed that young college women who have had the advantages of such instruction will not look upon marriage as sinking into mediocrity, but rather as the highest expression of their 63 ABSTRACTS personal development, and will, also, approach the social movements which are today revolutionizing community life with technical capacity and, in any case with sympathy and understanding. R. A. Fisher, M. A., Joint Honorary Secretary, Eugenics Education Society, and Statistician at Rothemsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, England. "The Evolution of the Conscience in Civilized Communities in Special Relation to Sexual Vices." Mental and moral qualities of mankind are inherited to the same extent as are the physical characters. Infanticide and other methods of restricting population increase are discussed. Evidence is advanced that modern civilization through the increase of contraceptive practices will bring about a swing of the pendulum in the other direction, since those to whom contraceptive methods are repugnant will have the most children. Milton Fairchild, Chairman, The Character Education Institution, Washington, D. C. "Pure Science Work in Higher Eugenics as Related to Education." (1) The purposes of education are harmonious with those of eugenics, because the education of the child should include its prepara- tion for parenthood as an adult and should influence its selection of a wife or husband. (2) Other sciences of human beings are grouped with eugenics as the pure science background for decisions in educational practice. (3) Each one of these background sciences should be divided into a "lower" and a "higher" science, and it should be recognized that the simple generalizations of the lower division of any science dealing with some phase of human beings as units of natural life are inadequate as bases for decisions in education. It is folly to give advice to education on the basis of lower science, when the very complicated problems of higher science are unsolved. (4) Quotations from various writers illustrative of the uncertainty and inadequacy of generalizations in higher science. (5) Reliable pure science work in eugenics the basis for generaliza- tions of advice to education. The opinions of enthusiasts about the utility of eugenics are unimportant. The standards of pure science should be enforced against all writers in eugenics, and no insistent appeal to educators should be made until the pure science work in the higher 64 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS eugenics has been done thoroughly and on the scientific level, and has resulted in reliable generalizations. Sir Bernard Mallet, K. C. B., Late Registrar-General for England, London, England. "Registration in Relation to Eugenics." The author, in this paper, brings out forcibly the fact that vital statistics, as thus far compiled and tabulated in most countries by official organizations, national, state, provincial, and municipal, have seldom been collected and organized with any direct reference to the study of the agencies under social control which may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physical or mental. The author points out, however, that much has been done in the past to lay the foundation for a general study, and the British census in 1911 made at least one serious statistical contribution to the problems of human fertility. It is pointed out that there is a growing desire on the part of the most forward looking official gatherers of vital statistics to meet the increasing demand of the public, and particularly of specialists, for more adequate vital statistical data to meet modern requirements for eugenic studies. The author reviews in a clear yet comprehensive manner the vital statistics of the United Kingdom and points out how far they bear, directly or indirectly, on eugenics. In this review he discusses critically and constructively the problem of vital statistics registration as illus- trated in the statistics of the United Kingdom, a subject with which the author is thoroughly familiar. The author also points out what he considers to be the reforms needed in British registration methods in order that the vital statistics may serve most adequately the needs of eugenists. The paper is so brief and concise that a further reduction of it is almost impossible, but it is not going too far to state that all registrars of vital statistics, whether resident in the United Kingdom, the United States, or else- where, would do well to read carefully, and ponder seriously, the defects noted, problems stated, and remedies suggested in this valuable discussion. Dr. A. B. Wolfe, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. "Eugenics and Social Attitudes." Our social inheritance is that of political and economic individualism carried over from the 18th Century. The immediate problems are, (1) to develop all the intellectual capacity we have, (2) to free knowledge ABSTRACTS 65 from censorship of any kind, (3) to acquire in the general population a scientific attitude, (4) to develop mutual tolerance and understanding, (5) to acquire a morality of self-respect, (6) to substitute workmanship for acquisitiveness, and cooperation for conflict. Human attitudes and their modification should be the great interest of all the eugenists except technically trained genetists. Mr. Alleyne Ireland, Catskill, N. Y. " The Nature-Nurture Issue in Its Bearing Upon Government." 1. A Government of the people by the people can reflect, as well in relation to its methods as to its aims, only those qualities which be- long to the individual citizen. 2. Every State is composed of citizens amongst whom mortality and intelligence are very unequally distributed. 3. It is of the highest consequence, therefore, that we should know by what forces the moral and intellectual qualities of the individual citizen are determined. 4. There are two hypotheses; one that in the main we derive our qualities from our progenitors, by gametic transmission; the other that in the main we derive them from influences to which we are subjected after we are born into the world. The former is known as the nature- hypothesis; the latter as the nurture hypothesis. 5. Popular opinion is overwhelmingly nurturist; scientific judg- ment is preponderatingly naturist. 6. It is clear that since Government derives its qualities from the qualities of the voters, no undertaking connected with Government can be more vital to the success of popular rule than to determine conclusively the source from which the voter derives the qualities which he imparts to Government. 7. Until this question is settled we can have no sound basis for an educational policy, or for an immigration policy, or for a humane system of criminal law. 8. Unless we know beyond question whether people are what they are because their forebears were what they were, or are what they are because their contemporaries do to them what they do to them, we can- not know whether or not our educational methods are wasting time and money in the vain effort to cram a two thousand dollar education into a two dollar boy; whether or not our immigration laws are leading, or have already led, to the corruption of American blood; whether or not our criminal laws are filling our jails when they should be filling our hospitals. 66 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS 9. The Second International Congress of Eugenics would render the world a signal service if it appointed a committee to examine ex- haustively, and to report fully on, the nature-nurture issue. Dean W. R. Inge, St. Paul's Cathedral, London, England. " The Interest of the State in Eugenics." (Abstract not received.) Dr. M. P. E. Groszman, Educational Director, National Association For the Study and Education of Exceptional Children, New York City. "Some Limitations of Present Theories." Present theories of eugenics, including hereditary factors and the element of human efficiency, are based to a large extent upon the Weiss- mann theory of germ plasm and the non-transference of acquired char- acters; the Mendelian theory of heredity; and the results of modern methods of clinical research and testing in the psychological laboratory. These theories and practices, however, have their limitations. Weiss- mann's theory is by no means accepted by all investigators, and modern researches seem to disprove his main contentions; at any rate, there is reason for doubt, and the influence of acquired characters is being studied from new angles. The Mendelian theory, which is an adaptation of the general laws of chance, has many loopholes. It is so mechanical in its application that it recalls the materialistic conception of the universe prevalent half a century ago; it fails to take into consideration those elements of personality and character which are spiritual in their essence. It reckons primarily with somatic elements, ignoring the psychic factors as well as the influence of environment and education. Psychological testing has similar Emits; so far it has failed to penetrate into the deeper recesses of the self, and to measure the " imponderabilia " of human conduct. We should be careful not to consider our present theories as final. It is necessary to reserve judgment and to admit that we have not yet found a formula by which we can safely solve the riddle of human personality. Dr. Arthur Wallace Calhoun, White Plains, N. Y. " The Economic Factor in the Problem of Eugenics." In the long run, the character of the whole population of the world has been shaped by the selective influence of the struggle for subsistence, which has always put a premium on appropriate qualities and has 67 ABSTRACTS operated in the direction of the extermination of deficient strains. The special characteristics of regional and class groups have been moulded by the same influence. Economic circumstances also help to determine the range of selection in mating, as affected by the mobility of population, by the standards of social classes, and by the fixation of standards of personal traits required in husband and wife, which traits vary according to the system and methods of livelihood. The establishment of marital type, whether monogamic, polygynous, polyandrous, or relatively promiscuous is likewise affected by economic influences, and the type of marital relationship affects the occurrence of parenthood and the details of crossing. Eugenic results will be different under polyandry (correlated with economic privation) from the results under polygyny (which belongs with an economic condition in which a multiplicity of wives is required either as instruments of production or as vehicles of distinguished consumption of wealth). Monogamy as we know it is closely correlated with the system of private property and inheritance, which thereby exercise a great influence on the determination of parenthood. Economic conditions have much to do with marriage rate, age of marriage, and the occurrence of divorce and remarriage, all of which phenomena are of importance in the determination of the parentage and traits of succeeding generations. The determination of the birth-rate as between regional groups, social classes, and age groups of parents, and the matter of premature mortality (which alters the composition of parenthood) are largely economic incidents, and have great significance for Eugenics. Considerable allowance must, of course, be made for the fact that many of the traits present in the individuals and groups affected by economic selection are outside the field of heredity, but it is pretty clear that control of economic conditions must have a place in the apparatus of eugenics. The present role of eugenics must, indeed, be subordinate to the problem of bringing to pass a workable and adequate economic order that will make intelligent control of racial evolution feasible. C. E. A. Bedwell, Honorary Secretary, Society of Comparative Legis- lation, London, England. "Eugenics in International Affairs." Discusses the value of the international aspect of the present day science of Eugenics and reviews briefly certain points of interest in con- nection with its practical application. 68 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS George Adami, C. B. E., F. R. S., Vice-Chancellor, University of Liver- pool, Liverpool, England. "The True Aristocracy." In general, all eugenists are believers in a biological aristocracy. Modern tendencies have drawn away from looking at the constructive aspect of the science. The efforts to work on the "foundations" are meretorious, but some thought should be given to the building that is to be erected upon the foundations, once they are established. Suggests encouragement of the especially well fitted. Physical tests as a basis for classification were used during the war in England. The United States also has used mental tests with great success. We should give optional physical and mental tests to our young men and women and publish the fist of the best. A series of observations could also determine the degree of correlation between youth, middle age and advanced age performance. Prof. W. McDougall, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. "A National Fund For a New Plan of Remuneration As a Eugenic Measure." The falling birthrate of the better social classes is largely voluntary and due to economic considerations. The only effective means of counteracting this widespread tendency is some measure which will bring automatically to all workers of classes selected in any way for good moral and intellectual qualities an increase of income proportional to their normal earnings, on account of each child born to them. Such a measure is suggested. Dr. H. H. Laughlin, Eugenics Record Office, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. "Nativity of Institutional Inmates in Relation to Social Adequacy." This is a progress report of an investigation now being conducted jointly by the Eugenics Record Office and the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization of the House of Representatives, which has for its purpose the determination of the relative extent of average social in- adequacy in recent immigrant and in older native stocks, and also the determination of the relation between specific handicap or defect and specific nationality among immigrants, and finally the comparison of such latter relations in each particular recent immigrant stock with the older American stocks. ABSTRACTS 69 From the preliminary reports which are being turned in from the 720 state institutions for all types of social handicap, it is evident that, gauged by numbers of commitments to custodial institutions of all kinds, the relative order of social adequacy and inborn stability of persons in America, classified by nativity, is as follows: Most stable, native born, both parents native born. (90.04) Next most stable, foreign born. (95.00) Third most stable, native born, one parent native born, one parent foreign born. (116.21) Least stable, native born, both parents foreign born. (136.61) (The figures refer to the ratios between institutional population and quotas based upon the population at large, in the first 81 institutions to report). The biological significance of this peculiar order is that probably the recent immigrants were better personally than the stock from which they arose. This emphasizes the necessity for selecting immigrants on the basis of family stock, in addition to judging them by purely personal, physical, mental, and temperamental standards. Prof. A. E. Jenks, Director of Anthropology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. "Some Aspects of Amalgamation in America." (Abstract not received.) Dr. Frederick L. Hoffman, Third Vice-President and Statistician, The Prudential Insurance Company of America, Newark, N. J. " The Problem of Negro-White Intermixture and Intermarriage." Discusses at length certain cases of negro-white marriages. Reviews handicaps presented by such unions and concludes that they are universally non-successful. Urges further investigation of such crosses and the racial hybrids so produced. Otto E. Koegel, D. C. L., Associate Counsel, United States Veterans' Bureau, Washington, D. C. "Common Law Marriage and Its Development in the United States." 1. Introduction: subject defined; marriage prior to Council of Trent (1563); ecclesiastical hairsplitting in the eleventh century; Pro- fessor (Later Bishop) Lombard and the canonical distinctions per verba de praesenti and per verba de futuro cum copula; the protests against this distinction by Gratian, the great canon-law lawyer, Vacarius and 70 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Luther; although informal marriages valid at this time, they were in worst possible taste and spiritual censures were placed on those married in that way. 2. Council of Trent; informal marriages no longer recognized; validity of marriage made dependent on its being celebrated in facie ecclesiae and in presence of witnesses; proceedings of Council not recog- nized in England; informal marriages invalid in all European countries since the Council, except Great Britain. 3. English Marriage Act of 1753, after which common law marriage is invalid; reasons which brought it about; the harsh extreme to which the act went and some of its results, Gretna Green marriages, etc.; act not applicable to Scotland, Ireland and Colonies, but Colonies had long previously passed laws directed against common law marriages. 4. Great controversy in England in 19th century, in which it was held in 1843 by House of Lords that common law marriage, so called, was never valid in England; historical inaccuracy of 400 page opinion in Regina vs. Millis; error of Lords due to fact that by early English law informal marriage was invalid for possessory purposes, the widow took no dower, the children of such unions did not inherit, etc. 5. Marriage in American colonies; colonial laws show informal marriages never favored here. 6. Early American decisions against common law marriage; these decisions and colonial history not referred to in half page decision in 1810 establishing rule in this country; development of Massachusetts doctrine. 7. Chancellor Kent and his dictum in 1810, and the development of the doctrine in the United States; doctrine could have and should have been rejected as many principles of English law were rejected be- cause unsuited to our institutions and government; doctrine gradually developed by reason of decisions blindly following precedents, themselves poorly considered, without investigation; Supreme Court of United States not excepted although as late as 1843 that court was evenly divided on the question and could give no decision. 8. Present state of the law on the subject; recent action of Legis- lature of Missouri, following decision of United States court upholding common law marriage in all its "purity"; recent decision of Supreme Court of Delaware that common law marriage is contrary to American colonial policy and repugnant to our institutions. 9. Conclusion; personal observations from hundreds of actual cases; recommendation that common law marriage be abolished, BUT, making an exception in the case of a ceremonial marriage that is invalid ABSTRACTS 71 because of an existing impediment where cohabitation continues after removal of the impediment. Dr. H. H. Laughlin, Eugenics Record Office, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. "Eugenical Sterilization in the United States." Among the 15 states which have enacted eugenical sterilization statutes, the law is still on the statute books, unattacked by the courts and therefore still available for use, in ten states. Among these ten states, the law is functioning in a very satisfactory manner in California, Nebraska, and Oregon. In Connecticut, North Dakota and Wisconsin, the law is being applied without challenge, but to a very limited extent. In Oregon and Nebraska special executive machinery of proven com- petency is intrusted with the enforcement of the law. In Kansas and Iowa, it has fallen into disuse. In South Dakota and Washington, the statute is practically a dead letter. In New York the law was declared unconstitutional by the courts in 1918, and repealed in 1920. In New Jersey, Nevada, Michigan, and Indiana, the laws were declared uncon- stitutional by the courts but are still on the statute books, dead letters. In the matter of legal authorization and control of eugenical sterili- zation, it may be safely concluded that the experimental period is rapidly passing. It is now known what attitude the courts generally will take toward specific elements in laws authorizing sterilization. Also the practical eugenical standard for sterilization is fairly well established. In any particular case this standard can be scientifically determined in a satisfactory manner by medical diagnosis and eugenical field-work. It remains, in each case, for the courts to determine the facts thus pre- sented, and to order the application of the law. The nature of administrative machinery which will work and which will fail is, from the experiments already made, fairly well known, so that if the principle of eugenical sterilization has public support, practically any state legislature can, if it chooses, enact a well-functioning law. From the beginning of legal eugenical sterilization in the United States in 1907 until January 1, 1921, a total of 3,233 cacogenic persons have been made sexually sterile under the several statutes. Dr. Stewart Paton, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. "Medical Training and Centre Essential for the Students of Eugenics." 1. Man has a sentimental but not very intelligent interest in pro- moting his own welfare. 72 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS 2. Discussions of such great questions as methods of establishing international peace or race improvement entrusted to amateurs. 3. As man is not yet trained to study man, the present Congress is unfortunately a Congress of amateurs. 4. If we are intelligently interested in the question of race improve- ment, one of the first steps should be to establish a center for training investigators. 5. Reasons for establishing this center in connection with the medical school. Man must be studied analytically. The functions of different organs investigated. He must also be studied synthetically as a living machine, adjusting his life to meet the conditions imposed by his environment. 6. Judgment of investigators who have studied only the physical or only the mental organization cannot be trusted. 7. Those competent of making man the true study of man should be familiar with the technique of studying both the physical and mental organization. 8. Our impatience to secure results has made us forget the import- ance of acquiring good methods of investigation. Dr. A. F. Tredgold, F. R. S., Edinburgh, Scotland. 11 Educability and Inheritance." In Educability, or the capacity possessed by the child for mental development, inheritance plays a large part. Increase and decrease in this capacity in any community are factors of the greatest social import- ance. Although environment has an influence, the chief factor which determines the extent and the nature of the child's mental development is his inborn potentiality for such development. The full development needs, however, an optimum environment. Minor variations in ability are probably merely manifestations of a universal tendency to vary within normal limits. Marked diminution in educability occurs in two forms, (1) that of inferior races due to non-evolution owing to lack of intellectual stimulus and, (2) pathological impairment of the germ cells. The stimulus of education repeated generation after generation may gradually increase educability. Defective educability due to germinal impairment is probably unimprovable. Education should be adapted to the capacity of the individual. ABSTRACTS 73 Miss D. B. Johnson, Fort Smith, Ark. "Life Stories of a Class of 27 High-School Graduates In Relation to Longevity and Social Progress." In 1894, twenty girls and seven boys graduated from the Ft. Smith High School. Twenty-five of these were born in the South, 51% being Arkansas. Three of their parents were born in Scotland, one in Ireland, 43 in Southern states and eight in Northern. As 73% of their grand- parents were born in the United States, this group in practically pure American stock. . All were born in and have stayed in the Middle Class. All had about the same happy, comfortable homes in childhood and youth. 65% of the class went to college, university, summer normals, only two attending commercial schools, one became an art student, and in recent years one attended a special school for social service work. Twenty-seven years ago, as always before, it was an unwritten social law of the south that women must not work outside the home. However, sixteen of these girls became wage earners-one being a stenographer, one a newspaper reporter, and the others teachers, blazing the trails for other girls who have since entered the wage earning class in this city. Seventeen of the class have lived all of their lives within a radius of five hundred miles of Ft. Smith. All are well and strong; one member reporting that she has had only two weeks illness in eighteen years. There are seven unmarried women, two unmarried men; five childless marriages; six marriages of one child each; two of two each; two of three each and three of five each. Only five of these children have died and of the twenty-six living only two have had serious ill- nesses. Seventeen of the class have expressed their strong belief in birth control; one, a Roman Catholic, is against it. Of the seven who expressed no opinions on the subject, one is a regular old maid of the South, one is a bachelor and the others have been married from thirteen to twenty-four years and are childless. Is it presuming to assume that the lives of these are expressions of opinions strongly in favor of birth control? These people have created or acquired by marriage wealth to the amount of $2,750,000. As none of them came from families with money, even as wealth was rated thirty years ago, this is a splendid record. All are winning success in their chosen vocations and as they are now from forty-three to forty-nine years old, it is not only probable but possible that some of them may yet become really great and powerful. 74 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS Dr. V. Giuffrida-Ruggeri, University of Naples, Naples, Italy. " The Height-Weight Index of Build Amongst the Italian Adolescents of 50 Years Ago." Reviews development of theories of the Height-Weight Index of Build. Discusses occurrences and duration of period of "microbary" (slenderness) in males and females-both rich and poor, and the relation of this period to those of medium and robust build. Wednesday, September 28. Members are invited as guests of Mrs. C. C. Rumsey, to luncheon at the Piping Rock Club, Long Island; after luncheon they will visit the Eugenics Record Office and Station for Experimental Evolution of the Department of Genetics, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Afternoon tea will be served on the grounds of the Institution by the Long Island Reception Committee. Transportation will be provided free of charge. Members will indicate at registration whether or not they desire to take this excursion. Mercredi, le 28 septembre. Les Membres sont invites par Madame C. C. Rumsey, a un dejeuner au Piping Rock Club, a Long Island; apres le dejeuner ils visiteront le Bureau des Archives Eugeniques et la Station d' Evolution Experimentale du Departe- ment de Genetique de 1'Institution Carnegie de Washington, a Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Le the sera servi dans 1'apres-midi a la Station par les soins du Comite de Reception de Long Island. Les Membres seront transport's gratuitement. Au moment de signer le Registre de Presence les Membres voudront bien indiquer s'ils desirent prendre part a cette excursion. El mier coles, 28 de septiembre. Los miembros son invitados por la Senora C. C. Rumsey d un almuerzo al Piping Rock Club, Long Island; despues del almuerzo, los miembros irdn ver la Oficina de los Archives Eugenicos y la Estacion de Evolucion Experimental del Departamento Genetico, de la Institucion Carnegie de Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Se ofrecerd un te servido por el Comisidn de Recepci6n de Long Island en el jardin de la Institucion. La transportacidn serd gratuita. Sirvanse los senores miembros indicar, al inscribirse, que quieran 6 que no quieran hacer esta excursion. Mercoledi 28 Settembre. I Membri sono invitati dalla Signora C. C. Rumsey a una colazione nella sua residenza al Piping Rock Club, Long Island. Dopo la colazione i Membri visiteranno 1'Ufficio dei Registri di Eugenica, e la Stazione Sperimentale di Evoluzione del Dipartimento di Genetica dell' Istituto Carnegie di Washington, in Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Un tea sard, servito nel giardino dell' Istituto dal Comitatp di Ricevimento di Long Island. I mezzi di trasporto saranno forniti gratis. I Membri sono pregati di far conoscere se hanno intenzione di prender parte o non a questa escursione. Onsdag, den 28- September. Medlemmer er indviterede som Gjester af Fru C. C. Rumsey til Luncheon ved Piping Rock Club; senere paa Dagen vil man besoge Eugenics Record Office og Stationen for Experimental Evolution of the Department of Genetics, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. The serveres i Instituts-haven hen paa Eftermiddagen af Long Island Reception Komitteen. Transport-omkostninger besorges gratis. Medlemmer bedes tilk- jendegive deres behag naar de indmelder ved Kongress-registratoren.