MANUAL 
OF 
MESS 
MANAGEMENT MANUAL 
of 
MESS MANAGEMENT 
THE MILITARY SERVICE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA Copyright 1941 
By 
The Military Service Publishing Co. 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
[MsMUlEXsS U 
The Military Service Publishing Co. 
100 TELEGRAPH BUILDING 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
The Telegraph Press 
Harrisburg, Pa. 
PRINTED IN THE U. S. A. INTRODUCTION 
The day is past, or should be past, when the mess was the stepchild of the 
military organization. Commanders have come to realize that feeding men is no 
longer merely a matter of keeping their stomachs full—that a properly managed 
mess is one of the greatest aids to health and morale available to the Army. 
Many officers in the Army have given thought to improvements in feeding or- 
ganizations. The efforts of some of those men have resulted in several fine official 
publications touching on the subject; others have written unofficially. This book 
is based on the material found in the following official publications; 
Training Manual 2100-152, The Army Cook 
Training Manual 2100-151, The Army Baker 
Technical Manual 10-205, Mess Management 
Technical Manual 10-210, Inspection of Subsistence Supplies 
Field Manual 8-40, Field Sanitation 
Field Manual 21-10, Military Sanitation and First Aid. 
In addition to the above publications, the pamphlet Notes on Mess Management, 
by the Coast Artillery School, and the experience of the editor in mess management 
have contributed to this book. 
It is, of course, understood that this effort is not an official publication. It is 
merely the result of the efforts of one mess officer who was moved to assemble the 
material herein because many times he felt the need for such a compilation. There 
were times when the publications he needed were not available; other times when 
he did not know the publications existed. 
It will be noted that in several portions of the book, material is apparently 
duplicated. Where this has been done, it is for the convenience of the reader 
who otherwise might find it necessary to read (and find) elusive paragraphs in 
several different chapters to effect the solution to the problem of the moment. 
The book was written not for the organization commander, or for the mess offi- 
cer, or for the mess sergeant, or for the cook, but for every man in the organiza- 
tion whose duties affect the messing of the organization. If each reader finds mate- 
rial in this volume that aids him in operating a better mess, and in providing the 
personnel with better food, properly served and properly safeguarded, the editor’s 
purpose will have been served. TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Chapter 1. Feeding the American Soldier 1 
Page 
Chapter 2. Mess Management. 
Section I. Supervision and Control 7 
II. The Ration 10 
III. Mess Accounting 16 
IV. Nutrition 22 
Chapter 3. Kitchen Management. 
Section I. Garrison Kitchens 25 
II. Field Kitchens 29 
Chapter 4. Cooking. 
Section I. Principles 41 
II. Practice 46 
Chapter 5. Baking. 
Section I, Definitions ; 55 
II. Grains and Flours 57 
III. Other Ingredients 62 
IV. Bread Baking 70 
V. Bread Formulas 77 
VI. Bread Faults; Their Causes and Corrections 86 
VII. Sweet Dough, Cakes, and Pastry Products 90 
VIII. Field Baking Expedients 104 
IX. Infestation, Rope, and Mold 106 
Chapter 6.' Foods 109 
Chapter 7. Meats, Fish, and Poultry. 
Section I. Meat Cutting and Storage 131 
II. Cooking of Meats 144 
III. Fish and Poultry 153 
Chapter 8. Inspection of Subsistence Supplies. 
Section I. General 157 
II. Canned Fruits and Vegetables 157 
III. Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 163 
IV. Dried Fruits and Vegetables 175 
V. Leavening Agents 178 
VI. Cereals and Cereal Products 179 
VII. Beverages 188 
VIII. Pickles, Relishes, Olives, and Sauces 194 
IX. Seasoning Agents 196 
X. Sweet Products 198 
XI. Meat and Meat Products 199 
XII. Dairy Products 226 
XIII. Poultry and Eggs 230 
XIV. Fish 234 
XV. Excerpts from Federal Food, Drug, and Domestic Act .. 235 
Chapter 9. Recipes. 
Section I. Introduction 237 
II. Recipes 238 Chapter 10. Mess Sanitation. 
Section I. Intestinal Diseases 293 
II. Food Handlers 294 
III. Disposal of Kitchen Wastes 295 
IV. Buildings and Storage Facilities 305 
V. Cleansing of Utensils 308 
VI. Outline for Inspection 309 
VII. Fly Control 312 
VIII. Rat Control 319 
IX. Water Sterilization 322 
Page 
Appendix I. War Department Circular No. 28 325 
II. Issuing Table of Provisions Per Man Per Meal 329 
III. Tables and Useful Information 335 
IV. Minimum Standard Ten-Day Menu 341 CHAPTER 1 
FEEDING THE AMERICAN SOLDIER 
1. Emphasis. It is agreed by most people that the American soldier eats better 
than the soldier of any other nation. He should. The money is allotted, the 
food is available, and the equipment is on hand. In the instances where certain 
organizations have reason not to be satisfied with their messes, the fault lies 
within that organization. 
The organization commander who delegates the duty of mess officer to the least 
able of his junior officers has taken the first step toward breaking down the morale 
of his command. The mess officer who, under the press of other assignments, 
relegates the mess to the position of one of his minor functions is guilty of an 
error that may have serious repercussions. The mess sergeant who does not take 
his job seriously is sand in any organization’s gears. Incompetent cooks are 
dangerous. Good feeding requires teamwork, from the captain down to the KP. 
These opening paragraphs may seem superfluous. Most military personnel 
know the importance of the mess. But in that word most we find the reason for 
another plea for emphasis on mess management. There are still officers and 
even enlisted mess personnel who feel their mission is performed if the men are 
fed—merely fed. 
A worried young lieutenant was once mess officer of a CCC company. The mess 
hall was clean—he could see that for himself. The food was good—everybody 
said so, from the captain to the latrine orderly. The menus were balanced—the 
medical officer was sure of that. 
But the men were not satisfied. Something was amiss. It could be felt but not 
identified. One afternoon the mess officer was in the supply room taking inventory 
when mess call blew. He heard one man outside say, “There she goes. Let’s go 
down and stick our noses in the trough.” Another voice answered, unenthusias- 
tically, “O.K., but I swear one of these days I’m going to take a poke at Blank. I 
work for this chow, and it’s coming to me—I don’t like to have it thrown at me 
like a bone to a dog.” 
A few minutes of investigation at the mess hall laid bare the sore spot. No man 
could enjoy a meal coming from the surly Blank. The enjoyment was gone before 
the eating began. 
A small thing, to be sure. But it made a world of difference to the men. Add 
up several of those small things, and you have a case for dose attention to duty 
by every man connected with the mess. 
There are many elements necessary to a good mess. Of course, good food well 
prepared is the basis of the whole. Some of the other considerations are cleanli- 
ness, attractiveness, manner of serving, economy, balance of diet, variety in menu, 
and timing of cooking and serving. 
All these elements, and the other elements that will intrude themselves from 
time to time, require that every member of the mess team devote full attention 
to duty. There can be no settling into routine, no slipshod work anywhere along 
the line, no letdowns at any time. Men are accustomed to eating three meals daily, 
holidays and duty days, and regardless of the enemy or the weather. When the 
men do not get three meals every day, regardless of conditions, somebody has 
slipped. 
2. Imagination. The spark that is missing in too many messes is that of 
imagination. The cooks need imagination to prevent dishes having a deadly same- 
ness. The mess sergeant, the mess officer, and the organization commander need 
imagination to keep the mess in a progressive state. The mess, like most other 
activities, goes backward unless it goes forward. New techniques, new equipment, 
new routines must be sought continually. Every mess can be improved. 
In one organization, difficulties of supply and transport limited the variety. 
The men, with good reason, were beginning to tire of the same old dishes, prepared 
in the same old way. The mess sergeant and the company clerk got together 
and published mimeographed menus. Baked beans became Beans a la Battery B. 
Beef stew appeared on the menu as Came de Cordite. A dessert concocted of 
canned cherries and coconut was named Caviar de $21. 
Interest in meals perked up. The men never knew exactly what they were 
going to get when they saw the menu, and the good feeling occasioned by the 2 
rather crude humor tided the organization over until sufficient transportation was 
received to run regular market trips. The menus were not a substitute for proper 
variety, but they were an effective expedient. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
A cook without imagination is little better than an ordinary laborer. It is the 
extra pinch of spice, the raisins in the salad, and the frosting on the cake that 
makes the difference. Of course too much imagination can be dangerous when 
applied to food, but the proper balance of experience and imagination makes chefs 
of KP’s. 
The mess officer who finds a better way of serving food, or the mess sergeant 
who can figure something new (and good) to do with that same old quarter of 
beef, or the company commander who can find funds for more attractive table 
tops, is worth a squad. 
3. The proper atmosphere. In garrison especially, the proper atmosphere in 
the mess hall is important. As one old soldier phrased it, “The poor private doesn’t 
get much out of life except eating and sleeping. If he doesn’t get a comfortable 
sleeping place and a decent place to eat decent food, there ain’t much left.” 
The enjoyment of the best meal is lost if the surrounding conditions are not good. 
Of course, sanitary conditions are the most important single factor—there is little 
need to go into a discussion of sanitation here. But there are other elements of 
atmosphere. 
Plain board table tops hold food, but there are scores of tabletop materials that 
can make food more enjoyable. When they can be “salvaged” or purchased, don’t 
hesitate. Old-army men may sneer at curtains on mess hall windows, but the 
present generation finds them more pleasant to contemplate than GI windows. 
Orderly conduct, circumspect language, proper dress at meals, and the rudiments 
of table etiquette have their place in affording the proper atmosphere. Even so 
slight an item as paper napkins in attractive holders can add to the enjoyment 
of a meal. Battered mess gear, interruptions for announcements that could well 
be made at other formations, and inferior heating arrangements for the mess hall 
are examples of things that can detract from the proper atmosphere. All mess 
personnel should keep thinking about improvements that will help the men enjoy 
their food. 
4. Kitchen police. The lowly KP is still the butt of much low-grade humor. 
Certain organization commanders violate the spirit of the instructions that KP 
is not a punishment detail. In some organizations the KP’s are the most inept men 
in the unit—shoved into the kitchen to keep them out of the way. 
Kitchen police is an important military duty. The man who can’t make the 
grade on the drill field is hardly the man to be trusted with the health and con- 
tentment of the organization. The man who can be relied on to do a workmanlike 
job in the kitchen and mess hall, on the other hand, deserves treatment and recogni- 
tion for his efforts. His hours should be no longer, his holidays no shorter, and 
his standing in the organization no less than those of general duty men. 
The cooks have a duty—cooking. If their time is taken in prodding the KP’s, the 
cooking does not get the proper attention. In any organization there are bound 
to be untrained men who are interested in the preparation and serving of food. 
Seek these men out, promise them assignments as student cooks when openings 
occur—and keep the promise. Don’t force them to work beside disgruntled male- 
factors or goldbricks. Esprit is just as important in the kitchen as in the trenches. 
5. Organization. Some kitchens will be hives of industry from 2:00 a.m. to 
10:00 p.m.; in other organizations the work will progress at an easy pace from an 
hour or two before breakfast to an hour or so after supper, with morning and 
afternoon hours off for most personnel. Both outfits will feed equally well. The 
answer is organization. 
Where everybody cooperates, the work is easy. If the cook on shift finds it 
possible to do some little thing that will make the work lighter for the next shift, 
he may have his favor repaid. If the mess officer and mess sergeant plan their 
menus with a view to range capacities and the amount of work involved in each 
dish, the work in the kitchen can achieve an even flow that wears nobody out. 
The same rules that suffice for handling men on the drill field or the battlefield 
operate also in the mess hall. Force, reasonableness, consideration, insistence on 
performance of the mission—all have their places. Many organizations are troubled 
with temperamental cooks—men who know they are good and trade on the de- FEEDING THE AMERICAN SOLDIER 
3 
pendence that is placed on them. To the wise mess officer or mess sergeant, no 
cook is that good. If the cook feels that his skill with skillet and cleaver is so 
unusual that it gives him license to drink on duty, be disrespectful to his superiors, 
be disobedient, or to be surly to his subordinates, turning him to straight duty 
often works wonders. Surprisingly enough, the mess won’t suffer nearly as much 
as it was feared. The well-organized kitchen always has somebody else groomed 
to step into every pair of shoes. 
A mess officer once found himself at odds with his best cook. The occasion 
arrived when the cook disobeyed an order. The cook was blistered in fine style 
by the officer and was ordered back to work. 
Several days later it was reported to the mess officer that the company supply 
of lard substitute was exhausted, six days before the regular 10-day shipment 
was due. A discreet investigation proved without question that the cook was 
burning up the shortening, deliberately permitting the valuable substance to go 
up in smoke by not regulating his cooking temperatures. The cook found himself 
carrying a rifle in the third squad; the mess officer found that one of the KP’s 
was a better cook than the prima donna. 
This story has three morals. First: Investigate every occurrence in the mess hall 
that doesn’t fit the pattern; in this case, the sudden increase in consumption of 
shortening. Second: No cook is so good that he cannot be replaced. Third: Always 
have a waiting list of cooks. 
Another item of organization that deserves attention is the matter of having 
meals on time. When mess call blows, the mess hall should be ready to feed the 
men. If the men must wait in line for even a few minutes, part of the enjoyment 
of the meal is lost. If the wait is longer, it means the men must hurry through 
their meal to get ready for the next formation. It is equally undesirable to 
nave meals ready too early. There are few foods that will not deteriorate in 
some respect if they are cooked and ready to eat for periods longer than ten 
minutes before the men get to them; some dishes, fried eggs for example, lose 
their palatability within a minute or two. Mess formation is no time for an- 
nouncements or other company business. The mess sergeant has a right to expect 
that the men will enter the mess hall as quickly as possible after mess call blows. 
6. Table or cafeteria service. Where the equipment and the personnel are 
available, table service is to be preferred to cafeteria service. Aside from the 
fact that it is human nature to want to be waited on, table service has other 
advantages. The men will be able to choose the size of their portions and will 
have some choice as to whether they take “fat or lean.” They will have less 
standing in line. There will be less chance of spilling food. 
Cafeteria service, if properly organized, is the fastest method of feeding large 
groups; it requires fewer mess personnel and less equipment. Table waiters are 
not required, and serving dishes are not needed. Company and similar size messes 
ordinarily can have table service without straining their resources; larger messes 
usually will be limited to cafeteria service. 
7. Mess hall discipline. There is no reason why any organization of the Army 
of the United States cannot have order, quiet, and ordinary politeness in its mess 
hall. A noisy mess hall, peopled with men out of proper uniform, where the 
diners snatch food, curse, go in for horseplay, and generally act like gutter 
rowdies, is a sign of poor organizational discipline. 
Uniform regulations applicable to the mess hall should be posted where the 
men will have no excuse for missing them. The regulations should be strict but 
reasonable. It is not asking too much to have the men at least wash their hands 
and faces and comb their hair before entering the building. Soiled fatigue clothes 
may be permitted if the men are to go right out for drill or work in fatigues after 
the meal; but, if there is to be no duty for a reasonable period after the meal, 
O.D. uniform should be required. It is a simple matter for an officer or “noncom” 
to walk through the mess hall, pick out those who are not properly dressed, and 
order them out of the building. The same man will hardly violate the ruling 
twice. 
There is a point where ordinary table conversation ceases and excess boisterous- 
ness starts. It is a function of leadership to hold things below that point. Curs- 
ing and filthy language have no place where food is served or eaten. There are 
squeamish men in the ranks; it is no sign of weakness that a soldier prefers to do 
without filthy talk at meals. 4 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Some organizations prefer to have a noncommissioned officer at each table, to 
be in charge of discipline there. Other units would rather have their “noncoms” 
eat together at a certain group of tables for the stimulating interchange of ideas 
that often characterizes an officers’ mess. If the second system is used, it is good 
training in leadership to appoint a private as table monitor for a one-week or 
two-week tour, at the end of which period another man is appointed. 
8. Religious taboos. Freedom of religion is one of the bulwarks of our democracy. 
Practically every religious sect gives men in the uniform of their country dis- 
pensations as to food prohibitions. The Catholic soldier may eat meat on Friday; 
the Jewish soldier may eat pork or beef that has not been slaughtered according 
to ritual. Where men of any religious faith find fault with the menu on the 
grounds of their faith, it is a good idea to call in the Chaplain for a three- 
cornered discussion of the problem. 
Many organizations do arrange their Friday menus so that Catholics may get 
satisfactory nourishment without eating meat, and at the same time the rest of 
the men get a more or less normal menu. 
9. Sufficient food. It is basic doctrine, at any Army mess hall, that no man need 
leave the table hungry. The ration provides food enough for the hungriest. 
Naturally, if the main dish is roast beef and certain men do not like roast beef, 
it would be idle to waste any tears on their plight. However, if a dish is served 
that the majority of the men do not like, and therefore eat little of it, a change in 
the menu is indicated. It is the worst kind of selfishness to feed a dish that the 
men do not like just because the mess officer does like the dish or because he 
thinks they should learn to like it. 
On the other hand, it happens occasionally that something is spoiled in the 
cooking, and the men actually cannot eat it. Then is the time to break out the 
corned beef or the tinned salmon—they may not like it, but it is food. If you run 
out of the main dish before the men are satisfied, break out a substitute imme- 
diately. 
One mess officer found that a great morale builder was to give every man in 
his battery the privilege of telling him at the close of the meal that he hadn’t 
had sufficient food. In five months four men availed themselves of the privilege. 
In three of the cases it was proved to the satisfaction of the complainant that the 
vast majority of the men found the main dish plentiful, palatable, and satisfactory. 
The fourth man was given a note to the mess sergeant to give him all he could 
eat. He ate eleven fried eggs and a suitable quantity of toast—proving that he had 
been hungry. Everybody was satisfied except the mess sergeant, who thought 
the whole idea smacked of pampering the men. The system worked because 
complaints were forestalled; the men knew an attempt was being made to treat 
them right. 
10. Variety in menus. The best food will taste flat if it is served over and over 
again. The basic plan of army messes to avoid the old “beef on Monday, stew on 
Tuesday, hash on Wednesday” complaint is the ten-day menu. The advantage 
of this plan is that no day of the week may become identified with any particular 
dish, which is a deadly situation. One ten-day menu is not enough. At the end 
of the thirtieth or fortieth day the men will begin to sense the rhythm of the 
menus. At least three basic ten-day menus should be on hand, and there should 
never be any hesitation about changing them when different foods become avail- 
able. If the mess officer is able to buy sole (which the men have not had for 
a long period) at an advantageous price, he should not hesitate to substitute it 
for the haddock that has been on the menu every tenth day for several months. 
11. Ration savings. Some mess officers and most mess sergeants are prone to 
build up unduly large mess funds. Corps area and army headquarters will often 
try to discourage this practice by placing limits on the value of the mess funds; 
all amounts over the regulated value are turned back to the Treasury or held in 
trust for the organization. 
The ration money that is issued an organization is for the use of the men in 
that organization. It is not contemplated that meals shall be skimpy so that a 
fund may be built for the future glory of the organization. The men who are 
being deprived of the food that money can buy may die, be transferred, or be 
discharged before the time comes to spend the money. It is only fair that the 
man have the benefit of the ration allowance that comes to the company as a 
result of his assignment to that company. It is well to have some ready cash and a fair amount of stock on hand. Ready 
cash is necessary at times to take advantage of favorable markets, for special 
dinners, and to tide the organization over periods when for any of several reasons 
it,is particularly hard to feed within the allowance. But don’t overdo it. It is 
hardly fair for an organization commander to build a large fund to protect him- 
self in the event that poor management may put the fund in the hole. 
It is possible to make savings that can be put back into the mess by using 
judgment in purchasing. For instance, the markets of the past ten years show 
almost a continual see-saw between the price of pork and beef. By feeding more 
beef when pork is high, and feeding more pork when beef is high, the men get 
their normal allowance of meat, but savings are made which may be spent for 
luxury items. This system cannot be used when the field ration is issued. 
12. Baked goods. The chapter on Baking in this manual is more complete 
than any company or similar organization will ever find use for. However, the 
wisely-run mess feeds large quantities and wide varieties of baked goods, and 
there are times when Quartermaster and commercial bakeries are not available. 
Situations have occurred where there was no Quartermaster bakery sufficiently 
close to a unit to supply fresh baked goods, and nearby commercial bakeries 
were either prohibitively high in their rates or low in their quality, or both. 
The organization that has a competent baker will find that men can be fed 
quantities of inexpensive rolls, cookies, and pastries at a cost far less than that 
of the articles they displace from the menu, and that the men will be pleased 
with the idea of fresh baked goods in quantities that obviate the necessity of 
limiting portions. Aside from the fact that baked goods lend variety and are 
filling and healthful, they take the place of more expensive desserts. 
Bread baking within the organization, though not desirable where other ar- 
rangements can be made, is often a necessity. At least one member of the mess 
organization should know how to bake bread. 
The recipes in this manual are good and are easily followed. In one organiza- 
tion, a soldier approached the mess officer and made the offer that he would take 
over the kitchen in the evening, when the cooks went off shift, and bake pas- 
tries for the unit on his own time. If his work was satisfactory after two weeks, 
he was to be given permanent assignment as company baker. The offer was 
taken; the man made the grade. It was found out, several weeks later, that the 
man had never baked in his life; that his recipes and instructions came from 
TM 2100-151, most of which is published in Chapter 5 of this manual. 
13. Mess records. It is important to keep accurate mess records, for the reasons 
listed in Chapter 2. To keep accurate mess records, it is necessary to make 
entries as the transactions occur—twenty-four hours’ delay in making entries, 
the human mind being what it is, may result in wrong entries or missed ones. 
Cooks, mess sergeant, and mess officer must all do their part in keeping records 
up to date. 
14. Conclusion. Operating a good Army mess is little different from any other 
Army activity. Close supervision, good organization, initiative, imagination, and 
plenty of hard work to learn the fine points will insure success. Mess manage- 
ment is not a spare-time job, nor is it a routine job. The organization com- 
mander, mess officer, mess sergeant, or cook who is too easily satisfied with what 
the men are getting and how they are getting it, is taking chances with the health 
and morale of the troops—a dangerous policy. 
FEEDING THE AMERICAN SOLDIER 
5 CHAPTER 2 
MESS MANAGEMENT 
Section I 
SUPERVISION AND CONTROL 
1. Mess management, a. Definition. Mess management is the supervision and 
control exercised over every phase of the operation of an Army mess. This super- 
vision is a function of command; all commanders of armies, corps, divisions, 
brigades, regiments, battalions, and companies exercise some supervision over 
messing. Direct control is exercised by the mess officer who is assisted by the 
mess sergeant, cooks, and other mess personnel. The mess officer of an organiza- 
tion may be the commander or an officer designated by him. 
6. Functions. Good mess management requires advance planning and timely 
preparation. This is important. A frequent cause of poor messes is failure to 
plan. Each company, troop, and battery usually conducts its own mess with the 
personnel assigned to the organization. Under some conditions it may be ad- 
vantageous to combine two or more units in one general mess. It may be done 
when the strength of organizations becomes low, in order to effect economy and 
efficiency in management and operation. The fundamental principles of mess 
management are the same for all arms and services, but the equipment may vary 
somewhat because of the different kinds of service certain organizations may be 
called upon to perform. It is not necessary for a mess officer to be an expert in 
cooking and nutrition to manage a mess efficiently. But, he must apply funda- 
mental principles and check the operations daily to see that the food is well 
prepared and served without waste; that left-over foods are used and not thrown 
away; that mess attendants are free from disease; and that cleanliness and sani- 
tation are observed in all respects. 
2. Duties of personnel, a. Organization commander: (1) The organization com- 
mander is responsible for the maintenance of a satisfactory mess. He will lay 
down definite principles of mess management for the guidance of the mess officer. 
(2) The organization commander is responsible that his instructions are 
properly carried out. This necessitates constant inspection. Lack of attention 
to these duties usually results in a poor mess. 
b. Mess officer. The mess officer is in immediate charge of the mess. It is his 
duty to familiarize himself with every phase of mess operation and personally 
supervise: 
(1) Preparation of all menus. 
(2) Procurement of supplies. 
(3) Preparing and serving of food at all meals, 
(4) Police of all areas used by the mess. 
(5) Cleanliness of all personnel and all equipment. 
(6) 10-day inventories. 
(7) Inspection of quality and quantity of supplies. 
(8) All mess accounting. 
(9) Conduct of mess personnel at all times and the conduct of all men at meals. 
c. Mess sergeant. The mess sergeant should be a good cook. He personally 
supervises: 
(1) The preparation of all meals. 
(2) The work of the mess personnel. 
(3) The issuance and accounting for all food supplies used. He should not 
leave the mess to procure supplies, inspect the service of food in the field, or take 
inventories. These are duties of the mess officer and should not be delegated. 
d. Cooks and kitchen police. (1) The duty of cooks is to prepare the food. 
(2) Cooks and kitchen police keep the kitchen, mess hall, and utensils clean. 
3. Kitchen planning and supervision, a. Cooks should change shifts at noon. This 
enables each shift to have a break in its hours of duty. 
b. The organization of cooks into shifts depends upon the size of the mess and 
the availability of cooks. Several suggested arrangements follow: 
(1) Three cooks available. (a) Two shifts of one cook, using the third cook for pastry only. 
(h) Each cook performing one day in charge and one day assisting out of 
each three days. 
(2) Four cooks. 
(a) Two shifts of two cooks each. 
(b) As in (1) (h) above with one cook used for pastry only. 
(3) Five cooks. (This is most satisfactory.) 
(a) Two shifts of two cooks, one cook for meats, and one for vegetables. 
The fifth cook is a pastry cook. 
(4) Six cooks. Same as above with two pastry cooks. 
c. In planning menus, the mess officer should take into consideration the avail- 
able oven space and cover space to permit maximum use of range during normal 
hours and to avoid cooking at night. Pastry should, if possible, be prepared on 
the day it is to be used. The need for good pastry at every meal cannot be over- 
stressed. It has a close bearing on the reputation of the mess and on providing a 
satisfying mess within the value of the ration. 
d. Every effort should be made to feed only three meals a day and to have these 
meals served promptly at the specified hour. Two sittings throws an undue 
burden on the cooking force, wastes valuable time of the organization, and tends 
to lower the quality of the cooked foods. 
e. Proper standards of behavior, dress, and cleanliness of men at meal time is 
essential to a good mess. One officer should be present at each meal to see that 
these standards are maintained. 
f. The mess officer should inspect the kitchen about an hour before each meal 
to see that the food is properly prepared, that it will be ready at mealtime, that 
it is properly seasoned and that it is palatable. 
4. Inspection, a. Although the quartermaster inspects all foods when received 
by him, this does not relieve mess personnel from the responsibility of inspection 
when received in the mess. In the absence of the mess sergeant it becomes the 
duty of the cook on shift to receive, inspect, sign for, and properly store all food 
items received, unless other definite arrangement has been made by the organi- 
zation commander. 
b. Mess personnel should see that all food received in the mess is clean, sani- 
tary, wholesome, in full weight and measure, and of the grade required by 
Government specifications. Food which is decomposed or rotten, insect infested 
(wormy), moldy, musty, etc., should not be accepted. While it is not expected 
that mess personnel be experts in determining whether the grade is that required 
by Government specifications, whenever it is suspected that food delivered is 
below the required grade, the matter should be reported to the organization 
commander. Discrepancies in weight, measure, or count should be noted on the 
delivery ticket or invoice before the foods are accepted. A few minutes spent in 
making the proper inspection of foods at the time of delivery will insure receipt 
of clean, sound, and wholesome food and will result in an annual saving of 
many dollars to the mess. 
c. It is especially important to inspect for condition all highly perishable foods 
as meats, fish, poultry, fresh milk, fresh fruits and vegetables, butter, eggs, etc. 
It also is important to inspect canned foods to see that there are no swelled or 
leaky cans and to inspect cereals to see that there are no insects or worms present. 
Examples of foods which should not be accepted are slimy, evil smelling, or 
bruised meats, fish, and poultry; scabby or rotten potatoes; wilted or badly rusted 
lettuce; scaly or spotted apples; bruised peaches; swollen or leaking canned foods; 
and insect-infested or wormy flour or cereals. 
d. Accurate scales should be available in every mess. The Government con- 
tracts for net weights—that is, the weight of the food with weight of the con- 
tainer deducted. A mess should not pay for something it does not receive. The 
weight of wrapping paper, burlap bags, cardboard containers, etc., should be 
deducted when checking weights. 
e. Meat which has spoiled or is starting to spoil has an unmistakable odor 
and usually is slimy on the surface. In carcass beef, spoilage starts first on 
the inner side under the skirt or where portions of the meat touch each other. 
A test to reveal the beginning of spoilage in fresh meat is the knife-blade test. 
Thrust a knife blade through the flesh until the point strikes the hip or shoulder 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT joint. Withdraw the knife and smell the point of the blade immediately. 
Putrefaction usually starts at the joint and causes a foul odor. If the meat is 
spoiled, the incision made by the knife blade will remain open and the blade 
is easily withdrawn. In any case of doubt the decision should be made by a 
qualified inspector, 
f. Spoilage of canned food is generally indicated by swelling cans. The con- 
tents of a can with swelled or bulged ends or sides should never be served. 
Starchy vegetables, as corn, pumpkin, squash, etc., sometimes spoil without 
swelling the can, but on opening the can the spoiled condition is unmistakable, 
as the odor and taste are very disagreeable. 
5. Storage of foods, a. All foods spoil more rapidly in warm temperatures than 
in cold. This especially applies to highly perishable foods, as meats, fish, butter, 
eggs, milk, etc. Spoilage of most foods is hastened by dampness. In general, 
foods keep best when dry and cold. 
b. Refrigeration. (1) The purpose of refrigeration in the mess is to prevent 
spoilage for a short period of time and to chill certain foods to increase their 
palatability. The refrigerator should not be used as a storeroom; it should be 
used only for highly perishable items. Foods which are spoiled cannot be im- 
proved by being placed in a refrigerator. Dampness in the refrigerator is as 
bad for food as dampness anywhere else. 
(2) To be assured that perishable foods, especially highly perishable foods 
as meats, fish, and milk, will keep in good condition over 24 hours, it is necessary 
to store them at temperatures below 50° F. The temperature of the ice-box type 
of refrigerator rarely is as low as 50° F. In hot weather the temperature of foods 
stored in this type of refrigerator may go considerably above 50° F., and this may 
result in spoilage of highly perishable foods in less than 24 hours. 
c. Rules for refrigeration. Store food in the refrigerator so that air can cir- 
culate freely around it. However, food can be kept in better condition by ob- 
serving the following simple rules: 
(1) See that the refrigerator is: 
(a) Tight—that all doors fit tightly. If repairs are needed, report the matter. 
(b) Well drained—keep the drain pipe open. The pipe should be flushed 
thoroughly with hot water at least once each week in order to remove the slime 
which is sure to gather, 
(c) Kept clean and dry by frequent brushing and wiping. The refrigerator 
should be thoroughly scrubbed out at regular intervals, usually once a week. 
(2) Keep foods which readily absorb odors, as butter, fresh milk, etc., in 
covered containers, and keep them as far away as possible from foods which 
give off odors, as raw or smoked fish, young green onions, cheese, etc. 
(3) Maintain good air circulation. Hang meats on the hooks; avoid piling. 
Avoid hanging meats so that the pieces touch each other. Do not pack vege- 
tables too closely. 
(4) Do not place food in the ice compartment, as this causes the ice to melt 
more rapidly and does not make the food keep better. 
(5) Do not leave refrigerator doors open more than absolutely necessary. 
Ice is lost every time a door is open. 
(6) Do not think that because food is kept in the refrigerator it will keep 
indefinitely. 
(7) Use all left-over food as soon as possible. 
d. Mechanical refrigerator. (1) Lower temperatures can be maintained in 
the mechanical refrigerator than in an ice box. Mechanical refrigerators usually 
are dry inside because the moisture is turned to frost and adheres to the freezing 
unit. This frost acts as an insulator and lowers the efficiency of the refrigerator. 
Frost should be removed at frequent intervals by shutting off the power; never 
by the use of hot water or by scraping or chipping. 
(2) The interior of a mechanical refrigerator usually is so dry that leafy 
vegetables and fresh fruits have a tendency to dry and _ wilt. Some mechanical 
refrigerators are equipped with special containers in which these foods are kept 
sufficiently moist to prevent this. In the absence of such special containers, it 
usually is sufficient to keep these foods in closed containers of some kind, or 
wrapped in paper, preferably waxed paper. 
(3) Due to the lower temperatures, many foods such as butter, etc., which 
MESS MANAGEMENT 
9 10 
have a tendency to pick up undesirable odors or to become wilted, can be kept 
in good condition in closed containers in a mechanical refrigerator provided 
air circulation around these containers is adequate. Containers should be ar- 
ranged in staggered formation to permit free circulation of air around them. 
e. Arrangement of food in the refrigerator. (1) The food in the refrigerator 
should be neatly arranged in packages or containers which will not leak or 
easily tip over. Sticky, soiled sirup pitchers, bowls of jam, condiment jars, etc., 
should be cleaned before placing in the refrigerator. The containers should not 
be so full that the contents will spill or run over the sides. In general, flat, 
shallow dishes which take up too much space in proportion to their capacity and 
deep containers with narrow bases, such as tall bottles which tip over easily, 
should not be used. Avoid using several containers for the same kind of food, 
except in the case of individual salads, desserts, etc., which are being chilled 
for service at the next meal. 
(2) Hot foods should not be put in the refrigerator, as this raises the 
temperature, wastes ice, and increases dampness. Containers with hot foods 
should be chilled by a cold-water bath before being placed in the refrigerator. 
f. Storeroom. (1) It is of great importance that the food storeroom be kept 
clean and sanitary, as otherwise it may become the starting point of sickness. 
All the foods on hand should be examined frequently for spoilage. This applies 
especially to canned foods, spoilage of which usually is indicated by swelled 
cans. Neat and orderly arrangement of foods in the storeroom is important 
and should be a matter of pride to the cook. The same kind of foods should 
be stored together so that foods available can be easily and quickly found. 
Open packages of foods should not be kept on the floor in dark corners, as it 
is in such places that they are more liable to become insect infested, or to be 
attacked by mold or rot. 
(2) No spoiled food should be kept in the storeroom or the kitchen. Spoiled 
foods awaiting return to the seller should be set apart from other foods, prefer- 
ably in boxes or closed containers, so they will not contaminate other foods. 
(3) Roasted and ground coffee should always be kept in a tightly closed 
container, as otherwise it loses strength rapidly. 
(4) Dark corners and places under shelves, etc., should be examined fre- 
quently to determine whether there are any roaches, ants, etc., present. One 
of the best ways to keep down insects and vermin is not to leave any dirt or 
scraps of food, crumbs, etc., scattered about the kitchen or storeroom. Vermin 
naturally gather where they can get food. 
(5) Many foods absorb odors, and many other foods such as onions give off 
strong odors. Keep such foods segregated (onions in slatted bins), and do not 
keep any articles such as varnish, kerosene, oily rags, etc., in the storeroom. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Section II 
THE RATION 
6. Rations, a. Definition. A ration is the allowance of food for one person for 
one day provided by the Government for the subsistence of soldiers and other 
authorized personnel. An officer is not entitled to a ration, but in the field one 
may be issued to him for which he makes a proper money value deduction on 
his pay voucher. 
b. Method of issue. A ration may be issued in the form of a money allowance 
which messes are permitted to use for the purchase of any kind of food. The 
garrison ration is issued in the form of a money allowance. The sales officer 
gives each mess a money credit for the money value of the ration. For example, 
if a company mess has a strength of 100 men on August 1 and the value of the 
ration for August is $0.30, the sales officer gives the mess a credit for $30. The 
mess then purchases food from the quartermaster as it desires. If the mess 
purchases less than $30 worth it is entitled to the saving in cash. This is called 
the “ration savings” privilege. The cash savings are placed in the company fund 
and may be spent at any later date for food. For convenience, the amounts are 
settled by the quartermaster once a month. The ration may be issued in kind; 
that is, in the form of actual food, whereupon there would be no cash allowance MESS MANAGEMENT 
11 
or “ration savings” privilege. The field rations are issued in kind. In time of 
war or mobilization the “ration savings” privilege is usually suspended, and 
rations are issued in kind whether troops are in the field, in camp or garrison, 
or traveling. 
c. Kinds. The Army uses several kinds of rations, each intended for special 
conditions of service. They are: 
(1) Garrison ration, 
(2) Field ration, Types A, B, C, and D. 
(3) Travel ration. 
(4) Certain other rations which are limited to special conditions and need 
not be discussed here. 
d. When issued. (1) The garrison ration is issued in time of peace to most 
troops stationed at posts. It is always issued in the form of a money allowance, 
never in kind. 
(2) The field ration is prescribed for use in time of war or national emer- 
gency when the garrison ration is not used. It is issued in kind and no “ration 
savings” are allowed. 
(3) The travel ration is issued in kind, both in time of peace and war, to 
troops who are traveling and are separated from cooking facilities. It is not 
issued to troops who are traveling by marching. Troops traveling by marching 
take cooking equipment with them and are issued the field ration. 
(4) The ration for National Guard troops in camps of instruction in time 
of peace is provided by the Federal Government in cash, which is turned over 
to and administered by National Guard authorities. In time of war or emergency 
mobilization, it receives the same ration as troops of other components of the 
Army; usually the field ration. 
7. Method of supply of rations to troops; accounts, a. In the field. (1) Field 
Service Regulations provide for automatic supply of rations, that is, a constant 
flow of rations from depots to troops with a minimum of administrative work 
on the part of troops. This scheme is designed to relieve the fighting forces of 
all anxiety concerning questions of food supply, and automatically to effect a 
daily delivery. The only action necessary by company commanders to secure 
rations is to submit strength reports to regimental headquarters (unless the com- 
pany is serving alone.) Any unit operating independently is supplied in the 
same way as a division. The strength reports submitted by organizations are 
consolidated by the division adjutant who furnishes copies to the division G-4 
and the division quartermaster. Based upon these figures, the division quarter- 
master sends a daily telegram to the army quartermaster. This information 
may be transmitted by telephone. The army quartermaster then sends a con- 
solidated daily telegram to the regulating officer, giving the needs of the several 
divisions and of corps and army troops. The regulating officer calls on the desig- 
nated depot or depots in the communications zone for shipment of the division’s 
requirements in one of two ways: 
(a) By directing the supplies to be made up into unit sections at the 
depot for through shipments to divisions, or 
(b) By calling for shipment of supplies for the army in bulk. When the 
latter method is employed, ’t is necessary to make up the unit sections for each 
division at the regulating station. In either case the daily shipment for any 
particular division is routed by the regulating officer to the proper railhead or 
other supply point. 
(2) Upon arrival of the daily train at the railhead, the railhead officer de- 
livers the supplies to the division quartermaster, who utilizes transportation and 
personnel of the division quartermaster service to distribute the supplies to or- 
ganizations of the division. Generally, supplies are delivered to bivouacs of the 
unit trains, but they may be secured at the railhead by the unit trains. The 
quartermaster vehicles are loaded at the railhead in groups so as to carry the 
proper amount of supplies for each unit. Administrative orders may designate 
specific points for distribution to units of the division and prescribe the time 
each unit will be served. The responsibility of the division quartermaster ceases 
when the supplies are turned over to unit supply officers. 
(3) In order to issue the rations properly, it is necessary that the railhead 
officer, the division quartermaster, and the regimental supply officer have copies of those regulations which publish the prescribed ration. This is published in 
orders issued either by the War Department or by the commander of the field 
forces. In order that the company commander may check to see whether the 
company is receiving its authorized quantity of rations, it is necessary for him to 
know the composition of the ration. It must be remembered by all company 
commanders that conditions may arise which will make it impossible or imprac- 
ticable to get the full allowance to the company. Such situations are at times 
inevitable circumstances of field service, are easily recognized, and are not just 
grounds for complaint. 
(4) Under normal conditions each infantry division carries two rations dis- 
tributed as follows: 
On kitchen truck and trailer 1 field ration 
On the division quartermaster train 1 field ration, Types B, C, and D 
Total 2 rations 
b. In camp or garrison. (1) When troops are serving at permanent posts or 
permanent or semipermanent camps or mobilization points, or at any locality 
other than in the field, they will be supplied with the garrison ration. The 
procedure in obtaining and using information pertaining to the messing of an 
organization is given below: 
(a) From the data entered each day on the company morning report, the 
mess sergeant is informed of the number of rations for which he can take mone- 
tary credit on his mess reports and records. Then, knowing the money value 
of the ration (which is computed by the sales officer or quartermaster at the 
beginning of each month), he can readily compute the money he can spend for 
any particular day or period. He buys provisions daily or as needed from the 
quartermaster sales store which will go to make up the various items appearing 
on the approved menu, 
(h) At the end of each month the organization commander submits a ration 
return (which is a certificate showing the total number of rations due the organi- 
zation for the period) to the commanding officer for approval. When approved the 
ration returns from all units are sent to the sales officer to be used in making 
up the “Ration and Savings Account.” This record or voucher is used to effect a 
settlement between the sales store and the organization concerned. If any money 
is due the Government, the organization concerned will pay the proper amount 
from its mess funds, and if any credit is due an organization, it will be paid by 
the disbursing officer. 
NOTE: See Appendix I, Circular No. 28, War Department, February 17, 1941. 
8. Field Ration, a. Composition. (1) The components and substitutes of the field 
ration will be prescribed by the War Department or the commander of the field 
forces and will correspond as nearly as practicable with the components of the 
garrison ration. The following table of food equivalents of component articles 
of the garrison ration is used for establishing the field ration, Type B: 
12 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Component articles of garrison ration 
Quanti- 
ties 
Substitutive articles for field ration 
Quanti- 
ties 
Ounce 
Ounce 
10 
10 
Mutton, fresh or frozen- . ._ . . .. 
10 
Veal, fresh or frozen _ __ 
10 
Reindeer meat, fresh or frozen - . ... 
10 
Beef hearts, fresh or frozen .... 
10 
Liver, beef, fresh or frozen . .. 
10 
Beef, corned, canned .... 
8 ■ 
Pork, fresh or frozen .. .. . .. .. ... 
10 
Bacon _ _ .. .. .. 
6 
Pish, fresh or frozen ... . ... 
10 
Pish, canned ... .. 
8 
Hash, corned beef, canned 
10 
Turkey, dressed, undrawn 
16 
Powl, undrawn, fresh or frozen 
16 
Ham. smoked ._ 
9 
Shoulders, picnic, smoked . . .. ... .. .. 
10 
Sausage, fresh or frozen 
8 
Sausage, canned 
8 
9 
. 
Pork, fresh or frozen . ... 
3 
Pish, pickled (mackerel) ... __ ..... 
4 
Ham, smoked .. . ... 
3 
i,,',f. corned, canned 
3 MESS MANAGEMENT 
13 
Component articles of garrison ration 
Quanti- 
ties 
Substitutive articles for field ration 
Quanti- 
ties 
Ounce 
Ounce 
2 
4 
Sausage, canned . . . . . 
3 
Pork, salt 
3 
Turkey, dressed, undrawn ... . .. _. 
6 
Chicken, undrawn, fresh or frozen __ 
2 
Turkey, undrawn, fresh or frozen 
2 
Ducks, undrawn, fresh or frozen - - . 
2 
Geese, undrawn, fresh or frozen . 
2 
Fowl, undrawn, fresh or frozen 
2 
Beef, fresh or frozen - 
2 
Pork, fresh or frozen 
2 
4 
6 
Bacon ... 
2 
Ham, smoked .. 
3 
Sausage, pork, canned . - . 
3 
Sausage, pork, fresh 
3 
Pork, salt 
3 
Pork, pickled 
4 
Turkey, dressed, undrawn 
4 
Each 
Each 
1 
Eggs, storage _ . 
1 
Ounce 
Eggs, whole, dried . 
.5 
Ounce 
Eggs, whole, frozen _ . 
1 
.5 
Beans, baked, canned .. _________ 
1.5 
Cereals, prepared _ 
1 
Peas, dried . 
.5 
Hominy, lye, canned _ 
2 
Hominy grits _ 
.5 
Cereals, uncooked 
.5 
Rice 
.6 
Rice 
.6 
Corn meal __. 
1 
Beans, dry 
.5 
, 
Peas, dried 
.5 
Hominy, lye, canned 
2 
Hominy grits 
.5 
Cereals, prepared „ — 
1 
1.5 
Cereals, uncooked .. 
1.5 
Cereals’ prepared 
1 
Rice 
1 
Corn meal _ . .. 
1 
Hominy grits 
1.5 
3 
Hpinich, canned 
3 
Beans, string, fresh 
6 
Beans, lima, canned _ , 
3 
Dehydrated vegetables . 
.6 
Other canned vegetables . __ ... ... 
3 
Cabbage, canned 
3 
2 
Beets, canned 
3 
Dehydrated vegetables .. .. 
.4 
Carrots, canned 
3 
Potatoes, fresh _ __ 
6 
Onions ... . _ 
2 
Onions, green 
4 
Peas, canned - 
2 
Beans, lima, canned „. _. _ 
2 
Beans, chili, canned ._ 
2 
Peas, fresh . 
6 
Other canned vegetables _ 
2 
Dehydrated vegetables 
.4 
Potatoes, fresh .. ... . ._ 
10 
Dehydrated potatoes 
Potatoes canned 
10 
Potatoes, sweet, canned _„ _._ 
6 
Other canned vegetables .. . ... ... 
10 
Tomatoes, canned 
14 
Tomatoes, canned 
2 
Tomato juice, canned . . 
2 
Sauerkraut, canned 
2 
Tomatoes, fresh 
4 
Fruit juice 
2 
Apples, canned 
1.5 
Apples, fresh 
4 
Apple butter 
2 
- 
Canned fruits 
• 
Dried fruits 
Jam or preserves -- 
Jelly 
Marmalade 
.5 
Fresh fruit — 
2 
Peaches, canned .. 
1.2 
Peaches, evaporated 
Apricots, evaporated 
Peaches, fresh _ 
Other canned fruits 
Pineapple, canned 
1.2 
Fresh fruit 
Prunes, canned .. 
.3 
Prunes, evaporated 
.1 
Other evaporated fruit .. 
Other canned fruit 
Raisins 
Currants 
!i 14 
Component articles of garrison ration 
Quanti- 
ties 
Substitutive articles for field ration 
Quanti- 
ties 
Ounce 
Ounce 
2 
.6 
Chocolate, plain 
1 
Cocoa — 
3 
Tea - - 
1 
Other beverages 
2 
.3 
.5 
Coffee 
1 
Coffee, soluble 
.1 
Tea - - -- -- 
.2 
Other beverages - 
i 
.06 
.i 
Milk, evaporated 
1 
Milk, whole, dry 
.25 
Milk, skimmed, dry - 
.5 
Milk, condensed 
1.5 
Milk, fresh 
a 
Milk, fresh 
8 
Milk, whole, dry - 
i 
Milk, skimmed, dry 
2 
Milk, evaporated 
4 
Tomato juice - -- - - - 
8 
Fruit juice 
5 
.64 
.64 
Lard substitute - - 
.64 
Lard substitute _ 
.64 
Lard - 
.64 
Oil, cooking - - 
.64 
Butter -- —- --- -- - 
2 
Peanut butter - 
3 
Fruit butters _ 
3 
Jams -- 
2 
Jellies - 
2 
Flour, wheat 
12 
Flour, graham or rye __ _ _ 
12 
Bread, fresh 
12 
Bread, hard . . _____ 
8 
Corn meal __ _ 
12 
Crackers 
8 
.0!) 
.08 
Soda, baking 
.09 
.25 
.25 
Tapioca 
.25 
Cornstarch 
.25 
Spaghetti, prepared, canned 
1 
Cheese 
.25 
.25 
Butter 
.2 
Peanut butter 
.25 
Sugar __ . 
5 
.25 
Cinnamon - ... - . 
.011 
.014 
Cloves 
.014 
Mace — _ 
.014 
Nutmeg 
.014 
.02 
.04 
.04 
Paprika 
.04 
.16 
.16 
Salt. ' 
5 
.5 
Jam or preserve 
•4 
Vinegar 
.16 
Pickles (all kinds) 
.16 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(2) In the theater of operations, when these articles cannot be obtained 
otherwise by the troops, the commander of the field forces may authorize the 
issue of any of the following items as a part of the field ration, not to exceed 
the allowances per ration as shown: 
Articles 
Quanti- 
ties 
Substitutive articles 
Quanti- 
ties 
Ounce 
1 
Each 
100 
Box 
.5 
Ounce 
l' 
Each 
20 
Papers, cigarette, to each 2 ounces of 
smoking tobacco allowed. 
Matches, safety, for each issue of smoking 
tobacco or cigarettes. 
b. Handling field rations. (1) Daily use. Whenever troops are in the field, a 
daily issue of rations to be consumed daily is contemplated. This is chiefly be- 
cause the issue of more than one day’s ration would overload organic transporta- 
tion, especially if the troops are on the march. To make this system work well re- 
quires loyal and intelligent cooperation by all concerned. A certain amount of 
“overlap” in the case of a few items is unavoidable. For example, the daily MESS MANAGEMENT 
15 
allowance of macaroni is insufficient to provide a separate dish; therefore, unless 
the macaroni is combined with some other food, it is necessary to save the daily 
issues until sufficient is accumulated. Consumption of spices and flavoring ex- 
tracts, etc., fluctuates. Any carry-over of such articles is so small in bulk and 
weight that it can be accommodated in the transportation of the organization. 
(2) Distribution, (a) The regimental or unit supply officer has a difficult task 
in the daily distribution of the field rations he receives from the quartermaster. 
This is so for a number of unavoidable reasons. Frequently it is impossible to 
issue to a company the exact allowance due without breaking original packages. 
Conditions of weather, available shelter, enemy fire, etc., might make it extremely 
difficult to break packages and issue odd weights of such foods as sugar, coffee, 
flour, spices, etc. Therefore, the best system often is to issue unbroken packages 
and keep a debit and credit record, overages and shortages to be adjusted as 
soon as possible. This probably was the expedient most frequently adopted by 
regimental supply officers during the World War. It is an expedient which 
should be, and probably would be, adopted by railhead officers in making their 
issues. The total allowance for a division or similar unit in the case of several 
articles of the field ration seldom results in an even number of original contain- 
ers. The usual practice is to issue more than the allowance in order to avoid 
breaking containers at the railhead. If a division were entitled to 20 and a 
fraction cans of pepper, the railhead probably would issue 21 cans, make a record 
of the overage, and adjust this overage on succeeding issues. It is impossible 
to prescribe regulations for distribution of rations in the field which will cover 
every possible contingency which may arise. Many regimental or unit supply 
officers become, in effect, regimental mess officers in that they ascertain daily 
the needs of each mess and adjust issues accordingly. One company mess may 
be short sugar and have an ample supply of coffee, while another company mess 
may be short coffee and have ample sugar. Company messes should cooperate 
with the regimental or unit supply officer by saving empty packing cases, cans, 
etc., which will serve as containers to transport rations. 
(b) When troops are serving at posts, camps, or in permanent or semi- 
permanent locations, issue and handling of field rations are accomplished in a 
manner somewhat different than that which prevails in the field. At such loca- 
tions, sufficient field rations for a week or 10 days probably would be issued at 
one time. When this occurs, company commanders must remember that the 
rations issued are the total allowance for that ration period; when they are gone, 
no more will be issued until the expiration of the period; therefore, control must 
be exercised to see that consumption is intelligently spread over the entire period. 
Inexperienced mess personnel are prone to the error of feeding heavily the first 
few days, with the result that the men are on short rations for the remainder of 
the ration period. 
9. Travel ration. The travel ration, being intended for troops traveling without 
cooking facilities, consists of foods which can be eaten without cooking. The 
exception to this is coffee which, together with sugar and milk, is issued when 
it appears probable that the troops can obtain hot water and utensils for making 
the beverage en route. Control is essential to insure equitable distribution of 
travel rations at a proper daily rate. 
a. Composition. 
Article 
Quantity 
Article 
Quantity 
Ounce 
18 
Jam 
Ounce 
1.4 
2 
or 
Coffee, roasted and ground ... . ... 
16 
Sugar 
4 
12 
Milk, evaporated, unsweetened 
1 
4 
Tomatoes, canned 
8 
Note. When liquid-coffee money is provided it is in lieu of the coffee, sugar, and milk components 
of the travel ration. 
b. Supply. The supply of travel rations is not automatic. Troops departing 
on a journey present copies of travel orders to the quartermaster designated to 16 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
supply them, and he issues the necessary number of travel rations. Depending 
upon circumstances, the travel orders may prescribe that liquid-coffee money be 
supplied in lieu of the coffee, sugar, and milk components of the ration. In such 
a case the proper amount of cash is issued by the disbursing officer on presenta- 
tion of travel orders. Travel rations and liquid-coffee money are drawn by the 
commander of the troops traveling, or his accredited representative, who may be 
a subordinate officer. Frequently troops travel without commissioned officers. 
In such cases the senior enlisted man draws the travel rations, and liquid-coffee 
money is paid to each individual concerned. 
MESS ACCOUNTING 
Section III 
10. General. The importance of rigid and accurate mess accounting cannot be 
overstressed. It is essential that the mess accounts be kept by a commissioned offi- 
cer (usually the organization mess officer) and checked at frequent intervals by 
the organization commander. Although many of the actual entries may be made by 
the mess sergeant, the mess officer must perform the computations himself. With 
a rigid system of mess accounting, there is little probability of the mess “going 
into the hole,” or of irregularities by mess personnel. With proper accounting, it 
will be impossible for so much as a single can of food to be diverted from its 
intended use. 
11. Mess records. An organization that keeps the following records conscien- 
tiously will have little difficulty in having accurate and complete mess accounts: 
a. Q.M.C. Form 469, with 5 columns added. 
b. Bill of Fare. 
c. Stock Record Cards. 
d. Monthly itemized summary of mess standing and worth. 
e. Additional records that may be required by regimental, post, corps area, or 
army commanders. 
12. Q. M. C. Form No. 469. Mess accounts for an organization are recorded daily- 
on Q.M.C. Form No. 469. A uniform method of keeping an accurate record of mess 
accounts on this form, augmented by additional columns 17 to 21 inclusive, is 
described below. 
a. Extension columns should be pasted to the printed form so that alinement is 
obtained between the printed form and additional columns 17 to 21. 
b. Under the heading, “Monthly Mess Account of,” should be entered the desig- 
nation of the organization (Co. C, 501st Inf.). Month and year should be entered 
(March 1940). “Ration value” as furnished by the quartermaster in this case is 
$0.45. Allowance from company for month, “None” should be written, unless 
there is an allowance from the company fund. For the day, “None” should be 
written, unless there is an allowance. Stock at the end of the previous month 
will he the actual value of all subsistence on hand on the last day of the month 
as shown by the inventory taken by the mess officer, assisted by the mess sergeant 
($250.00). 
c. Columns 2 to 21 should be computed in the following manner: 
Column 2: Under “Today” is shown the number of rations due for the day as re- 
corded in the morning report. Under “To date” the total number of rations due 
to date is computed as follows; Start with the first day of the month with 200 
rations due as shown on the morning report. Under “Today” enter 200 and under 
“To date” 200. On the second day the morning report shows 195 men; enter 195 
under ‘Today”; add 195 to 200 as shown by the previous day, and place 395 under 
“To date” for the second day of the month. For the third day the morning re- 
port shows 197 men; enter 197 under “Today” and add 197 to 395 as shown for the 
previous day and place 592 under “To date” for the third day. Continue this 
process of computation throughout the month. 
Column 3: “Total value of ration for the day” is the total number under “Today” 
multiplied by the value of the ration. The ration value as furnished by the 
quartermaster, $0.45X200, or $90.00, is the ration value for the day and the entry 
in column 3 for the first day; 195X$0.45, or $87.75, for the second day; 197X$0.45, 
or $88.65, for the third day, and so on. WAR DEPARTMENT 
Q. M. C. Form 469 
Approved Dec. 7,1925 
MONTHLY MESS ACCOUNT OF Company C 501st Infantry MONTH March YEAR 19 40 
Value of Ration, $ Q.-_45Q0 Allowance from Company Fund for Month, $ None , for Day, $ None Value of Stock at End of Previous Month, $ 250.00 
1 
3 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
ii 
13 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
Date 
Number Men 
Rationed 
Total 
Value of 
Ration for 
the Day 
Daily 
Allowance 
from 
Company 
Fund 
Day’s 
Income from 
Boarders 
or Other 
Sources 
Total 
Credit for 
Day 
(3+4+5) 
Total 
Credit to 
Date 
Purchases from 
Commissary 
Purchases from Post 
Exchange 
Purchases from Other 
Sources 
Total 
Purchases 
for Day 
(8+9+10) 
Total 
Purchases 
to Date 
Savings 
from Q. M. 
for Day 
(3-8) 
Deficit 
Due Q. M. 
for Bay 
(8-3) 
Standing 
with Q. M. 
(13 or 14 for 
dsy+15 for 
previous day) 
Standing 
for Mess 
to Date 
(7-12) 
Value of 
Stock in 
Supply 
Room 
Cost of 
Meals for 
Each Day 
Balance 
of Stock 
on Hand 
(17-18) 
Gain or 
LOSS WITH 
Reference 
to Inven- 
tory 
Actual 
Standing 
of Mess 
(20—16) 
Today 
To date 
Today 
To date 
Today 
To date 
Today 
To date 
1 
200 
200 
90 
00 
4 
75 
94 
75 
94 
75 
100 
00 
100 
00 
43 
90 
43 
90 
143 
90 
143 
90 
10 
00 
- 10 
00 
- 49 
15 
393 
90 
90 
00 
303 
90 
+ 53 
90 
+ 4 
75 
2 
195 
395 
87 
75 
4 
50 
92 
25 
187 
00 
100 
00 
35 
00 
78 
90 
35 
00 
178 
90 
87 
75 
+ 77 
75 
+ 8 
10 
338 
90 
93 
50 
245 
40 
- 4 
60 
+ 3 
50 
3 
197 
592 
88 
65 
• 
4 
50 
93 
15 
280 
15 
100 
00 
30 
50 
109 
40 
30 
50 
209 
40 
88 
65 
+166 
40 
+ 70 
75 
275 
90 
97 
00 
178 
90 
- 71 
10 
— 
35 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
350 
00 
450 
00 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
Value of stock on hand at end of present month, . . $ 
Value of stock on hand at end of previous month, . $ 
Increase—Decrease—in value of stock, $ 
Standing of mess on last day of month, $ 
Gain—Loss—in mess for month, $ 
March 51 } iq 40 
I certify that the above is correct. 
John Doe 
Mess Sergeant. 
April 1 , IQ 40 
Audited: 
A. M. Jones, 1st Lt., 501st Inf. 
Officer in charge of Mess. Apples, evaporated, 
Baking powder, 
Bacon, issue, 
Beans, issue, 
Beans, strihgless, 
Beans, lima, dry, 
Beans, lima, 
Beef, fresh, 
Beef, corned, 
Bread, soft, 
Butter, 
Cabbage, 
Chocolate, plain, 
Cinnamon, ground, 
Cloves, ground, 
Cocoa, bn, 
Coffee, roasted or green, 
Corn, 
Corn Flakes, 
Corn meal, 
Currants, 
Eggs, . 
Flavoring extract, L., 
Flavoring, extract. V., 
Flour, issue, 
Hominy, lye, 
Jam, assorted, 
Lard, issue, 
Milk, evaporated, 
Molasses, 
Oats, Rolled, 
Oil, olive, 
Oil, cooking, 
Oleomargarine, 
Onions, fresh, 
Peaches, evaporated, 
Peas. 
Peas, split. 
Pepper, black, 
Pickles, cucumber, 
Pineapple, 
Potatoes, fresh, 
Prunes, 
Rice, 
Rice, Puffed, 
Salt, issue, 
Sauerkraut. 
Sirup, 
Sugar, granulated, 
Sugar, powdered, 
Tea, black or green, 
Tomatoes, 
Vinegar, 
Yeast, compressed, 
ARTICLES 
NOTE.—The officer in charge of the mess will, at the end of each ten-day period, personally make a physical inventory and will 
verify all entries in each column for that period. 
Lbs. 
Cans 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Cans. 
Lbs. 
Cans 
Lbs. 
Cans 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Pkgs. 
Cans. 
Cans. 
Cans. 
~ Lbs. 
Cans. 
Pkgs. 
~ Lbs. 
Pkgs. 
Doz. 
Bots. 
Bots. 
~ Lbs. 
Cans. 
Cans. 
~ Lbs. 
Cans. 
Cans. 
Crts. 
Bots. 
Bots. 
~ Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Cans. 
Lbs. 
Cans. 
Gals. 
Cans.. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Pkgs. 
Lbs. 
Cans. 
Cans. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Lbs. 
Cans. 
Gala. 
Lbs. 
Unit 
Bal. 
Foe’d 
ADDITIONAL ARTICLES NOT LISTED ABOVE WILL BE ENTERED BELOW 
Rec’d 
Total 
Acc’t 
(3+4) 
lOth Day 
Used 
STOCK RECORD 
Bal. on 
Hand 
(5-6) 
Value 
of 7 
Bal. 
Foe'd 
Rec’d 
Total 
Acc’t 
(9+0) 
20th Day 
Used 
Bal. on 
Hand 
(11-12) 
Value 
of 13 
Bal. 
Foe'd 
Rec’d 
Total 
Acc’t 
(15-16) 
Last Day 
Used 
Bax. ok 
Hand 
(17-18) 
Value 
OF 19 MESS MANAGEMENT 
17 
Column 4: Should be left blank unless there is an allowance from the company 
fund. Normally this will occur during the months of November and December 
(Thanksgiving and Christmas). 
Column 5: This column must be filled in daily. Amounts for this column are 
taken from the daily boarders’ list which should be kept in every company. 
Regular boarders usually are charged the ration value and transient boarders 
$0.25 per meal. In this case there are 10 regular boarders and one transient 
boarder for one meal on the first day of the month. 10X$0.45 equals $4.50 plus 
$0.25 or $4.75 to be entered in column 5 for the first day. On the second or third 
day only the regular boarders are present and the entry should be $4.50 each day. 
Column 6: This column is computed by adding the totals of columns 3, 4, and 5. 
$90.00 in column 3 plus zero in column 4 plus $4.75 in column 5 equals $94.75 to 
be entered in column 6 for the first day. For the second day add $87.75 plus zero 
plus $4.50 or $92.25, and for the third day $88.65 plus $4.50 equals $93.15, and so 
on through the month. 
Column 7: “Total credit to date” is obtained as follows: For the first day this 
entry is the same as that in column 6, $94.75. For the second day add the total 
credit of the preceding day as shown in column 7 to $92.25, which is the total credit 
for the second day, and enter the total $187.00 in the column for the second day. 
For the third day add $93.15 to $187.00 and enter the total $280.15 for the third 
day, and so on. 
Column 8: “Purchases from the commissary.” The total amount of the sales 
slips furnished by the sales officer should be posted in column 8 the same day they 
are received. Under “To date” in column 8 should be shown daily the total 
amount of purchases from the commissary to date. In this case on the first day 
of the month sales slips amounting to $100.00 are received from the sales officer. 
$100.00 is entered under both “Today” and “To date.” No more entries are made 
under “Today” until the next subsistence sales slips are received. On the eleventh 
day of the month subsistence sales slips amounting to $350.00 are received. The 
sum $350.00 is entered under “Today” for the eleventh and then added to the 
$100.00 carried “To date” and the total of $450.00 entered under “To date.” 
Column 9: This column is used in the same way as column 8 recording post 
exchange purchases. 
Column 10: “Purchases from other sources” are for all food products purchased 
which cannot be shown in columns 8 and 9, such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and 
other local purchases. This column is computed in exactly the same manner as 
column 8. The first day, $43.90; second day, $35.00; and the third day, $30.50 in 
which miscellaneous exceptional articles were purchased. The entry for the third 
day under “To date” is $109.40. 
Column 11: The amounts for this column are obtained by adding together the 
amounts under “Today” in columns 8, 9, and 10. Totals for the first day are 
$143.90; second day, $35.00; and third day, $30.50. 
Column 12: “Total purchases to date” are obtained by adding the amounts under 
“To date” in columns 8, 9, and 10. The figures to be entered are $143.90, $178.90, 
and $209.40 for the first, second, and third days, respectively. 
Column 13: “Savings from the quartermaster for day” is obtained by substract- 
ing the amount under “Today” in column 8 from those in column 3. On the first 
day the figure under “Today” in column 8 exceeds that in column 3, hence there 
is no entry in this column for the first day. On the second day there is no entry 
under “Today” in column 8; therefore, there is zero to subtract from the figure in 
column 2 and the entry in column 13 is $87.75. The same condition exists for the 
third day and the entry for this day is $88.65. 
Column 14: “Deficit due the quartermaster for day” is obtained by subtracting 
the amount in column 3 from that under “Today” in column 8. This is just the 
reverse of the method shown for column 13. For the first day the figure in 
column 3 is $90.00 and subtracting it from the $100.00 in column 8, leaves a balance 
of $10.00 to be entered in column 14 for the first day. On the second and third 
days there is nothing under “Today” in column 8; therefore, there can be no entry 
in column 14 for these dates. 
Column 15: “Standing with quartermaster” in column 13 or 14 for the day plus 
column 15 for previous day. For the first day there is in column 14 a deficit due 
quartermaster of $10.00. This figure is entered in column 15 as minus $10.00. 18 
For the second day there is in column 13 a saving from the quartermaster of 
$87.75; subtracting the deficit of the previous day there is a balance of $77.75, 
which is entered in column 15 as plus $77.75. For the third day there is a saving 
of $88.65 in column 13, which added to the balance of the previous day in column 
15 shows the standing with the quartermaster to be plus $166.40. This process is 
then continued throughout the month. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Column 16: The word “financial” should be written above the word “Standing” 
in column 16. “Financial standing for mess to date” is obtained by subtracting 
the amount in column 12 from that in column 7. For the first day subtract 
$143.90 from $94.75 which leaves a minus balance of $49.15. This is shown in 
column 16 as minus $49.15. For the second day subtract $178.90 from $187.00, 
which leaves a balance of plus $8.10. Likewise, for the third day enter plus $70.75. 
Column 17: “Value of stock in supply room.” For the first day of the month the 
figure is the same as the value of the stock shown in the upper right corner of the 
original W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 469, that is, the value of the inventory as of the 
last day of the previous month, plus the total purchases for the day (column 11). 
For succeeding days of the month, this column shows for any day the balance of 
stock on hand for the previous day (found in column 19) plus the total purchases 
for the day (column 11), or, in other words, all the stock on hand after dinner 
yesterday plus all the stock acquired during today. In this case, first day: In- 
ventory, $250.00, plus column 11, $143.90, equals $393.90. Second day: $303.90 
(from column 19 of the preceding day) plus $35.00 from column 11 equals $338.90. 
Third day: $245.40 plus $30.50 equals $275.90. 
Column 18: This column shows the “Cost of meals for each day,” obtained from 
the daily menu, commencing with supper the night before. It is of paramount 
importance that the menu for the day is figured closely, taking painstaking ac- 
count of all supplies used in the preparation of the meals each day in order to get 
as close as possible to the actual cost of the meals. In example, first day; cost 
of meals from menus, $90.00; second, $93.50; and third, $97.00. 
Column 19: This column shows the “Balance of stock on hand” and is found by 
deducting the amount of stock withdrawn (consumed) from the accountable 
stock. Column 19 equals column 17 minus column 18. This column is very im- 
portant because it gives the value of the stock on hand at any time and permits 
the immediate checking of an inventory, regardless of when it is taken. When 
an inventory is taken, the actual value will he entered in column 19 and used as 
a basis for determining the entry in column 17 of the next day. The difference 
between the actual inventory and the estimated inventory should be indicated on 
the margin of W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 469. In this case, first day, $393.90 minus 
$90.00 equals $303.90; second, $338.90 minus $93.50 equals $245.40; third, $275.90 
minus $97.00 equals $178.90. 
Column 20: This column shows the gain or loss on any given day with relation 
to the capital stock with which the month was started. Thus it means the relation 
(for the day) of the figure in column 19 to the value of stock shown at inventory 
on the last day of the previous month, as recorded in the upper right corner of 
the original W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 469. Therefore, the figure to he placed in 
column 20 cm, any day is the difference between the value of stock the last day of 
the previous month and the balance of stock shown in column 19. It answers the 
question: Has the mess more or less stock than it started the month with? In 
example, first day, $303.90 minus $250.00 equals plus $53.90; second day, $250.00 
minus $245.40 equals minus $4.60; third day, $250.00 minus $178.90 equals minus 
$71.10. 
Column 21: This column shows the “Actual standing of mess” to date for the 
current month. It shows whether the mess is gaining or losing during the current 
month only. There is no connection between the standing given in this column 
and the status of the mess in the preceding month. By watching this column, the 
organization commander can exercise financial control of his mess. In example, 
first day, $53.90 (column 20) minus $49.15 (column 16) equals plus $4.75; second 
day, $8.10 minus $4.60 equals plus $3.50; third day, minus $71.10 subtracted from 
$70.75 equals minus $0.35. In column 16 for the first day there is shown minus 
$49.15 and in column 20 there is a plus $53.90. Looking at the figures it is seen 
that the plus figure exceeds the minus figure and after subtracting we have a plus 
$4.75 for entry in column 21. (If both figures were minus, they would be added 
together, making the entry in column 21, minus $103.05.) For the second day, there is a plus $8.10 in column 16 and a minus $4.60 in column 20. In this case, 
also, the plus figure exceeds the minus figure by $3.50, and the entry in column 21 
is plus $3.50. For the third day, there is a plus $70.75 in column 16 and a minus 
$71.10 in column 20. In this case, the minus figure exceeds the plus figure, and, 
when subtracted, there is a minus $0.35 for entry in column 21. 
MESS MANAGEMENT 
19 
d. Note that column 15 shows the standing with the quartermaster for sub- 
sistence furnished by him. The amount of the ration savings check or the amount 
due the quartermaster, as the case may be, is computed in the following manner: 
The figure under “To date” in column 8 as shown for the last day of the month 
is subtracted from the total of all entries in column 3, (The figure for the 
total of column 3 also can be obtained by multiplying the number of “Rations 
to date” in column 2 as shown for the last day of the month by the value of the 
ration.) If the total of column 8 exceeds the total ration value for the month, the 
excess must be paid from ration savings in the company fund. 
e. Appropriate entries will be made in all blank spaces, including the signatures 
of mess sergeant and mess officer on the bottom of W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 469 
after the close of the month’s business. 
/. On the reverse side of W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 469 is the subsistence srtock 
record which may be used in lieu of Q.M.C. Form No, 424, Stock Record card. 
It is recommended that Stock Record cards be used if available. (See par. 14.) 
The figures for column 3 are obtained from the inventory of the preceding month 
and will show quantities, not money value. In column 4 will be entered the 
quantity received during the 10-day period. A separate record will be kept of 
perishables and other items which are received several times during a 10-day 
period, and the total amount received during the period will be entered on the 
10th day of the period. Column 5 is for the sum of the quantities shown in columns 
3 and 4. The figure in column 6 should be obtained from the total amount used 
in the menus for the 10-day period, and column 7 “Balance on hand,” is for re- 
cording the inventory taken at the end of the 10-day period. Any serious dis- 
crepancy noted in the amounts used in column 6, as taken from the menus, and 
that noted in the inventory in column 7, indicates a leak and should be investi- 
gated. Column 8 is obtained by multiplying the unit price charged by the quarter- 
master, by the number of items on hand, as shown by the inventory. All other 
items will be inventoried at cost price as shown on original invoice. For the next 
10-day period the amounts shown in column 7 will be carried forward to column 
9 and the same procedure continued as described for the first 10-day period. 
g. Orderly files of invoices and sales slips should be maintained and filed with 
completed W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 469 as soon as each month’s business is ended. 
Invoices and sales slips should be kept in proper order so that any one day’s or 
several day’s entries may be checked without losing time searching for them. 
13. Daily bill of fare. This form lists the ingredients used each day, the recipes 
for each dish, and the cost of the food consumed. The bill of fare should be used 
as a source of daily issue of stock to the cooks. This enforces uniformity in the 
preparation of dishes. The difference between operating a mess on the ration and 
going in the hole is found in the control of the amounts of food issued. By care- 
ful check of the amounts used for each meal, the mess officer can prevent wastage. 
The savings thus made being placed back in the mess can account for the differ- 
ence between a poor mess and an excellent one. 
14. Stock Record Cards. Stock record cards, Q. M. C. Form No. 424, should be 
used instead of the back of Form No. 469. This provides a daily record of re- 
ceipts and issues for each item and permits the making of an accurate spot in- 
ventory at any time. At inventory, the amount found on hand and its value 
are entered in red ink on the Stock Record Card. The total value of the actual 
inventory as determined from the Stock Record Cards should not differ from the 
estimated inventory (column 19 of Form No, 469) by an amount exceeding 2 
per cent. 20 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
BILL OF FARE 
)rganizalion Date 19. . . . 
BEEF 
LARD 
POTATOES [ 
FLOUR 
SUGAR 
BREAD 
INGREDIENTS USED 
TOTAL 
COST 
ARTICLES 
SUPPER 
BREAKFAST 
Supper, total cost, 
Breakfast, total cost. 
DINNER 
Dinner, total cost. 
Total ingredi- 
ents used 
Prepared by 
Verified by 
(ONE-FOURTH ACTUAL SIZE) 
Total cost for day. STOCK RECORD 
21 
Date 
You No. 
Received 
Issued 
Balance 
9/30 
Inv 
32—$7.04 
10'3 
64 
96 
10/6 
10 
86 
10'S 
50 
36 
10/10 
Inv 
39—$8.97 
10 '14 
8 
31 
10/20 
Inv 
32—$7.36 * 
10'24 
42 
74 
10/26 
52 
22 
10'31 
6 
17 
10'31 
Inv 
17—$3.91 
Description ... 
Maximum Minimum 
Stock No. 
Stock No. .. 22 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
15. Monthly itemized summary of mess standing and worth. 
MONTHLY SUMMARY OF MESS 
STANDING ANt) WORTH 
1. Balance on hand in Ration Savings Fund 
2. Amount due from Boarders 
3. Amount due organization for rations 
4. Total Credits (2 + 3) 
5. Amount due Quartermaster for rations 
6. Bills payable other than Quartermaster 
7. Total Debits (5 + 6) 
8. Balance (4 — 7) 
9. Unobligated balance (1 + 8) 
10. Value of stock inventory on last day of month 
11. Net worth of mess (9 + 10) 
12. Actual standing of mess on last day of month 
(Column 21, Form 469) 
I certify that the above is correct 
(Signature) 
Commanding 
Section IV 
NUTRITION 
16. General. While all officers are not expected to be experts in the subject 
of human nutrition, officers connected with the operation of Army messes should 
be familiar with the simple fundamental rules which, when followed, will in- 
sure the best nutritional results under all conditions of service. 
17. Definition. Nutrition may be defined as the use of food in the body for the 
following purposes: 
(1) To furnish energy. 
(2) To build and repair the body. 
(3) To keep the body in a state of health. 
18. Functions of food. The foods which furnish energy, build and repair the 
body, and keep it in a state of health are shown in the following chart: 
BALANCED DIET CHART 
Food function Class of foods 
' Sugars 
Sirups 
Foods used 
Carbohydrates 
f Sugars 
Molasses 
Flour 
Breadstuffs 
Furnish energy 
[ Starches ... -{ 
Potatoes and other 
starchy vegetables 
Cereals 
Fats 
Butter, lard, meat fats, oils 
Lean meats 
Cereals 
f Proteins 
Eggs 
Fish 
Build and repair the body 
Milk and cheese 
Beans, peas 
Leafy vegetables 
Fruits 
Whole grain cereals 
Milk 
[ Minerals MESS MANAGEMENT 
23 
Milk and cheese 
Fresh Fruits and vege- 
tables 
Canned fruits and 
vegetables 
Butter 
Eggs 
Whole grain cereals 
Liver, hearts, kidneys 
Vitamins 
Protect health 
Leafy vegetables 
Fruits 
Whole grain cereals 
Bulk 
19. Balanced diet. The body performs its functions best when the purpose foods 
are consumed in definite ratio to each other, the total amount of each varying 
according to the type of work being performed. A man at heavy physical work 
needs more food than a man doing sedentary work but, although he eats more 
total food, the different purpose foods should remain in correct ratio and the 
increased consumption of food should be proportioned to the kind of labor ac- 
tually performed. When all foods required by the body are provided in correct 
proportion, the diet is said to be balanced. On the other hand, if too much energy 
food is included in the diet and too little building and repairing food, the diet is 
not balanced. In the same way the diet is not balanced if it contains sufficient 
energy and building and repairing food but not enough health-protecting food. 
A balanced diet may be defined as one that supplies all the food required by 
the body for all purposes without lack or excess of any one kind. Computation 
of exact quantities of each kind of food required for a certain type of work is 
beyond the scope of this manual. This problem has been solved for troops in 
time of war or mobilization, so far as it is possible to solve it, through adoption 
of the Army field ration, which provides a balanced diet when properly issued, 
handled, and used. 
20. Balanced menu. It is evident that to make a balanced menu it is necessary to: 
(1) Include each class of food; that is carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, fats, 
minerals, and bulk. However, it is not always possible to do this in every meal 
or in each day’s menu, but any lack of balance should be corrected as soon as 
possible. 
(2) Provide sufficient food. 
21. Simple rules for balanced diet. a. If the following simple rules are observed 
in the preparation of menus, the meals served during a day or during a period 
of several days will be fairly well balanced: 
(1) Include foods from each class. 
(2) Have variety; different meats, different vegetables, salads, desserts, etc. 
(3) See that the vitamin and bulk foods, especially vegetables, fruits, and 
milk, are served daily if possible. 
b, In deciding whether a menu provides sufficient food, the first point to con- 
sider is the nature of the duties performed by the troops being fed. A soldier in 
combat or at drill or fatigue expends more energy and requires more food than 
a soldier performing clerical duties at a desk. There is little danger of not 
enough food being included in the menu of an Army mess under normal condi- 
tions. Under some conditions, such as combat, there may be danger of insufficient 
health-protecting foods being served. Frequently this danger is not due to 
lack of health-protecting foods in the ration but rather to improper methods of 
handling and cooking which may partially or completely destroy the health- 
protecting elements naturally present in some foods. 
22. Vitamins. The health-protecting elements about which experts have the 
greatest concern in connection with rationing of armies in combat are the vita- 
mins. Ordinarily such troops will receive sufficient vitamins A and B but may 
get insufficient vitamin C (the “antiscurvy” vitamin). This is because vitamin C 
is readily destroyed by ordinary cooking, while vitamins A and B are not. Vita- 
min C is furnished chiefly by fruits and vegetables, tomatoes in particular being 
an important source. Canned fruits and vegetables are nearly equal to fresh- 
gathered fruits and vegetables in vitamin value; indeed, canned fruits and veg- 
etables often are actually superior in this value to fruits and vegetables which 24 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
have been harvested and stored for some time, thereby losing part of their vita- 
min content before being consumed. The Army field ration provides fresh fruits 
and vegetables when available, and at all times provides liberal allowances of 
canned fruits and vegetables. Therefore, there is little danger of insufficient 
vitamin C, provided the vitamin C content is not destroyed by long cooking. 
Canned fruits and vegetables should be cooked only enough to heat them thor- 
oughly, thus making them more palatable. Boiling heat should not be used. 
This rule should be rigidly observed. 
23. Minerals. The diet of the average American often is deficient in minerals 
and bulk. Fruits and vegetables are the most valuable sources of both minerals 
and bulk. The sirup from canned fruits and the liquid from canned vegetables 
should never be discarded as they are rich in food value, including minerals. 
Excess sirup from canned fruits should be added to pies, puddings, salads, etc., 
and the liquid from canned vegetables may be used in salads, soups, stews, etc. CHAPTER 3 
KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
Section I 
1. Personal cleanliness of cooks, a. It is of great importance that the cook keep 
himself scrupulously clean and in good physical condition at all times. No one 
desires to eat food prepared by a cook who is not clean. A cook who suffers from 
any ailment—a cold, or any other sickness—is a possible source of transmission of 
his ailment to others. If he does not keep himself clean he may transmit disease 
germs to the food. He must wash his hands frequently, and always after visiting 
a latrine. He should shave, bathe, and change underwear at least daily, and 
oftener, if necessary, in warm weather. His outer clothing must be changed as 
soon as it becomes soiled. Fingernails should be kept trimmed short and free 
from dirt. Regulation haircuts are comfortable and sanitary and should be pro- 
cured regularly. Because any illness contracted by a cook or other kitchen per- 
sonnel may be readily transmitted to the entire command, they should immediate- 
ly report any symptoms of illness, infection, or contagious disease for medical 
examination and treatment. The cook must be careful to avoid coughing or sneez- 
ing when this might carry germs into the food. All cuts, scalds, or burns, no 
matter how slight, should be treated immediately to prevent infection. 
b. The white caps provided for cooks are not merely for ornament; they are 
to prevent hair, dandruff, or dust from the cook’s hair falling into the food. White 
caps must be worn at all times when in the kitchen and white caps and coats 
when serving meals. 
2. Cooking—definite plan of work. By having a definite plan of work a cook 
can reduce the number of utensils used in preparation of the food and lessen the 
dishwashing required. A thoughtless cook often leaves a trail of unnecessarily 
soiled utensils behind him, thereby justly incurring the resentment of the kitchen 
police. In order to work rapidly and efficiently, and to spare himself and others 
unnecessary steps, the cook should first thoroughly understand the recipe upon 
which he is working. He should read the menu for the day and make definite 
plans for cooking and serving all the dishes and foods called for. Nothing is 
gained by starting work without a well-laid plan. The use of a little imagination 
and anticipation will avoid much unnecessary confusion and last-minute rushing. 
The cook should think of what he has to do, remember how he did it before, and 
then try to do it a little better than the last time. He should also observe how 
others do the same things and be alert to adopt any time or labor-saving methods 
which he may see others use. Recipes should always be consulted as a guide 
unless one is sure from long experience that this is not necessary. All ingredients 
should be accurately weighed and measured in order that uniformity in quantity, 
volume, and flavor may be assured, and that proper and intelligent corrections or 
adjustments may be made in preparing better dishes or larger or smaller portions 
at another time. 
GARRISON KITCHENS 
3. Cooking—assembling ingredients and utensils. It is important to have a 
place for each utensil and to keep it there, clean and ready for use. Articles to 
be used, including the kitchen utensils and the food being prepared, should be 
assembled within easy reach of the cook’s table or range, in order to save time 
and steps. For example, when preparing cake batter, many steps and much 
inconvenience will be saved if the articles required are placed conveniently at 
hand upon the table on which the work is to be done. Also, the fire in the range 
should be regulated prior to beginning the mixing. After getting one’s hands into 
the batter there is no time to collect articles and regulate the fire, not to mention 
the inconvenience and messy operations resulting therefrom. This principle applies 
to all dishes prepared in the kitchen. 
4. Cooking stoves, ranges, and appliances; directions for use. a. Cooks should 
be thoroughly familiar with their ranges, steam kettles, and other cooking ap- 
pliances; know how to operate them economically; know which parts thereof 
produce the greatest heat and under what conditions these appliances may be most 26 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
efficiently operated. For example, the heat surface of the Army range No. 5 may 
be best used as follows: 
0 0 0 0 
5 4 3 1 
0 0 0 0 
5a 4a 3a 2 
The no. 1 eye gives off the greatest amount of heat; the no. 2 next, nos. 3, 3a, 4 
and 4a next; and nos. 5 and 5a the least. A food to be boiled should be placed 
on the no. 1 eye. Should it be desired to have the food simmer the utensil must 
be removed to eye no. 5 or 5a. Tough meat which requires a long, slow process 
of cooking may be simmered until tender without fear of burning if placed on 
the no. 5 or 5a eye. For a moderate heat the no. 3, 3a, 4, and 4a eyes can be used 
to advantage. Stewing requires a gentle heat applied for a long time. 
b. Steam cookers, where available, provide an exceptionally rapid means of 
cooking fresh vegetables in quantities. These cookers are economical of fuel and 
labor. They produce food of excellent quality, with a natural tasty flavor, and 
with very small loss of the nourishing properties contained therein, and, in 
addition, require little or no attention and do not allow foods to scorch or burn. 
Pressure steam cookers should have an automatic steam cut-off which is con- 
trolled by the opening and shutting of the doors, to avoid accidental scalding of 
personnel. In using electric ranges or electrical appliances of any kind for 
cooking, care must be taken to prevent damaging the heating elements by rough 
handling or spilled foods. Any food spilled on this equipment, particularly on 
the heating elements, should be cleaned up immediately. Mixing machines, 
chopping and slicing machines, grinders, etc., should be well cleaned immediately 
after using. All cutting edges should be kept sharp, and all machinery well oiled 
and free from rust, dirt, and grease. 
5, Care of ranges and cooking utensils, a. Responsibility of the cook. It is part 
of the duty of cooking to give the proper care to ranges, cooking utensils, and 
kitchen equipment. To do the best cooking it is essential that this equipment 
be kept in good condition. Careful observation of the following instructions will 
insure kitchen equipment being in good condition at all times. 
b. Ranges, care of. (1) Army range no. 5. The Army range no. 5 is the type 
installed in many company kitchens in permanent barracks. 
(a) Frequent firing should be made with small amounts of coal instead of 
using large amounts with longer intervals between firings. This will provide an 
even heat and will result in a smaller consumption of fuel. 
(b) Ashes under the firebox should be cleaned out frequently, several times 
a day if necessary. Grate bars will burn out quickly, that is, become warped 
and twisted, if ashes under the firebox are allowed to pile high enough to touch 
the grate bars. 
(c) The oven should be swept out and the top and outer surfaces of the 
range and stovepipe rubbed with greasy cloth daily. A greasy cloth applied 
daily over the entire range keeps it in better condition than stove polish applied 
once a week, 
(d) Not less than once each week the range should be thoroughly cleaned 
out. To do this remove the top and sweep the top of the oven, protecting the 
casing plates. Remove the soot with a scraper through the flue doors. The mantel 
should be wiped often with a damp cloth and, when necessary, washed with soap 
and water. This prevents dishes picking up dirt and grease and thus soiling the 
tables. 
(e) An intensely hot fire should never be maintained. Such a fire is not 
necessary for good cooking; on the contrary, it often causes poor cooking, as 
foods being cooked on top of the range may become scorched and those in the 
oven scorched or overcooked. An intensely hot fire tends to damage hot water 
piping and warp the top sections of the range. 
(2) Ranges, electric, care and operation. The chief point to consider in using 
electric ranges is to avoid damage to the heating elements through rough handling 
and spilling of food on the range or heating elements. Any food spilled should be 
cleaned off immediately. 
(3) Ranges, gas, care and operation. If foods are spilled on the burners of 
gas ranges, the holes will close up, thus cutting off heat. The burners should be 
kept clean. If the gas range does not appear to be heating well, the matter should KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
27 
be reported for the attention of a plumber who may be able to effect improvement 
by adjusting the air supply to the burners. 
c. Utensils, cleaning and care of. (1) General. Tinned utensils, such as boilers, 
dippers, meat forks, ladles, skimmers, measures, basting spoons, etc., should be 
cleaned with soap and water, or scoured, if necessary, with fine scouring soap or 
wood ashes each time after using. They should then be scalded and air-dried 
(sunned if possible) and hung in a dry place. When tinned utensils become 
rusted they are unsanitary and should be reported to the mess sergeant. Towels 
should not be used to dry utensils or dishes if they can be air-dried. Usually the 
heat of scalding is sufficient to dry dishes but is not always sufficient to dry 
metal utensils, especially such utensils as egg beaters. If these utensils are 
placed on a clean stove mantel the heat will dry them. 
(2) Small utensils, care of. It should be remembered that unclean utensils, 
knives, forks, spoons, egg beaters, etc., may impart an unpleasant flavor to any 
dish in which they are used; also, that germs are in the air everywhere, even in 
the cleanest kitchen. Therefore, every utensil should be cleaned immediately 
after use by washing in warm water and then rinsing in scalding water. This 
rinsing in scalding water will kill germs. It is not necessary to clean (wash) 
the utensils in scalding water; frequently this is bad practice, as scalding tends 
to cook the food on the utensils and make it more difficult to remove. Even 
though utensils have been cleaned before being hung up or put away they should 
be rinsed or dipped in scalding water before being used to kill germs or remove 
dust which may be settled on them. Large utensils, as tinned boilers, should be 
wiped before using. 
(3) Black iron bake pans, care of. (a) When received. The black iron roast- 
ing and baking pans supplied to Army messes should be washed when first re- 
ceived in the mess in warm soapy water to which a little washing soda has been 
added. In the case of new and unused pans, this is to remove the protective 
paraffin coating put on by the manufacturer. 
(b) “Burning in” newly received pans. It should be a routine practice to 
“burn in” black iron pans when first received by the mess. After being washed 
and dried, the pans should be thinly and evenly coated with lard or lard substi- 
tute. Lard is better, but lard substitute will do. Then the pans are placed in a 
medium oven (325-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 1 hour. This burns in the 
coating of lard and gives a smooth glazed surface, closing up the tiny pores in 
the metal and preventing rust. This process is often called “bluing” or “rebluing,” 
(c) Periodical rebluing. Daily use in the mess causes the burned-in coat- 
ing on these pans to wear off, this being indicated by shiny, light-colored areas. 
When this occurs the pans should be washed, dried, and reblued by the method 
shown in (b) above. 
(d) Cleaning. Black iron pans must be kept thoroughly clean inside and 
out. If particles of cooked food or dirt are left on the outside, they may be 
transferred to other pans when the pans are nested. Particles of cooked food or 
dirt on the inside of a pan will discolor and impart an unpleasant flavor to any 
food subsequently cooked or baked in such a pan. Black iron pans should only 
be scoured when necessary to remove dirt as scouring tends to remove the bluing. 
Soaking will soften most dirt so that it can be removed by washing in warm soapy 
water. After washing, scald, air-dry (by heat if possible), and hang separately 
(not nested). 
6. Service of meals, a. General. Under the direction of the mess sergeant 
the senior cook on duty is responsible for the service of meals; that is, that foods 
are ready at the proper time and placed on serving dishes in an attractive manner. 
It is of little use to exercise great care in cooking a food if it is to be sent to the 
mess table presenting an unattractive appearance. On the other hand, the plainest 
foods become appealing when served in an attractive manner. Many men will 
eat an attractively served plain food which they would not eat if served in an 
ordinary manner. Therefore, every cook should know how to serve attractively. 
b. Placing foods on dishes. (1) Roast meats, as beef, veal, pork, and lamb, 
should be of uniform thickness and the slices laid evenly and neatly on the 
platter. If gravy is spilled on the edges of the platter it should be wiped away. 
(2) Soft foods, as mush, mashed potatoes, turnips, etc., should be neatly 
rounded off, not merely thrown into the dish. 28 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(3) Foods intended to be served hot, as soups, meats, vegetables, beverages, 
etc., should be actually hot. Nothing is so disappointing as lukewarm soup or 
coffee. Serving dishes should be kept warm, either by being placed on the range 
mantel or by other means. Cold foods should be actually cold, and the cook must 
use foresight to chill them sufficiently in advance of serving to accomplish this. 
Hot or cold foods should not be placed on the tables until just before the men are 
seated; other foods may be placed earlier. 
(4) Pies and cakes should be neatly cut. Pieces of cake should be neatly 
arranged on the serving dish without excess loose crumbs. 
(5) A little cracked ice added to butter, olives, etc., and to fresh raw vege- 
tables as radishes, green onions, lettuce, celery, sliced tomatoes, etc., before they 
are sent to the tables makes these foods much more appetizing. 
(6) Fresh fruits, as apples, oranges, pears grapes, bananas, etc., are much 
more palatable when served chilled, and therefore should be thoroughly chilled 
before serving. It is economical and good mess practice to halve oranges, apples, 
and pears before serving, to prevent their being carried from the mess hall, and 
to encourage the consumption of fresh fruits at the table. A saving can be made 
in this way, as some men will not eat a whole apple or other fruit; also the 
freshly cut fruit seems to have a greater appeal to the men. Large bunches of 
grapes should be cut into smaller bunches. 
c. Garnishing. (1) General. One of the best ways to make food attractive is by 
garnishing. The effect of color contrast is very pleasing. For example, a cabbage 
salad is much more attractive if a few strips of pimento and green pepper are 
spread over the top of the salad. A little paprika sprinkled over mashed 
potatoes or potato salad makes them more appetizing and appealing. 
(2) Following are some methods of garnishing; 
(a) Many materials may be used to garnish roast meats. Sprinkle parsley 
over the meat and arrange a little around the edge of the platter. Add a few 
slices of fresh tomato, or a few french fried potatoes, or small quantities of green 
lima beans, diced celery, small whole boiled onions, green peas, sliced green 
pepper, or cooked carrots and turnips to the serving platter. 
(b) When liver and bacon are served, instead of placing all the bacon in 
a separate dish, lay a few strips over the liver. 
(c) Baked fish, salmon hash, fried oysters, etc., may be garnished with a 
few crescent-shaped slices of lemon and may also be garnished with a little 
parsley and a few pieces of french fried potatoes. 
(d) Soups, stews, and gravies are improved in appearance by sprinkling a 
little chopped parsley over the surface just before serving. 
(e) Macaroni and cheese should be sprinkled with paprika. 
(f) Garnish spinach with sliced hard-boiled eggs. 
(g) Small slices of cheddar cheese with apple pie are much appreciated. 
(h) A small quantity of sliced green peppers greatly improves the flavor 
of stewed tomatoes, especially if cooked with the tomatoes during the last few 
minutes of cooking. 
(i) Many types of pudding can be greatly improved in taste and appearance 
by topping with shredded coconut and canned sour red cherries. Diced pine- 
apple spread over cornstarch or tapioca pudding and then topped with thinly 
spread coconut improves appearance and adds to flavor. 
(3) Following is a list of some of the materials which can be used for gar- 
nishing. The quantity required and the cost are small: 
Asparagus, in whole spears. 
Bacon, fried. 
Beans, lima, green, canned or cooked. 
Beets, canned or cooked, sliced, diced, or cut into fancy shapes. 
Cabbage, shredded. 
Cantaloupe and other melons, cut into small balls. 
Carrots, cooked, whole, halved, sliced, or cut into fancy shapes. 
Cauliflower, small cooked pieces. 
Celery, in stalks, sliced, or diced. 
Celery leaves. 
Cheese, cut or grated, or cream cheese. 
Cherries, red or green. 
Coconut, shredded. KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
29 
Cucumbers, sliced or cut into fancy shapes. 
Eggs, hard-boiled, sliced. 
Endive. 
Fruits of all kinds. 
Lettuce, leaves or pieces. 
Olives. 
Onions, mature, small, boiled whole or pickled. 
Onions, mature, sliced raw. 
Onions, young, green. 
Paprika. 
Parsley. 
Peas, green, canned or cooked. 
Peppers, green, sliced thin. 
Pickles, any kind, whole, halved, sliced, or cut into fancy shapes. 
Pimentoes, cut into strips. 
Potatoes, french fried, or mashed and shaped into small balls, or put on 
serving dishes or individual plates with a pastry bag. 
Radishes, whole, cut, or sliced. 
Spinach, cooked. 
Turnips, cooked, sliced, diced, or in fancy shapes. 
Section II 
FIELD KITCHENS 
7. Field cooking compared with garrison, a. The principles of cooking are the 
same in garrison or in the field. The chief difference is in the equipment used. 
Troops in the field cook with the following equipment: 
(1) The rolling kitchen. 
(2) The field range. 
(3) Pack cooking outfits, for cavalry, pack artillery, and Philippine Scouts. 
b. Fireless cookers, improvised earth or clay ovens, etc., are frequently used 
in the field. A cook can prepare good meals over an open fire and with improvised 
utensils if he applies the principles and rules followed in garrison cooking. 
8. Rolling kitchens, a. There are several types of rolling kitchens. Most of 
them consist essentially of: 
(1) A limber, having a driver’s seat and compartments for fuel and forage; 
thermos (marmite) cans for keeping food warm or completing cooking as fireless 
cookers; detachable boards for use as serving and cutting tables; chests for tools 
and utensils; bread boxes; cans for coffee, sugar, spices, etc. No cooking is done 
on the limber except continuation on the fireless cooker principle. 
(2) A cooker, consisting essentially of a fire box, over which are set several 
cooking vessels and, on some types, one or more ovens. 
b. (1) The limber and the cooker are separate vehicles, each set on a pair of 
wheels. The limber is the forward vehicle. 
(2) Most rolling kitchens are animal-drawn, but may be used as trailers to 
motor or animal-drawn vehicles. Unless equipped with ball-bearing axles, a speed 
of 5 miles per hour should not be exceeded by the rolling, kitchen. 
c. A rolling kitchen of the type described above will cook for 200 to 300 men 
and, when stationary, will do any kind of cooking or baking possible on an ordinary 
kitchen range. Cooking en route is limited by smoothness of road and road-speed 
of the kitchen. 
d. Rolling kitchens can be removed from wheels and set up on the ground for 
use in permanent or semipermanent camps, or on railroad cars or trucks. 
e. Most types of rolling kitchens are equipped to bum either wood, coal, or oil. 
Oil burners are detachable and when oil is not available wood or coal may be used. 
/. The cooking vessels or pots on the cooker set down into the fire box so that 
the bottom half is exposed directly to the heat. On some types of rolling kitchens 
two of the cook pots are of the double-boiler type for cooking rice, beans, oatmeal, 
etc., without scorching. The double boilers may be used to braise the less tender 
cuts of meat. Food may be brought to a boil and then transferred to one of the 
thermos cans on the limber to finish. With a hot fire, most vegetables, except beans, 
can be cooked in 30 minutes. 30 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
g. The ovens on some types of rolling kitchen are of sufficient size to roast meat 
and brown potatoes at the same time for 200 or 300 men. They can be used 
to fry bacon and potatoes, to bake puddings, pastries (pie, cake, etc.), and hot 
breads, such as baking-powder biscuits or hot rolls. Only the regular oven pans 
should be used for this purpose. Hot cakes may be fried in the ovens and also 
on top of the cooker at the same time. 
h. The thermos (marmite) cans on the limber can be used for: 
(1) Fireless cooking, to complete cooking of foods brought to a boil on the 
cooker; 
(2) Keeping food or beverages warm on the march; 
(3) Carrying food to troops; 
(4) Placing on the ground to form a serving line; 
(5) Carrying reserve water supply. 
i. Most types of limbers have bread boxes capable of holding one day’s ration 
of bread for 200 or more men and are equipped with various knives and other 
kitchen utensils, shovel, axe, bucket, etc. 
9. Field ranges, installing and handling, a. When used. Army field ranges are 
used by troops in the field when not equipped with rolling kitchens or other cooking 
equipment. 
b. Classification. There are two types of field ranges—Army field range no. 1 
and Army field range no. 2. 
(1) Description, installation, and operation of field range no. 1. (a) Army 
field range no. 1, complete, weighs approximately 264 pounds with utensils, and 
with the addition of the Alamo attachment is designed to cook for 150 men. It 
consists essentially of two parts—the oven no. 41 and the boiling plate. The boiling 
plate has three sections, no. 42, and the Alamo attachments, nos. 42-A and 42-B. 
Plate 1. Sketch of Army field range no, 1, with Alamo attachments, assembled for use in the field, 
(h) On the march, field range no. 1 is ordinarily set up by leveling the 
ground selected and placing the oven no. 41 and boiling plate no. 42 side by side, 
so that the oven door and the fire-box door will be at the same end. Draw together 
42-A and 42-B and secure bar lock. Insert 42 (boiling plate) into 42-A and rest 
42-B snugly on the angle iron on the rear of the oven. The oven should not be 
banked as this would cause the sheet iron along the sides to warp and finally burn 
through. Sufficient earth, however, should be tamped along the sides and closed 
end to prevent the passage of gasses beneath, but should not extend above the 
straps along the sides and under the oven door. (See Plate 1.) If heavy weights, 
such as large cans of water, are placed on the boiling plate, lay angle irons across KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
31 
the plate so that the weight will come on the walls and not on the center of the 
plate. This will prevent breaking down the center of the plate and warping. 
(c) When used for one day only, a few shovelfuls of earth should be removed 
from the place to be covered by the boiling plate to facilitate firing. The best 
results are obtained by using short wood, keeping the fire well toward the firing 
end of the boiling plate; or, if using long sticks and branches, pushing them under 
the boiling plate as they are consumed. 
(d) If the range is to remain in place for several days, it is best to dig a 
trench, except in sandy soil, about 18 inches wide by 6 inches deep at the front 
and the length of the boiling plate, say 6 feet, sloping upward to about 5 inches 
in depth at the back end. (See Plate 2.) 
FOR ASSEMBLING, SEE PLATE 1 
FOR TRENCHING, SEE PLATE 3 
FRONT VIEW 
SIDE VIEW 
Plate 2. Sketch of range with or without trench. 
When installed, the trench should extend under the boiling plate and about 
1 foot under the Alamo attachment—just enough to facilitate the draft—and about 
6 inches under the oven. When the range is set up on different ground daily, no 
difficulty will be experienced in obtaining the proper temperature in the oven, both 
for top and bottom heat. Whenever it remains for a longer time than 1 day in 
the same spot the ground will become dried out and hot, and it may be necessary 
to raise the bake pans about 2 inches off the floor of the oven. This can be done 
easily by the use of angle irons or other means, thereby causing an air space under 
the bake pans. Never use earth or sand for this purpose as it would cause a hole 
to bum in the bottom plate of the oven. 
't6" Potts® Lines 5mow 
TP.AC& op. 
SOMD UHe& *HO)M T*EsNICH1N6. 
Plate 3. Sketch of trenching for range with attachments. 
(e) If the range is to be used for a considerable length of time in one location 
it should be elevated on a base of bricks or of stones and clay. In this case no 
trenches are dug under the range. The ground is leveled, and a brick floor may 
be laid if sufficient bricks are available. Set up the range, temporarily, on the 
level ground or on the brick floor, and mark the outline of the range. Then 
remove the range and attachments and construct a wall, 3 bricks high and 8 inches 
wide on the outline and on the line between the oven and boiling plate. Assemble 32 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
the range on top of the brick walls. Under the oven place a number of bricks on 
edge, spaced %-inch apart. These hold the heat and improve baking. The spaces 
(fire channel) inside the brick walls under boiling plate no. 42 and gas chamber 
under Alamo attachments nos. 42-A and 42-B, and under oven are about the same 
as if a trench had been dug as in Plate 3. Bank outside of brick walls at sides 
and back of range with clean earth. 
(f) At times it may be necessary to install this range for cooking on a rail- 
road car or on a wooden floor of a house, shed, etc. To install, erect a frame 
12 inches high, 6 feet long, and 4 feet 6 inches wide; fill with sand and set the 
oven and boiling plate on top of the sand, anchoring firmly in place. If clay is 
available, remove all stones, pebbles, etc.; add salt water, and sand. This founda- 
tion will become hard and solid and will prevent the burning of the floor. 
(2) Description, installation, and operation of field range no. 2. (a) The Army 
field range no. 2, complete, weighs about 150 pounds with utensils, and is designed 
to cook for 55 men. This range does not have the Alamo attachments. It consists 
essentially of two parts—the oven no. 61 and boiling plate no. 62. 
(b) Field range no. 2 is set up practically the same as no. 1, the boiling plate 
being placed in position and the projecting collar being slipped into the space cut 
from one end of the oven for that purpose. The fire is maintained in the same 
manner as when using the no. 1 range. 
(c) If the range is to remain in place for several days, it is best to dig a 
trench, except in sandy soil, about 16 inches wide by 6 inches deep, and of sufficient 
length for free fueling, say 5 feet. (See Plate 4.) 
Plate 4. 
When installed, the trench should extend under the boiling plate and about 
3 inches under the oven—just enough to prevent choking of the draft. If the 
flame is allowed to play freely on the bottom of the oven chamber, it will become 
too hot for baking and the bottom of the oven will soon bum out. 
c. Remarks on handling ranges and garbage incineration. (1) Care of ranges, 
(a) A tin will be found inside the baking chamber which may be used if for any 
reason the bottom of the oven is too hot. Should the bottom be too cold for 
efficient baking the tin should be removed. 
(h) Coal should never be used when wood is obtainable. If possible, even 
when coal is used, part of the fuel should be wood, for the use of coal alone will 
quickly destroy the range. 
(c) In permanent camp the space above and on the sides of the oven and 
stovepipe should be cleaned at least once a week. This also applies to the boiling 
plates. 
(2) Assemblage for transportation, (a) When breaking camp and assembling 
range no. 1 for transportation, draw boiling plate no. 42 forward. Unfasten the 
bar lock, pull apart, and remove nos. 42-A and 42-B and proceed as indicated below. 
(b) To pack the utensils and range no. 1 for transportation, place the bake 
pan no. 52 on the ground. Set boiler no. 50 inside of bake pan no. 52 and boiler 
no. 51 inside of boiler no. 50. Place tent guards inside of boiler no, 51 on bottom. 
Telescope the four joints of pipe. Inside of the pipe place 2 forks, 3 knives, 1 steel, 
1 cleaver, and 2 folding lanterns. Place joints of pipe containing utensils inside of 
boiler no. 51. Place meat chopper in boiler no. 51 alongside of joints of pipe. 
Place 2 basting spoons, 1 meat saw, and 1 skimmer in boiler no. 51, on top of pipe. 
Cover with lid no. 51 and then lid no, 50, Place bake pan no. 52 upside down 
over lid no. 50. Care should be taken that bake pan handles are well down to the KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
33 
sides of the pan. Place stovepipe elbow in no. 54. Place dippers alongside of 
elbow. Place covers nos. 54, 53, 49, and 48 on boilers in order named. Place nested 
boilers nos. 48, 49, 53, and 54 in rear end of oven. Place bake pans and nested 
boilers nos. 50 and 51 in front end of oven. Close the oven door and lock with 
damper lock. Place 42-A on left front corner of oven no. 41, and 42-B on right 
front corner, inserting bar in crimp. This bar now rests against the pipe collar 
and prevents sliding. Place boiling plate no. 42 on top of range, eye fitting over 
stovepipe flange and engaging under the flat hook. Make secure by fastening hook 
on front of boiling plate to the lug on back of range. The range is now secure for 
transportation. 
Plate 5. Field range no. 1, set up, front and right side, with boiling plate and Alamo attachments 
(c) To pack utensils and range no. 2 for transportation, place bake pan no. 
52 on the ground. Set boiler no. 50 inside of bake pan no, 52 and boiler no. 51 
inside of no. 50. Place tent guards on bottom of boiler no. 51. Telescope the 4 
joints of stovepipe. Inside of pipe place 2 forks, 2 knives, 1 steel, 2 spoons, 
1 lantern (folding), and 1 skimmer. Place dipper and elbow alongside the pipe. 
Place meat saw in bake pan no. 52 alongside of boilers. Cover boilers with lids 
no. 51 and no. 50. Place bake pan no. 52 upside down over lid no. 50. Place pans 
in range oven. Place the boiling plate at the door end of the oven. Engage the 
flanges on the inner side of boiling plate with the lugs on the door end of the oven. 34 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Fasten the hook on boiling plate (firing end) to lug above the handle on the closed 
end of oven. The range is now secure for transportation. 
10. Fireless cookers, instructions for using, a. A fireless cooker is an airtight 
receptacle in which food which has been partly cooked is placed. The heat which 
has been stored in the food by the partial cooking is retained by the airtight tire- 
less cooker, and this retained heat completes the cooking. It is also used to preserve 
the temperature of food cooked or uncooked. It is generally a boxlike arrangement 
lined with a nonconducting material inside of which is the well or reservoir into 
which the vessel containing the food is placed. 
Plate 6. Field range no. 1, set up, rear and right side, with boiling plate and Alamo attachments 
b. Many different makes and types of fireless cookers are found on the market. 
Various materials, such as asbestos, paper, felt, hay, fiber, etc., are used as non- 
conductors. In some types heated stones are placed in the well under and around 
the food container to keep the food at a cooking temperature or to supply the 
heat if it has not been heated over a fire. 
c. The advantages of fireless cookers are: The food may be served on the march 
or upon arrival in camp; they save fuel; being a slow process, they render such 
foods as less tender meats, tender and palatable; and the food, after being placed 
in the cooker, requires no further attention. 
d. The chief object of a fireless cooker is to retain that heat which has been KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
35 
stored in the food by being previously heated on a cooking range or rolling kitchen. 
This retained heat completes the cooking of the food, provided the temperature 
is at 130° F. or higher. Therefore, it is necessary to heat the food, before placing 
it in the fireless cooker, to a degree of heat which will insure that it will retain 
130° F. or higher in the cooker sufficiently long to complete cooking. By experience 
Plate 7. Parts for field range no. 1. 
1. Rests, pan, no. 57 (4). 7. Pipe, stove, no. 45 (1). 
2. Guard, tent, 6V2 inches (1). 8. Pipe, stove, no. 44 (1). 
3. Attachment, Alamo, no. 42 B (1). 9. Pipe, stove, no. 43 (li, 
4. Attachment, Alamo, no. 42 A (1). 10. Body, field range, no 41 (1). 
5. Elbow, 6-inch, no. 47 (1). 11. Plate, boiling, no. 42 (1). 
6. Pipe, stove, no. 46 (1). 
it has been found that heating the food before placing it in the fireless cooker and 
leaving it undisturbed in that cooker for the times shown by the following table 
will insure that cooking will be completed. As soon as the food has been heated 
on the range according to the table it is transferred to the fireless cooker, which is 
then closed. It should not be opened until the proper time has elapsed as opening 
causes loss of heat. 36 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
1. Skimmer, large (1). 
2. Cleaver, meat, 8-inch (1). 
3. Steel, butcher, 10-inch (1). 
4. Saw, meat, 14V2-inch blade (1). 
5. Dipper, 2-quart, no. 55 (1).. 
6. Dipper, 1-quart, no. 56 (1). 
7. Spoons, basting, large (2). 
8. Forks, meat, two prongs (2). 
9. Knives, butcher, 8-lnch (3). 
Plate 8. Utensils for field range No. 1. 
10. Cutters for meat grinders, assorted sizes (3) 
11. Grinders, meat, small (1). 
12. Boiler and cover no. 54 (1). 
13. Boiler and cover no. 53 (1). 
14. Boiler and cover no. 49 (1). 
15. Boiler and cover no. 48 (1). 
16. Boiler and cover no. 51 (1). 
17. Boiler and cover no. 50 (1). 
18. Pans, bake no. 52 (2). KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
Plate 9. Field range no. 2, set up, front and right side, with boiling plate. MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Plate 10. Field range no. 2, set up, rear and right side, with boiling plate. KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 
39 
1. Guard, tent (1 pair). 
2. Dipper, 2-quart no. 55 (1). 
3. Rests, pan no. 57 (2). 
4. Pans, bake no. 52 (2). 
5. Skimmer, small (1). 
6. Porks, meat, two prongs (2). 
7. Spoons, basting, small (2). 
8. Steel, butcher, 10-inch (1), 
9. Knives, butcher, 8-inch (2J. 
10. Saw, meat, blade (1). 
Plate 11. Parts and utensils for field range no. 2. 
11. Boiler and cover no. 51 (1). 
12. Boiler and cover no. 50 (1J. 
13. Plate, boiling no. 62 (1). 
14. Body, field range no. 61 (1). 
15. Pipe, stove, no 63 (1). 
16. Pipe, stove, no. 64 (1). 
17. Pipe, stove, no. 65 (1). 
18. Pipe, stove, no. 66 (1). 
19. Elbow, no. 67 (1). MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Number ol 
minutes at 
simmering 
point 
before 
putting 
in cooker 
Number of 
hours in 
the 
flreless 
cooker 
Number of 
minutes at 
Simmering 
point 
before 
putting 
in cooker 
Number of 
hours in 
the 
flreless 
cooker 
46 
6 
45 
4 
45 
3 
30 
3 
45 
3 
15 
2 
46 
3 
45 
4 
45 
3 
20 
4 
45 
3 
30 
3 
60 
12 
00 
4 
45 
3 
15 
2 
90 
6 
20 
2 
Beans, string, green 
30 
2 
Sauerkraut, with bacon or 
20 
3 
45 
3 
15 
3 
20 
3 
Cabbage, with fresh pork — 
46 
3 
Tomatoes, stewed 
20 
1 
20 
3 
60 
3 
Chicken, stew 
45 
6 
Note. Meat should not be cooked in pieces weighing more than from 3 to 5 pounds. 
e. Whether or not the cooking water or liquid portion of foods which have been 
heated on the range should be drained off before transfer to the fireless cooker 
depends on the nature of the foods. Potatoes, parsnips, carrots, onions, cabbage, 
and turnips are cooked in large quantities of water. If all of this cooking water 
were transferred with the food to the fireless cooker the result would be a soup; 
therefore, all of the cooking water must be drained from starchy vegetables, as 
potatoes, parsnips, carrots, and turnips, and about half the cooking water should 
be drained from leafy vegetables, as cabbage, and from watery vegetables, as 
onions. On the other hand, all of the cooking liquid of meats should go in the fire- 
less cooker with the meats as the quantity of liquid will be about correct for the 
purpose; that is, in stew all the cooking liquid is needed, and in soit roast of beef it 
also is needed for gravy. 
/. Tomatoes, sauerkraut, applesauce made from fresh tart apples, or any other 
food containing acid should not be permitted to remain in a fireless cooker or other 
tinned receptacle longer than 4 or 5 hours, whether being cooked or after cooking, 
as the acid attacks the tin and some of the tin may be dissolved into the food. 
Coffee to be kept hot in a fireless cooker should be prepared in the usual way 
and the grounds removed. CHAPTER 4 
COOKING 
Section I 
PRINCIPLES 
1. Cooking, general, a. When cooking was first discovered, the primary ob- 
ject was to make food more appetizing than when in the raw state. It is now 
known that proper cooking, in addition to making food more appetizing and easier 
to chew, makes it more digestible, and also destroys any disease germs or parasites 
which may be present in the food. 
b. Skillful cooking is an art, acquired by experience and training. The experi- 
enced and skillful cook does more than apply heat to food—he knows how to blend 
various food substances so that appetizing flavors are developed; how to season 
for the same result; and how to get the most out of the food supplies on hand, 
c. Although it requires experience and training to become an expert cook, any- 
one, after having learned the principles of cooking, can cook a satisfactory and 
appetizing meal by following the recipes given in this manual. These principles 
of cooking are simple but all-important. Two of them which should be carefully 
observed are use of the proper temperatures and proper cooking times for different 
foods. All foods cannot be cooked at the same temperature and for the same length 
of time. Some meats require long cooking at moderate temperatures, while others 
can be cooked at high temperatures for short periods; green vegetables should 
be given a short cooking; pastry is baked for a short time at comparatively high 
temperature, etc. From the foregoing it will be seen how important it is to learn 
the basic principles of cooking before starting to cook. 
d. The term “cooking” is often used to mean the preparation of food for cooking 
as well as the actual cooking. This preparation may be merely peeling, as in the 
case of onions, potatoes, etc., or it may include cutting, slicing, grinding, chopping, 
etc. While preparation changes the form of food, the actual cooking may not only 
change the form but may also change the flavor or chemical composition, thus 
rendering the food more appetizing and digestible. An example of this is the cook- 
ing of potatoes and other starchy foods. Starch, when raw, is difficult to digest; 
when changed by cooking it is easy to digest. 
2. Preparation of foods for cooking. Scrupulous cleanliness is the first con- 
sideration in the preparation of foods. The clothing and person of the cook, the 
utensils, and the food itself should be in as clean condition as possible. Much 
sickness has been traced directly to polluted foods or insanitary conditions in the 
kitchen. The food should be inspected and sorted and all decayed or unfit portions 
eliminated, followed by the necessary cleaning, trimming, cutting, soaking, or other 
operation preliminary to the actual cooking. 
a. Canned foods. (1) Inspection before cooking or serving. Before cooking or 
serving any canned foods, inspect the exterior of the cans for signs of spoilage. 
After opening the cans, note whether there is an unnatural or disagreeable odor, 
or whether the contents seem unnaturally mushy, sloppy, or discolored. Never 
serve the contents of such a can, or of a can which shows signs of spoilage before 
it can be opened, as the food may be poisonous. Hold such cans for inspection 
by a commissioned officer. 
(2) Holding canned foods after opening cans. The popular belief that canned 
foods must be emptied from the can immediately after opening to prevent spoilage 
is erroneous. It is not necessary to empty a can immediately after opening as 
(under the same conditions) food in a tin can will not spoil any more rapidly 
than in any other container. Canned foods are cooked when canned. Cooked 
foods will not spoil as rapidly as fresh foods, but any food will spoil eventually 
if exposed to the air. Unconsumed portions of cooked foods (canned or otherwise) 
which must be held over should be stored in the refrigerator in a clean container 
which can be covered. Like many other foods, canned foods may become moldy 
or sour after opening, in which case they should not be used. 
b. Meats. (1) As the first step in preparation of meat for cooking, it should be 
a regular practice to examine it to determine whether it has become tainted. Meat 
which is even slightly tainted may cause digestive disturbances or even serious 42 
illness. The odor of the meat should be clean and natural; if there is the slightest 
suspicion of unnatural or spoiled odor, the meat should not be used except by 
authority of a commissioned officer. Meat should never be washed, but should 
always be wiped with a damp cloth preparatory to cooking. 
(2) Tender meats need no special preparation for cooking, but less tender cuts 
of beef require special preparation. 
(3) Meats for stew or fricassees are cut into small pieces. 
(4) Poultry is dressed and drawn, if necessary, and cut into pieces if intended 
for stew or fricassee. 
(5) Frozen meats are thawed. 
(6) Meat which has more fat than needed to make it cook well (as in the case 
with some portions of the beef carcass and some cuts of pork) should have this 
fat trimmed away. The fat should be rendered for use in frying. No lean meat 
should be cut off with the fat because lean meat yields practically nothing but 
water when rendered and consequently becomes a loss. It is better to allow 
some excess fat to remain on the meat as this makes the meat more tasty (not so 
dry), and the drippings are caught in the pan and enrich the gravy. 
(7) Further suggestions in the preparation of meats are given in Chapter 7. 
c. Vegetables. (1) Fresh vegetables must be carefully washed and cleaned to 
remove dirt and insects. Vegetables are best when freshly gathered. Soaking in 
cold water keeps them from wilting and restores freshness if they are wilted. 
Soaking also helps to remove worms and lessens the odor of onions, cabbage, and 
cauliflower. The following fresh vegetables should be kept in cold water a short 
time before cooking: beets, carrots, cabbage, cauliflower, onions, parsnips, potatoes, 
spinach, squash, and turnips. 
(2) Dried vegetables, such as beans, should be well cleaned and soaked over 
night in cold water before cooking. This shortens the time required for cooking. 
In hot weather it may become necessary to shorten the time of soaking to prevent 
souring unless they can be kept in an ice box over night. 
(3) Hints for special treatment of certain vegetables before cooking are given 
below: 
(a) Green beans and peas should be strung or shelled and washed immedi- 
ately. If cold water is allowed to stand on them very long, it removes much of 
their nutritious quality, 
(b) Beets. Care should be taken to avoid breaking the skins as this will 
cause much of the coloring matter to escape in cooking. Skin after cooking. 
(c) Cabbage. Remove any wilted outer leaves, cut into halves or quarters 
depending on size of heads, wash thoroughly to remove dirt and insects, and soak 
in salted cold water for about 1 hour before cooking. This soaking insures that 
the cabbage will be clean and also makes it fender and crisp. 
(d) Carrots. Skin or peel before cooking. If small, serve whole; if large 
slice lengthwise before cooking, or they may be diced to serve with peas. 
(e) Celery. Exposing celery to a warm, dry atmosphere makes it tough 
and stringy. It should be kept in the refrigerator. Damp paper or cloth should 
be wrapped around the stalks, leaving only the leaves exposed to the air. 
(f) Cucumbers. Peel, slice, and place in ice-cold salted water for at least 3 
or 4 hours before serving. They are usually served raw as salad. 
(g) Parsnips. Pare before cooking. If small, cook them whole; if large, cut 
lengthwise. 
(h) Potatoes (irish) should be fairly uniform in size in order to be uni- 
formly cooked. Care should be taken to prevent waste in peeling. Peeled potatoes 
should be kept covered with cold water until ready to cook to prevent darkening. 
They must not be kept too long in this way as they might sour. New potatoes 
should be scraped—old ones peeled. 
(i) Spinach. Remove grit by washing thoroughly, changing the water at 
least six times. 
(j) Squash. Cut into pieces for boiling or baking. Before boiling winter 
squash, the hard thick rind should be cut off. 
(k) Tomatoes. Wash and then scald for about 1 minute in hot water. The 
skins are then easily removed. 
(l) Turnips. If small, cook whole; if large, cut or slice before cooking. 
3. Heat, use in cooking, a. While all the general operations of the kitchen 
are called cooking, the term applies particularly to the application of heat to the 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT COOKING 
43 
food. This heat creates new flavors in the food and generally improves its edible 
properties and digestibility. Heat, assisted by moisture, swells and bursts the 
starch cells in flour, rice, and potatoes; hardens the proteins of eggs, fish, and 
meats; and softens the fibrous substances in meats, vegetables, and fruits. The 
quantity of heat depends upon the required temperature and the time of cooking 
as well as the size, density, and other properties of the food to be cooked. 
b. Temperatures and times of cooking. (1) Tables showing temperatures and 
times of cooking for different foods are given in Appendix HI. On examining the 
table of temperatures, it will be noted that they vary greatly for different foods. 
Best results will be obtained by using the temperature indicated for each food. 
Further, this temperature must be uniformly maintained during the entire cooking 
period. It must be remembered that it requires time for the heat to penetrate to 
the center of the article being cooked. If the temperature is allowed to rise 
suddenly, the outside may become scorched or burned before the center is cooked. 
(2) The proper temperatures and times for cooking are also shown in the 
recipes for various foods and dishes given in this manual. However, a study of 
the table and observation of a few rules will greatly assist the cook in under- 
standing this important feature of cooking. A knowledge of these general rules 
will insure good cooking even when recipes are not available. These general 
rules are given below: 
(a) In the oven. 
1. Starchy foods (breads, pies, potatoes, squash, macaroni, etc.) are cooked 
at high temperature for a short time. A quick oven (400° to 450° F.—9 to 12 
counts) is used, and the time of cooking is not over 1 hour. 
2. Sweet dough products (rolls, buns, coffee cake, etc.) and cakes, pastries, 
cookies, etc., are baked in a medium oven (325° to 400° F.—12 to 16 counts). 
These products contain a high percentage of sugar and, because sugar will 
caramelize (turn brown or black) easily in great heat, these foods will scorch or 
burn on the outside before the inside is cooked if they are cooked in heat greater 
than 400° F. The time of cooking is not over 1 hour and usually less than 30 
minutes. 
3. Protein foods (meats, beans, fish, etc.) are roasted or baked for a 
longer time than starchy foods, but the temperature is lower. Meats are roasted 
in a moderate oven (250° to 325° F.—16 to 18 counts) and are braised in a slow 
oven (200° to 250° F.—18 to 20 counts) or at simmering temperature (180° to 
200° F.—22 counts). Meats can be cooked at high temperatures (and sometimes 
are so cooked by careless or inexperienced cooks), but this impairs palatability 
and increases cooking losses. Beans should be baked in a slow oven as a high 
temperature toughens the skins. 
(b) Frying. All foods are fried at a relatively high temperature. This is 
a necessity so that the hot fat will quickly seal the surface and prevent grease 
penetration. In order to insure that the center will be cooked before the outside 
has had time to become scorched, fried foods are cut in relatively thin or small 
pieces. In other words, a thick piece of meat or other food cannot be fried 
successfully. For these reasons (high temperatures and thin pieces of food) 
frying is a quick method of cooking. 
(c) Cooking in water. 
1. Vegetables, when cooked in water, are cooked at boiling temperature 
with the exception of dry beans which are simmered. 
2. Vegetables are boiled only long enough to make them tender. They 
should never be cooked longer than this. A maximum of 20 minutes is required 
for the leafy vegetables (as cabbage, spinach, etc.) and between 30 and 45 minutes 
for the starchy and root vegetables (as potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, etc.). Dry 
beans, being cooked below the boiling point, require a longer time. 
3. Meats should never be boiled. They should be simmered. This re- 
quires a longer cooking time than vegetables. 
c. As explained in b (1) above, it requires time for heat to penetrate to the 
center of food. Therefore, a thick article of food as a roast of beef requires 
longer than a thin article as a pork chop. If a roasting pan is filled with pieces 
of beef, some weighing 2 pounds and others weighing 8 pounds, the smaller pieces 
will be cooked first. Unless these smaller pieces are removed from the oven they 
will become overcooked before the larger pieces are cooked. Therefore, an effort 44 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
should be made to cut the pieces to uniform size. This also applies to potatoes 
and many other foods. If it is desired to cook a food for a longer time at low 
temperature (as beans and less tender cuts of meat), a fireless cooker is 
valuable. 
4. Oven temperatures, practical method of determining. A practical method 
of determining approximate oven temperatures in the absence of a thermometer 
is to insert the hand well into the oven and count the number of seconds you are 
able to keep it there, usually until a burning sensation is felt under the fingernails. 
This method is termed the oven count. If the hand can be left in the oven for 
about 18 seconds, the oven is called an 18-count oven, and the heat is called 
moderate (about 250° F.), while a 12-count oven is when the hand can be left in 
the oven for 12 seconds, which is a quick oven (about 400° F.). The table given 
in appendix III shows oven counts and time of cooking for various foods; that is, 
huw long to cook the food at a certain oven count. 
5. Cooking in water, a. Water is important in cooking. It conducts heat 
throughout the cooking vessel easily and quickly and retains heat after the vessel 
is removed from the fire. During cooking some of the food is dissolved in the 
water; this dissolved food should not be thrown away. If not served with the food 
it should be used in gravies, stews, soups, sauces, etc. 
b. Boiling is a quick and convenient way of cooking and requires little attention 
on the part of the cook as foods cannot burn or scorch while surrounded with 
water. 
c. Foods cooked in water have a distinctive flavor which is quite different from 
the flavor of foods cooked by roasting, baking, or frying. 
6. Cooking in fat. a. General. Cooking in fat is done either in shallow fat 
(just sufficient fat to form a film between the food and the hot pan) or in deep 
fat (sufficient melted hot fat to cover the food). Cooking in shallow fat is called 
sauteing by some chefs, and some cookbooks call it panfrying; however, the term 
commonly used in the United States is simply frying and foods so cooked are 
called fried. Foods cooked in deep fat also are called fried except that potatoes 
so cooked are called french fried. In this manual, when it is desired to indicate 
that a food should be cooked in shallow fat it will be called fried (example— 
potatoes, fried), and when it is desired to indicate that a food should be cooked 
in deep fat, this manual will use the expression, “fry in deep fat.” 
b. Advantages. Cooking in fat has the following advantages: 
(1) It is a quick method of cooking. 
(2) It gives a distinctive and pleasing flavor. 
(3) Part of the fat is absorbed by the food, thus increasing nutritive value. 
c. Fried foods not to he served too often. Fried foods should not be served too 
often as men quickly tire of them; they are unhealthful as a steady diet because 
of too much fat in the food and also because fat is digested less easily than other 
foods. 
d. Frying in deep fat compared with frying in shallow fat. (1) Frying in deep 
fat has advantages over frying in shallow fat. One is that the flavor is better; 
another, that less time is required. The chief advantage is that the food is en- 
tirely surrounded by hot fat and therefore is cooked so quickly that there is not 
time for fat absorption. 
(2) In shallow fat the food is not entirely surrounded by hot fat and is 
not cooked as quickly as in deep fat. Therefore, foods fried in shallow fat usually 
absorb more fat than if fried in deep fat. 
(3) In deep fat the food does not come into contact with the pan. In shallow 
fat the food is in contact with the hot pan and it frequently becomes necessary 
to move the pan off the fire or reduce the temperature to prevent scorching. 
Therefore, frying in shallow fat is frequently done at a lower temperature than 
in deep fat. On account of this lower temperature it requires longer for the 
formation of a crust on the outside of the food and longer to cook; therefore, 
there is more chance- for the food to absorb fat, that is, become grease-soaked. 
In fact, many foods fried in shallow fat (as fried potatoes) never develop any 
crust and therefore absorb considerable fat. If the cook is not careful they will 
be greasy. Greasy foods are difficult to digest. 
e. Frying in deep fat, procedure. (1) The fat must be very hot so that the 
food is cooked quickly and a crust is quickly formed on the outside. However, COOKING 
45 
the fat must not be heated until it smokes. Fat which is heated until it smokes 
imparts a disagreeable odor and flavor to food cooked in it. The proper tem- 
perature is just below the smoking point. An experienced cook easily recognizes 
this temperature. A good practical test is to drop into the hot fat an inch cube 
of bread from the soft part of the loaf. The bread will be golden brown in 50 
seconds at the proper temperature for frying. If the cook is not certain that the 
fat has been heated to the proper temperature, he should test it with a ther- 
mometer. Lard substitute and vegetable shortening begin to smoke at about 450° 
F.; therefore, the proper temperature for frying is about 430° F. Pure lard begins 
to smoke at about 380° F., and the proper temperature for frying is about 360° F. 
Lard substitute and vegetable shortening are better for deep fat frying than pure 
lard as they can be heated to a higher temperature without smoking. 
(2) Frying moist foods. Care should be used in deep-fat frying of foods 
which have a moist surface as the moisture may form steam when it comes into 
contact with the hot fat, and this steam may cause the fat to boil over and 
catch fire, or to pop out on the cook. For example, potatoes prepared for french 
frying, which have been immersed in water, should be drained before being 
put into hot fat. 
(3) Avoid cooling fat. Unless the fat is kept hot it will not cook the food 
quickly and will not quickly form a crust on the outside. This will allow the 
fat to soak into the food. A common error is to introduce too much food at 
one time (as in the frying of doughnuts), thus cooling the fat. Another common 
error is to cool the fat by introduction of foods which are cold on account of 
having been frozen or kept in a refrigerator. Such foods should be kept in a 
warm room sufficiently long to lose the chill before being fried. 
(4) Rolling in batter or crumbs. Meat balls, potato balls, croquettes, etc., 
are rolled in egg batter and then in cracker or bread crumbs before frying. 
The egg coagulates and holds the crumbs which are quickly cooked into a brown 
crust. This brown crust not only improves appearance and flavor but also 
prevents absorption of too much fat by the food. Corn fritters, doughnuts, 
etc., which contain eggs quickly form their own crust and need not be dipped 
in egg batter or rolled in crumbs. 
(5) Drain foods after frying. Foods fried in deep fat should be drained 
after frying. This may be done in a colander, wire basket, sieve, or by laying 
on paper. Ordinary brown wrapping paper will do. 
(6) Fat clarifying. The question often arises whether fat which has been 
used for deep frying can be used again. To a great extent this depends on 
whether the fat has been heated to the smoking point, and whether any foods 
have been allowed to scorch or burn in it. In either case the fat will impart a 
disagreeable odor and taste to foods subsequently fried in it. It should be 
clarified. One method of clarifying used fat is to strain it by pouring the warm 
melted fat through a doth. Two thicknesses of clean flour sack will suffice. 
This removes burned particles of food, but may not entirely remove the dis- 
agreeable odor and taste. Additional clarification may be accomplished by 
allowing the fat to cool until it hardens; then melt it, add a few raw potatoes 
cut into quarter-inch slices, and heat gradually. When the potatoes are well 
browned and no bubbles appear on the surface, the fat should be strained. The 
potatoes absorb the odors and most of the sediment and should be discarded as 
they will be grease-soaked. 
f. Frying in shallow fat. (1) Shallow fat is used for frying potatoes, eggs, hot 
cakes, hamburger, pork chops, steaks, liver and onions, etc. In some cases, 
as pork chops, sufficient fat for frying is furnished by the food itself, but in 
most cases the fat must be added. When fat is added, it should be heated 
before the food is placed in the pan; otherwise the food will become greasy. It 
is bad practice to fry raw potatoes by placing cold fat on top of them. 
(2) Pork chops, hamburger, meat balls, steaks, eggs, hash browned potatoes, 
etc., are usually fried in shallow fat. If the fat is kept very hot, that is, kept 
heated to just below the smoking point, these foods will become hard and tough; 
therefore, the heat is regulated so that the temperature of the fat is considerably 
below the smoking point. On the other hand, if there is not sufficient heat, the 
food will become greasy and unpalatable. Through experience the cook learns 
how to regulate the heat so that the fat is kept medium hot. The result is that 46 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
the food remains soft. Since it remains soft it absorbs some fat; therefore, to 
prevent greasy food the cook should avoid use of too much fat for frying. 
g. Quantities of fat required. The following approximate quantities of fat are 
required for each 100 men: 
Pounds 
Frying in deep fat 10 
Frying potatoes, etc., in shallow fat 2 
Frying eggs 1 
Frying steaks, chops, hot cakes, hamburger, etc 1 
Note: Prying in deep fat can be done with 5 pounds of fat for each 100 men if a smaller 
pan Is used and less food fried at one time; however, if quick cooking is essential, it is best 
to use about 10 pounds for each 100 men and a larger and deeper pan. This does not mean 
that these quantities of fat are required every time frying is done as fat used for deep 
frying can be used again. 
7. Seasoning of foods, a. All foods placed on the mess table should be sea- 
soned so as to have a pleasing flavor. The quantities of seasoning given in 
recipes are only a guide; the expert cook seasons to taste. Because of the varying 
amounts of moisture, fat, sugar, etc., in foods, it is difficult to prescribe exact 
quantities of spices and other seasonings. Sometimes the cook falls into the 
error of assuming that because he has added pepper, salt, etc., the flavor is 
satisfactory. The only way to determine this is to taste the food. It is well 
to remember that seasoning, once in the food, cannot be removed. It is better 
to use too little than too much. 
b. Left-over foods have usually been previously seasoned and great care must 
be used in adding seasoning, especially salt, when preparing them for subsequent 
meals, 
c. The full strength of most spices, as sage, marjoram, cloves, etc., is not 
immediately noticeable in the food to which added, but increases as the food 
is cooked. The heat and moisture gradually bring out the full strength. 
d. Garlic is used to advantage in seasoning meats, gravies, sauces, soups, salads, 
and salad dressings, but must be used with judgment, as many men do not 
care for any flavor of garlic, and to most persons a pronounced garlic flavor is 
objectionable. Garlic flavor, when present, should be delicate, which may be 
obtained by rubbing the inside of the cooking utensil or salad bowl with a 
cut clove of garlic; or the meat may be rubbed. Finely minced garlic may be 
added to any of the dishes mentioned above, but care must be taken not to use 
an excessive quantity. A delicate flavor of garlic makes all meats, especially 
roasts, more savory and appetizing, and gives a tang to soups, stews, salad 
dressings, etc., which is very appealing. A delicate garlic flavor can be obtained 
by using a garlic essence. To make garlic essence, soak a quart of garlic cloves 
in three quarts of olive oil. Before soaking, separate the garlic cloves and 
remove the dry skin. A little of the essence can be rubbed around the inside 
of the cooking utensil or on the surface of meat. 
e. As a general rule, food should be seasoned during the process of cooking. 
Added flavoring and seasoning at the table cannot make up for lack of proper 
flavoring and seasoning while cooking. 
Section II 
PRACTICE 
8. Soups, a. Army beef, as purchased, always contains bones. Some cuts of 
beef are boned before cooking. The bones should never be discarded. They 
should be used for soup stock. An inspector never finds a raw bone in the 
garbage can of a well-conducted mess. Soups can be made the means of pre- 
venting waste by incorporating in them food which might otherwise be wasted, 
such as all raw beef bones, shanks, etc., excess liquid from canned vegetables, 
left-over cooked vegetables, and vegetable scraps—celery tops, onion tops, beet 
tops, lettuce and cabbage trimming, etc. If meat is used in soup, it should be 
cut into small cubes, as this aids in dissolving the meat juices into the soup by 
exposing more surface to the heat. 
b. Soup stock. A pot for soup stock should be found in every Army kitchen. 
To make soup stock, wipe the meat or bones with a damp cloth, crack the bones, COOKING 
47 
and cut the meat into small pieces. Put bones and meat in a large container 
with a close-fitting cover and add 1 quart of water for each pound of meat 
and bones. Heat slowly to the simmering point and add salt; simmer for 4 
to 5 hours; then cool. Fat will form on the top after cooling and should not 
be taken off until time to use the stock, as this layer of fat acts as a preserva- 
tive by excluding the air. In warm weather soup stock may sour if kept for 
more than 24 hours. If necessary to keep longer than 24 hours the stock should 
be sterilized by being brought to a boil at intervals of 24 hours or less. Stock 
can be used as the base for either gravies or soups and to enrich many dishes, 
such as hash, meat loaf, etc. 
c. Soups have an important place in the menu. In addition to their food value 
they stimulate the flow of digestive juices, and this aids digestion. Soup should 
always be served very hot. 
d. How made. (1) Most soups are made by first making a stock. This stock 
is the base of the soup. It gives strength and flavor. Before making the soup 
Uie stock is allowed to cool. This results in the fat rising to the top and hardening 
so that it can be removed easily. It should be removed to prevent the soup being 
greasy. To the stock the cook adds mixed vegetables if a vegetable soup i_ 
desired, or beans if bean soup is desired, etc. Each soup should be well seasoned 
with salt, pepper, and other spices such as bay leaves, marjoram, etc. Meat 
may be added to many soups, if desired. 
(2) Some soups are made without stock. These are usually cream soups 
(cream of cabbage, cream of celery, etc.). However, stock may be used as the 
base of cream soups if desired, for the added flavor and strength it gives. 
e. Kinds. 
(1) Thin soups like bouillon and consomme are not often served in Army 
messes as most soldiers prefer a thick soup; however, bouillon or consomme, if 
served occasionally, is acceptable and gives variety. 
(2) Cream soups are made by boiling vegetables (as cabbage, celery, toma- 
toes, etc.) in water or stock, with seasoning, until the vegetables are tender, 
then thickening with a batter made from flour and fat and adding milk just 
before serving. Use of an acid vegetable (as tomatoes) sometimes causes the 
milk to curdle. This can be prevented by adding a pinch of soda (or about 1 
teaspoonful for 100 men). If too much soda is added, the soup will have a 
disagreeable soda taste. Cream soups include cream of asparagus, cabbage, 
celery, and tomato. 
(3) Purees are made from vegetables (or fish) which are cooked in stock 
until very tender and then forced through a colander or sieve to make a mush, 
which is then put back into the stock. A batter of flour and fat is added to 
thicken the soup, which is then allowed to simmer about 1 hour before serving. 
Milk may be added if desired. Purees include puree of beans, carrots, green 
peas, lima beans, potato, tomato, etc. 
(4) Oyster stew (sometimes called oyster soup) is made by adding flour to 
the liquor drained from the oysters, to make a thin batter, which is added to 
the soup stock for thickening and flavor. The oysters are added just before 
serving. The stew is then seasoned and boiled for 5 minutes. Milk may be 
used if desired, and improves the stew. 
(5) Chowders are soups usually made from fish or clams, although com or 
potatoes are occasionally used instead. Vegetables and diced bacon are usually 
added. The vegetables and bacon may be boiled in stock with the fish or clams, 
etc., until tender; or, when onions and bacon are included, they may be browned 
in a frying pan before being added. Chowders are usually thickened with a 
batter of flour and melted fat. Milk is often added just before serving. 
Chowders should be well seasoned. They include clam, codfish (or other fish), 
corn, and potato chowders. 
(6) Meat soups are made by simmering meats (usually beef) or poultry 
(usually chicken) until tender, then dicing the meat and adding to stock. 
Usually rice is added. 
(7) Barley soups are made by simmering pearled barley in stock or water. 
Vegetables and bacon or other meats may be added if desired. 
9. Gravy, cooking, a. (1) Gravy is the juices (drippings) which escape from 
meat while being cooked, to which flour and cold water (or cold milk or beef 48 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
stock) are usually added. Sometimes the clear drippings are served without 
the addition of any other ingredient; such a gravy is called “au jus,” or natural 
gravy, and is served with a rib or loin roast of beef. The white sauce made 
from milk, flour, and butter (or vegetable shortening instead of butter) is often 
called gravy, country style, or cream gravy, but is really a sauce. The term 
“gravy” is properly applied only when the base is meat drippings. 
(2) Brown gravy. The brown color is obtained by heating, after the flour 
has been added, until the desired degree of brown color is obtained. Care 
must be used to prevent scorching as this will fill the gravy with black specks. 
If the meat has been seared, very little heating is necessary to get a brown gravy. 
On the other hand, if a light-brown gravy is desired as when served with pork 
chops, the cook must be careful to avoid browning the gravy by too much heating 
after adding the flour, 
b. Rules for making. (1) Gravy should be prepared in the pan in which 
the meat has been cooked. Some of the albuminous substances escape from the 
meat in the process of cooking and settle on the bottom of the pan. These add a 
flavor to the gravy that is not obtained if the drippings are drained into another 
pan and the gravy made in the latter. To the drippings escaping from the 
meat should be added flour in one of two ways: 
(a) By sprinkling the flour into the drippings while being stirred and 
then adding cold water, cold milk, or beef stock, or 
(b) By stirring into the drippings a paste made of flour and cold water. 
In either case the quantity of flour and liquid added to the drippings is 
regulated to make a gravy of proper consistency. Where the meat cooked is 
very fat, excess drippings should be drained from the pan before the gravy is 
made. During preparation the gravy should be frequently stirred with a wire 
whip in order to loosen the particles from the bottom of the pan. When several 
pans are used to roast the meat, the drippings may be poured into one pan and 
the gravy made in this pan. In this case the meat particles should be loosened 
before pouring the drippings out of the excess pans. 
(2) It is an easy matter to prevent greasy gravy, as it is merely necessary 
to use sufficient flour to absorb all the drippings. This may frequently result 
in more gravy than is required; however, it is always good practice to serve 
liberal portions of gravy. When the quantity of drippings is insufficient, beef 
stock or rendered suet may be added. With a little experience the cook learns 
to gauge the necessary quantity of drippings. A good general rule is, to each 
quart of drippings add 2 pounds of flour and 3 gallons of beef stock or water. 
This makes enough gravy for 100 men. (See recipe 133.) 
(3) Prevention of lumpiness in gravy is more difficult. It is better for the 
inexperienced cook to add the flour direct to the drippings instead of making 
a paste as the latter method is more apt to produce lumpiness; however, some 
cooks prefer to make a paste of the flour and part of the water (or milk or 
stock) and add this paste to the drippings. If the finished gravy is lumpy this 
may be corrected by rubbing or straining through a sieve or colander. 
(4) If too much water or milk or stock has been added, resulting in a gravy 
too thin, it should be thickened by boiling down, as the addition of flour may 
result in lumpiness. 
(5) The use of beef stock is not essential; however, it does add richness when 
used instead of water. It will darken the gravy and therefore must be used 
sparingly, or not at all, if a very light-colored gravy is desired. 
10. Fish, cooking, a. Fresh fish is a very perishable food, and care must be 
taken to see that it is firm and cold when received, and that it is not held any 
length of time. Unless perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked, it is very in- 
digestible and sometimes poisonous. 
b. The principles of cooking fish are much the same as for meats, except that 
higher temperatures are used. Fish may be baked, broiled, fried, or used in 
soups or salads. When broiled or fried, it should be salted or seasoned first and 
then well seared at the start. Salt fish should be soaked over night in fresh, 
cold water, to take out some of the salt before cooking. Broiling and baking are 
the best methods of preparation. Small pan fish and fillets of large white dry 
fish are good when fried. 
c. All varieties of fish need an accompaniment of starchy foods, like bread COOKING 
49 
or potatoes, and white fish need, in addition, to be cooked with butter or fat to 
make them desirable as food. 
11. Eggs, cooking. Cooking changes eggs from a liquid to a solid form, making 
them easily handled, and increasing their palatability. It does not increase their 
digestibility. Boiling of eggs should be either very short (not over 4 minutes) 
or very long (30 minutes). In the first case we obtain a soft-boiled egg in which 
very little coagulation (hardening) of the albumen has taken place. If an egg 
is to be hard-boiled, it should be cooked slowly and thoroughly, so that the 
protein is completely coagulated. Eggs may be poached, fried, scrambled, or 
baked. They are also used to a large extent as ingredients of cakes, puddings, 
sauces, and other mixed foods. 
12. Vegetables, cooking, a. The principal methods of cooking vegetables are 
boiling, steaming, baking, and frying. Boiling is the most common. Over- 
cooking is a common error in boiling and results in loss of color, flavor, vita- 
mins, and food value. The general rule with fresh vegetables is to cook in 
boiling water as rapidly as possible, in a covered vessel, with just enough water 
to cover. The most important exceptions to this rule are onions, cabbage, 
cauliflower, and broccoli, which should be cooked in a considerable excess of 
water in an uncovered vessel. This will diminish the strong flavor of onions 
and cut down the development of a disagreeable flavor in the others. Unless a 
large quantity of water is used at the start it is necessary to add water at least 
once. Salt raises the boiling point slightly and improves the flavor and color. 
Cooking is hastened by adding salt, by having the water boiling at the start, 
by covering the vessel, by having the vegetables in small pieces, and by using 
plenty of water. All boiled vegetables should be drained as soon as done. 
White potatoes and rice should be placed on the stove for a few minutes after 
draining to dry. Steaming is recommended for carrots, potatoes (white and 
sweet), squash, wax beans, parsnips, beets, spinach, and other tender greens, if 
the mess is equipped with a steamer or can improvise one. 
b. The following suggestions regarding the cooking of various vegetables will 
be found useful: 
(1) Green vegetables should be well covered with water, which should be 
kept at the boiling point. If the water evaporates, add more boiling water. 
While the addition of a very small quantity of baking soda helps preserve the 
green color, its use is not recommended, as it destroys vitamins. 
(2) Dry beans are prepared best by first soaking, then cooking for a long 
time at a temperature below the boiling point. Boiling or baking at a tempera- 
ture above 200° F, makes the skins tough and the interiors crumbly. 
(3) Beets keep their color best when not pared or cut up previous to cooking. 
They are peeled after cooking and may be cut into halves or quarters, sliced 
or diced. 
(4) Cabbage has best flavor and food value when served raw in the form of 
slaw or salad. If boiled, seasoning in the form of thin-sliced bacon, salt pork, 
or a ham bone should be placed in cold water, the water gradually brought to 
a boil, and the cabbage then added slowly so as not to check boiling. Left-over 
boiled cabbage may be creamed or fried with bacon. 
(5) Canned vegetables have been sufficiently cooked during the canning 
process. All they require is a little heat and seasoning to make them palatable. 
They should not be boiled or cooked for a long time as this destroys vitamins. 
(6) The best method of frying onions is in bacon drippings in a shallow 
covered pan until browned. Onions may also be French fried in deep fat or they 
may be boiled and then served creamed or buttered. Boil only long enough to 
make the onions tender. 
(7) (a) Potatoes are the most generally used vegetable and are cooked in a 
variety of ways. When baked or boiled with their skins on there is little waste as 
the skins can be pulled or stripped off as soon as cool enough to handle. 
(b) The time of cooking depends upon the size. They should be cooked 
until soft as determined by piercing with a fork. If boiled potatoes are allowed 
to remain on the range in the uncovered boiler for a few minutes after draining, 
their flavor will be much improved. 
(c) Boiled potatoes are the starting point for mashed potatoes and potato 
salad. Potatoes for salad should be boiled with the skins on and not cooked too 
soft. They should be spread out to cool as they need ventilation while cooling 50 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
and might sour if placed in a pile or in a utensil. After cooling they should be 
peeled and cut into neat cubes. Potato salad should be made several hours in ad- 
vance so as to be thoroughly chilled before serving. 
(d) New potatoes are best when boiled and are unsuitable for baking. Old 
potatoes are cooked best with more heat than can be obtained by boiling. Baking 
or frying in hot deep fat gives the best results. When fried in deep fat the 
temperature should be just below the smoking point—around 400° F. Care must 
be taken that too many potatoes are not put in the fat at one time, otherwise the 
temperature will be lowered to such an extent that the potatoes will absorb fat 
and become grease-logged; an expensive, unappetizing, and indigestible condition. 
If cooked at the proper high temperature the surface of the potatoes will be sealed 
before any fat can penetrate. 
(e) Potatoes, after peeling, should be kept covered in cold water until cooked, 
otherwise they will wilt and turn black if exposed to the air for any length of time. 
(8) There are several methods of cooking rice (see recipes). 
(9) For spinach, steaming or a very short boiling (about 5 minutes) is best. 
Removing the stems reduces the time required for cooking and makes the spinach 
more palatable. Spinach should be washed thoroughly before cooking, changing 
the water several times, to remove all sand and grit. 
(10) Summer squash may be cooked whole but is best when cut up, boiled, 
and mashed. It may be seasoned after cooking with about 10 per cent chopped 
and browned onions and a few slices of bacon diced and fried. Winter squash also 
may be boiled but is best baked. 
(11) Tomatoes may be sliced and served raw. They are very appetizing 
when baked whole and seasoned with butter, pepper, salt, and a little sugar. Dry 
bread may be added to stewed tomatoes, in order to absorb some of the juice and 
add to the bulk; this, however, should not be overdone in utilizing surplus dry 
bread to the detriment of the real tomato flavor. 
13. Salads and dressing, a. Salads are easily prepared, and when well seasoned 
and attractively served, meet with much favor. A little forethought is necessary 
as the different ingredients should be prepared some time in advance in order 
that the salad may be thoroughly chilled before serving. 
b. The following fundamental principles must be observed in the preparation of 
salads: 
(1) They must be served cold. 
(2) They should be well seasoned. 
(3) They should be attractively served. 
c. To accomplish b (3) above, almost any bits of slightly tender vegetables may 
be placed about the dish or on top of the salad. Sprigs of parsley, lettuce, either 
whole or shredded, celery, green onions, sliced unpeeled radishes, diamond or 
heart-shaped beets, sliced pickles or lemons, shredded cabbage or minced pickles 
shaken over the salad add to the appearance and nutritive value. 
d. Any vegetable may be used in salads, either alone or in combination with 
other vegetables. Lettuce, radishes, and onions may be used in several combina- 
tions. Cabbage, shredded fine and soaked in cold water for 2 hours, makes a satis- 
factory salad when seasoned. Stringless beans or peas that have been cooked 
and cooled may be used alone or in combination with other vegetables. An ex- 
cellent salad may be made of beets, either alone or, preferably, combined with 
other vegetables. The beets should be cooked, then diced and allowed to stand 
in vinegar for an hour. Potatoes are frequently used in salads, either as the main 
ingredient or as a filler in meat, fish, or vegetable salads. Cold cooked carrots or 
grated raw carrots are a palatable ingredient. 
e. When meat salads are served to troops, a vegetable filler should be added to 
diminish the cost and improve the flavor. Thus, when chicken salad is made, one- 
half boneless chicken and one-half diced celery or other green vegetables should 
be used. The cost of chicken salad can be reduced by substituting about 25 per 
cent of veal or pork for an equal quantity of chicken; that is, the meat used is 75 
per cent chicken and 25 per cent veal or pork (or both). When this is done, the 
veal or pork should be cooked with the chicken as it takes up the chicken flavor. 
Turkey, tongue, or lean beef cut fine may be used for salad. All meat must be 
cooked until well done before using in salad. Fat meat is undesirable as the dress- 
ing usually contains olive or cottonseed oil in such quantities that other fats are 
unnecessary. COOKING 
51 
f. Almost any kind of fish, fresh or canned, may be used in salad. When fresh, 
large fish are preferred on account of being more easily boned. The fresh fish 
should be boned, either before or after cooking, cooked until done, and the flesh 
mixed with one-third to one-half vegetables. 
g. Cold hard-boiled eggs, olives, onions, or pickles, minced or sliced, when mixed 
in a salad, spread over it, or used as a garnish, add to the appearance, flavor, and 
nutritive value. 
h. Salads made by placing various vegetables or fruits, whole, chopped, or 
shredded in gelatin are popular. They have a pleasing appearance and flavor. 
14. Cereals, cooking (oatmeal, cornmeal, etc.). Bring the water to a boil, add 
salt, and then add the cereal slowly to the boiling water, while stirring or whip- 
ping. Boil for 5 to 20 minutes, according to the cereal, and then allow to simmer 
for the prescribed time. (See recipes.) A double boiler should be used, when 
practicable. If oatmeal is served where sugar is not placed on the tables, sugar 
should be added with the salt. Cold cooked cereal may be sliced, rolled in flour 
batter, and fried. An unsweetened cereal is better for this purpose. 
15. Desserts. Only appetizing and palatable desserts should be served in the 
Army mess. It is better to use plain canned fruit for dessert than a dessert like 
plain cornstarch pudding. It is possible to serve a large variety of desserts, many 
of them easily made; therefore, if the cook be inexperienced it is better to utilize 
easily prepared desserts until the more difficult ones can be prepared in an attrac- 
tive manner. 
a. Puddings make one of the most economical desserts. They can be made and 
served so as to be very appetizing. They should be fairly rich. Bread pudding is 
economical because it may be made from left-over or dry bread, but there 
should be liberal additions of eggs, milk, and fruit, and it should be served with 
a well-flavored sauce. Tapioca pudding should often have a liberal addition of 
fruit and should always be well flavored. Dried fruits, including any left-over 
dried fruit, may be utilized to advantage in these puddings. Rice pudding should 
contain plenty of eggs, milk, and raisins or currants. 
b. Plain gelatin should not be served as such. It should be colored with fruit 
juices, and whole or cut fruits added, or vegetables added to make a salad. Almost 
any kind of fruit or vegetable may be used. Using gelatin in this way is much 
more economical than the use of the various prepared gelatin desserts which have 
been flavored and colored by the manufacturer and are generally sold in small 
packages. 
c. Shortcakes may be made with baking powder biscuits covered with crushed 
fruits, or sponge cake may be used instead of biscuits. If sponge cake is used 
part of the fruit juice should be drained off; otherwise the sponge cake will be 
juice-soaked and unattractive. While the addition of whipped cream is desirable, 
it is high in cost and not essential. 
d. Custards are made with a base of milk, eggs, sugar, and seasoning, and may 
have various fruits added. A moderate temperature must be used to prevent 
curdling of the milk. Should the custard appear to be curdling, place the cook- 
ing container in cold water and beat smooth. To determine when custard is done 
dip a silver knife in cold water and insert in center of custard. If the knife comes 
out clean the custard is done; if coated, longer cooking is necessary. Variations 
in custard may be made by adding caramelized sugar, fruit pulp, coffee, chocolate, 
etc. 
e. Fruit sauces, such as apple sauce, rhubarb sauce, etc., may be improved by 
combination with other fruits, for example, adding pineapple juice or crushed 
pineapple to rhubarb sauce makes a delicious combination. The addition of a 
small amount of cinnamon-flavored hard candy to apple sauce is an improvement. 
Many combinations are possible. 
f. Baked apples and baked bananas should be served occasionally as dessert. 
The addition of a small quantity of juice of other fruits improves the flavor. 
g. Dried fruits. (1) It is thought by some that dried fruits are not popular and 
that many soldiers will not eat them. When this occurs, it is due either to serving 
dried fruits too often or because they are poorly prepared. It is a fact that dried 
fruits, skillfully prepared, and cooked and served in a variety of ways, are popular 
if not served too often. 
(2) There are many different ways in which dried fruits can be served. Some 
of these are: 52 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(a) Stewed as a single fruit, or in combination with other dried or fresh fruits. 
(b) As fillings for pies, cobblers, fruit rolls, etc. 
(c) Made into jam or fruit butter. 
(d) Cut or ground and worked into sweet dough products. 
(e) Cooked and mashed for toppings for sweet rolls. 
(f) In desserts, as prune whip, etc. 
(g) In fruit cup. 
(h) In fruit salad. 
(3) When dried fruits are served stewed, water and sugar are added to form 
a sirup. The sirup should have the same flavor as the fruit. When dried fruits 
are placed on the table they should be tender. To obtain these results it is neces- 
sary to allow the fruit to soak and cook in the sirup sufficiently long to become 
tender and for the sirup to take up the flavor of the fruit. This can be done by 
soaking over night and simmering for about 1 hour the following morning, or 
by first simmering and then allowing to soak over night. 
(4) Dried fruits, especially prunes and figs, sometimes become sugared in 
storage. This means that the natural sugar of the fruit works out through the 
skin and shows as a white bloom. This is harmless, but may be mistaken for mold; 
however, mold is always in fuzzy, thread form, while the fruit sugar is in crystals. 
16. Beverages. The beverages most used in Army messes are coffee, tea, cocoa, 
and lemonade. Fruit punches may be served occasionally in hot weather if the 
cost is moderate. 
a. Coffee. (1) Rules for making. In brewing coffee by any method, the follow- 
ing rules should be strictly observed: 
(a) Keep the supply of roasted coffee in airtight containers. Exposure to air 
causes roasted coffee to lose rapidly some of its flavor and strength. 
(b) Use ground coffee only once. Coffee grounds from which coffee has been 
made should always be thrown away. Never use them the second time. Coffee 
made from them is sure to have a bitter and unpleasant flavor. This is true even 
if fresh roasted coffee and old grounds are mixed. To mix fresh coffee and old 
grounds is a waste, not a saving. 
(c) Use fresh boiling water. The water must be boiling to extract all the 
desirable flavors from the coffee. It must be fresh. Water which has boiled for a 
long time has a flat taste which will appear in the coffee. 
(d) Regulate preparation of coffee so that it will be ready not more than 10 
minutes before serving time. Once prepared, coffee loses its flavor rapidly and if 
held more than 30 minutes becomes bitter, 
(e) Never make more than enough coffee for one meal. Warmed-over coffee 
is bitter and has lost aroma. 
(f) Scour the coffee pot. Unless thoroughly scoured daily, some of the spent 
grounds and oils of the coffee will stick in the corners of the pot and impart a 
bitter taste to subsequent brews. 
(g) If filter bags are used, they should not be dried, neither should they be 
washed in hot water. Hot water cooks in the coffee stains throughout the filter 
bag and, in subsequent brews, imparts a bitter and off flavor to the coffee. After 
the bag is rinsed in cold water, submerge it in cool or cold water until time to 
use it again. 
(2) Coffee for the cooks. It is the practice of some cooks to make the coffee 
for breakfast as soon as the fire is started in the morning in order to have coffee 
for themselves. This is bad practice. It means that stale and bitter coffee is served 
at the mess table. Every mess should have a small coffee pot, percolator, or trico- 
lator for the purpose of providing good hot coffee for the kitchen detail, members 
of the guard, etc., who desire coffee earlier or later than the regular serving time 
for the organization. In making small quantities, use a level tablespoonful of 
ground coffee to each cup of water and add one level tablespoonful for the pot. 
(3) Proper quantities. One pint of coffee per man is ample for one meal. 
This is I2V2 gallons for 100 or 2V2 gallons for 20 men. For each 20 men use 1 
pound of roasted and ground coffee and 2V2 gallons of water. Therefore, to find 
the number of pounds of roasted and ground coffee, divide the number of men to 
be served by 20. For example, if 80 men are to be served, 4 pounds of coffee are 
required. To find the number of gallons of water, multiply the number of pounds 
of ground coffee by 2V2. Thus, for 80 men, 4 pounds of ground coffee and 10 gallons 
of water are required. These proportions of ground coffee and water should be COOKING 
53 
used regardless of the method of preparation—whether boiled, or made in percola- 
tors, or tricolator, etc. 
(4) Methods of brewing, (a) Boiled coffee. Heat fresh water in a separate 
container until it has just reached the boiling point. Place the ground coffee in 
a cloth sack, tie the top. Ground coffee expands in water; therefore, leave plenty 
of room in the sack for this expansion. Place the sack of ground coffee in the 
coffee pot or boiler and pour the water over it; or, the sack of coffee may be 
suspended or dropped into the water. Keep hot on the back of the stove; do 
not permit boiling. The value of a cloth sack is that the grounds can be removed 
easily as soon as the coffee is brewed. Sometimes a sack may not be available. 
In this case the ground coffee is placed in the bottom of the pot or boiler and 
the boiling water poured over it; at the end of 10 minutes heating over a slow 
fire, settle the coffee by the addition of a small quantity of cold water. 
(h) Percolated coffee. Use either cold or hot water. The use of hot water 
reduces the length of time required to complete the brew. For quantities in excess 
of 20 cups the coffee will be ready to serve in 10 minutes after it starts coming 
over the top of the tube. For smaller quantities 8 minutes is sufficient. 
(c) Filtered or drip coffee. This is made in a utensil having three com- 
partments, the upper for water, the center for ground coffee, and the lower for 
the brewed beverage. Filter papers are usually provided to be placed on the 
bottom of the center compartment before putting in the ground coffee. This 
type of utensil is sold under various trade names as “Tricolator,” “Filtrator,” 
etc. For best results the coffee must be finely ground. Place the filter paper 
in the bottom of the center compartment, add the ground coffee and cover with 
the perforated metal cover which is usually provided; then pour in boiling or 
fresh water. When all the water has filtered through the ground coffee and into 
the lower compartment, the beverage is ready to serve. Before serving, stir the 
beverage to equalize strength throughout. Some arrangement must be made to 
keep the lower compartment hot but not boiling. If of earthenware or glassware, 
keep it in a pan of hot water until just before serving. If of aluminum or other 
metal it should be placed on the back of the stove. Do not permit the brewed 
coffee to boil. 
b. Tea. (1) Tea should be served hot occasionally in lieu of coffee. In the 
summer months it should be served often as an iced beverage, especially at the 
noon meal. 
(2) Tea should be made in glass or earthenware utensils, if available, as 
metal utensils give an off flavor and tend to blacken the tea. 
(3) One to three ounces of tea to 1 gallon of water should be used in making 
tea, depending on the quality of the tea and the strength of the beverage desired. 
Two ounces of tea leaves to 1 gallon of water should make a beverage to suit the 
average person. 
(4) Bring the required quantity of water to a boil. Place the dry tea in a 
clean cotton bag, tie the top, and drop the bag into the boiling water. Tea expands 
in water, therefore, leave plenty of room in the bag for this expansion. Allow 
the bag of tea to remain in the water for 5 or 7 minutes, then remove it. If tea 
leaves are allowed to remain in the water longer than 7 minutes the tea becomes 
strong and bitter. Agitate the bag of tea 3 or 4 times during the period it is in 
the water. Stir the tea just before serving, to equalize strength throughout. If 
not stirred the tea on the bottom of the container will be stronger than that on 
top. Unlike coffee, tea may be made several hours before serving, if kept in 
earthenware or glass containers, as it does not lose its flavor and aroma. If 
lemons are available, they may be sliced and served with the tea in lieu of milk, 
for those desiring this. 
(5) Tea to be used as an iced drink should be made in concentrated form. 
Use the total required quantity of tea leaves, and one fifth the required amount 
of water. Prepare the same as hot tea, but a sufficient time in advance to permit 
cooling. Just before serving add the remainder of the water, either cold water 
or chipped ice or a combination of the two, and stir vigorously in order to equalize 
strength throughout. Added lemon materially improves the flavor. 
c. Cocoa. (1) Cocoa makes a good beverage, especially for the evening meal. 
Five ounces of cocoa to one gallon of liquid makes a beverage of average strength. 
The best results are obtained when the liquid used consists of 75 per cent milk 
and 25 per cent water. The quantity of milk may be reduced, with corresponding 54 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
increase in the quantity of water when it becomes necessary to reduce cost. 
Cocoa made with water alone lacks palatability and body, and is generally un- 
satisfactory. 
(2) Some cooks make cocoa by placing the ground cocoa in a pot, adding 
hot water, bringing to a boil, then adding sugar and milk. A better method is 
first to make a thick paste with the ground cocoa, sugar, and a little hot water. 
This method prevents lumpiness. 
(3) Some cooks prefer to leave out the sugar when making cocoa so that the 
men may add it at the table according to individual taste. This is a matter of 
mess management. 
17. Ice cream. Ice cream is probably the most popular dessert. It is especially 
welcome in hot weather. For economy and good quality, ice cream, frozen custard, 
and water ices should be made in the mess instead of being purchased. Good ice 
cream can be made in the mess kitchen at a cost of 25 to 50 per cent less than the 
cost of commercial ice cream. When frozen desserts are served, an inexpensive 
cake like gingerbread or white cake which costs from a cent to a cent and a half 
a portion should also be served. CHAPTER 5 
BAKING 
Section I 
DEFINITIONS 
1. General. Baking is cooking in dry heat, in an oven or under coals or 
on heated stone or metal. To bake successfully requires a knowledge of the kind, 
quantity, and quality of the ingredients to be used and temperatures at which 
products are to be prepared and baked. 
2. Object, a. The object of baking is to produce articles of food which have 
the following qualities: 
(1) Nutritive value. Necessary to relieve hunger. 
(2) Palatability. Appeal to the appetite. 
(3) Attractiveness. Appeal to the eye. 
b. To obtain the qualities given in a above necessitates the use of: 
(1) Ingredients of good quality. 
(2) A balanced formula. 
(3) Careful and proper handling throughout every step in the baking produc- 
tion process. 
3. Definitions. 
Baking. Cooking in a dry heat. 
Batter. Several ingredients beaten together to form a semiliquid mixture suit- 
able for baking or cooking. 
Bench. A molding table. 
Bread. The sound product made by baking a dough consisting of a leavened 
or unleavened mixture of ground grain and/or other clean, sound, edible farina- 
ceous substance, with potable water, and with or without the addition of other 
edible substances. 
Bread room. A room for storing bread after baking. Steel racks are usually 
employed as receptacles. 
Buns. Small cakes or breads, generally round or oval in shape and frequently 
spiced. 
Cake. Leavened or unleavened flour compositions, generally sweetened before 
baking. 
Caramel. A sirup made from scorched sugar used for coloring food products. 
Caraway seed. A highly aromatic seed used whole for flavoring rye bread of 
certain types. Also used in cooking. 
Carrying rack. An oblong frame suitable for two men to carry bread in about 
the same manner as a hospital stretcher is handled. A suitable type is an oblong 
frame 8 feet by 2 feet made of 1 inch by 4 inch material with side piece extended 
about 12 inches to form handles, covered with slats 2 inches by 6 inches and a 
12-inch upright fastened at one end. Will hold one run of field or garrison bread 
when taken from the oven. 
Corn bread. A bread prepared from corn meal, with flour, sugar, lard (or sub- 
stitute), and baking powder. 
Cover. A canvas cover is used on proof racks for steaming the dough and for 
covering mixed dough to retain the heat, keep the dough from crusting, and to 
avoid fly intrusion. 
Crullers. Ring-shaped cakes of dough, usually sweetened and fried brown in 
smoking lard. 
Crumb. The soft inner part of the loaf, as distinguished from the crust. 
Crust. The outside of a loaf of bread. It is formed by the intense baking heat 
and consequent drying of the surface. This drying and a certain chemical change 
in the starch are known as caramelization. In the crust the gluten has hardened 
or gummed and the starch has changed into a more digestible form. 
Currant buns. Buns with currants added. 
Dam boards. Partitions placed in dough troughs to limit the space and facilitate 
handling. 
Dampers. Devices for regulating the fire and consequent heat used in baking, 
cooking, etc. 56 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Dough. A name given to the product resulting when flour, water, yeast, salt, 
and other ingredients are combined by mixing. 
Dough mixer. A machine for mixing ingredients. It should be kept thoroughly 
cleaned. 
Dough troughs. Troughs for containing dough. They must be kept clean. 
Though formerly made of poplar wood, the present type is largely steel, which is 
more satisfactory from a sanitary and handling standpoint. Sourness in bread 
is frequently caused by allowing old dough to stick to troughs. 
Doughnuts. A sweet, round dough composition with center cut out, fried in 
deep fat. 
Dredge. To sprinkle, as with pepper and salt, or rub in, as with flour, etc. 
Fermentation. A chemical change in organic substances caused by micro- 
organisms. 
Fermentation period. The period elapsing between the time dough is mixed and 
the time it is sent to molding machine or bench for molding. 
Fermentation room or caginet. A room or cabinet, kept at a temperature of 78° 
to 82° F., with free steam or moisture to obtain proper humidity and free from 
draft, into which the mixed dough, contained in troughs or other receptacles, is 
placed for the purpose of fermenting the dough. In lieu of fermentation room or 
cabinet, pans of water into which hot bricks are placed or jets of flaming gas or 
oil against the bottom of water-filled pans may be used to provide the necessary 
humid heat for fermentation of the dough. 
Flour. Bolted grain meal. 
Gems or muffins. Hot breads made from white flour, graham, or com meal and 
baked in gem pans. 
Gluten. That constituent of wheat flour dough which enables the dough to 
expand and thus retain the fermentation gases. Two elements of flour, distinct 
from each other in a dry state, unite upon the addition of water to form gluten. 
Grits. Grains, as of wheat, corn, or oats, coarsely ground. 
Hominy. Cracked Indian corn from which the outer husk has been removed. 
Hops. The cured, kiln-dried blossoms of the hop vine, a perennial, climbing 
plant cultivated in Europe and on the Pacific coast for its blossom. The flavoring 
element is known as lupulin and can be extracted by boiling 10 or 15 minutes. 
Icing. A glazing or coating of sugar, usually mixed with white of egg and suit- 
able flavoring, and applied to cakes. Sometimes called frosting. 
Ingredients. A general term describing the factors that constitute a substance. 
For example, ingredients of bread include flour, water, yeast, salt, sugar, short- 
ening, and in some instances milk, hop tea, or malt. 
Leaven. A piece of old dough used as a ferment in making bread by the left- 
over process. 
Loaf. The characteristic shape of the bread after it has been molded and after 
the baking process is completed. 
Make-up period. The length of time between end of fermentation period and 
time molded and panned dough is placed in proofroom or cabinet. 
Molding. Shaping bread into forms suitable for baking. 
Molding table. The wooden table on which loaves are molded. 
No-time dough. A straight dough that has no fermentation period. As soon 
as the dough is mixed it is molded and panned and then placed in proofroom or 
cabinet for proofing. 
Open-trench baking. Process of baking in an open trench about 6 feet long, 
1 foot deep, and 15 inches wide. 
Ovens. The receptacles in which bread is baked. 
Pan holder. A folded cloth or other heat-resisting material for handling pans. 
Pastry. Food preparations made from a paste, or from which the crust is made, 
such as cakes, pies, jelly rolls, ladyfingers, cookies, plum duff, etc. Sugar, butter, 
eggs, baking powder, and extracts are generally employed in their preparation. 
Poppy seed. The seed of the black or white poppy. Contains about 50 per cent 
oil. Used for enriching rolls and loaves of Vienna style bread. 
Porcelain ware. A very hard, usually white, and more or less translucent, 
earthenware suitable for preparing yeast ferments. 
Proofing period. The period elapsing between the time of placing the panned 
dough in the proofroom or cabinet and that at which it is removed therefrom to 
be placed in the oven. BAKING 
57 
Proofroom or cabinet. A room kept at a constant temperature of about 90° F. 
with free steam or moisture and free from draft, into which dough or bread is 
conveyed for proofing. In smaller bakeries, proof cabinets are provided. Pans 
of water into which hot bricks are placed or jets of flaming gas against the bottom 
of water-filled pans provide the necessary humid heat. 
Protein. That constituent of foods that builds muscle. Lean meat and white 
of egg are rich in protein. Gluten of flour is a protein substance. 
Pyrometer. A instrument used for measuring high temperatures when the use 
of a thermometer is impracticable. These instruments are usually operated by the 
contraction or expansion of a metallic bar or plate. 
Seald. As applied to flour, potatoes, etc., to submerge or wet with water at a 
temperature of 160° F. or more, which is sufficient heat to dissolve the bands of the 
starch cells and expose the individual grains composing it to the action of the 
yeast plant. 
Short-time dough. A dough which, by reason of increased amount of leavening 
agent and/or temperatures of mixed dough or fermentation room or cabinet, 
requires a shorter fermentation period than ordinarily required. 
Shortening. Lard, butter, or other fats or oils mixed in bakery products to 
make them more friable and easier to crumble. 
Slack dough. A dough that contains more water or other liquid than required 
to make a dough of the proper consistency. It has a tendency to flatten out and 
to stick to the hands or the mixer. 
Sponge. A dough that contains part of the flour, part of the water, all or part 
of the yeast and all, part, or none of the other ingredients to be used in making 
baked products. 
Sponge and dough process. A process resulting from the combining of a fer- 
mented sponge with the remainder of the ingredients to be used and mixing same. 
A sponge and dough necessitates at least two mixing periods, that is, the mixing 
of the sponge ingredients and the mixing of the fermented sponge with the other 
ingredients to form the sponge and dough. 
Sponge cans. Cans generally used in the field for preparation of the sponge. 
They include the dough cans, hot and cold water cans, and one for yeast, if a 
liquid yeast is used. 
Stiff dough. A dough that contains less water or other liquid than required 
to make a dough of proper consistency. It is hard to handle, especially when 
hand-mixed. Generally used in making field bread and also to overcome defici- 
encies in flour. 
Straight dough process. A process whereby a dough is obtained by mixing 
together at one time all the ingredients to be used. 
Temperature. A condition that pertains to heat or cold; that is, the relative 
degree of each. This is one of the most important factors in bread making and 
must be taken into consideration in connection with the yeast, water, dough, 
proofroom, sponge, fermentation development or retardation, bake ovens, etc. 
Trench cover. In field baking, an expedient by which a covered trench is con- 
structed, generally of clay if procurable, for the purpose of creating what amounts 
to a firebox underneath the oven. 
Unfermented bread. This includes all breads made without yeast, such as 
aerated bread, crackers, baking-powder biscuits, etc. 
Vitamins. Recently discovered but very important food factors that are essential 
to normal growth and maintenance of good health. 
GRAINS AND FLOURS 
Section II 
4. Description and composition of grains. Grains or cereal grains are the seeds 
of such plants as wheat, corn, rice, oats, rye, buckwheat, barley, etc. Grain seeds, 
as such, or in some manufactured form, constitute one of the most important food 
items of man and animals. While they vary somewhat in composition, they all 
contain: 
a. Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates include starch and sugar used by man to pro- 
vide and replace the energy necessary for activity such as working, walking, etc. 58 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
b. Protein. Protein is used by man to build up and replace muscle and other 
body tissue. Protein in food causes growth and replaces worn-out or damaged 
cell structure. 
c. Fat. Fat is used by man as a reserve energy supply and is stored in the 
body in that form. When the quantity of carbohydrate food eaten is insufficient 
to supply the energy required for the activities of man, the stored-up fats are 
used to supply this deficiency. 
d. Mineral matter. Mineral matter is used by man for teeth, bone building, 
and other essential body functions. Much more mineral matter is contained in 
the whole or ground grain than in the manufactured form, such as wheat flour, 
because in the manufacturing process much of the mineral matter in the form of 
hulls and bran is invariably removed, 
e. Water. Water in a considerable amount is needed to promote elimination, 
perspiration, circulation of the blood, and many other functions of the body. 
The water contained in grains, or manufactured products thereof, which man 
ordinarily consumes, is far insufficient to meet his requirements. To a certain 
extent, the eating of grain foods, such as bread, encourages the drinking of water 
by imparting a dry feeling to the throat. 
5. Milling of grain. The preparation of grain for human consumption, commonly 
called milling, involves the removal of the hull and bran coats from the kernel 
and the grinding, sifting, bolting, and separation into various grades of the 
endosperm (starch granules.) If the grinding is limited to rather coarse particles, 
the product is known as meal, such as corn meal. If grinding is continued until 
a powdery product is produced, it is called flour, such as wheat flour, rye flour, 
rice flour, etc. 
6. Wheat. Wheat is by far the most important of the grains, especially in the 
United States. It is grown in all temperate climates; when manufactured into 
flour it makes better and more palatable bread than flour from other grains which, 
to a large extent, does not possess the qualities which make well-risen loaves 
of bread. 
a. Classification. There are many classifications of wheat, but for purposes 
of this manual they will be confined to: 
(1) Winter. Winter wheat is wheat sown in the fall and harvested the fol- 
lowing summer. 
(2) Spring. Spring wheat is wheat sown in the spring and harvested in the 
fall. 
(3) Hard. Hard wheat may be either winter or spring wheat and has kernels 
that are hard, tough, and difficult to cut. It contains from 10 to 12 per cent 
protein. The gluten of hard wheat flour is tough, resistant, generally of good 
quality, and best suited for bread making. 
(4) Soft. Soft wheat is composed of kernels that are soft and of a starchy 
appearance when cut and usually contain from 6 to 10 per cent protein. It pro- 
duces a soft and weak gluten, does not make a good loaf of bread, but is suitable 
for pastry, crackers, and cakes. 
b. Products obtained from milling. The chief products obtained from the milling 
of wheat are: 
(1) Bran. Bran is the coarse particles of the outer coatings of wheat. It 
is used largely as animal feed but to a limited extent as a breakfast cereal. 
(2) Shorts. Shorts is the fine particles of the outer coatings and germs of 
wheat. Like bran, it is used largely as animal feed. 
(3) Flour. For various grades of flour obtained from milling wheat, see 
paragraph 7. 
7. Wheat flour, a. Classes. Within each class of wheat flour, each of the grades 
described in b below may be obtained. Flours are classified according to the 
kind of wheat from which they are obtained, as follows: 
(1) Hard spring. This is flour milled from wheat grown in Minnesota, North 
and South Dakota, and nearby territory. It has a rich, creamy color and a large 
amount of gluten of the best quality, and makes a good, well-risen loaf of bread 
when properly handled. It is sharp or granular to the touch and is an excellent 
bread flour. 
(2) Hard winter. This is flour milled from wheat grown in Kansas, Nebraska, 
Oklahoma, and other western States, has a good color, an excellent flavor, and a BAKING 
59 
good strong gluten. Although its gluten is not generally as strong as that of hard 
spring wheat, it is an excellent bread flour if properly handled. 
(3) Soft winter. This flour comes from the more humid central States and 
the Pacific coast. Its gluten is low in quantity and it has poor tensility. It is 
white, has a soft and fluffy texture, and an excellent flavor. It is used mostly 
for pastry and biscuits. 
(4) Durum. Durum flour is milled from durum wheat, grown mostly in the 
northwest section of the United States. It has a yellowish creamy color and a 
large amount of very hard and tough gluten. It is not satisfactory for bread 
making purposes unless blended with a weaker flour. 
b. Grades. (1) Low-grade. About 3 per cent of the total flour obtained at first 
and last stages when milling wheat is low-grade flour. It is dark in color, con- 
tains considerable bran specks and dirt, and does not make a satisfactory loaf of 
bread. It is used for purposes other than bakery products, such as sizing, paste, 
etc. 
(2) Patent. Patent flour is sometimes further divided into short and long 
patent, and constitutes from 40 to 90 per cent of the best portion of the flour; that 
is, that portion which contains the smallest quantity of bran specks and is capable 
of producing an excellent quality of gluten desired for bread making purposes. 
Short patent flour is a higher or better grade than long patent. 
(3) Clear. Sometimes further divided into first dear and second clear, this 
flour is that portion remaining after the patent flour and low-grade flour are 
separated from a run of flour. First clear is a higher or better grade than second 
clear, as the first clear is that portion remaining after separation of a short patent, 
and a second clear is that remaining after separation of a long patent. Clear flour 
does not make satisfactory white bread as it imparts a dark color to the crumb 
of bread, but it may be used advantageously when making part whole wheat 
bread or rye bread, the dark color of crumb not being objectionable in such 
products. 
(4) Straight. Straight flour is the total produced from a run of wheat, ex- 
cluding the low-grade; that is, the product obtained by combining the patent 
and the clear flour. Federal specifications provide for the purchase of straight 
flour for Army ration purposes. Although generally not as high in quality as a 
patent flour, straight flour is capable of producing an attractive, palatable, and 
highly nutritive loaf of bread if properly handled. 
(5) Cut straight. Cut straight is a straight flour from which a portion of the 
best or patent flour has been removed. 
(6) Stuffed straight. This is a straight flour to which an additional amount of 
clear flour from another run of flour has been added. 
8. Additional flours. In addition to the white flours described in paragraph 7, 
there are several other flours available commercially which are frequently used 
in making bread and other bakery products. These flours are highly desirable, 
especially to provide variety in the diet. Among the more important from the 
Army standpoint are; 
a. Whole wheat. Whole wheat flour is the product made by grinding the entire 
wheat grain to a powdery consistency. It contains not only starch granules, but 
also all the bran or outer coats of the wheat. Whole wheat flour may be used by 
itself as the flour component of bread, or it may be blended with either patent, 
straight, or clear flours, or a combination thereof. Bread produced from whole 
wheat flour is brown in color and high in mineral and roughage content as com- 
pared with bread produced from all patent, straight, or clear flours. Whole wheat 
bread makes an excellent substitute for white bread for the sake of variety. 
b. Rye. Rye flour is lacking in gluten-forming protein, which quality is essen- 
tial to the formation of a loaf of bread having a good volume and smooth, porous 
texture. For this reason it is generally used in proportions of 10 to 40 per cent 
rye flour and the remainder wheat flour when making so-called rye bread. Bread 
made from 100 per cent rye flour would be small in volume, soggy, and compact, 
and unpalatable to the average American. There are three types of flour obtained 
from the milling of rye, as follows: 
(1) White. While darker in color, this flour corresponds to the short patent 
wheat flour. It is nearly white, has a small percentage of ash, but is deficient 
in gluten-forming protein. 60 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(2) Dark. Dark rye flour corresponds to the clear grade wheat flour. It is 
very dark, has a branny taste, and is used to obtain a dark rye loaf of bread. 
(3) Medium. Medium rye flour corresponds to the straight grade of wheat 
flour. It is a blend of the dark and white rye flours. It possesses more of the 
true rye taste than white rye and for this reason is the type mostly used when 
making rye bread. 
c. Wheat flour substitutes. These are flours made from corn, rice, barely, po- 
tatoes (bleached and unbleached), rice, soybeans, etc. They may be used as sub- 
stitutes for a part of the wheat flour. They are practically devoid of gluten- 
forming protein and for this reason will not produce a satisfactory loaf of bread 
when used by themselves. With the exception of soybean, up to 20 per cent of 
any of these flours or a combination thereof, the balance to be wheat flour, may be 
used without seriously lowering the quality of bread. Soybean flour is very high 
in protein and low in starch. If used in excess of 5 per cent, it tends to produce 
a compact small volume loaf lacking attractiveness and palatability. 
d. Self-rising flour. This is a flour which is mixed with baking powder in the 
proper proportions so as to produce a satisfactory raised product after mixing 
with water. This flour is m convenient form for the household or company 
kitchen, especially for the preparation of hot cakes and similar quick breads, but 
is of no particular merit in the bakery. Most pancake flours on the market are 
self-rising. 
9. Bleached flour. Flour improves with age under proper storage conditions, up 
to 1 year, both in color and quality. However, some flour is shipped from the 
mill before it is naturally aged. In lieu of natural aging, flour is often bleached. 
Bleaching has the effect of whitening and artificially aging flour. There is no 
objection to the purchase of bleached flour for Army use provided the bleaching 
agent was used solely for the purpose of aging the flour and not to cover up 
inferior qualities such as original Sark color, off odors, etc. 
10. New flour. New flour is freshly milled flour from recently harvested wheat. 
Such flour is unstable and presents difficulties in bread making until it matures. 
This is due to the fact that the proteins of the wheat must undergo certain changes 
before they combine to form a satisfactory gluten. A warm, dry storage is the 
best means of aging the flour and developing the gluten qualities. Under good 
storage conditions, new flour may be considered as sufficiently aged for use after 
a period of 1 month. If new flour must be used before it is aged, it is best to mix 
it with an equal quantity of flour that has been on hand for some time. If no old 
flour is available, good bread may be made with new flour by giving a rapid 
fermentation at a slightly higher temperature than that ordinarily used, making 
a stiff dough, and using a larger quantity of yeast and salt. New flour should not 
be confused with green flour, which is flour obtained from milling wheat that is 
unsweated or insufficiently sweated. Proper sweating of wheat is obtained by 
leaving wheat in stacks 10 days to 8 weeks before threshing. Green flour will 
not produce a satisfactory loaf of bread, even if allowed to age. 
11. Storage of flour, a. Flour should be kept in a dry, well-ventilated storeroom 
at a fairly uniform temperature. A temperature of about 70° F., with a relative 
humidity of 65 per cent, is considered ideal. Flour should not be stored in a 
damp place. When milled, flour contains moisture up to 15 per cent but it 
will take up additional moisture when stored in damp places or shipped into moist 
climates. Moist storerooms or climates accompanied by temperatures greater 
than 75° F. are very conducive to mold growth, bacterial development, and rapid 
deterioration of the flour. The storage room should be well-ventilated, as flour 
absorbs and retains odors. For this reason, flour should not be stored in the same 
room with supplies, such as cheese, onions, or paints, which give off strong odors. 
b. All flour should be stacked on skids or dunnage so as to be at least 5 inches 
off the floor. The lowest layer of sacks should, be laid lengthwise, the next layer 
crosswise, etc., to permit proper circulation of air. If it can be avoided, sacks of 
flour should not be stacked more than seven high, as additional weight on bottom 
sacks tends to weaken the flour therein. Sufficient aisle space should be available 
to assist ventilation and facilitate counting or inventorying. Sacks should not 
be permitted to lean against pillars or walls, as circulation of air is retarded and 
the weight causes undue strain on the building, 
c. The best precaution against rats and mice in the storeroom is the elimination 
of holes and large cracks in the floor and walls. If the rats get into the flour BAKING 
61 
storeroom, they are best exterminated by means of traps. Rats and mice do not 
care much for flour as a food as it forms a paste in their mouths due to the dryness 
of the flour, but they consider sacked flour ideal for nesting purposes. In nesting, 
they bore into the sacks, strewing loose flour along the outside of them and on the 
floor, a condition conducive to development and multiplication of insect infesta- 
tion. 
d. Absolute cleanliness is essential to prevent infestation from beetles and 
other insects. Storerooms should be well-cleaned on receipt of each new lot of 
flour. Frequent sweepings underneath and around sacks or stacks of sacks should 
be made and no refuse, empty uncleaned sacks, or other material should be per- 
mitted to remain in the vicinity of the flour. Each shipment of flour should 
be inspected as soon as it arrives to detect the presence of insects. Old stock 
should be reinspected frequently and when beetles or insects are found, prompt 
steps taken to remove them-. It is far better and easier to keep insects out of the 
storeroom and out of the flour than it is to sift them out before baking. Infested 
flour always contains a certain amount of filth which cannot be removed by sifting 
or bolting. 
e. A good patent or straight flour will keep for 1 year if properly stored. On 
account of the liability to infestation from bettles and insects, it is preferable to 
limit the stock on hand to a 3 months’ supply, particularly during the summer 
months. In warm, moist climates like the Tropics, flour deteriorates very rapidly, 
and more than 30 days’ supply is not very desirable. Patent and straight flours 
keep best, as they are freer from the oily germ stock. Lower grades, whole 
wheat, rye, corn, and barley flours do not keep as well; their keeping qualities, 
however, are improved by using tightly closed containers. 
12. Testing of flour. The testing of flour to determine the quantity of carbo- 
hydrates, protein, moisture, and ash contained therein requires the services of an 
experienced chemist and technical equipment. However, there are several tests 
which can be made at post bakeries and in the field which will give a good indica- 
tion of the quality and characteristics of the flour on hand. 
a. Soundness and odor. The odor of flour should be sweet and similar to that 
of freshly ground wheat. Flour which is in unsound condition or has a musty, 
garlicky, or other objectionable odor will not make a well-flavored bread. 
b. Granulation (feel). Rub the flour between the thumb and fingers. Good 
hard wheat flour has a somewhat granular or gritty feel. A soft, smooth, or 
slippery feeling denotes a soft wheat flour or a blend of a soft and hard wheat 
flour. Hard wheat flours retain their form when pressed in the hollow of the hand 
and fall apart readily when touched. Soft wheat flour tends to remain lumped 
together after pressure. 
c. Color (pekar) test. Place a small quantity of flour on a smooth glass or 
porcelain plate and “slick” with a steel flour trier, spatula, or table knife to form 
a firm smooth mass of about 2 inches square, the thickness running from about 
one-half inch at back to a thin film at front of plate. This test should be made 
in comparison with a flour of known grade and quality, both flours being “slicked” 
side by side on the same plate, if possible. A bright, rich, creamy-white color 
indicates a hard flour of good gluten qualities. A dark or grayish color indicates 
a poorer grade of flour or presence of dirt in the flour. The presence of bran 
specks indicates a lower grade of flour; a dead chalky-white color indicates a soft 
wheat flour or excessive bleach. After making color comparison on the dry 
samples, dip the plate obliquely in a vessel of clean water, remove, and allow to 
partially dry. Variations in color and presence of bran specks are more pro-r 
nounced in the damp samples. Owing to the custom of bleaching flours, color is 
not always a reliable guide. Bleaching will, however, not improve the dull ap- 
pearance of a poor flour and will not conceal dirt and bran specks. Unless over- 
done and when it does not conceal inferiority, bleaching is not considered ob- 
jectionable. 
d. Baking test. (1) The final and conclusive test of any flour is the kind of 
bread that can be made from it. A single loaf should be baked and compared with 
a loaf baked from a known flour. To make baking tests of value, all conditions 
should be standardized. Definite weights of flour, sugar, salt, yeast, and shortening 
should be used and water taken in accordance with absorption ability. The 
same materials, except flour, should be used in each dough. A definite procedure 
must be followed, using identical times and temperatqres for all operations. 62 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(2) In addition to the identical doughs described above, two additional doughs 
of the unknown flour should be made, using the same formula and the same tem- 
perature and baking conditions throughout, but varying the fermentation time by 
giving one dough 30 minutes less fermentation than the normal loaf and the other 
30 minutes more fermentation. 
(3) When two or more flours are thus treated under the same conditions, 
any differences in quality of bread can be laid to the quality of the flour. Also, 
by comparing the three loaves of bread made from the unknown flour, the pro- 
cedure to follow to obtain best results with that flour may readily be determined. 
Composition of wheat flour and bread 
[Percentage form] 
Average 
wheat 
Average 
flour 
Average 
loaf of 
white 
bread 
Moisture ___ 
14.5 
12.0 
37.0 
Protein 
12.4 
11.0 
9.5 
Carbohydrates 
69.3 
74.3 
49.0 
Pat - ... __ _ ___ _ 
9 0 
1.3 
2 0 
Mineral matter 
1.8 
4 
1.6 
OTHER INGREDIENTS 
Section III 
Yeast 
13. Importance of yeast. Next to flour, yeast may be considered as the most 
important ingredient used in bread making. The quality of the finished loaf 
of bread is dependent to a large extent upon the kind, quality, and condition of 
yeast used in the dough. Although flour is a highly nutritious substance, it is 
not suitable for human food until it has been made into a form which is palatable 
and readily acted upon by the digestive juices of the human system. Cooking 
or baking alone causes certain changes to take place which make the product more 
palatable and digestible, but unleavened products, such as hard bread, crackers, 
etc., are not relished as a steady diet. Incorporating yeast in a flour dough results 
in a leavened product or an expansion, and a mellowing and development of the 
starch cells which considerably improve the palatability and digestibility of 
flour foods. 
14. Description of yeast. A yeast cell is a minute vegetable substance which 
cannot be seen with the naked eye. Although not generally known, yeast cells 
are constantly floating about in the air and settling on food substances. With 
proper food, air, moisture, and temperature conditions, yeast will grow and re- 
produce rapidly. Light is not necessary for its growth. When yeast is exposed 
to unfavorable conditions it may go into spore form, a condition in which the 
cells are temporarily inactive but still possess the ability to become active again 
as soon as favorable conditions are provided. Dried yeast is a good example of 
yeast in spore form. The absence of sufficient moisture in dried yeast prohibits 
growth and development until such time as the dried yeast is mixed with water 
and flour or other carbohydrate substance. When so mixed, the yeast changes 
from spore to active form. 
15. Kinds of yeast. There are numerous varieties and strains of yeast, all cap- 
able of fermenting sugar, but each is best suited to certain conditions and. sub- 
stances. While these all produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, the quantities pro- 
duced and the character of the other products formed are such that many of 
them are inefficient or undesirable for baking purposes. Bread yeast is the par- 
ticular kind of yeast used in bread making. It is generally obtained from manu- 
facturers who carefully grow selected pure strains and sell them in practically 
pure condition. The use of a cultivated yeast eliminates much uncertainty as 
to results of the fermentation. Wild yeasts are present in nature and are the BAKING 
63 
cause of many natural fermentations. These organisms are undesirable in bread 
making. 
a. Compressed. 
(1) Compressed yeast is a pure culture of bread yeast grown on a large 
scale, collected and compressed into cakes. It may be mixed with not more than 
5 per cent starch to absorb the excess moisture and give it body. For bakery use, 
it is compressed into 1-pound bricks or Vz -pound bricks and wrapped in paraffined 
cloth or paper. For household use, it is put up in Vz-ounce packets wrapped in 
tinfoil. It is very perishable and spoils quickly when removed from cold storage 
and exposed to warm temperatures. For this reason, it can be used at posts dis- 
tant from railroad and good road facilities and in the field in warm climates only 
when arrangements are made for its cold storage. If wrapped in heavy paper 
when removed from cold storage or if placed in a moderately cool place such as a 
basement, a hole in damp ground, or a porous jar covered with wet cloths, com- 
pressed yeast will keep in fair condition for a number of days. If well chilled, 
it can be shipped almost any distance in a fireless cooker. When obtainable, com- 
pressed yeast should always be used by Army bakers. 
(2) Good compressed yeast should feel firm, tough, and springy, and should 
break with a clean fracture resembling broken plate glass. It should have a fresh 
yeasty odor and be practically tasteless. The color of yeast is not a safe guide 
in determining its quality. Spoiled yeast is soft and has a sour or putrid odor. 
A quick test is to roll a small amount into a firm ball about one inch in diameter 
and drop it into a glass containing a dilute solution of sugar. Note the time 
required for the ball to float to the surface. A good sample will rise to the surface 
in a few minutes; a poor sample will take a much longer time. The time required 
will vary according to the temperature of the water and the amount of sugar 
dissolved in the water, 
b. Dried. 
(1) Dried yeast is prepared by mixing a large proportion of starch or corn 
meal with yeast and drying the mixture at a comparatively low temperature. It 
is packed in cans or moisture-proof fiber containers, 3 ounces net. For Army use, 
the small packages are best assembled in hermetically sealed shipping containers. 
Dried yeast is inert and largely in spore form and will keep under ordinary 
storage conditions for several months. It can be taken and used anywhere and 
gives fairly good results in bread making. Dried yeast will not, however, keep 
indefinitely. The packages should be marked with the date of manufacture and 
should be used within three months, if possible. Deliveries of dried yeast should 
be carefully tested to see that worthless, old, or poorly prepared dried yeast is not 
being furnished. 
(2) Dried yeast, being largely in spore form, requires considerable time to 
develop growth when mixed with water and other ingredients. The yeast should 
be given a start by using the sponge and dough method, making the sponge part 
rather slack and containing at least 2 pounds of sugar to each 100 pounds of flour. 
One pound of dried yeast to a dough containing 100 pounds of flour is the best 
proportion to use. When so used, the sponge part of the sponge and dough should 
be given approximately 10 hours’ fermentation. If bread is to be made with dried 
yeast by the straight dough method, the dried yeast should be left overnight in a 
semiliquid mixture of some of the water, flour, and sugar which are to be used 
in the dough the following morning. 
c. Liquid. When commercial compressed or dried yeast is not available or 
when only a small quantity is on hand, it may be necessary for the baker to make 
his own yeast in the form of liquid yeast. These are liquid cultures of yeast pre- 
pared in the bakery. Once having a good stock of yeast, the baker may prepare 
fresh yeast from day to day by inoculating fresh lots of liquid with the yeast made 
the prevous day. Liquid yeasts cannot be made as pure and uniform as com- 
mercial compressed yeasts and they have no place in the modern bakery. They 
require considerable time and trouble not warranted by any saving in expense. 
However, all Army bakers should know how to make and use liquid yeasts, for 
there may be times when compressed or dried yeast is not available. It should 
be the practice for Army bakers to make and use at frequent intervals stock liquid 
yeasts such as potato yeast, and flour and malt yeast, even when compressed yeast 
can be obtained daily. 64 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(1) Kinds. There are two kinds of liquid yeasts; 
(a) Stock yeast. A mixture of water and some carbohydrate substance 
such as flour, sugar, malt, potatoes, corn flour, rice flour, etc., to which a small 
quantity of compressed, dried, or part of a previously prepared lot of stock liquid 
yeast has been added. 
(h) Virgin yeast. A mixture of water and some carbohydrate substance to 
which no yeast is added but which depends upon the development of any yeast 
which may be present in the materials used or which may be floating in the air. 
This yeast is obviously unreliable as there is no assurance as to what kind of 
fermentation will develop. It should never be made and used until all efforts to 
obtain stock liquid yeast have been exhausted. 
(2) Recipes. When making stock liquid yeasts, be sure that paste is cooled to 
approximately 80° F. before adding yeast. At higher temperatures, yeast will be 
seriously injured, if not killed. Similarly, if left to develop in a temperature much 
lower than 80° F., the growth of yeast is considerably retarded and if below 
45° F., may cease. Use earthenware, granite, porcelain, or clean wooden receptacles 
for preparation and development whenever possible, as metal containers have a 
deleterious effect on yeast growth and development. All containers used in the 
preparation of liquid yeast should be thoroughly cleaned before being used again 
in order to prevent contamination of subsequent batches with wild yeasts, etc. 
(a)Stock potato yeast (yield 1 gallon). 
1. Formula. 
Potatoes 1 lb. 
Flour Va lb. 
Salt Va oz. 
Water Enough to make 1 gallon 
Compressed yeast Vi oz. 
or 
Dried yeast IVz oz. 
or 
Stock liquid yeast 1 pt. 
2. Procedure. Clean the potatoes thoroughly. Cut up and boil in water 
enough to cover. When well done, strain and mash thoroughly. Add the flour to 
the mashed potatoes. Add potato water and, if necessary, additional boiling 
water to make 1 gallon of thin paste. Mix paste thoroughly. Allow to cool to 
80° F. Add compressed yeast, dried yeast, or previously prepared stock liquid 
yeast. Set to ripen or develop at 80° F. It will be ripe and ready for use in from 
9 to 12 hours. 
(h) Stock flour yeast (yield 1 gallon), 
1. Formula. 
Flour SVz lb. 
Water 3 qt. 
Sugar 1 oz. 
Salt Va oz. 
Compressed yeast V2 oz. 
or 
Dried yeast IV2 oz. 
or 
Stock liquid yeast 1 pt. 
2. Procedure. Dissolve sugar and salt in 1 quart of water. Heat solution 
to approximately 125° F. Place flour in earthenware, granite, or wooden receptacle. 
Add the 125° F. sugar and salt solution to flour and mix by hand until stiff dough 
consistency is obtained. Allow remainder of water to come to a boil and then 
add gradually to dough, stirring constantly so as to make a thin batter and 
eliminate lumps. Set to cool. When cooled to 80° F., add either compressed yeast, 
dried yeast, or previously prepared liquid stock yeast. Endeavor to maintain 
temperature at 80° F. It should be ready to use in from 18 to 24 hours. 
(c) Virgin flour yeast (yield 1 gallon). 
1. Formula: 
Flour 3 lb. 
Water 4 qts. 
Sugar 1 oz. 
Salt T Va oz. BAKING 
65 
2. Procedure. Dissolve sugar and salt in water and bring to a boil. Place 
flour in earthenware or wooden receptacle. Pour 1 quart of boiling water on flour. 
Stir well to break up lumps. When remainder of water has cooled to about 160° 
F., add to flour paste. Allow the mixture to cool to 80° F. and keep at this tem- 
perature for about 48 to 60 hours, or until all hissing has stopped. The yeast is 
then ready for use. 
(d) Virgin potato yeast (yield 1 gallon). Same ingredients and procedure 
as in (c) above, substituting 4 pounds of potatoes for the 3 pounds of flour. 
(e) Tuba de nipa. Tuba de nipa, as it is commonly called by the Filipinos, 
furnishes an excellent substitute for stock yeast. It is the sap collected from the 
nipa palm. The sap, having been placed in a deep can with a small opening at 
the top, is set in the sun for about 12 hours and allowed to ferment. A thick 
scum forms on the surface and the tuba is removed to a cool place where it will 
keep for several days. The scum should be allowed to remain as a protection 
against contamination. Fermented tuba de nipa is used as stock yeast and in the 
same proportions. 
16. Conditions necessary for efficient functioning of yeast. Yeast, in order to 
grow, multiply, and act efficiently as a leavening agent, requires proper air, 
moisture, temperature, and food conditions. Like all other living organisms, yeast 
requires a certain amount of oxygen (obtained from air) and moisture in order to 
live and thrive. In a slack dough, its activity is increased, whereas in a stiff dough, 
its action is retarded. Yeast works best in temperatures of 78° to 82° F. As tem- 
perature increases beyond this point, action is accelerated; but the chances of 
obtaining undesirable fermentation, such as acetic and wild yeast, are greater. 
At about 120° F. the action of yeast is killed. Similarly, as temperature of dough 
containing yeast is lowered from the 78° to 82° F. range, the action of yeast is re- 
tarded until about 45° F. is reached, at which point activity practically ceases. 
Food, in the form of carbohydrates (starch, sugar, malt), must be present before 
yeast will cause fermentation. 
17. Fermentation, Fermentation may be considered as the chemical action that 
takes place in certain substances, caused by the action of micro-organisms (bacteria, 
yeasts, molds), under favorable conditions. Common fermentations are: 
a. Alcoholic. A conversion of sugar to approximately equal parts of carbon 
dioxide (a gas) and alcohol, caused by the action of yeast. This is the type of 
fermentation desired in bread making. 
b. Acetic. A conversion of dilute alcohol to acetic acid (vinegar) caused by the 
action of acetic bacteria. At high temperatures (above 90° F.) or on prolonged 
fermentation acetic fermentation may take place in an alcoholic fermentation 
of yeast action on sugar. If this happens, sourness of bread results. 
c. Lactic. A conversion of sugar (cane sugar, beet sugar, milk sugar) to lactic 
acid caused by the action of lactic bacteria. It is this fermentation that causes 
the souring of milk and, to a certain extent, it may be formed in connection with 
yeast fermentation of sugar in bread making, thereby imparting a lactic acid flavor 
to bread. 
18. Action of yeast in a dough, a. Yeast secretes four substances known as 
enzymes. The enzyme diastase breaks down some of the starch in flour into com- 
pound sugar. The enzyme invertase breaks down compound sugars to simple 
sugars. The enzyme zymase breaks down simple sugars to carbon dioxide gas and 
alcohol. The enzyme protease has a softening effect on the gluten, thereby giving 
it more expanding power. 
b. It may be seen that it is not necessary to add sugar to a dough in order to 
secure fermentation by yeast, as part of the flour may be converted to sugar by the 
enzyme diastase and subsequently acted upon to produce carbon dioxide , and alcohol. 
However, it is advisable to use some sugar substance (cane sugar, beet sugar, corn 
sugar, malt, sirup, etc.) as yeast food in a dough in order to prevent extensive 
fermentation periods and possible breaking down of gluten by enzyme protease 
to the point where only small volume is obtainable. 
c. The carbon dioxide gas formed by the action of yeast on sugar is the element 
which it is desired to retain in a dough. The alcohol formed is usually vaporized 
during baking. It is the expanding of the carbon dioxide gas (caused by heat) 
within and between the cells of the dough that causes it to rise and expand and 66 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
form the silky, spongy texture which aids materially in making bread attractive 
and palatable. 
19. Factors affecting growth of yeast in bread making, a. The action of yeast 
in a bread dough is accelerated by: 
(1) Use of slack doughs. 
(2) A lesser quantity of salt than ordinarily used. 
(3) Higher temperatures (up to 95° F.) than ordinarily used. 
(4) More sugar, or substitutes therefor, than ordinarily used. 
(5) More thorough mixing. 
b. The action of yeast in a bread dough is retarded by; 
(1) The use of stiff doughs. 
(2) A larger amount of salt than is ordinarily used. 
(3) Lower temperatures (down to 60° F.) than ordinarily used. 
(4) Less sugar, or substitutes therefor, than ordinarily used. 
(5) Less thorough mixing. 
20. Leaven or old (left over) dough. Retain a piece of the leavened dough to 
be used for a certain day’s baking and store it in a cool place (preferably under 
50° F.) until ready to mix dough for the following day. This piece of leaven or 
old dough may be used in lieu of other leavening agent. Leaven or old dough to 
be used successfully as a leavening agent should not be more than 24 hours old, 
as longer periods tend to develop sour fermentations which will be reflected in the 
finished bread. A piece of the dough made by using old leaven retained from the 
previous day may also be retained for the following day, and so on, indefinitely. 
For best results, about 2 pounds of old dough to 100 pounds of new dough should 
be used. 
21. Baking powder, a. Baking powder is a gas-forming or leavening agent 
produced by the action of an acid reacting material on sodium bicarbonate (baking 
soda) which causes the formation of carbon dioxide gas. This is the same gas as 
that produced by yeast in its action on sugar. While both the acid reacting 
material, such as tartaric acid, acid salts, compounds of aluminum, etc., and the 
baking soda are present in baking powder as purchased, the carbon dioxide gas 
cannot be formed until sufficient water is present to cause the gas formation. When 
baking powder is added to a dough or batter, sufficient water is present to cause 
this gas formation, 
b. There are several kinds of baking powder available commercially, each af 
which must be handled differently to obtain the best results. For this reason 
it is essential that instructions as to the quantity to be used and the methods to 
be employed as contained in the directions for use on the label of containers, 
should be strictly followed. 
c. While baking powder is an excellent leavening agent for quickly leavened 
products such as hot cakes, biscuits, and cake, it cannot be used to produce a 
palatable and attractive loaf of bread. In order to obtain the desired flavor and 
consistency of bread, a gradual formation of gas and expansion of gluten, such as 
is produced by yeast, is necessary. 
Water 
22. Water, a. Reasons for use. Water is an essential ingredient in bread making, 
Without water, the formation of a dough would be impossible. When mixed with 
wheat flour, water unites with the protein substances of flour called glutenin and 
gliadin and forms the substance known as gluten, this substance being essential 
in order to produce a well-risen leavened loaf of bread. The presence of water 
in comparatively large quantities is also essential to cause fermentation by use 
of yeast. Before being incorporated in a dough, the yeast should be dissolved 
separately in a portion of the water to be used in the dough. When so treated, 
the yeast is uniformly distributed throughout the entire mass of the dough, result- 
ing in a much better and more uniform fermentation. Water plays an important 
part in the fermentation, eating qualities, and freshness of a dough and bread 
made therefrom, mainly from the following standpoints: 
(1) Without water, yeast activity would cease. 
(2) The presence of water makes possible the pliable and expansible properties 
of the dough so that in this form it can be raised by the carbon dioxide gas result- 
ing from yeast activity. BAKING 
67 
(3) The presence of water aids materially in imparting good eating qualities 
to the loaf of bread. A dough containing insufficient water when baked would 
result in a dry, brittle product. Conversely, too much water remaining in a baked 
loaf of bread results in a soggy, unpalatable product and makes it readily sus- 
ceptible to mold development. 
(4) Water in bread imparts the characteristic of freshness. The evaporation 
of the water contained in a loaf of bread into the surrounding atmosphere is the 
principal cause of staleness. 
b. Purity. All water used in bread doughs should be of a purity equal to that 
of drinking water. Usually the water used at Army posts for drinking purposes 
is in every way suitable for bread-making purposes. Even moderately chlorinated 
water will not materially affect the quality of the bread or impart an off odor. 
c. Quantity to he used. The use of slack or stiff doughs may be desirable under 
certain conditions, but it must be remembered that the quantity of water to be 
used in any case should be such as to not materially affect the quality of the finished 
bread. From a commercial standpoint, the retention of more water in a loaf of 
bread is beneficial to the civilian baker as it results in increased profits; but in 
the Army, where no profit is derived from the sale of bread, no advantage is gained 
by the use of more water than is necessary to produce a palatable and attractive 
product. According to Government standards, it is not permissible for bread 
1 hour or more after completion of baking to contain more than 38 per cent of 
water, based on actual weight of the loaf. If the proper amount of water is, used 
in a dough, and the dough is properly handled and baked, the finished loaf will 
usually contain about 36 per cent of water, based on actual weight of the loaf. For 
practical purposes, a pint of water may be considered as weighing 1 pound and a 
gallon of water 8.3 pounds. 
23. Salt. a. Salt used in bakeries is the kind universally used as table salt; 
that is, a chemical compound of the elements of sodium and chlorine. Salt, flour, 
yeast, and water constitute the essential ingredients of a bread dough. In other 
words, a good leavened bread may be made by the use of these ingredients only. 
Other ingredients such as sugar, milk, and shortening, when added to a dough 
improve the quality and attractiveness of the finished product but they are not 
essential to the production of a good quality of leavened bread. 
b. Salt is used primarily to impart a desirable flavor to bread. Without salt 
in a dough, the resultant bread would be flat and insipid. In addition to imparting 
flavor, salt to a large extent may be considered as a controlling factor in fermenta- 
tion. As the amount of salt used in a dough is increased, the proper fermentation 
time for that dough is increased, and vice versa. 
Example: If 2 per cent is the normal amount of salt used in a dough and it is 
desired to shorten the fermentation period, reducing the amount to 1 per cent is 
one way of accomplishing the desired result. Conversely, if it is desired to lengthen 
the fermentation period, increasing the amount of salt to 3 per cent will accomplish 
this result. 
c. In order to insure equal distribution throughout the dough, the salt and 
sugar to be used should be dissolved in a part of the water before being added to 
the dough. The salt should never be mixed with the yeast nor added to the yeast 
and water solution, as this high concentration of salt with yeast will invariably 
seriously weaken, if not kill, yeast activity. 
d. Normally, 2 per cent salt, based on weight of flour used, will give best results. 
Amounts above and below this percentage may be used to meet special situations 
but in no case should the amount used exceed 5 per cent, based on weight of flour. 
Amounts in excess of 5 per cent will seriously injure the quality and flavor of 
bread. 
Miscellaneous Ingredients 
24. Sugar and substitutes, a. General. The word “sugar,” without qualification, 
means the sugar obtained from sugarcane or sugar beets. For all practical purposes, 
there is no difference between cane and beet sugar. The chemical name for cane 
or beet sugar is sucrose. The sugar obtained by chemically treating cornstarch 
is known as corn sugar. Its chemical name is dextrose. The chemical name for 
sugar contained in milk is lactose and that obtained from the malting of grains is 
maltose. Other sweetening agents such as brown sugar, corn sirup, cane sirup, 68 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
molasses, and honey may be used in bakery products in lieu of sugar. Sugar is 
available commercially in different size granules such as cubes, coarse granulated, 
fine granulated, extra fine granulated, and powdered. For bread making purposes, 
fine granulated sugar (the kind ordinarily used for sweetening foods) is most 
desirable. 
b. Function of sugar in bakery products. 
(1) Sugar is added to a bread dough primarily to provide immediate food for 
yeast. It is the sugar in a dough that is acted upon by yeast to produce the carbon 
dioxide gas resulting in a leavened product. Its second important function is to 
provide a sweet flavor to the finished loaf. It also gives to the crust of a loaf of 
bread that golden brown color which adds materially to its attractiveness. For 
this reason, more than just enough sugar to act as yeast food should be incorpor- 
ated in a bread dough; if no sugar remains in the dough upon completion of fermen- 
tation, the resultant product will have an unattractive, light-colored crust. 
(2) In order to be fermentable by yeast, sugar must be in simple form. The 
starch of flour may be broken down from its complex form through compound 
sugar to simple sugar by the action of enzymes secreted by yeast. Sucrose, or 
cane and beet sugar, is a compound sugar and must be broken down to simple 
sugars by the yeast enzyme invertase before it is fermentable. Dextrose, or corn 
sugar, is a simple sugar and is, therefore, directly fermentable by yeast. The con- 
version of a compound sugar to a simple one within a dough is so rapid that no 
difference in fermentation time need be considered in using cane sugar or corn 
sugar. Lactose, or milk sugar, is not fermentable by yeast. Therefore, any lactose 
present in a dough will remain as such during fermentation and, as a result of 
caramelization caused by high heat of oven, will tend to give a golden brown 
color to the crust of bread. 
c. Amount of sugar to be used. The amount of sugar used depends on tlhe kind 
of bakery product desired. For ordinary bread doughs, the amount of sugar 
generally used ranges from 2 to 4 per cent, based on the weight of flour used. 
The same weight of either sucrose or dextrose may be used, even though the latter 
is only three-fourths as sweet as sucrose. Unless the fermentation period is rather 
extended or the amount of yeast used is more than 2 per cent based on the weight 
of flour, the incorporation of from 2 to 4 per cent of sugar in a dough will give 
satisfactory results as to flavor and color of crust, provided the dough has been 
otherwise properly handled. When there is a long fermentation period (over 5 
hours) or the amount of yeast used exceeds 2 per cent, the amount of sugar used 
should be correspondingly increased. 
d. Amount cf substitutes to be used. The use of molasses, sirup, brown sugar, 
malt, etc., in lieu of white sugar is satisfactory and often desirable, especially in 
dark-colored products such as rye bread, whole wheat bread, or dark-colored cake. 
It must be borne in mind, however, that sirups, molasses, and malt contain from 
25 to 35 per cent moisture, while white sugar contains practically no water, so that 
an additional quantity of the substitute must be used to obtain an equivalent pro- 
portion of sugar in a dough. When used in the production of white bread, sub- 
stitutes for white sugar have a tendency to transmit their dark color to the crumb 
of the finished loaf. 
25. Shortening, a. Definition. Shortening is the fat or oil added to a dough. 
It gives the finished product “shortness,” that is, the property of breaking and 
crushing easily, and produces a soft, velvety crumb. 
b. Kinds. If liquid at ordinary room temperature, a shortening is called an oil; 
if solid at room temperature, it is called a fat. Among the oils are cottonseed, 
peanut, corn, and olive. Among the fats are lard and lard substitute. Lard is 
rendered hog fat. Lard substitute is either all vegetable fat or a combination of 
vegetable and animal fats. Butter is also considered as a shortening but its high 
cost in comparison with other shortenings precludes its use by the Army in bread 
making. 
c. Use in a bread dough. Shortening in solid form (fat) is preferred to shorten- 
ing in oil form for the reason that measurements are more easily and accurately 
made. In liquid form, part of the shortening tends to adhere to the sides and 
bottom of the measuring container. There is very little preference between lard 
and lard substitute. It is thought by some that lard imparts a superior flavor to 
bread, but the quantity ordinarily used is so small that this superior flavor is BAKING 
69 
difficult, if not impossible, to detect by the average consumer. If lard substitute 
meeting Federal specifications can be obtained at a cheaper cost than lard meeting 
Federal specifications, the lard substitute should be used as the shortening for 
bread doughs. 
d. Effect on bakery products. Shortening imparts desirable chewing quality to 
bread. The smooth, pleasing crust and the soft velvety crumb so desirable in 
bread are to a certain extent obtained by the proper use and handling of shortening 
in a dough. A finished loaf of bread containing shortening will retain its fresh- 
ness for a longer period of time than one without, as the presence of shortening 
tends to lessen the loss or evaporation of water from baked goods. Shortening is 
the most concentrated fuel-fumishing food known, therefore its incorporation in a 
bread dough increases the nutritive value of the bread. 
e. Quantity to he used. Like other ingredients, the quantity of shortening to be 
used depends upon the product to be baked. For soft rolls, sweet dough, pies, 
etc., the quantity of shortening used is much greater than for bread. Conversely, 
for hard rolls, the quantity is lessened. For bread doughs, from IVs to 3 per cent 
is ordinarily used, 2 per cent (based on the weight of the flour) being considered 
the most desirable for Army garrison bread. Shortening should be the last 
ingredient added when mixing a dough as its incorporation at an earlier stage will 
tend to prevent thorough incorporation of other ingredients, thereby retarding 
active and uniform fermentation. 
f. Storage. Light, warmth, air, and moisture favor the development of rancidity 
in fats and oils. Therefore, shortening should be kept tightly covered in a cool, 
dry, dark place prior to its use. Rancid shortening, even if used in very small 
quantities, will impart its very disagreeable off flavor throughout a large batch 
of bread, making it practically inedible. Every precaution should be taken to pre- 
vent shortening from becoming rancid and to preclude the use of rancid shortening 
in doughs. 
26. Milk. a. General. 
(1) Milk is one of the few almost complete natural foods. When incorporated 
into a bread dough, it materially increases the nutritive value thereof. Bread 
becomes very nearly a completely balanced diet in itself when milk is used in the 
dough. Milk also enhances the flavor of bread, its appearance (by imparting a 
golden brown color to crust), and its keeping qualities. It is available not only in 
its original liquid state, but also in various concentrated forms such as evaporated, 
sweetened condensed, dried whole, and dried skim. 
Average composition of various forms of milk 
[Expressed in terms of percentage] 
Water 
Butterfat 
Protein 
Milk 
sugar 
Other 
sugars 
Mineral 
matter 
88 
3.5 
3.25 
4.5 
0.75 
72 
8 
7.25 
10.5 
1.75 
Sweetened condensed milk 
31 
8 
7.25 
10.5 
41 
1.75 
1.5 
27.5 
27 
38 
6 
2.5 
1.5 
36.5 
51.5 
8 
(2) If used at all in a bread dough, at least one-third and preferably one-half 
of the liquid content of the dough should be the equivalent of whole milk. 
Example: If water is used as the liquid content of a dough, and 60 pounds of 
water is the proper absorption for 100 pounds of flour, from 20 to 30 pounds of 
such water, or one-third to one-half, respectively, may be replaced by whole milk 
or the equivalent thereof. For rough calculation, one-half as much evaporated 
milk or one-eighth as much dried whole milk may be considered the equivalent 
of whole milk. If it is desired to replace one-half the amount or 30 pounds of the 
water content of a dough with milk, it can be accomplished by adding: 
30 pounds of whole milk, or 
V> or 15 pounds of evaporated milk combined with 15 pounds of water, or 
Vs or 3.5 pounds of dried whole milk combined with 26.5 pounds of water; 
or, expressed otherwise: 70 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
30 pounds of whole milk plus 30 pounds of water equal 60 pounds of liquid 
content, 
15 pounds of evaporated milk plus 45 pounds of water equal 60 pounds of 
liquid content, 
3.5 pounds of dried whole milk plus 56.5 pounds of water equal 60 pounds 
of liquid content. 
b. Types to he used. The use of milk in dried form for baking is considered more 
advisable than in either whole or evaporated form for the following reasons: 
Increased keeping qualities; decreased bulk; more easily and readily stored; quanti- 
ties may be more accurately measured. As between dried skim and dried whole 
milk, the former is recommended for bread-making purposes because of better 
keeping qualities, lower cost, and because the fat content of dry whole milk may be 
replaced by other shortenings without appreciable loss of flavor and nutritive 
value. Dried skim milk and dried whole milk may be obtained to economic 
advantage in regular commercial 50-pound tins and 200-pound barrels. Require- 
ments for a 6 months’ supply may be kept on hand without fear of deterioration if 
it is kept dry and ordinary precautions are taken to prevent contamination by 
insects and/or dirt. 
27. Improvers, a. Other ingredients called “dough improvers” may be added to 
a bread dough. These are supposed to effect an improvement in either economic 
production of bread or its quality. The use of these improvers is not essential to 
the production of bread of good quality and their use in bakeries at Army posts 
should be limited to emergencies or when the time allowed for production of a 
certain quantity of bread necessitates short and rapid fermentation periods for 
dough. It is an accepted principle of the Army to produce good bread out of the 
minimum number of ingredients, so as to make the least demand upon our supply 
and transportation facilities in time of war or emergency. Doughs containing these 
improvers must be watched very carefully to prevent overfermentation. The 
quantity used must also be carefully checked. In no case should the quantity of 
improver used in a dough exceed one-half of 1 per cent, based on the weight of 
the flour to be used (¥2 pound of improver to 100 pounds of flour). Unless abso- 
lutely essential to conserve time, the quantity used should not exceed one-fourth 
of 1 per cent (*4 pound to 100 pounds of flour). 
b. Fruits, such as prunes and raisins, and other products, such as peanut butter, 
are occasionally added to a dough to provide variety in breads and impart additional 
flavor to bread products. When added to a dough, they should be used in the 
proportion of from 20 to 30 per cent, based on the weight of flour. The use of 
smaller quantities would practically nullify the purpose for which they are added 
and larger quantities might have a deleterious effect on fermentation, loaf volume, 
and texture. 
Section IV 
28. Equipment, a. If bread of good quality is to be produced, it is essential, 
in addition to a knowledge of the kind and quantity of ingredients to be used, 
that sufficient and serviceable equipment be available; that the purpose of and 
method of operating such equipment be fully understood; and that there be a 
complete understanding of each step in the manufacture of bread. 
b. The kind and quantity of machinery and equipment needed will vary de- 
pending upon the output of a bakery; a bakery manufacturing 300 loaves of bread 
a day will not need the same equipment as one manufacturing thousands of pounds 
of several different kinds of bakery products daily. Machinery generally in use 
in large bakeries includes dough mixers, dividers, rounders, molders, fermentation 
and proof cabinets (either stationary or portable), and stationary, revolving, or 
traveling ovens. Essential equipment consists of floor and counter scales, pint, 
quart, and gallon measure containers, dough thermometers, dough troughs, 
dough cutter, bakepans, cooling racks, molding table, mixing bowls, and an 
oven. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the necessity for keeping all 
machinery and equipment in scrupulously clean condition. Frequent inspections 
should be made to prevent undue deterioration or unserviceability. 
BREAD BAKING BAKING 
71 
29. Adjustment of water temperature, a. Yeast activity in a dough produces 
best results at temperatures from 78° to 82° F. In order to obtain any desired 
temperature in a mixed dough, four factors must be considered; temperature 
of mixing room, temperature of flour, temperature of water, and heat developed 
by friction of either hand or machine mixing. The temperatures of the flour 
and mixing room may be determined readily by use of a thermometer. The 
friction heat developed in mixing by either hand or machine will be known after 
a few doughs are mixed. The heat developed by friction will usually be about 
5° for hand mixing, 10° to 15° for slow-speed mechanical mixers, and 15° to 
25° for high-speed mechanical mixers. As the temperature of the water is readily 
adjusted by using varied quantities of hot or cold water or ice, this temperature 
is changed as occasion demands in order to obtain a desired mixed-dough tem- 
perature; therefore, to obtain a desired mixed-dough temperature, multiply the 
desired temperature by three. From this total deduct the sum of the temperature 
of the room and of the flour, and degrees of friction heat developed in mixing. 
The remainder is the temperature of the water to be used in the dough. 
Example: Assuming temperature of the mixing room to be 75°, temperature 
of the flour to be 73°, degrees of friction heat obtained in mixing to be 10, and the 
desired mixed-dough temperature to be 80°: 
Temperature of mixing room 
75 
Temperature of flour 
73 
Friction developed 
10 
Total 
158 
3 times 80 (desired mixed-dough temperature) equals 
240 
Less 
158 
Temperature of water to use to obtain mixed-dough temperature 
of 80° is 
82 
Degrees 
b. If the result obtained indicates that water of a temperature in excess of 100° 
F. must be used in order to obtain the desired mixed-dough temperature, that part 
of the water used to dissolve the yeast should be cooled to at least 95° F. and a 
compensating increase made in the temperature of the remainder. If yeast is 
permitted to come in contact with temperatures exceeding 95° F., its activity is 
seriously retarded, and in excess of 120° F., it is killed. Water adjusted to a 
certain temperature for dough purposes is usually referred to as tempered water. 
30. Dough mixing, a. Purposes. The four main purposes of dough mixing are 
to bring about an intimate and uniform mixture of ingredients so as to form the 
smooth mass called the dough; to induce the formation and development of 
gluten in flour by causing moisture to come into contact with the gluten-forming 
protein substances in flour; to distribute the yeast cells completely and uniformly 
throughout the dough mass; and to provide a uniform quantity of yeast food 
throughout the mass. 
b. Methods. There are two principal methods of dough mixing: 
(1) Straight dough. A method whereby a dough is obtained by mixing to- 
gether at one time all the ingredients to be used. 
(2) Sponge and dough. A method whereby part of the ingredients are mixed 
(usually part of the flour, part of the water, part or all of the yeast, and part or 
all of the sugar, plus part or all of the other ingredients to be used); the resultant 
product, called the sponge, is permitted to ferment; the fermented sponge is then 
mixed with the remaining part of the ingredients to be used, forming what is 
called the sponge and dough. The ingredients used in the sponge are referred to 
as the sponge ingredients and those reserved for later incorporation as the dough 
ingredients. 
c. Procedure. 
(1) Straight dough. 
(a) Machine mix. 
1 Carefully weigh and assemble all ingredients to be used. 
2 Place approximately cne-fourth of the tempered water in separate 
container Into this crumble the yeast and whip thoroughly until the yeast is 72 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
well dissolved. Be careful that the water used for this purpose is not over 90° F., 
as a higher temperature will kill or injure the yeast. 
3. Place remainder of water in the mixer. Add the sugar, salt, and other 
dry ingredients except flour. Dissolve ingredients in the water by beating with a 
wire whip or running the mixer slowly for a short period of time. 
4. Stop the mixer. Add about one-half of the flour. Run the mixer 
slowly until all ingredients are thoroughly incorporated. 
5. Stop the mixer. Add the dissolved yeast, then the remainder of the 
flour, and lastly the shortening. Continue mixing until dough of a proper con- 
sistency is obtained. 
6. Note and record mixed-dough temperature and make necessary adjust- 
ments in temperature of the water to be used in subsequent batches if the mixed- 
dough temperature obtained is different from that desired. 
(h) Hand mix. Procedure is the same as for machine mixing except that, 
especially where only small quantities of bread are baked daily, each batch of 
dough mixed by hand should contain not more than 30 pounds of flour (the other 
ingredients being present in proper proportion). For example, if it is desired to 
produce approximately 160 pounds of bread (requiring approximately 100 pounds 
of flour), four batches are mixed by hand. All ingredients for all batches should 
be weighed before starting the mix, so that the different batches will be mixed at 
about the same time, in which case they may be placed in the same dough trough 
for fermentation. This procedure is desirable in order to insure a thorough in- 
corporation of ingredients and development of gluten in flour. The proper hand 
mixing of larger batches by one individual requires considerable experience and 
strength. 
(2) Sponge and dough. 
(a) Machine mix. Follow the same procedure as for straight dough using 
only sponge ingredients. A sponge is usually slacker than a straight dough. When 
fermented sponge is ready for remixing with dough ingredients, proceed as fol- 
lows: 
1. Place fermented sponge in mixer and start mixer on slow speed so as 
to gradually and gently break up the sponge. 
2. Stop mixer. Add dough water in which the dry ingredients other than 
flour (such as the remainder of the sugar, salt, and dry milk) have been dis- 
solved. Start mixer and continue mixing until all ingredients are thoroughly 
incorporated. 
3. Stop mixer. Add miscellaneous dough ingredients, such as raisins, 
prunes, peanut butter, etc. 
4. Add dough flour and dough shortening and continue mixing until 
sponge and dough are properly mixed. 
(b) Hand mix. Procedure is the same as for machine mix, except that the 
combined weight of fermented sponge and dough ingredients should, when 
practicable, be limited to 50 pounds in order to insure proper mixing and thorough 
incorporation of ingredients. 
d. Comparison of methods. The use of either of the methods given in b above 
will result in the production of bread of good quality, provided ingredients of 
good quality are used in the proper proportion and the dough is handled properly 
throughout the fermentation, make-up, proofing, and baking periods. However, 
except where a small quantity of one type of bread is being baked, it will be 
found advantageous to use the sponge and dough process. Especially is this 
true where a variety of bread products is being baked. Other things being 
equal, the principal advantages obtained from the use of sponge and dough in- 
stead of a straight dough are larger volume and whiter color of crumb. These 
advantages are gained by reason of better development and expansion of gluten 
caused by slackness of dough in the sponge and by withholding from the ferment- 
ing sponge those ingredients which would have a tendency to* retard or lessen 
effectiveness of fermentation. 
e. Effects of over and under mixing. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on 
the importance of the proper mixing of each dough. The determination of proper 
mix is by “feel” of the dough. The proper “feel” is determined only as the result 
of experience, therefore no definite mixing time can be stated; it varies con- 
siderably, depending upon whether it is a hand mix or a machine mix and, in the latter case, whether a high-, medium-, or low-speed mixing machine is used. 
The weight of the dough batch also considerably affects the time required to 
obtain a proper mix. In the sponge and dough method, neither the sponge nor 
the sponge and dough is mixed as long as a straight dough; as there are two 
mixings in the sponge and. dough process, obviously less mixing of each is neces- 
sary. Any grittiness, hardness, or dry flour feeling to the dough is evidence of 
undermixing; an undermixed dough will result in irregular fermentation and the 
finished loaf will invariably have a streaky crumb and an uneven, coarse cell 
structure. If dough is overmixed, it weakens and tears the gluten as a result of 
rapid excessive stretching. This condition is reflected in the finished loaf by poor 
volume and inferior grain and texture. 
BAKING 
73 
31. Dough temperature. Except in emergencies or when it is desired to materially 
lengthen or shorten the regular fermentation period of a dough, every effort 
should be made to obtain a mixed-dough temperature of between 78° and 82° F., 
as this is the best temperature for normal fermentation. The procedure to obtain 
this temperature is explained in paragraph 29. The continuation of the mixing of 
a dough until it has reached the desired temperature and notation of results ob- 
tained in the finished product will be a good guide in making subsequent adjust- 
ments in either length of time for mixing or degrees of friction allowed. 
32. Fermentation of a dough, a. Definition. Fermentation may be defined as 
the chemical action that takes place in a dough, causing it to expand or increase 
in volume. Chief among the chemical actions that take place during fermenta- 
tion are formation, expansion, and mellowing of the gluten content of the dough; 
the breaking down of sugar within a dough into carbon dioxide and alcohol, 
caused by yeast activity. The gluten develops a rubber-like tenacity and tends 
to hold within and between the starch cells the carbon dioxide formed by the 
yeast, thereby causing an expansion but not a rupture of the cell structure. 
b. Requirements for proper fermentation. After a dough is mixed, it is placed 
in a lightly greased dough trough for fermentation. Generally the space available 
in a dough trough should be four times as large as the volume of the freshly 
mixed dough. If the dough trough is considerably larger than four times the 
volume of the mixed dough, the dough should be confined to the required space 
by use of dam boards. If the available space in a dough trough is insufficient, 
the dough, on rising, will overflow. If too much dough space is allowed, the 
dough will spread out horizontally instead of rising vertically. A vertical rising 
of fermenting dough is desired. The control of temperature and humidity in the 
cabinet or room where dough is fermenting is extremely important. If the air 
is dry, a crust will form on top of a fermenting dough, resulting in bread of poor 
quality. Applying heat to a pan or pans of water placed in the immediate 
vicinity of the fermenting dough will help to provide the necessary humid con- 
dition if a water spray fan is not available. Frequent punchings of the dough will 
tend to prevent crusting. The ideal temperature of a fermenting room or cabinet 
is 80° F. Every effort should be made to secure and maintain a temperature ap- 
proximating 80° F. during fermentation unless lower or higher temperatures are 
expressly desired to purposely retard or hasten fermentation. 
33. Fermentation periods. Fermentation starts immediately when yeast is in- 
corporated into a bread dough and continues until all yeast activity is killed by 
the action of excessive heat, which is usually about 5 minutes after the dough is 
placed in the oven or when the temperature of the dough exceeds 120° F. Al- 
though fermentation is constantly going on during the period stated, it is cus- 
tomary to divide this total time into various periods known as fermentation 
period; make-up period; proofing period; and baking period. In the sponge and 
dough process, it is customary to refer to the sponge fermentation period; sponge 
and dough fermentation period; make-up period; proofing period; and baking 
period. 
a. Fermentation period for straight doughs. The fermentation period is the 
period elapsing between the time at which the yeast is incorporated and the time 
when the dough is ready to be divided into individual loaf weights. This length 
of time will vary, depending upon the percentage of yeast and sugar in the dough, 
temperature of the mixed dough, and temperature and humidity of the fermenta- 
tion room. The fermentation period is subdivided into time of first punch; time 
of second punch; and time of dividing. When normal quantities of yeast (1 to 2 74 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
per cent), normal quantities of sugar (2 to 4 per cent), and normal temperature 
of mixed dough (78° to 82° F.) obtain, the time when the first punch is made is 
calculated as 60 per cent of the total fermentation period and the time at which 
the dough is to be divided is at the expiration of the remaining 40 per cent. The 
punching of the dough at least once between the time of first punch and the time 
of dividing is desirable, but not essential. When dough is punched more than 
once, an arbitrary time is set between the time of first punch and the time of 
dividing and is known as “second punch time.” 
Example: 
Time of mix 9 a.m. 
Time of first punch 11 a.m. 
Total time elapsing 2 hours or 120 minutes. 
120 minutes equals 60 per cent of fermentation period. 
1 per cent is or 2 minutes. 
60 
100 per cent is, therefore, 200 minutes, or 3 hours and 20 minutes. 
Time consumed to first punch equals 60 per cent or 120 minutes. 
Remainder of time for the fermentation period equals 40 per cent or 80 
minutes. 
Time when dough is to be divided is 11 a.m. (time of first punch) plus 80 
minutes, or 12:20 p.m. 
The time for making the second punch is arbitrarily set at any convenient period, 
generally halfway between the first punch and the time for dividing; in the fore- 
going example, at 11:35 a.m. 
(1) Determination of time for first punch. The time to make the first punch 
is the only part of the fermentation period which depends almost entirely upon 
personal judgment. Under ordinary circumstances, the first punch will be made 
at from IV2 to 3 hours after the time of mixing. The exact time for making the 
punch may be determined by inserting the fingers gently into the top of the 
dough to a depth of from 1 to 2 inches and closely observing the dough when the 
fingers are withdrawn. If the surface of the dough falls rapidly, the time to make 
the first punch has passed and the dough should be punched without further de- 
lay. If the indentation of the dough caused by the fingers tends to come back, 
the dough is not yet ready for the first punch. When the proper fermentation 
stage has been reached, the dough will neither collapse nor come back, but imme- 
diately around the depression, cracks will form and the surface near the depres- 
sion will be seen to sink slightly. This condition can be determined readily with 
a little experience. Carefully note the time when the first punch is made, and, 
by following the procedure as outlined in the example, the proper time at which 
the dough is to be given additional punches and the time when it should be 
divided into individual loaf weights may be readily determined. 
(2) Reasons for punching. While it is not considered essential to punch a 
dough during the fermentation period, it is advisable to do so for the following 
reasons: 
(a) During the process of punching, the dough at the bottom of the trough 
is brought to the top and that at the top is changed to a bottom or center position, 
thereby equalizing temperature throughout the dough, resulting in more thorough 
and uniform fermentation. 
(b) Yeast food is brought in contact with yeast cells, which might not have 
happened if the dough had not been punched. 
(c) Some of the carbon dioxide that has been formed is expelled. Exces- 
sive amounts of carbon dioxide have a retarding effect on yeast activity. 
(d) Additional air is incorporated into the dough, thus accelerating yeast 
activity. 
(e) Development of gluten is aided, thus creating desired tensility. 
b. Make-up period. The term “make-up period” in bakery parlance includes 
the operations of dividing and scaling the dough, rounding it, giving it an inter- 
mediate proof, and molding and panning it. 
(1) Dividing and scaling. When a dough has had its fermentation period, 
it is removed from the fermentation trough and sent to the mechanical dividing 
machine or to the wbrkbench, as the case may be, for dividing and scaling. If a BAKING 
75 
machine is used for this purpose, care should be taken to insure that it is prop- 
erly adjusted so as to divide the dough into exact desired weights. Frequent check 
should be made by weighing pieces cut by machine to insure accuracy. If dividing is 
accomplished by hand, a dough cutter and counter scale are used. The purpose 
of dividing is to cut the mass of fermented dough into individual pieces of desired 
weights. As there is a loss in weight of from 10 to 12 per cent during baking, 
this loss must be taken into consideration when dividing dough. In general, 18 
ounces of dough will produce one pound of finished bread. 
(2) Rounding and short proof. The scaled dough pieces may be molded into 
loaves immediately, but it is customary in bakery operation to first round the in- 
dividual pieces and allow them to remain on the bench or in a so-called “short- 
proof” cabinet for a period of 15 to 20 minutes in order to loosen up the dough. 
This operation is generally referred to as the “short” or “intermediate” proof. 
(3) Molding. Upon completion of the intermediate proof, the individual dough 
pieces are molded into the shape desired for the finished loaf. Molding is not a 
difficult operation but requires some experience to attain proficiency in the work. 
There is no hard and fast rule to follow in molding bread. Different individuals 
may mold in different ways and yet secure the same result. In general, the 
piece of dough should be pounded flat into a rectangular shape; be free from large 
gas pockets; folded in two from top to bottom; the sides stretched slightly, then 
folded toward center, so as to have the desired pan length. The dough is then 
rolled from top to bottom, care being taken to close up all seams, using either the 
knuckles or the heel of the hand to obtain a good seal. 
(4) Panning. The molded loaves are immediately placed in bakepans with 
the sealed edge down. The bakepan should be lightly and uniformly greased on 
the interior, sides, and bottom. The number and arrangement of the loaves in the 
pans depend upon the size and shape of the pans. In the majority of Army 
bakeries the 1-pound individual-loaf pan is now used for the baking of all varie- 
ties of bread and it is proposed to discontinue entirely the use of the 2-pound 
pans. The 1-pound pans are strapped in sets of four for convenience in handling, 
c. Proofing period. 
(1) The panned molded dough is placed in a proofroom or cabinet for 
proofing. In the larger bakeries, iron racks mounted on rollers are provided to 
receive the pans as they are made ready for the proofroom. The proofroom, 
which should be free from drafts and heated to a temperature of about 90° F. 
or higher by free steam, is made ready to receive the racks which are wheeled 
into it. It has already been noted that, up to a certain temperature, proofing or 
fermentation is accelerated by heat. The temperature of the proofroom or cabinet 
being greater from the floor toward the ceiling, the pans first filled should be 
placed on the bottom shelf of the proof rack and the others on the next higher 
shelves as they are filled. 
(2) These facilities are not found in smaller bakeries and proof boxes are 
provided instead. The boxes should be practically airtight and, if proof racks are 
provided, of proper size to receive them. If proof racks are not provided, boxes 
should be made with shelves of narrow slats to permit free circulation of such 
steam as may be provided. Often a pan of water is placed on the bottom shelf, 
and when the proof box is filled, hot bricks are dropped into the pan of water to 
create steam, which should be present during the proofing of the loaves. 
(3) If gas is provided, a better method is to let the jet play upon the bottom 
of the pan which is conveniently exposed beneath the box. If steam is not pro- 
vided, the tops of the loaves should be lightly greased to prevent the formation 
of a crust. 
(4) If proper size pans are used and dough is properly molded, the loaves 
should generally occupy about one-half the depth of the pan. When the loaves 
have about doubled in size, that is, when they are about on a level with the top 
of the pan, or slightly higher, they are ready for the oven. The proofing period 
generally lasts from about 30 to 60 minutes, depending upon size of loaf and the 
temperature and humidity of the proof cabinet. Proofing may be delayed or 
accelerated by decreasing or increasing the temperature of the proof box but, 
except in emergencies, bread should be given a normal proof period. 
d. Baking period. 
(1) Care must be exercised to have the oven ready at the proper time. The 76 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
proper temperature for baking bread is from 400° to 450° F. In order to insure 
uniform baking of all loaves, the pans of dough must be properly spaced so as to 
insure a uniform distribution of heat to sides and ends of each pan. If pans are 
permitted to come in contact with each other, the sides of the loaf where contact 
is made will be underbaked when the other portions are properly baked. 
(2) Care must be exercised not to jar the pans when placing them in the 
oven, as this might cause the proofed loaves to fall. They will not have time to 
rise again before the yeast is killed by oven heat and the resulting bread will be 
small in volume and of poor texture. 
(3) During the fermentation, make-up, and proofing periods, the yeast has 
been working continuously and the carbon dioxide gas has produced the increased 
size and porous structure of the dough. During the first few minutes of baking, 
the yeast functions more vigorously and more rapidly than at any previous stage 
in the bread-making process. However, when the temperature of the dough, due 
to heat of the oven, reaches above 120° F., the yeast is killed and further fermen- 
tation ceases. The carbon dioxide gas present within the dough is greatly ex- 
panded, due to oven heat, causing a further very rapid rise in the dough. This 
rapid rise of dough in the oven is known as “oven spring.” The alcohol produced 
by the action of yeast on sugary constituents of the dough is quickly evaporated 
by the heat of the oven and escapes from the dough into the oven in the form of 
vapor. 
(4) After a dough has attained its oven spring, its pliabililty gradually 
lessens and the dough becomes “set.” There is a gradual conversion from dough 
to bread. This conversion is due to the fact that some of the moisture is driven 
off, the starch becomes gelatinized and more digestible, and the gluten and other 
proteins become coagulated. 
(5) Following the “setting” of the loaf, the crust is formed. The forming 
of a crust is due to the intense heat to which the outside of the loaf has been 
subjected and its consequent drying out. The brown color is due to the drying 
out of the exposed surface and to a certain chemical change in the starch and 
sugar, known as “caramelization.” Within the loaf the conditions are slightly 
different. The crumb near the crust is subjected to a temperature as high as 300° 
F. or more, being bathed in superheated steam. The temperature gradually de- 
creases toward the center, where it never rises above 212° F. Under the action 
of this temperature, the gluten becomes sufficiently stiff to give permanent shape 
and form to the loaf and to retain the cellular structure even after the gas which 
has produced it escapes. From the foregoing, it is easy to understand why the 
crumb of the bread presents such a uniform appearance throughout, instead of 
being baked to different degrees of hardness from the crust toward the center as 
one might very naturally expect. 
(6) The browning of the crust should start in from 10 to 20 minutes after 
the loaves are placed in the oven. If the oven is too hot, the crust will become 
dark and thick before there has been sufficient time for the dough within to be- 
come properly baked. If the oven is not hot enough, a rubbery, pale crust may 
be formed. In addition to temperature of the oven, the color of crust obtained 
depends upon the quantity of unfermented sugars present in the dough. The high 
heat of the oven caramelizes these sugars, imparting a golden brown color to 
the crust. If an excessive quantity of unfermented sugar is present in the dough 
being baked, a very dark brown crust may be expected. 
(7) The time of baking in a temperature of from 400° to 450° F. may be 
assumed to be about 30 to 35 minutes for a 1-pound loaf in individual pans. 
34. Steam in oven. Every effort should be made to provide steam to be used 
in the oven during baking. If steam is used, it will tend to prevent too rapid 
formation of crust and excessive loss of moisture, and will cause the formation 
of a gloss or desirable shiny surface. In lieu of steam, tops of individual loaves 
may be slightly moistened with water or liquid shortening before being placed 
in oven. When the amount of steam entering the oven can be controlled, it should 
be turned “on” while loading the oven and “off” about 5 minutes after completion 
of loading. For hearth products, such as rye and Vienna bread, it is practically 
essential that steam be used in the oven if “wild breaks” are to be avoided and 
the glossy crust, so desirable in such products, is to be obtained. 
35. Cooling bread. It is essential that bread be properly cooled immediately BAKING 
77 
after it is taken from the even and before it is issued or* sold, in order to prevent 
possible mold or rope growth. After bread has been subjected to the heat of 
the oven for a period of Vz hour or more, it is practically sterile and every pre- 
caution should be taken to keep it so. The bread should be removed from the 
pans and placed on cooling racks sufficiently apart to insure free circulation of 
air on all sides of each loaf. If cooling racks are not available, place the bread 
on a slatted table. Under ordinary conditions, 2 hours of cooling in a room the 
temperature of which does not exceed 85° F. will suffice. When conditions 
require it, clean cloths of porous material should be spread over the loaves to 
keep off dust and prevent insect infestation. 
36. Storage of bread. When a bread room is provided, the loaded bread racks 
may be wheeled directly into it. Good ventilation should be provided. If mov- 
able bread racks are not available, a rack should be built of slatted shelving. 
Bread boxes, unless slatted on sides and top, should not be used. They are diffi- 
cult to ventilate and may be the cause of early moldiness in bread. 
Section V 
37. Percentage method. The percentage method for bread formulas is based on 
the assumption that the weight of flour used in any formula equals 100 per cent. 
The weight of the other ingredients to be used in the bread dough is expressed 
in percentage form, based on the weight of the flour used. 
38. Garrison bread, a. Formula and procedure. 
(1) Using compressed yeast. 
(a) Straight-dough method. 
1. Formula (to produce about 160 pounds of baked bread). 
Per cent Pounds 
Flour 100.00 100 
Water (tempered) 65.00 65 
Yeast 2.50 2V2 
Salt 2.50 2V2 
Sugar 4.00 4 
Malt (optional) 1.00 1 
Shortening 5.00 5 
Milk, dry skim, powdered 4.50 4V2 
Mineral yeast food (optional) .... .25 
BREAD FORMULAS 
Note. Water absorption may vary. Use the necessary quantity (more or less 
than 65 pounds) to get desired dough consistency. 
2. Procedure. 
(a) For machine mixing. 
(1) Weigh accurately all large and small ingredients. 
(2) Temper the water to get a dough temperature of 78° to 80° F. 
Friction of machine is a factor. 
(3) Suspend the yeast in sufficient water. 
(4) Pour the remaining water into the mixer and add sugar, malt, 
milk, salt, and yeast food. 
(5) Let the mixer revolve a few times to dissolve the ingredients. 
(6) With the machine in motion, add approximately one-half of the 
total flour, 
(7) When a batter is formed, add the yeast solution. 
(8) Add remainder of flour. 
(9) While the mixture is still lumpy, add shortening. 
(10) Continue mixing until dough is of proper consistency. 
Note 1. Malt extract may be added to the yeast solution if necessary. Do not 
permit yeast and malt to remain in contact more than 5 or 10 minutes. 
Note 2. If dry milk is used, recondition about 30 minutes before using. 
(b) F)or hand mixing. Proceed the same as for machine mixing, except 
that each batch of dough mixed by hand should contain not more than 30 pounds 
of flour (the other ingredients being present in proper proportion). For example, 78 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
if it is desired to produce 160 pounds of baked bread requiring 100 pounds of flour, 
four batches are mixed by hand. All ingredients for all batches should be weighed 
before starting to mix so that the different batches will be mixed at about the 
same time, in which case they may be placed in the same dough trough for 
fermentation. 
(c) Fermenting the dough. 
(1) If the dough made from the formula comes out of the mixer at a 
temperature between 78° and 82° F. and is fermented at the same temperature, the 
fermentation time should be calculated on the first rise 80/20 fermentation ratio. 
If no yeast food is used, rise 60/40 fermentation ratio should be used. (Dough 
should be kept on the young side. Fermentation ratio should be varied until the 
best result is obtained.) 
(2) At the end of the fermentation period, divide (scale) into 18- 
ounce pieces, round up, give short proof (12 minutes), pan, proof, and bake. 
Proofing time should be about 50 minutes. 
(h) Sponge and dough method. 
1. Formula. 
(a) For the sponge. 
Per cent Weight 
Flour 60.00 60 lb. 
Water 39.00 39 lb. 
Yeast 2.50 2V2 lb. 
Salt .3125 5 oz. 
Malt .25 4 oz. 
Shortening 4.00 4 oz. 
Yeast food .25 4 lb. 
(b) For the dough. 
Flour 40.00 40 lb. 
Water 26.00 26 lb. 
Salt 2.1875 2 lb. 3 oz. 
Sugar 4.00 4 lb. 
Malt 0.75 % lb. 
Milk, dry skim, powdered 4.50 4V2 lb. 
Shortening 1.00 1 lb. 
2. Procedure. 
(a) Mixing the sponge. Proceed same for straight dough procedure 
(a) 2 above, using the sponge ingredients. Dough should be very slack but not 
sticky and should come out at 76° to 78°, 
(b) Fermenting the sponge. Allow the sponge to rise once and fall once. 
When it has risen again and almost doubled its volume for the second time, bubbles 
will break on the surface of the sponge and it is nearly ready to fall for the second 
time. Then is the time to mix it with the other ingredients to make the dough. 
The total time for the sponge to ferment as described should be about 3V2 hours. 
(c) Mixing the dough. 
(1) Place the remainder of the water (dough portion) tempered to 
get a temperature of 78° to 80° in the mixer. (Temperature of the sponge is a 
factor in tempering the water.) 
(2) Add all the ingredients of the dough except shortening and flour. 
Dissolve by a few turns of the mixer. 
(3) Add the fermented sponge and mix thoroughly into a thin batter 
or until the sponge is well broken up and no stringy portions remain. The addition 
of a small quantity of dry flour taken from the flour reserved for the dough will 
keep down splashing and whirling of the sponge. 
(,4) Add the remainder of the flour and add the shortening when the 
mass becomes lumpy. 
(d) Fermenting the dough. Allow the dough to stand in a dough trough 
for about 30 minutes, or if speed is desired, it may be placed directly on the 
bench, covering with a damp cloth to prevent crusting, and let rest about 15 or 20 
minutes. Then divide, round up, give short proof, mold, pan, proof, and bake 
as for straight dough. 
(e) Hand mixing. Proceed same as if mixing by machine, except that 
each batch of dough mixed by hand should contain not over 30 pounds of flour. BAKING 
79 
(c) Quality of bread produced. On account of the percentages of sugar, malt, 
milk, and shortening, bread made from this formula has a golden brown (not pale) 
crust, a creamy white crumb color, a velvety texture, and excellent flavor. If it 
does not have these characteristics, it was not properly made in the bakery. It 
will retain its moisture for several days after baking, if not cut, and does not dry 
out as readily as bread made with no milk or malt and less sugar and shortening. 
Bread produced by this formula, when properly made, is of excellent quality, 
entirely satisfactory for sale to individuals as well as to organizations, and elim- 
inates the necessity for mixing a separate dough for white sales bread. 
(2) Using dried yeast (100-pound flour basis). 
(a) Straight dough method. 
1. Formula. 
Percent Weight 
Flour 100.00 100 lb. 
Water 66.00 66 lb. 
Yeast (dried) .80 13 oz. 
Salt 2.00 2 lb. 
Sugar 5.00 5 lb. 
Shortening 4.50 4Vz lb. 
2. Procedure. Dissolve 13 ounces of dried yeast in about 8 pounds of water 
tempered to 80° F., for 1 hour. Mix the other ingredients and finish mixing with 
the dissolved yeast. Allow the mixed dough to ferment for 10 hours at a tempera- 
ture of 80° F. Punch the dough and give an additional 45 minutes of fermentation. 
Scale or divide into pieces of desired weight, round up, give 15 minutes inter- 
mediate proof, mold, and proof for approximately 1 hour. Allow to bake in 450° 
oven from 35 to 45 minutes. 
(h) Sponge and dough method. 
1. Formula. 
(a) For the sponge. 
Per cent Weight 
Flour 30.00 30 lb. 
Water 25.00 25 lb. 
Yeast (dried) .80 13 oz. 
(b) For the dough. 
Flour 70.00 70 lb. 
Water 41.00 41 lb. 
Salt 2.00 2 lb. 
Sugar 5.00 5 lb. 
Shortening 4.50 4V2 lb. 
2. Procedure. Dissolve the yeast in about 10 pounds of the sponge water 
tempered to 80° F., for 1 hour, then add the remainder of the sponge water at the 
same temperature. To this liquid solution add the sponge flour and mix so as to 
obtain a soft sponge. Let the sponge stand at a temperature of 78° F. for about 
8 hours. At the end of the sponge fermentation period, mix the fermented sponge 
with the dough ingredients and allow the sponge and dough to ferment for 2% to 
SVz hours. Give the dough a punch and let rise again for another hour. Scale the 
dough into pieces of desired weight, round up, give short intermediate proof, and 
mold. Proof at 85° to 90° F. for from 50 to 80 minutes. Bake in 450° oven for 
from 35 to 50 minutes, depending upon weight of the loaves. 
Note. The foregoing formulas are considered maximum requirements for the 
production of satisfactory bread. When necessary, they may be modified to meet 
local conditions. 
b. Variety of shapes. 
(1) Round top loaf. The commonly used shape of garrison bread is referred 
to as “round top” shape. Round top bread conforms to the shape of the pan in 
which it is baked with the top crust having a rounded shape, caused by the un- 
hindered expansion in all directions of the carbon dioxide gas contained in the 
dough. This shape may be altered in many ways, three of which are described 
in (2), (3), and (4) below. 
(2) Split top loaf. Formula and procedure are the same as in a above up to 
molding. Instead of scaling the dough into 18-ounce pieces for a 1-pound loaf, 
scale into 9-ounce pieces. Mold each 9-ounce piece the same as an 18-ounce 80 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT* 
piece. Place two 9-ounce molded dough pieces side by side in the bake pan, care 
being taken to have both pieces molded to the same size and shape and to place the 
seams of the molded pieces to the bottom of the pan. Proof and bake in the 
manner described in a above. During proofing, the two molded pieces will rise 
simultaneously but will show a depression along the center where the two pieces 
join. In the finished product there will be a “break and shred” along the center of 
the loaf which adds to its attractiveness. 
(3) Twist loaf. Formula and procedure are the same as in a above, up tu 
molding. Instead of scaling the dough into 18-ounce pieces for a 1-pound loaf, 
scale into 9-ounce pieces. Mold each 9-ounce piece in the same manner as an 
18-ounce piece. The services of two men are advisable to twist the molded pieces. 
Each man grasps one end of each of two molded pieces and, by overlapping the 
hands, twists them until four to six twists are made. The ends are then pressed 
together and the twisted dough placed in the bake pan. Proofing and baking are 
the same as in a above. The finished product will show the characteristic twist on 
the top crust of the loaf. The twist loaf not only provides for variety in shape but 
also improves the grain of the loaf, reduces the probability of holes in the bread, 
and gives the finished loaf a firmer texture. 
(4) Pullman bread. Pullman or sandwich bread may be made by the formula 
and procedure described in a above. It is called Pullman or sandwich bread be- 
cause the molded loaf is proofed and baked in a so-called Pullman pan. The pan 
differs from that ordinarily used in that it is rectangular in shape, with vertical 
sides, and is provided with a slip-top flap cover. The dough is molded, panned, and 
proofed the same as for round top bread. When the proofing dough has risen to 
within V2 to of an inch from the top of the pan, the slip cover is inserted and 
the pans placed in the oven. The “oven spring,” caused by the rapid expansion 
of the carbon dioxide gas within the dough, forces the top crust of the dough against 
the pan cover, which prevents further rising and results in a flat-top, square- 
cornered, finished loaf. Care should be taken to lightly grease the inner side of the 
cover as well as the sides and bottom of the pan before placing dough therein, 
as failure to do so will cause the top crust to stick to the cover, making it difficult: 
to remove the baked loaf from the pan. 
39. Whole wheat bread. United States Government standards require that the 
entire flour content of a loaf of bread which is to be labeled and sold as “whole 
wheat bread” shall be whole wheat flour. If a blend of whole wheat flour and 
some other flour (such as patent or straight, etc.) is used, it must be labeled “imi- 
tation whole wheat bread,” “partial whole wheat bread,” or some similar designa- 
tion which will readily indicate that at least part of the flour content used in 
making the bread is other than whole wheat flour. Good palatable bread may 
be made by using 100 per cent whole wheat flour and is very desirable for use 
when such articles as fresh fruits and leafy vegetables are not available for the 
diet. The whole wheat flour helps to supply the mineral and roughage require- 
ments so essential to a properly balanced diet. When roughage and mineral re- 
quirements of the diet may be readily supplied from other sources, it is advis- 
able to use part whole wheat flour and part straight or patent flour in making 
partial whole wheat bread in order to secure better volume and improve the 
grain and texture of the finished loaf. The use of all whole wheat flour tends to 
produce a very crumbly interior, resulting in difficulty in properly slicing and 
spreading with butter, etc. The characteristic color and flavor of whole wheat 
bread may be obtained by using from 40 to 60 per cent whole wheat flour and 
the remainder straight or patent flour. 
a. Straight dough method (50 per cent). 
(1) Formula. Percent Pounds 
Whole wheat flour 50.00 50 
Issue flour 50.00 50 
Water (variable) 62.00 62 
Malt 2.00 2 
Salt 2.00 2 
Sugar 2.00 2 
Milk, dry skim, powdered 3.00 3 
Shortening 3.00 3 
Yeast 3.00 3 
177.00 177 BAKING 
81 
(2) Procedure. Dough out of mixer at 80° F.; medium consistency; fermenta- 
tion, normal, 60/40 basis; intermediate proof 10 minutes. Proof, normal (may be 
cut down somewhat if bread is too crumbly or gets too old). 
b. Sponge and dough method (50 per cent). 
(1) Formula. 
(a.) For the sponge. 
Per cent Pounds 
Flour, patent or straight 50.00 50 
Water 32.00-34.00 32-34 
[Based on combined weight of white and whole wheat flours] 
Yeast 3.00 3 
Sugar 2.00 2 
Malt 2.00 2 
(h) For the dough. 
Flour, whole wheat 50.00 50 
Water 30.00-32.00 30-32 
[Based on combined weight of white and whole wheat flours] 
Salt 2.00 2 
Milk 3.00 3 
Shortening 3.00 3 
(2) Procedure. Mix sponge ingredients thoroughly and allow to ferment for 
from IVz to 2 hours. Mix fermented sponge and dough ingredients thoroughly and 
give an additional half hour of fermentation. Scale dough into pieces of desired 
weight, round up, give 15-minute intermediate proof, mold, and proof until dough 
is even with, or slightly higher than top of pan (approximately 45 to 55 minutes 
for 1-pound loaf). Bake in 400° to 450° F. oven for from 30 to 35 minutes. Do not 
expect the same volume or “oven spring” from whole wheat bread as from the 
same weight or size of sales or garrison bread. Whole wheat flour, being com- 
paratively weak in gluten content as compared to patent or straight flour, tends to 
produce a more compact loaf. 
Notes.—These formulas are considered maximum requirements for the production of 
satisfactory bread. When necessary, they may be modified to meet local conditions. 
If other than dry skim milk is used such as milk, evaporated, or whole milk, use table 
of equivalent. It should be remembered that water content of milk, evaporated, or whole 
milk should be considered and reduction in water content made accordingly. 
It is important that whole wheat flour and other flour used be thoroughly blended 
so as to prevent alternate dark and light streaks in crumb. Dough in which whole wheat 
flour is used should be mixed slightly longer than dough containing only white flour. 
40. Rye bread. Rye bread is made by using a blend of rye flour and wheat 
flour with the other ingredients generally used in making bread. Although there 
is no limitation as to the quantity of rye or wheat flour to be used in the blend, 
best results for volume, characteristic taste, and good texture are obtained by 
using approximately 30 per cent rye flour and 70 per cent wheat flour. If dark 
rye flour is used, the resultant product will have a dark rye color; if white rye 
flour is used, the resultant product will have the characteristic rye taste but will 
be rather light in color. A rye blend, composed of part dark and part white rye 
flour, is used commercially to a considerable extent and is known as medium rye 
flour. Rye bread may be baked in the pans used for garrison bread. The making 
of rye bread should be encouraged as it provides variety in the bread component 
of the diet and is well liked by a majority of people. Furthermore, every Army 
baker should be thoroughly familiar with the making of rye bread for the reason 
that, in times of emergency (especially when a shortage of wheat flour exists), it 
may become necessary to substitute large quantities of rye bread for wheat bread, 
a. Suggestions jor making. 
(1) A dough containing rye flour should receive much less mixing than a 
100 per cent wheat flour dough as the gluten is not as strong and will not stand 
as much stretching without being considerably weakened. For all practical pur- 
poses, as soon as the dough feels smooth and tends to pull away from the sides 
of the mixing bowl, it may be considered as sufficiently mixed. Overmixing of rye 
dough will result in poor volume and the presence of a considerable number of 
large and small holes in the crumb, and will invariably result in bursting or 
splitting the sides of the loaf, due to overstretching of the gluten. Likewise, due 
to inferior quality of gluten, rye dough should receive a shorter fermentation period 82 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
than wheat flour dough. As the kind and quantity of rye flour, temperatures used, 
and other local conditions will vary considerably, no set fermentation period can 
be given. Rye doughs always have a much denser or heavier feel than wheat 
doughs and for this reason the tendency will be to consider rye doughs as not 
fully fermented when, in fact, they may be over fermented. As slightly under 
fermented rye doughs will produce better results than an over fermented dough, 
the tendency should be to take them on the young side, that is, to scale the dough 
preparatory to molding while the dough is still slightly under fermented. 
(2) Similarly, the proofing of rye doughs requires less time, under the same 
temperature and humidity conditions, than wheat doughs. In comparison, if an 
18-ounce wheat flour dough requires 50 minutes for proper proofing, the rye flour 
dough will require only 30 to 35 minutes, 
b. Pan type (straight dough method). 
(1) Formula. 
Per cent Pounds 
Rye flour (dark) 20.00 20 
Issue flour 80.00 80 
Water (variable) 58.00 58 
Malt 2.50 21/2 
Salt 2.00 2 
Shortening 2.50 2V2 
Yeast 3.00 3 
168.00 168 
(2) Procedure. Thoroughly mix or blend the wheat and rye flours. When the 
blended flour is added to other ingredients in the mixer, avoid overmixing. A rye 
dough requires only about half as much mixing as a white bread dough. Dough 
out of mixer at 76° to 78° F.; medium consistency; fermentation, let rise until ready 
for first punch; punch or turn dough, then give 30 minutes more. Fermenting on 
the 75/25 basis is about right. Intermediate proof 10 minutes. Give bread a full 
proofing in the proof box. Care must be taken to see that the dough is taken on 
the young side. For pan type, rye bread dough is molded the same as garrison 
bread. Place the molded loaves in lightly greased pans and allow to proof. When 
the dough has doubled in volume or the top is even with or slightly under the top 
level of the pan, it is ready for the oven. Brush the top of loaves with rye wash 
(if steam for the oven is not available) and bake at 400° to 450° F. from 30 to 45 
minutes, depending on temperature of the oven and weight of the loaf. As tem- 
perature of the oven decreases or weight of the loaf increases, the baking time 
increases. 
Caraway seed (optional) 
41. Raisin bread. The addition of raisins to the ingredients of bread lends 
attractive variety, adds nutritive value to the loaf, and is an excellent way of 
providing a fruit component in the diet. Federal standards require that, to be 
labeled and sold as “raisin bread,” each pound of bread must contain not less 
than 3 ounces of raisins. Stated in percentage based on weight of flour, this 
means that the formula for raisin bread should show the incorporation of at least 
35 per cent raisins; that is, for every 100 pounds of flour used in the dough, not 
less than 35 pounds of raisins should be used. The same proportion should be 
used for greater or lesser amounts. As much as 65 per cent of raisins may be 
incorporated in a dough without lessening the quality of the bread. When more 
than 65 per cent is used, the tendency is to produce a loaf of small, compact vol- 
ume, rather heavy to the feel, and unattractive to the average person. Raisins 
used in bread should be of the seedless variety. 
a. Incorporation of raisins in dough. Raisins to be used in a dough should be 
soaked in water for from 1 to 2 hours prior to the time they are added to the 
dough. Drain off all excess water before incorporating into the dough and do not 
add until the last 2 minutes of mixing, especially if a high-speed mixer is used. 
Too long or too rapid mixing of raisins in a dough tends to tear the raisins apart, 
causing the finished product to be blotchy or discolored in places. BAKING 
83 
b. Formula (straight dough method) 
Percent Pounds 
Flour (patent) 100.00 100 
Water 63.00 63 
Sugar 6.00 6 
Salt 2.00 2 
Malt 1.00 1 
Yeast 5.00 5 
Shortening 7.00 7 
Milk, dry skim, powdered 3.00 3 
Eggs 10.00 10 
Raisins 65.00 65 
Vanilla 50 Vz 
c. Procedure. One hour and 50 minutes first punch; take to bench in 30 minutes; 
scale at 18 ounces; proof on bench 10 minutes; pan and proof in proof box about 50 
minutes; bake at 425° with no steam for 30 minutes. Ice with vanilla icing when 
cool. 
Note. This formula is considered maximum requirements for the production 
of satisfactory bread. When necessary, it may be modified to meet local conditions. 
42. Hard and soft rolls. As will be noted from the formulas given below, a 
hard roll dough differs from a garrison bread dough in that the quantities of sugar 
and shortening used in the hard roll dough are decreased and, conversely, in a 
soft roll dough the quantities of sugar and shortening are considerably increased. 
It will be readily seen, therefore, that the hardness or softness of the finished 
product, especially the crust, depends to a large extent upon the quantity or 
percentage of sugar and shortening used in the dough. Under the same fermen- 
tation and mixed-dough temperatures, hard roll dough should be given a longer 
fermentation than soft roll dough. 
a. Hard rolls. 
(1) Formula. 
Per cent Pounds 
Flour 100 100 
Water 58 58 
Yeast 2 2 
Salt 2 2 
Sugar 1 1 
Shortening 1 1 
Milk, dry skim 3 3 
(2) Procedure. Same as for garrison bread up to and including completion 
of fermentation period, except that the dough should be taken on the old side 
(slightly over fermented). Scale into IVz- or 2-ounce pieces, round, give 15 to 20 
minutes intermediate proof. Proof in cake pans (18" by 25"). Just before placing 
in the oven, give one diagonal slash across the top of each piece and if the 
oven is not equipped for steam, wash with cornstarch solution. If steam is avail- 
able, it should be turned into the oven until the crust of the dough becomes set 
and has a glossy appearance. 
(3) Variations. Hard rolls may be made into various shapes. Two of the 
more commonly used shapes being round, with a diagonal slash across the top 
crust; and rectangular, made by cutting a long molded piece of dough into pieces 
about 2 inches in diameter and 3 inches long. 
b. Soft rolls. 
(1) Formula. 
Per cent Pounds 
Flour 100 100 
Water 62 62 
Yeast 2 2 
Salt 2 2 
Sugar 8 8 
Shortening 8 8 
Milk, dry skim 5 5 
(2) Procedure. Endeavor to obtain mixed-dough temperature of 78° to 
80°. Ferment as for garrison bread but take slightly on the young side. Scale 84 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
the dough into IVz- to 2-ounce pieces, round up each piece and allow to inter- 
mediate proof for from 15 to 20 minutes. Mold into shape desired, place in cake- 
pan and proof until individual molds are about double in size. If steam is avail- 
able for oven, it should be left on about 2 minutes after loading the oven. If 
steam is not available, brush the surface of each molded piece lightly with corn- 
starch wash. Bake in a 375° to 425° oven for from 20 to 25 minutes. 
(3) Variations. Soft rolls may be made into various shapes, those more com- 
monly used being described below. 
(a) Parker House rolls. Scale dough into lV2-ounce pieces. Round into neat 
balls and allow to rest on the table, first sprinkling some dusting flour to prevent 
sticking to the table; by the time the last of the dough has been rounded, the first 
pieces will be ready for working into rolls. Place four of these pieces in a row. 
Use a small rolling-pin (a piece cut from a household size broomstick is the 
proper size) and put a crease or dent in the middle of each piece. Then brush 
across the creases with melted butter or a mixture of melted butter and lard; 
then fold over, so that the top fold is one-third shorter than bottom fold. Seal 
the two folds together by pressing the top lip but do not apply enough pressure 
to knock down. Place in well-greased bake pans about 2 inches apart. Proof for 
about 40 to 50 minutes at 90°F. Bake from 15 to 20 minutes in 375° to 425° oven. 
If the bottom surface tends to burn before the top surface is properly baked, 
insert an empty cakepan under the one containing the proof rolls before placing 
it in the oven. This is called “double panning” for baking. Brush the baked 
product with melted butter or shortening while still hot. 
(b) Frankfurter rolls. Roll out rounded dough pieces with the fingers and 
palm of hand until they have assumed a “finger” shape. Place molded pieces in 
a cakepan, allowing sufficient room for the rolls to bake individually. 
(c) Hamburger rolls. Place twenty-four 2-ounce pieces of rounded dough, 
evenly spaced, in a cakepan to proof. When fully proofed, press down with tray 
or similar object with flat bottom surface until each piece is only about y2-inch 
thick. Bake in a 375° to 425° oven from 15 to 20 minutes. 
(d) Crescent rolls. Roll out fermented dough with rolling-pin until it is 
about Vs- to y4-inch thick. Cut rolled dough with a dough cutter into triangular 
pieces having 5- to 6-inch sides. With fingers and palm of one hand, roll toward 
the point of the triangle. While this is being done, pull or stretch the point of the 
triangle with fingers of the other hand. This method insures a tight roll. Turn 
ends of the rolled piece inward to form a crescent shape and place in bake pan. 
If desired, molded pieces may be lightly sprinkled with poppy seed. Give full 
proof and bake in 375° to 425° oven for from 15 to 20 minutes. 
43. Short- and long-time doughs. Occasionally, due to unforeseen emergencies, 
it becomes necessary either to shorten or lengthen the average time required 
to complete bakery operations. In other words it may become necessary, due to 
arrival of unexpected troops, to produce in 4 hours bread of the same quality 
and quantity as is ordinarily produced in 7 hours. Conversely, due to necessity 
for conservation of yeast supply, it may be necessary to lengthen the time re- 
quired to complete a particular batch of bread from 7 hours to 10, or even 12 
hours. Under such conditions, and under such conditions only, should the ex- 
pedients listed below be used. Ordinarily, the kind and percentage of ingredients, 
temperature of dough and fermentation and proof cabinets, etc., as heretofore 
given for respective kinds of bread should be used. The use of expedients to 
shorten or lengthen the time required to produce bakery products usually adds 
materially to the cost; and, unless expertly handled throughout, operations will 
result in products of inferior quality. 
a. Expedients to shorten time required to complete a batch of bread. The use of 
any one of the expedients given below, other than an increase in yeast, will 
decrease the length of time required in fermentation and proof by from one-half 
to 1 hour. Using a combination of two or more of these expedients, or merely 
doubling the percentage of yeast used, will considerably decrease fermentation 
and proof periods. 
(1) Increase temperature of the mixed dough to not in excess of 90° F. 
(2) Increase temperature of the fermentation room or cabinet to not in 
excess of 90° F. 
(3) Increase temperature of the proofroom or cabinet to not in excess of 100°F. BAKING 
85 
(4) Increase percentage of yeast used to not in excess of 5 per cent. 
(5) Increase percentage of sugar used to not in excess of 6 per cent. 
(6) Use slacker dough (increase per cent of water used by 2 to 4 per cent). 
(7) Incorporate into dough not to exceed Vz of 1 per cent mineral yeast food. 
b. Expedients to lengthen time required to complete a batch of bread. 
(1) Decrease temperature of the mixed dough to not less than 70° F. 
(2) Decrease temperature of the fermentation room or cabinet to not less 
than 70° F. 
(3) Decrease temperature of the proofroom or cabinet to not less than 70° F. 
(4) Place fermented dough in the refrigerator until time to complete baking. 
(5) Decrease percentage of yeast used to not less than one-half of 1 per cent. 
(6) Decrease percentage of sugar used to not less than 1 per cent. 
(7) Increase percentage of salt used to not in excess of 5 per cent. 
(8) Use a stiffer dough (decrease per cent of water used by 2 to 4 per cent). 
c. Short-time garrison bread (straight dough method). 
(1) Formula. 
Percent Pounds 
Flour 100.00 100 
Water 62-64.00 62-64 
Salt 2.00 2 
Sugar 4.00 4 
Yeast 4.00 4 
Milk, dry, skim 3.00 3 
Shortening 2.00 2 
(2) Procedure. Endeavor to secure mixed dough temperature of 83° to 85° F. 
Allow to ferment for from 20 to 30 minutes with fermentation room or cabinet 
temperature of 90°. Scale, round, and give intermediate proof for 15 minutes. 
Proof at 95° F. Bake in a 450° oven, 
d. Overnight garrison bread (sponge and dough method). 
(1) Formula (100-pound flour basis). 
(a) For the sponge. Per cent Pounds 
Flour 50 50 
Water 26 26 
Salt 1 1 
Sugar 1 1 
Yeast %of 1 % 
(h) For the dough. Per cent Pounds 
Flour 50 50 
Water 30-32 30-32 
Salt 1 1 
Sugar . 1 1 1 
Yeast 1 1 
Milk, skim, dry 3 3 
Shortening 2 2 
(2) Procedure. Mix sponge ingredients so as to obtain mixed dough of 
approximately 70° F. Ferment for a period of from 7 to 9 hours during night, 
at from 55° to 70° F. At the end of sponge fermentation period, mix sponge with 
dough ingredients and give additional 45-minute to 1-hour fermentation time. 
Subsequent procedure the same as for normal time garrison bread. 
44. Field bread (straight dough method). The formula and procedure for field 
bread are placed in this section for the reason that all Army bakers should be 
required to familiarize themselves with them. Army bakers should also be re- 
quired to make a small batch of field bread occasionally, even when serving in 
garrison, so as to gain the experience necessary to avoid confusion and delay 
when it becomes necessary to bake field bread on a large-scale production basis. 
a. Formula (100-pound flour basis). 
Per cent Pounds 
Flour 100 100 
Water 53-55 53-55 
Yeast % of 1 % 
Salt 2 2 
Sugar 3 3 
Shortening xk of 1 86 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
b. Procedure. Mix ingredients thoroughly and endeavor to secure a mixed 
dough temperature of 78° to 80° F. Dough should be ready for first punch in from 
4 to 4x/2 hours, and fermentation completed 1 to IV2 hours later. Scale dough into 
4x/2-pound pieces. Round the dough and then flatten out into circular loaves 
about 10 inches in diameter and IV2 inches thick. Allow only approximately 15 
minutes proof. Just before baking, dock the top surface of the dough in three 
places by inserting the thumb or stick into the dough for a depth of about 1 inch. 
Bake either in regulation bake pan (two loaves to pan) or in commercial cakepan 
(18" by 25") (three to pan). Give long, slow bake or from IV2 to 1% hours with 
oven at temperature of 450° F. The result is a circular loaf from about 11 inches 
in diameter and 4 to 5 inches thick, with a thick, hard crust. This hard crust, if 
unbroken, minimizes the probability of mold development, permits rough handling 
and stacking in transportation without injury, and will keep the bread fresh and 
palatable for a period of from 2 to 4 weeks. 
Section VI 
BREAD FAULTS; THEIR CAUSES AND CORRECTIONS 
45. Scoring factors, a. Factors to be considered in scoring or judging bread 
together with their relative weights, are as follows: 
External appearance 
Volume 10 
Color of crust 8 
Symmetry of form 3 
Evenness of bake 3 
Character of crust 3 
Break and shred 3 
Subtotal 30 
Internal appearance 
Grain 10 
Color of crumb 10 
Aroma 15 
Taste 20 
Texture 15 
Subtotal 70 
Grand total 100 
b. A loaf of bread perfect in every particular would score 100. However, it is 
practically impossible to produce a loaf of bread that is absolutely perfect; rela- 
tive values are therefore assigned to each factor and the loaf graded down from 
one to a number of points on each factor, depending upon how far the loaf 
deviates from perfection. In awarding points under each factor, the following 
characteristics should be considered: 
(1) Volume. The volume of a loaf is its length, breadth, and depth con- 
sidered from the standpoint of the weight of dough used to make the loaf. Volume 
may be described as excellent, good, satisfactory, too large, or too small. A loaf 
of excessive volume will generally be found to possess open grain and weak 
texture. A loaf of too little volume generally will be found to possess inferior 
grain and texture. 
(2) Color of crust. Color of crust, sometimes called “bloom,” refers to the 
top crust of a loaf of bread. The most desirable color is described as golden 
brown. The obtaining of a satisfactory shade is dependent mainly upon the 
amount of sugar and milk present in the dough when baked and temperature 
at which baking takes place. Colors inferior to and other than golden brown may 
be described as too dark, foxy, reddish brown, grayish, pale, or straw. 
(3) Symmetry of form. By symmetry of form is meant the extent to which 
the various exterior conditions of the loaf blend to make an attractive product. 
Some factors which detract from symmetry are too sharp or excessively rounded 
corners, protruding sides, sunken sides, flat top, excess or lack of width in com- 
parison with length, low ends, and humpbacked top. The chief factors affecting 
symmetry of form are shape and size of the pan used for baking and the care 
exercised in molding the dough. 
(4) Evenness of bake/ This means the extent to which the same color or 
shade is obtained on all sides of the loaf. Excessive top heat in the oven or very 
young dough will result in dark top and pale sides and bottom. Insufficient or 
excessive use of grease in pans will be reflected in the color of sides and bottom 
of the loaf. Excessive bottom heat will cause the bottom of the loaf to burn 
before the top crust has attained the desired color. (5) Character of crust. This may be described as the physical condition 
of the crust; such as tender, tough, thick, thin, smooth-surfaced, rough-surfaced, 
brittle, rubbery. Except in field bread, it is usually desired to obtain a tender, 
thin, smooth-surfaced, crust. Character of crust is usually determined by pressing 
it with the thumb to determine thickness and rubbery or brittle texture, and tast- 
ing to determine tenderness or toughness, 
(6) Break and shred. By break and shred is meant the extent to which the 
sides and ends are separated from the top crust and the presence or absence 
of shred in the break. The ideal condition is an even, well-shredded break on 
the sides and ends of the loaf. Conditions detracting from the ideal are uneven 
break, wild break, break on one side only, shell crust, break without shred. 
(7) Grain. The term “grain” and “texture” are often confused. Grain is 
the condition of the crumb or interior of the loaf and defines the character of 
the cell structure and the size of the cell. The ideal grain is moderately close 
and firm with small, elongated, thinwalled cells. The cells should be uniform 
in size, evenly distributed throughout the loaf, and not larger than small bird 
shot. Their greatest diameter is vertical rather than horizontal. Conditions 
detracting from the ideal are open and loose grain; large, thickwalled cells; large 
holes in loaf; and nonuniformity in size of cells. 
(8) Color of crumb. While whiteness is desirable and denotes the use of 
high-grade flours, the color of the ideal loaf is described as creamy white. Color 
is determined by examining the interior surface of a slice of bread. Colors in- 
ferior to the ideal creamy white may be described as chalky white, yellow, 
grey, dark, streaked, or spotted. 
(9) Aroma. Aroma is often confused with flavor. Aroma may be described 
as the reaction obtained by the organ of smell, while flavor is the reaction ob- 
tained by the organs of taste. Desirable aromas obtained from bread may be 
described as sweet, nutty, rich, and fresh. Undesirable aromas may be described 
as musty, ropy, yeasty, cheesy, metallic, or sour. 
(10) Taste. The most important attribute of good bread is a pleasing and 
satisfying taste. If the taste pleases, other deficiencies are minimized. If the 
taste is unpleasant, other desirable qualities are nullified. Taste may be best 
described as the reaction obtained by the taste organs of the tongue and palate. 
Ordinarily, desirable tastes are nutty, sweet, pleasing, and fresh. Unless specific- 
ally characteristic of the particular type of bread, tastes which detract from 
desirability are sour, yeasty, doughy, moldy, and ropy. 
(11) Texture. Texture is determined by the sense of touch. It depends upon 
the physical condition of the crumb and, to a minor degree, is influenced by 
the grain. It comprises the elasticity, softness, or pliability, and smoothness or 
silkiness of the crumb. The texture of bread may be determined by running 
lightly over the surface of a slice with the tips of the fingers or by rubbing the 
cut surface gently along the cheek. The ideal texture is soft and velvety 
without weakness or doughiness. Conditions detracting from the ideal are crumb- 
liness, roughness, lack of elasticity, and inability to resume original shape when 
sides or top are pressed. 
BAKING 
87 
46. Common faults and causes. Below are listed the more common faults in 
bread and their probable causes. In striving to eliminate faults, the baker should 
not attempt to change formula, temperature, time, and other conditions simul- 
taneously, as the fault may be due to one condition only, and the change of more 
than one condition may nullify the improvement. By changing one condition 
at a time, keeping all other conditions the same, comparative results of one 
change are readily determined. 
a. Lack of volume. 
(1) Bread pans too large for size or weight of dough. 
(2) Insufficient yeast. 
(3) Unbalanced formula. 
(4) Insufficient or excessive mixing of ingredients. 
(5) Too much salt. 
(6) Underfermented or underproofed dough. 
(7) Extremely overfermented or overproofed dough. 
(8) Oven temperature too high to permit normal oven spring. 
b. Too much volume. 
(1) Bread pans too small for size or weight of dough. 88 
(2) Insufficient salt. 
(3) Excessive proofing, 
(4) Oven temperature too low to stop “oven spring” at desired volume. 
(5) Slightly overfermented dough. 
c. Crust color too pale. 
(1) Insufficient sugar or milk. 
(2) Dough too old. 
(3) Crusting of dough in proof box, 
(4) Lack of steam in oven. 
(5) Oven temperature, especially top heat, too low. 
d. Crust color too dark. 
(1) Excessive quantities of sugar and/or milk. 
(2) Oven temperature too high, especially top heat. 
(3) Underfermented dough. 
e. Crust blisters. 
(1) Careless molding. 
(2) Condensation of steam in proof box or oven. 
(3) Underfermented dough overproofed. 
f. Crust too thick. 
(1) Baking period too long. 
(2) Oven temperature too low. 
(3) Deficiency of sugar. 
(4) Overfermentation or overproofing. 
g. Shelling of top crust. 
(1) Use of new or green flour. 
(2) Dough too stiff. 
(3) Dough underfermented. 
(4) Lack of binder, such as malt, honey, etc. 
(5) Crusting of dough in proofing. 
(6) Underproofing. 
h. Grey color crumb. 
(1) Inferior grade of flour. 
(2) Fermentation and proof temperatures too high. 
(3) Overfermentation or overproofing. 
i. Streaky crumb. 
(1) Poor blending of flour. 
(2) Improper or insufficient mixing of ingredients. 
(3) Too much dusting flour in machine or molding bench. 
(4) Poor molding. 
(5) Excessive quantity or improper incorporation of shortening. 
(6) Inclusion of small pieces of scrap dough. 
j. Coarse grain. 
(1) Overfermentation. 
(2) Dough too slack. 
(3) Overproofing. 
(4) Too low oven temperature. 
(5) Excessive mixing. 
(6) Pans too large for dough. 
k. Crumbly bread. 
(1) Overfermentation. 
(2) Mixed dough, fermentation, or proof temperature too high. 
(3) Overproofing. 
(4) Oven temperature too low. 
(5) Insufficient shortening. 
(6) Dough too stiff. 
l. Poor aroma and taste. 
(1) Inferior ingredients. 
(2) Improperly balanced formula. 
(3) Insufficient salt. 
(4) Sour dough; overfermentation, overproofing, or excessive temperatures. 
(5) Unsanitary conditions in bakery. 
(6) Pans not properly cleaned, 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT (7) Use of rancid shortening. 
(8) Improper storage of ingredients. 
(9) Under or over baking. 
m. Poor keeping qualities. 
(1) Insufficient shortening. 
(2) Improper cooling of bread. 
(3) Too stiff or too slack a dough. 
(4) Oven temperatures too low. 
(5) Poor molding. 
(6) Overproofing. 
(7) Unsanitary storage conditions. 
(8) Excessive temperature and humidity in storage. 
(9) Breaks or cracks in crust. 
(10) Exposure to air of the uncrusted sides of garrison bread. 
47. Faults in grain. Opinions differ as to the proper grain for bread. Some 
prefer a very close grain while others prefer an open, fluffy grain. For Army 
baking, especially for garrison bread, a grain midway between the very close and 
the open grain is desired. Too open a grain is generally due to incorrect fermen- 
tation. In the case of too short a fermentation period, the open grain is due to 
the presence of rather thick cell walls caused by the dough not being sufficiently 
matured to form thin cell walls. In the case of a dough that is given too long a 
fermentation, the open grain is due to ruptured cell walls causing two or more 
cells to combine and form a large cell. The way to correct a too open grain, 
therefore, is to correct the fermentation period. Too close a grain is generally 
due to underproofing or using too much dough for the size of the bakepan. The 
obvious correction is to give the dough a longer proofing or to cut down the 
weight to accord with the size of the pans in use. 
48. Faults in color of crumb. The desirable crumb color of a loaf of bread is 
creamy white, A chalky or dead white crumb is generally the result of using 
either a soft flour or a flour that has been too heavily bleached. A streaked crumb 
results from faulty mixing, especially when incorporating the shortening content, 
the use of too much dusting flour, or crusting of the dough during fermentation. 
By carefully watching the dough throughout the various stages of the baking 
operations, the exact cause of “off” color in crumb may be detected and proper 
corrective measures taken, 
49. Faults in aroma and taste, a. These two qualities are closely related and 
together make up what is commonly called the flavor of the bread. There are 
only four qualities that can be detected by taste alone; sweetness, sourness, salti- 
ness, and bitterness. All others are combinations of these and are influenced by 
the aroma or sense of smell. The desirable flavor of a loaf of bread may be 
described as a wheaty taste, slightly sweet and pleasant. An acetic or sour flavor 
is the result of too long fermentation or fermenting at too high a temperature. 
When there is no longer active fermentation in a dough, or the temperature is 
high enough to nullify yeast activity and encourage bacteria activity, the bacteria 
become more active and convert part of the alcohol formed by the yeast into 
acetic acid which imparts the sour flavor to bread. 
b. A “cheesy” flavor is due to either the use of inferior milk or too slow fermen- 
tation of a dough that contains milk. A musty, moldy, or ropy aroma is a condi- 
tion due principally to unsanitary conditions. 
c. A rancid flavor can be caused only by the use of a fatty ingredient that was 
rancid at the time of incorporation in a dough. The use of only a slight quantity 
of rancid shortening will cause the rancid flavor to permeate the entire dough 
and the finished bread. The utmost care should be taken, therefore, to prevent 
the incorporation of rancid ingredients in bread dough. 
d. Too salty or too flat a taste is obviously due to the use of incorrect quantities 
of salt in the dough. Doughiness in the crumb may result from underbaking, 
baking in too hot an oven, or using an improperly proportioned formula. By 
correcting one of these conditions at a time, the exact cause for doughiness may 
be determined and corrective measures applied. 
BAKING 
89 SWEET DOUGH, CAKES, AND PASTRY PRODUCTS 
Section VII 
50. General. A sweet dough is, as the name implies, an ordinary flour dough 
made rich and sweet by using larger quantities of sugar and shortening, and by 
the addition of milk, eggs, spices, and occasionally fruits. The use of sweet 
dough provides the mess officer with a means of serving a large variety of rolls, 
buns, form cakes, etc., not only as a substitute for bread but also as a dessert, at a 
moderate cost. It is possible, by judicious use of sweet dough products, to sub- 
stitute them for the more expensive foods, such as meats and expensive desserts, 
without sacrificing variety or necessary nutrients in the diet, and at considerably 
less cost. 
51. Basic sweet dough, a. Formula. The formula given below is based on using 
one gallon of liquid (water, milk, or a combination of water and milk). This 
formula will produce approximately 33 pounds of dough which may be made 
up in any desired form and produce sufficient baked product to provide 4 to 5 
ounces for each of approximately 100 men. The formula may be decreased to 
one-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc., or increased by one-half, doubled, trebled, 
etc., without affecting the quality of the finished product. It is called a basic 
sweet dough for the reason that a great variety of products may be made either 
from the dough itself or by using a piece of this dough as the basis for the formula 
of the desired product. 
Ingredients 
Weight 
Sugar 
Salt 
Malt 
Shortening 
Mace 
oz. 
Eggs 
2 lb. 
Lemon extract 
Water or milk (1 gallon) 
Flour (bread) 
13 lb. 
Yeast 
1 lb. 
Flour (pastry) 
4 lb. 
(1) Ingredients must be added in the order shown in b below to secure satis- 
factory results. 
(2) When the weather is extremely warm or bench work takes more than one 
hour, the salt content should be slightly increased. 
(3) If malt is not available, substitute equal quantities of sirup or molasses. 
(4) It is advisable to use half butter and half lard or lard substitute as the 
shortening ingredient. However, all lard or lard substitute may be used. 
(5) An egg, minus shell, weighs approximately 2 ounces. This formula, there- 
fore, requires the use of 16 eggs. 
(6) If other than whole milk is used, use conversion table in paragraph 6, 
Appendix III. 
(7) Although it is desirable to use both bread and pastry flour in proportions 
as shown, all bread flour may be used. 
b. Procedure. 
(1) Cream or mix the sugar, salt, shortening, mace, and malt. 
(2) Add the eggs gradually and mix in. Add lemon extract. 
(3) Dissolve yeast in one-fourth of the liquid to be used in the dough and set 
aside temporarily. 
(4) Add remainder of liquid and continue mixing until a soft batter is obtained. 
(5) Add the 13 pounds of flour (bread) and continue mixing until thoroughly 
incorporated. 
(6) Add the yeast solution ((3) above). 
(7) Add the pastry flour and mix only sufficiently to thoroughly incorporate 
flour and yeast solution. 
(8) When accurate temperature control is not available, effort should be made, 
by tempering the liquid content of the dough, to secure a mixed dough temperature 
of about 78° F. in summer and 82° F. in cold weather. 
(9) When mixed, this dough will appear to be quite slack. However, due to 
90 BAKING 
91 
action of the eggs and malt, it will stiffen during fermentation and will roll out 
readily. 
c. Fermentation. If the temperature of the mixed dough and fermentation room 
or cabinet is 80° F. and the dough can be scaled and made up in desired shapes 
within Vz hour, fermentation time allowed should be between Wz and 2 hours. 
By taking the dough on a two-thirds rise, that is, in from % to 114 hours, the bench 
time for dividing and shaping dough may be increased from 114 to 1% hours. 
52. Products from basic sweet dough. The variety of products that may be made 
from the basic sweet dough depends primarily upon the ingenuity of the baker 
in concocting new shapes and his ability to incorporate additional flavors, in- 
gredients, etc., to enhance flavor and attractiveness. Varieties that are easily 
made and better adapted for use in Army organization .messes are described below. 
Formulas for fillings, toppings, and icings, mentioned in the description of several 
products, are listed in paragraph 53. 
a. Cinnamon huns. Scale fermented sweet dough into 5Vz -pound pieces. Mold 
each piece in the same manner as for pan bread. Let the molded piece rest 
on the bench for about 10 to 15 minutes. Roll out with rolling-pin so as to obtain 
a rectangular shape Vs to 14 inch thick and 15 to 18 inches wide. Wash the 
top surface of the rolled-out dough lightly with melted butter or shortening and 
then sprinkle liberally with cinnamon sugar. It is desirable, but not essential, 
to spread a handful of seedless raisins over the cinnamon sugared surface. Start- 
ing at the top of the rectangular surface, make a tight roll and keep on rolling 
toward the bottom, care being taken to insure that the roll is of the same diameter 
throughout its length. To assist in securing proper seal, the bottom edge of the 
dough should be washed or dampened with water or melted butter. Seal the 
dough by use of the knuckles. The dough is now in the form of a snake. Using 
a sharp knife or dough cutter, cut the snake into 2-ounce pieces. Place the cut 
pieces in a cakepan which has been lightly greased, so spaced as to evenly dis- 
tribute 48 of the pieces to a pan (8 along length of the pan by 6 along the width). 
Place in a proof box, the temperature of which should be about 85° or 90° F. and 
allow to proof for from 35 to 50 minutes. When about half proofed, wash with 
egg wash. Bake in a 425° to 450° oven for about 15 minutes. The buns may be 
finished with a water icing or apricot shine. Icing or shine should be added while 
the finished product is still hot. 
b. Butterfly huns. Same procedures as for cinnamon buns up to and including 
cutting of the snake into 2-ounce pieces. Press a circular piece of wood about 
14 to Vz inch in diameter down through the center of the uncut surface of each 
piece. This action will cause the cut surfaces to curl up and form a characteristic 
butterfly shape. Proof, bake, and finish the same as for cinnamon buns. 
c. Hot cross huns. To each 5 pounds of fermented sweet dough add one pound 
of seedless raisins or mixed fruit such as raisins, citron, candied orange peel, etc., 
and mix thoroughly. Scale the dough into 1 Vz-ounce pieces. Round up each piece 
and allow to intermediate proof on the workbench for from 15 to 20 minutes. 
With a sharp knife or dough cutter, make a cross on the top surface of each 
rounded piece. Set in cakepan (48 to 56 to a pan) and proof. When half proofed, 
wash lightly with egg wash. Bake in a 425° to 450° oven for about 15 minutes. 
Finish by filling in the cross with vanilla icing. 
d. Parker House rolls. Using sweet dough instead of soft roll dough, follow pro- 
cedure described for Parker House rolls in paragraph 42. 
e. Coffee cake (butter-topped or streusel-topped). Roll out a 5-pound piece 
of fermented basic sweet dough and place in a cakepan (18" by 25") or make indi- 
vidual cakes in round or square layer cakepans. Roll lightly toward sides of the 
pan until the whole pan is evenly covered. Dock the dough with a docker or the 
prongs of a fork, wash lightly with water or melted butter, and spread with but- 
ter topping or sprinkle liberally with streusel topping. Proof until doubled in 
depth. Bake at 350° to 400° F. from 15 to 20 minutes. After baking, cut into 
pieces of desired size. 
f. Dc<ughnuts. Take 10 pounds of fully fermented basic sweet dough and add the 
following to make a slack dough: 
Flour 2 lb. 8 oz. 
Water 1 lb. 4 oz. 
Salt 14 oz. 
Yeast 2 oz. 
Flavor (optional) 92 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Resulting dough should be allowed to ferment for about 20 minutes, then rolled 
out with rolling-pin until the dough is about V\ inch thick. Cut into doughnut 
shape by use of doughnut cutter. Allow to proof for about 30 minutes in a cake- 
pan which has been floured but not greased. Fry in hot fat at a temperature of 
365° to 370° F. If the dough is of proper consistency and sufficiently proofed, 
it will sink only about halfway into the hot fat. As soon as the submerged side 
is fried, it should be turned over and the other side fried to the same extent. 
Doughnuts may be served plain or they may be dusted with powdered sugar to 
which a little cinnamon has been added for flavor, or lightly washed with a plain 
or vanilla icing. 
g. German fruit cake. Scale off 2Vz pounds of basic sweet dough and roll out 
sufficiently to cover the bottom and sides of a cakepan (18" by 25"). Be sure to 
bring the edges of the dough up around sides of the pan. Round or square layer 
cakepans may be used also with good results, using 5, 6, or 7 ounces of dough to 
the pan, depending upon the diameter. Let proof a short time, sprinkle with cake 
or bread crumbs or with cornstarch and cover with any desired fresh or canned 
fruit. Bake in a 350° to 400° F. oven. 
h. French fruit cake. Made as described for German fruit cake, except the top 
is covered with either a very thin layer, or narrow strips, of pastry sweet dough. 
53. Fillings, toppings, and icings for sweet doughs. 
a. Streusel topping. 
Butter (soft but not melted) 1 lb. 
Sugar, powdered 1 lb. 
Flour 2 lb. 
Mace or cinnamon to suit taste. 
Rub the mixture with the fingers until crumbly, then dry out; this may 
be used either as fine particles or in lumpy form. 
b. Butter topping for coffee cake. 
Cream together: 
Sugar, powdered 2 lb. 
Butter 1 lb. 
Egg yolks 8 oz. 
Add: 
Flour 1V2 lb. 
Vanilla to suit taste. 
Water to make a smooth paste. 
c. Fruit filling for German or French fruit cake. 
Mix thoroughly: 
Sliced apples 5 lb. 
Sugar, granulated IV2 lb. 
Raisins 1 lb. 
Ground nuts 2 to 3 lb. 
Sliced or chopped citron 2 to 4 oz. 
d. Pastry sweet dough (for strips on top of French fruit cake). 
Cream together: 
Butter V2 lb. 
Sugar, powdered V2 lb. 
Whole egg 3 each 
Baking powder Vi oz. 
Mix in: 
Pastry flour 1 lb. 
Let the dough rest in a cool place for about 1 hour. Roll out into a thin 
sheet and cut into Vs to V\ inch strips and place in latticework effect across the fruit 
filling in French fruit cakes. 
e. Apricot shine. 
Cook to a thick sirup: 
Apricot pulp 1 qt. 
Sugar 2 lb. 
Brush lightly over finished products such as cinnamon buns, butterfles, etc., 
while both product and sirup are still hot. BAKING 
93 
f. Soft icing for doughnuts. 
Mix: 
Sugar, powdered 5 lb. 
Warm water (variable) IV2 lb. 
Melted butter 1 oz. 
Vanilla extract V4 oz. 
Bring the mixture to a boil (mixture should be quite thin). Dip doughnuts 
in the hot mixture and then place on screens to dry. 
g. Cream icing. 
Shortening 2xk lb. 
Salt Vz oz. 
Water IV2 lb. 
Powdered skim milk V2 lb. 
Vanilla extract 1 oz. 
Powdered sugar 10 lb. 
Thoroughly mix shortening, water, and salt. Add flavor gradually. Sift 
sugar and milk together and add to the mixture. Whip all together until light. 
h. Cocoa icing. To 15 pounds of cream icing add 1 pound of cocoa and 1 pound 
of water and whip until light. 
i. Royal icing. Sift together 5 pounds of powdered sugar and V2 pound of 
meringue powder. Add 1 pound of water and beat thoroughly. Add coloring as 
desired. 
j. Glossy icing. 
Sugar, granulated 5 lb. 
Water 1 qt. 
Powdered skim milk 12 oz. 
Butter 4 oz. 
Shortening % lb. 
Sugar, powdered 5 lb. 
Boil granulated sugar, shortening, butter, and water to 230° F. Sift together 
the milk and powdered sugar and add slowly to the boiled mixture, incorporating 
the entire mass. 
k. Cinnamon sugar topping. 
Mix together; 
Sugar 5 lb. 
Cinnamon 1 oz. 
This formula may also be used on the inside of cinnamon buns. 
54. Cakes, a. General. 
(1) By the term “cake” is meant a sweetened mixture of flour, liquid, and 
other ingredients. To the Army baker, a sound knowledge of bread production 
is all-important. However, in order to broaden his general baking knowledge, 
he should not fail to study and absorb some facts about the art of cake baking. 
The Army baker who supplements his bread-making knowledge with that of 
cake baking is indeed a great asset to the military personnel with whom he is 
associated. 
(2) The question invariably arises as to what constitutes a good cake. Un- 
fortunately, there are no set rules of description or specifications which may be 
followed; however, there are some factors which may be studied in order to pro- 
duce a tasty cake. 
(3) Much about the success of a cake may be derived from a study of its 
volume. It is almost an axiom that a good volume means a good cake. The volume 
should be large in proportion to the amount of batter used. Cake may be con- 
sidered good when the finished product is three times the volume of the batter 
originally put into the pan. A good volume usually indicates a good grain and 
texture. It must be remembered, however, that the volume will vary with the kind 
of cake being produced. For instance, the volume of a heavy fruit cake cannot 
be judged by comparison with the volume of a light plain layer cake. In a good 
cake, volume must be commensurate with the type of cake being made and the 
type of pan or mold being used. 
(4) A good cake should possess a fine grain and a smooth velvety texture. 
Often a cake, fine in every respect except texture, will be almost inedible because 
the texture is coarse and gritty. The crust of a cake should be thin, smooth, and 94 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
tender. In order to insure a good grain, texture, and crust or skin, careful handling 
of ingredients and batter is imperative. 
(5) The final test of a good cake is in the eating. The cake should have a 
pleasing odor and flavor. The flavor should be the one the kind of cake is sup- 
posed to produce. For instance, a spice cake should produce a pleasing, spicy 
flavor and not a pungent flavor, as produced by overspicing. A lemon cake should 
produce a pleasing lemon flavor, not a bitter or sour one. Odor and flavor are lost in 
many fine cakes by carelessness in handling the flavoring agents, A baker must 
acquire a skill of securing just the right flavor in a cake just as a cook must 
acquire the art of seasoning food. Over-flavoring and underflavoring are evils 
which a good cake baker must overcome. 
(6) The Army baker must always keep in mind when making cakes that a 
cake is more delicate than a loaf of bread. He must, therefore, handle a cake batter 
more gently than he would a bread dough. A cake batter cannot stand much 
abuse and still turn out a good baked product. 
(7) The following are a few general and simple rules which will help any 
baker to produce a good cake: 
(a) Use good ingredients. 
(b) Use a good, balanced formula. 
(c) Weigh ingredients carefully. 
(d) Use a good, standard method of procedure. 
(e) Use clean equipment. 
(f) Handle ingredients and batter very gently and carefully. 
(g) Do not hurry mixing; have patience. 
(h) Bake at the proper temperature. 
(i) Finish with toppings or icings that are of pleasing flavor and have eye 
appeal. 
b. Types. In general there are two classifications of cakes as to type; cakes 
containing shortening and cakes without shortening. Among those containing 
shortening are the white or yellow layer cakes, fudge cakes, and chocolate cakes. 
These cakes, when finished with the numerous kinds of icing and toppings, are 
made into the numerous cakes found in recipe books. Cakes without shortening 
are sponge cake and angel food. Recently many recipes have appeared in print 
which produce cakes that contain some shortening but are beaten up like a sponge 
cake. 
(1) Cakes without shortening. 
(a) Cakes without shortening, such as angel food and sponge cakes, are 
produced by beating air into eggs and then mixing in other ingredients without 
stirring out the air. This type of cake is very difficult to make. From beginning 
to end the ingredients, batter, and cake must be handled as gently as possible. 
The air which is beaten into the eggs must remain, for this air is the sole leavening 
agent without which the cake will be soggy, tough, and flat. 
(h) Angel food differs from sponge cake in that only whites of the eggs are 
used and in the manner of incorporating ingredients. In angel food cake the 
ingredients (sugar and flour) are folded into the egg whites, while in sponge cake 
the beaten eggs are folded into the other ingredients. It must be remembered 
that after the air is beaten in, the ingredients are never mixed with the beaten eggs 
but are gently folded together. 
(2) Cakes containing shortening. The majority of cakes made contain shorten- 
ing. Cakes of this type are distinctive in that they have a very fine grain and a 
velvety texture. Success with this type of cake depends mainly upon uniform 
procedure in incorporating the ingredients and thoroughness of mixing. 
c. Ingredients. 
(1) Flour. 
(a) Cakes require a flour somewhat different from that generally used by 
the Army baker. He is more accustomed to bread flour which has gluten of good 
quality and quantity. In cakes, however, a soft flour (that is, a flour from soft 
wheat) must be used. A soft flour has excellent but a rather low quantity of gluten. 
This type of flour is commonly known as cake or pastry flour. 
(b) There are several kinds of cake flour, each having a little different gluten 
content. The reason for this is that different kinds of cake require flour of different 
gluten content. Fruit cakes and heavier cakes can take a cake flour of higher gluten 
content than a sponge cake or layer cake. It is well to remember that the more BAKING 
95 
eggs a cake contains, the lower gluten content the flour should have. Generally, 
a cake flour containing a gluten content of approximately 8 per cent is very 
satisfactory. 
(c) If it becomes necessary at any time to make a cake from issue flour 
(straight flour), the flour may be softened by the addition of cornstarch. The 
addition of about 25 to 30 per cent of cornstarch will produce from the bread 
flour a soft flour having approximately 8 per cent gluten content. 
(2) Shortening. 
(a) The fat content of most cakes is butter or a mixture of butter and 
some other shortening. Butter is no better as a shortening than lard or any 
hydrogenated vegetable oil, but it is used generally because of its added flavor. 
Any hydrogenated product will be satisfactory in a cake. 
(h) Recently there has come into commercial use a shortening called “high 
ratio shortening.” It is especially prepared for cake use. The use of this shorten- 
ing permits the use of more sugar in the formula, thereby giving a sweeter 
product. The Army baker will not come into contact with this product very 
often, but he should remember that if it is used, the formula must be adjusted. 
(3) Eggs. There is a great deal of difference in the size of eggs, so care 
must be exercised in the number or quantity of eggs used. A formula may call 
for 10 eggs of medium size which will weigh approximately 50 grams shelled. 
If 10 eggs of 65 grams weight are used then the formula becomes unbalanced. 
It is well to weigh the eggs which are on hand and make adjustments accordingly 
in the formula being used. Most recipes call for medium-sized eggs which as a 
standard weight and for computation purposes, may be taken to weigh 48 to 50 
grams each, shelled, or 56 grams with the shell. Frozen and dried eggs may be 
used in lieu of fresh eggs. 
(4) Sugar. Best results will be obtained in baking a cake if finely granu- 
lated sugar is used. Coarsely granulated sugar or powdered sugar does not cream 
satisfactorily with the shortening. If only coarse granulated sugar is on hand, 
it should be rolled or pounded to break it down somewhat before using. 
(5) Milk. Whenever milk is used in a cake, it should be clean and sweet. 
A very slight off-flavor or odor in the milk will be detected in the finished cake. 
Milk of any variety may be used, that is, evaporated, dried, or liquid. It must 
be remembered, however, that adjustment must be made when using evaporated 
or dried milk, because most recipes base the quantity of milk to be used on 
liquid whole milk. When using dried milk, it should be reconstituted (mixed 
with water) before its incorporation in the mix in order to insure better dis- 
tribution throughout the batter mass. 
(6) Leavening agents. 
(a) Cakes are generally leavened by use of baking powder, by whipping 
air into the batter, or by a combination of the two. Most cakes are made by the 
use of a combination of the two methods. 
(b) Baking powder, when used in a cake, must be handled carefully. It 
should be weighed exactly and the baker must know how the baking powder 
he is using acts; that is, whether it is quick acting, slow acting, or double acting. 
(c) In cakes such as angel food and some types of sponge cakes, no baking 
powder need be used. Here the leavening agent is air. Air is beaten into the 
eggs which act as a seal for holding it in. After the air is sealed into the batter, 
it must be carefully and gently handled. When heat is applied to the batter, 
the air cells expand, thus exerting a leavening action. 
(d) The creaming method of mixing a cake batter, that is, when the 
shortening and sugar are whipped up, brings out the use of a combination of 
baking powder and air. The air is beaten into the creamed portion of the mix 
and is then retained when eggs are added. During the baking of a batter made 
in this manner, the air and carbon dioxide gas expand, giving the leavening effect. 
d. Formulas and procedure. 
(1) Cakes containing shortening. There are many and varied cake formulas 
in use. However, if one would study them when they are set down in percentage 
form, little difference would be noted. Rather than be lost in a maze of formulas, 
the Army baker should select a standard basic cake mix, much the same as the 
basic sweet dough mix. From this base, by means of additions to the basic 
formula, a variety of cakes may be made. Additions of fruit, changes in flavoring, 96 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
and variety of finishings all make for variety of cake productions, even though 
the same basic mix is used. 
It must be borne in mind that no matter how excellent the formula, correct 
procedure and method must be used. The most universally used and most work- 
able method of procedure in making a cake batter is the creaming process. In 
this process the shortening, sugar, salt, flavor, and a fraction of the flour are 
creamed together until a light, fluffy mass, greatly increased in volume, is ob- 
tained. The eggs and milk are next creamed in, followed by the mixing in of 
the remainder of the flour. The last stage of mixing should be long enough onlv 
to get the flour in the batter and the batter smooth. It must be remembered that 
cake formulas may be put into percentage form similar to bread formulas as 
shown in the percentage formula system. 
(a) Formula for basic yellow cake. This type of cake is excellent for Army 
use because the whole egg is used, thereby avoiding loss of egg yolks, as is often 
the case when only the whites are used. 
Percentage based 
Creamed together: 
Weight on flour as 100 
Granulated sugar 
5 lb. 
100 
Salt 
1*4 oz. 
1.5 
Shortening 
1 lb. 
4 oz. 
25 
Butter 
12 oz. 
15 
Flour 
1 lb. 
20 
Vanilla (may be variable) 
1 oz. 
1.25 
Add and cream slowly: 
Whole eggs 
3 
60 
Add: 
Milk 
3 lb. 
8 oz. 
70 
Add and mix in: 
Flour 
4 lb. 
80 
Baking powder 
2V2 oz. 
3.12 
Total 
18 lb. 
12% oz. 
375.87 
Note. Any form of milk may be used, converting it into liquid whole milk 
equivalent. Variation may be made in the quantities of sugar and milk used. 
Both may be slightly increased to obtain a different characteristic in the cake. 
(h) Variations. Using this yellow cake mix as a rnnv '•’akes may be 
produced. This is accomplished by adding a special mixture to a certain amount 
of yellow batter. 
Following are several cakes easy to make and very adaptable to Army 
use. These cake remixes may be used for layers, sheets, or cups. 
1. Fudge cake. 
Sift together: 
Sugar 4 oz. 
Cocoa 6 oz. 
Soda Vz oz. 
Add: 
Cold water 12 oz. 
Form a paste of the above ingredients. Add 1 pound 6 ounces of paste to 8 
pounds of yellow batter and mix thoroughly. 
2. Spice cake. 
Ground raisins Wz lbs. 
Soda Vx oz. 
Sugar 4 oz. 
Spice blend 2 oz. 
Water 8 oz. 
Add 2 pounds 6 ounces of paste to 8 pounds of yellow batter and mix thoroughly. 
For spice blend mix thoroughly: 
Cinnamon 7 oz. 
Nutmeg 2 oz. 
Cloves Vz oz. 
Ginger 1 oz. 
Allspice Vz oz. 
Mace 1 oz. BAKING 
97 
3. Apple sauce cake. 
Make a paste of the following: 
Chopped apples 1 lb. 4 oz. 
Chopped raisins 4 oz. 
Cinnamon Vz oz. 
Nutmeg oz. 
Soda pinch. 
Add the paste to 8 pounds of yellow batter and mix together, 
(c) Panning. When panning cake batter, great care should be used. Air bub- 
bles or air spaces must be guarded against; however, do not eliminate these by 
banging the pans on a table or the floor as is often done. They may be removed 
easily by smoothing out the batter with a spatula. Pans should be thoroughly clean 
before putting in the batter. They should be wiped with a clean cloth immediately 
after use and should be washed with soap and water quite frequently. Before pan- 
ning, the pans should be thoroughly greased and dusted with flour; a mixture of 
shortening and flour in the ratio of 2 to 1 may be used for greasing. In many cases, 
especially for cakes requiring a long bake, the pans should be paper-lined. This 
is especially true of sheet cake. By means of using a paper liner the bottom crust 
may be almost entirely eliminated. The paper acts as an insulation. In order to 
prevent the usual thick, hard crust found on the edges of sheet cakes and thereby 
eliminate much waste a wooden frame may be used. This frame should be made 
of hardwood and of such size and height that it will fit closely inside the particular 
sheet pan in use and will allow the cake thickness usually obtained. Wood 
thick will furnish proper insulation. The ends or corners should be mortised. The 
size necessary for the common sheet pan is 24 Vz by 16 by 1% inches, outside di- 
mensions. 
(d) Scaling. In order to obtain a good cake the amount of batter used 
must be adapted to the type and size of pan employed. Not enough attention is 
paid to scaling weight. There are scaling weight guides but it is really up to the 
individual to determine by experience the proper scaling weight for the pans he 
is using. Moreover the weight of the batter for a certain pan will depend on the 
type of cake being made. A layer cakepan which will take 12 ounces of basic 
batter will take perhaps 13 or 14 ounces of applesauce cake batter. The table 
below gives scaling weight that may be used as a guide. 
Layer cakes (deep pans lx/2 to 2 inches in depth): 
8-inch layers 13 to 14 oz. 
7- layers 9 to 11 oz. 
6- layers 7 to 8 oz. 
Layer cakes (shallow pans % to 1 inch in depth): 
8- layers 9 to 11 oz. 
7- layers 8 to 9 oz. 
6-inch layers 6 to 7 oz. 
Sheet pan (24V2 by 16 by IV4 inches) 6% to 6% lb. 
(e) Baking. It is quite difficult to set a temperature at which, or a length 
of time for which, cakes are to be baked. Again the individual who is familiar 
with the oven he is using must determine the proper baking temperature and 
length of time. As a guide, layer cakes bake best at about 375° F. Temperature 
for a sheet cake should conform closely to that for the layer cake. Baking time 
ranges from 12 to 20 minutes. A cake is baked done when an indentation, made 
on the surface by a slight pressure of the fingers, immediately springs back to its 
original shape. Care should be exercised that the cake is not baked too long. 
This causes toughness and dryness. Upon completion of the baking, cakes should 
be removed from the pans before they cool entirely. Cooling entirely in the pan 
causes “sweating” and makes the cake somewhat wet and soggy. Often the hot 
cakes stick to the pans upon which they are inverted. To avoid this, granulated 
sugar may be sprinkled over the surface upon which the hot cakes are placed. 
(f) Finishing. In order to complete a good cake it must be properly iced. 
Icing should be attractive and look appetizing and above all should be properly 
flavored. Good icings are often ruined by over-flavoring. Just enough flavoring 
must appear in the icing to blend with the cake. It must be remembered also that 
too much icing on a cake, even though it is excellent, will detract from the taste 
of the cake. The icing must be merely a garnishing to the cake. The cake should 
be allowed to cool thoroughly before applying icing. Due to the fact that most 98 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
icings call for the whites of a few eggs, the whites of three or four eggs may be 
retained when breaking the eggs into the yellow cake mix. Following are two 
icing recipes: 
1. Butter-cream icing: 
Butter 1 lb. 
Sugar, powdered 1 lb. 
Egg whites 3 each 
Vanilla (variable) *4 oz. 
Cream the butter thoroughly; add the sugar gradually, and cream until fluffy. 
Add the egg whites and beat up thoroughly. Add the flavoring just before com- 
pletion of beating. Cocoa may be added to form a chocolate butter-cream frosting. 
2. Chocolate fudge icing (boiled): 
Brown sugar 4 lb. 
Milk 1 qt. 
Bitter chocolate, melted 1 lb. 
Butter 12 oz. 
Combine sugar, cream, and chocolate. Place over a slow fire and stir until sugar 
is dissolved. Continue heating until mixture boils and continue boiling until the 
“soft ball” stage is reached (sirup forms a soft ball in cold water). This stage is 
about 225° F. Add butter and cool. Beat until creaminess desired is obtained. 
Should be applied to cake immediately. 
(2) Cakes without shortening. Cakes without shortening, such as sponge and 
angel food cakes, are more difficult to produce than those containing shortening. 
Practically all methods of procedure for mixing cakes of this type call for the eggs 
to be beaten up in a machine; however, they may be beaten by hand with a wire 
whip, the method depending upon the individual and the equipment available. 
The general procedure to follow in mixing a sponge or angel food cake is as 
follows: 
(a) The eggs and sugar are first beaten or whipped up until light and fluffy. 
It is during this stage of mixing that air is incorporated into the mix. The eggs 
are sufficiently beaten when the emulsion forms a peak on the end of the beater 
or finger. Care must be exercised not to beat too much, because overbeating 
breaks down the emulsion. The next step in the mixing process is the addition 
of the water and flavoring, followed by the folding in of the flour, baking powder 
(if used), and salt. The flour, baking powder, and salt should be sifted together 
several times before folding into the egg emulsion. After flour is added, the 
batter should be mixed only long enough to blend the ingredients. 
(b) When panning sponge cake, care should be exercised not to squeeze 
out or knock out the air which has been incorporated and which is so necessary 
for a good product. Pans should be lined with greased paper to afford insulation. 
For angel food cake, however, do not grease pans or use paper liners. 
(c) Following are formulas for cakes containing no shortening and for a 
butter sponge cake: 
1. Angel food: 
Beat stiff: 
Egg whites 
2 
lb. 
Sugar, granulated 
1 
lb. 
Cream of tartar 
y4 
oz. 
Salt 
y4 
oz. 
Add: 
Vanilla or flavor blend 
y4 
oz. 
Fold in lightly, after sifting together three 
times: 
Sugar, powdered 
1 
lb. 
Flour 
12 
oz. 
Cornstarch 
4 
oz. 
Total 
5 lb. 
% 
oz. 
Scale the batter into standard angel food tins. About 
8 or 9 ounces to a tin is sufficient. Bake at about 300° F.  
Big cakes 
Layer cakes, 
cookies, etc. 
Kind 
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Remarks 
1. Standard basic cake mix 
Oz. 
16 
Oz. 
80 
Oz. 
12 
Oz. 
20 
Oz. 
pt. 
3 
pt. 
Oz. 
1% 
Oz. 
80 
Oz. 
2 Vi 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
1 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
pt. 
3% 
Pt. 
Pt. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
Oz. 
120 
15 to 22 
15 to 22 
15 to 22 
15 to 22 
20 to 40 
18 to 24 
18 to 24 
18 to 20 
See footnote 2 below for procedure on standard basic cake mix.2 
No water used. 
2. Raisin pound cake ... 
16 
16 
1 
16 
Vs 
4 
16 
120 
3. Cm rant pound cake 
16 
16 
1 
16 
Vs 
% 
% 
y8 
% 
Vs 
% 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
% 
4 
16 
120 
Do. 
4. Plain fruit cake 
16 
16 
1 
16 
6 
% 
% 
Vs 
Vs 
y8 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
8 
8 
4 
2 
2 
4 
4 
120 
Add fruit with eggs. No water used. 
5. Fruit cake 
16 
16 
1 
20 
3 
3 
16 
16 
8 
2 
2 
4 
8 
240 
Add fruit and nuts with eggs; no water used; if too stiff add a little cream. Ingredients will 
make 8 pounds when baked. 
Add yolks to mixture slowly before flour. 
Have whites well beaten and add to mixture before adding the flour. 
6. Golden layer cake or big cake 
7. Silver layer cake or big cake 
8. Layer or large cake . .. 
12 
10 
% 
16 
% orl 
% or 1 
% 
% 
% 
60 
20 to 30 
20 to 30 
20 to 30 
20 to 30 
20 to 30 
20 to 30 
15 to 18 
15 to 18 
15 to 18 
15 to 18 
16 to 18 
15 to 18 
12 
10 
Vs 
12 
4 
60 
12 
10 
% 
16 
4 
60 
9. Layer or large cake (less 
expensive) 
10 
8 
Vi 
Vi 
% 
V4 
1/10 
1/10 
16 
% or 1 
% or 1 
% or 1 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
60 
18 to 20 
18 to 20 
Do. 
10. Spice, layer, or large cake .. 
10 
8 
IX 
16 
y2 
Vs 
% 
% 
60 
Add spices to mixture before flour. 
11. Layer or large cake 
8 
6 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
16 
60 
18 to 20 
12. Raisin cake, large 
8 
4 
16 
% 
ai 
16 
60 
18 to 20 
Make batter stiff to hold raisins up. 
13. Plain cake 
6 
3 
16 
60 
18 to 20 
14. Plain cake, spiced 
6 
3 
16 
3/A 
Vi 
Vs 
Vs 
y8 
60 
18 to 20 
Do. 
15. Pastry dough 
12 
16 
20 
18 
12 
Before rolling add one-half of the butter and sufficient water for a stiff dough. Roll out into 
about one-eighth inch sheet on a cold board. Butter and fold to about one-half its size and 
roll again, repeating this about 9 times or until the butter is used up. 
Mix with cold water. Work as little as possible. 
Do. ' 
Do. 
16. Pie crust No. 1 
10 
16 
30 
17. Pie crust No. 9. 
9 
Vs 
Vs 
% 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
16 
30 
12 
18. Pie crust No. 3 
7 
16 
30 
12 
19. Biscuits 
2 
16 
1% 
1 
20 
15 
Work as little as possible. Dough for potpie same as biscuit dough. 
20. Corn cake, large 
4 
3 
Vs 
Vs 
V* 
8 
8 
60 
18 
21. Corn bread . .. 
1 
3 
1 
16 
30 
15 
Make a stiff batter 1 inch deep in pan. 
Stiff dough. Steam from 5 to 8 hours. 
Do. 
22. Plum pudding 
4 
6 
16 
Vi 
% 
2 
4 
Vi 
Vi 
Vi 
H 
% 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
8 
8 
4 
2 
2 
6 
23. Plum duff No. 1 
4 
16 
6 
Vs 
Vs 
6 
6 
24. Plum duff No. 2 
3 
16 
% 
6 
3 
3 
3 
Do. 
Soft batter if eggs are used; if not, stiller. 
25. Batter cakes 
4 
Vs or 1/10 
6/10 
1 
16 
1 or 1 Vs 
1 
26. Jelly rolls . _ 
10 
1 
16 
16 
Vs 
% 
20 
16 
27. Wedding cake 
14 
14 
V4 
% 
££ 
% 
32 
24 
24 
16 
1 
1 
.. 
120 
20 
12 
6 
2/3 
16 
16 
% 
Vs 
Vi 
V4 
80 
20 
29. Wine cakes 
8 
6 
Vi 
% 
i/4 
Vi 
V4 
V4 
V 
Vs 
45 
15 
To be baked in 1 pound molds. 
Wash butter thoroughly before using. 
See footnote 3 below for procedure on angel food cake.® 
Use strictly fresh eggs and beat well and stir in flour with beater. 
30. Lady cake . 
16 
14 
1 
16 
12 
16 
% 
% 
% 
y3 
vo 
60 
20 
31. Angel food cake . 
16 
16 
2 
Vs 
4 
20 
32. Sponge cake 
16 
IVs 
IVs 
% 
Vs 
60 
20 
33. Lady fingers . 
16 
18 
% 
20 
25 
34. Ginger pounds 
3 
16 
3 
Vs 
16 
% 
10 
% 
V4 
% 
25 
15 
Bake in 1 pound molds. 
Boil sugar to breaking point; then add to the beaten eggs and stir in coconut. Bake on 
greased and dusted pans. 
Bake on paper. When cooled turn upside down and dampen to remove. 
See footnote 3 for procedure on angel food cake.® 
Vi 
7/10 
16 
20 
25 
16 
i« 
20 
25 
37. Lemon jumbles 
8 
24 
5 
% 
% 
16 
16 
% 
% 
% 
% 
V4 
% 
% 
15 
15 
38. Fruit sticks . __ 
16 
4 
20 
15 
39. French sugar cookies 
8 
4 
Vs 
3/10 
1/10 
1/10 
Vs 
% 
1/10 
16 
Vs 
Vs 
V4 
% 
10 
10 
40. Lemon snaps 
16 
8 
16 
16 
16 
16 
15 
20 
41. Gincer cookies 
3 
3 
Vs 
% 
% 
Vi 
% 
1 
% 
10 
Vs 
Vs 
Vs 
V4 
Vs 
Vs 
% 
y8 
% 
10 
10 
42. Scotch cookies 
10 
5 
2 Vi 
Vs 
% 
20 
15 
43. Spice drops 
3 
3 
% 
% 
15 
10 
44. Cup cakes 
12 
8 
16 
16 
% 
Vs 
Vi 
15 
10 
45. Crumb cookies 
8 
5 
Vs 
Vs 
6 
8 
20 
25 
Beat in one-fourth of sugar. Stir in the remainder after eggs are beat. Bake on dusted pans. 
46. Kisses 
24 
"Vi 
i 
20 
25 
— 
REFERENCE TABLE OF INGREDIENTS 
1 The ordinary number of broken eggs to 1 pint is 10. This number should be increased or decreased according to size of the eggs. 
2 Cream sugar, salt, shortening, butter, flour, vanilla; add and cream slowly whole eggs; add Inilk; add and mix in flour and baking powder. 
8 Beat stiff egg whites, granulated sugar, cream of tartar, salt; add vanilla or flavor blend; fold in lightly, after sifting three times, powdered sugar, flour, cornstarch. Scale at 8 or 9 ounces to tin. Bake at about 300* P. 2. Sponge: 
Beat until firm: 
Sugar, granulated 
2 
lb. 
8 
oz. 
Egg yolks 
1 
lb. 
8 
oz. 
Water (warm) 
1 
lb. 
Milk powder 
2 
oz. 
Salt 
y2 
oz. 
Flavor (to suit taste) 
Add and beat for one minute: 
Hot water (about 180° F.) 
1 
lb. 
Add the following after sifting together 
and mix until smooth; 
Flour 
2 
lb. 
8 
oz. 
Cornstarch 
8 
oz. 
Baking powder 
iy2 
oz. 
Total 
9 
lb. 
4 
oz. 
BAKING 
99 
Bake at approximately 370° F. May be 
baked in layers. 
3. Butter sponge: 
Beat: 
Sugar (warmed) 
3 
lb. 
4 
oz. 
Whole eggs 
4 
lb. 
Egg yolk 
1 
lb. 
Salt 
1 
oz. 
Flavor 
1 
oz. 
Water 
8 
oz. 
Fold in (by hand); 
Flour 
2 
lb. 
12 
oz. 
Cornstarch 
4 
oz. 
Then fold in carefully: 
Butter (melted) 
1 
lb. 
4 
oz. 
Total 
13 
lb. 
2 
oz. 
Put in pans as quickly as possible and bake 
at about 400° F. 
55. Cookies, a. There are many different types of cake which fall under the 
classification of cookies. The Army baker or cook may very successfully add 
variety to a messing program by making and serving cookies. Like good cake, 
good cookies require fine ingredients and careful handling. The method of mixing 
batter for the majority of cookies is similar to the method of mixing the basic 
yellow batter—that is. the sugar, shortening, creaming method. The cookie 
batter must be handled in different ways to obtain variety. Some are dropped 
on pans from a tube; others are rolled out and cut into numerous shapes. 
b. Since sirups have great moisture-retaining properties and aid in preserving 
freshness; they are frequently used in cookies. Molasses and malt sirup should 
be extensively used in cookies by the Army baker. 
c. Some recipes for cookies easily prepared and readily adaptable to Army use 
are given below. There are many cookie formulas available, but this should 
not deter the baker or cook from using inventiveness or originality in making up 
formulas. Very often bread crumbs, ground field biscuits, and other left-overs 
may be readily worked into a cookie formula. 
(1) Oatmeal cookies. 
(a) Formula. 
Flour 3 lb. 
Baking powder 1 oz. 
Salt 1 oz. 
Cinnamon % oz. 
Oatmeal 2 lb. 
Shortening 1 lb. 8 oz. 
Brown sugar (light) 3 lb. 
Soda V2 oz. 
Currants and raisins 1 lb. 8 oz. 
Egg yolks V2 pt. 
Water Vi pt. 100 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(b) Procedure. Sift the flour, salt, baking powder, and cinnamon together 
several times. Cream the shortening and sugar until light. Add the eggs and 
beat thoroughly. Dissolve the soda in the water, then add flour and oatmeal 
alternately with the water. Blend after each addition. Add the currants or 
raisins with the last of the flour. Roll out the batter on the bench and cut with 
a cookie cutter. Bake on greased sheet and before baking wash the cookies with 
“egg milk” wash. Bake at about 350° F. for 10 to 12 minutes. 
(2) Molasses cookies. 
(a) Formula. 
Sugar, brown 5 lb. 
Shortening 2 lb. 8 oz. 
Salt 1 oz. 
Soda iVz oz. 
Allspice 3/a oz. 
Cinnamon 1 oz. 
Malt Va qt. 
Molasses Va qt. 
Eggs 1 pt. 
Flour 6 lb. 
(b) Procedure. Cream the shortening, sugar, salt, soda, allspice, and cin- 
namon until light. Add the malt, molasses, and eggs. Mix well and then fold 
in (by hand) the flour. Drop on greased sheets. Bake at 375° F. for 10 to 12 
minutes. 
(3) Sugar cookies. 
(a) Formula. 
Flour 3 lb. 
Baking powder 1 oz. 
Salt Va oz. 
Shortening 1 Vz lb. 
Sugar 1% lb. 
Egg yolks Vz pt. 
Vanilla Va oz. 
Milk V2 pt. 
(b) Procedure. Same as above for mixing batter. Roll out on the bench 
very thin, cut with a cookie cutter, and sprinkle with sugar. Bake on greased 
sheets at 400° F. for 5 to 6 minutes. Cookies may be cut into a variety of shapes. 
56. Pies, baking. A pie is a combination of two very different food products— 
the crust and the filling. 
a. Pie crust. The handling of a pie dough differs considerably from that of a 
bread dough. A high proportion of fat is used, and the dough is made up 
quickly, with as little handling as possible. The materials should be kept cold. 
A good proportion by weight is half as much fat as flour, and half as much 
water as fat. The old-fashioned home-made pie crust has a rough surface 
and flaky texture obtained by mixing all of the fat and all of the flour lightly. 
Such a mix has free fat lumps present which cause flakiness. A flaky crust is 
difficult to cut neatly. Factory pies have a short and mealy crust obtained by 
thorough mixture of the fat and flour. These cut nicely but lack the attractive 
appearance of the flaky crusts. For Army purposes the best crust is a short- 
flaky type, being a compromise between the first two. This has the flaky effect 
which cuts easily. This quality is obtained by first thoroughly mixing all of 
the flour with one-half of the fat and then lightly mixing in the remainder of 
the fat. The first mixing obtains a collection of fat particles covered with 
flour, which gives shortness. The second mixing introduces numerous small 
free fat lumps which cause flakiness. Just enough water should be added to 
this mixture to moisten the flour particles. The water should be distributed 
evenly and the mass mixed gently to a dough-ball which is easy to handle, 
neither sticky nor crumbly. If too much water is used, it will cause the crust 
to shrink while baking; however, while this detracts slightly from the appear- 
ance of the pie it does no great harm. On the other hand, if too little water is 
used the crust dough is so stiff that it is difficult to roll and handle and quite 
likely to break or tear while being lifted from the rolling board to the pie tin. 
With experience the cook quickly learns to use sufficient water to make a crust which is easily handled. Use of sufficient water to make a sticky or slack 
dough must be avoided as this makes a tough pie crust. The dough is rolled 
into a uniform sheet with as little dusting flour as possible and fitted into the 
pans. 
b. Kinds of pies. Pies usually take their names from the filling contained, as 
apple, peach, custard, pumpkin, etc. There are many different fillings. They 
may be roughly classed as follows: 
Fruit fillings, consisting of any kind of fruit, usually alone, but sometimes 
combined with one or more other fruits. This class is called fruit pies. 
Examples: apple, cherry, rhubarb. 
Soft filling (see (2) below). Examples: pumpkin, custard, lemon cream. 
(1) Fruit pies, (a) How made. Fruit-filled pies should be made with a 
top crust as this is the more common practice and they are probably more pleas- 
ing made in this way. 
BAKING 
101 
1. The fruit used for filling may be fresh, canned, or dried; of desirability 
in the order named. Common fruit pies are apple, apricot, berry (all kinds), 
cherry, peach, mince, raisin, and rhubarb. 
2. The fruit filling is usually sweetened with sugar. Spices, usually nut- 
meg and cinnamon, are added to apple pies and may be added to other fruit 
fillings but are not usually added to berry, cherry, raisin, or rhubarb pies. A 
thickener or binder is usually added to fillings made from very juicy fruits. 
3. (a) Fruit fillings which are very juicy, especially berries and cherries, 
may make a pie which is difficult to cut and serve neatly as the filling may run out 
when the cut pieces of pie are lifted from the pie tin to the plate; or, it may be 
impossible to lift the pieces of pie without breaking them. To overcome this, 
a starchy thickener, sometimes called a binder, is added to the filling to give it 
solidity. Starch, under the influence of moisture and heat, swells and becomes 
a pasty, gelatinous mass, of great water-absorbing power. The ordinary thick- 
eners used in the Army mess are cornstarch, wheat flour, and tapioca. Tapioca 
is a form of starch. While satisfactory results can be secured with cornstarch 
or wheat flour, the best thickener is tapioca, either in granulated or flour form. 
The granulated form of tapioca is often called quick tapioca. Cornstarch and 
wheat flour, if too much is used, may impart their flavor to the pie. They may 
also impart a whitish color to the filling. Tapioca is less likely to do this. How- 
ever, cornstarch or wheat flour is often used in preference to tapioca for the 
reason that the tapioca found in Army messes is the pearl type, which requires 
soaking for about 12 hours so that it will soften and not be visible in the pie. 
If this long soak is not given, the pearls of tapioca may be visible as small white 
globes after the pie is baked. Therefore, when using pearl tapioca it is usually 
necessary to start preparing the fruit filler about 12 hours in advance. On the 
other hand, cornstarch, wheat flour, or tapioca in granulated or flour form may 
be mixed and cooked with the juice of the filling in 30 minutes. 
(b) Any fruit filling which is sufficiently juicy to require a thickener 
will furnish sufficient juice in which to cook the thickener. Drain off the juice. 
If pearl tapioca is used, this must be done about 12 hours before the pies are to 
be made. If cornstarch, wheat flour, or tapioca in granulated or flake form is 
used, the juice should be drained from the filling before starting to make the 
pie crust, so that the thickener and juice may be cooked together while the crust 
is being made. Heat the juice (preferably in a double boiler), add the thickener, 
and simmer about 30 minutes. Great care must be used to avoid lumpiness. 
When using cornstarch or wheat flour, the best method is first to make a thick 
paste with the thickener and a little of the juice and then stir this paste into 
all the juice. When using tapioca in granulated or flour form, it should be dropped 
slowly into the hot water and whipped vigorously with a wire whip until all 
the tapioca has been added. Stir frequently while simmering. 
(c) Some cooks, especially when pressed for time, add cornstarch or 
wheat flour directly to the filling while pouring it into the pie crust. Experienced 
cooks may do this successfully, but those with less experience frequently find 
that white patches appear in the pie after baking, especially if flour has been 
used. Often this is due to sprinkling the flour on top of the filling (just under 
the top crust. When adding cornstarch or wheat flour directly to a pie, it is best 
(h) Composition of filling. 102 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
to first pour in about half the filling, then sprinkle in a layer of thickener, then 
add remainder of filling. Granulated or flour tapioca is less likely to cause 
white patches. 
(d) Great care must be used to avoid adding too much thickener to 
pie filling. If too much is used, the filling may be so thickened as to be gummy 
or rubbery. In deciding upon the quantity of thickener to be used, remember 
that acid fruit juices cause starch paste to liquify and become thin; therefore 
slightly more thickener should be used in such fillings as strawberry, tart apple, 
or rhubarb, etc., than in a nonacid filling, as peach. A good general rule is one 
fourth of a standard measuring cup (about 1 ounce) of thickener to each quart 
of juice. With a little experience the cook will soon learn to regulate the quan- 
tity of thickener. 
(e) After the thickener and juice are cooked together, mix them with 
the fruit and then add sugar and spices, if the latter are used, to taste. 
(c) Handling and baking. 
1. Fruit fillings usually are put into an unbaked (raw) lower crust and 
covered with a raw upper crust before being put into the oven. After the lower 
crust is rolled out on the board or table, fold it over once. This makes easier 
lifting and placing in the pie tin without tearing. Press the crust well down 
into the corner of the tin and allow an overlap of about one half inch all around 
the outer edge of the tin. Then crimp or press the crust down on this outer 
edge. Puncture the lower crust with a fork, especially around the corner of the 
tin. This allows air to escape and prevents puffing of the lower crust when 
baking. This should also be done when baking unfilled pie shells. Put in the 
filling. Then moisten the outer edge of the lower crust. This will cause the 
outer edges of the lower and upper crusts to stick together. Then add the 
upper crust. In the upper crust cut several slashes about 1 inch long, or prick 
it in a number of places with a fork. This is to allow escape of steam while 
baking. The upper crust is sealed to the lower by crimping the edges with a 
fork. After the top crust is on, hold the pie plate on one hand and trim off all 
surplus dough by passing a knife around the edge of the plate. Use a sharp knife. 
2. In general, all pies filled into a raw crust are placed in a hot oven 
(450° to 500° F.—8 counts) in order to bake the lower crust before the filling 
has had time to soak into it. After a few minutes the temperature should be 
reduced to that called for in the recipe for the kind of pie being baked. Baked 
pie shells should be baked in a quick oven (400-450° F.—9 to 12 counts) until 
they feel firm and dry and the edge of the shell is an even golden brown. 
3. The usual practice is to pour soft fillings for pumpkin, squash, and 
custard pies into an unbaked (raw) crust and bake both together. This gives 
no trouble in the case of pumpkin and squash but may give trouble with custard 
pie. If the temperature of the oven is high the custard filling will be tough and 
have a tendency to weep; if it is low, the filling will soak into the crust and 
make it soggy. Therefore, many cooks prefer to first cook a custard filling and 
then pour it into a baked crust (shell). Then the baking required to finish the 
filling can be done at a temperature which will not injure it. 
4. Some cooks prefer to use baked pie crusts (shells) for all soft fillings; 
others prefer unbaked crusts. The usual practice is to use baked crusts, although 
these, being dry, tend to absorb liquid from the filling and become soggy, 
(2) Soft fillings, (a) Composition. 
1. Custard pie filling consists of milk, eggs, sugar, salt, nutmeg, and 
vanilla. To cut down the cost, cornstarch is sometimes used and the number of 
eggs reduced, but the resulting product is less desirable. 
2. Cream pie fillings consist of flour or cornstarch, sugar, milk, eggs, 
flavoring (extract or chocolate, lemon juice, etc,), and sometimes fruit, as bananas. 
Excessive use of flour or cornstarch reduces quality. The use of artificially pre- 
pared pie fillings should be avoided. They are expensive and make inferior pies. 
3. Pumpkin or squash pie filling consists of pumpkin or squash, eggs, sugar, 
salt, milk, and spices. It should be well sweetened and seasoned. 
(b) Used in single-crust pies. Soft fillings are usually used in pies having 
no top crust. Meringue (see recipe 254) is often added. 
(c) Handling and baking. Soft fillings nearly always are given preliminary 
cooking before being poured into the crust. This preliminary cooking may be for the purpose of cooking out excess water, as for pumpkin and squash, or of 
cooking the filling until it is stiff and smooth, as for banana cream, lemon, etc. 
The pie is placed in the oven and baked long enough to set the filling so that it 
is firm, or to brown the top, especially when meringue is added. 
c. Defects of pies. (1) In the crust. Sticking to pans is caused by moisture 
from wet pans or from leaking of filler. Shrinking is generally caused by tough- 
ness due to too much Water, too little shortening, or overworking. Too-high oven 
temperature tends to increase shrinking. Raw spots on pie bottoms may be due 
to poor bottom heat in the oven, to dented pans, or to improper mixing or rolling 
of the dough. 
(2) In the filling. Thinning of starch-thickened fillings of acid nature as 
lemon is caused by too slow cooling. Settling or sediment in custard pies is due 
to insufficient eggs or excess starch. Soaking of bottom crusts may be due to: 
(a) Underbaking. 
(h) Fillings too soft. 
(c) Too much sugar in dough. 
(d) Differences in flour. 
(e) Sweating in the pan. 
Boiling over occurs with some fillings when subjected to too high temperatures 
before the starch has gelatinized. 
57. Muffins. A muffin is an unsweetened cake. Muffins are usually baked in 
small muffin tins or paper liners and are usually served hot. There are many 
varieties of muffins and there are many products, differently named, which might 
be classified under the heading “muffins.” Some of these products are tea biscuits, 
scones, corn bread, nut breads, griddle cakes, and waffles. The method of mix- 
ing a muffin batter is generally similar to that for mixing a cake batter. How- 
ever, muffin batters when finished are usually thinner than cake batters. Care 
should be exercised in mixing a muffin batter not to overmix. It is not necessary 
to use the sugar, shortening, creaming process in the preparation of muffin 
batters. The dry ingredients may be mixed well; then the liquid and melted 
shortening added and stirred in. This method should be followed if the baker 
or cook finds that he is overmixing the batters. The use of muffins in a mess 
furnishes a pleasing addition to any meal at a moderate cost. Raisins, figs, 
corn meal, bran, and even bread crumbs may be utilized in muffins. Muffin tins 
or paper liners may be used in baking muffins. A small expenditure for the tins 
will be well repaid. 
a. Muffin hose (plain). 
BAKING 
103 
(1) Formula. 
Shortening 1 lb. 
Sugar 2 lb. 
Salt Vz oz. 
Eggs 8 each 
Molasses 8 oz. 
Soda 2 oz. 
Water 8 oz. 
Flour 3Vz lb. 
(2) Procedure. Cream together the shortening, sugar, and salt. Then add 
the eggs and stir in. Next add the molasses, soda, water, and flour, and mix. 
Do not overmix. Drop in greased tins or liners and bake at about 400° to 450° F. 
b. Variations. From the muffin base given in a above different kinds of muffins 
may be made. In order to make oatmeal muffins, for instance, replace IV2 pounds 
of flour with IV2 pounds of oatmeal. For any other kinds, such as whole wheat, 
all bran, corn meal, etc., merely replace IV2 pounds of the flour with IV2 pounds 
of whole wheat flour, all bran, or corn meal. Raisins, figs, or currants may be 
added to any kind. 
1V2 pounds of the flour with IVz pounds 
meal. Raisins, figs, or currants may be 
58. Griddle cakes. 
a. Formula. 
Milk 2 lb. (1 qt) 
Salt V2 oz. 
Sugar 2 oz. 
Eggs, whole 2 each 
Flour 1 lb. 
Baking powder 1 oz. 
Melted butter 1 to 2 oz. 104 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
b. Procedure. Stir together thoroughly the milk, salt, sugar, and eggs. Add 
the flour. Then add the melted butter and stir in. Fry on griddle. 
Section VIII 
FIELD BAKING EXPEDIENTS 
59. Expedients. Occasions are sure to arise when it is desirable to bake bread 
in the field when regular baking equipment is not provided. Under these cir- 
cumstances, the essential principles to be followed in the construction of earth or 
clay ovens must be thoroughly understood. 
a. Ovens. 
(1) Heat and construction. The entire principle of baking is based upon the 
fact that for each ration of bread baked a certain number of heat units must be 
provided at a temperature from about 385° F. to 450° F., striking the top and 
bottom of the loaf with about the same intensity. The quantity of the heat avail- 
able must be such that a baking temperature will be maintained from 30 minutes 
to IV2 hours, depending upon the depth of the dough to be baked. Such ovens as 
are constructed in the field must generally be of the simplest type possible; that 
is, of a single chamber in which the fire is built and withdrawn after sufficient 
heat has been stored up in the surrounding material to do the necessary baking. 
Such ovens are generally called “straight-fire” or “draw-fire” ovens, and for 
temporary use are very satisfactory, though they are more laborious to handle 
than continuous ovens. In the construction of these ovens, the following points 
should be kept in mind: 
Plate 1. Extemporary oven built in a bank. No. 1, longitudinal section; No. 2, plan; No. 3, front 
view (Not on the scale); No. 4, transverse section of interior. 
(a) The oven must be built of material suitable for absorbing and retaining 
the heat required in baking. Brick, rock, adobe, clay, sods, sand, and loamy soil 
will all do if properly handled. 
(b) About 8 inches of earth of any kind is required to fake up and radiate 
sufficient heat for baking even small batches of bread. A greater depth on top 
of an oven will cause premature breaking down; a lesser amount will not generally 
retain sufficient heat, 
(c) A slow fire must be placed in the oven in order that the heat may be 
gradually taken up in the surrounding material. A flash heat will quickly heat 
up the lining of the oven and produce an intense heat for a short time, but to store 
up a sufficient amount of heat requires a long, slow firing. 
(d) The greatest difficulty is in getting a bake on the bottom of the loaves in 
newly constructed ovens, as the heat from the fire rises from the bottom, which is 
further protected by the ashes as they accumulate. In damp and loamy soils, a 
hearth of stone or brick should be provided to overcome this difficulty. BAKING 
105 
(e) Damp soil cannot take up and radiate sufficient heat between 385° and 
480° F. to bake bread. Hence the material immediately surrounding an oven must 
be thoroughly dried out before any attempt is made to bake. Generally a slow 
fire for several hours will be necessary before the first baking can be made, but 
after a successful baking, not more than 45 minutes to 1 hour will be required for 
heating the oven and equalizing the temperature by closing the oven tight after 
the fire is drawn. 
(2) Oven in a steep hank. A bank from 4 to 6 feet high is the best for the 
purpose. The roof covering need not exceed IV2 feet. Two men with a spade 
and a long-handled shovel can build it, in light soil, in 45 minutes. If such tools 
are not available, it may be constructed with trowel, bayonet, intrenching tools, 
or even with knives. To build the oven, dig down the bank to a vertical face and 
excavate at the base a hole from 4 to 5 feet horizontally, care being taken to keep 
the entrance as small as possible; hollow out the sides of the excavation and arch 
the roof until the floor is about 2 feet 6 inches in its widest part and the roof is 
16 inches high to the center of the arch. Then tap the back end for the flue. A 
hole from 4 to 6 inches in diameter will furnish a good draft. A piece of tent 
stovepipe may be utilized for this purpose. When difficult to construct, the flue 
may be omitted and practically as good results will be obtained. The time re- 
quired for drying will depend upon the character of the soil; if ordinarily dry, 
a fire kept up for an hour will suffice. After the oven has been heated, the 
temperature may be regulated by means of the door and flue, opening or closing 
them as may be necessary. This is recommended as a very good and convenient 
oven. 
(a) Select a piece of level ground 5 feet by 9 feet. Take two salt or sugar 
barrels, knock top and bottom from one and a small section from the bottom of 
the other. Place the two barrels together, end on, the barrel with bottom intact 
to the rear. 
(h) Cover both barrels completely with moist sand; the sand should be 
about 2 inches deep on top and splay outward at the bottom to about 4 inches. 
In placing the sand about the form, care must be exercised not to use too much 
force. 
(c) Make a good stiff mixture of clay and grass or hay. Cover the sand, 
beginning at the bottom and working upward, using the hands. Clay should be 
12 inches thick at the bottom and taper to 6 inches at the top. Make a shoulder 
at each side on the front end of the trench to hold the sheet iron door. This 
shoulder should extend to the front of the oven proper so that the sheet iron will 
fit fiat against the oven chamber. 
(d) After the form is completed, allow to stand for 48 hours and then burn 
out the barrels. Use just enough wood to set fire to the barrels. When the barrels 
are burned out, scrape out the sand from the top and sides and the oven is complete. 
(e) If material is available, before constructing the walls of the oven lay 
a brick floor 3 feet by 8 feet. Set the barrels on the floor and then proceed as 
before indicated, the clay walls resting outside the brick floor. 
(7) Metal oil drums may be used in similar manner to offset need of use of 
wooden barrels. 
(g) To obtain the best results with this type of oven, it is best to start the 
fire as soon as the dough is set; keep up a moderate brisk fire for about 2 hours; 
as soon as the dough is punched down, spread the coals evenly over the floor of 
the oven and close up tight. This is to equalize the temperature at all parts of 
the oven. As soon as the bread is in the pan, draw all the coals from the oven and 
close for about Vi hour, then take the count; 7 counts is the proper heat. If less 
than 7, the oven is too hot; if more than 9, the oven is too cold and will not bake 
issue bread. 
(h) The oven is the right temperature when the hand may be held for 7- 
second counts parallel to the bottom of the trench and 1 inch from it. Or, if a 
little flour is scattered on the bottom of the trench, it should brown in about 2 
minutes. 
(i) This oven will hold 5 pans, each 12 by 24 inches, and if properly handled, 
will bake as good bread as any oven made. 
(j) To make a second run, put in another fire for about 45 minutes, draw 
(3) Construction and operation of two-harrel clay oven. 106 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
the coals, and close up the oven for about 15 minutes, and the oven is ready for a 
second run. 
(k) It is a great convenience in handling the bread if a 2-foot trench is dug 
in front of the oven. 
b. Baking in the open trench. A trench is dug about 6 feet long and 15 inches 
wide and 1 foot deep. A fire is built in the trench about 2 hours before time to 
bake. A few minutes before the loaves are ready, the coals are withdrawn and 
the trench swept clean. The loaves (Vienna-shaped and very dry on the exterior) 
are carefully laid in the trench about 3 inches apart, covered with an iron sheet 
of any kind, and the coals which were drawn from the trench distributed over 
the top. By carefully watching the bread and regulating the top heat, most 
excellent bread may be produced. In an oven of the dimensions given, twenty- 
five 1-pound loaves may be baked. If possible, the bottom should be floored with 
brick or stone. 
Section IX 
INFESTATION, ROPE, AND MOLD 
60. Disposition of infested flour. If flour becomes only slightly infested with 
beetles (commonly referred to as weevils), it is not materially harmed. Beetles 
may be removed by sifting flour through a fine mesh sieve. Badly infested flour 
should be surveyed with a view to disposition for purposes other than human 
consumption. 
61. Rats and mice. While rats and mice cannot be classed as insects, they 
are pests that should be kept out of the bakery. The most effective preventive 
method is to “build them out”; that is, to be sure that there are no cracks, holes, 
etc., in either the floor or the walls of the bakery. Traps are considered the best 
means of extermination . The bait in traps should consist of a type of food not 
otherwise available in the immediate vicinity, such as meat for traps in the 
bakery and bread or cheese for traps in the butcher shop. The use of rat poison 
is very dangerous because, either through carelessness or by being carried by the 
rats and mice, it may come in contact with ingredients which will subsequently 
be used in making bread. Furthermore, poisons often cause the rats to die while 
underneath the floors or between the walls of the building, making it difficult to 
effect their removal and resulting in an objectionable, unsanitary condition. 
62. Rope. a. Description. Rope is a bacterial disease of bread and is one of 
the worst troubles of the baker, for, when once started, it is very difficult to 
eradicate. It first appears in about 24 hours after baking, but in hot climates may 
appear much sooner. The first symptoms is an odor resembling ripe cantaloupe. 
This is followed by the formation of yellow or brown spots in the crumb, these 
spots having soft and sticky centers. The spots increase in size until, in about 
36 to 48 hours, the entire crumb of the loaf is changed into a strong smelling, 
brownish, soft, and sticky mass which can be pulled into strings or ropes. Such 
bread is entirely unfit for food. 
b. Cause. Rope is caused by the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. These 
bacteria may occur in nature on the surfaces of grains, potatoes, and other vege- 
tables, and in the soil. Flour milled from infected wheat will contain them. The 
lower-grade flours, which contain more of the outer portions of the wheat kernel, 
will contain more than the better patent flours. Storage of flour in a warm, damp 
place will cause a great increase in the number of these bacteria. The bacteria 
causing rope are resistant to heat, and any spores present in the center of the loaf 
are not killed at the baking temperature. Moist, warm conditions favor the 
development of rope, which may be considered as a hot-weather bread disease. 
The bacteria causing rope cannot grow in an acid medium, so the development 
of an acid fermentation or the addition of acid will prevent ropy bread. 
c. Sources. The chief source of rope infection is the flour. Most ropy flours are 
the inferior grades of flour, or better grades that have been stored in a warm, 
moist atmosphere, such as the hold of a transport. Potatoes are another common 
source, the organism causing rope being sometimes called the potato bacillus. 
Storage of flour near potatoes or the use of potato yeast may be a cause of ropy 
bread. Lack of cleanliness in the bakery and imperfect cleaning of troughs, 
buckets, and other utensils will favor the development of rope and prevent its BAKING 
107 
eradication. Forcing of doughs too much in warm weather and long storage of 
flour and bread in warm, moist climates will favor the growth of rope, 
d. To combat. 
(1) Flour that is known to have produced ropy bread should not be used. 
The presence of a large number of rope organisms in a flour can be detected by 
laboratory methods. Suspected flour should be examined and if found unsuitable 
for use, steps should be taken for its condemnation. Unless there has been trouble 
with ropy bread, caution must be used in condemning a flour because any flour 
may contain a few of the rope bacteria. A flour that may cause ropy bread in a 
warm climate may be used without this trouble in a cold climate or in winter. 
(2) The bakery should be kept in a sanitary condition. On the appearance 
of rope, the shop should be thoroughly cleaned and all dust, dirt, old bread, dough, 
etc., removed and burned. The floor, troughs, and all utensils should be cleaned 
and then sterilized with live steam and washed with a solution of boric acid or 
boiling vinegar. Fumigation of the bake shop or tentage by formaldehyde or 
sulphur is practically useless in an infection of this kind. 
(3) When danger from rope exists, do not force the dough but keep the 
temperature as cool as possible (not over 80° F.) and allow a slow fermentation 
with an extra punching of the dough if necessary. Favor the development of a 
slight acid fermentation, as rope will not develop in a sour dough. 
(4) Add vinegar to each dough; mix in the proportion of 1 quart of vinegar 
to each 100 pounds of flour. This is an absolute preventive. Other acids may be 
used, but vinegar is the most convenient and satisfactory acid substance available. 
A 5 per cent solution of acetic acid may be substituted for vinegar. Use one quart 
of this solution to each 100 pounds of flour. 
(5) Bread should be cooled promptly, the bread room should be well venti- 
lated and the loaves separated so that the bread will dry out well. 
63. Mold. a. Molds are microscopic organisms which grow under suitable con- 
ditions of food, warmth, and moisture. There are many kinds of molds. Many of 
them develop different colors during growth and give unpleasant flavors to the 
product upon which they grow. Not all are harmful to health, but their appear- 
ance is objectionable and indicates spoilage of the food upon which they are 
growing. There is no particular mold confined to bread, but under suitable con- 
ditions any mold may appear. Mold growth starts on the outside of the loaf and 
proceeds to the interior. A heavy crust is unfavorable to its development. Mold 
generally requires several days to develop in bread. 
b. The source of molds in bread is from the air or from things with which the 
bread comes in contact. The spores of molds are present to a greater or less ex- 
tent in air and on the surfaces of all objects. Unclean surroundings favor an 
increase in their number. The temperature of baking is sufficient to kill all molds 
and their spores present in the loaf, so any infection takes place after the bread 
leaves the oven. Infection of the bread comes from the air, hands of the bakers, 
bread racks, and other points of contact with sources of mold. 
c. Growth of mold is favored by moisture in the air and in the bread, warmth, 
and darkness, and by increased quantities of sugar in the bread. 
d. To prevent moldy bread: 
(1) Be sure that the bread is thoroughly baked. A hard, thick crust will 
hinder penetration of mold into the loaf and is desirable for bread intended for 
long keeping. 
(2) The cooling room should be clean, cool, and dry, and the loaves should 
be separated so as to allow thorough drying. Sunlight is an important factor in 
keeping down molds. 
(3) Observe proper sanitary conditions, such as; 
(a) Daily scrubbing of floors. 
(h) Frequent washing of walls and ceiling with antiseptic solutions. 
(c) Cleaning and steaming of utensils. 
(d) Clean clothes and clean personal condition of bakers. 
(4) Do not permit stale bread to contact freshly baked bread. 
(5) When mold is found, take prompt and thorough steps to remove it and 
clean and sterilize the places infected. 
(6) Do not attempt to eliminate mold by the use of vinegar. Unlike rope, 
mold thrives in an acid medium; therefore, the use of vinegar would encourage, 
rather than hinder, its development. CHAPTER 6 
FOODS 
1. General. All mess personnel should have a working knowledge of the raw 
materials of their profession. This Chapter and Chapter 7 will give mess personnel 
a smattering of information about the more important foods that are prepared 
in Army messes. Chapter 8 will go into more detail concerning the inspection of 
these foods. 
2. Baking powder. Baking powder is used to leaven cakes, pastry, and biscuits. 
It can be used to leaven bread, but it is seldom so used, as bread is usually leavened 
with yeast. 
a. Types. There are three main types on the market: 
(1) Quick-acting contains phosphoric acid, or cream of tartar, or cream of 
tartar and tartaric acid. 
(2) Slow-acting contains sodium aluminum sulphate (alum). 
(3) Double-acting contains both sodium aluminum sulphate (alum) and phos- 
phate (or calcium phosphate). The type is indicated by the label which always 
shows the ingredients. 
b. Rules for using baking powder. (1) Quick-acting baking powder acts while 
the batter is cold, so it must be placed in the oven quickly; otherwise part of the 
gas will be lost before baking. 
(2) Double-acting baking powder acts slowly until placed in the oven. In 
other words, heat is required to make it act. Therefore, when using double- 
acting baking powder, the cake, etc., need not be placed in the oven immediately. 
For example, when using this type of powder, a hot cake batter may be made 
up, kept overnight in the refrigerator, and cooked the next morning with little 
or no loss of leavening power. 
(3) The same rule as in (2) above applies when using a slow-acting powder, 
as it acts very slowly until heat is applied. 
(4) When quick-acting baking powder is used, twice as much is required as 
when double-acting powder is used. In other words, quick-acting baking powder 
is only one-half as strong as the double-acting type. 
(5) A good general rule is two level teaspoons of quick-acting, or one level 
teaspoon of double-acting, baking powder to each cup of sifted flour. 
(6) When making hot cakes, if they do not appear light, additional baking 
powder may be stirred into the batter. 
(7) Quick-acting baking powder requires a hot oven, about 425° F.—9 to 12 
counts. A double-acting powder requires a medium oven, about 350° F.—12 to 16 
counts at the start and a gradual increase in the temperature to about 425° F.—9 
to 12 counts. 
(8) Exact measurement to obtain proper quantities of baking powder for 
different recipes is important. Many failures in cake making are caused by use 
of too much baking powder. This tends to make the cake fall or have a coarse 
texture, or to give biscuits a yellow color and disagreeable taste. Quantities 
called for in recipes should be followed exactly, neither adding nor subtracting 
any amount. 
c. Storage. If kept perfectly dry, baking powder will keep in good condition 
for several years. The can should be kept tightly closed and in a dry place. 
3. Baking soda. Many cooks do not understand how to use baking soda advanta- 
geously in cooking, and for this reason it is not extensively used. It can be used 
to advantage in certain cooking operations. When used with sour milk, the 
biscuits are considered by many to have a flavor superior to baking-powder biscuits; 
further, this provides a means of utilizing sour milk and saves the cost of baking 
powder. The sour milk neutralizes the odor and taste of the baking soda which 
may be objectionable in many products when baking soda is used alone. A little 
baking soda is added to cream soups (especially cream of tomato) to prevent 
curdling. 
4. Beans, dry. a. (1) There are a number of types of dry beans. For Army 
messes, the following types may be purchased; 
Type A, white beans 
Type B, kidney beans 
109 110 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Type C, lima beans 
Type D, colored beans 
Type E, black-eye beans 
In time of peace any of these types can be secured, but in time of war, type A 
will usually be furnished. 
(2) Each type has a number of different varieties with the exception of the 
black-eye which has only one. For example, if a quartermaster has type A (com- 
monly known as “Navy” beans) on hand, he may have any one of the following 
varieties: 
Official name Common name 
Small white Small white or California small white 
Pea Pea or Michigan pea 
Medium white Medium white or medium 
Large white Large white 
Great northern Great northern 
b. (1) Kidney beans might be carried by a quartermaster as either red kidney 
beans, dark red kidney beans, or western red kidney beans. Western red and 
red kidney beans are light red in color, while dark red kidney beans are dark 
red to mahogany. There is no difference in eating quality. 
(2) Lima beans may be carried as either lima beans or baby lima beans; the 
first being large, the second small in size. There is little or no difference in eating 
quality. 
(3) Colored beans may be one of the following: Pinto (a mottled buff or tan- 
colored bean), pink, or small red. There is no difference in eating quality. Army 
messes located on the Pacific coast will often receive pink or small red while those 
located east of the Rocky Mountains will often receive pinto. 
(4) Black-eye beans usually are of only one kind—a white bean with a black 
eye. They are often called black-eyes or black-eyed peas. 
c. (1) White beans are best for baking while colored beans, lima beans, or 
black-eye beans are usually simmered. White beans usually are baked and are 
very popular cooked in this manner although they sometimes are simmered. They 
are usually served as the main dish of the meal whereas colored beans are usually 
served as a vegetable and not as the main dish. 
(2) Of the white beans, some cooks prefer the small sizes (small white or 
pea) while others prefer the large sizes (large white or great northern). There 
is little choice although the great northern appears to be the best cooking bean; 
that is, it cooks soft with a minimum of broken or tough skins. It is important 
to avoid cooking two sizes of beans together as this may result in the small beans 
becoming overcooked and mushy before the larger beans are thoroughly cooked. 
Old crop beans are dry and hard and require longer soaking and cooking than 
beans of the latest crop. 
(3) Lima beans and baby lima beans have a distinctive flavor and provide 
variety in the mess. Usually they are simmered with a seasoning of ham scraps 
or salt pork but are palatable when baked, provided dryness is prevented by 
adding beef stock or milk. 
(4) Black-eye beans, having a flavor of their own, are very popular with 
men from the Southern States where these beans are chiefly grown. They also 
are well liked by men from other States. Usually they are simmered with ham 
scraps. Sliced onion cooked with them or served raw with them adds to the 
palatability. Hot corn bread goes especially well with black-eye beans. 
d. Dry beans are one of the most valuable foods for Army messes and deserve 
to be served rather frequently. When properly cooked and served, they are ap- 
petizing and popular. In addition to being baked or simmered and served hot, 
beans which have been baked or simmered can be used cold in appetizing salads. 
Left-over baked Navy beans are palatable when reheated. 
e. There is little difference in nutritive value between the various types of dry 
beans. They all are high in protein, about equal to meat in this respect, and have 
been called the “poor man’s meat” because while they have about as much protein 
as meat, they are much lower in cost. Dry beans do not provide any roughage. 
They are a good source of vitamin B but do not furnish any other vitamin. 
f. Dry beans sometimes become insect infested. This condition occurs more 
frequently in the Tropics and Southern States. The kidney and colored types FOODS 
111 
appear to be more liable to attack by insects than the other types. Usually the 
first indication of insect infestation is the small holes made by the larvae (worms) 
which have been inside the beans and have eaten their way out. If a few beans 
are placed in water, those containing larvae, if any, will float. If the beans which 
float are cut in two with a knife, the larvae will be disclosed; however, the mere 
fact that some of the beans float does not prove that larvae are present. 
5. Breakfast foods, cereal, a. There are four main types on the market based 
upon method of manufacture: 
(1) Uncooked. Corn meal, farina, bran. 
(2) Partly cooked. Oatmeal, rolled oats. 
(3) Wholly cooked. Com and wheat flakes, puffed grains, etc, 
(4) Malted. Barley malted dry cereals. 
b. Rolled oats and com meal are about the lowest in cost and, in the order 
named, the most satisfactory breakfast foods from the standpoint of supplying 
the greatest food value for the least amount of money. Much of the cost of 
many cereal breakfast foods sold in package form is represented by the pack- 
age. Therefore, bulk breakfast cereals are most economical although there are 
advantages in the use of the packaged cereals represented mainly by ease in 
serving and better protection from insect infestation while in storage. 
c. Bran furnishes vitamins, minerals, and roughage. It has a laxative effect 
but should not be habitually used for this purpose. While it may be served 
occasionally to provide variety in breakfast cereals, too frequent servings should 
be avoided. 
6. Butter, a. Butter has a fine characteristic flavor which cannot be duplicated 
by any other product, and when butter is used as an ingredient in baking and 
cooking this fine flavor is imparted to the finished product. However, butter is 
relatively high in cost, and it is sometimes necessary to use substitutes such as 
vegetable shortening and lard substitute. While these substitutes are fairly 
satisfactory as shortening for many kinds of cakes, it cannot be expected that 
they will impart as fine a flavor as butter. There is no satisfactory substitute 
for butter for such dishes as buttered asparagus, beets, cauliflower, or peas. 
b. Butter should be kept in the refrigerator when not in use as it loses its 
flavor when exposed to room temperatures and easly absorbs odors. 
7. Canned foods, a. General. Canned foods include those foods which have 
been packed in cans, jars, or bottles to keep them in sound condition. While, in 
general, fresh foods are preferred, there are long periods throughout the year, 
mainly in winter and spring, when the fresh items cannot be bought at reason- 
able cost, and canned foods are splendid substitutes. They make possible a 
wide variety of foods in the mess and are ready for use, requiring only heating 
or chilling. 
(1) Canned meats. Canned meats include corned beef, roast beef, corned 
beef hash, sausage, ham, bacon, potted meats, and veal loaf. AH canned meats 
except bacon, have been thoroughly cooked at the time of canning and may be 
eaten without cooking in the mess. Most of them are more palatable if heated; 
however, canned corned beef, if served alone, and potted meat, etc., are more 
palatable cold, and should be chilled before serving. Canned meats are included 
in the field ration and are issued when it is impracticable to furnish fresh meat. 
Canned meats are an excellent source of protein and have very good keeping 
qualities. As they are more expensive than fresh meat, their use should be 
primarily for emergency conditions when cooked fresh meats cannot be obtained 
(2) Canned sea food, (a) While many kinds of fish are canned, the most 
satisfactory for Army mess use is canned salmon as it can be used in many ways, 
served cold alone or in salmon salad or other salads, fried in hash, creamed, 
baked, etc. It has recently been discovered that canned salmon is a very 
valuable health-protective food, especially the oil, because it furnishes vitamins 
A and D; therefore, this oil should be carefully saved and added to the salmon 
which is served. Canned salmon also is a good source of protein and fat. 
(b) Canned sardines and other canned fish, as tuna fish, are occasionally 
used in the Army mess. The sardines may be used for sandwiches and are best 
for this purpose if mashed into a paste. Canned tuna fish is used cold in salad or 
creamed. 
(c) Canned oysters and clams are occasionally used but are rather e,x^ 112 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
pensive. Canned crab and lobster are very expensive. As an occasional special 
treat, canned crab may be mixed with chopped lettuce, canned peas, and salad 
dressing, and served thoroughly chilled. Most of this dish consists of the lettuce 
and peas; fifteen V2-pound cans of crab are sufficient for 100 men. 
(3) Canned evaporated milk. See paragraph 30. 
(4) Canned fruits and vegetables, (a) These articles are a very important 
part of the Army ration. When fruits are canned, a sugar sirup is added to 
make the fruit sweeter and help preserve it. When vegetables are canned, a 
brine which is made of salt and water or sometimes sugar, salt, and water is 
added to the can. After the can is sealed, much food value goes from the fruit 
or vegetable into the sirup or brine. Too often this liquor (sirup or brine) is 
thrown away. It has high food value and should always be saved and used. 
Following are some of the uses for sirups from canned fruits and liquor from 
canned vegetables: 
1. Sirups from fruits. 
Beverages and coloring. 
Flavoring and coloring gelatin and other desserts. 
Flavoring and coloring some salads. 
As a substitute for milk on cereals. 
Added to stewed dried fruits. 
Flavoring and coloring sweet sauces. 
2. Liquor from vegetables. 
Added to soups for flavor. 
Flavoring and coloring salads, especially when made with gelatin. 
Added to gravies and sauces for flavor. 
(b) Canned fruits and vegetables are equal, or nearly so, to fresh fruits and 
vegetables in nutritive (health-protecting) value. Troops can be kept in good 
health, even when no fresh fruits and vegetables are available, if they are 
furnished canned fruits and vegetables. Canned tomatoes are especially valuable 
for health protection as they are very rich in vitamins. 
(c) Canned fruits and vegetables as well as other kinds of canned food 
have been thoroughly cooked in the canning process at the factory and, therefore, 
do not require cooking in the mess. If desired to serve canned foods hot, it is 
necessary to heat them for only a few minutes to make them ready for serving. 
Canned foods, especially canned fruits and vegetables, should never be boiled 
or heated longer than necessary to get them hot for serving as boiling or pro- 
longed heating tends to destroy their health-protecting vitamins. 
(d) Canned fruits are served as a table dessert, alone or in combination 
with other fruits, in fruit salad, and in puddings, pies, and other cooked and 
baked dishes. A single canned fruit is sometimes served as a dessert; for 
example, canned peaches or canned pineapple. A much more appetizing fruit 
dessert can be made by using several different kinds of canned fruit and mak- 
ing a fruit salad or fruit cup. This requires no more fruit and costs little, if 
any more. The large pieces should be diced or chopped. A topping of a little 
ice cream, shredded coconut, or whipped cream adds greatly to the appearance 
and palatability of fruit cup. 
(e) Palatability of canned fruit is greatly increased if chilled before serving. 
(f) Two types of canned fruits are packed. 
1. Those which are packed in a sugar sirup, and 
2. Those which have had no sugar added (water-packed—pie fruit). 
They are usually used for pie and require the addition of sugar. 
(5) Canned specialties. This covers such foods as combination of fruits or 
vegetables for salads, canned spaghetti, prepared chocolate milks, and similar 
items. Their cost is high, and generally the same foods may be prepared in 
the mess at less expense. However, canned tomato and pineapple juice have 
vitamin value and are inviting drinks for breakfast from time to time in lieu 
of fruit. Cost will govern the frequency of serving. 
b. Inspection of canned foods. The most important feature in the inspection 
of canned foods when received in the mess is the detection of any which are 
spoiled. Spoiled cans are usually swelled; that is, the ends are bulged out. 
Some times spoilage is indicated by the fact that the cans are leakers, and 
some of the juice or brine has escaped and soiled the exterior. Swells, leakers, FOODS 
113 
and badly rusted cans should not be accepted. The contents of cans which are 
swells or leakers should never be used as spoiled canned food may be very 
poisonous. Slight rusting or denting or soiled labels do not affect the quality 
of the food and are no cause for rejection. 
c. Storage of canned foods. (1) General. Canned foods should not be stored in 
high temperatures as this hastens spoilage. A dry storage place with an even 
temperature not over 60° F. is best. If canned foods freeze, the seams may 
burst and the cans become leakers. This permits air to enter and the contents 
to spoil. Canned foods which have become frozen should be carefully examined, 
and any which show signs of being leakers should be used at once before the 
contents have had time to spoil. Frozen canned foods should be thawed slowly 
and never in a hot room unless the food is to be used at once. 
(2) Keeping qualities of various canned foods, (a) Canned fruits and vege- 
tables of the acid type (cherries, berries, pineapple, plums, sauerkraut) spoil 
rather rapidly in the warm temperatures often prevailing in kitchens or mess 
storerooms and should not be kept on hand in the mess more than 3 months. 
One exception is tomatoes, which keep well for at least 6 months. Spoilage in 
this type of canned food is always indicated by swelled cans. 
(b) Canned fruits and vegetables of the nonacid type (apricots, peaches, 
pears, beans, corn, peas, pumpkins, etc.) keep comparatively well and may be 
stored in the mess for 6 months to 1 year with safety. Spoilage of the non- 
acid fruits is indicated by swelled cans; starchy canned vegetables such as 
baked beans, corn, peas, pumpkin, and squash often spoil without swelling and, 
when spoiled, are called flat sours. On opening a flat sour a sour odor is 
noticeable, and the contents are usually sloppy or mushy and have a sour taste. 
Tasting of any canned food to detect spoilage should be done with caution, 
food tasted should never be swallowed, and the mouth should be immediately 
rinsed out. 
(c) Canned meats are good keepers and may be kept on hand in the mess 
for at least 1 year with safety. 
(d) Canned sea food does not keep as well as canned meats, and frequent 
inspection for the detection of spoilage is necessary. Canned salmon may be 
kept on hand in the mess for at least 1 year with safety. 
(e) Canned milk is not a very good keeper and should not be kept on hand 
in the mess longer than 6 months. 
(f) All canned foods in storage in the mess should be inspected frequently 
to detect signs of spoilage and to insure that they are used within the safe storage 
limits as explained above. Dented and battered cans should be carefully in- 
spected and, if not leaking, used first as the can may have been weakened and 
may become a leaker within a few days. 
8. Cereals, breakfast. See paragraph 5. 
9. Cheese, a. Varieties. There are many varieties of cheese. The principal 
varieties made in the United States are: 
(1) Cheddar (cheddars, flats, daisies, young Americas, longhorns, prints, 
and squares). 
(2) Swiss (or Ementhaler). 
(3) Brick. 
(4) Limburger, 
(5) Cottage. 
(6) Processed (or pasteurized). (Sold under brand names.) 
b. Food value. With the exception of cottage cheese, all the varieties men- 
tioned above contain about one-third fat and one-third protein. They, there- 
fore, have high food value as the protein is rich in body-building substances 
and the fat furnishes large amounts of heat and energy. Cottage cheese is 
made from skim milk and contains no fat. Cheese is rich in vitamins and 
htiinerals. 
c. Uses. Cheese is used as a substitute for and a supplement to meat, and for 
flavoring a great number of dishes. Due to its great food value, it should be 
served often. By using the various kinds of cheese and by cooking with other 
foods, much variety can be given the diet. Cheese, preferably two or more 
varieties, should be served when cold meats are served. 
10. Chocolate, a. Chocolate is sold as; 
(1) Plain (also called bitter or cooking) chocolate. 114 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(2) Sweet chocolate. 
(3) Sweet milk chocolate. 
b. Chocolate in storage sometimes develops a white bloom or discoloration 
on the surface. This is merely cacao fat and does not harm or lessen the eating 
qualities of the chocolate in any way. 
c. Chocolate is used in several ways. It may be used in lieu of cocoa to 
make a beverage, or in icings, chocolate cake, puddings, etc. When melting it, 
use a double boiler; otherwise it may scorch. 
11. Cocoa, a. There are two kinds of cocoa—breakfast cocoa and cocoa. Breakfast 
cocoa is better; it contains not less than 22 per cent of cocoa fat and makes a 
richer and more pleasing beverage. There are on the market mixtues of cocoa 
and sugar, or cocoa and starch, etc., sometimes flavored with vanilla. These are 
not cocoa—they are merely cocoa preparations. On account of the added sugar 
or starch, they are usually very light in color and do not make a beverage of 
the same strength as that made from pure cocoa. 
b. Low-grade cocoa is gritty and of poor flavor. Light or dark color in cocoa 
is not necessarily an indication of quality as dark color may be due to heavy 
roasting of the cocoa in manufacture. However, a very light color may indicate 
an imitation or adulterated cocoa. 
c. The frequent serving of cocoa is desirable. It affords a change from coffee 
at meals. Many men who do not like milk will drink cocoa and in that way 
obtain the benefits others get from drinking milk. If served at breakfast, coffee 
should also be served as many do not desire cocoa as a breakfast drink. 
12. Coffee, a. Coffee is used most as a beverage, but it may also be used to 
flavor ice cream, puddings, sauces, etc. It is naturally served hot but may be 
served iced in hot weather, although when so used it lacks some of the stimu- 
lating effect of hot coffee. 
b. The coffee furnished to Army messes is of good quality and will make an 
excellent beverage, provided it has not lost its strength and the beverage is 
properly made. Coffee loses its strength rapidly after roasting, and the loss of 
strength is hastened if the roasted coffee is ground, due to the greater surface 
exposed to the air. Loss of strength is retarded if roasted and ground coffee is 
kept in tightly closed containers. When practicable, coffee should be ground 
just before using in order to get the maximum strength from it. When this is 
done, a smaller quantity will make a beverage of suitable strength; on the other 
hand, if the mess purchases coffee which has been roasted and ground for some 
time, or purchases more than can be used within a week, it is necessary to use 
larger quantities in order to make a satisfactory beverage. In making coffee by 
any one of the methods given in this manual, the detailed instructions for the 
method used must be carefully followed to produce a good beverage. Nothing 
adds more to the satisfaction of a meal than a cup of good coffee; and nothing 
detracts more from a meal than coffee which is weak or bitter, or of poor flavor. 
13. Condiments other than spices, a. These include mayonnaise, salad dressings, 
sauces, etc. Most of these can be made in the mess kitchen with ordinary equip- 
ment, and this should usually be done as a considerable saving can be made. 
Instructions for making them are given in the recipes in this manual. Mayonnaise 
can be made with ordinary equipment, but a machine mixer is more convenient. 
b. While these condiments have some food value, their chief value is in making 
other foods more appetizing and attractive. They have some calorific (energy) 
value and some vitamin value. This value depends on the ingredients used 
While an eggless salad dressing of the mayonnaise type does not have as high 
food value as mayonnaise, it is a very satisfactory substitute and costs only 
about one-half as much as mayonnaise. 
14. Corn meal. a. Corn meal is ground white or yellow corn with the hull 
removed and the fine corn flour sifted out. 
b. About the only difference between hominy grits and corn meal is that the 
corn meal is of finer size. Both are made by sifting the same cracked corn. 
c. Corn meal has a high calorific value. It has many uses in the menu, but 
especially as fried mush or in corn bread. 
d. Corn meal in sacks is especially subject to insect infestation and should not 
be kept on hand for more than 3 months. 
15. Cornstarch, a. Cornstarch is a pure carbohydrate and has a high energy 
value. It provides no vitamins, minerals or roughage. It is inexpensive and FOODS 
115 
provides energy at low cost but must be properly prepared to be palatable. For 
example, a plain cornstarch pudding is not very palatable. Many soldiers will 
not eat it. Such a dish should be made by adding fruits, coconut, etc., and 
served with a sauce or whipped cream. 
b. Cornstarch is used for puddings or as a thickener for gravies, pies, and 
sweet sauces. Cornstarch is not as desirable as flour for thickening gravies but 
may be used for this purpose if flour is not on hand. It may also be used to tone 
down a hard flour, or as a flour substitute (see par. 18). 
16. Eggs. a. (1) The market value of eggs is determined by age, size, weight, 
shape, cleanliness, and condition. In some localities it is also influenced by 
color of shell, but this is merely a matter of personal preference as the color 
of shell makes no difference in the food value. 
(2) Grades of eggs are based on weight and condition (clean, sound shell, 
sweet, free from mold, foreign flavors, and odor). Army specifications permit a 
certain percentage of checked and dirty eggs in each case but do not permit any 
eggs which are inedible on account of internal condition. 
b. Eggs should never be washed unless they are to be used at once as the shell 
of an egg is porous and washing opens the pores and allows bacteria to enter the 
egg, and spoilage follows rapidly. 
c. Small white spots at either end of the yolk have no meaning as they are 
only parts of the fiber which holds the yolk in place before the shell is broken. 
There is a small (germinal) spot found in the yolk of every egg, whether fertile 
or not. This spot is of no importance while small, but if the egg is fertile and 
germination begins, the germinal spot becomes larger and soon makes the egg 
unfit for eating. This will happen within 10 days after laying during the warm 
season unless the egg is kept in cool storage. 
d. (1) Eggs are used in the mess in many ways, as boiled, poached, fried, or 
scrambled, or in cooked or baked dishes. They are used in custards, meat loaf, 
croquettes, French toast, etc. Aside from food value and flavor, eggs serve the 
following additional purposes: 
(a) Binding. To avoid crumbling of muffins, cookies, croquettes. 
(b) Clarifying. In soups. The loose floating particles of other ingredients 
are caught in the egg particles and thus are held together. The white of egg is 
used for this purpose. 
(c) Coating. To give an attractive cover to chops, cutlets, and other meats. 
(d) Coloring. Give desirable yellow (yolk) or white (albumin) color to 
product. 
(e) Decorating. Sliced hard-boiled eggs. To serve with cold meats, salads, 
fish, etc. They present an attractive appearance if cut across the yolk. 
(f) Leavening. To give lightness to hot cakes and pastries. 
(g) Separation of oils. In mayonnaise the eggs surround particles of oil, 
thus keeping them from coalescing (joining). This makes the mixture a smooth 
one. 
(h) Texture improving. Avoids lumping of frozen mixtures. 
(i) Thickening for sauces, pie fillings, custards. 
(2) If the egg whites are to be whipped, none of the yolk should be allowed 
to get into the dish as it keeps the whites from becoming fluffy. If eggs are not 
reasonably sound, the whites cannot be beaten into a light mass. 
e. If many eggs are to be broken into a dish, they should be first broken and 
dropped into a saucer, one by one, so that any bad eggs may be thrown out without 
spoiling a whole batch. 
17. Extracts, flavoring. There are many flavoring extracts on the market, 
but those most used in the mess are vanilla and lemon. They are used in puddings, 
sauces, ices, ice cream, cakes, and pastries, and occasionally added to other dishes 
as called for in various recipes. It is a common fault to be too sparing in the use 
of flavoring extracts. The judicious use of them adds palatability to many dishes 
which otherwise would not be particularly attractive. 
18. Flour, a. This is one of the cheapest and one of the most useful items of 
the ration. While most breads, with the exception of hot breads such as biscuits, 
rolls, etc., are baked in the post bakery or in small posts are purchased under 
contract, there are many uses for flour in connection with the making of hun- 
dreds of inviting dishes as well as for pastries and similar uses. 116 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(1) Bread flour (hard wheat flour, issue flour) is used most extensively for 
bread and other yeast-leavened baked products and is suitable for the making of 
gravies, hot cakes, etc. It is not a good pastry flour as it is too hard and tends 
to make a tough cake or pastry. If no soft wheat (pastry) flour (see (3) below) 
is on hand, and it is necessary to use bread flour for pastries, the latter can be 
toned down by mixing in 10 per cent of cornstarch or other flour substitutes (see 
(7) below). 
(2) Family flour. Family flour is a mixture of hard and soft wheat flours. 
It is intended for general use; bread baking as well as cake baking. It is not as 
satisfactory for bread as hard wheat flour nor as satisfactory for cakes as soft 
wheat flour, but is a good all-purpose flour intended more for the home than for 
the mess. 
(3) Soft wheat flour (pastry flour). This type is intended mainly for cake 
and pastry making and is most suitable in batters where baking powder is used 
instead of yeast. It is soft to the touch and, when yeast is used, requires con- 
siderably less time for fermentation than hard wheat (bread) flour. 
(4) Graham flour (whole wheat or entire wheat flour). This is a flour con- 
taining most or all of the bran of the wheat kernel as well as the lighter colored 
starchy part of the grain which makes up the ordinary wheat flour. It is used for 
whole wheat bread, muffins, etc. 
(5) Rye flour. This is either light or dark in color, depending on the method 
of milling used. In a dark flour more of the bran particles are included, and 
while they contribute some small additional minerals to the diet, there is no 
particular advantage in the use of either color except for the purpose of producing 
a lighter or darker colored baked product. 
(6) Self-rising flour. This is composed of flour and baking powder or bak- 
ing soda and phosphate in proper proportions to leaven, or raise, the mixture 
when baked. The cost of this product is usually too high for use in the mess and 
since its ingredients are available to every cook, its purchase is not warranted in 
the service. 
(7) Corn, barley, rice, and potato flours. The use of these flours in the Army 
mess is seldom necessary. They can be used, if necessary, as a flour substitute by 
mixing with wheat flour. Cornstarch also can be used for this purpose. The 
proportion should be 90 per cent wheat flour and 10 per cent substitute. If one 
of these substitutes is mixed with a bread flour, the effect is to weaken the flour; 
that is, to change it to a soft or pastry flour, but pastries made from such a mixture 
will be inferior to those made from a soft flour. 
b. Flour has a high calorific (energy or fuel) value, but it contains little vitamin 
or roughage value. While bread is called the staff of life and is an important and 
necessary part of our diet, the body cannot be kept in a state of health by eating 
bread alone to the exclusion of a variety of other essential foods such as meats, 
fruits, and vegetables. 
c. When flour becomes old it is also likely to become insect infested, and it 
may be necessary to remove insects by sifting. If there' are many insects, the flour 
should be discarded. However, it should not be necessary to keep any con- 
siderable quantity of flour in the mess. 
19. Fruits, dehydrated (very dry). These should not be confused with dried 
fruits as the dehydrated product is drier, containing only about 6 per cent water. 
While these products keep very well if protected from exposure to air and insects, 
they are not very desirable for use during normal times. Under emergency con- 
ditions where it is necessary to save storage and transportation space, their use is 
warranted. While fresh and canned fruits are rich in vitamins, dehydrated fruits 
that have been produced commercially up to this time have lost most of their 
vitamin C; otherwise, they are about equal to fresh fruits in nutritive value. 
20. Fruits, dried or evaporated, a. Fresh fruits contain about 80 per cent water. 
When marketed as dried fruits, they contain about 24 per cent water. This re- 
duction in moisture content makes them keep longer than fresh fruits. While 
dried fruits keep fairly well without spoiling, they are subject to mold and insect 
attack if held for too long a period. 
b. The dried fruits of most importance are prunes, apples, apricots, peaches, 
raisins, and pears. They are usually served stewed (except apples and raisins) 
although they may also be used in other ways, such as in pies and other pastries 
or in sauces. FOODS 
117 
c. Dried fruits are not so valuable for health protection as fresh fruits because 
the drying process destroys some of the vitamin value. Otherwise they are equal. 
Dried fruits are especially valuable for their laxative effect. 
21. Fruits, fresh, a. Fresh fruits are among the most valuable foods for health 
protection. They are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, and roughage and should 
be served frequently. In order to serve them frequently without monotony, varied 
ways of serving should be employed. Apples may be served one day as a whole 
fruit, the next day (or meal) in apple and celery salad. Other ways of serving 
apples in fresh raw form are in various kinds of fruit salad or fruit cup or in a 
gelatin and fruit salad, or fresh apples may be diced or sliced and added to stewed 
prunes or other stewed dried fruits just before serving. The same general prin- 
ciples apply to other fresh fruits. Strawberries, peaches, bananas, plums, etc., 
may be served alone with milk and sugar or may be used for shortcake, or in a 
fruit salad, etc. Oranges, grapefruit, melons, pears, grapes, cherries, etc., are served 
alone or in combinations as fruit salad, gelatin and fruit salad, etc. Fruits served 
raw should be chilled before serving in order to bring out their best flavor. 
b. During the summer and fall many kinds of fresh fruits are available and even 
during the winter months the following may be had: 
Apples. Grapefruit. 
Oranges. Pears. 
Bananas. 
c. Watermelon is served often during the summer months. The rinds are fre- 
quently discarded. Watermelon rinds can be made into very palatable watermelon 
pickles or preserves. 
22. Gelatin, a. General. Gelatin is a protein food substance. It is very easily 
digested. Plain gelatin is found on the market in coarse powder. There are also 
many commercial preparations of gelatin combined, for the purpose of flavoring, 
coloring, or both, with fruit juices, artificial flavoring, sugar, artificial coloring 
matter, or a combination of such products. These are not recommended for Army 
use. For the mess it is more economical to procure the pure, dry, plain gelatin in 
large containers, rather than the small 2 or 3 ounce packages in which flavored 
gelatin is sold. To use gelatin, it must be dissolved in a liquid, usually about 1 
pint of liquid to 1 ounce of gelatin, and then chilled to cause it to jell (become 
firm). Pure gelatin, properly jelled, produces a firm, clear, jellylike mass, with- 
out odor, flavor, or color. 
b. Uses. The use of gelatin in frozen desserts prevents ice crystallization or a 
grainy texture. In the mess, gelatin may be used to make a variety of salads, 
puddings, and desserts, as a binder in meat loaf, croquettes, etc., and in cake icings 
and salad dressings. Added to milk or cream, especially evaporated milk in the 
proper proportions, it makes whipping easier. Pure gelatin blends well with most 
foods and provides a means of using leftovers in a great number of ways. Meat, 
fish, eggs, fresh or canned fruits and vegetables, fruit juices, cold soups, and even 
cooked cereals, such as rice, combined with gelatin make attractive salads, puddings, 
and desserts. One pound of pure dry gelatin will make 24 quarts of gelatin jelly 
or more than 300 liberal servings, when fruits, etc., are added. 
c. Suggestions for using. (1) Always soak (soften) gelatin in cold water, then 
dissolve in hot liquid or in a double boiler. Hot fruit juices or hot milk may be 
substituted for hot water to dissolve the soaked gelatin. The liquid used to dis- 
solve most commercial colored and flavored gelatin, after soaking, must be boiling 
and should be stirred until the preparation is thoroughly dissolved. A little gelatin 
added to a thin soup will make it thicker and richer. Soften the gelatin in a 
small quantity of cold stock, and dissolve it in the hot stock. 
(2) Gelatin becomes firm in a shorter time when placed in metal molds than 
in enamel, glass, or earthenware. Gelatin hardens much more rapidly if put in 
several small molds than in one large one. To hasten the stiffening of gelatin, 
place the mold in a pan of cracked ice to which coarse salt has been added, or use 
the freezing trays of a mechanical refrigerator as molds. At the temperature of 
the average refrigerator (50° to 52° F.), a pint mold of gelatin should become 
firm in about 2 hours. Always cool gelatin before placing in the ice box; hot foods 
raise the temperature and waste ice or refrigeration. 
(3) Molds should be rinsed in cold water before gelatin is placed in them to 
stiffen. To unmold gelatin products, dip each mold all the way to its top edge in 
warm, not hot, water for a second; slightly loosen the jelly at the edges with a 118 
silver knife; withdraw the mold from the water and wipe it dry; then place the 
serving dish on top of the mold, invert them holding the serving dish tightly 
against the mold, and then carefully lift off the mold. 
(4) Leftover broths from cooking meats may be congealed with gelatin to 
make an aspic jelly to which leftover meat or vegetables may be added. 
(5) Make gelatin jellies of excess fruit juices. Cubes and other shapes of 
colored gelatin jelly are attractive for serving with or garnishing salads and cold 
meat dishes. 
(6) Leftover coffee may be used to make coffee jelly, coffee Spanish cream, 
or mocha sponge. Cocoa may be used in a similar manner. 
(7) Melted ice cream should never be thrown away. Stiffen it with gelatin, 
stirring in a level tablespoonful of gelatin to a pint of ice cream. Chocolate, straw- 
berry, or coffee flavor, and chopped nuts, dates, raisins, or cherries may be added 
to this mixture to provide an excellent chilled or frozen pudding or dessert. 
(8) Ices and sherbets may be chilled or frozen more satisfactorily in the trays 
of the mechanical refrigerator if gelatin is used in their preparation. 
(9) When cream will not whip satisfactorily, add the white of an egg or an 
equal quantity of dissolved gelatin to it and it will whip easily. The cream and 
egg or gelatin must be thoroughly chilled before whipping. To whip evaporated 
milk, first place the can in boiling water for 10 minutes, open the can, and stir the 
soaked gelatin into the hot milk until dissolved. Turn this mixture into a chilled 
dish and allow it to become thoroughly cold, when it may be whipped readily. 
For a heavy whipped cream, use two teaspoonfuls of gelatin soaked in two table- 
spoonfuls of cold water to the standard 14 Vz-ounce can of milk. 
(10) Gelatin should more than double its bulk when whipped and have a 
light spongy texture. Before starting to whip the dissolved gelatin, test its con- 
sistency with a tablespoon. If it is slightly thickened and falls from the spoon 
in heavy drops like sirup, it is ready to whip. Set the bowl of sirupy gelatin in a 
pan of cracked ice while whipping it. It should become light and fluffy in about 
8 minutes. During the whipping, stir occasionally with the beater to break up 
any large air bubbles. 
(11) In making mayonnaise or cooked dressing which is to be kept for sev- 
eral days, stir in a little gelatin which has first been softened in cold water and 
then dissolved over hot water. This keeps the dressing firm. 
(12) When making croquettes, add a little gelatin which has been softened in 
cold water and dissolved over hot water. Use only enough cold water to reduce 
the gelatin to a liquid. Stir the gelatin into the croquette mixture and set aside 
until it stiffens. Croquettes may then be shaped easily, and the heat of frying will 
dissolve the gelatin, leaving them soft and creamy on the inside. 
(13) Gelatin cannot be successfully combined with fresh pineapple, fruit or 
juice, without first scalding the pineapple. This does not apply to canned pine- 
apple, which has already been cooked. 
(14) Gelatin desserts may be topped with whipped cream, sprinkled with 
chopped nuts, dates, raisins, candied fruit, or toasted, tinted, or plain coconut, 
and garnished with lettuce, celery, or cheese. 
(15) Gelatin desserts and salads may be prepared hours before needed or even 
the day before at convenient times. 
(16) Gelatin is not recommended for use in pies made in Army messes. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
23. Grits, hominy. This is very similar to granulated corn meal except that 
it is coarser. It may be prepared the same as corn-meal mush. 
24. Ice cream, a. While in some communities ice cream and ices may be 
purchased at reasonable prices in 5-gallon lots, nevertheless a considerable saving 
may be made by making them in the mess. Ice cream is not difficult to make. 
b. The food value and quality of ice cream depend upon its ingredients as it 
may be made with a high or low milk fat content. Ices have a low food value as 
they are mostly water with added fruit flavor and sugar. Ice cream and ices are 
refreshing and palatable. 
c. Ice-cream mixes can now be bought in almost any amount. These have all 
the ingredients (cream, milk, gelatin, flavoring, sugar, etc.) needed to make ice 
cream. All that is necessary is to freeze them. However, it is usually cheaper for 
the mess to make its own ice-cream mix. 
d. Ice cream can be served in the mess in many ways other than plain and on 
pies. It may be added to a fruit cup in the form of topping. It may be served as FOODS 
119 
a sundae using sirup from canned fruits previously opened and with left-over 
sliced fruits. 
25. Jams, jellies, preserves, and fruit butters, a. Pure jams, jellies, preserves, 
and fruit butters are made from fruit or fruit juice and sugar. Imitations are 
made chiefly from glucose (corn sirup) and coloring, contain little or no fruit or 
fruit juice, and are inferior in flavor and food value. The label must state whether 
the product is an imitation. 
b. Preserves and jam are very similar, the difference being that in preserves 
the fruit is whole or in relatively large pieces while in jam it is cooked down into 
a mush consistency. Jelly does not contain the fruit itself, only the juice of the 
fruit and sugar. Fruit butters are made from fruit which has been cooked and 
then strained to remove all fiber, seeds, etc., and to produce a smooth paste, to 
which sugar is added. 
c. Jams, jellies, preserves, and fruit butters make good substitutes for butter. 
This gives variety to the mess. They go well with coffee, cake, biscuits, rolls, etc. 
They may be used in jelly rolls and pastries. 
d. As the sugar content of jams, jellies, and preserves is high and sugar is a 
source of energy, the calorific value of these foods is high. 
26. Lard and lard substitute, a. Lard is rendered hog fat. Lard substitute is 
made in two forms: 
(1) Compound, composed of a vegetable oil to which is added sufficient hard 
fat (such as beef starine) to give the hardness and appearance of lard, and 
(2) Vegetable shortening, a hardened vegetable oil (such as cottonseed or 
com oil). 
b. The cost of lard and the compound type of lard substitute is usually nearly 
the same. Lard may sometimes be a little higher and sometimes a little lower in 
cost than compound. Vegetable shortenings often cost more than either lard or 
compound. This is especially true of the nationally advertised brands. Preference 
between shortenings is mostly a matter of comparative cost. All are used for the 
same purposes except that lard substitute (either compound or vegetable shorten- 
ing) is superior to lard as a cake ingredient, as lard is likely to impart its 
characteristic flavor to the cake. The food value of lard and lard substitute is 
about equal. They are almost pure fats and, therefore, have a very high energy 
value. They furnish no vitamins, minerals, or bulk. 
c. Lard and lard substitute are used for frying, for greasing bread and cake 
pans, and for shortening in breads, sweet dough, pie crust, cakes, and other pastry. 
Either may be used as a substitute for butter in cooking and baking; however, this 
will not give the color, richness, and delicate flavor imparted by butter. 
27. Lard replaced by rendered or other fats. While it frequently is necessary 
to purchase a lard or lard substitute for the mess, it is possible to make consider- 
able savings by using other fats for frying. The following fats can be used but 
should be strained and clarified: 
Excess fat cut from fresh beef or pork and rendered. 
Drippings from roasted beef or pork. 
Fat skimmed from soup stock. 
Drippings from fried meats, especially bacon. 
28. Macaroni, noodles, spaghetti, etc. a. The different forms and sizes of these 
pastes are merely a matter of different molds in the machinery and cutting to 
desired size. Noodles are made from the same kind of paste as macaroni and 
spaghetti except that eggs are sometimes included in noodles which are then 
called egg noodles. 
b. Boiled macaroni is simple to prepare (see recipe 181), It may be made 
more attractive for serving by the addition of a sprinkling of ground boiled ham, 
paprika, and a bit of parsley. A more tasty way of serving it is baked (see 
recipe 181). 
c. Noodles may be added to soup or cooked like macaroni. A little butter added 
to noodles just before serving improves flavor and appearance. Macaroni, spa- 
ghetti, and noodles are subject to insect attack. A few packages should be opened 
when received and inspected for insect infestation. 
29. Mayonnaise. See paragraph 13. 
30. Milk, condensed or evaporated, a. General. Evaporated or condensed milk 
is marketed in two forms: 120 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(1) Unsweetened evaporated milk is milk that was reduced to less than one- 
half of its original volume by the evaporation of water. It is marketed in 8-ounce, 
14Vz-ounce, and no. 10 cans. The cans are labeled STERILIZED UNSWEETENED 
EVAPORATED MILK, and it is commonly referred to as evaporated milk. Evapor- 
ated milk keeps well if not exposed to high temperatures. It should be stored in 
a cool place, away from steam coils and radiators. At no time should a mess have 
on hand more than a 3 months’ supply. If more than one lot of milk is on hand, 
the oldest should be used first. 
(2) Sweetened condensed milk is milk that has been condensed to a greater 
extent than evaporated milk, and to which sugar has been added to preserve it. 
The canned product has approximately 40 per cent of sugar. It is marketed in 
14-ounce and 15-ounce cans, and is labeled SWEETENED CONDENSED MILK. 
It is preserved by its sugar content. It should be stored in a cool place. 
b. Food value. Evaporated milk after being diluted with an equal quantity of 
water has a food value equal to that of fresh milk, except that a little of the 
vitamin value which is present in the fresh milk is destroyed by heat in making 
evaporated milk. Sweetened condensed milk has a high calorific (energy) value 
because of its high sugar content, and also provides some vitamin and mineral 
value. 
c. Uses. Evaporated milk, undiluted, may be used the same as cream; when 
diluted with an equal amount of water, it may be used the same as fresh milk. 
Because it is sterilized in the can, it has a cooked taste and is less palatable than 
fresh milk for drinking or cream for desserts. After dilution it may be used for 
cooking and baking in any way that fresh milk can be used. When placed on the 
table, it has more appeal served in a pitcher than in a can. Sweetened condensed 
milk is rarely used in the mess as it is not as satisfactory for ordinary use and it 
costs too much. Because of its high sugar content, it has limited uses for cooking. 
31. Milk, fresh, a. General. Fresh milk is cow’s milk with nothing added and 
nothing taken away. Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated to kill all 
harmful germs and to improve keeping quality. Milk should be handled with 
great care to protect it from contamination, as it readily absorbs dirt, germs, and 
odors. Milk containers should be kept covered. 
b. Food value. Fresh milk is one of the most valuable foods and should be 
used as much as possible in the mess, chiefly as a beverage. It contains prac- 
tically everything necessary for life and growth and repair of the body, except 
sufficient vitamin C and iron. It contains more calcium (bone builder) than any 
other food except leafy vegetables. Raw (unpasteurized) milk, unless produced 
under good sanitary conditions, may contain disease germs such as tuberculosis. 
Unless the sanitary conditions of the dairy are known to be good, it is far safer 
to serve pasteurized milk than raw milk for drinking. 
c. Uses. Milk is used as a beverage at meals in place of coffee or tea, and 
on breakfast foods. It is used in baking to improve the color, flavor, and food 
value of bread. Milk can be used in a variety of cooked dishes to enrich them 
and improve the flavor and appearance. The lack of vitamin C and certain 
minerals in milk may be easily made up by serving fruits, tomatoes, and leafy 
vegetables. 
d. Inspection. Milk delivered to a mess should be inspected at the time of 
delivery in the presence of the deliveryman. A few bottles should be opened 
to see whether the milk has soured. Cases have been known where milk was 
not inspected until an hour or two after it was delivered. On inspection the 
milk was found to be sour, but no refund could be obtained from the seller 
because he claimed the milk was still sweet when it was delivered and that it 
soured after delivery. 
32. Milk, powdered or dried, a. This is whole or skimmed milk from which 
most of the water has been removed. 
b. Uses. (1) Whole milk powder can, by the addition of water and with 
proper mixing, be made into a product resembling whole milk and can be used 
for the same purposes. Skim milk powder is used extensively in the baking 
industry. When added to Army bread it increases the food value and palata- 
bility. In using powdered milk, it is best to stir it into a paste with a minimum 
amount of water and then add the remainder of the water required. This 
results in better consistency, that is, less lumpiness. After adding the balance FOODS 
121 
of the required water, it should be well beaten or whipped. The purpose of 
beating or whipping is to thoroughly dissolve all the powdered milk so there 
will be no lumps or spots; if any lumps remain, they can be removed by heating 
the milk for a few minutes (do not boil). After heating, chill in the refrigerator. 
(2) Dried milk is a substitutive article of the field ration for use when it is 
impracticable to furnish fresh or canned milk. When added to bread, rolls, 
or other baked products, it improves the flavor and interior color and gives a 
pleasing brown crust color. It is customary in such cases to use about 3 per cent 
of the weight of the flour; that is, if 100 pounds of flour were used, 3 pounds of 
dried milk would be added. When dried milk is added to bread, it is usually 
dried skimmed milk. 
c. Keeping qualities. As milk powder is practically free from moisture, its 
keeping quality is good. It keeps best in sealed containers. Skim milk powder 
keeps better than whole milk powder as it contains less fat. Fat becomes rancid 
in long periods of storage, particularly if exposed to light or air or to high 
temperatures. 
33. Oils, cooking, a. Cooking oils are made from refined and deodorized 
vegetable oils, principally cottonseed. They have practically the same uses 
and food value as lard and lard substitute. If kept on hand too long, they be- 
come rancid. 
b. Cooking oil, either cottonseed or corn oil. is the best form of fat for deep 
frying as the smoking point is high (about 450° F.). An oil or fat should not 
be allowed to smoke when frying as this develops an unpleasant flavor. 
34. Oils, salad, a. Salad oils are vegetable oils that may or may not have been 
refined. The most expensive is olive oil. Salad oils made of cottonseed oil, peanut 
oil, etc., are generally refined oils and are quite satisfactory. Salad oils are used 
on salad either alone, or with vinegar, or as an ingredient in salad dressing. 
Salad oils become rancid if kept on hand too long. 
b. Salad oils may be used for the same purpose as cooking oil. However, 
they are more expensive than cooking oils, have a better flavor, and are chiefly 
used on salads or for the preparation of salad dressings. 
35. Oleomargarine. During recent years, the following provision has been in- 
cluded in War Department appropriation acts: “Provided, that none of the money 
appropriated in this Act shall be used for the purchase of oleomargarine or 
butter substitutes for other than cooking purposes, except to supply an expressed 
preference therefor or for use where climatic or other conditions render the use 
of butter impracticable.” This provision has precluded the use of oleomargarine 
in Army messes. 
36. Olives. Olives are either ripe (black) or unripe (green). The ripe olives 
are not pitted and are usually served in a side dish as an appetizer with celery, 
pickles, etc. They are rarely cut up for incorporation in salads as green-colored 
olives are preferred for this purpose, having more appeal to the eye and harmon- 
izing better with the other ingredients of the salad. As olives are high in price, 
they are rarely served in the mess except on special occasions, as with Thanks- 
giving or Christmas turkey, or on Sundays when cold meats are served. When 
green olives are cut up in cabbage salad, they contribute much to desirable 
flavor, and the quantity used depends upon the cost and quantity available—a 
few go a long way. As they are not used in large quantities, the small calorific 
and vitamin value is not important. 
38. Pickles, a. General. The term “pickles” means cucumber pickles, although 
many fruits and vegetables are pickled, such as tomatoes, cauliflower, onions, 
pears, celery, crab apples, watermelon rind, and combinations of finely chopped 
vegetables, as pickled relish. Cucumber pickles are whole or sliced crosswise 
or lengthwise. They are sweet, sour, or dill. The dills are genuine, imitation, 
kosher, or sweet. The pickles included in the ration are sour cucumber pickles. 
b. Uses. The frequent inclusion of pickles in the menu adds to the attractive- 
ness of the meals and appeals to the appetite. Whenever cold meats are served, 
pickles should be served with them. They add zest to the appetite and pleasing 
appearance to the food with which they are served. Cucumber pickles are cut 
into small pieces for inclusion in cabbage salad; they are cut into long strips or 
sliced to make plates of cold meat more attractive; they are chopped fine or 
made into a relish for serving with hot meats. 
37. Onions, dry. See paragraph 52. 122 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
c. Food value. Pickles are a good source of vitamin B. They supply rough- 
age. Sour or dill pickles have a very low calorific value as they contain little or 
no sugar. Sweet pickles contain some calorific value due to their sugar content. 
39. Potatoes, Irish. See paragraph 52. 
40. Potatoes, sweet, a. Sweet potatoes are classed as dry-meated, medium 
moist-meated, and moist-meated. The moist-meated type is often called yam. 
Sweet potatoes are baked, boiled, fried, candied, and made into custard and 
pie. Sweet potato pie resembles pumpkin pie both in flavor and appearance. 
b. The sweet potato is a starchy food with high energy value, and is a good 
source of vitamins and minerals but does not furnish much roughage. Fresh 
sweet potatoes are very poor keepers. They should be stored in a dry and fairly 
warm place. 
41. Rice. a. General. Rice is supplied to the Army mostly in the milled (white) 
form, but regulations require that brown (unpolished) rice be issued to native 
Filipino troops as it contains vitamin B which polished rice does not contain. 
Since the diet of the Filipino troops is more limited in variety than that pre- 
scribed for the balance of the Army, it is essential that it contain as much health 
protection as the more varied ration. Besides its vitamin value, brown rice also 
contains mineral matter and some bulk not to be found in the white rice. The 
calorific (heat and energy) value of all rice is high. 
b. Uses. Rice is used in many ways. It may be boiled and served hot or cold 
with milk. The addition of raisins or currants to the boiled rice, when used as a 
dessert, makes it more tasty. It may be made into puddings, or the boiled rice 
may be fried in cakes and served with sirup. Rice may also be added to soups, 
especially those containing vegetables or meats. Boiled rice and gravy are some- 
times served as a substitute for potatoes. If served in this way, the gravy should 
be in separate bowls so that the men may add it to meet their individual desires. 
42. Salad dressings. See paragraph 13. 
43. Salt. The moderate use of salt lends flavor to most dishes. If cabbage, lettuce, 
or celery is put in cold salt water overnight it makes those vegetables crisp. 
Since salt has the same appearance as sugar, it sometimes happens that it is 
erroneously used for sugar. The best prevention is to plainly mark containers, 
and, if not sure, taste before using. 
44. Sauerkraut, a. Sauerkraut is considered one of the best bulk foods. It 
is an excellent source of vitamins and minerals particularly when served un- 
cooked. Sauerkraut juice has a laxative effect. 
b. Sauerkraut may be baked, boiled, fried, or in small quantities, eaten raw 
as a salad. It is especially adapted to serving in combination with certain 
meats such as frankfurters, fresh spareribs, salt pork, or fresh or cured ham. Care 
should be taken not to overcook it as, when it becomes too soft, it loses much 
of its flavor and desirable taste. 
45. Sirup, a. (1) There are many kinds of sirup. They differ in body and flavor. 
If the sirup on hand is not popular on account of its flavor, it may be given a 
different flavor by adding sugar (white or brown) and flavoring extract and then 
heating. Maple flavoring (maple sugar or maple extract) is good for this purpose. 
If the sirup is too thick, it may be thinned by adding water. When this is done, 
the thinned sirup should be heated in order to thoroughly mix the sirup and 
added water. 
(2) A sugar sirup may be made by boiling 1 pound of white sugar, 1 pound 
of brown sugar, and 1 pint of water, or quantities similar in proportion. Flavor 
to taste with maple or vanilla extract. Corn sirup is not so sweet as sugar 
sirup but costs less. It is also of thicker consistency. Pure maple sirup is usually 
much more expensive than other sirups and, unless it can be obtained at a low 
price, it is not used in the mess. A maple-flavored sirup is a good substitute. 
Sirup, on account of its high sugar content, has much calorific (fuel) value. 
b. Sirup has many uses. A kitchen-made (sugar and water) sirup may be 
added to baked apples to give them a better flavor and appearance. If molasses 
is not available, sirup may be substituted in baked beans, although the molasses 
is better for this purpose. Sirup may be used as a substitute for sugar in many 
recipes if the batch mixture does not become too liquid as a result. A little 
sirup added to a fruit cup improves the flavor where fruit juices are lacking. 
Hot baking-powder biscuits and sirup are a desirable breakfast combination. FOODS 
123 
c. Sirups will ferment (become sour) and mold if left in an open can or kept 
on hand too long. It is not necessary to keep a large supply on hand in the 
mess as sirup can be made quickly at any time from sugar and water. 
46. Spices, a. Spices are aromatic seeds, buds, bark, roots, leaves, etc., which 
are used to season foods. They are used in ground form as ground pepper, 
ground cloves, ground cinnamon, etc.; or whole as whole cloves, stick cinnamon, 
bay leaves, etc. 
b. (1) Skillful cooks depend on spices to bring out and intensify the natural 
flavors of foods as well as to obtain the flavor of the spices. To obtain these 
results, spices are added in sufficient quantities, but care is used not to add 
so much that the natural food flavors are destroyed. Each dish should be tasted 
carefully to determine whether it is seasoned just right. 
(2) Salt and pepper must be added to many foods to make them palatable; 
without salt and pepper they are flat to the taste. AH spices are not liked by all 
men and only those which are liked should be used. For example, some men 
are fond of breads and cookies containing caraway seed, others are not. 
(3) The cook should not hesitate to use quantities and kinds of spices differ- 
ing from the recipe if this will result in improved flavor. Many cooks use spices 
too sparingly for proper seasoning. The common spices are reasonable in cost 
considering the small quantity needed to flavor a large quantity of food. 
c. There are several different kinds of pepper. Whole pepper is used in some 
recipes. Ground pepper is black, white, and red. Ground black pepper is the 
kind most used in Army messes. It is lower in cost and has more strength 
than white pepper. White pepper is used chiefly to give a pepper flavor without 
being seen, as in mashed potatoes. Some red pepper (cayenne) is hot and is 
used in dishes where a hot taste is desired, as chili con came. Some red pepper 
(paprika) has little strength and is used chiefly for its red color, as in macaroni, 
spaghetti, salads, etc., to improve the appearance. 
d. A few of the other commonly used spices are listed below: 
(1) Allspice has a flavor resembling a blend of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. 
It may be used in spice cake, pickles, and soup. 
(2) Cinnamon is relished by almost everyone. Sweet doughs, pies, puddings, 
and cakes containing it should appear frequently on the menu. Stick or ground 
cinnamon added to stewed dried fruits improves flavor. 
(3) Cloves are used as a seasoning for such products as meat dressings, spice 
cake, and pickles. Whole cloves are used in baking ham. 
(4) Cumin seed is used in curry powder and soups. 
(5) Curry powder is a highly seasoned combination of spices varying slightly 
in ingredients according to brand or method of preparation. It usually contains 
black and cayenne pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, tumeric, coriander, cumin, 
and ginger. It is used for seasoning stews, meats, fish, rice, etc. 
(6) Ginger is sold in three forms—whole, whole preserved, and ground. 
Ground ginger is used in making ginger bread, ginger cookies, dark fruit cake, 
and pumpkin and squash pie. There is little use in the Army mess for whole 
dry ginger, but whole preserved ginger has a limited use in fruit cakes and 
preserves and may be used in stewed dried fruits. 
(7) Mustard is sold in two forms—ground mustard or mustard flour which is 
a powder, and prepared or wet mustard. There are two types of mustard— 
light and dark. The dark mustard is often called German mustard. It has a 
sharper taste than the light mustard and for this reason it is often thought that 
less is required; however, the light mustard is preferred by many. Mustard 
may be used to increase the palatability of many foods. It should be placed 
on the mess table when boiled or cold meats, baked beans, frankfurters, ham- 
burger, etc., are served. It is often used in cooking baked beans, meat loaf, 
and other ground meat dishes. It is also used in some salads, cheese dishes, 
and sour cream dishes. A small quantity of mustard may be added to mayon- 
naise or mayonnaise type dressing to improve flavor. 
(8) Nutmeg may be used to advantage in the same manner as cinnamon. 
(9) Poppy seed is used principally in baking breads and buns as a topping 
for flavor and appearance. 
(10) Sage is used principally in stuffing, bread dressing, or in soups. 
(11) Sweet herbs such as marjoram, savory, thyme, mint, etc., are used in 124 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
making sauces to be served with meats. They are especially desirable with 
mutton or fowl. 
47. Starch, a. Starch is one of the most important sources of human food. 
It is a pure carbohydrate and has a high energy value but no vitamins, minerals, 
or roughage, 
b. Starch is present in all plants or parts of plants used for food. Potatoes, 
turnips, pumpkin, squash, corn, beans, and cereals are all rich in starch. From 
some of these plants, starch is extracted by manufacture. The most important 
kind is cornstarch (see par. 15). Potato starch is used to some extent in bread- 
making as a substitute for flour. Cornstarch and rice starch may also be thus 
used. Tapioca is a starch (see par. 49). 
48. Sugar, a. Sugar is made from sugar beets or sugarcane. There is no difference 
between cane and beet sugar as far as cooking or baking is concerned. Starch 
(corn) sugar is made from cornstarch. It is not as sweet as cane or beet sugar 
and is not often used for general cooking purposes. Sugar has high calorific 
(fuel) value. In normal times it is reasonable in price and should be used ex- 
tensively. Pastries, puddings, and other sweet dishes are popular in the mess 
and should contain enough sugar to make them of proper sweetness. 
b. The term “granulated” simply means that the sugar is in crystals of a 
certain size. The Army uses the size “fine granulated” or “medium fine granu- 
lated.” Berry sugar, sometimes called “fruit powdered,” is a little finer, being 
used in preserving, etc. It is not necessary to use a special size in the Army 
mess except that powdered sugar is used for icings, etc. There are two main 
types of powdered sugar—ordinary and icing. The icing type has a little corn- 
starch added so that the icing will be smooth. 
c. Brown sugar is brown because it still retains a little molasses, and this 
gives it a flavor of its own. It is used where its flavor and color are desired 
as in some types of cookies, cakes, puddings, etc. It is inclined to cake, and 
when this occurs it must be broken up to get best cooking results, so that it may 
be well mixed with the other ingredients. A good method is to break it up 
with a rolling pin. It will not cake readily if kept in a closed jar with a whole 
lemon. 
49. Tapioca, a. Tapioca is a starch manufactured from the cassava root. It is 
made in the following forms: 
Small pearl tapioca. Flake tapioca. 
Medium pearl tapioca. Granulated tapioca. 
All these have the power of swelling and becoming jelly like when cooked. 
Pearl tapioca is used chiefly for puddings; the flake and granulated forms are 
valuable as binders for juicy pies. 
b. Plain tapioca pudding is not very popular; fruits, eggs, milk, etc., should 
be added, and the pudding should be served with a sauce or garnished with 
whipped cream or bright-colored pieces of fruit such as cherries. A very good 
combination is to add diced pineapple; the contrast between the rather flat 
tapioca flavor and the acid flavor of the pineapple greatly improves the dish. 
50. Tea. a. There are three kinds or classes of tea—green (unfermented), 
black (fermented), and oolong (semifermented), Black tea is furnished for 
Army messes as it is of excellent strength and will make a satisfactory beverage 
if properly prepared. 
b. Tea is used as a beverage, either hot or iced. Iced tea is a popular and 
inexpensive beverage in hot weather. Hot tea has a stimulating quality simi- 
lar to coffee and should be served occasionally instead of coffee to give variety 
to the menu. 
c. Tea keeps well if kept dry. 
51. Vegetables, dehydrated (sometimes known as desiccated vegetables). 
Dehydrated vegetables will keep for long periods if protected from air and 
insects. They are valuable when it is absolutely necessary to save space and 
transportation as they are very light and have little bulk in comparison with 
the fresh product. They are not popular because of lack of knowledge of 
proper methods of preparation and at best are not as tasty as the fresh product. 
They should be soaked 10 or 12 hours or over night in cold water, then given 
a long, slow cooking at simmering heat. Potatoes and onions should be cooked 
for at least 4 hours or until tender. In warm weather the soaking should be FOODS 
125 
shortened to prevent fermentation (souring), and the time of cooking should be 
lengthened. This will be governed by experience with the temperatures en- 
countered. Dehydrated vegetables have a reduced vitamin value, but the other 
food value, after soaking, is practically the same as fresh vegetables. 
52. Vegetables, fresh, a. General. (1) Fresh vegetables are of great importance 
in the diet because of their health-protective value. Most fresh vegetables are 
best in appearance and flavor and richest in vitamin value when freshly gathered; 
therefore, they should be eaten as soon after gathering as possible. This applies 
especially to celery, cauliflower, cucumbers, sweet corn, lettuce, lima beans, 
radishes, string beans, and tomatoes. Vegetables which can be kept on hand for 
considerable periods without harm are cabbage, carrots, onions, potatoes, and 
turnips, but it is necessary to go over the stock carefully at frequent intervals 
and throw out all which have decayed so that the good vegetables will not be 
affected by them. 
(2) (a) While leafy vegetables, cabbage, lettuce, spinach, etc., are low in 
calorific (fuel) value, they are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, and bulk, 
but it must be remembered that some of their vitamin value is lost if they are 
cooked, and most of it is lost if they are overcooked. Therefore, raw vegetables 
are better sources of vitamins than cooked vegetables; however, the loss of vita- 
mins can be kept to a minimum if vegetables are not overcooked. 
(b) Starchy vegetables as potatoes, squash, turnips, etc., have high calorific 
(fuel) value. They have some vitamin and roughage value, but are not as 
rich sources of these as are the leafy vegetables. Starchy vegetables, in general, 
provide some minerals, and some are very good sources of minerals. However, 
since starchy vegetables are usually cooked, part of the vitamin and mineral 
value is lost because heat has a tendency to destroy vitamins and some of the 
minerals are lost in the cooking water. It is good practice to save the water in 
which vegetables have been cooked to use in soups. 
(c) Leafy vegetables are valued chiefly for their health-protective value, 
and starchy vegetables, mostly root vegetables, are valued chiefly as an energy 
food. Leafy vegetables are constantly becoming more popular as their great 
health value is becoming generally known. 
b. Kinds. Below are descriptions and uses of the. fresh vegetables usually 
served in the Army mess: 
(1) Asparagus. Sold both white and green. The white type is tenderer and 
usually costs more than the green. The green type has a greater vitamin value. 
There is a distinct difference in flavor. Many prefer the green type. Fresh 
asparagus accepted for the Army mess must be sound, clean and tender; the 
green color must extend well down the stalks. It must be free from wilted, 
crooked, fibrous, or woody stock. Large thick stalks are likely to be tough 
and bitter. 
(2) Beans, lima, fresh, are but little superior to canned green lima beans. 
They may be purchased for the Army mess in two styles—in the pods, or hulled. 
The pods must be fresh, practically matured and green in color, but not under- 
developed or overripe, not dry or hard; practically clean and free from stems, 
leaves, sand, and dirt and from mold, decay, or disease. Diseased beans have 
brownish discolorations on the pod. Hulled beans must be fresh and not shrunken; 
well developed but not hard and dry; clean and free from mold, disease, or decay. 
(3) Beans, string, include the green-colored and the wax or yellow types. 
Many prefer the flavor of fresh string beans to that of the canned kind. Fresh 
string beans, to be acceptable for the Army mess, must be clean and bright, 
tender, brittle, and not too large or too small. Old (matured) beans become 
very stringy, 
(4) Beets, fresh, may be more economical at times than canned beets, but 
are little, if any, superior in eating quality. Only red beets (bloods) are ac- 
ceptable for the Army mess. They must be tender, reasonably smooth, and 
practically free from dirt. They must not include excessively large beets as 
these are likely to be filled with tough, fibrous rings. 
(5) Broccoli is a variety of cauliflower, which it much resembles. In gen- 
eral, inspection of broccoli on receipt is the same as that for cauliflower, and the 
uses are the same. 
(6) Cabbage, when raw, is one of the best sources of vitamins, minerals, 126 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
and bulk. It can be obtained at low cost at all seasons, and should be served 
often during the winter. It should be served raw oftener than cooked. It is 
very appetizing when served raw as slaw or cabbage salad if carefully prepared. 
There are five distinct types of cabbage on the market—Danish, domestic, 
pointed, purple (sometimes called red), and Savoy. The Danish (sometimes 
called Hollander) and the domestic have very solid heads, round in shape. The 
Danish, domestic, and pointed types are equally satisfactory. The Savoy type 
has very loose heads resembling lettuce and is not desirable for the mess. 
To be acceptable for the Army mess, cabbage must have heads well trimmed, 
be free from discoloration, solid and mature (not soft, spongy, leafy, split, or 
burst), and free from decay. The medium-sized heads are the most valuable, 
and any lot of cabbage which shows that these have been removed, leaving 
only large or small heads, should not be accepted. 
When cooked, cabbage is usually boiled, either alone or with a ham hock 
or bacon for seasoning, or with corned beef. Left-over cooked cabbage is fried. 
It is a common fault to overcook cabbage, thus destroying its vitamin C value 
and also imparting an unattractive brown color and disagreeable flavor. Cook 
boiled cabbage only until tender; this requires about 20 minutes. There should 
always be some green color left when cooking is finished, if not, the cabbage is 
overcooked. 
(7) Carrots are a rich source of vitamins, especially when served raw. They 
are palatable when grated raw for salad. They add flavor to meat dishes, es- 
pecially roasts and stews. Carrots, to be accepted, should be firm and tender 
and of medium size. Those less than 1 inch in diameter or excessively large or 
split, broken or shriveled, should not be accepted. 
(8) Cauliflower is used almost entirely as a boiled vegetable. Served occa- 
sionally it is well liked. Fresh cauliflower is in season during the fall and winter, 
from September to March. To be acceptable for the Army mess the heads must 
be firm, compact, white to light creamy white in color, medium to large in size; 
no head to be less than 3V2 inches in diameter. The jacket leaves must be fresh, 
green, and well trimmed. There must be no spreading, discolored, or spotted 
heads. 
(9) Celery is a valuable source of vitamins, minerals, and bulk. It should 
be served occasionally on the table as an appetizer, and used often raw in salads. 
The tops and leaves should be cut off and used for flavoring soups, stews, and 
meat dishes. The stalks are sometimes used diced in soups and meat dishes, A 
little diced celery greatly improves such dishes as meat loaf or braised beef. 
When celery is received the leaves should be crisp and a bright green. Wilted 
yellow leaves indicate poor quality. Celery may be accepted for the Army 
mess in two styles—trimmed and untrimmed. The trimmed celery must be 
washed, stripped of the outside coarse and damaged branches, and trimmed of 
roots. The untrimmed celery need not be washed, stripped, or trimmed of roots. 
Untrimmed celery costs less than trimmed. Any celery, trimmed or untrimmed, 
to be accepted for the Army mess must be well bleached (practically pure white), 
tender and brittle, and free from hollow, slimy, or rusty branches. 
(10) Corn. There are two types of corn—sweet (sugar) corn and field corn. 
Either is suitable for corn on the cob if picked while young and tender. When 
in season, fresh corn is often quite low-priced; out of season it is very expen- 
sive and the quality may not be good. When received in the mess, it should 
be carefully inspected by husking ears selected at random, as many ears may 
be only partially covered with kernels; however, it cannot be expected that all 
the ears will be completely covered to the tip end with kernels. If the kernels 
look withered or have a glazed appearance the corn is old and tough. The 
kernels which are tender are plump and milky, and when pressed with the thumb 
nail they are easily punctured and the milk spurts out. Only freshly gathered 
corn is satisfactory as it does not keep well after being harvested. When in- 
specting, look for ears that have been injured by worms or have wilted, discolored 
husks. If only a few ears are like this the corn may be accepted, but if there 
are too many the corn should be rejected. 
Boiling on the cob is the most popular method of preparing fresh corn. Before 
cooking, the corn should be carefully freed from both husks and silks. Overcook- 
ing should be avoided; 12 minutes in boiling water is sufficient. Left-over cooked FOODS 
127 
corn on the cob may be used by cutting away the kernels and using these warmed 
over in milk as a vegetable, or adding them to soups or stews. 
(11) Cucumbers are appetizing and nutritious. They are sliced (or cut) for 
vegetable salads or are sliced in vinegar, or used sliced to garnish other dishes. 
Good-quality cucumbers are long and dark green. None under bVz inches long 
should be accepted. 
(12) Eggplant is fried in deep or shallow fat or baked. Served occasionally 
it is popular, and is economical when in season. To be accepted for the Army 
mess, eggplant must be firm, of good average size, and of good solid color. No 
eggplant shall be less than 3Vs inches nor more than 6 inches in diameter. It must 
be free from withered, spongy, or spotted stock. 
(13) Endive furnishes leaves which are used for salad or for flavoring in soups 
and stews. It may be served occasionally when in season. 
(14) Lettuce is one of the best sources of vitamins, minerals, and roughage. 
In these respects it is about equal to cabbage, but is higher in cost. However, it 
is not necessary to use much lettuce for each portion. One leaf is sufficient as a 
base for fruit or vegetable salads or as a garnish. Heads of lettuce which have 
been chilled and crisped by soaking in cold water may be cut into eighths and 
served as a salad with dressing. To be accepted for the Army mess, lettuce must 
be fresh, well trimmed, free from excessive rusty or withered outer leaves, and 
fairly firm; it must not be wilted, decayed, or burst. 
(15) Okra (often called gumbo) furnishes seed pods, which, when young and 
tender, are used in soups and meat dishes, being usually sliced across for this 
purpose. They may also be used in salads. When used in soups and stews, okra 
has a thickening effect and adds a flavor much liked by many persons. The chief 
test for quality is to cut for tenderness. Wilted or discolored okra should not be 
accepted. Canned okra can be obtained when the fresh is not available or high 
in cost. 
(16) Onions are used in two forms: 
(a) Young green onions which are served in season as a table relish or 
salad. The tops should be cut off and used to flavor soups and salads. 
(b) Mature onions which are used during the entire year in many ways— 
sliced in vinegar, raw in salads or sandwiches, cooked with meats and soups, boiled 
and served with butter or cream sauce, baked, or fried. 
Onions have considerable health-protective value. They are good sources of 
vitamins, minerals, and bulk. They are odorous and should not be stored near 
foods which take up odors. If sprouts appear on onions, these sprouts should be 
removed as they quickly spoil the onions. 
In inspecting young green onions, see that they are tied in bunches and that the 
bulbs are clean, firm, white, and small to medium in size. The tops should be 
fresh and green. There must be no excessively large bulbs and no slimy or dis- 
colored stock. 
Mature onions must be firm, dry, and well cured, free from doubles, splits, 
bottlenecks, scallions, or damage from insects or disease. They must be free from 
excessive adhering dirt. They must not be decayed or discolored. 
(17) Parsley furnishes curled green leaves valuable as a garnish or for 
flavoring soups and meat dishes. A little chopped parsley greatly improves the 
appearance and palatability of many dishes when sprinkled over the top as a 
garnish just before serving. Only the green tops are to be accepted and these 
must be curly; there is a variety of smooth parsley which is undesirable. If parsley 
has a yellowish discoloration it should not be accepted. 
(18) Parsnips have a distinctive flavor which is not universallv popular. How- 
ever, it is probable that parsnips could become quite popular in the Army mess if 
prepared by the different methods given in the recipes in this manual. To be 
accepted for the Army mess they must be firm, reasonably clean, trimmed of tops, 
and not less than 1 inch in diameter. They must be free from shriveled, dis- 
colored. woody, or pithy stock, or stock having secondary roots. 
(19) Peas (fresh, green, in pods) may be served when in season as they are 
low in cost at this time and the flavor is preferred by many to that of canned peas. 
Care should be taken to avoid overcooking—cook only until tender, about 15 min- 
utes. The pods must be of good green color and filled with tender, well-developed 
green peas of good color and flavor. If the peas are old, tough, and woody they 
should not be accepted. 128 
(20) Peppers (green, sweet) are one of the finest health-protective foods. 
They should be extensively used in the Army mess, cut or sliced raw in salads or 
as stuffed peppers. A little sliced or cut green pepper in stewed tomatoes adds a 
very fine flavor. To be accepted for the Army mess they must be medium to large 
in size, well shaped, of good green color, firm, bright, and brittle, and free from 
soft, spotted stock, or stock that is turning in color. 
(21) Potatoes, Irish, are valued chiefly as an energy food, but also furnish 
vitamins and minerals. They furnish no roughage if peeled, but do furnish rough- 
age if the skins are eaten. They should be stored in a cool, dark, well-ventilated 
place. If ‘the storage place is too dry, they will wither; if too warm and moist, 
they are inclined to decay and sprout. Sprouting robs them of food value and the 
sprouts should be rubbed off as soon as they appear. Freezing quickly ruins 
potatoes. Irish potatoes are served in many ways—fried, boiled, creamed, mashed, 
baked, and in soups. Boiled and then chilled they are used in salad. Leftover 
mashed potatoes may be added to salads, fish cakes, meat loaf, croquettes, etc., 
or fried as potato cakes. Irish potatoes received in the Army mess should be in- 
spected to see that they are not badly misshapen, and that they are free from 
freezing injury and soft rot. 
(22) Potatoes, sweet. See paragraph 40. 
(23) Pumpkin (fresh) is baked, steamed, or fried. Fresh pumpkin should 
be rich yellow with no green showing on-the rind as any green portions will have 
to be trimmed away to prevent a bitter flavor. No pumpkin should be accepted 
if it has been damaged, or if it shows any rot, mold, or disease. It is more con- 
venient to use canned pumpkin, but it may be more economical to use fresh 
pumpkin where it can be obtained at low cost. 
(24) Radishes are valuable for vitamins and roughage. They are popular and 
should be served often as a table relish or in vegetable salads. When used in 
salads, they are cut or sliced. When received they must be free from excessive 
dirt, firm, tender, and crisp and tied in bunches. They must be practically free 
from pithy or hollow stock. The tops must be fresh and clean. When inspecting, 
a few should be cut at random to see that the interior is not pithy or hollow and 
that there are no worms. 
(25) Spinach is one of the most valuable health-protective foods. It is in 
season throughout the year in many sections of the country and can be served as 
a fresh vegetable at reasonable cost, and as a substitute for lettuce when lettuce 
is high priced. It is palatable served hot with simmered beef, cold meats, fried 
liver and bacon, or with hard-boiled eggs. 
Fresh spinach should be thoroughly washed before cooking. Great care should 
be taken to avoid overcooking. Boiling for 10 minutes is enough. 
Spinach accepted for the Army mess must be tender, of good green color, and 
reasonably clean. There must be no overgrown (tough, woody) or yellow, 
withered stock. 
(26) Squash is sold in two types—summer and winter. The main point of 
quality in summer squash is tenderness. To be accepted for the Army mess it 
must not be so matured or hard shelled as to be resistant to the thumb nail, and 
must be medium to large size, free from spotted and discolored stock, and prac- 
tically free from dirt, and insect or mechanical injuries. Extra large summer 
squash is likely to be tough. Summer squash usually has a light green to greenish 
yellow outer color and a smooth skin. Winter squash has a dark green, lumpy 
rind. Winter squash must be fully matured, medium to large in size, solid and 
hard shelled. 
Summer squash is boiled, steamed, or fried, while winter squash is boiled, 
steamed, fried, baked, or used for pie. Squash pie has a flavor similar to pump- 
kin pie. 
(27) Tomatoes are one of the best sources of vitamins and are a fair source of 
minerals and roughage. They should be served often. A great value of fresh 
tomatoes is for serving raw, sliced or cut, as salads, alone or in combination with 
other vegetables. If not fully ripe when received, they may be held in storage 
until ripe. When accepted, fresh tomatoes must be turning pink to full color, 
firm, normal shape, clean, reasonably smooth, and sound, free from rot and decay. 
No immature or overripe or soft tomatoes should be accepted. They must average 
not less than 2 inches in diameter. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT FOODS 
129 
(28) Turnips are a starchy vegetable with a high energy value. They are 
rich in minerals and are a fair source of vitamins and roughage. There are sev- 
eral varieties, white and yellow, including rutabagas sometimes called Swedes. 
There is no difference in food value, but using the white and yellow varieties 
alternately gives variety in the mess. Turnips may be served boiled and mashed, 
or boiled and creamed, or cut or sliced and cooked in stew or with roasts. To be 
accepted for the Army mess they must be firm and solid, no white turnip to be 
less than 2 inches and no yellow turnip less than 3 inches in diameter. They must 
be free from hollow, pithy, fibrous, or woody stock. 
53. Vinegar, a. Vinegar is made from a number of different materials and 
is sold as cider, malt, distilled, grain, etc. While these different vinegars have 
different colors, the flavor is about the same, and there is little or no choice be- 
tween them. Special vinegars are made by addition of certain spices, such as 
tarragon; these are expensive and have little use in an Army mess. 
b. Ordinary vinegar is about 96 per cent water and contains about 4 per cent 
acetic acid. Concentrated vinegar might be issued in the field. It contains about 
10 per cent acetic acid and must be diluted before using as it is so strong that 
using it undiluted might be dangerous. 
54. Yeast. Yeast is used chiefly in the mess in compressed (slightly moist) 
or dried form. Fresh compressed yeast is highly perishable and should only be 
bought to meet demands from day to day. It should be kept in a refrigerator 
until used. It will very seldom occur that neither compressed nor dried yeast 
can be obtained, even in the field, and where not obtainable the use of baking 
powder for leavening hot cakes, biscuits, or even rolls and bread will be satis- 
factory for short periods. Dried yeast does not have sufficient strength to pro- 
duce good results if added direct to a dough, but should be used in a sponge or 
for making a starter the night before. CHAPTER 7 
MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
Section I 
1. Meat. a. General. Officers and men who have had years of experience in 
operating messes agree tnat tne handling of the meat component of the ration can 
make or break an organization mess. This, the largest and most expensive com- 
ponent of the ration, is the one that is tne most perishable, the most easily spoiled 
in cooking, and the one that with poor management can be the cause of the most 
wastage in the kitchen. It is also the item whose absence will be most remarked 
by the men. “Meat makes the meal,” is a popular slogan. 
Control of the meat component requires knowledge of cuts, the ability to esti- 
mate quantities, and close supervision through every step in preparation, in addi- 
tion to skill in cooking beyond that required for most dishes. 
The large packing houses are proud of their ability to utilize everything but 
the squeal—the successful mess officer, mess sergeant, or cook will do his part not 
only to utilize all edible portions of the meat but to see that the best possible use is 
made of them. 
The word “meat” is used to indicate those parts of food animals (cattle, calves, 
sheep, swine, and goats) which may be eaten by man. It includes the muscular 
tissues (lean meat) and the fat together with the bones to which these are at- 
tached. While the organs used for food, such as hearts, livers, spleens, and 
stomachs, are generally classed as meat, the United States Department of Agri- 
culture requires that these be called meat products. 
b. Value in the diet. Meat contains about 20 per cent protein and is the main 
source of body-building food, as most vegetable foods are comparatively low in 
protein. Beans and peas are exceptions, as they contain about as much protein 
as meat; however, meat protein is a better body-building food than the protein 
furnished by beans, peas, or any vegetable food. The food value of meat is but 
little affected by its tenderness. While less tender meat is digested more slowly, 
it has practically the same nutritive (food) value as tender meat. Less tender 
meat can be made tender by proper cooking. The fuel (energy-producing) value 
of meat depends on the amount of fat it contains; that is the more fat the greater 
the fuel value. Canned meats are composed almost wholly of lean meat, as most 
of the fat is trimmed away in preparation for canning. Canned meat is, therefore, 
a good source of protein (body-building) food but is comparatively low in fuel 
(energy) value. 
*».. Beef. a. Importance in the iness. Beef is the most important food used 
in the Army mess. It probably is the most universally popular food and forms 
the main dish of many meals. For these reasons the Army cook should have a 
good general knowledge of the kind and quality of beef supplied for Army messes 
and of methods of cutting and use. This information is given in the following 
paragraphs. 
b. Type used. The carcasses (sides and quarters) desired for Army use are the 
beef (plump and meaty) type, as distinguished from the dairy (lean and bony) 
type, as carcasses of the beef type carry a greater proportion of meat to bone, and 
the flesh is of better quality. 
c. Classes. The classes of carcass beef are steers (males castrated when young), 
heifers (young females), cows, bulls, and stags (males castrated after they reach 
maturity). Steers are more desirable than any other class of beef for Army use 
because of their better conformation (shape and plumpness), better development 
of the best cuts, and better quality of meat with less waste. Army specifications 
permit the purchase of beef from steer carcasses only. 
3. Meat cutting, general, a. To cut meat to best advantage, proper tools are 
needed. Every mess where meats are cut should be equipped with a set of knives 
for various purposes; however, meat can be satisfactorily cut with a knife and 
saw if kept sharp. Butcher knives are best for cutting roasts and steaks. Boning 
knives, including at least one with a short, narrow blade, are best for removing 
bones. A saw is needed. A good butcher uses a cleaver very little. A hand meat 
MEAT CUTTING AND STORAGE 
131 132 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
hook is an aid in handling and boning beef, A hook is rather inconvenient to one 
not accustomed to it, but it becomes indispensable to one skilled or experienced in 
its use. 
b. A good job of meat cutting cannot be done with dull tools. Saws, knives, and 
cleavers should be sharp. A butcher’s steel is used only to keep the edges of 
knives straight, not to sharpen them. The sharpening should be done on a 
grindstone and finished on a smooth whetstone. Saws are sharpened by filing. 
Frequently the teeth of the saw need setting to give them the proper angle. This 
requires special equipment. The average person is not competent to set and sharpen 
meat saws. Retail butchers now rent sharp saw blades from tool supply houses 
for a nominal charge. As the blades become dull they are exchanged for sharp 
ones. 
4. Beef cutting, a. (1) In cutting beef carcasses, thought should be given to the 
suitability of different cuts for different purposes. Lean meat is not all of the 
same tenderness. In general, the muscles (lean meat) lying on the outside of the 
body are the ones used for work, such as walking, running, etc., while the muscles 
on the inside are used for supporting the body. The muscles used to move the 
body (round, shanks, shoulder) are practically always less tender than the sup- 
porting muscles (rib. loin, tenderloin). The muscles of motion, therefore, should 
be cooked slowly and for a long time, preferably in moist heat, as in pot roasts, 
stews, etc.; while supporting muscles can be made into steaks, oven roasts, etc., 
in which less cooking is necessary and dry heat may be used. (See par. 23.) 
Plate 1. Beef carcass (one side). 
A, B. and C. Hind quarter: 
A. Round (rump and shank on): 
1. Hind shank. 
2. Buttock (round). 
3. Rump. 
B. Loin: 
1. Sirloin (loin end). 
2. Short loin. 
C. Flank 
D, E, F, and G. Pore quarter: 
D. Prime ribs. 
E. Square-cut chuck. 
F. Plate: 
1. Navel end. 
2. Brisket. 
G. Pore shank. 
E, F, and G. Rattle. 
E, P 2, and G. Kosher chuck. 
(2) The average steer carcass used in the Army mess weighs about 500 pounds. 
Each side weighs about 250 pounds. The average fore quarter weighs about 125 
to 135 pounds, being a little heavier than the hind quarter. Each hind quarter 
weighs about 115 to 125 pounds. 
b. For the most part carcass beef can be used to the best advantage in the Army 
mess if it is first boned. A few cuts can be utilized to good advantage with -the 
bone in them. The following is an outline of what is believed to be the most 
practical method of beef cutting and utilizing the various cuts in the Army mess. 
The following figures show the arrangement of the bones in the fore and hind 
quarters and indicate where the cuts should be made. 
Plate 2 gives an inside view of the beef fore quarter, showing the backbone 
(vertebrae), the ribs with their end cartilages, and the breastbone (sternum). 
Beef carcasses have 13 ribs on each side. They are numbered from 1 to 13, be- 
ginning at the front end. The usual commercial method of separating hind and MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
133 
fore quarters is by cutting between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs, which leaves 
one rib (the thirteenth) on the hind quarter and 12 on the fore quarter. The 
cartilages extending from the lower ends of the first 8 ribs are attached to the 
breastbone, while those extending from the lower ends of the remaining 5 ribs are 
not attached to the breastbone, but are held in place by the tissues of the plate. 
Plate 2. Inside view of beef fore quarter. 
A. Ribs. 
B. Cartilages of ribs. 
C. Sternum or breastbone. 
D. Bodies of dorsal (back) vertebrae. 
E. Cartilages (buttons). 
P. Chine bones (spines of the dorsal vertebrae) 
G. Cervical (neck) vertebrae. 
Plate 3 shows an outside view of a beef fore quarter and outlines the position 
of the bones of the fore leg. 
Plate 3. Outside view of beef fore quarter, showing position of the bones of the fore leg. 
A. Shoulder blade (scapula). 
E. Cartilage of shoulder blade. 
C. Spine of shoulder blade. 
D. Humerus or arm bone. 
E. Shoulder joint. 
F. Elbow joint. 
S’ r fore-arm bones. 
H. Radius I 
I. Carpus or knee bones. 
Plate 4 outlines the cuts recommended for cutting a fore quarter of beef in 
Army messes. 
Plate 5 shows a kosher chuck (fore quarter with prime ribs and navel end re- 
moved). The relation of the clod to the bones of the fore leg is indicated by the 
dotted line. 134 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Plate 4. Outside view of a beef fore quarter, showing division of cuts. 
1. Cartilage of the shoulder blade. 
Plate 5, Outside view of a kosher chuck, showing the clod (outlined by dotted line) 
and its relation to the bones of the fore leg. 
A. Point of elbow. B. Shoulder joint. C. Spine of bladebone. 
Plate 6. Inside view of a beef hind quarter, showing the position of the aitchbone and the 
vertebrae (backbones), and the cuts made to separate the round, rump, and loin. 
1. Aitchbone (pelvis). 
2. Coccygeal vertebrae (tail bones). 
I 3. Sacral vertebrae (sirloin vertebrae). 
I 4. Lumbar vertebrae (short loin vertebrae). 
Plate 6 gives an inside view of a hind quarter of beef, showing the position of 
the aitchbone (pelvis) and the backbone (vertebrae). MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
135 
Plate 7 gives an outside view of a hind quarter of beef, showing the arrange- 
ment of the bones of the hind leg and the thirteenth rib. It also shows the cut 
for removing the flank. 
Plate 7. Outside view of a beef hind quarter, showing the position of the bones of the hind leg, 
the thirteenth rib, and the cut for removing the flank. 
1. Tarsus or hock bones. 
2. Tibia or hind shank bone. 
3. Patella or knuckle (stifle) bone, 
4. Femur or round (thigh) bone. 
5. Pelvis or hip bones. 
6. Pin bone or point of the hip. 
7. Thirteenth rib. 
8. Stifle joint. 
Plate 8. End view of the round, showing natural divisions. 
A. Knuckle. 
B. Inside or top round. 
C. Outside or bottom round. 
D. Round bone (femur). 
1. Division between knuckle and inside. 
D. Round bone (femur)—Continued 
2. Division between knuckle and outside. 
3. Division between inside and outside. 
Plate 8 gives a view of the top end of the round, showing the natural divisions 
between the three major divisions of the round. 
A-B. Line between the short loin and the 
sirloin butt. 
1. Tenderloin. 
2. Sacral vertebrae. 
Plate 9. Beef loin. 
3. Lumbar vertebrae. 
4. Sirloin. 
5. Short loin. 136 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Plate 9 gives an inside view of a beef loin, showing the position of the tender- 
loin and the backbone (vertebrae) and also the division between the loin end 
(sirloin butt) and the short loin. 
Plate 10 shows the prime rib and method of boning. 
c. Cutting the fore quarter. (1) With a knife, cut between the fifth and sixth 
ribs as outlined in Plate 4 (line A-B). Then saw through the backbone (dorsal 
vertebrae) at A and through the breastbone (sternum) at B. This cut will run 
across the cartilage at the upper end of the shoulder blade (1, Plate 4). In a 
steer fore quarter this cartilage is soft and glistening white, while in a cow it 
nearly always is hard, bony, and dull grayish white. In a steer carcass this cartilage 
can usually be cut with a knife, but in a cow or bull carcass it is necessary to use 
a saw. 
Plate 10. Prime rib. 
1. Button. 
2. Ligament. 
3. Cartilage of the shoulder blade. 
4. Bibs. 
5. Body of vertebrae. 
6. Chine bone. 
(2) Next separate the prime rib from the navel end. By use of knife and saw, 
this cut should be made just outside the eye or the thick part of lean meat in the 
angle between the chine bones (see Plate 10) and the ribs so as to leave all of 
the eye on the prime rib and at the same time leave as little of the rib bones as 
possible. This cut is indicated by the line C-D, Plate 4, The prime rib so made 
is the most desirable cut of the carcass for oven roasting by dry heat, either as a 
standing roast or as a boneless roast. To make carving easier the chine bones 
(see Plate 10) should be removed from a standing roast. This is best done by 
sawing through the ribs just below their attachment to the backbone (line A-B, 
Plate 10), then remove the backbone (vertebrae and chine bones) by cutting close 
to the chine bones (follow dotted line C-D, Plate 10). The strip of ligament 
(2, Plate 10) running throughout the length of the cut just underneath the buttons 
of the chine bones can be loosened easily and stripped out. The cartilage of the 
bladebone (3, Plate 10) in the large end of the prime rib should also be removed 
with a knife, cutting as close to the cartilage as possible. This will leave only the 
ribs, and these will interfere very little with carving. To make a boneless rib 
roast the bones can be removed most easily by first removing the backbone as 
described above, then removing each rib separately, care being taken to remove 
as little meat as possible with the bones. A boneless rib roast so made does not 
need to be rolled or tied up or skewered. The prime ribs can also be made into 
excellent steaks. A prime rib cut by the Army method described above, and after 
chine bones, vertebrae, and bladebone cartilage have been removed, will weigh 
about 14 pounds. Since this is practically boneless meat, it is sufficient for one 
meal for 35 men. 
(3) This method of cutting the prime ribs differs from commercial cutting. 
In commercial cutting the cut is made across the ribs from 4 to 6 inches out from 
the eye, and about 10 inches from the backbone. A prime rib roast so made is 
rather thin at one edge and, if boned, will not stand unless rolled and tied. In 
the Army method of cutting, described above, the cut across the rib is only 2 to 
3 inches out from the backbone; that is, only 2 or 3 inches of each rib is left on the 
prime ribs. This leaves a prime rib which consists of the eye and is nearly 
square in shape; therefore, it need not be rolled, even if boned. The greater portion 
of the rib ones are left on the navel end of the plate and are used for short ribs 
of beef, etc. MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
137 
(4) The navel end of the plate can be used in a variety of ways. It can be 
made into a rolled roast by removing the bones and rolling it tightly and tying 
it securely. The rolled cut can then be cut into any desired lengths. The bones 
of the navel ends are easily removed. The skirt and the meat covering the ribs 
on the inside should first be loosened with a knife as far as the cartilages at 4he 
ends of the ribs. Next a cut should be made with the knife point along the edges 
of each rib just to the depth of the rib. The last four ribs can then be removed 
separately, one at a time, cartilage and all, by simply cutting along the back 
surface of each. The remaining ribs are attached to the breastbone and they and 
the breastbone are removed together. The navel end can also be used as short 
ribs of beef or as stews, or the boneless meat can be used for hamburger, etc. The 
navel end left after cutting a prime rib by the Army method as described in (2) 
above will weigh about 25 pounds. 
(5) Because of the high percentage of fat to lean meat the navel end is not 
well suited for oven roasting or hamburger. It can be used to better advantage 
as short ribs of beef, for stew, or simmered beef. 
(6) Removal of the prime rib and navel end from the fore quarter leaves the 
kosher chuck (see Plate 1), which can be used without boning, if desired. To do 
this the brisket is first removed by sawing through the arm bone and the ribs, 
and removing the fore shank and brisket together (see Plate 4, line E-F), The 
square-cut chuck remaining can be partly made into steaks by cutting parallel 
either to the brisket or to the prime rib. However, the chuck does not produce 
as good steaks as the loin, the round, or the prime ribs, due to the large amount 
of bone it contains. The chuck can be cut into fairly satisfactory roasts by cutting 
it into pieces of suitable size, parallel to the ribs. To aid in carving, the chine 
bones and the bladebone should be removed in the same manner as for prime 
ribs (see Plate 10). The chuck can also be used for braising, for stews, or for 
simmered beef. The kosher chuck from the average fore quarter of Army beef 
will weigh about 83 pounds with bones in and about 53 pounds after bones are 
removed. 
(7) The chuck can, however, be used best if it is first boned. To do this the 
clod and the fore shank are removed before the brisket is removed. Plate 5 
shows the outline of the clod. The clod is the fleshy portion of the chuck above 
the bladebone and running down to the elbow. To remove it the cut is started 
behind the point of the elbow joint (A, Plate 5) and follows the arm bone to the 
shoulder joint (B, Plate 5), then along the rear edge of the spine of the blade- 
bone (C, Plate 5). The clod is then removed by pulling and cutting, starting at 
the thick end at the elbow joint and pulling toward the backbone. The square- 
cut chuck from the average fore quarter of Army beef will weigh about 52 pounds 
with bones in and about 35 pounds after bones are removed. 
(8) The clod is a boneless piece of meat that may be used for a variety of 
purposes. If necessary, it can be cut into steaks, or may be used whole for an 
oven roast. However, it is one of the muscles of locomotion and contains a con- 
siderable number of tendons that are best cooked by slow, moist heat. Therefore, 
the clod is best utilized for braised or simmered beef, stew, hamburger, etc. 
(9) The fore shank is removed by cutting through the shoulder joint (see 
line G-H, Plate 4), then cutting through the muscles underneath the arm bone. 
The fore shank may be used for soup bones by cutting it into suitable lengths, 
or the meat may be removed and the bones cracked and put in the stock pot. Shank 
meat is very tendinous and, therefore, not tender, and is best suited for hamburger, 
sausage meat, meat loaf, or other ground product. When shank meat is cooked 
slowly, the tendinous structures form a jelly that acts as a good binder for 
sausage, meat loaf, etc. The bones of the shank are rich in marrow and yield 
rich stock when cooked. 
(10) The brisket (see Plate 1) is removed from the chuck by sawing and cutting 
as described in (6) above, except that, as the fore shank has been removed, it is 
not necessary to saw through the arm bone. 
(11) The square-cut chuck is a good example of the grouping of tender and 
less tender muscles. The muscles of the outside are called the upper chuck and 
are made up of muscles of locomotion. The muscles of the inside are called 
the lower chuck; they are supporting muscles and are tenderer. There is a 
natural division between these groups of muscles and they can be readily 
separated. The muscles of the upper chuck are attached to the outside of the 138 
shoulder blade, and those of the lower chuck are attached to the inside surface 
of that bone. 
(12) The first step in boning the chuck is the removal of the backbone and 
ribs (see Plate 2). Because of their irregular shape, the vertebrae (backbones) 
are the most difficult of all the bones of the carcass to remove. To remove them 
properly each bone should be loosened from the adjoining vertebrae on either 
side and removed separately. A very narrow-bladed knife of good quality and 
a keen edge is needed for this. It requires considerable experience and practice 
to accomplish this skillfully, but it can be accomplished by anyone with patience 
and perseverance. As soon as the location and shape of the bones have been 
learned the task becomes easier. This manner of removing the bones results in 
the least loss of meat, as the bones can be stripped almost completely of meat 
as they are loosened. The bones are cooked for soup stock. 
(13) The muscles of the lower chuck are separated from those of the upper 
chuck by a natural division, that is, the two groups are distinct and separated 
by a thin partition of connective tissue that is easy to follow. After the bones 
have been removed the natural division between the upper and the lower chuck 
can be readily followed to the edge of the shoulder blade and the meat cut from 
the lower surface of that bone with a knife, leaving the bladebone (shoulder 
blade) attached to the upper chuck. The natural division can then be followed 
until upper and lower chuck are divided. The shoulder blade is then completely 
removed by cutting away the remaining muscles of the upper chuck. 
(14) The lower chuck is tender and can be utilized for any purpose. It can 
be rolled and made into an excellent oven roast. The largest part, which is a 
continuation of the eye of the prime rib, can be made into steaks of very good 
quality. The upper chuck is less tender and is best used for braised beef, stew, 
simmered beef, or hamburger. However, it may be rolled and oven roasted, but 
should be given a long, slow cooking. 
(15) The brisket contains a high percentage of fat and bone. The fat of 
the brisket differs from that of other parts of the beef carcass in that it does 
not render, or melt, in cooking as much as other fat. The brisket may be used 
for stew or braised beef. It makes excellent corned beef. Like the navel end 
of the plate, it is too fat and contains too much waste to be used for hamburger. 
d. Cutting the hind quarter. (1) The first step in cutting the hind quarter is 
to remove the flank. This is done by starting at the cod fat and cutting across 
to a point below the knuckle bone (see line C-E, Plate 6), then cut in a straight 
line from this point to the thirteenth rib at a point just outside the eye of the 
loin (line A-B, Plate 7). The flank is then completely removed by sawing 
through the thirteenth rib. The flank contains only a small amount of bone 
(part of the thirteenth rib), Hut it contains a high percentage of fat. The lean 
meat of the flank is coarse and usually less tender. It is best used as ground 
beef. As there is not enough flank steak in a carcass for a meal, this steak is 
usually used in the same way as the other lean meat of the flank. The fat is 
rendered. 
(2) The cod fat and the fat from the flank may be used to advantage in 
preparing oven roasts from lean portions of the carcass, such as the neck, the 
clod, or the rump, by cutting the fat into thin layers and skewering or tying 
it over the lean surface of the meat. This keeps the meat moist and juicy 
while cooking and adds to the palatability of the roast. 
(3) In commercially trimmed beef the hanging tenderloin hangs beneath 
the kidney knob of the left hind quarter. It has no resemblance to the tender- 
loin, as it is very coarse and tough. It has about the same texture as the lean 
meat of the flank and can be used best for the same purpose, that is, as ground 
beef. 
(4) Beef kidneys have very high food value and should never be thrown 
away. When rolled roasts are made, a small piece of the suet of the kidney 
knob can be rolled in the center of the roast to give it flavor and juiciness. 
Otherwise, the fat is rendered and used for fat stock. The kidney is not of suffi- 
cient size to make a dish for the mess and can be used best by cutting it into 
small pieces and soaking it in cold water to remove the strong flavor, then 
adding it to other meat in stews or similar dishes, or it may be diced fine and 
added to gravy. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
139 
(5) The loin and the round are separated by sawing through the tip of the 
aitchbone (see line C-D, Plate 6), then cutting straight down to the round bone, 
sawing through that bone, and completing the separation of loin and round by 
cutting. This cut leaves the rump attached to the loin. 
(6) In the mess, the round can be advantageously divided into its three 
major cuts—knuckle, inside, and outside. These are separated from each other 
by natural divisions that can be readily followed with a knife. The knuckle 
lies in front of the round bone (see A, Plate 8) and extends upward to the 
knuckle (stifle) joint (8, Plate 7). To remove the knuckle, first loosen it from 
the inside or top round (line 1, Plate 8) and from the outside or bottom round 
(line 2, Plate 8). Then loosen the knuckle bone (3, Plate 7) with a knife, and by 
pulling downward with a hook the knuckle will strip from the round bone (D, 
Plate 8). The inside and outside are easily separated (line 3, Plate 8). In remov- 
ing the inside and outside from the shank bone (2, Plate 7), care should be taken 
not to include the shank meat, which is tough and tendinous. The round from the 
average hind quarter of Army beef, after the hind shank has been removed, will 
weigh about 43 pounds. 
(7) The inside (top round) is the largest of the three chief cuts of the 
round. It is also the tenderest. The knuckle is next in tenderness, and the 
outside (bottom round) is the least tender. All of these cuts may be made 
into steaks or may be oven roasted, but the inside and knuckle are best for 
these purposes. The meat of the hind shank is similar to that of the fore shank. 
It is tendinous and tough and is suitable only for ground-meat dishes. The bones 
of the hind shank are used for soup stock. 
(8) To use the loin to best advantage the rump should first be removed. 
This is done by cutting and sawing in a line running from the first tail bone 
across the loin just below the point of the aitchbone (line E-F, Plate 6). The 
meat of the rump lies almost entirely outside the pelvic bones. The rump may 
be cooked without boning, if necessary, or it may be boned. As the muscles of 
the rump are a continuation of those of the outside (bottom round), they are not 
tender and are more suitable for pot roasts or simmered beef than for oven 
roasts and steaks, though they can be used for the latter purposes. The rump 
from the average hind quarter of Army beef will weigh about 9V2 pounds with 
bones in and about 5 pounds after bones have been removed. 
(9) The loin is more suitable for steaks than for any other purpose. This 
cut contains the tenderest meat of the whole carcass. The whole of the loin 
can be steaked without boning, but as the steaks thus produced are so irregular 
in size, and cutting in this manner requires so much sawing, boning the loin is 
recommended. In boning the loin the tenderloin is removed first. (See 1, Plate 
9). The tenderloin is largest at the end next the round and tapers to a point 
at the other end. It is first loosened from the backbone with a knife. Then by 
cutting underneath the large end of the tenderloin and pulling toward the small 
end it can be stripped from the bones of the loin. Next separate the loin end 
(sirloin) from the short loin (line A-B, Plate 9). Usually no sawing is necessary 
to make this separation, as the cut can be carried around the pin bone (point of 
the hip), and by making a nick with a knife between the sacral vertebrae 
(vertebrae of the sirloin) and the lumbar vertebrae (vertebrae of the short loin) 
(see Plate 9), the bones can be parted readily by bending the loin slightly after 
the meat has been cut. The sirloin and the short loin then can be easily boned, 
care being taken to keep as close to the bones as possible. Very little waste of 
meat results from this method of cutting the loin. It produces three cuts of 
boneless beef, all of which can be used for steaks. The boneless sirloin butt also 
makes an excellent oven roast. The bones of the loin should be used for soup 
stock. The loin from the average hind quarter of Army beef will weigh about 
38 pounds with bones in and about 31 pounds after bones have been removed. 
5. Wholesale market cuts of beef for small messes. In small messes where it 
is impractical to use beef in quarters, wholesale market beef cuts are available. 
These should be of the same class and grade required for carcass beef. Beef 
purchased as wholesale market cuts usually costs the organization more than 
when quarters are purchased. However, certain cuts can be readily obtained 
that will meet all the requirements of the mess at no increased cost. The square- 
cut chuck weighs just a little more than half the weight of the fore quarter. The 
round weighs just a little less than half the weight of the hind quarter. The 140 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
square-cut chuck sells at an average of 15 to 20 per cent less than carcasses, and 
the round sells at an average of 15 to 20 per cent more than carcass price. These 
two cuts when bought alternately will cost just about the same as carcass beef, 
and will yield beef suitable for every purpose for which the whole carcass could 
be used. They have the advantage over carcass beef in having less waste because 
carcasses contain the skirt, flank, kidney knob, etc., which have waste and are not 
easy to use to advantage. Wholesale market cuts should be used in the same way 
as described for those cuts under carcass beef. 
6. Mutton, a. Cutting. The arrangement of the bones in lamb and mutton 
carcasses is almost identical with that of beef. However, the cuts made from 
lamb and mutton carcasses differ in form and names from those of beef. Plate 
11 shows the cuts ordinarily made. Lamb and mutton carcasses are small as com- 
pared to beef and are not split into sides; therefore, when divided into the differ- 
ent cuts, each cut includes corresponding parts of both sides. The legs correspond 
to the rounds, rumps, and sirloins of beef; the loin corresponds to the beef short 
loin (both sides); and the short rack, or hotel rack, to the prime ribs of beef (both 
sides). The fore quarters together are called a rack, and the two hind quarters 
together are called a saddle. The saddle and rack are divided between the twelfth 
and thirteenth ribs as in beef. Because of the smallness of the bones, lamb and 
mutton carcasses are easily cut. 
Plate 11. Lamb carcass, showing the ordinary commercial cuts. 
1. Leg 
2. Loin. 
3. Short rack or hotel rack. 
4. Flank. 
5. Breast. 
6. Chuck. 
1, 2, and 44 Saddle. 
1. 2, and 3. Long saddle. 
2 and 3. Back. 
3, 5, and 6. Rack 
4, 5, and 6. Stew, 
b. Uses. (1) Because of its distinctive flavor, mutton is not relished by many 
people until they have become accustomed to it. Lamb does not have such a 
pronounced flavor, but it is distinctive of the class of meat. The flesh has about 
the same food value as beef, having the same percentage of fat. Mutton fat has a 
higher melting point than beef fat, and cold mutton is apt to leave a tallowy 
taste in the mouth; therefore, mutton is best when served hot. Lamb is palatable 
hot or cold. Because of their distinctive flavor, mutton and lamb cannot be 
readily combined with other materials in utilizing left-over foods. The cuts do 
not lend themselves to such a variety of uses as beef. Therefore, lamb and mutton 
are not used in the mess as often as beef, pork, and poultry. Lamb and mutton 
make excellent dishes when well prepared and their use offers a change from too 
much beef. 
(2) Lamb and mutton legs are best suited for roasts, though they can be 
made into steaks and served with chops from the loin and short rack. The 
loin and the short rack are best suited for chops, though the short rack is used 
also for crown roasts. The flank, breast, and chuck are used almost entirely for 
stewing. The breast is sometimes stuffed and baked. MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
141 
7. Veal. a. Cutting. The manner of cutting veal and the names of the cuts 
are the same as for lamb and mutton. The bones of veal are red and soft, and 
are very easily cut. Veal is dressed with the skin on; that is, the skin is not 
removed on the killing floor. This is done to keep the flesh from drying out and 
becoming dark. Veal is sometimes delivered with the skin on. For Army use the 
skin should be removed before delivery. The flesh of veal is very tender and 
easily bruised. There is no way of telling whether the meat is bruised or not until 
the skin has been removed. Veal may be delivered whole or in sides, or as 
saddles and racks. (See Plate 12.) 
Plate 12. Veal carcass (both sides), showing commercial cuts. 
1- Leg. 
2. Loin. 
3. Short rack or hotel rack. 
4. Plank. 
5. Breast. 
6. Chuck. 
1, 2, and 4. Saddle. 
3, 5, and 6. Back. 
1, 2, and 3. Long saddle. 
4, 5, and 6. Stew. 
2 and 3. Back. 
b. Uses. Veal contains very little fat. The meat is never marbled as beef and 
contains a high percentage of water. For these reasons it has less food value 
than beef, mutton, or pork. Because it is young it is always tender. The only 
advantages to recommend it as an article of diet in the Army mess are its tender- 
ness and the fact that it gives variety to the menu. Veal usually costs more than 
beef, pork, or mutton. 
8. Frozen meats and fish. a. In time of peace beef, veal, lamb, mutton, pork, 
poultry, and fish may be delivered to Army messes in either a chilled or frozen 
condition. “Chilled” means that the meat has been held in a chillroom until it 
reaches a temperature of 34° to 36° F. “Frozen” means that meat has been held 
in a freezing room, often called cold storage, at a temperature usually below 
zero until solidly frozen to the center. In the continental United States meats, 
poultry, and fish normally are received by messes in a chilled condition. In the 
Tropics they sometimes are frozen when received. In time of war they may be re- 
ceived in frozen form both in the Tropics and elsewhere. Army cooks should 
understand the best methods of handling frozen meats because most frozen meats 
require different treatment before cooking from that required by chilled meats; 
that is, most frozen meats and poultry must be thawed before cooking for best 
results. The exception is thin pieces, such as frozen fish fillets, which may be 
cooked without thawing. 
b. Frozen meats and fish should never be thawed in water, as this soaks out 
some of the meat juices, which reduces palatability and food value. 
c. While it is possible to thaw in ordinary room temperature, this is bad 
practice and should be resorted to only when there is not time to thaw in a 
refrigerator, because by the time the meat, poultry, or fish is thawed to the 
center the outside may begin to spoil. This spoilage is evidenced first by a 
slimy surface, and there may be a slight tainted odor; these evidences of spoilage 142 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
increase as time goes on, and eventually the spoilage reaches such a stage that 
the surface must be trimmed away. The best method of preventing surface 
spoilage while thawing is to thaw at a temperature slightly above freezing (up to 
40° F.), This requires longer but is safe. Regardless of the temperature of 
thawing, there should be a good circulation of air around the frozen product being 
thawed. This is because moisture appears on the surface while thawing, and 
moisture favors spoilage. If the air around the thawing meat is kept moving it 
carries away the moisture and the meat remains dry and in better condition. 
d. If there is not sufficient room in the refrigerator to permit hanging a quarter 
of frozen beef or a carcass of veal, it must be divided. This is not particularly 
difficult. It can be done with a meat saw. It is less difficult if thawing is allowed 
until cutting can be done with a knife down to the bone, but this method is not 
recommended in a warm room. 
e. When using frozen meats, the time required for thawing must be considered 
in planning cooking operations. For example, if roast beef is to be served on 
Sunday, the frozen beef should be delivered Thursday or early Friday morning. 
Following are approximate times required for thawing in an Army mess refriger- 
ator: 
Hours 
Frozen beef, quarters, chucks, or rounds 36-48 
Frozen beef, loins, ribs 36-48 
Frozen veal, mutton, or lamb carcasses 24-36 
Frozen veal, mutton or lamb cuts 18-30 
Frozen pork, cuts 18-30 
Frozen poultry or whole fish 12-24 
f. Thin cuts of frozen meat, that is, cuts not more than 1 inch thick, may be 
satisfactorily pan fried by putting the frozen cuts directly into the hot pan 
without first thawing them. In pieces of this size the frost is quickly driven 
out, and the interior becomes cooked before the outside is overcooked. How- 
ever, if the thin cuts are to be fried in deep fat they must first be thawed. If 
this is not done, the cold in these cuts will cool the fat below the proper frying 
temperature. About the only thin frozen cuts used in Army messes are frozen 
fish fillets, and when cooked without being first thawed they are more palatable. 
g. When frozen meats are supplied to troops in the field as part of the field 
ration, usually there will be no refrigerator to thaw them in. They must be 
thawed in the open, the rapidity of thawing depending on weather conditions. 
In hot weather the surface of the meat will begin to spoil before the meat is thawed 
at the center. This spoilage may be retarded by hanging wet cloths or sacks 
around the thawing meat. The wind blowing on these wet sacks will keep the 
meat cooler than the surrounding atmosphere. Sometimes frozen meat will be 
received in the field only a short time before it must be cooked for the next meal. 
In such a case a stew may be made, using the chuck, shanks, or round. The 
meat saw and cleaver must be used to cut off these cuts. Cooked meats will keep 
in hot weather longer than chilled fresh meat, and when necessary to save meat 
to prevent loss through spoilage the cook should not hesitate to cook more meat 
than is needed for immediate service. 
9. Sausage, a. Commerical sausage is made from finely chopped or ground 
meat (or meat products) to which cereal (as flour or corn meal) may or may not 
have been added, and flavored with spices and condiments. It usually is stuffed 
into a casing. Federal specifications do not permit the Army to purchase sausage 
to which cereal has been added. The presence of any cereal must be declared 
on the label, and when over 3 per cent of cereal is present the product must be 
labeled “Sausage and Cereal”. Sausage containing cereal should not be accepted 
by Army messes. 
b. Fresh pork sausage is made from fresh pork trimmings and should never 
be eaten raw. It should be cooked until well done. 
c. Cooked and smoked sausages, such as bologna, frankfurters, etc., are made 
from combinations of beef and pork trimmings and meat products, 
d. Dried sausages includes all summer sausages which are made from pork 
and beef trimmings and for the most part are preserved by drying. Some varieties 
of summer sausage are smoked. 
e. Cheap sausages contain large proportions of meat products (tripe, lungs, ox MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
143 
lips, etc.). The better grades contain little or no such products. Sausages may 
be cheapened by adding cereal. (See a above.) 
f. If serving cold sausage, several kinds on the same platter are always desirable, 
for example, bologna, liver sausage, and varieties of summer sausage. 
10. Smoked meats, a. The usual smoked meats found on the market are hams, 
bacon (bellies), calas, bacon squares, bacon briskets, beef hams, etc. In this 
country the term “bacon” is applied to smoked bellies, though squares and briskets 
are also known as bacon squares and briskets. Calas (picnic hams) are pork 
shoulders with the butt removed and rounded to present the appearance of a 
small ham. They contain a much higher percentage of bone than hams and are, 
therefore, wasteful. However, they are much lower in price than hams. Bacon 
squares are made from pork jowls and contain very little lean meat. Bacon 
briskets are cut from the shoulder-end of bacon bellies. They are usually leaner 
than bacon bellies. Squares and briskets are excellent for seasoning and can 
also be used for frying. Smoked boneless butts, which are cut from the upper 
part of the shoulder in making calas, are economical substitutes for hams as they 
are free from skin and bone and there is no waste from their use. Beef hams are 
usually marketed in the form of sliced dried beef, but they may also be purchased 
as dried beef hams and sliced as needed. 
b. The quality of smoked meats depends upon the quality of the meat used, 
the method of curing, and the amount of smoking. Most packers make 2 or 3 
grades of hams and bacon, 2 grades of calas and beef hams, and only 1 grade of 
squares, butts, and briskets. Fancy breakfast bacon and fancy hams are cut from 
the best quality of pork; have smooth, thin skin, and firm,, white fat; are fine 
grained, free from seeds; and have bright colored flesh. The lower grades are 
usually defective in one or more of the characteristics. 
11. Pork cuts. a. Pork is not ordinarily in sides or carcasses as is customary 
with beef. Practically all hog carcasses are made into commercial cuts in the 
packing plant. About 20 per cent of these cuts reach the market fresh; the rest 
are cured, and many of the cured cuts are also smoked. The usual fresh pork cuts 
are loins, spareribs, Boston style butts, neck bones, and tails. Shoulders, calas, 
hams, and bellies are usually cured and smoked. Occasionally shoulders and hams 
are sold fresh. Pork, as delivered to the. Army, is in the form of fresh, cured, 
or smoked cuts. 
b. The preparation of pork for the mess does not require as much work as beef 
because pork is in cuts of a size and form that are easily handled. Most hogs 
are marketed at a comparatively young age, so the flesh is usually tender and the 
bones soft. Pork from old hogs, however, may be very tough and the bones very 
hard. In cutting well-chilled pork, it is well to have a pail of hot water handy 
into which to dip the knife. This keeps the fat from sticking to the blade and 
makes cutting easier. However, cutting tools should not be left standing in boiling 
water as this will take the temper out of the blades. 
c. Pork usually contains a high percentage of fat, and for that reason it has 
a high fuel value in the body. Because of this it should be fed less in the summer 
time than during the winter. Pork is not quite so easily digested as beef. Pork 
muscle (lean meat) may contain trichinae, small parasites which curl up like 
pretzels in the muscle fibers and may remain alive there for years. These parasites 
cannot be seen in the meat without a miscroscope. There is very grave danger in 
eating pork which is the least bit raw because the person eating it may develop 
trichinosis which often causes an agonizing death. However, the trichina parasite 
is easily killed. Thorough cooking destroys it. A temperature of 137° F. in the 
center of the meat is enough to make pork safe for eating. Lean pork, or products 
containing lean pork, should never be served raw or rare. To most people pork 
is very tasty and palatable. It may be served in many ways—boiled, roasted, 
fried, baked, etc. 
12. Hearts, livers, and kidneys, a. These vital organs are a good source of 
vitamins A and B. They are usually quite economical and can be made into a wide 
variety of tasty dishes. Because of their high moisture content and their lack 
of fat, these organs do not keep well and should be kept in the refrigerator until 
time to use them. 
b. The flavor of liver is much improved by frying it with bacon. Beef livers 
should be full, short, thick, and tender, of a dark mahogany color, have the gall 
bladder removed, and be free from bile stains. 144 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
c. The heart is a muscular organ; therefore, the meat is fibrous. Beef hearts 
contain a small bone or cartilage near the top center. This should be removed. 
Beef hearts should be given a long slow cooking to make them tender. 
d. Kidneys should be of a dark red color, firm texture, and free from strong 
odors. Pork, beef, and lamb kidneys are equally satisfactory for mess use. If 
kidneys have a strong odor, this can be removed by slicing and soaking in salt 
water for several hours before cooking. While the kidney taken from the beef 
carcass is not sufficient in quantity by itself for a meal for the mess, it can be 
used to good advantage in soups and gravies. 
Section II 
COOKING OF MEATS 
13. Meats, cooking terms, defined. 
Bake. To cook by dry heat in an oven. Usually applied to vegetables, pastries, 
desserts, etc. Not applied to roasted meats, although such meats are actually 
baked. See “Roast.” 
Barbecue. To roast slowly (an animal), whole or in pieces, on a gridiron, spit, 
or over coals in a specially prepared trench. The meat is usually basted with a 
highly seasoned sauce. 
Baste. To pour liquid over a piece of meat during baking, roasting, or broiling 
in order to prevent drying or scorching. Basting improves flavor. The liquid 
used may be pan dripping, water, stock, milk, cream, or melted fat. 
Boil. Meats should never be boiled. See “Simmer.” 
Bouillon. A soup stock made from lean beef without bone, clarified by straining, 
and seasoned. It may be used as soup stock or served as soup. 
Braise. A method used to cook less tender cuts of meat such as pot roast. 
Braising is really steam roasting (cooking in moist heat). The meat is seared 
(browned) in a hot pan in a small amount of fat, then simmered in a covered 
pan or dutch oven in its own juice; or water, stock, milk, or cream may be added. 
Braising may be done either in the oven or on top of the stove. It is one of the 
best methods of cooking the less tender' cuts, as a long cooking in the moist heat 
makes these cuts tender when done. 
Broth. The liquid resulting from simmering meat in water. 
Broil. To cook by direct (radiant) heat from hot coals, a gas flame, electric unit. 
Sometimes called grilling. 
Brown. See “Sear,” 
Consomme. A soup made from two or more kinds of meat, usually beef, veal, 
and chicken, then seasoned, strained, and served clear. 
Fricassee. To sear or saute meat (usually beef, veal, or chicken which has been 
cut in small pieces) until partly cooked, then simmer in gravy until done. 
Fry. To cook in fat, especially to cook in a small amount of fat (also called 
saute or panfry or simply fry) and to cook in deep fat (also called french frying 
or deep-fat frying). 
Larding. Placing strips of fat on top of, or inserting into, meat to add flavor 
and prevent dryness in roasting. See “Lardoon.” 
Lardoon. A long, slender, pencil-like portion of salt pork, bacon, or suet used 
for larding. 
Marinate. To allow meat to stand in a marinade (a brine or pickle, used either 
for the purpose of tendering meat, in which case it is composed of only water 
and vinegar; or for enriching the flavor, various spices, herbs, etc., being added 
for this purpose). 
Pan broil. To cook in a hot, uncovered frying pan, keeping the fat poured off. 
Panfry. See “Fry.” 
Parboil. To simmer for a short time in order to make certain foods tender before 
cooking by another method. 
Pot roast. A large piece of meat cooked by braising. Chucks, necks, briskets, 
and rumps of beef; breast and shoulder of veal and mutton; and the shoulder, butt, 
and shank of pork are often made into pot roast. 
Roast. To cook in the oven by dry heat in an uncovered pan without added 
water, except water used for basting. Roasting is used for thick pieces of tender MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
145 
meat, as ribs of beef, loin of pork, leg of lamb, etc. The tender cuts should be 
roasted; less tender cuts (chuck, round, etc.) should not be roasted but should 
be braised. Poultry is usually roasted in a covered pan. 
Saute. To fry in shallow fat. Often called fry. Sauteing may be done on top 
of the stove in a frying pan, or similar pan, covered or uncovered; or in the oven 
usually in an uncovered bake pan. 
Sear. To brown the outside surface quickly by high heat. Dry heat or hot fat 
may be used. It improves flavor and appearance. 
Simmer. To cook in water which is just below the boiling point; sometimes 
erroneously called boiling. 
Steam. To cook by steam. 
Stew. To cook small pieces of meat in a simmering temperature in sufficient 
water to cover, with the addition of vegetables toward the end of the cooking 
process. 
Stock. The liquid obtained by soaking and simmering meat (usually scraps) 
and bones for several hours. A good base for soups and gravies. 
14. Meats, seasoning, a. When meats are to be roasted or braised, salt and 
pepper are rubbed on the meat before cooking. The following quantities should 
be used: 
Beef, lean pork, veal, and lamb: 
3A teaspoon of salt to each pound of meat. 
Vs teaspoon of pepper to each pound of meat. 
Fat pork, such as butts and shoulder: 
Vz teaspoon of salt to each pound of meat. 
Vs teaspoon of pepper to each pound of meat. 
b. When meats are cooked in water, as simmered beef and stews, salt, pepper, 
and other seasonings to taste are added to the water. 
c. When meats are fried, either in deep or shallow fat, or boiled, salt and pepper 
to taste are sprinkled on before or during cooking. 
15. Meats, principles of cooking, a. There are several objects in cooking meat: 
(1) First, and most important, to make it more palatable. Cooking meat 
develops a pleasant flavor. 
(2) To loosen and soften the tissues, thus making it easier to eat and digest. 
(3) To kill any germs which might be present. This is merely insurance; 
meats do not ordinarily contain any germs but might pick them up through 
contact with wrappers, or tables, etc. 
(4) To coagulate (thicken) with albumen, thus giving the meat a better 
appearance. 
b. Cooking of meat does not add to the food value; in fact some methods of 
cooking cause losses which lower the food value. (See par. 16.) 
c. Methods of cooking tender and less tender meats. (1) Beef (for classification 
as tender and less tender, see par. 23). 
(a) Tender cuts of beef are easily cooked into steaks or roasts. When roast- 
ing, it is not necessary to use a covered pan. 
(b) Less tender cuts of beef may be divided into two classes; 
1. Those portions which can be made into good steaks and roasts by 
pounding steaks and by braising roasts. 
2. Those portions which cannot be made into good steaks and roasts and 
are used in stews or ground meat dishes. 
(c) Any less tender cut of beef can be made tender by a long cooking (about 
3 hours, depending on degree of tenderness) in moist heat at low temperature 
(below 200° F.). (See “braising, fricasseeing, stewing,” par. 13.) This long, slow 
cooking in moist heat is necessary to make these cuts tender. On the other hand, 
since they are already tender, it is not necessary to cook tender cuts in moist 
heat, and somewhat higher temperature and shorter times can be employed. 
(2) Veal. Veal requires the kind of cooking given less tender meats (long, 
slow cooking in moist heat). 
(3) Pork. All pork is cooked as a tender meat but must always be cooked 
until well done. 
(4) Lamb and mutton. The same principles of cooking apply to lamb and 
mutton as to beef. 
(5) Poultry. Young poultry is tender; old poultry (fowl) is cooked by the 
same principle as for less tender cuts of beef. 146 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
d. The flavor of meats is improved in cooking by the addition of seasonings which 
may be other meats, spices, sauces, or added vegetables. Seasonings are especially 
important when left-over cooked meats are cooked again, as they lack flavor unless 
skillfully seasoned. In such cases some fresh meat is often added, and vegetables 
nearly always. (See par. 24.) 
16. Simmering, a. If the cooking of meat is started in cold water, the pores 
are not sealed and the food value of the meat is lessened because the meat juices 
escape into the water and carry with them some meat solids which then become 
dissolved in the water (see par. 18). This action is hastened by the gradually 
increasing heat of the water. The amount of food thus escaping from the meat into 
the water is dependent on three things: 
(1) The amount of meat surface exposed to the water. 
(2) The temperature of the water. 
(3) The length of time the meat is left in the water. 
If the meat is cut into very small pieces and cooked for a long time, the liquid 
will be much richer, but the meat itself will become stringy and less tasty and 
its food value will be much reduced; however, it still has some food value, as it 
contains most of its original protein and makes a palatable dish if combined 
with vegetables and seasoning. Meat cooked in this way may lose as high as 40 
per cent in weight. This loss is largely water, but 5 to 8 per cent is material 
which has a high food value. 
b. If meat is put into boiling water or hot fat, the albumen on the entire surface 
is immediately coagulated, forming a crust which prevents the dissolving of the 
juices and extractives. When meat is cooked in this way it has the desired meaty 
taste, but the broth will be poor. It is impossible to have a rich broth and a juicy 
well-flavored piece of simmered meat at the same time. In cooking meat for 
soup, put the meat in cold water and slowly increase the heat to a simmering 
point; this will extract all the meat juices into the broth. If it is desired to prepare 
simmered beef, put the meat in boiling water and keep it boiling for about 10 
minutes. This sears (closes) the surface of the meat by sealing the pores and 
tends to prevent escape of meat juices. After 10 minutes, allow the temperature of 
the water to drop to about 180° F., which should be maintained until cooking is 
completed. If allowed to boil during the entire period of cooking, the albumen 
throughout the meat will coagulate and become hard and dry. The time of cooking 
at the lower temperature will be longer, but the meat will be juicy and tender 
instead of dry and tough as it would be if kept boiling during the entire cooking 
period. 
17. Meats, roasting, a. (1) Roasting, as applied to beef, veal, pork, mutton, 
and lamb, is cooking in the oven by dry heat; that is, the pan is not covered. When 
the pan is covered, the cooking is called braising, and is done in moist heat, due 
to the steam being kept in by the cover. 
(2) As applied to poultry, roasting is cooking in the oven by moist heat, as the 
pan is usually covered. The texture of the flesh of poultry is such that roasting 
in an uncovered pan would result in excessive dryness. 
(3) Braising is the best method of cooking the less tender cuts, while roasting 
(uncovered) is the best method for tender meat. 
b. (1) The principal difference between roasting and simmering is that in 
simmering the meat is surrounded by water and in roasting it is surrounded by 
hot air. In braising it is surrounded by hot air and steam. More of the meat 
juices are retained in roasting or braising than in simmering. The shrinkage during 
roasting is mainly due to loss of water. In recent experiments it was found that 
the loss by shrinkage was only 6 per cent when meat was roasted at 250° F., but 
the shrinkage was 30 per cent, or 5 times as great, when the temperature was 
doubled. 
(2) If roasted in an uncovered roaster, the meat should be basted frequently, 
and it may be necessary to add a small amount of water to keep the fat in the 
bottom of the pan from burning. If the meat has not browned enough during 
the last 10 to 15 minutes of roasting, increase the heat sufficiently to obtain the 
desired brownness. 
(3) Meat which is to be roasted or braised should be placed in the pan fat 
side up. 
c. It is very difficult to determine from outside appearances how well done a MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
147 
piece of meat has become. A general rule is to allow 20 to 22 minutes per pound 
(after searing) with oven at 250° F. for a medium-done roast and 25 to 30 minutes 
for a well-done roast. The most accurate method of determining how well the 
meat is done is by the use of a meat thermometer. Before putting the roast in 
the oven (after searing), the thermometer is placed in the meat so that the bulb 
will be as near the center of the cut as possible. The oven temperature should 
be as near 250° F. as possible and the meat should be allowed to cook until the 
thermometer registers 140° F. for a rare roast; 160° F. for a medium roast, and 
180° F. for a well-done roast. Temperatures higher than 250° F. will shorten the 
time of cooking, but the outside of the meat may be too brown and the shrinkage 
will be higher. At 250° F. the shrinkage will be less, but the cooking time will 
be increased. Thermometers are recommended for general use in service messes. 
d. In roasting lean cuts of meat, fat should be placed on top of the roast, or, 
if the meat is boned and rolled, on the inside of the roll. This fat may be suet, 
pork fat, or bacon. Where sides of beef are purchased and cod fat is available, 
it is well to use this fat, or other fat of the side of the carcass, in the roasting 
of the lean cuts. Fat backs of pork also are very good. Strips of this fat can be 
threaded through the lean meat by punching holes with a larding needle or other 
sharp, slender implement, such as a large skewer or ice pick, and then inserting the 
strips. The added fat greatly improves the flavor of cuts of lean meat having 
little or no fat. 
18. Meats, searing, a. Searing is done by exposing the meat for a short time 
to a high heat so that the surface is browned. It has been the general belief that 
this seals the pores of the surface of the meat and thus prevents escape of meat 
juices; however, recent experiments show that it is doubtful whether searing 
actually does this. Escape of meat juices is not actually a loss as they are used 
for gravy if the meat is roasted, and serve to enrich a stew. The browning 
of the surface improves appearance of a roast and adds flavor to both the roast 
and the gravy. For these reasons, searing is desirable whether or not it prevents 
escape of juices. 
b. To sear meat which is to be roasted or braised, place it in an uncovered pan 
in a hot oven (450° to 500° F.—10 to 12 counts) for a period of about 15 minutes; 
or in a hot pan over the fire and turn it until all sides are browned. If the meat is 
deficient in fat it is well to add a little fat when searing. There is always danger 
of burning meat by searing in the oven and for this reason it is recommended that 
searing of meats for Army messes be accomplished in a hot pan on top of the 
stove. Searing sometimes is called browning (see a above). 
c. It is the general practice to sear meat which is to be cooked in water (see 
pars. 16 and 21) by plunging it into boiling water. It is generally accepted that 
this seals the pores and retains the juices in the meat. This procedure is recom- 
mended whenever it is desired to produce a juicy piece of meat (as simmered 
beef) which has been cooked in water. 
19. Meats, broiling, a. Broiling is a quick way of preparing steaks and chops. 
Steaks should be cut from 1 to IV2 inches thick for broiling. If cut too thin they 
will become hard and tough. Broiled meats should be rare or medium; never 
well done. The temperature should be kept moderate; if too high the meat will 
be toughened or scorched on the outside before the center is done. For a steak 
1 inch thick the time required for cooking will be approximately 12 minutes, 
6 minutes for each side. 
b. Broiling is by direct heat; that is, exposed to a flame or other direct heat. 
It should not be placed too close to the flame as this will scorch the meat. Broiling 
also may be done on top of the stove by placing the meat on a very hot frying 
pan or griddle on which a small piece of suet has been rubbed. The pan must 
be very hot or the meat will stick. Turn the meat often until done. This method 
is called pan broiling. 
20. Meats, frying, a. Deep or shallow fat is used for frying meats. Beefsteak, 
hamburger steak, meat balls, and lamb or mutton chops are fried in shallow fat; 
pork chops are usually fried in shallow fat, but sometimes are fried in deep fat. 
Croquettes, etc., are usually fried in deep fat. 
21. Meats, stewing. There are two methods of making stews; in one method 
the meat retains its flavor and in the other the juices are extracted and the meat 
will lack flavor but the broth will be rich and well-flavored. In order to have the 148 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
meat retain the flavor, it is necessary to sear it in hot fat, which will make a brown 
stew, or sear by plunging into boiling water. After searing the meat is simmered 
until tender. Vegetables are added during the cooking process (see par. 15d). 
To make a stew with a rich thick broth the meat is put on in cold water and slowly 
brought to the simmering point. This method extracts the meat juices into the 
broth, but this flavor is not lost as the vegetables in the stew pick it up. 
22. Meats, braising. Braising is often erroneously called pot-roasting. It is 
a combination of roasting and stewing. It is a very desirable method of cooking 
the less tender cuts of meat. After the meat is seared on all sides a small 
amount of water is added and the meat covered. This gives a moist heat which 
is the best method of making less tender cuts tender. Cooking is continued 
slowly, either in the oven or on top of the stove, until the meat is tender. The 
usual time required is 50 minutes to the pound; thus a 5-pound piece would 
require 250 minutes. 
23. Beef, cooking. In cooking beef, it must be realized that there are two 
general classes of meat to be considered; the tender cuts and the less tender cuts. 
Tender meat can be made unpalatable by improper cooking; on the other hand 
the less tender cuts can be made tender and palatable by proper cooking. The 
food value of both types is about equal. The following table is a guide to show 
the cuts of beef and the best methods of cooking each. Plates 1 to 10 show the 
location of these various cuts in the beef carcass. 
Name of cut 
Form of cut 
Methods of Cooking 
Broiling or pan broiling. 
Roasting. 
Broiling or pan broiling. 
Roasting. 
Roasting. 
Broiling or pan broiling. 
Broiling or pan broiling. 
Do. 
Roasting. 
Porterhouse from the short loin. .. 
Steaks 
Filet mignon 
Tender Cuts 
Less Tender Cuts 
Braising. 
Frying, after pounding. 
Braising. 
Prying, after pounding. 
Stews. 
Hamburger, meat balls, meat loaf, etc. 
Soups. 
Stews. 
Hamburger, meat balls, meat loaf, etc. 
Braising. 
Stews. 
Prying, after pounding. 
Soups. 
Stews. 
Hamburger, meat balls, meat loaf, etc. 
Braised or simmered. 
Stews. 
Hamburger, meat balls, meat loaf, etc. 
Steaks 
Cut small 
Neck 
Cut small 
Plate and brisket 
Plate 
do 
Short ribs 
Brisket 
24. Specification beef, cooking, a. Beef is usually supplied to Army messes 
in quarters, alternate hind and forequarters. In every quarter of beef there are 
two kinds of cuts—tender and less tender. The tender cuts are easily cooked 
into palatable roasts or steaks. While equally as nutritious as the tender cuts, 
the less tender cuts require somewhat different treatment to make them into 
attractive dishes. Too often this problem is met by making them into *stew or 
by grinding. While it is true that some portions of the less tender cuts (neck, 
brisket, navel end, shank, and flank) are not suitable for roasts or steaks, and 
therefore are best used for stews or by grinding, it also is true that meat from 
the chuck (other than the neck), the round, and rump can be made into good 
steaks and roasts if properly cooked. There is little excuse for always using these 
portions for stew or ground-meat dishes. 
b. A good investment for any mess is the purchase of one or two steak masti- 
cators. With these, steaks from the chuck and round can be made very tender MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
149 
and palatable. Steaks are pounded with the masticator, which not only breaks 
down the tissues and makes the meat tender but also tends to flatten and give 
them a larger appearance. Pounding with a masticator tends to drive out the 
meat juices which give flavor, but the loss of these juices can be prevented by 
sprinkling flour over the surface of the steaks, or by rolling or dipping them 
in flour before pounding. The flour is then pounded into the meat and absorbs 
the juices as they are released, thus retaining the flavor. If masticators are 
not on hand, the flat side of a cleaver may be used. 
c. It may occur that the menu calls for beefsteak or for roast beef, and that 
the mess has a quarter of beef on hand which does not provide sufficient tender 
meat for a meal of steak or roast. In such case the shortage can be made up 
by using the necessary quantity of less tender meat, for steak by pounding, and 
for roast by braising, and marinating before braising, if necessary. 
d. Marinating is done by soaking the meat in a marinade for 2 to 4 hours, 
depending on size and degree of tenderness. The marinade consists of three parts 
water and one part vinegar and is used in sufficient quantity to cover the meat. 
The action of the vinegar softens the fibers and also freshens the meat. After 
soaking, the meat is removed from the marinade and cooked, usually by braising. 
The marinade keeps well and may be used again for other meat. 
e. Those less tender portions which will not make good steaks or roasts can 
be made into many attractive dishes. There are a number of recipes in this 
manual which show how these cuts can be used to advantage. Too often they 
are used in stew with the result that the menu becomes monotonous. Variety 
is provided by serving them cut into small pieces for potpie; in diced form as 
in chili con came; or in one of the many types of ground-meat dishes, as meat 
loaf, croquettes, hash, etc. Meat for hamburger or meat loaf should be ground 
comparatively fine. The grinder must be sharp enough to cut the meat and 
not shred or pull it apart, as this makes a very stringy unpalatable meat dish. 
In ground-meat dishes made from beef, the addition of a small quantity of ground 
bacon or pork fat improves the flavor. The proportion should be 1 or 2 pounds 
of bacon or pork fat to 10 pounds of beef. This is a good use for dry salt-cured 
bacon. If eggs are mixed with ground meat (1 egg to 2V2 pounds of meat), the 
albumen of the egg will coagulate quickly when heat is applied and thus retain 
the meat juices and hold the meat together. 
/. Frequently a mess has left-over cookpd meats on hand. These can be made 
into stews or potpies, or into ground-meat dishes. If there is not sufficient left- 
over meat for a complete meat dish the quantity may be increased by adding 
fresh meat. This will improve the dish, as dishes made from left-over cooked 
meats lack the flavor of those made from fresh meats. When left-over cooked 
meats are made into stews and meat pies, vegetables should be added to im- 
prove the flavor. Seasonings, as sage, curry, and garlic, may be used to advantage 
in left-over meats. If the quantity of left-over meat is small, it may be used in 
a meat dressing, onions and sage being added for seasoning, and bread for volume; 
this dressing to be served with some fresh-meat dish. 
25. Beef, sundry cuts, cooking. Army messes are interested principally in the 
following sundry cuts of beef: 
a. Brains may be fried, creamed, scrambled, or simmered and fried in deep fat. 
They should be cooked quickly. To prepare for cooking, it is best to allow the 
brains to stand in cold salted water from 1 to 2 hours, then remove all arteries 
and blood clots. Regardless of the method of cooking, it is best to parboil the 
brains first for 3 or 4 minutes as this makes them tender. 
b. Tongues may be simmered or baked and should be cooked slowly and skinned 
as soon as cool enough to handle. 
c. Hearts may be baked with dressing, simmered, or braised, and should be 
cooked slowly. All beef hearts from animals slaughtered in federally inspected 
plants are cut nearly in half by Federal inspectors who inspect for beef measles. 
d. Sweetbreads may be broiled, braised, or creamed. Wash in cold water and 
allow to soak 1 hour in fresh cold water, then drain. Cover with boiling salted 
water (IV2 teaspoons salt and 1 teaspoon vinegar to each pint of water). Par- 
boil for 20 minutes, then drain off the hot water and put sweetbreads in cold 
water until chilled or ready for use as they will darken after parboiling if not 
kept in cold water. After parboiling, they may be cooked in any of the methods 
listed; that is, broiled, braised, or creamed. 150 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
e. Liver may be fried, braised, used in meat pies, or combined with other 
meat for hash. It is best when fried. In braising or frying, the slices should be 
thin and should be cooked slowly. If cooked too fast, the liver becomes hard 
and leathery. It is advisable to parboil liver before frying. This makes it tender 
and eliminates much of the strong liver flavor which is objectionable to many 
men. 
f. Kidneys may be broiled, stewed, or fried. They are not popular cooked alone 
and are best used when disguised by being added to some other meat. The kidney 
which comes with the hind quarter of beef may be added to the flank or shank 
meat for use in stews, meat loaf, hamburger, etc. Whenever used, kidneys should 
be cut up and soaked for a long time in cold salt water to remove any objection- 
able odor or flavor, 
g. Tails may be braised, simmered, or used for soup. Before cooking they 
should be cut into pieces at the joints. Tails should be cooked slowly. 
26. Pork, cooking, a. General. Pork for Army use is usually purchased in 
wholesale market cuts, as loins, butts, etc. It must always be cooked until it is 
well done, regardless of the method of cooking. Rare or medium cooked pork 
should never be served. There are two reasons for this: First, pork is not 
palatable unless well done; second, pork is sometimes infested with the trichina 
parasite, which, if not destroyed, may cause serious illness. This parasite is 
killed when the meat is heated to 137° F. at the center. Pork is well done when 
the center of the piece reaches a temperature of 182° F. As this temperature is 
well above the minimum required to kill trichina, well-done pork may be served 
with no fear of this parasite. When pork is an even, grayish color throughout, 
with little or no pink color, it is well done. 
b. Cuts of pork. The cuts of pork which are used fresh are loin, ham, and 
shoulder (butts and picnics), spareribs, and sundry cuts. 
(1) Loins are used for roasts and chops. The weight ranges from 8 to 22 
pounds. 
(2) Fresh hams make very desirable steaks or roasts. 
(3) Shoulders may also be used as steaks or roasts. The weight ranges from 
7 to 15 pounds. 
(4) Shoulder butts make excellent roasts. They are next to the rib (for- 
ward) and of the regular loin and include part of the shoulder blade. The 
weight averages 4 to 8 pounds. Boned butts (boneless butts) are also available 
and make a very economical roast. 
(5) Picnic is the lower part of the shoulder (shoulder with the butt re- 
moved). Picnics, on account of the large percentage of bone they contain, are 
not as economical as butts. 
(6) Spareribs are approximately 56 per cent bone. They are cooked by 
roasting or simmering. When simmered, they are usually cooked with sauer- 
kraut or cabbage. 
c. Methods of cooking. (1) Pork should be either roasted, fried, or braised, 
although some parts such as ribs and feet are often simmered. As previously 
stated, pork should always be cooked well done, never rare. 
(2) A little lemon juice rubbed into the pork before searing adds considerably 
to its flavor and reduces the greasy taste. Some cooks rub the surface with a cut 
clove of garlic. 
(3) Pork roasts should be wiped off with a damp cloth, then sprinkled with 
salt and pepper and rubbed with flour, then seared; that is, browned by placing 
in a hot pan on top of the stove and turning until all sides have been subjected 
to the heat. After searing, the roast should be placed in an oven at a temperature 
of 250° to 350° F., depending upon the time available to complete the roast. A 
moderate oven (250° to 325° F.—16 to 18 counts) is best for roasting pork. At 
350° F. the time required to get the roast well done would of course be shorter 
than with an oven temperature of 250° F., but the cooking losses are greater. 
(4) The time required for roasting pork at 250° F. (after searing) is approxi- 
mately as follows: 
Loin, 35 to 40 minutes per pound for each piece. 
Ham, 30 to 35 minutes per pound for each piece. 
Shoulder, 30 to 35 minutes per pound for each piece. 
Butts, 50 to 55 minutes per pound for each piece. MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
151 
(5) No water should be added to a pork roast, and if the temperature can 
be maintained between 250° to 300° F., the roast should not be covered. The 
necessity of basting depends upon the temperature of the oven. If a high tem- 
perature is maintained (350° F.), the roast should be basted frequently, but bast- 
ing is not necessary when roasting at a temperature of 250° to 325° F. The 
shoulder and butts should be braised. When cooked the outside color of the pork 
should be a uniform brown, not too dark. The crust should not be hard, but 
crisp, and when carved there should be little or no pink color in the meat. 
(6) Pork steaks, which are cut from the shoulder or butt, and chops should 
be seasoned and then seared at a high temperature. When brown on both sides 
reduce the heat and cook slowly in a small quantity of fat for 20 to 30 minutes 
in a closely covered pan. This method will make a juicier steak or chop than if 
cooked uncovered. 
(7) When simmering spareribs, the meat should be seared in boiling salted 
water, then the temperature of the water should be reduced to a simmer and 
the meat cooked until it starts to fall from the bones. 
(8) Sliced cold roast pork is an excellent meat dish. However, left-over 
fried pork is not palatable when sliced cold and, therefore, should be made into 
other dishes, such as meat pie, chop suey, etc. (See “Recipes.”) 
27. Pork, sundry cuts, cooking, a. The average Army mess is interested in 
the following sundry cuts: 
(1) Hearts. Wash the hearts in warm water. Take out all clotted blood, 
veins, and arteries. Cook in salted simmering water for IV2 to 2 hours. The 
hearts may then be eaten or, if desired, may be browned or baked in the oven for 
a period of 30 minutes at a temperature of 325° to 330° F. 
(2) Tongues. Wash tongues in warm water. Cook slowly in salted water 
for IV2 to 2 hours, or until done. As soon as cool enough to handle, remove the 
skin. 
(3) Brains. Allow brains to soak in cold water for 1 to 2 hours, then wash 
in warm water and remove all arteries, blood clots, etc. Parboil 4 to 5 minutes. 
(4) Feet, tails, and hocks. These sundry cuts are usually simmered with 
turnips, cabbage, or rutabagas. Hocks are also baked with tomatoes or tomato 
sauce. 
b. The cost of these sundry pork cuts is generally very reasonable and their 
use should be encouraged. The meat is palatable and nutritious. Many dishes 
can be prepared from them and thus break the routine of roasted or fried pork. 
28. Veal, cooking, a. Veal for Army messes is usually purchased by cuts instead 
of carcass. The following table shows uses of the cuts and Plate 12 shows the 
location of the various cuts in the carcass: 
Shoulder—Braised; stewed. 
Chuck—Chops; braised; stewed. 
Leg—Cutlets; steaks; braised. 
Breast—Braised. 
Rib—Braised; rib chops. 
Loin—Loin chops; braised. 
b. Veal is immature meat. It is low in extractives and has little fat. It re- 
quires lower heat and longer cooking than beef. It should be cooked with added 
fat in the form of salt pork or bacon and, if roasted, should always be braised; 
that is, cooked with a covered roaster, as this makes the meat juicy. Veal roasts 
are seared and then braised at a temperature of 230° to 250° F. for 20 minutes 
per pound of meat. The drippings from a veal roast should be used for making 
a brown gravy. 
29. Lamb and mutton, cooking, a. The tender and less tender cuts of the carcass 
of lamb will correspond to the same cuts of beef. The greater demand for the 
more tender cuts makes the less tender cuts cheaper. These are equally as high 
in nutritive value as the tender cuts and many palatable dishes can be prepared 
from them by careful cooking. 
b. (1) The problem in cooking lamb and mutton is the same as in all meat 
cooking; that is, cooking the center without overcooking the outer surface. In 
roasting or simmering, the meat should be seared first, then the temperature re- 
duced. Broiled cuts should be seared first, then the temperature reduced. The 
rules for broiling lamb or mutton chops differ somewhat from broiling beefsteak. 152 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
The best method of broiling lamb or mutton chops is to first sear them on both 
sides, then lower the heat and finish broiling at reduced temperature, turning the 
chops occasionally, but being careful not to pierce the brown crust. The time 
required is 10 to 15 minutes. In roasting, after the meat is seared the temperature 
should be reduced to 300° F., allowing 30 minutes to the pound. The hardening 
of the surface of the roast is lessened by frequent basting, or by covering the 
roaster so that the steam in the roaster will accomplish the basting. Less tender 
cuts are usually made into stews, potpies, or fricassee. 
(2) There is a parchmentlike skin over the outer surface of mutton or lamb 
which is called the fell. It should be removed before cooking, as this fell tends to 
give the meat a wooly taste. 
c. Lamb or mutton, especially lamb, is very palatable either hot or cold, but 
should be served either very hot or entirely cold, not warm. 
30. Sausage, cooking, a. Pork sausage. Pork sausages require cooking to kill 
any trichinae which may be present. Pork sausages may be fried or baked with 
other foods. They should first be placed in lukewarm water and this water 
brought to a boil; then remove from the water and fry or bake. This prelimi- 
nary cooking in water toughens the casings and tends to prevent bursting. If 
the casings burst while frying or baking there is a loss of fat from the sausage. 
b. Frankfurters. In cooking frankfurters (wieners) the water should be brought 
to the boiling point and the frankfurters simmered for 10 to 12 minutes. Do 
not boil as this will toughen the casings. The meat of the frankfurter has already 
been cooked at the factory; therefore, it is only necessary to heat them before 
serving. 
31. Reindeer, cooking. The general rules for cooking beef should be followed 
in cooking reindeer meat. Due to the fact that this meat is lacking in fat, added 
fats should be used in cooking. 
32. Meats, carving and serving, a. (1) The chief objectives of good carving 
are to obtain attractiveness and the best flavor from the meat, and to prevent 
waste. Meat should never be carved with a hard, sawing motion. Carved meat 
should be placed on the platter with the most appetizing side up and the pieces 
arranged in an attractive manner, not thrown loosely on the platter. It requires 
no expense, and very little effort, to arrange meat neatly on a platter so that it 
will be pleasing to the eye. 
(2) Good carving cannot be accomplished without good tools. Sharp carving 
knives are essential. Knives should be run over a steel just before starting to 
carve and frequently during the carving, if the amount of carving warrants. 
The steel should be held in the left hand, in a nearly horizontal position (the 
point slightly raised) and parallel to the body. The knife should be held in the 
right hand. Start the blade along one side of the steel, beginning with the heel 
of the knife at the point of the steel. The strokes should be reversed from side to 
side of the steel. All hand motion of the knife blade along the steel should be 
in the wrist and not a movement of the entire forearm. The touch of the blade 
on the steel should be light, and six strokes should be sufficient; if more are re- 
quired, the knife should be sharpened on a stone. If the knife is sharp the cut 
will be clean and even. 
b. Carving rib roasts. Beef should be sliced across the grain into pieces of uni- 
form size and thickness convenient for individual service; not cut into chunks. 
Rib roasts are tempting and appetizing when neatly sliced across but have no 
appeal if cut into chunks. An excellent way of carving a rib roast is as follows: 
Stand the roast on end on a carving board or wooden table with the rib bones 
to the left of, and with the meat side away from, a right-handed carver. Stick 
a large meat fork in the bone side of the roast, low enough that the knife will not 
strike the fork, and hold the roast firm with the fork in the left hand; cut thin 
slices across the grain until the knife reaches the bone. Cut several slices in this 
manner, leaving them attached to the bone and then run the point of the knife 
along the bone, releasing the slices. By this method all the meat can be cut from 
the bones except the small strings between the ribs. 
c. Carving round roasts. Use a long thin knife. To start the carving, place 
the roast on a carving board with the large or rump end down and the small 
or shank end up. Start at the outer edge of the meat and cut across the face 
(across the grain) of the roast, cutting toward the round bone and making the MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
153 
slices about Vs inch thick. As the knife approaches the bone, raise the edge so 
that it will come to the surface just as it reaches the bone. Each slice should be 
about the size of the hand. Continue slicing around the roast, turning it so as to 
keep the cut surface of the roast level. 
d. Preparation and carving of pork loin roasts. Pork loins contain the backbone 
and part of the rib. The backbone should be cracked with a cleaver at about 
1-inch intervals before roasting the meat. This enables the carver to cut slices 
from the loin through the meat and the bone. The slices should be about V\ inch 
thick and every other slice will contain a piece of the backbone and the rib. 
Section III 
33. Fish. a. Fish may be served broiled, fried, sauteed, baked, or in salad. 
b. Fish are very perishable and for this reason great care should be taken to 
avoid serving any which are not in good condition. All fish should be carefully 
inspected when received in the mess and again before being cooked or served, if 
kept very long. Fish may be classed as fresh, stale, or putrid, as described below. 
Only strictly fresh fish should be accepted or served by the mess. Fresh fish, 
if not frozen, should be delivered to the mess packed in cracked ice. For inspec- 
tion and handling of frozen fish, see paragraph 8. 
(1) Fresh fish have a bright appearance; the scales are firmly adherent and 
glittering; the natural slime, if present, is that common to the species; the 
eyes are outstanding and full; gills and mouth closed; blood in abdomen bright 
with no off odor; abdominal walls firm and elastic with no discoloration; fresh 
firm, elastic and tight on the bones; when placed horizontally across the hand the 
fish does not bend; when placed in water it sinks. 
(2) Stale fish have a duller appearance than fresh; scales are more or less 
easily removable and slightly slimy or smeary or may be abnormally dry; eyes 
red bordered; surface of eyeball cloudy; gills pale yellow, dirty or grayish red 
and covered with slime of disagreeable odor; blood in abdomen dull in color and 
may have slight off odor; abdominal walls becoming soft and flabby; body bony 
and bends easily especially at the tail end; finger impressions easily made and 
remain; meat somewhat soft and more easily discolored; when placed in water a 
stale fish floats. 
(3) Putrid fish. All the brightness gone; dull lifeless color; scales very loose 
and covered with a smeary slimelike mass of very disagreeable odor; eyes break- 
ing down or gone; all bright color gone from the gills which have an extremely 
offensive odor; body withered and flabby; abdominal walls soft and pulpy with 
apple-jelly-like appearance and discolored; meat soft; abdomen bloated; body 
blood dirty brown in color and with offensive odor. A putrid fish floats when 
placed in water. 
c. To clean fish. (1) Scaling. The scales are removed with a knife held at 
such an angle that the blade will work under the scales as the knife is pushed 
in the direction of the head from the tail, with short, quick motions. 
(2) Removing the entrails. With a pointed knife cut the entire length of the 
belly from the vent to the head, taking care not to cut the entrails. Cut the head 
from the body, starting cutting from the belly side. The entrails can then be 
removed by hand. In some small fish it is possible to remove the entrails with 
the head by opening the belly, then loosening the head by cutting from the back, 
and pulling in the direction of the vent. After the entrails have been removed 
the fish should be wiped thoroughly, inside and out, with a cloth wrung out of 
cold water. There may be some clotted blood near the backbone that cannot be 
removed in any other way than by wiping. 
(3) Skinning. Haddock, eels, bullheads, etc., do not have scales and are 
usually skinned. The fins along the back should first be removed with a sharp 
knife or scissors. Make a cut, skin deep, along the entire back; grasp the skin 
on the back, just back of the head, between the thumb and a knife blade and 
pull downward and backward. The skin will usually come off in a sheet. If 
the flesh is tender, care should be taken not to tear it by pulling too quickly. In 
skinning bullheads it may be necessary to fasten the fish by the head by hanging 
FISH AND POULTRY 154 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
it on a hook or by driving a nail through the head because the skin is tight to 
the flesh and it takes hard pulling to remove it. It may be necessary to use a pair 
of pliers for this purpose. 
(4) Boning. Haddock, cod, halibut, whitefish, etc., are quite easily boned. 
After the fish are scaled and cleaned (or skinned), run a sharp knife along each 
side of the backbone from the tail to the head and pull back the flesh from the 
backbone. Any small bones that cannot be removed readily with the backbone 
may be pulled out by the fingers. Another method of boning is to dress the fish 
and remove the head, then grasp the backbone at the head end with one hand and 
pull the flesh away from the backbone with the other. Pull out all loose bones 
that have not been removed with the backbone, and/or scrape over the flat surface 
of the inside of the fish with a knife. 
34. Poultry, a. General. Poultry includes those birds which are usually raised 
on farms for their flesh and eggs. The principal classes of poultry are chickens, 
. turkeys, ducks, and geese. Turkey is included in the ration for Thanksgiving Day 
and for Christmas, but chicken is the class of poultry most used in the mess. Ducks 
and geese are seldom used in Army messes. Ducks yield a smaller amount of 
food than any other class of poultry and are usually high in price. Geese are 
usually less expensive and yield a good proportion of edible meat, but are not 
so popular because of their supposed greasiness. When cooked properly, roast 
goose is very tasty and a desirable change from the other classes of poultry. 
(See recipe 87.) Ducks and geese have no white meat such as is found on the 
breasts of turkeys and chickens. Chicken is the only class of poultry which is 
commonly served to the mess fried or fricasseed. 
b. Chickens, kinds and uses. There are four principal classes of chickens: 
Broilers, fryers, roasters, and fowl. Broilers and fryers are young birds with 
tender flesh and are best suited for broiling or frying. They are too small to 
roast satisfactorily and have too little fat on them to be used for stew or fricassee. 
Fresh broilers can be found on the market during June and July, and fresh fryers 
during July, August, and September of each year. At all other seasons fresh 
broilers and fryers are both scarce and expensive, but they may be procured from 
cold storage during this time if desired. Fowl and roasters best meet the needs 
of the Army mess. Fowl, which are fat hens over 1 year of age, are usually some- 
what tough, and, therefore, used for stew and fricassee. The best grades of hens 
are sold as fowls and usually are kept in cold storage; stewing hens are the poorer 
grade. They can be bought fresh at any time of the year. Roasting chickens are 
quick-grown young cockerels. Their meat is tender, and they are excellent for 
roasting. Fresh roasters are found on the market from September to January; at 
other times frozen roasters may be procured. Cocks (old roosters) and stags 
(male birds with marked masculine characteristics) should never be used by 
Army messes. Age is determined by the size and development of the birds, the 
condition of the shanks, claws, and spurs, and the condition of the cartilage of 
the breastbone. Young birds are lankier and rangier than mature (old) birds, and 
the head, wattles, and comb are undeveloped. The shanks (lower leg) of young 
birds are smooth and bright, while with increasing age the shanks become rough- 
ened, scaly, and dull colored. On broilers the spur is scarcely noticeable; on 
fryers it shows as a small rounded knob; on roasters the spur is more prominent, 
but not hard; on stags the spur becomes longer and harder. The claws of young 
birds are short, slender, and pointed, while on the old birds they become long, 
dull, and stubby. The cartilage at the rear (lower) edge of the breastbone is 
soft and pliable in young birds while as the bird grows older this cartilage grad- 
ually turns to bone and becomes firm and rigid. Cockerels and cocks have a 
greater development and usually deeper color of wattles and comb and larger 
heads than pullets and hens. Hens have a deeper, broader body, especially in 
the abdomen, than cocks. The shanks and thighs of hens are much slenderer 
than those of the male birds, and the spurs of the hen are small and undeveloped. 
The neck, back, and tail feathers of the cock are usually much heavier than those 
of the hen. A cook should be able to recognize readily the different classes of 
birds in order that he may determine which is the best manner of cooking and 
serving them. 
c. Turkeys, kinds and uses. Army specifications prescribe only young turkeys 
for use in the mess. Here again age is reflected in the size of the bird, condi- 
tion of the breastbone, size of the dewbill and beard, size of the spurs, and color MEATS, FISH, AND POULTRY 
155 
of the legs. Young toms are more rangy and leggy than hens. Hens have short, 
plump bodies; small, short legs and wings; small heads with small dewbills (the 
fleshy growth just above the beak), and either a small beard or none at all. Old 
toms have a long, coarse beard, prominent dewbill, and large heavy spurs. The 
beard begins to grow on the breast of the male turkey at the age of 2Vz months, 
and at 1 year old is from 3 to 5 inches long, becoming longer each year. When 
about a year old, the turkey hen begins to grow a beard, but it is always short 
compared with that of the tom. The dewbill is always larger and more elastic 
in the male (tom) than the female bird. Young toms have only a short, blunt 
knob on the inside of the shank, while old toms develop a stout spur. The hen 
turkey has only a small rudimentary spur or button. Turkeys’ feet are said to 
be black up to 1 year of age, assume a pinkish color up to 3 years, and then 
gradually turn a dull gray. The breastbone cartilage of the young turkey is al- 
ways soft and pliable, gradually becoming hard and firm as age advances. 
d. To draw and clean poultry. The poultry received by the Army mess usually 
has been killed and bled, then dressed and chilled or frozen. Dressed means that 
the feathers have been removed, but dressed poultry practically never has been 
drawn (entrails removed); therefore, if the mess receives dressed poultry it is 
necessary to remove the entrails after receipt. If the entrails have been removed 
before being received by the mess, the poultry is called dressed and drawn. Be- 
fore drawing a bird the skin should be cleaned. The fine hair found here and 
there on the skin can be easily removed by singeing. This is done by holding 
the bird for a moment over a gas flame, or any other clean flame, and turning it 
so that all portions of the skin come in contact with the flame. Pin feathers are 
removed by grasping them between the thumb and the blade of a paring knife and 
pulling them out. Next step (except in the case of turkeys) is to cut off the head 
with a cleaver or a heavy butcher knife and to remove the feet by cutting through 
the hock joint with a knife. All of the tough coarse skin on the hocks should be 
trimmed off. The legs of turkeys contain a number of coarse tendons that are 
objectionable if not removed. To do this, loosen the skin and the ligaments on 
each side of the hock joint, and then twist the foot until it is free except for the 
tendons. Then by hanging the bird up by the feet and pulling straight downward, 
these tendons will pull out of the leg muscles and remain attached to the feet 
(shank). The first step in drawing a bird is to remove the crop, gullet, and wind- 
pipe. Slit the skin covering the crop crosswise with a knife, and loosen the crop 
all around with the fingers. Then cut the gullet below the crop and close to the 
breastbone, and remove the crop and neck part of the gullet by pulling. By 
thus removing these parts first, the entrails remaining can be drawn out more 
easily. The windpipe may have to be cut near the lungs to remove it readily, 
and should be pulled out at this time. 
Next cut from the rear of the breastbone to the vent (anus) and loosen the 
vent by cutting around it. Insert the hand into this opening, grasp the intes- 
tines as far forward as possible, and draw them out to the rear. All except the 
lungs should come out together. The giblets (heart, liver, and gizzard) should 
now be separated from the entrails and the remainder discarded. There is 
usually considerable fat attached to the intestines of geese which should be re- 
moved and used for cooking or rendering. The blood vessels should be cut away 
from the top of the heart. The gall bladder is attached to the liver and should 
be carefully removed to avoid puncturing. No bile should be allowed to come 
in contact with the meat, as this may impart a very bitter flavor which is hard to 
remove. The inlet (gullet) and outlet (intestine) of the gizzard should be cut as 
close to the gizzard as possible, and the gizzard opened by cutting through one 
side down as far as the sack which lines the gizzard. This sack may be entirely 
removed with the fingers if a little care is used and the sack itself is not cut. 
The gizzards of geese have two disks of cartilage on their inner surface, which 
generally should be removed by a knife. The lungs are easily removed. They 
are soft and pulpy and lie in the forward end of the cavity underneath the ribs 
and on either side of the backbone. They have no food value and should be re- 
moved. The kidneys lie on either side of the backbone toward the rear of the 
cavity. They are not easily removed entirely, and may be left in, as they have 
some food value, and are palatable and edible. The oil gland (bag) just above 
the tail should be removed with a knife, care being taken to remove all of the 
gland. It can be distinguished from the surrounding tissue by its darker color. 156 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
The drawn and dressed carcass is then ready for washing. It should be rinsed 
under a faucet, allowing the cold water to run through it and over it, washing off 
any stains or foreign matter. The carcass should never be soaked in water. If the 
bird is to be roasted, it is now ready to be stuffed. After stuffing, the cuts made 
for removing the entrails are sewed up and the bird is ready for the oven. If 
the bird is to be used for any other purpose than for roasting, it must be cut 
up. The wings, legs, and thighs are unjointed with a knife, and the remainder of 
the carcass cut into as many pieces as desired with either a knife or cleaver. CHAPTER 8 
INSPECTION AND STORAGE OF SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
Section I 
GENERAL 
1. Purpose. The object of this chapter is to provide information to subsistence 
inspectors at posts, camps, and stations where laboratory facilities are not avail- 
able; and to mess personnel of smaller units to aid them in judging the fitness 
of foods that may have deteriorated since inspection, and in providing proper 
storage facilities. Although the information in this chapter may be considered 
over-technical and too detailed for the company or battery mess officer or mess 
sergeant, it is believed that occasions will arise where the information will be of 
value. 
There are small units and detachments at a distance from Quartermaster installa- 
tions who receive subsistence supplies direct from contractors, or who purchase 
subsistence items on the open market. Small detachments traveling by motor may 
also find the information in this chapter valuable, since in many cases the mess 
officer will have no Quartermaster or Medical personnel to rely on. 
Because of rapid changes in production, handling, refrigeration, and marketing 
of subsistence supplies, procedure given herein should not be considered as un- 
changeable or inflexible. New and improved methods are being developed daily 
in the food field, and inspection should be flexible enough to accommodate itself 
to those changes. 
It will be noted that some of the material in this chapter duplicates material 
in certain other chapters in this book. This has been done for the convenience 
of the reader, to obviate the necessity to turn to other chapters while concentrating 
on any particular subject. 
2. Necessity for inspection. Inspection is necessary to determine conformity of 
goods in question to specification requirements. When a specification has been 
officially established the inspector should not be influenced by price differentials 
in favor of articles below minimum requirements, but should insist upon con- 
formity with the specification. Subsistence commodities vary greatly in food 
value because of variations in growth, preparation, sanitation, and methods of 
handling. Federal specifications establish a minimum of quality and condition 
for foods which are believed desirable or necessary to promote health and vigor. 
Inspection by competent personnel insures authorized quality as well as delivery 
of authorized quantities. 
CANNED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 
Section II 
3. Trade terms, a. Blanching. Short preliminary cooking or parboiling given 
most vegetables and some fruits in on open kettle or “blancher” in order to soften 
the products, insure cleanliness, and remove any mucous coatings that may form 
upon surface of products handled. 
b. Brineless pack. A development using a minimum of brine or only brine 
naturally present in the product, and an exceptionally high vacuum (mechanical). 
Benefits obtained are more natural color and flavor^ 
c. Buckled. Condition of cans with ends permanently distorted by too high 
an internal pressure during processing. Buckled cans generally show slight ridges 
in the ends near the seam. The ends will not pull back to their natural position 
and can only be forced back with difficulty. The high internal pressure developed 
may be due to overfilling, too short an exhaust, or when applied to No. 10 cans, 
improper cooling under pressure. 
d. Can. From the word “canister.” Refers to either a metal or glass container 
but primarily taken by the trade to refer to a metal container. 
e. Canning. Art of preserving food by placing it in hermetically sealed con- 
tainers and obtaining complete or practically complete sterilization by application 
of heat. 
157 158 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
f. Collapsed can. A can which has caved in after sealing, processing, and cooling 
because of insufficient fill or as a result of leaks occurring in the seams, if such 
leaks are sufficient for some steam to pass out. Such leaks may close temporarily 
after or during processing so that the can has a very high vacuum when cooled. 
Collapsing may then occur. 
g. Collar can. Sanitary type of key-opening can with a narrow band of metal 
inserted in the top in such manner as to provide a rim for the cover to fit after 
the can has been opened by the consumer. Example, coffee can with key-opening 
device. 
h. Crimping. Process of fastening ends onto sanitary type cans by use of a 
machine called “double-seamer.” 
i. Double-seamer. A machine which automatically places ends on sanitary cans 
and crimps them over a composition rubber or paper gasket without use of solder. 
j. Exhausting. Removal of air from filled containers for dual purpose of giving 
product sufficient room in the can in which to expand in processing, and to reduce 
possibility of spoilage which might result if aerobic bacteria were present. Air 
is removed by two methods: 
(1) Heat exhaust. Filled cans are heated before closing and sealed while 
hot. In cooling, a partial vacuum is created in the can through contraction in 
volume of contents. 
(2) Mechanical exhaust. Cans are closed under vacuum by actually drawing 
air from can and sealing before vacuum is released. 
k. Flat sour. A can not swollen whose contents have fermented without generat- 
ing gas. External appearance does not indicate spoilage. Upon opening off-odor 
may be slight or entirely lacking. Taste may be more or less acid. It would be 
quite noticeable in a less acid product such as asparagus. Corn thus affected also 
has a tendency to become mushy. Flat sours are generally confined to starchy foods 
insufficiently processed or improperly cooled. 
l. Flipper. A can having little or no vacuum and with loose ends which may 
be pushed in, or when one end is struck against a flat surface or jarred, the other 
may be forced outward. The end forced outward usually may be pushed back in 
by hand without forcing the opposite end outward. Flippers generally are the 
result of insufficient exhausting. Contents may or may not be sound depending 
on whether on opening fermentation is observed or off-odors are detected. See 
(springer. 
m. Hole and cap can. See vent filler. A hole cap soldered can differs from 
vent filler soldered can only in that a large opening is provided in center of top 
for filling purposes. It is then necessary to cap the can opening with a separate 
piece of metal which must be soldered to the can after filling. There is a small 
hole in center of cap which must be soldered the same way as the hole in the 
vent filler type of can. 
n. Incubating. An expression applied to holding sealed cans suspected of having 
defects under special observation. Cans representative of lots in storage are 
placed in a warm room or chest where heat and storage conditions are regulated 
as desired. Bacteria if present in sufficient numbers as a result of insufficient proc- 
essing will multiply rapidly and cause contents to become spoiled. 
o. Enamel. A varnish-like substance baked on one side of tin plate at high 
temperature and faced toward inside of cans to retard loss of product color (fruit 
enamel) or to prevent deposit of sulphide of iron (corn or C enamel). When 
applied to outside of cans to prevent rusting it is known as outside lacquer. 
p. Leaker. Any can which through mechanical adjustment or otherwise is not 
hermetically sealed and permits air to enter and product to exude. These leaks 
are further qualified by the section of can affected and are known as crimp, seam, 
end, body, etc. 
q. Open bath. Processing in open vats or kettles at boiling temperatures as 
opposed to processing at high temperatures under pressure. 
r. Pack. Product canned during a single season, for example, the 1940 apple pack. 
s. Paneling. Appearance of larger, properly handled cans, noticeable principally 
in No. 10 cans where sides are drawn in with fluted ridges running at right angles 
to the ends. This condition is the result of increased external over internal 
pressure. Some paneling is expected and a desired condition in most No. 10 cans. 
t. Pinholding. Result of attack of acid of product on minute spots of exposed SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
159 
steel on interior of can which has been imperfectly coated with tin. Attack may 
also occur at ends where tin plate is broken in forming or stamping. Attack is 
greater in enameled containers than in plain ones. However, enamel prevents 
or retards fading and this kind of can must be used when it is necessary to 
prevent product losing color. 
u. Processing. Subjection of sealed cans of product to heat for purpose of 
destroying harmful bacteria or causing it to change to spore form. 
v. Sanitary can. Modern type of almost solderless metal container having ends 
crimped into place by double-seamers and containing solder only on body seam. 
w. Short vacuum can. Springer resulting from insufficient exhaust. 
x. Spangling. Staining of tin plate on inside of can either as sulphide of tin 
deposit or as etching action found on inner surface. It usually results in the can 
having a mottled or streaked appearance. It could be prevented by the use of 
C enamel lining. This condition is not objectionable or deleterious to contents. 
y. Springer. A filled can whose ends are bulged as a result of overfilling, in- 
sufficient exhausting, or evolution of hydrogen or carbon dioxide gas through 
bacterial action, or action of acid contents on metal of can. When one end is 
pressed in with the hands or fingers, the opposite end bulges out. In this respect 
it differs from a flipper in which the loose tin may be pressed in without bulging 
out the opposite end. Products in such cans are not safe for human consumption 
and should be rejected. 
z. Swell. A bulged-out, filled can with both ends remaining taunt as dis- 
tinguished from a flipper or springer. All swells were previously springers. 
Springers, swells, and flippers are caused by much the same condition, fermenta- 
tion and decomposition by micro-organisms; or chemical action accompanied by 
evolution of gas (hydrogen swell), the release of vacuum, and a consequent swell- 
ing or bulging. This condition may also be caused by leaky cans which permit 
entrance of micro-organisms. Products in such cans are not safe for human con- 
sumption and should be rejected. 
aa. Vent filler can. The vent filler soldered type can is one which has both ends 
soldered to the body by the manufacturer and has a small hole in the center of 
one end through which a liquid product is introduced. After filling the opening 
is closed with solder. Used for canning evaporated milk. 
4. Vegetables, a. Grades. (1) Quality. Commerically canned vegetables are 
generally graded for quality*as follows: 
(a) Fancy. Usually as nearly perfect as nature and the art of canning permit. 
Products of this grade should be tender, succulent, of fine form, free from blemishes 
and extraneous matter, and have a clear liquor. 
(b) Extra standard. This grade is nearly as good as Fancy. It may be the 
second grade packed, a lot that was packed for fancy and because of some defect 
could not so grade, or it may be the best the particular season produces. It may 
have two or three but not all of the following defects: 
1. Lack of form symmetry. 
2. Lack of color uniformity. 
3. Lack of the color depth found in Fancy. 
4. Slight blemishes or spots. 
5. Larger pieces than Fancy. 
6. Not so tender or succulent as Fancy. 
7. Not quite so well-trimmed as Fancy. 
8. Not quite so fine-flavored as Fancy. 
(c) Standard. This grade is good edible food, wholesome in every respect, 
but includes vegetables not considered fit for Fancy or Extra Standard grades on 
account of— 
1. Off-color. 
2. Excessive defects such as spots, blemishes, hard portions, lack of size 
uniformity. 
3. Lack of symmetry of pieces. 
4. Not well-trimmed, cored, or peeled. 
A prominent feature of standard grade is often lack of tenderness as in peas or 
com, or somewhat broken product, fewer whole pieces as compared with higher 
grades, or lack of color uniformity as in tomatoes. 
(d) Substandard. This grade is ordinarily an “off-pack,” a result of an 
item packed for standard (or higher grade) having been found inferior in quality 160 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
after canning. Accordingly, it represents a comparatively small proportion of 
commercial canned food. While the product must be wholesome and free from 
decomposed or putrid materials, it will usually be tough, flavorless, or off-flavor, 
unsightly and unattractive in appearance. It should not be difficult to detect 
this grade. 
(2) Standards. The Federal Government has no authority to establish grades 
for canned goods except under the provisions of law. In the commercial field 
grading is done by inspectors licensed by the Federal Government. For guidance 
of these inspectors the Department of Agriculture has established and published 
grades for a number of items which are published in pamphlets known as United 
States Standards and copies may be obtained from the Department of Agriculture. 
b. Inspection. (1) It might be well to remember that acceptance or rejection of 
supplies on the part of an inspector may mean that he will be called upon to explain 
his action, therefore an inspector must use discretion and oftentimes diplomacy. 
Inspectors should in no case permit themselves to become weak in their responsi- 
bility but they should give reasonable consideration to the following factors: 
Availability. 
Suitability, 
Cost. 
Climatic conditions. 
Human and mechanical elements involved. 
(2) Inspection is made to determine whether or not supplies meet contract 
requirements for quality, quantity, and condition. In the majority of cases re- 
quirements are based upon Federal or Army specifications which are made a part 
of the contract. Before making inspection for requirements, the inspector should 
make sure that he fully understands the contract requirements and specifications 
pertaining thereto, Federal specifications have been promulgated for practically 
every item of subsistence necessary for the Army. It is believed that these speci- 
fications adequately describe the characteristics necessary to secure desired item. 
(3) Inspectors should call upon contracting officers for specifications or detail 
requirements of items to be inspected. 
(4) When it is necessary to purchase an item for which no specification has 
been issued, the inspector must then depend upon his own good judgment. One 
of the best known and practical methods is to compare the sample being inspected 
with a like item of known grade and quality. 
(5) Particular attention is invited to excerpts from the Federal Food, Drug, 
and Cosmetic Act, effective June 25, 1938, in section XV, 
5. Fruit. According to Federal standards, canned fruit is: 
The clean sound product made from properly prepared fresh fruit, with or with- 
out water and/or sugar: 
(a) By processing in a suitable, hermetically sealed container, or 
(b) By heating and packing in a suitable container which is then hermeti- 
cally sealed. 
a. Sugar. (1) Form and kind. In most canned fruits, sugar is added in the form 
of sirup. There are many kinds of sugars varying in sweetness, color, texture, 
granulation, and physical properties. Sucrose is a disaccharide most commonly 
known commercially as cane or beet sugar. Chemically and in degree of sweet- 
ness there is no difference between beet and cane sugar. If they are properly 
manufactured one is as suitable as the other. The matter of purity of any sugar 
is for the chemist or bacteriologist to determine. Under Government regulations, 
if any sugar other than sucrose or corn sugar is used that fact must be indicated 
on the label. Other sweetening agents such as dulcin and saccharine are con- 
sidered as adulterants. The sirup density used varies directly with the grade of 
the pack, for example, fancy fruits have denser sirup than choice fruits of the 
same variety. 
(2) Density, (a) Test. In practically all canned fruits, Federal specifications 
require that the fruit be packed in sirup testing not less than a given degree Brix 
at time of cut-out. This test is made with a Brix hydrometer which registers di- 
rectly the percentage of sugar to water used, for example; sirup 10° Brix indicates 
that there is 10 per cent sugar by weight in the solution, that is, 10 pounds of 
sugar to 90 pounds of water. To obtain the reading a sufficient amount of liquor 
is drained into a graduate of diameter somewhat wider than the hydrometer base. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
161 
The hydrometer is allowed to sink into the sirup as far as it will of its own weight. 
When taking the reading, the hydrometer should not be in contact with sides of 
the graduate as tendency of the hydrometer to adhere to the sides would influence 
the depth to which it would sink and would show a higher density reading if in 
contact with the side of the graduate. The reading is taken at point of contact 
of the hydrometer scale with the sirup level. As hydrometers are scaled to float 
at a given height at a temperature of 62.5° F. or 17.5° C., necessary corrections for 
actual temperature must be made when accurate determinations are required. 
For practical work in testing canned goods this temperature variation may be 
disregarded as the correction amounts to less than 1 per cent for temperatures 
ranging from 14° F. to about 90° F. for the heaviest sirup used. Variation below 
14° F. and above 90° F. is greater and correction should be made by subtracting 
the correction from the reading for temperatures below 63.5° F. and adding it for 
temperatures above this figure. 
(h) Variations. Sirup never has the same density on cut-out as it does 
when added to fruit This is a vexing problem to the canner. Federal specifica- 
tions prescribe minimum cut-out densities for grades purchased and the canner 
who supplies the Government must meet these minimum requirements; however, 
an inspector should not consider sirup density of greater importance than char- 
acter and quality of the fruit. Through careful test made in the western labora- 
tories of the National Canners’ Association, it was found that there were variations 
of as much as 2 per cent in the cut-out density of the same lot of canned fruit 
with the same grade of fruit used, and with the same initial degree of sirup, all 
packed in the same day. 
b. Requirements. In addition to requirements for sirup density, particular at- 
tention should be paid to requirements for count (minimum and maximum number 
of pieces), drained weight, and net weight. 
c. Grading. (1) Canned fruits may be scored numerically in the same manner 
as canned vegetables. 
(2) It is recommended that subsistence inspectors provide themselves with a 
set of United States Standards for canned fruits and vegetables. These Standards 
may be obtained from the Agricultural Marketing Service, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
6. Storage, a. Keeping quality of canned food depends upon: 
(1) Nature of product. 
(2) Sanitary and quick handling (prevention of contamination). 
(3) Prior cure, for example, sauerkraut, corned beef, etc. 
(4) Added ingredients, sugar, salt, vinegar, spices, benzoate of soda, etc. 
(5) Exhaust (removal of air, oxygen). This is never complete. 
(6) Hermetical sealing, prevention of contamination. 
(7) Processing, partial or complete sterilization. 
b. Causes of spoilage. Theoretically, canned food may keep forever. Practically, 
it could spoil or deteriorate to a great extent in from 1 day to 25 years. Such 
spoilage is caused by: 
(1) Nature of product. Acid of certain fruits and vegetables reacts with 
metal of the can causing pinholes, etc. Many highly colored products (particularly 
red and black) fade. Some items disintegrate with time. Products containing 
sulphur and not packed in C enamel cans take on a black discoloration caused by 
interaction of tin or iron and sulphur, forming a black sulphide. This takes place 
shortly after processing. 
(2) Improper handling. 
(3) Incomplete exhaust. The oxygen present favors chemical action which 
increases fading, and also favors micro-organisms of most types, causing breaking 
down of fats, etc. 
(4) Rusted and dented cans or those having nail holes punched in them in 
sealing the case. 
(5) Improper sealing. Even a good seal may breathe a little air. 
(6) Imperfect sterilization. Many thermophilic bacteria are not killed but 
continue to exist in spore form. 
(7) Increased chemical action through warmth or heat. Action of acid is 
said to double in intensity for each 18° rise in temperature. Spores of thermophilic 
bacteria develop causing flat sours at temperatures slightly above 100° F, 162 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
- (8) Freezing. This causes product to disintegrate (cell walls are broken), 
May sometimes burst can seams, and may cause sweating with consequent rusting. 
c. Preventive measures. Considerable loss to the Government may be pre- 
vented by observing the following suggestions: 
(1) Avoid storing in a damp place. Avoid sweating caused by sudden changes 
in temperature. Provide ventilation. These steps will prevent rusting. 
(2) Avoid high temperatures. The ideal would be approximately 50° F. 
This can seldom be attained, but it is unnecessary to store near radiation or so 
high as to place canned food in warmer areas near the ceiling. 
(3) Store cases on their sides on dunnage. If canned food is stored in this 
manner leakers will be detected more readily and should they develop, leakage 
will not collect in bare concave top surface of can and much rusting will be pre- 
vented. Further, can contents will have a better appearance on the cut-out as 
there will be no collection of off-color, etc., at the top. 
(4) Avoid freezing temperatures (few items will freeze unless temperatures 
fall below 28° F. for several hours). However, frozen canned food is seldom 
ruined if cans do not burst or seams are not loosened. In defrosting do not warm 
suddenly. Rise in temperature should be slow. If cans are once frozen it is 
better to let them remain so until ready for use if there is danger of another freeze. 
Several short freezes affect food more than one long one. 
(5) Use oldest lot first. There are exceptions to this rule. It might be that; 
a newer lot is showing more signs of deterioration. In such event it should be 
used first. Constant and thorough inspection, together with a thorough knowl- 
edge of the stock, is the best safeguard. 
(6) Keep places where spoiled canned food is held awaiting action of the con- 
tractor on reclamation or the survey officer clean and sanitary, otherwise such 
places become breeding sections for rodents, insects, and micro-organisms. 
7. Can sizes. There are several hundred sizes and many styles of cans on the 
market; however, the can capacity table shown below describes those most com- 
monly used. 
CAN CAPACITY TABLE 
Container description 1 
Name 
Ounces avoirdupois 
capacity at 68° F. 
Fluid 
ounces 
Maximum 
allowable 
head 
space 2 
Per 1/16 
Flail can 
909 x 214 
5Z 
0.121 
4.9 
4.7 
12 
202 X 308 
67. 
.121 
6.1 
5.8 
14 
208 x 211 
.162 
6.0 
5.8 
12 
211 x 300 ... 
8Z short .. 
.189 
7.9 
7.6 
13 
211 x 304 
8Z tall 
.189 
8.7 
8.3 
13 
211 x 400 
.189 
10.9 
10.5 
16 
211 x 414 
.189 
13.6 
13.1 
19 
211 x 600 _ 
.189 
17.0 
16.3 
22 
300 x 407 
No. 300 
.234 
15.2 
14.6 
17 
300 X 409 
No. 30OX _ 
.234 
15.7 
15 1 
18 
xos v .ion 
No. 303 . 
.264 
16.9 
16.2 
17 
303 x 509 
.264 
21.9 
21 0 
21 
SOS y 512 
.264 
22.7 
21.8 
22 
307 y 302 
No. 2 squat - 
.307 
13.5 
13.0 
13 
307 x 306 
.307 
14.7 
14.1 
14 
207 Y 400 
.307 
17.8 
17.1 
16 
307 x 408 
.307 
20.3 
19.4 
18 
307 X 409 
.307 
20.6 
19.7 
18 
307 Y 510 
.307 
25.8 
24.8 
21 
307 Y 512 
.307 
26.4 
25.3 
22 
307 Y 004 
.307 
28.8 
27.7 
23 
401 Y 411 
No. 
.432 
29.8 
28.6 
18 
404 Y 414 
No. 2 " 
.487 
35.1 
83.7 
19 
502 X 510 
.703 
59.1 
56.7 
21 
603 Y 408 
1.032 
68.1 
65.4 
18 
603 Y 700 
1.082 
100.4 
105.1 
26 
603 x 812 
Full gallon .. 
1.032 
138.3 
132.9 
31 
1 First set of figures denotes diameter; second set the height. 
Figures are in inches and sixteenths. No. 10 
oan is 03/10" in diameter, 7" high. Gallon can is 6-3/16" in diameter 
8-12/16" high. 
2 As measured in 32ds from top of double seam. Hoad spaces greater than these -will violate McNary- 
Mapes amendment; properly filled cans will show less head space. 
Capacities shown are values without any head space; varying specific gravities 
of products preclude figures showing actual commercial weights obtained. 
Capacity per 1/16-inch of height is same for all cans of same diameter. Figure 
may be used to calculate capacity of heights of cans not given. Section III 
8. Grades and purchase, a. Grades. Standard grades for fresh fruits and 
vegetables were developed by the United States Department of Agriculture and 
are known as United States grades. Minimum quality requirements are clearly 
defined in the various grades. Since all Federal United States Standards describe 
the minimum quality permitted in a grade, there is a possibility of difference in 
quality between vegetable lots of the same grade designation. Fruits and vegetables 
graded at point of origin may not grade the same when received at destination due 
to deterioration or injury in transit. 
b. Purchase. The following points should be considered in inspection of fresh 
fruits and vegetables: 
(1) Large size fruits and vegetables are not always the best quality. As 
vegetables mature they have a tendency to become woody or to develop a 
hollow condition. 
(2) Avoid commodities showing decay. Those showing slight decay will 
deteriorate rapidly. 
(3) Distinguish between blemishes that affect appearance and those that 
affect eating quality. Cauliflower or cabbage may arrive with a few outer leaves 
yellowed. Such blemishes are removed in normal preparation for use. Amount 
of waste resulting from removal of blemishes in preparation for table use should 
be one of the determining factors in acceptance or rejection. 
(4) Appearance and quality are closely associated but fine appearance does 
not always signify fine quality. Often fruit of attractive appearance may have 
poor quality because of varietal characteristic or of some internal condition 
such as overmaturity. 
(5) As fruits and vegetables are desirable for their flavor they should always 
be tasted before acceptance. 
(6) See that containers hold full measure. Frequently containers are re- 
packed, sometimes so loosely that they do not hold the required quantity. 
9. Apples. Apples for dessert should be of medium size and of good color and 
flavor. Tart or slightly acid fruit is best for general cooking purposes. 
a. Containers and markings. (1) Boxes are marked to indicate variety, numeri- 
cal count, and grade. Western boxed apples are packed as Extra Fancy, Fancy, 
or C grade, or as a combination of any of these grades. 
(2) Barrels and baskets are marked to indicate variety, diameter of smallest 
apples they contain, and grade. Grade is usually based on United States grades 
as prescribed by United States Standards. 
b. Inspection. (1) Apples of good quality should be firm, of good color and 
flavor. Immature apples lack color, flavor, and have a shriveled appearance after 
having been in storage. 
(2) Overripe apples yield to slight pressure, flesh is often soft and mealy, 
and they lack flavor. 
(3) Apples coming from storage should be examined for “scald.” This is a 
storage and transportation disease. It first appears as brown-tinted irregular 
areas on the surface, especially green areas. In severe cases, affected area is 
dark brown and may show decay. This defect often appears after removal from 
cold storage. Scald is less likely to be found on fruit wrapped in oiled paper or 
packed with shredded oiled paper. 
(4) Other inspection factors are internal break-down, freezing, insect and 
mechanical injury, bruises, and decay. 
c. Storage. (1) Temperature, 31° to 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, at least two changes of air per day. 
(4) Summer varieties are poor keepers and should not be stored. Fall vari- 
eties will keep from 1 to 4 months under good storage conditions, late fall and 
winter varieties from 4 to 6 months. 
10. Avocado or alligator pear. The avocado is marketed to a considerable extent 
under the trade names of Flavocado and Calavo. Avocados vary greatly in 
shape, size, color, and appearance. The skin may be paper thin and relatively 
smooth, or it may be thick and leathery. Thin-skinned varieties are more attrac- 
FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 
163 164 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
tive but the thicker-skinned are just as desirable so far as quality and flavor 
are concerned. 
a. Inspection. (1) Avocados should be heavy, have a bright fresh appearance, 
and be fairly firm. Texture of flesh should be soft and buttery. Avocados not 
having buttery smoothness of flesh may have a flat watery taste. 
(2) Reject bruised fruit as it affects flesh quality. 
(3) Scab is a light-brown, irregular marking on surface and does not affect 
flesh quality. 
(4) Decay is detected by dark sunken spots. 
(5) Avocados with broken or punctured skin should be rejected. 
b. Storage. Softening of avocados may be retarded by keeping fruit in a cool, 
dry place at a temperature not below 42° F. They should not be stored over 
1 week. 
11. Bananas, a. Inspection. (1) Ripeness stage: 
(a) Full ripe—skin should have no trace of green and be flecked with 
brown. 
(b) Hard ripe—skin is yellow with no trace of green and without flecks. 
(c) Turning ripe—skin is yellow with green at tip. 
(2) A good banana should be plump, well-filled, and firm. Poor condition 
is indicated by badly discolored skin and soft, mushy, or discolored flesh. 
(3) Bruised fruit indicated by dark areas of skin is wasteful and should 
be rejected. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 56° to 60° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 75 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) Bananas stored in too low a temperature will lose flavor and skins will 
develop a dark brown color. 
12. Berries, a. Inspection. (1) Quality is indicated by a bright, clean, fresh 
appearance, full solid color, and plumpness of individual berry. Berries should 
be free from dirt, trash, moisture, and adhering caps. Over-ripe berries are dull 
in color, soft, and leaky. Leaky condition is best discovered by tilting container 
and examining it for stains. Often the soft and damaged berries are on the 
bottom. Mold on surface of berries indicates decay. 
(2) Strawberries without caps may be overmature and break down rapidly. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 30° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
13. Cherries. Cherries are classified as sweet and sour. Important sweet varieties 
are Royal Anne (light-fleshed), Bing, Lambert, and Windsor (dark-fleshed). 
Important sour varieties are Montmorency and Early June. 
a. Inspection. (1) Good quality cherries should have a bright, fresh appear- 
ance, be plump, fairly firm, well-colored for variety, and juicy. 
(2) Immature cherries are usually smaller than the ripe fruit, hard, of poor 
color, and very acid. Overmature cherries are generally of dull appearance, 
soft, shriveled, and may be leaky. 
(3) Close examination should be made for worm injury which is not always 
apparent on outside of fruit. 
(4) Decay is indicated by small, brown, circular spots and by damp, 
stained, and leaky boxes. 
(5) Cherries that have been bruised or otherwise mechanically injured 
should be rejected as molds will develop readily at point of injury. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 31° to 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) Under above conditions, good, sound fruit will keep about 1 week. 
14. Grapes. Grapes found in the market are of two distinct types, American, 
grown mainly in Eastern and Central States, and European, grown chiefly in 
California. Skin and pulp of the European type do not separate, but seeds 
separate readily from the pulp. The more important varieties are Flame Tokay, 
Malaga, Emperor, and Sultanina (Thompson seedless). Skin and pulp of the 
American type separate easily. The most common varieties are Concord. 
Catawba, Moore, Worden, Niagara, and Delaware. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
165 
a. Inspection. (1) Grapes of good quality should have fresh appearance, good 
color, and be plump. Individual berries should be firmly attached to stems. 
Usually the white or green grapes of both American and European types are at 
their best when turning to an amber color. 
(2) Grapes injured by freezing have a flat flavor and should be rejected. 
European grapes injured by freezing have a dull, dead appearance, become 
sticky, the berries shatter readily and when pulled from the cap stem, the brush 
is somewhat discolored and shorter than normal. American type grapes injured 
by freezing are shriveled and show a milky pulp condition. When pulled from 
the cap stem the brush usually remains in the berry. 
(3) Decay is indicated by mold, wet berries, leaky and stained containers. 
It is often found on berries at the stem end. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 31 to 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) European type is a better keeper than the American type. Under above 
conditions grapes of either type may be stored for 2 to 3 weeks. 
15. Peaches. There are two classes of peaches, white-fleshed and yellow-fleshed. 
Both these classes have varieties that are clingstones and freestones. The free- 
stone varieties of both classes are most popular for desserts. 
a. Inspection. (1) A peach of good quality should be free from blemishes, have 
fresh appearance, a ground color either whitish or yellowish and sometimes com- 
bined with a red color known as blush. The red color is not a true sign of 
maturity. Flesh should be firm. 
(2) Immature peaches lack color, often showing a green ground color. Fruit 
will shrivel and generally flesh becomes tough and rubbery. Overmature fruit 
is soft and will break down rapidly. 
(3) Worm injury may be detected by unevenness of form and small drops 
of gum on the surface. 
(4) Decay is indicated by brown, circular spots. 
(5) Peaches with growth cracks are wasteful and poor keepers. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 31 to 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around all containers. 
(4) Peaches will keep from 1 to 2 weeks under above conditions. 
16. Pears. Pears are classified according to flesh texture. The dessert type has 
soft, melting, or buttery flesh and excellent flavor. The preserving type has 
crisp or hard flesh with pronounced grit. The dessert type only should be pur- 
chased as dessert for the Army. Pears are normally picked when slightly im- 
mature and are ripened in a cool, dark place. Flesh of tree-ripened fruit is often 
coarse, of poor flavor, and in some varieties very gritty. 
a. Inspection. (1) A pear of good quality should be firm but not hard, clean, 
not misshapen, wilted, or shriveled. Some varieties are in prime condition while 
still green or greenish-yellow; others may be yellow and yet be too immature 
for eating. 
(2) Pears showing scald should be rejected. Scald is indicated by skin dis- 
coloration extending into the flesh. In severe cases the fruit is badly discolored 
and unattractive. 
(3) Wilted or shriveled fruits indicate picking at too immature stages and 
they will not ripen properly. Pears with water-soaked appearance are mushy 
and of poor flavor, 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 31° to 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) Should further ripening be desired temperature should be raised to 60° 
or 65° F. 
(5) Under above conditions pears may be stored 3 to 4 weeks. 
17. Plums and prunes. A prune is a variety of plum which is suited for drying 
purposes. A ripe fresh prune can be separated from the pit like a freestone peach. 
a. Inspection. (1) Plums and prunes of good quality are plump, clean, have 
fresh appearance, should be full-colored for variety, and soft enough to yield to 
slight pressure. Softening at tip is generally good indication that maturity has 166 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
been reached. Immature fruit is hard, generally shriveled, and of poor color 
and flavor. Overmature fruit is soft and often leaky. Presence of moisture or 
a stained container is evidence of injury, overripeness, or decay. 
(2) Sunburned fruit is usually of poor quality and flavor. Sunburn is 
indicated by brownish or reddish-brown color on the cheek of the fruit. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature 31° to 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) Under above conditions, fruit may be stored from 3 to 6 days. 
18. Citrus fruits. Two sets of United States Standards for citrus fruits are 
issued by the Department of Agriculture, one applying to California and Arizona 
and the other to the remaining States producing citrus fruits. 
The discolored appearance on grapefruit and oranges caused by normal color 
being overcast by a reddish-brown color is known as “russeting.” When surface 
of fruit shows very little russeting it is called “bright.” Russeting does not 
affect flavor. 
Most citrus fruits grown in the United States are marketed under trade or 
brand names. In some instances fruit is graded according to United States grades, 
in others according to standards established by the packer. These grades do not 
necessarily conform to United States grades. Iniormation on brands can be 
obtained from the Agriculture Marketing Service, Washington, D. C. When in- 
specting citrus fruits there is no need of inspecting fruit packed by the producer 
as his second grade when inspecting for U. S. No. 1. 
a. Grapefruit. (1) Inspection (a) Good quality should be firm but springy to 
the touch, not soft, wilted, or flabby. Skin should be smooth. Shape of in- 
dividual fruit should vary from flat at stem and blossom ends to round. 
Elongated fruit is undesirable and wasteful. 
(b) A very small amount of decay will affect flavor of the whole fruit. 
Decay will usually appear at the stem or blossom end. 
(c) Cut fruit at stem end to examine for dryness which may be caused 
from being on the tree too long, or due to frost injury. 
(2) Storage, (a) Temperatures, 31° to 32° F. 
(b) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(c) Ventilation, free circulation of air around each box. 
(d) Under above conditions grapefruit may be stored safely for 6 weeks. 
b. Lemons. California produces most of the lemons grown in this country. 
Since lemons are desired for their acid flavor they are harvested before fully 
mature. 
(1) Inspection, (a) A lemon of good quality should have smooth, fine-textured 
skin, greenish-yellow color, and be heavy for its size. Deep yellow-colored lemons 
are usually mature and not desirable. Shriveled or hard-skinned fruit should 
be rejected. 
(b) Decay is indicated by mold or as a discolored soft area at stem end. 
Soft or spongy fruit may be affected by rot at center. 
(2) Storage, (a) Temperature, 55° to 58° F. 
(b) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent, 
(c) Ventilation, free circulation of air around each container. 
(d) Under above conditions lemons may be stored for 2 weeks. 
c. Oranges. The leading varieties shipped from California are Washington Navel 
(November to May) and Valencia (April to December). The Navel is seedless, 
has thicker skin and is rougher than the Valencia and segments are separated 
more easily. 
Varieties for Florida and Texas are about the same. Parson Brown is the 
principal early variety (October and November), Pineapple is midseason (Janu- 
ary to March), and Valencia is the late (March to June). 
Usually oranges received on the market in bulk are not graded or sized, and 
are known as “orchard run.” 
Oranges are washed, colored, and polished before being placed in the market. 
Two methods are used for coloring, gas treatments and vegetable dye. If vege- 
table dye is used, the words “color added” are stamped on fruit surface. This 
coloring method is harmless and in no way affects flavor. 
Early oranges are sour and lack juice, but are good keepers. End of the SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
167 
season fruit is fully matured, sweet, and full of juice, but a poor keeper. If 
used at once the older oranges are preferred. 
(1) Inspection, (a) Containers should be checked for count. Oranges of best 
quality are firm, heavy, and have a smooth, fine-textured skin. Those having 
a badly creased skin are puffy or spongy and light in weight, and are of poor 
quality. 
(b) Decay is indicated by soft areas on fruit surface. Skin over soft areas 
is tender and breaks easily under pressure. These areas may be covered by 
mold. A very small amount of decay will affect flavor of the whole fruit. 
(2) Storage, (a) Temperature, 32° F. 
(h) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(c) Ventilation, free circulation of air around) each box. 
(d) Under above conditions oranges may be stored from 4 to 6 weeks. 
19. Asparagus. Asparagus ages rapidly after cutting, tips spread, and stalks 
become tough and woody. Two kinds are found on the market; bleached or 
white, and green. The green is most popular as a fresh vegetable. If growth 
is rapid a green shoot 6 to 10 inches long may be obtained before any part of it 
has become tough. Spears showing 4 or 5 inches of green tips and an equal 
length of white butt usually have been cut well below the surface and the 
white part may be tough and woody. 
a. Inspection. Asparagus should be fresh, tender, and firm, with close, com- 
pact tips, A tender stalk is brittle and is easily punctured. Green asparagus 
should be green for almost its entire length. Wilted appearance or spreading 
tip indicates considerable time has elapsed since cutting. Stalks angular in form 
are tough and woody. The whole stalk with exception of an inch or two of 
base should be tender. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F, 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) Fresh asparagus should not be stored over 2 or 3 days. 
20. Beans, a. Lima (fresh). There are two general classes of lima beans, the 
large “potato” type and the small “butter bean” type. Most lima beans are 
shipped unshelled because shelled lima beans are very perishable. 
(1) Inspection (a) Pods of unshelled lima beans should be well-filled, clean, 
bright, fresh, and a dark green color. Shelled beans should be plump, have 
tender skin, and green or greenish-white color. 
(b) Pods of unshelled beans that are dried, shriveled, yellowed, or flabby 
usually contain beans that are tough and of poor flavor. 
(c) Decay is indicated on pods by irregular sunken areas in which mold 
may appear. Shelled beans will show a shiny condition or mold, and those 
with hard, tough skins are overmature and lack flavor, 
(2) Storage, (a) Temperature, 30° to 32° F. 
(b) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(c) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(d) Unshelled lima beans may be held 7 to 10 days; shelled should not be 
stored. 
b. Snap (green or wax). (1) Inspection, (a) Snap beans of good quality should 
be clean, fresh, firm, crisp, tender, and free from blemishes. Firm, crisp, tender 
beans will snap readily when broken. All the beans in a lot should be of the 
same maturity stage so that they will cook uniformly. Stringiness is undesirable 
and may be detected by breaking the bean and gently separating the two halves. 
Seed in pod should be very immature. If seeds are half grown, pods will be tough, 
woody, and stringy. 
(b) A dull, dead, or wilted appearance indicates beans have been on the 
market for several days and are no longer of best quality, 
(c) Decay is indicated by soft watery condition or mold. 
(2) Storage, (a) Temperature, 32° to 40° F. 
(b) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(c) Ventilation, free circulation around each container. 
(d) Under above conditions snap beans may be stored for 1 week. 
21. Beets. Early beets are usually marketed in bunches, three to five to the 
bunch, with tops attached. Late crop beets are usually marketed with tops re- 
moved. Medium-sized beets of late crop are usually best quality. 168 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
a. Inspection. (1) Good beets should be smooth and free from blemishes. Those 
rough or ridged may be tough or woody. Soft, flabby, or shriveled beets are 
usually of poor flavor. 
(2) Bunched beets that have become too mature are tough or woody and 
may be recognized by a short neck covered with deep scars or by several circles 
of leaf scars around the top. 
(3) Decay is indicated by a soft form of rot. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent for bunched; 90 to 95 per cent for 
topped. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) Bunched beets may be stored for 3 to 4 days, topped for 2 to 3 monjths. 
22. Cabbage, a. Market types. The five market types of cabbage are: 
(1) Pointed, the early or “new” cabbage and includes varieties that develop 
conical or pointed heads. 
(2) Danish includes late maturing varieties and develops a hard, tight-leaved, 
compact head. 
(3) Domestic includes varieties that develop heads either round or flat in shape 
but less compactly formed than those of the Danish type. This type includes early, 
midseason, and medium-late varieties. 
(4) Savory types are finely crumbled leaved varieties. 
(5) Red includes all red varieties. 
b. Inspection. (1) A good head is reasonably solid, firm, heavy, or fairly heavy 
for its size. Stem should be cut close to head and all except three or four of the 
outer leaves should be removed. Early cabbage is not as solid as that of the late 
crop. 
(2) Decay is detected readily by odor and slimy condition. Heads showing 
worm injury, decay, yellowing of leaves and burst heads should be rejected. Soft 
or puffy heads are poor quality. 
c. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 90 to 95 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) Under above conditions early cabbage may be stored from 10 to 15 days, 
late from 3 to 4 months. 
23. Carrots. Early carrots are usually marketed in bunches of three to five 
carrots with tops attached, late crop carrots are generally grown to full maturity, 
marketed with tops removed, and are known as “topped.” They are usually of 
deeper color and of more pronounced flavor, but may be of coarser texture or 
have a tough and woody heart. 
a. Inspection. (1) Carrots of good quality are firm, fresh in appearance, smooth, 
and a good color. Poor color indicates poor quality. Tops of bunched carrotsi 
should be fresh and green. 
(2) Carrots that are wilted, flabby, soft, or shriveled should be rejected. Those 
excessively forked, rough, or having deep growth cracks are wasteful in prepara- 
tion. Excessively thick leaf stems indicate undesirably large cores, 
(3) Decay appears as soft areas which may be covered with mold. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 90 to 95 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) Bunched carrots may be stored for 7 days, topped may be stored from 
2 to 4 months. 
24. Cauliflower. Leaves of cauliflower are trimmed down to within an inch 
or two of the curd, leaving only as many outer leaves as will afford protection 
to it. Size of head is no indication of quality. 
a. Inspection. (1) Good quality cauliflower is indicated by white or creamy- 
white, clean, heavy, firm, compact curd, with outer leaves fresh and green. Spread- 
ing of flower clusters making curd open and giving a “ricey” appearance indicates 
overmaturity and poor quality. Yellow leaves, particularly if they drop from stalk 
when handled, indicate age. 
(2) Heads with spotted, speckled, or bruised curd should be rejected. Plant 
lice are indicated by smudgy or speckled appearance. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
169 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) May be stored 10 to 15 days. 
25. Celery, a. Definition of terms. (1) Rough celery. Celery packed and shipped 
just as it is dug, except that it has been sized, with few damaged branches and 
with excess dirt removed. Rough celery is also referred to as “untrimmed.” 
(2) Trimmed celery. Same as “rough,” except that stalks are washed, stripped, 
and trimmed of roots. Trimmed celery is bunched, usually 12 stalks to the bunch. 
(3) Stalk. Individual plant, 
(4) Branch. Individual division of stalk. 
(5) Bunch. Usually 12 stalks. 
b. Inspection. (1) Best celery is of medium length and thickness. It should be 
solid and branches brittle enough to snap easily. 
(2) Pithy or stringy celery should be rejected. 
(3) Center of stalks should be examined closely for blackheart by separating 
branches. Insects, insect injury, and seed stem can be detected the same way. 
Celery that has formed a seed stem is usually bitter. 
(4) Freezing will cause browning and drying of tops and pithiness of branch. 
e. Storage. (1) Temperature, 31° to 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 90 to 95 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) Under above conditions, may be stored for 2 to 4 months. 
26. Com (green). Two classes of corn are found on the market, sweet and field. 
Field corn is usually an early maturing variety. It may be just as tender as 
sweet com but does not have the sweet taste. Ears of sweet corn are usually 
smaller than those of field, and husks are generally darker green in color with 
ribbonlike ends which hang free. Husks of field com taper and cling tightly at top 
of ear. Color of sweet com may be either white or yellow, depending on variety. 
a. Inspection. (1) A good ear should have fresh, green husks and a cob well- 
filled with bright, plump, milky kernels just firm enough to offer slight resistance to 
pressure. 
(2) Corn heats rapidly. Heating causes yellowing and drying out of husk 
and toughening, discoloration, loss of flavor, and shriveling of kernels. 
(3) Examine carefully for worm injury, especially along sides of ear. Worm 
injury at tip is of minor importance unless it extends into kernels. 
(4) Quality can best be determined by pulling back husk and examining kernel. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 31° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) May be stored 1 to 2 days. 
27. Cucumbers, a. Inspection. (1) Cucumbers for slicing should be firm, fresh, 
bright, well-shaped, and a good color. Flesh should be firm and seeds immature. 
(2) Withered or shriveled cucumbers should be rejected as the flesh is tough 
and bitter. Overmaturity is indicated by puffy appearance, color is dull and often 
yellowed, seeds hard, and flesh in seed cavity jelly like. 
(3) Decay usually appears on surface as a dark, sunken, irregular area. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 45° to 50° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) May be stored 4 to 6 days. 
28. Eggplant, a. Inspection. (1) A good eggplant should be heavy, firm, free 
from blemish, and a uniform dark color. 
(2) Wilted, shriveled, soft, and flabby eggplants are bitter and poor flavored. 
(3) Decay is indicated by dark-brown spots on surface. Worm injury is 
apparent on surface. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 45° to 50° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) May be stored 7 to 10 days. 
29. Greens. The most common leafy type vegetables used for greens are beet 
tops, broccoli, chard, chicory, collards, cress, dandelions, endive, escarole, kale, 
mustard, sorrel, spinach, and turnip tops. 
a. Inspection. Greens of good quality must be fresh, young, green, and tender. 
Leaves poorly developed, dry or yellow, injured by insects, or showing excessive 170 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
dirt, and coarse stems are poor quality. Presence of seed stems indicate age and 
toughness. 
b. Storage. Greens are extremely poor keepers and should not be stored. 
30. Lettuce, a. Classes. Four classes or types of lettuce are found on the market, 
crisp-head (iceberg), butterhead, cos, and loose-leaf. 
(1) Crisp-head varieties are the most important commercially. Practically 
all lettuce grown in the Western States is crisp-head. This type is firmer, crisper, 
and usually larger than butterhead types. 
(2) Butterhead is the principal type grown in Eastern and Southern States. 
Big Boston is the leading butterhead variety grown. 
(3) Cos is grown as a market garden crop near large cities. It is easily dis- 
tinguished from other types by the elongated head, coarser leaf, and stronger flavor. 
(4) Leaf is the nonheading type. 
b. Inspection. (1) Head lettuce of good quality should be fresh, crisp, tender, 
and fairly firm (butterhead)' to hard (crisp-head). 
(2) Lettuce with seed stem has a bitter flavor and is wasteful. A seed stem 
can be detected by wide spaces between outer leaves at their base and a knob- 
like swelling at top or side of head. If pressure is applied at this point a hard core 
will be felt. 
(3) Decay is indicated by discolored areas on the leaves and may be trimmed 
with little waste. At times soft rot is found to penetrate interior of head and in 
this case the lettuce should be rejected. 
c. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 90 to 95 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) May be stored 6 to 10 days. 
31. Onions, a. Dry. (1) Classes. Two general classes of onions grown in the 
United States are found on the market; the large, mild-flavored such as Bermuda 
and Spanish types, and the medium size, strong-flavored known as domestic or 
American type. 
(a) The Bermuda is flat and found on the market from March to June. 
(h) The Spanish or Valencia is large, mild, sweet, yellowish-brown or white 
in color, and usually globular in shape. 
(c) The domestic or late crop onions are practically all globular and have a 
red, yellow, or white skin. They are good keepers and found on the market the 
entire year. 
(2) Inspection, (a) Onions of good quality should be bright, clean, hard, well- 
shaped, mature, and with dry skins. Those that are mature and properly cured will 
rattle like blocks of wood when poured from one container to another. 
(b) Decay usually appears at the neck or base and may extend well into 
the center. Moisture at the neck indicates decay. 
(c) Freezing may attack certain scales and not affect other scales of the same 
onion. Those thus affected are often salvaged by drying. Such injury can be 
detected by cutting at right angles to the scales and examining for dry, brown scale. 
(3) Storage, (a) Temperature, 32° F. 
(h) Relative humidity, 70 to 75 per cent. 
(c) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(d) Late crop, 4 to 6 months. Should be stored in slatted crates or shallow, 
slatted bins. 
b. Green. (1) Inspection, (a) Green onions of good quality have green, fresh 
tops, medium-sized necks well-bleached for at least 2 or 3 inches from the root, 
and are young, crisp, and tender. 
(b) Wilting and yellowing tops as shown by flabby, tough, fibrous necks in- 
dicate age. 
(2) Storage. Green onions should not be stored as they are very poor keepers. 
32. Peas. Peas lose their sweetness and delicate flavor as they mature. What- 
ever the stage of maturity of peas purchased, they should be at the same stage 
throughout the lot to allow for uniformity in cooking. 
a. Inspection. (1) Peas of good quality are young, fresh, tender, and sweet. 
Pods should be bright green, velvety, and fresh in appearance, and well to fairly 
well filled. Pods of immature peas are flat and dark green in color. Pods showing 
maturity are swollen, of poor color, and may be flecked with grayish specks. The 
peas are tough and of poor flavor. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
171 
(2) Decay is evidenced by presence of mold or water-soaked appearance. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) May be stored 1 to 2 weeks in pods. 
33. Potatoes. Potatoes of the same variety may be had as either new or old 
stock during late spring and early summer. These are dug before reaching full 
maturity and are marketed as soon as dug. Because of immaturity they will not 
stand rough handling or storage. The skin is broken easily and presents a feathery 
appearance. They are more or less soggy when cooked. 
Late crop potatoes are usually mature when dug. The skin is firmly attached 
and has a corky appearance. When cooked they are usually mealy. Potatoes of 
the late crop are stored for winter and spring markets. 
Potatoes are classified according to shape, as long and round varieties, and accord- 
ing to color, as white, brown or russet, and red. Potatoes as purchased must be 
of “similar varietal characteristics” which means that they will all be the same 
shape, color, and have similar cooking qualities. 
a. Inspection. (1) A good potato should be firm, bright, well-shaped, and free 
from injury caused by dirt, sunburn, growth cracks, insects, or mechanical injury. 
(2) Wilted, shriveled, leathery, sprouting, or discolored potatoes should be 
rejected. 
(3) Green color often found on the surface is a condition known as sunburn. 
It is caused by exposure to light in the field or storage. 
(4) Potatoes sometimes have a hollow center known as hollow-heart. An- 
other serious defect known as blackheart is sometimes found, a black, often slimy, 
center. It is usually the result of poor ventilation in storage or shipping. Hollow- 
heart and blackheart can be detected only by cutting. 
(5) Freezing injury is indicated by the potato being wet and leaky, or when 
cut it will show a black ring just within the outer surface. Such potatoes are of 
poor flavor and turn dark in cooking. 
(6) Decay may appear as either a wet or dry rot. Potatoes with moisture on 
the surface should be examined closely for decay or freezing injury. 
(7) Defects caused by wireworms are difficult to detect. Affected potatoes 
show numerous small perforations which may extend well into the potato and 
cause considerable waste in preparation. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 36° to 50° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around sacks or other containers or 
throw bins. 
(4) Mature potatoes, 4 to 6 months. Must be stored in dark room. 
34. Radishes. Varieties of radishes vary in color, shape, and size. Most of them 
mature in early spring and summer. A few winter varieties mature in the late 
fall. Winter radishes are either blackish or white in color. 
a. Inspection. (1) A good radish is well formed, smooth, firm, tender, crisp, and 
milky in flavor. 
(2) Old or slow-growing radishes are strong flavored and flesh may be woody. 
They usually have coarse, dry, or yellow leaves. 
(3) Pithiness may be detected by slight pressure with the thumb and finger. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° to 35° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) May be stored 3 to 5 days. 
35. Spinach, a. Inspection. (1) Good spinach should have well-developed, 
stocky plants with fresh, crisp, clean leaves of good green color. 
(2) Small, straggly, or overgrown stalky plants are tough and should be re- 
jected. Plants with yellow leaves, seed stems, or very coarse leaf stem are tough 
and woody. 
(3) Decay is indicated by soft, slimy rot. 
b. Storage. Very perishable and should not be stored. 
36. Sweet potatoes. There are two general types of sweet potatoes—dry-meated 
and moist-meated. Dry-meated are commonly known as “Jerseys.” They have 
yellowish, fawn-colored skin and very light yellow flesh. When cooked they are 
somewhat dry and mealy. Moist-meated varieties have skins varying from whitish 172 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
to a reddish color and flesh varying from light greenish-yellow to a reddish or 
orange tint. The Nancy Hall and Puerto Rico are the most important varieties. 
The moist-meated type is commonly called “Yam.” 
A mixture of varieties is not desirable because of the difference in flavor, flesh 
color, and cooking characteristics. 
a. Inspection. (1) Sweet potatoes of good quality should be smooth, reasonably 
well-shaped, firm, and of bright appearance. 
(2) The most common defects are decay, misshape, bruises, and growth cracks. 
Badly misshapen potatoes and those with growth cracks are wasteful and un- 
desirable. 
(3) Decay imparts disagreeable flavor even if decayed portion is removed. 
Decay may be found as soft, wet rot, or as dry, shriveled, discolored area usually 
at the end. It may also appear as greenish to black spots anywhere on the surface, 
often in bruised and injured places. 
(4) Sweet potatoes that appear damp should be examined carefully. They 
may have been frozen or decayed specimens may be present. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 50° to 55° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 80 to 85 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around and through containers, 
(4) May be stored 2 to 4 months. Dry-meated varieties are much better 
keepers than moist-meated. 
37. Tomatoes. Tomatoes shipped long distances are picked when green but 
mature enough so that they will ripen properly after or during shipment, and are 
known as “mature green,” sometimes called “green wrap” as they are usually 
wrapped with paper. Those shipped to nearby markets are picked when pink, 
sometimes referred to as ‘turning.” At this stage color will vary from creamy on 
the blossom end to half the surface showing pink. They develop a better flavor 
than mature green. 
Ripe tomatoes are shipped locally and should show most of the surface pink or 
red, be firm, and no indication of softness. 
a. Inspection. (1) Good quality tomatoes are mature, firm, fairly well-formed, 
plump, smooth, of good color, and free from blemish. Catface or scars at the blos- 
som end cause waste in preparation but do not affect flavor. Slicing should show 
a well-filled seed cavity, thick, meaty wall, and thin skin. 
(2) Immature tomatoes appear shriveled, angular in form, and have a poor 
color. 
(3) Puffy or watery fruit has poor flavor. 
(4) Decay is indicated by wet break-down and soft, discolored spots on the 
surface. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 40° to 50° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 85 to 90 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air around containers. 
(4) May be stored 1 week. 
38. Turnips. Early turnips are usually sold with tops attached. Late or main 
crop are sold with tops removed. Much of the late crop is stored for winter use. 
a. Inspection. (1) Turnips of good quality should be smooth, firm, with few 
leaf scars around the crown, and with very few fibrous roots at the base. Tops 
should be fresh, green, and young on bunched turnips. Yellowed or wilted tops 
indicate they have been kept in storage too long. 
(2) Large, coarse, overgrown turnips, especially those light in weight, may be 
tough, woody, hollow, pithy, and strong in flavor. 
b. Storage. (1) Temperature, 32° F. 
(2) Relative humidity, 90 to 95 per cent. 
(3) Ventilation, free circulation of air. 
(4) Topped, 2 to 4 months. Bunched, 3 to 6 days. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
173 
39. Inspection factor table. 
Article 
Federal spe- 
cifications 
Inspection factors 
Storage conditions 
Apples 
Y—A—606 
Dessert. Good color, flavor, attrac- 
tive, and appealing. 
Cooking. Slightly acid, tart, and 
firm. Examine for scald, rot, over- 
maturity, and immaturity. 
31° to 32° F„ 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. Pall 
varieties, 1 to 4 months; 
late fall and winter va- 
rieties, 4 to 6 months. 
Avocado 
None 
Bright, fresh appearance: fairly 
firm. Flesh soft and buttery. Ex- 
amine for decay, bruised fruit. 
42° P., 85 to 90 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 1 week. 
Bananas ... 
Y—B—91 
Stage of ripeness; size; plump; well- 
filled; firm. Examine for bruise®, 
soft, mushy, or discolored flesh, 
frost damage. 
56° to 60° P., 75 to 85 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. Turn- 
ing ripe; 10 to 14 days. 
Berries 
Y—B—496 
Y—B—426 
Y—C—651 
Y—S—726 
Bright, clean, fresh, plump. Exam- 
ine containers for stains, mold, 
soft and leaky fruit. 
30° F., 80 to 85 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 1 to 3 days. 
Grapes 
Y—G—671 
Type, fresh, plump, good color and 
firmly attached to stems. Exam- 
ine container for stains, frost in- 
jury, mold, wet, or leaky berries. 
31° to 32° F., 80 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 2 to 3 
weeks. 
Peaches .... 
Y—P—151 
Class. Fresh with good ground 
color, firm, and good shape. Ex- 
amine for worm injury, decay, 
growth cracks. 
31° to 32° P., 80 to 85 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 1 to 2 
weeks. 
Pears 
Y—P—166 
Firm, clean, well-shaped. Examine 
for scald, decay, water-soaked 
appearance. 
31° to 32° P., 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 3 to 4 
weeks. 
Plums and 
Prunes. 
Y—P—506 
Plump, clean, fresh, full colored 
and_soft enough to yield to slight 
pressure. Moisture or stained 
containers indicate Injury or de- 
cay. Sunburned of poor flavor. 
31° to 32° P., 80 to 85 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 3 to 6 
days. 
Grapefruit .. 
Y—G—681 
Firm, smooth skin, well-shaped, 
not elongated, heavy for size. Ex- 
amine for decay, dryness and 
frost injury. 
31° to 32° F., 80 to 85 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 6 weeks. 
Lemons .... 
Y—L—231 
Firm, smooth skin, good color, 
heavy for size. Examine for de- 
cay, soft or spongy fruit, mold, 
shriveled or hardskinned fruit. 
55° to 58° P., 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 2 weeks. 
Oranges .... 
Y—0—661 
Firm, heavy, smooth skin. Exam- 
ine for decay, puffy or spongy 
fruit. 
32° P., 85 to 90 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 4 to 6 weeks. 
Asparagus .. 
Beans: 
HHH—A—731 .. 
Fresh, tender, firm, close compact 
tips green almost entire length. 
Angular, tough, woody stalks, 
undesirable. 
32° F„ 85 to 90 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 2 to 3 days. 
Lima 
HHH—B—141 .. 
Pods well-filled, clean, bright, fresh 
and dark green color. Shelled, 
plump, tender skin, and green 
or greenish-white color. Dried, 
shriveled, yellow or flabby of poor 
flavor. 
30° to 32° F., 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 7 to 10 
days. 
Snap 
HHH—B—156 ,. 
Clean, fresh, firm, crisp, tender, free 
from blemish. Seed pod imma- 
ture. Dull, dead, wilted, appear- 
ance undesirable. 
32° to 40° F„ 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 1 week. 
Beets 
HHH—B—166 .. 
Smooth, firm, free from blemish. 
Rough or ridged are woody. Soft, 
flabby, shriveled are of poor flavor. 
32° P„ 85 to 90 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. Bunched 3 
to 4 days. Topped, 3 
to 4 months. 
Cabbage .... 
HHH—C—26 ... 
Solid, firm, heavy for size and 
variety. Burst heads, soft or 
puffy of poor Quality. 
32° P., 90 to 95 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. Early, 10 to 
15 days. Late, 3 to 4 
months. 
Carrots .. .. 
HHH—C—81 ... 
Firm, fresh, clean, smooth, good 
color. Wilted, flabby, soft, 
shriveled, forked, and rough are 
undesirable. 
32° P., 90 to 95 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. Bunched, 7 
days. Topped, 2 to 4 
months. 
Cauliflower . 
HHH—C—101 .. 
White or creamy-white; clean, 
heavy, firm, compact curd, outer 
leaves fresh and green. Spreading, 
speckled, smudgy, bruised head 
with dropping leaves of poor 
quality. 
32° F„ 85 to 90 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 10 to 15 days. 174 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Article 
Federal spe- 
cifications 
Inspection factors 
Storage conditions 
Celery 
HHH—C—191a . 
Medium length and thickness, 
solid, brittle. Pithy, stringy, 
blackheart, seed stem, of poor 
quality. 
31° to 32° F., 90 to 95 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 2 to 4 
months. 
Corn, Green . 
HHH—C—591 .. 
Fresh green husks, cob well-filled, 
bright, plump, milky, kernels. 
Yellow, dry husks, tough, dis- 
colored, shriveled kernels are of 
poor quality. 
31° F„ 85 to 90 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 1 to 2 days. 
Cucumbers . 
HHH—C—751 .. 
Firm, fresh, bright, well-shaped, 
good color. Withered, shriveled, 
puffy, dull, yellowed, hard seed 
are of poor quality. 
45° to 50° F., 80 to 85 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 4 to 6 
days. 
Eggplant ... 
HHH—E—236 .. 
Heavy, firm, free from blemish; 
uniform dark color. Wilted, 
shriveled, soft are of poor flavor. 
45° to 50° P., 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 7 to 10 
days. 
Lettuce .... 
Onions: 
HHH—L—226 .. 
Fresh, crisp, tender, fairly firm to 
firm. Heads with seed stem and 
discolored leaves are of poor 
quality. 
32° P., 90 to 95 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 6 to 10 days. 
Dry 
HHH—0—531 .. 
Bright, clean, hard, well-shaped, 
mature, dry skins. Decay at neck 
or root, frost injury, sprouting 
should be rejected. 
32° P„ 70 to 75 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. Shallow con- 
tainers, 4 to 6 months. 
Green .... 
HHH—0—541 .. 
Green, fresh tops blanched 2 to 3 
Inches from root, young crisp 
and tender. Wilted, yellowing 
tops, tough, fibrous necks, unde- 
sirable. 
Should not be stored. 
Peas 
HHH—P—156 .. 
Young, fresh tender, sweet. Pods 
bright green, velvety, fresh, fairly 
well- to well-filled. Flat, dark 
green pods are immature. Swol- 
len poor colored pods are old 
and tough. 
30° F„ 85 to 90 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. 1 to 2 weeks 
in pods. 
Potatoes ... 
HHH—P—611 .. 
Firm, bright, well-shaped, free 
from injury, Insect, or mechani- 
cal Injury of similar variety. 
Wilted, shriveled, leathery, 
sprouted, discolored are unde- 
sirable. Examine for hollow 
heart, blackheart, frost injury by 
cutting. 
36° to 50° F., 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity, 
good ventilation. Late 
crop, 4 to 6 months. 
Radishes .... 
HHH—R—86 ... 
Well-formed, smooth, firm, crisp 
and mild flavor. Coarse, dry 
leaves Indicate woodiness. Pithy 
32° to 35° P„ 80 to 85 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 3 to 5 
Sweet 
HHH—P—21 ... 
radish of poor flavor. 
days. 
potatoes .. 
Smooth, well-shaped, firm, bright 
and of similar variety. Badly 
misshappen, insect and mechan- 
ical injury are undesirable. 
50° to 55° F., 80 to 85 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 2 to 4 
months. 
Tomatoes ... 
HHH—T—576 .. 
Mature, firm, plump, smooth, good 
color, well-filled seed cavity, 
thick meaty wall, thin skin. 
Shriveled, puffy, angular in form, 
poor color are undesirable. 
40° to 50° P.. 85 to 90 per 
cent relative humidity. 
Good ventilation. 7 days. 
Turnips .... 
HHH—T—851 .. 
Smooth, firm, fresh green tops. 
Large, coarse, and light in weight 
are woody. 
32° F., 90 to 95 per cent 
relative humidity. Good 
ventilation. Bunched, 3 
to 6 days. Topped, 2 to 
4 months. Section IV 
40. Definitions. Trade definitions of drying terms in general use are: 
a. Dehydrated. Fruits or vegetables dried in artificially heated air under forced 
draft. 
b. Evaporated. Fruits or vegetables dried in artificially heated air without 
forced draft. 
c. Sun-dried. Food dried entirely by exposure to rays of the sun. 
d. Dried. All dried foods regardless of means used for extracting moisture. 
41. Beans, a. Types and kinds. (1) Dry beans can be procured under Federal 
specifications for Army use in five types, A, B, C, D, and E. Invitation for bids 
may specify a particular type and further specify a particular kind within a type, 
for example, type A white, small white; type B, red kidney, Western red kidney. 
The kinds authorized under each type are named in Federal specifications. 
(2) The table given below will assist inspectors in identifying the various 
kinds of beans named in specifications and standards. 
DRIED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 
Name 
Size 
Shape 
Color 
Source 
Great Northern . 
Large 
Oval 
Pure white .... 
Idaho, Montana, Wyo- 
ming. 
Large white .... 
Larger than pea . 
Oval 
Pure white .... 
California* Idaho, 
Montana. 
Medium white .. 
Between small 
and large. 
Oval 
Pure white .... 
Michigan, New York, 
Wisconsin. 
Small white .... 
Very small 
Oval, narrow .. 
Pure white .... 
California, Idaho, 
Montana. 
Pea 
Small 
Oval* round ... 
Pure white .... 
Michigan, New York, 
Wisconsin. 
Red kidney 
Twice as large 
as medium 
white. 
Kidney-shape .. 
Red 
California, Michigan, 
New York. 
Dark red kidney . 
Same as red kid- 
ney. 
Kidney-shape .. 
Mahogany 
Michigan. 
California red ... 
Kidney-shape .. 
California. 
Pink 
California 
Pinto 
Slightly smaller 
than pink. 
Kidney-shape .. 
Buff, specked 
with brown. 
Colorado, New Mexico, 
California, Idaho, 
Montana. 
(3) There are two kinds of lima beans, regular and baby. Both are flat and 
round in shape (one large, the other small), and are pure white in color. 
(4) Blackeye beans are commonly known as “cow peas.” Despite the name 
it is a bean, and can be distinguished by the black spot or eye on the concave 
surface. 
(5) The commonly used term “Navy bean” is not used in Government publica- 
tions, being now obsolete. The term “Navy” was and still is used by some to 
indicate type A. The chief disadvantage of using the term “Navy” is that it fails 
to differentiate between the various kinds of white beans. 
b. Inspection. (1) Type, kind, and grade. Inspection involves, in addition to 
the general features of conditions, net weight, etc., two features peculiar to dry 
beans, the particular type and kind specified, and the grade specified. 
(a) Type and kind. For type and kind, it is necessary to have either experi- 
ence or standard samples. 
Cb) Grade. For grade, it is essential that the inspector have a copy of 
“Handbook of Official United States Standards for Beans.” This handbook may 
be obtained from Agricultural Marketing Service, United States Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The handbook gives allowable percentages of 
various grading factors, definitions, etc., and should be read carefully. The inspector 
should also provide himself with a copy of Federal specification for Beans, Dry. 
(2) Shipment, (a) Cars and hags. In inspecting freight shipments, care 
should be taken to see that cars used were clean and watertight. If soot or dirt 
was not carefully removed it will sift through the bags and soil beans so that their 
appearance will be damaged permanently. Leaky roofs result in stained and un- 
sightly beans. Specifications call for new sacks. Stained sacks are often evidence 
that they have been wet and contents injured. Bags showing moist or discolored 
spots should have contents carefully examined for damaged beans. 
175 176 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(b) Samples. After noting general condition of shipment and carefully in- 
specting any abnormal portion, a representative sample of the entire lot should 
be taken. For this purpose bags are selected from various parts of the shipment 
and samples taken from all parts of bags selected. 
(3) Moisture. Excess moisture is a serious trouble in new beans. Those with 
more than 17 per cent moisture are termed “wet” and should not be accepted as 
they become musty, do not store as well, and do not contain as much food to the 
pound as dry beans. 
Dry beans are plump and firm under pressure; they should not be dented when 
pressed with the thumbnail. Another good test is to lay beans on a table and 
try to cut with a sharp knife at right angle to longer axis. If the knife goes 
through in an easy manner without immediate cracking open, as a rule the bean 
contains an excessive amount of moisture and the lot should be examined more 
carefully. 
(4) Physical properties. Good beans are dry, plump, uniform in color, and1 
have a strong, glossy skin. Those too hard, either because they are old or naturally 
hard and tough, are undesirable. Small and hard beans require a long time to 
soak and do not cook well. 
(5) Insects. Weevily beans are not acceptable under specifications. Weevils 
deposit small white scales (eggs or excreta) on the outside. These may be seen 
with the naked eye, but a hand lens aids in recognition. Weevils develop within 
and eat their way out. Cut the suspected beans open and look for larvae. Before 
weevils emerge, small spots (1/16-inch diameter) appear and show where they are 
about to come out. A good test to detect presence of weevils and similar insects 
is to put a lot in water for about 2 hours. Insects present will come out and float 
on top of the water. 
42. Rice. Like beans, in the inspection and grading of rice it is essential that an 
inspector provide himself with a copy of Federal Specification for Rice and also a 
copy of United States Standards for Milled Rice. 
Some of the commonly used terms or definitions for rice products are: 
a. Rough or paddy is the threshed grain firmly enclosed in the hull. 
b. Brown is rice freed from hulls, but containing practically all bran coats and 
some germs. 
c. Partly milled, medium milled, under milled is rice from which a portion of 
outer bran layers and practically all germs removed, but still containing an ap- 
preciable amount of bran layers. 
d. Milled is rice from which practically all bran layers have been removed. 
e. Unpolished is milled rice containing considerable portion of bran coats. 
Brown rice is properly designated as unpolished. 
f. Polished is milled rice from which all bran coats have been removed. 
g. Uncoated polished is a completely milled rice to which coating materials have 
not been added. 
h. Coated is polished rice to which coating materials have been added such as 
talc or starch. 
i. Head is milled rice consisting of a large proportion of whole grains. 
j. Broken is milled rice containing a large proportion of broken grains. 
k. Second head is broken rice consisting of comparatively large pieces. 
l. Screenings and brewers’ rice or grits are broken rices consisting of compara- 
tively small pieces. 
m. Wild is rice which grows in lake and swamp areas and produces a dark, 
uneven grained, unpolished rice used as an accessory in cooking, especially for 
wild duck. It has not become a commercial article of great yield and is only 
procurable at certain times. 
n. Byproducts are hulls, bran, pearling cone meal, and polish. 
For additional definitions, see United States Standards for Milled Rice. The- 
definitions mentioned herein are not shown in United States Standards. 
The fact that rice is weevily does not affect the grade. A sample could be 
weevily and still grade U. S. No. 1. The word “weevily” is added to the giade 
certificate. Even though a rice graded U. S. No. 1, it could and should be rejected 
if offered for delivery to the Army under Federal specifications provision which 
requires that rice be clean and sound. 
43. Storage. Insects breed in stored dried vegetables; therefore, if insect-free 
products are stored in the same warehouse where infested products recently have SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
177 
been stored, the new products may become infested. To prevent insect pests is 
a matter of good warehousing, and good preventive measures are: 
a. Pile or stack on dunnage. 
b. Absolute cleanliness. Keep out dirt, allow no accumulation of debris, cob- 
webs, piles of sacks, papers, and other litter. Dispose of all sweepings. 
c. Cool, dry, and well-ventilated storage. Temperature below 43° F. will prevent 
development and growth of insects. It is not necessary to maintain temperature 
below 40° F. for this purpose. 
d. Careful inspection of all newly delivered stores for insects, and isolation 
and treatment of suspected lots. 
e. Frequent inspection of stock. 
f. Rotation of storage location when practicable. 
g. Prompt attack when insects of any type are found. Insect-infested pioducts 
should be surveyed with a view to their condemnation and removal, 
44. Fruit, a. Specifications. Federal specifications have been promulgated for 
the following dried fruits: 
(1) Apples 
(2) Apricots. 
(3) Currants. 
(4) Dates. 
(5) Peaches. 
(6) Prunes. 
(7) Raisins. 
An inspector should provide himself with above-mentioned specifications and 
study them carefully. 
b. Samples. Due to variation in quality and to lack of uniform grades for 
the several products, it is believed that in inspection of dried fruits comparison 
with sample of known satisfactory commercial quality be made. 
In obtaining a sample for inspection, sufficient boxes should be selected at 
random so that they are fairly representative of the whole shipment. Trade 
practice is to examine 3 per cent of each shipment. Boxes should be opened 
by removing bottoms so that appearance of facing, if present, will not influence 
the inspector in determining actual quality. 
For example to be representative of the lot from which drawn, the fruit 
should be mixed thoroughly, piled in a heap, and quartered. By rejecting oppo- 
site quarters, repiling and requartering until a workable amount is obtained, 
a truly representative sample results, 
c. Inspection. Actual inspection of any lot is based upon the following factors: 
(1) Textures. Except for very soft and sugary products such as dates, figs, 
etc., textures should be springy and pliable. When a handful of fruit is pressed 
tightly together, pieces should immediately fall apart when the hand is released. 
It should never be possible to press moisture from any freshly cut surface. If 
the fruit seems soft, mushy, or wet, and sticks together when pressure is re- 
leased, moisture content is probably 25 per cent or more. If fruit seems springy 
and when the pressure is released separates in a few seconds to form pieces of 
approximately original size and shape, moisture content is about 20 to 24 per 
cent. In case of doubt as to moisture content, examination should be made in a 
chemical laboratory. Maximum moisture content for dried fruits allowed by 
Federal specifications is 24 per cent. 
(2) Color. Color should be dean, bright, uniform, and typical of the variety. 
Desirable colors for the several fruits are; 
(a) Apples, fairly white and bright. 
(h) Apricots, golden yellow to orange. 
(c) Currants, purplish-brown but rather dull. 
(d) Dates, lustrous, golden brown. 
(e) Figs, brownish-white for white varieties. 
(f) Peaches, golden orange. 
(g) Prunes, dark brownish-purple to jet black, with or without a bluish 
luster; meat light to golden brown, 
(h) Raisins, seeded, shiny, purplish-black to dark brown. Seedless, light 
brown to brown. 
Many fruits are sulphured to produce brighter and more uniform color. Un- 178 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
sulphured have better flavor than sulphured, but soon become dark and unsightly 
in appearance. 
(3) Soundness and cleanliness. Fruit should be free from dirt, sand, leaves, 
twigs, and other foreign materials apt to be taken up through handling and storage 
in unclean storerooms. All packages should be whole and intact. Moldy or 
mildewed products are not acceptable. A few dried fruits, especially prunes, 
dates, raisins, and figs, will show whitening or yellowish-whitening on the out- 
side of packages or on fruit when stored for some time or in warm places. If 
hard and crystalline, this is merely natural sugars and flavor of the fruit is 
not affected. However, this should not be mistaken for mold which is thread- 
like, fuzzy, and soft. 
(4) Insects. Dried fruits are attacked readily by weevils, sugar mites, and 
flies. Infestation on receipt of any shipment can be detected by spreading out 
contents of one or more packages. Weevils are small and a dark brown color. 
Their larvae are white and wormlike. Cocoons and a brownish material re- 
sembling sawdust will generally indicate that product is infested with weevils. 
(5) Size and form. In many cases size of fruit and form of pieces determine 
grade. Broken pieces and uneven halves are always objectionable. Mashed 
fruit and slabs are generally made from over-matured fruit. These are so soft 
and sticky that they become mashed together and are always objectionable. 
(6) Odor and flavor. Odor and flavor should be sweet, fresh, and typical of the 
variety. Green fruit dries hard and does not have a desirable sweet flavor. While 
sulphuring affects flavor it is not objectionable unless excessive. Fruits which 
have a decided sulphur flavor should not be accepted, though the quantity 
present may not be deleterious. When time is available it is well to stew all 
samples in order to obtain true odor and flavor. 
d. Storage. Well-ventilated storage at a temperature of not over 60° F. is 
essential for proper keeping of all dried fruits. They readily take up moisture 
in damp storage and excess moisture favors mold growth. Heat favors insect 
growth as well as mold and bacterial development. Wherever practicable dun- 
nage should be employed. Dried fruit should never be stacked on cement floors 
without dunnage. 
Prunes and whole raisins are the best keepers of all dried fruits due to being 
whole and having a high sugar content; peaches, apricots, pears, etc., are only 
medium keepers; while evaporated apples are the poorest. As dates sweat 
profusely when removed from cold storage and thus destroy appearance of any 
carton in which they may be packed, it is customary to keep them in a cool, 
dry place but not in cold storage. 
All dried fruits tend to take up odors and hence should not be stored or 
shipped in proximity to tobacco, kerosene, soap, etc. 
LEAVENING AGENTS 
Section V 
45. Yeast, a. Types. The inspector of subsistence is concerned with two types 
of yeast, compressed and dried. 
(1) Compressed yeast is a pure culture of bread yeast grown in large quan- 
tities and compressed into cakes. Color is not an accurate guide to quality be- 
cause material used and production methods affect it. 
(2) Dried yeast is prepared by mixing yeast with a large proportion of 
starch or com meal and drying the mixture at a comparatively low temperature. 
Under these conditions it will go into spore form where it is inert and will 
keep under ordinary storage for several months. It can be carried to places 
remote from transportation and cold storage facilities. Further information on 
the subject is contained in paragraph 15, chapter 5. 
b. Inspection. Compressed yeast should feel firm, tough, and springy. It 
should break with a snap and leave a clean fracture. It should have a good yeasty 
odor and be practically tasteless. Softness or flabbiness and darkened areas 
indicate spoilage. Dry and crumbly areas indicate poor storage and age. Yeast 
injured by frost is soft and watery. Spoiled yeast has a sour or putrid odor. 
c. Storage. (1) Compressed yeast must be kept under refrigeration. The best SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
179 
storage temperatures are from 35 to 45° F. Under such conditions it may be 
stored 1 week. 
(2) A good storage maximum for dried yeast is 3 months in a dry, cool place. 
46. Baking powder a. Classification. Baking powders are classified by the bak- 
ing powder industry according to their acid-reacting ingredients. These classes 
are: 
(1) Tartrate powders, in which potassium acid tartrate (cream of tartar), 
with or without addition of tartaric acid, is the acid-reacting ingredient. 
(2) Phosphate powders, in which monocalcium phosphate or monosodium 
phosphate is the acid-reacting ingredient. 
(3) Sodium aluminum sulphate powders, in which sodium aluminum sul- 
phate is the acid-reacting ingredient. Also known as SAS powders. 
(4) Combination powders, in which the acid-reacting component is com- 
posed of sodium aluminum sulphate and calcium acid phosphate. Also known 
as “double-action.” 
(5) Pyrophosphate powders, in which the acid-reacting ingredient is sodium 
acid pyrophosphate. 
b. Action. (1) Tartrate powders are quickest in action. They react very rapidly 
and completely in the cold and do not require heat to complete evolution of gas. 
(2) Phosphate powders are intermediate in action. Practically all gas is 
evolved in cold dough but evolution of gas is much slower than in tartrate 
powders. 
(3) Sodium aluminum sulphate powders produce very slow reaction in 
cold dough and require heat to complete action. 
(4) Combination powders get their “double-action” from the phosphate 
which begins to evolve considerable volume of gas as soon as the batter is mixed 
and this reaction is carried on by the sodium aluminum sulphate during baking. 
(5) Pyrophosphate powder greatly resembles combination powder except 
that in the cold pyrophosphate reaction is slower and more prolonged. 
c. Containers. Packaging of baking powder is an important item. The con- 
tainer must be moistureproof and a type that permits closing after each use. 
The most satisfactory containers are in tin cans with slip covers or friction tops. 
d. Inspection. The most important thing to look for is evidence of deteriora- 
tion. Deterioration is manifested by powder being lumpy or caked. Foreign 
material may be detected by sifting a representative sample through a very 
fine mesh cloth. Because of strict enforcement of the Pure Food and Drug laws, 
the statement of ingredients shown on the label usually is accepted as accurate. 
In case of doubt as to purity or quality, a sample should be sent to a depot for 
analysis. Powders containing hard, pellet-like bodies are seriously damaged 
and should not be accepted. 
e. Storage. Baking powders must be stored in a dry place and protected from 
sudden drastic changes of temperature and contaminating odors. Any well-made 
baking powder, properly packaged, should keep for 1 year under ordinary storage 
conditions. 
Section VI 
CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS 
47. Definitions. Cereals are grasses yielding farinaceous grains. Under com- 
mon usage the term “cereal” is applied to edible products made from such 
grains. In order of stability in storage, they are classed in this manual as 
“raw” and “prepared.” 
a. Raw cereals. Flour, corn meal, farina, rice, rolled oats (regular and steel 
cut), and barley. Of these, the most perishable is “water-ground” corn meal 
which has not been degerminated. All these cereals are subject in varying 
degrees to rancidity development and insect infestation. 
b. Prepared cereals. All cereals which have undergone any cooking, malting, 
artificial flavoring, or treatment with acids or alkalis. This class includes quick- 
type rolled oats and ready-to-eat cereals. 
Inspection revealing any indication of either present or past infestation should 
result in rejection. 180 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
48. Flour, a. Definition. The word “flour” unmodified is defined as a product 
made by bolting wheat meal. The word flour is not used unmodified to identify 
products made from other grains or vegetables. For example, the product made 
from bolting rye meal is properly identified as “rye flour.” 
b. Wheat. (1) Types. Flours having varying baking characteristics made from 
different types of wheat are classed roughly according to their suitability into: 
(a) Type A, bread flours, made from blends of hard wheat. 
(b) Type B, blends or general purpose flours, made from blends of hard 
and/or soft wheat. 
(c) Type C, soft or pastry flour, made from blends of soft wheat. 
These types vary in several respects, the most important of which is variance 
in proportions of two proteins, glutenin and gliadin, together commonly known 
as gluten. It is the quality of this constituent which determines whether the 
flour in question will produce a loaf of bread having good volume and texture. 
A strong flour is one which has sufficient good quality gluten to enable realiza- 
tion of maximum good effect of the leavening agent in producing a loaf of bread 
of good volume, texture, and symmetry. A weak or soft flour will produce a 
product of close, even grain without realization of large volume and is therefore 
best suited for use in baking cakes and certain other pastry products. 
(2) Purification classification. Another important factor which will influence 
ultimate character of the bakery product is degree of purification which the 
flour has undergone. Flours usually are classified further by their purification 
of bran particles into patents, straight, clear, and low grade. In simplest explan- 
ation it may be said that the higher the grade, the greater the degree of bran 
removal. Other factors remaining constant, increased bran removal results in 
general lowering in quantity and rise in quality of gluten. A short patent flour 
is one in which the most complete refining has been effected. In order of grade, 
long patent, straight, and clear represent lower grades. Since straight flour 
which includes short and long patents and first clears will produce a loaf of 
good volume, color, and texture, it is used as a ration component in the United 
States Army. 
(3) Age. Ordinarily, flour is not milled until immediately before delivery. 
Therefore it is not to be expected that new will produce as good volume and 
texture in baking tests as will that which is 2 weeks or more old. However, 
“green” flour, that milled from immature or improperly prepared grain, will not 
improve appreciably with age and will not produce a loaf of good volume. Green 
flour is not suitable for Army use. 
a. Inspection. (1) Field!. Field inspection of flour includes: 
(a) Condition of truck or car in which flour was transported. 
(h) Condition of flour and containers. 
(c) Absorption test. 
(d) Baking test. 
(2) Car or truck. Any car or truck used for transporting flour must be clean„ 
free of all odors and of insect infestation. Floors and walls to a height above 
stacking of containers should be covered with heavy paper which will not permit 
contents to come in contact with floor or walls. The center section of a car 
should be so stacked that usual load shifting always attendant with shipping 
will not cause interference with doors of car or truck. Frequent and annoying 
damage to sacking may result from such improper loading. 
(3) Flour and containers. On receiving a shipment, particular attention should 
be given any foreign odor and attempt be made to identify it. Inspectors must 
be careful not to confuse characteristic sack odors with foreign odors. Any odor 
which persists in flour after a thorough airing should be cause for concern. On 
baking a sample loaf of bread made of suspect flour, if no deleterious effect is 
noticed the flour should be considered sound. Flours having odors which can 
be attributed to decomposition, either animal or vegetable in origin, are not 
acceptable. Sound flour should possess an odor closely akin to that of freshly 
ground sound wheat. Objectionable odors usually encountered are those re- 
sembling garlic or mustiness. A “baggy” odor may result from shipment in 
outside bags made of burlap. A musty odor is detected more easily in the baked 
product than in the flour itself. 
d. Tests. Flour tests are made by both laboratory analysis and physical exam- SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
181 
ination. The latter involves a test for gluten, color, absorption, and baking 
qualities. 
(1) Gluten. Gluten is a complex combination of two protein substances which 
on contact with water forms an insoluble mass of matter which, when expanded 
by development of gas in dough, provides a skeletal support for the carbohydrate 
substances in bread. Without gluten bread could not be developed. Gluten can 
be formed and recovered in examinable form by washing starch from flour, using 
ordinary water as a solvent. The procedure is as follows: 
Extract a 25-gram sample of flour to be tested. Add sufficient cool tap water 
to obtain dough of consistency permitting manual manipulation. Immerse ball 
of dough in water for 30 minutes. Extract and knead over a fine meshed screen 
under a stream of cool water. Continue kneading until water passing over dough 
shows no milky discoloration. Remaining product is gluten, and this is then 
examined for color, tensility, and stickiness: 
(a) Color: 
1. Hard patent flour, pearl gray. 
2. Hard straight flour, dull pearl gray. 
3. Hard clear flour, dull gray. 
4. Soft flour, light creamy. 
(h) Tensility. Upon stretching into rectangular shape gluten should permit 
considerable elongation before holes and tears appear. Lack of stretchability 
indicates poor quality gluten. 
(c) Stickiness. Gluten not readily transferable from hand to hand but be- 
comes sticky is not sufficiently good quality to be stable in dough. Pro- 
duction of a well-defined loaf of good volume is not possible with above quality. 
A straight flour such as commonly used by the Army (extra long patent) of 
about 97 per cent extraction should yield gluten of a color slightly darker than the 
pearl gray of hard short patent but not as dark as that of hard clear flour. It 
should not be sticky and should possess good tensile strength. 
(2) Color. Color is determined by the “pekar test” (slick test). This test 
is of more value when made on a comparative basis with a known type. Place 
sufficient flour on a smooth glass to permit packing into a smooth mass about 2 
inches wide tapering in thickness from about 14-inch in thickness on the more 
distant side to the thinnest possible film on the forward edge of the glass. A 
spatula or any smooth piece of metal pressed on top of the sample and drawn 
toward the forward edge of the glass, using forward edge of the glass to scrape 
flour from the spatula or metal, will suffice. The sample to be compared should 
be “slicked” or similarly placed at the side of the first sample and treated sim- 
ilarly so that the two samples are in contact. Any great difference in color is 
readily discernible by a clear line of demarcation between the two samples. By 
carefully sliding the glass plate under the surface of still water, the difference 
in color if any becomes more pronounced. Comparison must be completed before 
samples dry. Color most desired is a rich, creamy white. Flours of longer 
separation or patent will contain an increasingly greater percentage of bran 
specks until the clear grade is reached. In this grade the greater amount of 
bran blends with the whiteness of the flour to render a product of a decided 
dark or dirty white appearance. 
(3) Absorption. Ability of flour to absorb water is of prime importance, 
both as an indication as to specification compliance and possible alteration in 
dough formulas used in bakery practice. A type A or hard wheat flour having 
an absorption power of less than 58 per cent by weight is not acceptable. To de- 
termine absorption power, weigh out 25 grams into a suitable container, add 
water slowly from a graduated burette, stirring with a spoon or the handle of 
a knife until dough of proper consistency has been obtained. Care must be 
exercised that no flour is spilled and that no flour or water is left in the dish 
unincorporated in the dough. Multiply by 4 the number of cubic centimeters of 
water used. The result is the percentage absorption of the flour. 
(4) Baking, (a) The final and most important test of flour is the baking 
test. This test is best conducted by comparison of test loaves until the inspector 
is expert in bread scoring. 
A sample loaf is baked from flour of known quality and is compared with a 
sample loaf baked from the unknown flour. To be of value these loaves must 
be produced under identical circumstances. In the instance of varying absorp- 182 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
tion ability, a second sample loaf made from the unknown flour with moisture 
content as determined by the absorption test is also compared. These samples 
are weighed immediately after being taken from the ovens and the weights 
compared. 
(b) For procedure in baking test, see Chapter 5. 
e. Containers. Although the 196-pound net barrel is still the unit in flour mill- 
ing calculations, this container has been almost entirely superseded by the 98- 
pound sack for bakers’ use and small sacks for household use. The 140-pound sack 
is generally used for export. Some large flour users own their own sacks and use 
them continually. 
/. Storage. (1) General, (a) Flour should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated 
room which is open to sunlight. It is very sensitive to odors from other substances 
and will readily absorb them. It should never be stored in the same room with 
substances giving off odor, 
(b) Being hygroscopic, flour will absorb excess moisture present in the 
storeroom or lose some of its natural moisture in very dry surroundings. 
(c) A uniform and not too low temperature is best. It is desirable to keep 
the temperature near 70° F. It may be necessary in hot climates to keep flour in 
cold storage to keep down insects, a temperature of 42° F. being best for this 
purpose, but the cold storage should be as dry as practicable. A chilled flour 
should always be brought to near 70° F. before endeavoring to use it in dough, and 
this should be done gradually by exposure to room temperature. High storage 
temperature (85° to 95° F.) combined with high humidity, a condition found in 
tropical climates, is most unfavorable. These conditions are ideal for development 
of molds and bacteria and action of enzymes. In addition to causing moldiness 
and mustiness, these organisms tend to break down proteins, thus lowering and 
eventually destroying its bread-making qualities. Rancidity may also occur, 
especially in whole grain or low-grade products where fat contents are consider- 
ably higher than in straight or patent flour. 
(2) Tropics. Storage of flour or any other mill product is always a problem in 
the tropics. In most tropical countries there are two seasons, wet and dry, which 
vary considerably in their intensity. With the exception of rice, most grain pro- 
ducts must be imported. 
(a) Molds, bacteria, and insects. In addition to development of molds, 
bacteria, and enzymes, growth of insects and action of natural acids of the products 
are all favored by the temperatures of from 80° to 90° F. so common in the tropics. 
Natural humidity of these localities greatly favors development of molds and 
bacteria, and in addition causes oxidation of meal containers. 
Insects, a factor of such a climate, produce very great deleterious effects. They 
remain dormant at temperatures of 43° F. or below; at 60° to 70° F. grow and 
multiply slowly; at 80° to 90° F. grow, eat, and multiply very rapidly; in fact, 
the latter is the optimum temperature for insect growth. The confused flour 
beetle, the typical insect infesting flour, will probably live one or two generations 
in the temperate zone and during the winter it will become dormant and die. In 
the tropics it would probably live four generations, each time multiplying three 
hundredfold. The same relation exists in growing molds and bacteria, except 
that moisture is more essential to their growth as they absorb their food by 
process of osmosis. 
(b) Sacked. On account of above factors, sacked flour should under no cir- 
cumstances be held over 2 months during the wet season and 3 to 4 months during 
the dry season. It is probably 30 days old when received. 
(c) Canned. It would appear that no reason exists why hermetically sealed 
canned flour could not be kept almost indefinitely, but it must be taken into con- 
sideration that some mold and bacteria exist in all flour. For this reason, it is 
believed that the 13.5 per cent moisture now allowed for flour is too high for 
canned flour for tropical use. It provides part of moisture and warmth naturally 
present. The great deterring factor in storing tinned or canned flour is that in- 
spection has so far been incapable of obtaining flour free from insect infestation. 
In manufacture, it passes through sieves which are smaller than insect egg and 
therefore as it leaves the final dressing reel or sieve, if that reel or sieve is free 
from holes, the flour is free from insects or eggs. Infestation therefore takes place 
somewhere between that reel and the can in which the flour is packed and sealed. 
If one pair of eggs or a single impregnated female insect gets into the can, that SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
183 
can will be infested badly when it is opened 6 to 9 months later. Keeping reserve 
supplies in the tropics often requires that flour be held that long or longer. If 
examination of canned flour shows it to be insect infested the purchasing officer 
should be notified, giving the date and name of contractor so that remedial steps 
can be taken on future contracts. 
It must not be assumed that insect infestation destroys flour. On the other hand, 
it certainly never helps it and does affect it deleteriously. Unless infestation is 
unduly severe, it should be sifted (bolted) and used, resulting in some loss. Badly 
infested flour should be used for other purposes than human consumption. 
(3) Sack arrangement. Sacked flour should be arranged so as to facilitate 
proper ventilation, to allow cleaning floors under piles, and to control rats, mice, 
and insects. There should be an air space between sacks by means of cross-piling. 
Sacks should be spread over as large an area as possible to insure maximum ex- 
posure of each to the air. Stowing flour tightly in high stacks not only prevents 
access of air to the sacks, but compresses the flour on the bottom of the stack so 
that it packs down hard and prevents penetration of air into the sacks. 
pression destroys baking qualities. This is more serious in case of soft wheat flour 
as it packs more solidly than hard wheat flour, and is still more serious in case of 
lower grade flours which tend to heat and spoil more readily. Under unfavor- 
able temperature and humidity conditions such as in the tropics or in the southern 
parts of the United States, stacks should not be piled higher than six sacks, and 
under favorable conditions not higher than eight sacks. Stacks should be spaced 
18 to 24 inches apart in all directions. 
(4) Keeping qualities. Age and proper storage have a tendency to whiten 
flour and improve quality. If properly stored it may be kept in good condition 
for a year, but storage beyond this time causes a loss of flavor. Patent and straight 
flours will keep better than those containing outer bran coatings and germ stock. 
The latter is very oily and prone to rancidity. Graham, whole wheat, rye, and 
barley flours, bran, and feeds do not keep nearly as well as straight flour unless 
sterilized package goods. The latter should never be kept on hand over 3 months. 
(5) Rats and mice. Ordinarily rats and mice will not eat flour as it forms a 
paste in their mouths. However, they will build nests in sacked flour. This can 
be prevented by placing paper between the sacks when stowing, as they will use 
the paper for nests and will not molest the sacks. 
49. Com meal. a. Definition. Corn meal is only a refinement of hominy grits 
(a corn product) as can be seen by the fact that hominy grits, fine, will pass 
through a No. 16 sieve but over a No. 28, while granulated corn meal will pass 
through a No. 22 wire sieve and over a No. 72 grits gauze. Granulated corn meal 
is meal from which the greater part of the germ is removed and which by re- 
peated reduction in roll mills has been reduced to an evenly ground, finely divided 
state. Any further reduction would result in corn flour. 
b. Storage. Com meal, if kiln dried, will keep 6 months if stored in temperature 
not greater than 70° F., and provided it is not subjected to infestation while in 
such storage. Water-ground meal, because of its high oil and protein content, 
will not keep even under optimum conditions longer than 90 days. 
c. Inspection. Granulated corn meal should be free of all pieces of bran, chaff, 
soft floury material, hulls, germ, or other foreign material. Corn meal, either 
white or yellow, must be a uniform, bright color. Particles must be clean, hard, 
flinty, and evenly granulated endosperm. 
d. Hominy grits. Inspection factors for hominy grits are indentical with those 
for com meal except that granulations are larger. 
50. Wheat farina. This product must be a uniform, rich, creamy color free from 
bran specks. It must have uniform granulation devoid of flouriness. 
On cooking, resulting product should possess fresh, wholesome, typically wheat 
flavor and odor. In body, it should be tender but softly granular with good 
substance. There should be no indication of grittiness or sliminess. It should 
retain original, uniform creamy color. 
51. Rolled oats. Rolled oats, in addition to general requirements of other un- 
prepared cereals, must be a uniformly bright creamy color and flakes should be 
uniformly large. There should be almost no powder or finely granulated stock. 
Artificial flavoring is not permissible. The product must be free of rancidity, bitter 
flavor, musty or other undesirable odors, and must be free from hulls, weeds. 184 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
seeds, sticks, stems, burnt flakes, wheat, and barley. Flakes should be uniformly 
light brown in color. Dark or pale flakes or flakes with frayed or uneven edges 
are not acceptable quality. Flakes must be sufficiently thick to retain body on 
cooking. Hard, flinty flakes or thin, fragile, soft flakes are undesirable. 
On stirring in boiling water for 3 minutes the product must have a fresh, sweet, 
true oat flavor and odor. In body, the product must be tender and flaky with 
substance or body sufficient to afford chewiness. There should be no bitter, rancid, 
stale, raw, or burnt flavors and no mushiness, excessive sliminess, viscidity or 
toughness. 
Quick-type rolled oats, a partially prepared cereal product, is subject to all 
inspection factors which are applicable to regular rolled oats. However, it is to 
be anticipated that quick-type will present a slightly mushier and less flaky ap- 
pearance on cooking than do regular due to prior processing (partial cooking). 
52. Barley, a. Grades. Pearled barley is divided into two grades as to quality 
and five grades as to size. First grade barley has a small area of bran coat re- 
maining in the crease. It is uniformly round and without broken grains. The 
second grade will have considerable bran coat in the crease and may have a small 
area of the remaining surface covered by bran. Adulteration by addition of grains 
other than barley or by addition of any foreign material is not permitted. 
b. Sizes. In size barley should be No. 3 or No. 2 as specified in invitation for 
bids. Sizes are as follows: 
Grade number 
Approximate size of screens 
Through Over 
number number 
3/0 
2/0 
2 
9 
7 
11 
10 
9 
3 
6 
8 
4 
6 
7 
c. Pearled. Pearled barley must be uniform size, light yellow to white in color 
for portage grade (1st grade) and light yellow to slight brown for Chester or pot 
grade (2d grade). Individual kernels should be unbroken, well-rounded with 
definite pearling or polishing on all sides. Kernels pearled only on ends are not 
acceptable. There should be few if any stained or black grains. On breaking, 
individual kernels should reveal flinty interiors with no tendency toward floury 
or soft centers. 
Cooked barley should possess a fresh, wholesome barley flavor devoid of flat, 
raw, stale, or otherwise foreign flavor. Cooked grains should be softly granular, 
tender, well swollen but should retain their original shape. In color, the cooked 
product should be an even, creamy white. 
d. Containers. Containers should be acceptable commercial type or as specified 
in invitation for bids, but in all instances must provide necessary protection against 
moisture and insure clean, dustproof packaging. 
e. Storage. Barley is subject to infestation and damage by the same agencies 
which would be harmful to com meal or oat meal. All these cereals should be 
stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated place open to sunlight. Cereals should never 
be stored near other products known to be infested. Wherever possible dunnage 
should be used. With exception of rice and barley, cereals showing more than 
very slight infestation are not fit for human consumption. 
53. Prepared cereals and mixes, a. Cereals. (1) Moisture content. Specifications 
for ready-to-eat cereals require moisture content not above 5 per cent. Deter- 
mination of moisture content cannot be made by organoleptic means since crisp- 
ness, flakiness, and most other physical attributes which are commonly thought 
dependent on low moisture content do not necessarily hold true. Ready-to-eat 
cereals of various types, flaked, malted, shredded, etc., all have breaking points at 
a moisture content higher than 5.per cent and varying in percentage within each 
type. 
(2) Inspection. Cereals are inspected most easily in natural light. Inspection 
paust, cover odor, crispness, palatability, and general physical condition of SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
185 
container and contents. To detect off-odors cut a small triangular opening suffi- 
cient to permit the nose to come in close proximity to the carton contents. Shake 
contents well. Immediate smelling will permit detection of any foreign or dis- 
agreeable odors. Contents should be protected from glue-bearing surfaces as well 
as from containers made of low grade carton board by inside protective liners, 
the only exception being certain shredded wheat products which may be packed 
in contact with carton board of a type specified by Federal specifications. In 
appearance contents should be uniformly toasted or cooked and should be prac- 
tically free of all burned, scorched or pale stock. Foreign material of any type is 
not permitted. Although rare, insect infestation if present in any degree what- 
soever will not be tolerated. Flakes or puffed grains or formed shreds or shredded 
biscuits should be of uniform size. Excessive finely reduced or powdered flakes 
or undeveloped puffed grains are cause for rejection. Manufacture of breakfast 
cereals is a highly developed industry, and it is to be expected that products will 
be virtually perfect in all respects. Dirty stock will not be permitted in the 
slightest degree. On tasting the product, a pleasing characteristic flavor should 
be experienced which after a few moments does not develop any “soapy” or 
alkaline reaction to the palate. The product should not be tough or flinty but 
should be crisp and readily chewable. After thorough chewing, the mass of 
cereal should not adhere stickily to the mouth but should be swallowed easily. A 
tough cereal ordinarily will become an adhesive mass which resists movement by 
the tongue in the process of deglutition. A tender and crisp cereal is reduced 
readily to fine particles in the mouth and in no way tends to be sticky or difficult 
to swallow. Most breakfast cereals are adversely affected by light and if stored 
for long periods subjected to light will be discolored or will develop undesirable 
odors. 
(a) Puffed rice. Individual puffed grains should be uniform, nicely rounded, 
smooth-surfaced kernels having a polished white sheen on the surface and a 
characteristic bean shape. Stock which is mashed, cracked, specked, rough, 
brown in color, dirty, or uneven in color is not acceptable. Toughness, foreign 
odor and flavor are cause for rejection. 
(h) Puffed wheat. Kernels should be uniform light color and size. Tough- 
ness, foreign odor and flavor are not permitted. A well-prepared product con- 
tains few if any mashed kernels and is reasonably free of chaff. Dirty stock 
is not acceptable. 
(3) Storage. Packaging which affords desired protection against moisture, 
light, and dirt is readily procurable on any market and should offer no obstacles. 
Cereals of this type are deleteriously affected by exposure to high temperatures 
and humidity. They should be stored in cool, dry, well-ventilated storage where 
direct rays of the sun cannot fall on them. Under normal temperature and 
humidity conditions ready-to-eat cereals may be stored safely from 60 to 90 
days. 
b. Mixes. (1) General. Prepared mixes invariably contain some shortening 
and leavening ingredients. In unfinished form they should not possess offensive 
or uncharacteristic odors. On sieving a prepared mix if small pellet-like 
bodies are observed, they indicate an old product in which the leavening agent 
has been affected injuriously by being withdrawn from mechanical incorporation 
with the other ingredients. Such mixes will not produce a good product. The 
final and conclusive test of acceptability is baking. The resulting product should 
possess characteristic odor and flavor, good volume without excessive shortness 
or tendency to crumble when cut, and should keep well under normal circum- 
stances. 
(2) Storage. All prepared mixes, both bread and pastry, are adversely af- 
fected by light and high temperatures. They also are highly susceptible to insect 
infestation and development of off-odors or rancidity. Storage should be dry 
and at temperatures not in excess of 70° F. 
(3) Inspection, (a) Buckwheat pancake flour. A good product is slightly 
dark in color and has an even distribution of small dark specks of buckwheat 
flour. Pale-colored flours are deficient, dark-colored are excessive in buckwheat 
flour content. Granulation should be uniform with very slight graininess. A 
mixture of equal quantities of water and the flour should result in a fairly thick 
batter which does not stick to a properly heated griddle. The cooked cakes 
should possess characteristic buckwheat flavor devoid of stale, flat, greasy, raw, 186 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
burnt, medicinal, or other foreign flavor or color, and should be light, even- 
grained, and tender. Crust color should be a live, even brown uniformly dis- 
tributed over the surface. 
(b) Inspection factors for other pancake or waffle mixtures are identical to 
those of buckwheat mixtures except for color. 
54. Alimentary pastes, a. Types. Alimentary pastes are products prepared from 
semolina or durum wheat, from wheat farina, from flour, or a combination of any 
two or all three. In general, they are of two types, those with not less than 5.5 
per cent in weight upon a moisture-free basis of egg and/or egg yolk solids, and 
those with less than 5.5 per cent on a moisture-free basis of egg and/or egg yolk 
solids. The first is the egg noodle type, while the other makes up the large field 
of macaronis, spaghettis, vermicelli, elbows, shells, alphabets, etc. 
Higher grade products are manufactured wholly from semolina and, except 
in the instance of some foreign-made pastes, are differentiated readily from the 
lower grade pastes made from wheat farina. Use of artificial coloring either in 
the mixture as a coating or as a stain is considered adulteration when any in- 
feriority is concealed. When there is such concealment of inferiority, the mere 
statement of artificial coloring having been used does not operate in favor of 
the product. 
lb. Inspection. (1) Egg noodles. Should be free of dark, brown, dull, gray, or 
pale colors. There should be no cracking (checking) and a minimum of small 
broken pieces. Streaking or presence of dirt is not permissible. On breaking 
the fracture should be a clean, straight break. They should be a rich, bright 
yellow color. 
The cooked product should possess a fresh, rich taste devoid of flat, doughy, 
stale, or rancid flavors. In texture it should retain original shape but in addi- 
tion must be light, tender, and flexible without undue tensility, should retain its 
light creamy yellow color, and should swell or puff slightly. Disintegration is a 
mark of inferiority, 
(2) Macaroni and spaghetti. Macaroni which is tubular in shape has a seam 
along the side. In high quality product this seam seldom splits open at the ends. 
However, spaghetti which is a solid cylinder does not permit inspection in this 
respect. A good grade macaroni or spaghetti has a creamy cast speckled with 
small opaque granules which oftentimes, when on the surface, appear as short, 
glossy white, or brilliant teardrop-shaped streaks. A product made of flour or 
farina or a combination of the two is usually a dull, dirty white or gray or may 
tend to a light brown shade. Because of high tensility of the gluten, a paste 
made of semolina will permit manufacturing a longer rod or tube than is possible 
when using flour or farina. Good spaghetti or macaroni is quite hardy and will 
not break under slight stress. Ordinarily but not necessarily a good quality 
product will bend considerably before breaking and when it does break it parts 
with a snap. If grasped at both ends of the rod and bent it will usually break 
into three or more pieces. Ordinarily the specification requirement of “approxi- 
mately 11 inches in length” should not be modified since acceptance of shorter 
lengths of macaroni invites substitution of lower grade goods. Surface of breaks 
on a good product are clear and glossy. Poor macaroni will break with an 
uneven, ragged surface on each piece. Checking or cracking apparent on the 
surface of the raw product indicates poor drying and it will break or splinter 
at these points when cooked. After cooking, if the product presents an extremely 
roughened surface it is not acceptable. Flattening after cooking indicates poor 
quality. 
Use of soybean flour will usually produce a reddish shade of color. A product 
containing soybean flour is not acceptable. 
Upon holding a piece of spaghetti or macaroni up to the light, if no specks are 
visible it is proof that flour has been used; if artificially colored, immersion in 
water will discolor the water. Alcohol is a better color extractive. 
The best test for macaroni or spaghetti is cooking. After being cooked in 
salty, boiling water until tender (about 25 minutes), it should maintain original 
form, should swell up to twice original size, and should absorb approximately 
three times its weight of water without becoming pasty or sticky. 
c. Storage. Except egg noodles, alimentary pastes will keep for at least 2 
years if stored under ideal conditions. Egg noodles under proper conditions 
should keep well for about 6 months. Both types should be kept in dry storage SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
187 
free of odors. High temperatures (90° F. or above) over sustained storage may 
result in cracking. These products are subject to mustiness in damp storage and 
are highly subject to insect infestation or attack, particularly by weevils. 
55. Crackers. Inspection of crackers is made best by personnel having some 
knowledge of methods generally employed in their manufacture. The most com- 
mon factors employed in inspection of this product are organoleptic. However, 
goods which, because of certain physical attributes outlined below, are suspected 
of low shortening or high moisture content can be proved of inferior quality in 
these two respects only by laboratory procedure. 
a. Soda and oyster crackers, salted and unsalted.. (1) Aroma.. Goods of this 
variety are particularly susceptible to odors of fruits, spices, and improper pack- 
aging materials. Immediately on opening a container note should be made of 
any foreign odor not characteristic of prime goods. Off-odors are objectionable 
and should not be passed on assumption that ventilation will remedy the defect. 
Crackers made from low-quality shortening, either vegetable or animal, will 
eventually develop off-odors which in many instances are associated with fat 
break-down or rancidity. 
(2) Shortening. Crackers having insufficient shortening tend to be tough 
and brittle. Increasing shortening content lowers shelf life in direct proportion 
to amount used. When crushed in the hand crackers should disintegrate in well- 
defined flakes not of sufficient flintiness to stick into and permit suspension from 
the hand when it is inverted. When broken across the grain broken edges should 
reveal a well-developed webbing or loose, open texture. There should be little, 
if any, close-grained, compact bony areas visible. Failure of docker holes to 
penetrate visibly through the cracker is often indication of high moisture con- 
tent, particularly when goods are not hard or brittle. 
(3) Appearance. Pale appearance may indicate: 
(a) Moisture reduction by a drying out process rather than proper baking, 
or 
(b) Acid or raw tasting product. 
Some bakeries attempt to conceal this acid condition by addition of corn sugars 
(dextrose) which will help realize a pleasing, golden brown upper surface or 
“bloom.” When an appreciable percentage of goods is found misshapen, im- 
properly developed, streaked, dirty, burned, or otherwise unappetizing in ap- 
pearance, such finding is cause for rejection. Particular attention should be 
paid the bottom side of the cracker. On this side ordinarily will be found indi- 
cation of insanitary production and handling or improper baking. 
(4) Taste. Upon tasting a cracker, the piece tasted should be held in the 
mouth sufficiently long (about 2 minutes) to permit development of a soapy or 
soda taste if such can be detected. Such taste is evidence of excess soda content. 
In this respect a large number of cracker manufacturers fail to produce a product 
meeting specification requirements. In instances where determination of hydrogen 
ion concentration (pH) can be made, a cracker falling within the bracket (7.2- 
8.6) usually will be acceptable as to soda content. As the pH drops below 7.2 
acidity is accenuated while above 8.6 the characteristic bitter taste of soda be- 
comes so pronounced as to be highly undesirable. 
(5) Container. While packaging requirements specify commercial packag- 
ing, it is not to be assumed that any and every container is acceptable. Good 
commercial usage requires that there be some wrapper or liner which will pro- 
tect goods from the carton board. Carton board is made largely from reclaimed 
waste paper and when of low quality may impart objectionable odors and/or 
flavors to contained goods. A carton made of new materials and not having any 
inside liner may not offer required protection to contents against carton board 
flavors or odors. 
b. Sweet crackers. (1) Graham. Graham crackers should not be cloyingly 
sweet but may have flavor reminiscent of honey. Broken surface should reveal 
open texture without glossy or brittle appearance. On breaking, the piece should 
break into well-defined pieces and should not crumble apart. Extreme shortness, 
toughness, marked resistance to breaking, or a tendency toward bending are not 
permissible. 
(2) Raisin. Raisin-filled crackers must have been mixed in dough state to 
extent that raisins are incorporated within the dough. Spreading of raisins as a 
filler between two cracker surfaces is not acceptable. 188 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
c. Cookies. Cookies, both plain and filled, represent a field of bakery goods 
in which low quality ingredients are disguised most easily. Like all bakery 
products margin of profit on high-grade goods is small and therefore any ap- 
preciable spread in price on any particular type can and probably will be re- 
flected noticeably in goods produced. Flavored goods such as ginger snaps, 
vanilla wafers, etc., where characteristic taste is developed by use of strong 
flavoring agents are well-adapted to use of inferior ingredients disguised by 
acrid or pungent flavoring agents. 
(1) Ginger snaps. Ginger snaps should possess characteristic ginger flavor 
but should not be excessively pungent. They are in some instances byproduct 
cookies, that is, they may be partially composed of stale, scrap, or otherwise 
damaged materials reground and compounded with new materials. Snaps made 
in this manner usually have particles of reused material such as pieces of nut 
meats, spots of jam-like material, fig seeds, etc. A cookie giving evidence of 
such materials is not acceptable. The word “snap” implies that the cookie 
should break briskly with an audible snap but should not bend and tear apart. 
Apparent brittleness producing a snap is not to be construed as meaning that 
this product is naturally flinty or tough. Broken surface should reveal a close, 
even-grained product of uniform color and devoid of dark centers. Burned, 
misshapen, spotted, or streaked stock is not acceptable. Aroma should be char- 
acteristically and pleasingly gingerish, A harsh ginger odor may denote use 
of inferior ginger and possibly concealed inferiority of other ingredients. Color 
should be developed evenly and may tend to shade from medium to dark brown. 
(2) Vanilla wafers. Vanilla wafers should possess characteristic, smooth, 
pleasing vanilla flavor and odor, and should be tender (short) without excessive 
crumbling. Presence of snap as in ginger snaps is characteristic of deficient 
shortening while goods which will permit any considerable bending without 
breaking are usually tough. Color should be an even, golden brown. 
(3) Fig bars. Fig bars may be adulterated. However, cheapening of the 
product will occur most generally by using a cheap grade of fig with an inferior 
dough covering. The baked cookie covering should have flavor characteristic 
of a tender, cake-like product and should not be entirely dependent on filling 
for flavor. 
d. Storage. All sweet crackers and cookies are subject to infestation and mois- 
ture damage. Storage should be in dry and ventilated buildings. Temperatures 
in excess of 85° F. are to be avoided when possible. Storage should not exceed 
6 weeks. 
Section VII 
56. Coffee, a. Species. There are 80 or more species of coffee, though only 3 are 
of commercial importance, Arabica, Liberian, and Robusta. By far the major por- 
tion of commerce coffee is of the Arabica species. This species possesses the 
singular property of producing a bean of different size, color, and flavor peculiar 
to the locality where grown. Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Mexico each pro- 
duce many distinctly different coffees of the Arabica species. 
(1) Arabica produces an almost infinite number of varieties ranging from 
the finest coffees in the world to some of the least desirable. Change in climate, 
altitude, or soil usually works a complete change in appearance, quality, and 
character, thereby producing a new variety. Arabica varies in size, shape, and 
color from a small, round, flinty, silvered, grayish-tan to an extra large, elongated, 
flat, waxy, bluish-green bean. In quality and character it ranges from very poor 
to very fine. 
(2) Liberian usually runs true to form in appearance, quality, and character. 
Beans are medium to large elongated, with the central groove rolled in somewhat 
resembling a Parker House roll. In quality and character it is strong and harsh. 
To one accustomed to a soft or mild coffee, the aroma is decidedly harsh and 
somewhat reminiscent of the odor of scorched leather. 
(3) Robusta is more subject to variations than Liberian but much less so than 
Arabica. Beans are small to medium in size, short, and round, with an occasional 
BEVERAGES SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
189 
flat, elongated bean. Color is gray to grayish-tan. In quality and character it 
varies from strong and harsh to almost neutral. 
(4) Specifications. Regulations and Federal specifications require that coffee 
for the Army will be equal to or better than Santos No. 4, and will be free from 
Rio or other objectionable flavors. Santos is a variety of the Arabica, while Rio 
is a variety of the Maragogipe. Quality and character of Rio coffee are harsh and 
pungent with a distinctive flavor that has been described as sweetish-sourish- 
bitter. Aroma is very pronounced in the brew after cooling. 
(5) Type or class. Because of vagueness and lack of uniformity, the New 
York Coffee Exchange has adopted a definite set of standards for types or classes, 
and a system of grading which is recognized by Federal and State Governments. 
(a) Factors. The term “a coffee” refers to a type or class. Factors that fix 
type or class of any coffee are: 
1. Species. 
2. Subspecies or variety. 
3. Quality. 
4. Character. 
(b) Determination method. These factors are determined by: 
1. Species, appearance. 
2. Subspecies or variety, appearance and cup test. 
3. Quality, appearance and cup test. 
4. Character, cup test. 
b. Grading. (1) Grade definition and designation. Grade is a measure of quality 
agreeing with an established standard or varying therefrom according to a fixed 
scale of differences. Grades are given numerical designations from 1 to 8. The 
numerical grade of a lot is only a factor fixing its value for trading purposes. 
(2) Method. Grading is quite simple as it is purely mechanical; once dis- 
tinguishing the various coffee imperfections is learned nothing more is needed 
except good judgment. 
(a) Imperfection calculation. Imperfection is everything in the coffee which 
is not a normal, well-formed coffee bean. For counting imperfections the black 
bean has been taken as the basic unit, and all other imperfections no matter what 
they may be are calculated in terms of black beans according to the following scale: 
Imperfection 
Number 
Black bean 
equivalent 
Imperfection 
Black bean 
Number equivalent 
Shells or empty pods ... 
2 
1 
Large stone 
1 
5 
1 
Large husk 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 or 3 
1 
Soft or badly milled beans 
2 
1 
Pod 
1 
1 
Small stones 
2 or 3 
1 
Large pod 
1 
2 
(b) Mechanics. The simple mechanics consist of weighing out 1 pound of 
beans, spreading them thinly on a table, then picking out everything that is not 
a normal, well-formed bean. Imperfections thus removed are separated, counted, 
and converted into black beans according to the scale above. The number of 
imperfections per pound that determine numerical grades are as follows: 
Imperfections 
Grade 
number 
Imperfections 
Grade 
number 
1 
55-60 ... 
5 
6 
2 
115-120 . 
6 
13 
3 
200 
7 
28-30 
4 
450 
8 
c. Quality and character. While type and numerical grade of a coffee are factors 
in fixing its value for trading on the New York Coffee Exchange, these classifica- 
tions do not indicate definitely its suitability for any other purpose. For instance, 
a coffee may be a Santos and grade No. 4, but that does not mean that it is ac- 
ceptable as Grade A under the Federal specification. In determining suitability 
of a coffee for any specific use, quality and character are the all-important fac- 
tors; type and numerical grade then merely indicate quality and character to be 
expected. 
(1) Quality. There are two kinds of quality, roasting and cup. 190 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(a) Roasting. Roasting quality means the kind of roast the coffee will pro- 
duce. Coffee has good roasting quality when the beans will roast to a uniform 
color without breaking or splitting, when increase in size is even, and when sur- 
face of the beans is bright and pleasing to the eye. Roasting quality is described as: 
1. Handsome. 
2. Excellent. 
3. Fine. 
4. Good. 
5. Fair. 
6. Rough. 
7. Poor. 
(b) Cup. Cup quality is the combination of sensations that the brew will 
produce through taste buds of the tongue and the olfactory nerves located in the 
upper respiratory passages. It is the combined flavor and aroma when sensed 
simultaneously. The multiplicity of terms used in describing cup quality, both 
desirable and undesirable, are quite confusing to the novice and to attempt a writ- 
ten description of the sensations these terms signify would be as hopeless a task 
as trying to describe color to a person born blind. Applying them correctly can 
be learned only by experience but when once learned they are as definite and as 
easily identified as the distinctive flavor and aroma of a ripe peach. Desirable cup 
quality is termed: 
Mellow. 
Good. 
Rich. 
Excellent. 
Fine. 
Smooth. 
Heavy body. 
Good body. 
Undesirable cup quality takes many forms that result from a variety of causes 
such as type or variety, climate, soil, method of cultivation, harvesting, curing, 
and handling. Terms denoting undesirable cup quality include: 
Rank. 
Hiddy. 
Sour. 
Winy. 
Harsh. 
Rioy or rio flavor. 
Muddy. 
Bitter. 
Medicated. 
Woody. 
Groundy. 
Grassy. 
Flat. 
Musty. 
(2) Character. Character in coffee is the flavor of the brew as determined by 
the sense of taste alone. Character is described as acid, bitter, sweet, and neutral. 
Human taste buds are sensitive to only four flavors, sweet, acid, bitter, and salt. 
In coffee the first three only are applicable. 
(a) Acid. Acid is not, as the term would indicate, undesirable but is highly 
desirable, though some coffees are too acid to make a satisfactory brew unless 
blended with one of less acidity. Acidity is best described as a pleasing astrin- 
gency. Descriptive terms generally used to express degree are high, mild, low, and 
nonacid. 
(b) Bitter. All coffees possess bitterness to a certain degree and a limited 
amount is desirable. It is only when this characteristic is so pronounced as to be 
objectionable that the coffee is termed “bitter.” 
(c) Neutral. Coffee is neutral when it is neither acid, bitter, or sweet to any 
noticeable degree. 
(3) Thin. The term “thin” is often applied to coffee lacking in both quality 
and character. A thin coffee is best described as one that is entirely neutral in 
character and without any pronounced aroma. One authority describes a thin 
coffee as one that lacks everything. 
d. Testing. The first step in testing is to compare appearance of the green bean 
of the sample being tested with a sample of known standard value for that par- 
ticular kind of coffee. The next step is to compare appearance when roasted, then 
appearance and aroma test when it is ground, and finally the most difficult, trial 
of flavor and aroma of the liquid. Great care must be given to roasting samples 
to be examined. Each sample should have the same degree of roast at the same 
temperature. 
(1) Roasting. Roasting is carried out at different temperatures ranging from 
385° to 500° F. During roasting there is a large loss in water and crude fiber due 
to the process of destructive distillation which takes place. Loss in fatty sub- 
stances, ash, and caffeine is quite small. It is well to remember that while weight 
decreases during roasting, volume increases from 25 to 70 per cent, depending upon 
degree to which roasting process is carried. When proper roasting point is 
reached, beans are smelled while still hot, to determine aroma. In some grades 
it is necessary to smell them frequently as they cool, because aroma changes as 
temperature drops. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
191 
(2) Cup. After roasting and grinding, the actual cup test begins. Two 
methods are employed, the blind cup test in which there is no clue to identity of 
the kind being tested, and the open test in which the tester knows beforehand 
particular coffee being tested. The former is the method most generally employed. 
In both methods amount of ground coffee placed in the cup is weighed carefully 
(5 grams to an ordinary teacup) so that strength will be standard. Use freshly 
boiled water. In pouring water exercise care to keep temperature constant in all 
cups so that strength of all will be equal. This is best accomplished by pouring 
water from a large kettle holding four or five times amount of water required to 
fill all the cups. When the water is poured directly on the grounds a crust or 
scum is formed, and before this crust breaks the tester sniffs the aroma. This is 
called the wet smell or crust test and is of great importance. The final step, tasting 
the brew, is the most important. Before actually testing the brew, the tester stirs 
each cup with a spoon and notes aroma. After this stirring all floating grounds 
are skimmed off and a spoonful of the brew is sipped and held in the mouth only 
long enough for the tester to get the full flavor. The tester never swallows the 
brew, merely rolling it around in the mouth and to the base of the tongue and 
then spitting it out. When the brew is first sipped the mouth is closed and held 
closed a few seconds, in this way judging character. The mouth is then opened 
slightly and some air inhaled through both nostrils and mouth. The tester thus 
senses flavor and aroma simultaneously and judges quality. After spitting out the 
brew, the mouth is held closed for a few seconds and lingering flavor sensed. 
Some testers find it helpful to have a glass of cold water and a lighted cigarette 
handy, and after tasting each sample, rinse the mouth with water and take a few 
puffs on a cigarette to remove all flavor and aroma before trying the next sample. 
During testing to determine suitability of coffees for any particular purpose, a 
control cup brewed from a sample of known suitable quality and character is kept 
at hand for comparison with the sample being tested. This procedure is always 
followed in testing bidders’ sample for Army purchases. 
e. Adulteration. The Pure Food law requires labeling of coffee compounds to 
show what the compound contains, and as long as prices are within reason, use of 
adulterants is not profitable. Therefore, adulterated coffee is not apt to be found 
in legitimate trade channels. Exceptionally high prices might encourage un- 
scrupulous dealers to mix cereals, peas, beans, chicory, etc., with roasted or roasted 
and ground coffee, but detection of such adulterants is quite simple. Careful in- 
spection of unground coffee will detect imperfect, split, and defective beans. If 
these have a hard and polished surface they are probably peas or other legumes. 
If they can be crushed to a powder between the fingers they are apt to be balls of 
chicory. Use of a reading glass will aid in detection of adulterants. To detect 
artificial coloring cut through a bean with a sharp knife. If the color is localized 
on the surface and not uniform throughout the cross section, the bean has been 
artificially colored or artifically aged. To test roasted and ground coffee for 
adulterants, place a spoonful on the surface of a glass of clear water; most of the 
coffee grounds will float. Chicory will sink and stain the water a brownish red. 
The coffee bean contains no starch while nearly every adulterating substance does; 
therefore the iodine starch test is valuable. Stir a spoonful of the sample into a 
glass of water and then add a few drops of iodine. If starch is present the water 
will turn blue. 
/. Storage. If properly stored, green coffee will improve with age up to about 
5 years. After that time it tends to become woody and flavorless, degree of de- 
terioration depending upon climatic conditions. High relative humidity and high 
temperatures hasten deterioration. Bags in which green coffee is stored should 
be loosely filled. Should unforeseen circumstances cause absorption of moisture, 
beans will increase in size and cause tightly filled bags to burst. Prime requisites 
for good coffee storage are: 
(1) Dryness. 
(2) Good ventilation. 
(3) Absence of contaminating odors such as paints, oils, soap, tobacco, spices, 
fruits, vegetables, and insecticides. 
(4) Stacking on dunnage at least 4 inches high. Stack so that at least one 
side of each sack will be exposed. 
There will be some shrinkage in green coffee in storage. Under proper storage 
conditions this will be about 2 per cent at the end of 1 year and about 4 per cent 192 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
at the end of 3 or 4 years. Roasted coffee is a highly perishable article and should 
be used as soon as possible after roasting. Roasted and ground coffee should be 
used within 8 days. Roasted unground coffee should be used within 15 days. 
57. Tea. a. Types and grades. Like coffee, there is a large variety in kinds and 
grades of tea. However, all commerce teas fall within one of three general classes 
or types, Black, Green, and Oolong. Each of the three main classifications is sub- 
divided into grades depending upon leaf position on the twig, districts in which 
produced, quality, time of harvesting, etc. 
(1) Black tea leaf grades from highest to lowest are: 
(a) Flowery Orange Pekoe. 
(b) Orange Pekoe. 
(c) Pekoe. 
(d) Pekoe Souchong. 
(e) Souchong. 
Separation into various grades results from the three types of plucking em- 
ployed in harvesting tea and hand-sorting and mechanical sieving during manu- 
facturing process. A “fine plucking” includes only the tip and one or two partly 
matured leaves, and from this plucking Flowery Orange Pekoe and some Orange 
Pekoe are obtained. A “medium plucking” includes the first and second matured 
leaves and from this plucking some Orange Pekoe and the Pekoe are obtained. 
A “coarse plucking” includes the remaining leaves and this plucking is separated 
into Pekoe Souchong and Souchong grades. 
(2) The principal China green tea grades or styles with the corresponding 
black grades are: 
Gr6en grades: Black grades 
Gun powder Flowery Orange Pekoe. 
Imperial Orange Pekoe. 
Young Hyson Pekoe. 
Hyson Pekoe Souchong. 
Hyson Skin or Twankay Souchong. 
b. Grade characteristics. Following is a general description of characteristics 
to be expected of the various grades: 
(1) Gunpowder. Young leaves small to medium in size, rolled into tight balls 
running from the size of a pinhead to that of a pea. 
(2) Imperial. Generally consists of older and coarser leaves. Rolled like 
gunpowder, but considerably looser. 
(3) Young Hyson. Prepared from medium leaves about number three on the 
shoot, tightly rolled and twisted so as to appear like short pieces of wire. 
(4) Hyson. Prepared from older and coarser leaves of each picking. Leaves 
are loosely twisted lengthwise and this style bears the same relation to Young 
Hyson as Imperial does to Gunpowder. 
(5) Hyson Skin or Twankay. Comprises the oldest and coarsest leaves on 
each shoot from all pickings that cannot be converted into other styles. Leaves 
are large, loose, and flat, and vary in color. 
c. Testing. In testing, appearance, feel, and odor of dry leaves will give a fairly 
clear idea of quality that can be expected. Each tea has a certain characteristic 
flavor, color, aroma, and appearance. It is not difficult to learn these characteristics 
and place a tea in one of the general classes. An inspector should not be in- 
fluenced by appearance alone because some of the rough looking teas have the 
finest flavors. 
(a) Black. Black teas should be dry and of a uniform color. The leaf as a 
rule should be thin and tightly rolled. Presence of gray tips adds to quality; 
sticks, stems, stalks, etc., detract from value and teas containing them are ob- 
jectionable. A considerable amount of stalks may be expected in cheap teas; this 
is nothing but wood fiber and is quite evident on infusion. 
(b) Green. Green teas should be dry and a uniform gray color. No mat- 
ter what happens to the style, a tightly rolled leaf is generally an indication 
of young leaves. The finest teas are prepared from the youngest leaves and 
these are susceptible to being tightly rolled. Large, rough, loosely rolled leaves 
as a rule do not produce pleasing beverages. 
Pick up a handful of leaves; they should be dry and crisp and resist breaking SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
193 
when gentle pressure is applied. Moist or damp tea if not already sour will 
soon become so. 
Breathe upon a sample of dry tea and quickly inhale aroma. It should be 
sweet, fresh, and free from obnoxious or foreign odors. 
(c) Cup method. Weigh out exactly 3 grams (use a dime on a pair of small 
balance scales), place in an ordinary cup and cover with water which has boiled 
vigorously for a few minutes. After 3 minutes pour liquor off into a second cup 
and hold leaves in the first cup with the aid of a spoon or a piece of wire cloth. 
Aroma from the hot liquor and from the leaves should be fresh, sweet, and char- 
acteristic of the kind being tested. Avoid teas with sour, musty, and foreign 
odors. Take a teaspoonful of the brew and draw it back upon the palate; after 
a few seconds spit it out without swallowing any. Flavor should be pleasing 
and characteristic. Determination of quality among teas of the same variety is 
made by comparison at infusion, and care should be taken to weigh exact amounts 
and infuse for exactly the same period of time. A very dark to black liquor is 
an indication of poor quality. 
d. Individual characteristics. The following indicates individual characteris- 
tics after infusion of some of the better known teas: 
(1) India. Liquor is dark brown with pungent aroma and astringent flavor. 
Leaves should be a bright copper color. 
(2) Ceylon. Liquor varies from ruby red to mahogany in color. The bland 
oil of lemon aroma and flavor are easily detected. Leaves are copper colored 
but have a greenish cast. 
(3) Congou. Liquor is a reddish brown in color and generally has a toasty 
flavor. Leaves are inclined to be a dirty black color. 
(4) Japan. Liquor is very pale green in color. Some of the finer teas have 
an aroma like new hay, but all of them are distinguished by the metallic taste. 
To one unaccustomed to these teas, flavor and aroma are reminiscent of the fishy 
atmosphere of salt marsh lands. Leaves become nearly natural in shape and color. 
(5) China green. Liquor runs from a yellow to brownish yellow in color. 
Aroma and flavor vary with grade and quality. Leaves assume appearance of 
green leaves, the poor grades showing some black- or brown-edged. 
(6) Formosa Oolong. Liquor varies from amber to brown in color. Flavor is 
delicate and aroma very fragrant; both are characteristic. Leaves indicate poor 
fermenting and poor quality. 
(7) Java and Sumatra. They are all similar to India teas in growth, manu- 
facture, and characteristics. 
e. Adulteration. Tea on the American market is no longer adulterated with 
spent leaves or colored with Prussian blue or indigo because the Federal Gov- 
ernment holds all teas in bond until their quality and purity are determined. 
Those which fail to come up to the standards selected each year are denied entry 
to the United States. While the Government guarantees purity, when it comes 
to quality the buyer must take care. Teas which conform to minimum require- 
ments for entry into this country are neither suitable for the soldier nor for the 
average consumer. 
f. Storage. Storage is a simple matter under conditions usually found at posts, 
camps, and stations. If the following precautions are observed no difficulties 
will be encountered. 
(1) Protect from contaminating odors such as tobacco, oils, paints, onions, 
vinegar, etc. 
(2) Avoid dampness. Humidity in excess of 80 per cent will cause mustiness 
and souring. 
(3) Avoid rough handling as this will break leaves and produce dust. 
(4) Protect from high temperatures. Excessive heat drives off essential oils 
and leaves tea flat and lacking in natural flavor. 
(5) Containers should be kept tightly closed until ready for use. When tea 
is to be issued or sold in smaller quantities than the original chests or cans, 
these should be emptied into a can or bin having a tight-fitting lid and issues 
or sales made therefrom. 
58. Cocoa, a. Inspection. It is believed that the Federal specification for cocoa 
adequately describes characteristics necessary to secure desired material. How- 
ever, cocoa of the “Breakfast Cocoa” type only is permissible for Army use. The 194 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
“German” or “Dutch” types, usually easily distinguished by their darker color, 
may not be purchased for Army use. Inspection should include; 
(1) Color. Should be of a rich deep medium brown. Light brown cocoas 
are usually “stuffed” with sugar, malt, starch, etc. Dark brown cocoa is usually 
“Dutched,” that is, alkaline treated before or during roasting process. 
(2) Texture. Grittiness or graininess indicates poor or incomplete manu- 
facturing processes or adulteration. Grittiness is not permissible. 
(3) Flavor. Flavor should be characteristic of unsweetened or otherwise 
artificially flavored cocoa. 
(4) Lumping. Lumping to extent of rendering product difficult to use is not 
permissible. 
b. Storage. Protect from: 
(1) Heat. Temperatures above 75° F. should be avoided. 
(2) Light. Light tends to hasten development of rancidity and produces 
dullness of color. 
(3) Moisture. Dampness will cause lumpiness and molding. 
(4) Insects. Cocoa is subject to attack by insects that attack food in gen- 
eral. If once infested to any appreciable extent the product is ruined. 
Section VIII 
PICKLES, RELISHES, OLIVES, AND SAUCES 
59. Pickles and relishes, a. Sour and sweet pickles. Sour and sweet pickles are 
made from salt stock. In sour pickles salt is reduced by diffusion with vinegar 
to approximately 5 per cent and in sweet pick.es (made from sour) to about 2 
per cent or 3 per cent by diffusion with sugar liquor. Salt stock is the clean, 
sound, immature cucumber preserved in a solution of common salt. 
(1) Dill, (a) Imitation. Imitation dills are also made from salt stock and 
in consequence can be placed on the market at any time of the year. 
(b) Genuine. The genuine dill is made from fresh stock by lactic fer- 
mentation in a weak brine and therefore lacks the keeping qualities of regular 
salt stock. 
(2) Mixed. Mixed pickles usually consist of cut cucumbers, cauliflowers, 
onions, and a few small red peppers. This product is packed either as sweet 
mixed or sour mixed with characteristics similar to sweet or sour pickles. 
(3) Chow-chow. Chow-chow pickles are prepared from small cucumbers, 
cut cucumbers, onions, cauliflower, and occasionally a few tobasco peppers. The 
ingredients are processed in brine, made sour, covered with chow dressing, and 
packed in bottles. Chow dressing may be either sweet or sour. 
b. Relish, sweet. Sweet relish is made from finely divided cucumbers, cauli- 
flower, green tomatoes, and onions. The ingredients are processed in brine, made 
sour, and preserved in sweet liquor made from vinegar and sugar. 
c. Inspection. Care should be exercised that no larger pickle is delivered than 
the specification size. Individual pickles should be uniform in shape, almost 
cylindrical with rounded ends, fairly smooth, fairly uniform in color, that is, a 
bright green. Sweets are darker green than sours. Pickles should be firm, not 
slippery, and break with a snap. They should be free from hollow or spongy 
centers. On splitting the cucumber from end to end color should be uniform 
throughout and there should be no gas pockets. 
Containers should be tight and not leaking. 
d. Storage. Sour pickles in kegs will tend to become soft in 3 or 4 months. 
In cans they will keep 6 to 8 months. Sweet pickles will keep somewhat longer. 
Genuine dills are poor keepers. Pickles packed in glass should be kept out of 
the light. 
Pickles should be protected from freezing. Kegs should be treated the same 
as for vinegar to prevent leaks. 
60. Olives, a. Green. (1) General. Practically all green olives sold in the United 
States come from Spain. Two varieties are employed in making green olives, 
the Queen (Sevillana or Gordal) and the Manzanilla. The flesh of the Man- 
zanilla is tender, the skin can be made to feather off, and the fruit is comparatively 
easy to pit. The Queen is darker green, larger, pointed instead of rounded, flesh SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
195 
is coarser, more fibrous, brittle, and the pit is difficult to separate from the flesh. 
For fancy glass-packed fruits, jars are packed by means of a long slender stick 
called “stick pack” or “placed.” “Loose pack” consists of merely dropping olives 
into the jar and tapping it lightly to settle. 
(2) Inspection, (a) Care should be exercised that olives are size specified. 
(b) A white deposit showing indicates fermentation was not complete dur- 
ing pickling. Olives so affected are not injured but should not be purchased as 
consumer will refuse to accept them. 
(c) A bacterial decomposition known as zapateria is indicated by an of- 
fensive odor. 
(d) Scum on top of liquid indicates slack filling or minute leaks. 
(3) Storage. Green olives should keep for 1 year in dark, cool storage. In 
too warm storage fermentation may set in and sufficient gas developed to force 
the lid. The brine also has a corrosive effect on the lid causing pinholes or 
rusting of edges where they come in contact with the brine. 
b. Stuffed (pimiento). (1) General. Usually Manzanillas are employed, al- 
though occasionally Queen olives are stuffed. Small strips of pimiento are folded 
and stuffed into the olive by hand. The olives are then placed in brine and left 
in the sun until the pimientoes are cured. 
(2) Inspection. Same as for green olives. Pimiento should be a bright red 
and liquid practically free from small bits of pimiento. 
(3) Storage. Same as for green olives. 
c. Ripe. (1) Inspection. Should be uniform in color, size, and free from 
marked, bruised, or damaged fruit. Dark color should be localized near skin 
and flesh should be light colored and tender but not soft. Flavor should be rich 
and not “scorched,” free from bitterness. Varieties that separate readily from 
pit are more desirable. 
(2) Storage. Cool. Frequent inspections should be made for pinholes and 
rust. 
61. Sauces, a. Worcestershire. (1) General. Worcestershire sauces are prepared 
from a base of vinegar and soy sauce. The soy sauce when first mixed with 
the spices produces a harsh, disagreeable flavor that disappears by aging in 
hardwood barrels. This harshness can be overcome to a certain extent by long 
cooking, but best sauces are made by a short cook and long aging. 
(2) Inspection. Should be compared for flavor with a known acceptable 
sample. Should be free from harsh flavor of raw soy sauce. Containers should 
be well sealed. 
(3) Storage. Will keep in ordinary storage for 1 year. 
b. Mustard (prepared). (1) General. Two varieties of mustard seed used are 
yellow or white, and black or brown. The blend will vary according to the 
ideas of the manufacturer. 
(a) English is made from yellow seed mixed with garlic, vinegar, and 
black pepper. 
(b) German is prepared from brown seed mixed with vinegar and salt. 
(c) French is prepared from yellow seed and mixed with spices and vinegar, 
with or without salt. 
(2) Inspection. When mustard flour is used in manufacture of prepared 
mustard, mustard bran or cornstarch and turmeric are added as a filler. Tur- 
meric is added to give color to cover other defects. 
Prepared mustard should have a smooth, heavy body with very little fre° 
liquid at top of container. Seeds should have an even and uniform grind, and 
be free from fiber. Black and white specks indicate an uneven grind or poor 
quality seeds. 
(3) Storage. Store in a dark, cool place. Light will bleach color. Warm 
temperatures will separate ingredients and cause loss of strength. 
c. Tomato. (1) General. In manufacture of tomato catsup, tomatoes are 
washed, trimmed, and then sent to a pulner which consists of a stationary cyl- 
inder screen with holes small enough to prevent anv seeds and skm from passing. 
In manufacture of chili sauce tomatoes are handled in a similar way except that 
pulpers have screens large enough to allow seed to nass through. The best 
catsups and chili sauces are made from raw pulp of whole tomatoes and in one 
cooking. 196 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
(2) Inspection. Specific gravity of tomato catsup varies from 1.085 for poor 
grade to 1.17 for a good product. Consistency should be heavy, smooth, and 
thick. It should show no sign of separating or clotting. A drop of tomato catsup 
placed on a piece of dry kraft paper will remain globular for several minutes 
before there is any appreciable absorption by the paper. 
The specific gravity of chili sauce should be between 1.14 and 1.20. 
Both catsup and chili sauce should have a natural red tomato color. Paleness 
or any suggestion of yellow indicates use of sun-scald or green tomatoes. Dark 
red or brown color indicates over-cooking or overprocessing. Paprika added to 
give color can be detected by spreading a thin layer on glass. The small particles 
of paprika can be seen by the naked eye. Black neck or darkening at the top 
of bottles is an indication of improper sealing and is cause for rejection. 
Products should have a characteristic catsup or chili sauce flavor free from 
metallic, medicated, or musty flavors. 
(3) Storage. Bottled products should be stacked upside down and kept in 
cases or boxes to protect from light. Good catsup or chili sauce properly packed 
will keep for 1 year. 
Section IX 
SEASONING AGENTS 
62. Salt. a. General. Free-running salt for cartons is kept in its finely divided, 
dry state by use of dries which are usually magnesium carbonate or calcium 
phosphate, only a fraction of 1 per cent being needed. 
Some state health authorities, especially in the so-called “goiter belt” of the 
middle west, request refiners to add iodine to all table salt packed in retail 
packages. Iodine is added in the form of sodium iodine or potassium iodide. 
b. Inspection. Table salt containing impurities may have an undesirable flavor, 
off color, or may cake badly. 
A simple test for cleanliness may be made by dissolving 5 pounds of salt in 
3 gallons of distilled, filtered water. Filter solution through a white filler disc. 
Any insoluble foreign matter will show on filter disc. 
c. Storage. Salt should be stored in a dry place to prevent the absorption of 
moisture. Salt bags or barrels should be stacked on dunnage to allow free cir- 
culation of air. Salt in moistureproof cartons and containing an agent to prevent 
caking will cake if exposed to moisture-laden air for 3 to 4 months. 
63. Vinegar. (1) General, (a) Cider. Cider vinegar is made by alcoholic and 
subsequent acetous fermentations of apple juice. 
(h) Distilled. Distilled vinegar is made by acetous fermentation of dilute 
distilled alcohol. 
(c) Mailt. Malt vinegar is made by alcoholic and subsequent acetous fer- 
mentations without distillation of an infusion of barley malt or cereals whose 
starch has been converted by malt. 
(2) Inspection. Vinegar should be examined for the following parasites 
and defects: 
(a) Mother of vinegar is a mass of adjoining cells swelled into a cohesive 
mucilaginous jelly. This formation is due to bacteria present in unsterilized 
vinegar. 
(b) Vinegar eel is a long, slender, eel-like parasite infecting only vinegar 
or other mediums in which acetic acid is present. It is about 1/25 inch in length 
tapering out to a thread-like tail. It is noticeable to the naked eye as a wriggling, 
threadlike organism, usually on or near surface of the liquid. Presence of vinegar 
eels indicates lack of sanitation in manufacture and lack of sterilization in bot- 
tling or barreling. 
(c) Vinegar mites are minute pests not readily detected by the naked eye. 
In vinegar affected by mites their bodies may show up as fine white specks on 
the surface. Presence of these mites in quantity imparts a musty odor and flavor. 
(3) Storage. Where available, basement storage is the best since it is cool 
and moist. Containers should be protected from extreme heat and direct rays 
of the sun. They should also be protected from freezing. Ideal temperature is 
between 40° and 50° F. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
197 
Kegs and barrels may be stored on end or on bilge. If stored on bilge, they 
should be placed with the bung up, but enough to one side to keep bung moist. 
If stored on end, water should be kept in chimes at all times. Each keg or barrel 
should be turned or reversed once every 3 weeks. Hoops should be kept tight 
at all times and painted with red lead to prevent rust. Vinegar flies are a storage 
pest. The fly is readily distinguished by its large red eyes, long glittering wings, 
and black and yellow-striped abdomen. It is very small and difficult to keep out. 
The best means of combating this fly are by cleanliness, light, and fine-mesh 
screens. 
64. Spices, a. General. Spices depend upon their essential oils to impart their 
taste to foods. Essential oils waste away by evaporation at ordinary temperature. 
When they become thoroughly dried out and odorless they have lost ability to 
impart their taste to foods. 
Grading spices is different in almost every case. The different grades are 
identified by places of origin or the port from which the spices are shipped. 
b. Inspection. Inspection consists of an examination for freshness and a com- 
parison with a sample of known quality for color, quality, odor, and flavor. These 
samples should be changed every 3 months so that they will be fresh. Oily 
spices show caking or lumping with age. Certain spices are subject to mold if 
kept in damp places. 
c. Storage. Spices should be stored in a cool, dry place. Evaporation of the 
volatile oils and insect infestation are the principal causes for deterioration. 
Three months is considered a feasible time for storing ground spices under 
proper storage conditions. Whole spices are better keepers and may be stored 
for a period of 6 months without loss of flavor. 
65. Flavoring extracts, a. General. Flavoring extracts are derived from two 
sources, plants, known as “true extracts,” and chemical compounds that produce 
desired flavor and aroma or any source other than the plant for which the extract 
is named. Such flavors are called “synthetic” or imitation flavors. 
(1) Concentrated are extracts in which proportion of menstruum is reduced. 
It may be either genuine or imitation. 
(2) Nonalcoholic flavors are made by mixing either a true or synthetic flavor 
with various carrying agents as cottonseed oil, gums, etc. 
(3) Terpeneless of lemon and orange is the flavoring extract from which all 
or nearly all of the terpenes have been removed. 
b. Inspection. Inspection is largely a matter of chemical analysis. There are 
times when circumstances will not permit sending a sample to the depot for 
analysis. Under these circumstances the most satisfactory method of making a test 
is by comparison with another sample of known strength and purity. The follow- 
ing tests are recommended for that purpose: 
(1) Vanilla. Make a 5-per cent solution of unknown and the known samples 
by adding 6 teaspoonsful of flavor to a pint of water. All ingredients should be 
at room temperature. Taste samples and compare with flavor of known sample. 
None of the liquid should be swallowed and the mouth should be rinsed with 
fresh water after tasting each sample. 
(2) Lemon and orange. Comparison of aromatic strength of several samples 
may be made by placing a few drops of each upon clean pieces of white blotting 
paper and allowing them to stand a few minutes for the alcohol to evaporate. 
Careful smelling of the different samples will determine which has the strongest 
aroma. In this test the true extract will show a reddish-lavender ring around the 
edge and the inner surface of the ring will be comparatively smooth. A terpeneless 
extract will not produce any discoloration around the edge of the ring and the 
surface of the blotter inside the ring (drop) will appear roughened and raised. 
If several drops of true lemon extract are dropped in a glass of cold water, they 
immediately produce a slight milky appearance in the water with a whitish vapor 
visible on the surface. An oily film will appear on the surface. Terpeneless ex- 
tracts when dropped in cold water diffuse with little or no milkiness. Section X 
SWEET PRODUCTS 
66. Sirup and molasses. Field inspection of sirup and molasses is confined to 
Baume hydrometer readings for sugar content as provided in applicable specifica- 
tions and to examination for characteristic taste and oder. Sharp acrid or bitter 
taste is accentuated when lowgrade ingredients are used. Presence of excessive 
corn sirups in a blend can be detected ordinarily by drawing a knife or spoon 
through a shallow container to detect characteristic corn sirup rippling on the 
surface. Presence of foreign materials of any kind is not permissible. Molasses 
will vary from a golden brown color in better grades to black in lowest grades. 
67. Honey. Honey must be of characteristic odor and flavor of the kind it pur- 
ports to represent. Color will be specified in bids (see F. S. C-H-571). In addi- 
tion to detailed requirements under applicable specification, presence of comb or 
sugar crystals is not permissible. Adulteration in honey is confined to artificially 
prepared invert sugars, cane sugar, gelatin, molasses, and glucose. Honey adulter- 
ated with glucose containing copperas reacts to tea or any liquid containing tannin 
by turning an inky black. Adulteration of comb honey is rare. Adulteration of 
strained honey is not ordinarily readily determinable except by chemical analysis. 
68. Candy, a. Hard. Should be well-flavored, free of excessive misshapen pieces, 
and should have a high, glossy finish. 
b. Filled hard. Should be well-flavored, have thin shells and soft centers. Thick 
shells and gummy centers indicate inferior goods. 
c. Caramels. Should have a definite flavor, smooth in texture, free of graininess 
indicating sugar crystallization, and not tough or hard. 
d. Cream centers. Coatings should be evenly applied and fairly thick. Centers 
of a bluish or grayish cast or that are soggy indicate poor quality. Centers should 
part when pulled apart and should not stretch as does gum. Candied cherry 
centers and centers having various wines as flavoring ingredients are somewhat 
susceptible to sogginess by their very nature. 
e. Chocolate coated. Chocolate used should be mild and pleasant to the taste. 
Dark coatings harsh and bitter to the taste, when used on a candy not ordinarily 
bitter by intent, are usually poor quality. 
/. Milk chocolate coatings. Should be definitely milky in taste but should not be 
too light in color. Milk coatings which are sugary are not high quality. 
All chocolate coatings should be smooth and bland to the taste and should have 
a glossy appearance. 
Candies which are streaked, faded, crushed, gummy, or mucilaginous to the 
touch are not acceptable. Hard candies should permit extraction from containers 
in individual pieces and should not be stuck into a mass not permitting easy ex- 
traction. 
69. Chocolate. Chocolate which has been subjected to high temperatures is prone 
to “bloom”; that is, to undergo a separation of fat and nonfatty solids. The fat 
will rise to the top while other solids will sink to the bottom. Any such damage 
is cause for rejection. Chocolate evidencing a mottled or speckled appearance has 
been damaged by moisture absorption and should not be accepted. 
Good quality chocolate is firm and smooth in texture and devoid of all grittiness 
or harsh foreign material. Inspection factors are identical for both plain and 
vanilla-flavored, sweetened chocolate except taste. 
70. Jam. Jams must possess characteristic good flavor and color. Common 
causes for rejection are poor consistency attendant in runny, “weepy,” or watery 
products, and toughness often due to overprocessing or addition of excess pectin in 
an effort to bolster up some deficiency known or suspected to exist in raw ma- 
terials. Jams should be firm but should not offer marked resistance to penetration 
by a sharp edge. When poured from the can or jar there should be a slight 
“mounding” or piling up of the product which, after some time, will disappear. 
Jams should not be transparent as are jellies but should be translucent to a 
considerable degree. Presence of sugar crystallization is not permissible. Aroma 
should be pleasant and in no instance foreign to type being examined. Foreign 
material such as stems, peelings, cores, etc., are not permissible. Scorched products 
should not be accepted. 
198 SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
199 
Preserves are, in effect, jams in which individual pieces of fruit meats are 
large or have not been reduced to a pulp. 
71. Jelly. Like jams, jellies must possess characteristic good flavor and color. 
Common causes for rejection are crystals. Jellies are susceptible to crystalliza- 
tion of fruit sugars more readily than jams and preserves. Presence of crystals 
is recognized readily by touch or by gritting between the teeth. Since jellies are 
made from fruit juices with possible addition of pectin, there should be no cloudi- 
ness or apparent foreign material. The product may be transparent to translucent. 
It should be of a gelatin-like consistency on removal from the container and 
should show no excess free liquid. When cut with a knife it should offer but 
slight resistance and should fall away from the cutting edge without evidence of 
stickiness or mucilaginous adherence. Toughness is not to be confused with firm- 
ness. Toughness is best recognized by tapping the side of the mound or shaped 
mass with the flat of a knife. When the effect is that of a rubber-like resiliency 
the jelly is tough. Only extreme toughness is easily recognized when the product 
is eaten. A jelly of proper consistency will offer some resistance to spreading but 
is capable of being blended or smoothed over the cut surface of reasonably firm 
bread without undue effort. 
72. Storage, a. Honey and sirup. Honey is subject to deterioration when ex- 
posed to light when packed in glass. All sirups, etc., except maple should be 
stored in moderate storage varying up to 75° F. These products are very stable 
when not exposed to light and keep well for at least 6 months. Maple sirup 
should be kept in cold storage when opened. When unopened, it is stable at 
ordinary storage temperatures. 
b. Candy. All candies are deleteriously affected by excessive light and prolonged 
temperatures above 75° F. A good storage temperature is about 50° F. without 
excessive humidity. All candies are subject to infestation and must be handled 
carefully to prevent undue damage. Chocolate candies stored at 50° to 55° F. 
should be raised in temperature slowly until a temperature of approximately 
75° F. is reached. Abrupt rises in temperature usually result in condensation of 
moisture on surface of candies and a consequent spotting. Hard candies packed in 
glass will lose external gloss if exposed to sunlight, and are deleteriously affected 
in storage temperatures above 85° F. Candies having nut meats as an ingredient 
should be examined systematically for insect infestation. Candy centers con- 
taining cordials, for example, chocolate-coated cherries, cannot be stored safely 
for a period in excess of 45 days. 
c. Chocolate. Chocolate, a product which contains a large percentage of fat, is 
affected adversely by light as is cocoa. Deterioration is accelerated in storage 
permitting temperatures higher than 70° F. or by subjugation to light over any 
considerable period of time. 
d. Jams and jellies. All these products are deleteriously affected by exposure 
to light. Those containing seeds are particularly apt to develop hydrogen gas and 
have side seams of cans forced open. A shipment of jam in which the contents 
of one or several cans have contaminated other cans should be rejected. When 
burst cans contaminate stocks on hand, cans so damaged must be removed and 
all others on which leakage has occurred should be washed or otherwise thoroughly 
cleaned. Storage temperatures above 85° F. are to be avoided. 
Section XI 
73. Definitions (United States Department of Agriculture), a. General. (1) 
Flesh is any edible part of the striated muscle of an animal. The term “animal” 
as used in this manual indicates a mammal, a fowl, a fish, a crustacean, a mollusk, 
or any other animal used as a source of food. 
(2) Meat is the properly dressed flesh derived from cattle, swine, sheep, or 
goats sufficiently mature and in good health at time of slaughter, but is restricted 
to that part of the striated muscle which is skeletal or that which is found in the 
tongue, diaphragm, heart, or esophagus, and does not include that found in the 
lips, snout, or ears with or without accompanying and overlying fat, and the por- 
tions of bone, skin, sinew, nerve, and blood vessels which normally accompany 
MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS 200 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
flesh and which may not have been separated from it in process of dressing for 
sale. The term “meat” when used in qualified form as, for example, “horse meat,” 
“reindeer meat,” “crab meat,” etc., is then and then only properly applied to cor- 
responding portions of animals other than cattle, swine, sheep, and goats. 
(3) Fresh meat is meat which has undergone no substantial change in char- 
acter since time of slaughter. 
h. Meats. (1) Food animals, (a) Beef. Cattle nearly 1 year of age or older. 
(h) Veal. Young cattle 1 year or less of age. (Minimum limits governing 
age or weight or both of veal and lamb have been fixed by certain States and 
municipalities in the case of calves and lambs to be slaughtered for meat.) 
(c) Mutton. Sheep nearly 1 year of age or older. 
(d) Lamb. Young sheep 1 year or less of age. 
(e) Pork. Swine. 
(/) Venison. Deer. 
(2) Byproducts are any properly dressed edible parts other than meat which 
have been derived from one or more carcasses of cattle, swine, sheep, or goats 
sufficiently mature and in good health at time of slaughter. 
(3) Prepared meats. Prepared meat is the product obtained by subjecting 
meat to a process of comminuting, drying, curing, smoking, cooking, seasoning, or 
flavoring, or to any combination of such processes. 
(a) Cured meat, is obtained by a process of salting, the employment of dry 
common salt or of brine, with or without use of one or more of the following: 
sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, potassium nitrate, sugar, dextrose, a sirup, honey, 
spice. 
(b) Dry salt meat has been cured by application of dry common salt, with 
or without use of one or more of the following: sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, 
potassium nitrate, sugar, dextrose, a sirup, honey, spice; with or without injec- 
tion into it of a solution of common salt to which may have been added one or 
more of the following; sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, potassium nitrate, sugar, 
dextrose, a sirup, honey. 
(c) Corned meat has been cured by soaking in, with or without injecting 
into it a solution of common salt, with or without one or more of the following, 
each in its proper proportion: sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, 
sugar, dextrose, a sirup, honey, and with or without use of spice. 
(d) Sweet pickled meat has been cured by soaking in, with or without in- 
jecting into it a solution of common salt, with sugar and/or dextrose, a sirup, 
and/or honey, together with one or more of the following, each in its proper pro- 
portion: sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, and with or without 
the use of spice. 
(e) Dried meat is obtained by subjecting fresh or cured meat to a process 
of drying, with or without aid of artificial heat until a substantial portion of the 
water has been removed. 
(/) Smoked meat is obtained by subjecting fresh, dried, or cured meat to 
direct action of smoke either of burning wood or similar burning material. 
(g) Canned meat is fresh or prepared meat packed in hermetically sealed 
containers with or without subsequent heating for purpose of sterilization. 
(h) Hamburg, “Hamburger steak,” is comminuted fresh beef with or with- 
out addition of suet and/or seasoning. 
(i) Potted or deviled meat is obtained by comminuting and cooking fresh 
and/or prepared meat with or without spice, and is usually packed in hermetically 
sealed containers. 
(j) Sausage meat is fresh or prepared meat, or a mixture of fresh and pre- 
pared, and is sometimes comminuted. The term “sausage meat” is sometimes ap- 
plied to bulk sausage containing no meat byproducts. 
74. Inspection, a. Authorized agencies. (1) The Bureau of Animal Industry 
United States Department of Agriculture, makes inspections of all meats and meat 
products entering interstate or foreign commerce for soundness and fitness for 
food. All carcasses passed for food are marked on each primal part (wholesale 
cut) with a stamp bearing the inspection legend “U. S. Inspected and Passed” or 
an abbrevation thereof, and the establishment number. The inspection legend 
guarantees that at the time it left Government supervision the meat or meat 
product was sound, wholesome, and fit for human food. At no time should meats for Army use be accepted unless they have been inspected ante mortem and post 
mortem by the Bureau of Animal Industry or other authorized inspection agency. 
(2) The Veterinary Corps, United States Army, is charged by regulations 
with the inspection of meats and meat products purchased for the Army, for 
compliance with specification requirements. Where possible such inspections are 
made at the packing plant, and otherwise upon delivery at points where repre- 
sentatives of the Veterinary Corps are assigned. 
b. Grades and standards. (1) The Agricultural Marketing Service, United States 
Department of Agriculture, conducts a grading service for fresh carcass beef and 
wholesale market cuts. Such grading is done in conformity with grades established 
by that bureau. Department of Agriculture grades are not generally used by 
packers except where such grading is demanded by consumer or retailer. 
(2) Grades for fresh beef have been established by the Institute of American 
Meat Packers, and are used by practically all members of the institute. They 
differ from the Department of Agriculture grades in that there are three more 
grades in the former than in the latter. 
(3) Definitions and standards for lard, hams, bellies, and other pork products 
have been promulgated by Boards of Trade, notably the Chicago Board of Trade. 
These standards govern quality, style of cutting, etc., of such products dealt in 
on such boards. 
(4) Packers have adopted brand names for carcass beef, lard, smoked meats, 
canned meats, etc., each brand name designating definite qualities, standards for 
which are set up by individual packing plants. Since brand names are copy- 
righted and adapted to products of individual firms, they are of little value to the 
inspector unless he is familiar with the standards set for such brands. 
c. References. Wherever possible inspection of meats and meat products for com- 
pliance with specification requirements and suitability for service use should be 
made at the packing plant. Since this inspection is a function of the Veterinary 
Corps, inspection procedure is not given here. Personnel interested in this phase 
of inspection are referred to the following publications: 
Military Meat and Dairy Hygiene—Eakins. 
Subsistence Bulletin No. 18—Fresh Meats. 
Subsistence Bulletin No. 5—Packing House By-Products. 
Subsistence Bulletin No. 17—Cured and Smoked Meats. 
United States Department of Agriculture: 
Circular No. 228, Market Classes & Grades of Pork Carcasses and Fresh 
Pork Cuts. 
Circular No. 208, Market Classes and Grades of Yearling Beef, 
Circular No. 103, Market Classes and Grades of Calves and Dressed 
Veal. 
Bulletin No. 1246, Market Classes and Grades of Dressed Beef. 
Bulletin No. 1470, Market Classes and Grades of Dressed Lamb and 
Mutton. 
Institute of American Meat Packers, Standard Beef Grading System, 
d. Equipment. Reinspection of meats at delivery point should be made by a 
representative of the Veterinary Corps where one is available; where none is 
available, that duty usually devolves upon the Quartermaster Corps. Reinspection 
is concerned most particularly with soundness, net weight, condition, etc. The 
following inspection equipment is required for reinspection of meats: 
(1) Fresh meats. Platform scale for weighing heavy commodities such as beef 
quarters, etc. 
(2) Smoked meats. Meat trier, a polished steel blade about 7 inches long 
and about % inch thick at the base and tapering to a blunt point at the free 
end, set securely in a wooden handle. A pitchfork tine makes an ideal trier blade. 
(3) Canned meats, (a) Can opener, either stationary or portable. 
(h) White enamel lined pans or other suitable containers to display can 
contents. 
(c) Refrigerator to chill certain products designed for slicing. 
(4) Sausage. Sharp knife. 
(5) Lard and lard substitutes, (a) Stove or gas or electric plate or burnei 
with which to melt and heat product. 
(h) Bottles of clear glass in which to inspect for color. 
SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
201 202 
75. Beef. Reinspection of fresh beef at delivery point should take into con- 
sideration net weight of quarters or wholesale cuts or packages, equal numbers 
of hinds and fores, proportionate weights of hinds and fores and of wholesale 
market cuts, and freedom from bruises, sliminess, sourness, or other evidence of 
deterioration. 
a. Net weight. Quarters, wholesale cuts, and packages of fresh or frozen beef 
are weighed at time of packing and net weight applied by means of a stencil on 
coverings or by an attached card. Beef suffers progressive shrinkage in the cooler 
or freezer. When held for a considerable time before delivery, there may be 
considerable discrepancy between marked net and actual weight. For quarters held 
in a freezer for a period of 6 months, this discrepancy may be as much as 3 per 
cent. In fresh chilled beef the difference should not exceed one-half of 1 per cent. 
At delivery time all meats should be weighed and weights checked with the 
marked weights. Test of a representative number of units (quarters, etc.) should 
be made to determine average tare (covering). When purchased subject to accep- 
tance at delivery point any shortage should be claimed by the Government. 
b. Number of hinds and fores. When purchased in quarters, equal numbers of 
hinds and fores should be delivered. The hind quarter carries a higher percentage 
of more valuable cuts and has less inedible portion (bone, tendons, etc.) than 
does the fore quarter, hence it is more desirable in the kitchen and is in greater 
demand in trade. Reinspection should insure delivery of hinds and fores in equal 
numbers. 
c. Proportionate weights of hinds and fores and of wholesale cuts. Because of 
greater market value of hind quarters care should be taken to check proportionate 
weights of hinds and fores delivered. Specification PP-B-221 sets forth pro- 
portionate weights of hinds and fores under various methods of ribbing. When 
hinds of minimum weight are delivered corresponding fores should be of minimum 
weight also. The same is true of wholesale beef cuts. Subsistence School Bulletin 
No. 33, Fresh Meats, lists beef cuts in the order of their usual normal market 
value and gives proportionate weight of each cut. Where use of all cuts is con- 
templated they should be in proportionate weights as found in carcass. 
d. Coverings. The purpose of covering beef is to protect it from contamination 
by dirt, filth, insects, etc. Coverings for Army delivery should be ample and of 
such quality that complete protection is afforded. Heaviest coverings are neces- 
sary for frozen beef because of the harder usage they receive. Coverings for 
fresh beef may vary from none to complete wrapping or sewing in paper, stock- 
inette, muslin or burlap, varying with length of haul, number of handlings, ex- 
posure to air, length of storage, etc. Coverings should be those prescribed in 
invitations for bids. 
e. Soundness and condition. (1) Bruises. Soundness and condition refer to pres- 
ence or absence of such factors as bruises, sliminess, sourness, blood clots, flesh 
firmness, etc. Bruises occur before the animal is killed and consist of injured, 
tissues and ruptured blood vessels with infiltration of blood into the bruised area. 
Bruises are important because they result in waste since bruised areas must be 
trimmed way, and because the blood in bruised areas is not stable and decom- 
poses sooner than sound tissue. Bruises are usually the result of rough handling 
and are found most commonly on prominent body parts such as point of the hip. 
While small surface bruises are easily trimmed way without appreciable loss, all 
bruises should be viewed with suspicion and bruised carcasses accepted with 
caution. For example, a bruise at the hip point may result in infiltration of blood 
along the pelvic bone and into the loin muscle. Bruises that require much 
trimming result in decreased percentage of edible portion and corresponding 
increase in proportion of bone. Such carcasses and cuts should be rejected when 
offered for Army use. Rounds or other beef cuts showing large blood clots should 
be rejected. 
(2) Spotters. “Spotters” are beef carcasses in which small blood spots appear 
throughout muscle tissue. The spots occur only in carcasses of better grades, and 
are the result of rupture of muscle fibers due to unusual muscular effort put forth 
during loading, unloading, and marketing of the cattle. Spots may vary from the 
size of a pinpoint to as much as Vz inch in diameter. In the uncut side it is best 
observed in the flank or the skirt; after ribbing, in the eye of loin or rib; after 
cutting, on any cut surface. In the uncut side spotters can be overlooked easily. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
203 
Spotters should not be accepted for Army use unless the spots are small and very 
few in number. While not injurious to health, presence of blood reduces keeping 
qualities of the meat. 
(3) Sliminess. Sliminess is the result of bacterial growth and is evidence of 
lack of proper temperature and moisture control in the refrigerator. Sliminess is 
usually first noticed on those parts where circulation of air is most restricted such 
as underneath skirt and hanging tenderloin, and on the inside of the flank. 
Sliminess is evidenced by moist, sticky surfaces accompanied by a distinct odor 
which in advanced cases may become very offensive. When offered for Army 
acceptance slimy beef should be rejected since it indicates faulty handling. How- 
ever, sliminess is a surface condition and when developed on beef in organization 
ice boxes, unless extensive or of long standing, is of little importance since it can 
usually be washed off. At the worst a small amount of surface trimming will 
usually remove evidence of slime. The seriousness of surface slime lies in evi- 
dence that the meat has not been properly handled and as a result, internal 
deterioration not evident on the surface may have taken place. 
(4) Sourness. Beef does not become sour readily if properly chilled promptly 
after slaughter. However, if chilling proceeds slowly or the meat is cut before 
thoroughly chilled, and especially if piled up instead of being hung separately, it 
is apt to become sour. Sourness is largely confined to the hind quarter and 
particularly to the round. Because of the greater thickness of the round, this 
cut chills less slowly than other parts of the carcass, and the deep tissues along 
the thigh bone (femur) and around the hip joint may become sour before chilling 
is completed. Sourness results in offensive odors, the extent of which depends 
upon the extent or degree of sourness. Sourness is ascertained by means of a 
long, steel trier which is inserted into the round to a point near the hip joint. 
Sourness can be detected by smelling the trier immediately after it is withdrawn. 
Ordinarily there is so little sourness that inspection therefor is not carried on as 
routine procedure. Upon cutting, if sour areas are discovered they may be 
trimmed away, or if sourness is extensive, the quarter may be returned to the 
contractor. However, it is necessary that sourness be determined definitely. 
(5) Firmness. Even with modern refrigeration equipment and methods, beef 
does not become well chilled in less than 36 to 48 hours. When carcass beef is 
cut before it is well chilled and muscles set, quarters and wholesale cuts lose their 
shape. While cuts that are misshapen are as nutritious as those that are symme- 
trical, they are not so attractive in appearance and are more difficult to cut 
satisfactorily. Their chief importance is in the implication that the meat was 
inadequately chilled and therefore more prone to early deterioration than well 
chilled beef. Beef showing evidence of inaedquate chilling when received should 
be inspected carefully for soundness. 
/. Tests for frozen heef. Reinspection of frozen beef should cover completeness 
of freezing and evidence of refreezing. Completeness of freezing may be deter- 
mined in one of three ways, by: 
(1) Striking quarter or wholesale cut with an iron bar. If solidly frozen, bar 
will rebound and a resonant sound will be heard; if not solidly frozen, bar will 
not rebound and a dull sound will be given off. 
(2) Boring into meat at thickest part with an augur which will penetrate as 
far as the meat is solidly frozen, but will stop when an unfrozen area is en- 
countered. The augur will not penetrate bone and in boring process bones should 
be avoided. 
(3) Sawing through quarter or cut at thickest part. If solidly frozen, a 
smooth, hard surface resistant to penetration of a trier or other sharp instrument 
will be exposed; if not solidly frozen, cut surface will be ragged and any un- 
frozen areas can be penetrated easily with trier. 
Inspection of frozen meat for condition other than freezing can be done only 
after thawing. 
g. Color and texture. Color and texture of beef are closely allied to quality, 
condition, and tenderness. Only by experience can an appreciation of the proper 
color of beef be acquired. Normal color of veal is pale pink; as age increases 
flesh becomes a deeper color. Color of mature beef is influenced by sex condition, 
kind of feed received prior to slaughter, condition of animal at time of slaughter, 
temperature at which meat is held, length of time held, and exposure to air. 204 
Steers and heifers usually have maximum fine color (light red). Meat of bulls 
is dark red, while that of stags is intermediate between that of bulls and steers. 
Cow meat usually is a light red resembling that of steers and heifers, but fat of 
cows is always yellow, varying from a tinge to a deep shade. Fat of steers and 
heifers is usually creamy white. Grain feeding, particularly corn, results in firm 
flesh with lively bloom, and firm, white or creamy white fat, while feeding oil 
meal, soybeans, and other oily feeds results in dull, reddish-brown color and soft 
texture of both flesh and fat. Carcasses from cattle fed on grass usually have a 
reddish (fiery) appearance. The grass grown in some districts produces firm, 
white fat, but usually grassfed beef is not as firm nor as white as corn-fed. 
Animals in high stage of excitement or with high temperature at time of 
slaughter do not bleed well and produce dark meat. 
Freshly cut surface is somewhat dark but becomes a lighter color when exposed 
to air for an hour or so. When exposed to air in a cooler over a period of several 
days, the cut surface gradually darkens and becomes quite dark after 3 or 4 weeks 
of aging. When kept at a warm temperature, beef darkens more rapidly than at 
cooler temperature. The cut surface of meat dehydrates and becomes a grayish 
color when exposed to the cold and relatively dry air of a freezer. Extent of 
dehydration and depth of decoloring depend upon length of time in the freezer. 
After 6 months in a freezer the dehydrated area may reach a depth of Vs to V\ 
inch. “Freezer burnt” beef is dry, lacks palatability, and has an unattractive ap- 
pearance. 
“Lively” color and fresh “bloom” usually indicate tenderness, while a dark 
color usually indicates toughness. This is not always true, since at times well-fed 
steer carcasses cut dark and yet may be tender. However, prejudice against dark 
beef reduces grade of dark-cutting, sometimes as much as three grades. Bull meat 
is always dark in color and is always tough. 
Fat of frozen beef changes but little in color and texture during the first 6 
months in the freezer. After 6 months the fat becomes brittle, crumbles easily, 
loses its bloom, and becomes dull in appearance. 
In reinspecting beef for color, consideration should be given to storage condi- 
tions (temperature and humidity), length of time cut and exposed to air, whether 
fresh or frozen, etc. If any doubt exists as to class, grade, and condition, a thin 
slice should be cut from the cut surface and color underneath noted. 
With few exceptions fine texture accompanies good color; dark color is fre- 
quently accompanied by coarse texture. Fine texture is smooth, silky and moist 
to the touch, while coarse texture is rough, coarse, and frequently gummy or 
sticky. Texture is determined on the freshly cut surface. In determining texture, 
consideration should be given to all muscles of the carcass or cut. Muscle fibers 
of the skirt, hanging tenderloin, flank, and neck are large but should not be con- 
sidered coarse unless the other muscles are coarse also. Coarse beef is undesirable 
for Army use. 
h. Transportation. Fresh and frozen beef are perishable products and should 
be kept under refrigeration until prepared for use in the mess. For other than 
local deliveries refrigerator cars or refrigerator trucks are essential to keep 
product in good condition. For long hauls fresh beef should be hung from over- 
head racks by means of hooks. Frozen beef is piled upon floor racks. Fresh beef 
should never be piled for long hauls. For railhead distribution fresh beef may be 
piled on truck floors but the depth should be kept as shallow as possible. Under- 
chilled meat should never be piled. 
i. Handling. Beef, either fresh or frozen, should never be piled on a dirty floor. 
Trucks to be used for fresh meat transportation should be scrupulously clean, and 
floors covered with paper or clean canvas. All trucks used for hauling fresh 
meats should be covered with tarpaulins to exclude heat, dust, flies, rain, etc. In 
hot weather, showering truck coverings with water tends to prevent a too abrupt 
rise in temperature. Beef handlers should wear clean clothing, and all benches, 
cutting blocks, tools, and equipment should be scrupulously clean. Beef that be- 
comes wet or contaminated with dirt spoils more readily than dry, clean beef. 
Surface of all contaminated beef should be trimmed as soon as possible. 
j. Storage. Beef has excellent keeping qualities. Under proper storage it will 
remain in good condition for a longer period than any other fresh meat. For 
best storage condition, it should be hung so that there is good circulation of air 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
205 
entirely around each cut in a cooler temperature of about 36° F., and relative 
humidity sufficiently high to prevent excessive drying and not so high as to permit 
meat becoming wet. The relative humidity that can be maintained safely in a 
storage room depends upon constancy and velocity of air circulation. In con- 
stantly moving air a relative humidity of 90 can be maintained safely, but in still 
air a much lower relative humidity is necessary to prevent wet surfaces and 
resultant bacterial growth (sliminess). The more restricted the circulation of air 
and the higher the temperature, the shorter will be the safe storage time. Beef 
is the one class of meat that improves in tenderness and flavor with age. Fresh 
beef is practically always tough. Tenderness increases for a period of 2 weeks or 
more in proper storage, and flavor and palatability increases for a period of a 
month or more. Aging is not essential for Army use since fresh beef is usually 
at least a week old before it reaches the mess table and has attained sufficient 
tenderness and flavor for use. Beef not more than 1 week old seldom needs any 
trimming while well-aged frequently must be trimmed. Trimming results in 
losses not contemplated in Army messes. Growth of mold is of no particular sig- 
nificance or importance. Meat molds are not harmful when eaten. If extensive, 
they may impart a moldy flavor unless carefully washed off or trimmed away. 
76. Pork. a. Sex. In grading fresh pork but little distinction is made with re- 
gard to sex. Male hog (barrow, stag, and boar) carcasses can be distinguished 
from female (gilt and sow) by presence of a cartilaginous button (pizzle-eye) at 
the posterior end of the aitchbone and a streak of lean in the cut edge of the belly 
of all male and their absence from female carcasses. Stags and boars are very 
coarse in quality and dark in color, and sows have considerable development of 
the mammary glands (seeds). Boar carcasses and cuts practically always carry 
a strong (sexual) odor which is particularly prominent when the meat is heated. 
Grading is based more upon quality than sex. 
h. Quality. Quality is based upon color and texture of skin, flesh, and fat, and 
color and size of bone. Good quality is indicated by soft, flexible, white skin 
free from wrinkles and bristles; firm flesh of a lively light red color and fine 
texture; firm, white fat; and small, red bone. Oily feeds produce pork that is oily 
in appearance and touch, not firm, and that loses its lively color and becomes dull. 
Stags and boars always produce flesh coarse in texture and dark in color, and skin 
that is coarse, thick, and lacks flexibility. Carcasses and cuts that lack good 
quality as indicated by color and texture should be rejected. Large, white, hard 
bone indicates age, and flesh attached to such bone is invariably tough. Spareribs 
and loins that show rib bones of this character should be rejected as not good 
quality. In inspection of carcasses presence of well-developed mammary glands 
should be cause for rejection since it results in considerable waste. Mammary 
glands (seeds) are found along edge of the belly in tissue surrounding the teats. 
Seeds are practically absent from barrow bellies, small and usually white in gilt 
bellies, and large and either red or black in sow bellies. 
c. Bruises. Pork is very susceptible to bruises. However, bruises are largely 
superficial and confined to the skin and underlying fat. Whip marks confined to 
the skin alone are of little importance, but when deeper tissues are involved with 
blood infiltration, bruises become important since they represent a direct loss, and 
such areas decompose more rapidly than healthy tissue. Bruised carcasses and 
cuts should not be accepted for Army use. 
d. Storage. Compared to beef, pork has very limited keeping qualities. It does 
not improve with age either in tenderness or flavor. The fat is not as stable as 
that of beef, and early deterioration is usually first noted in the fat which tends to 
break down with liberation of fatty acids under influence of warmth, light, mois- 
ture, and air. Bacterial growth on the surface produces slime. Pork must be 
chilled thoroughly and quickly, and must be kept under refrigeration until pre- 
pared for use. Fresh pork should be marketed as soon as possible after it is cut. 
If it must be held for as long as a week, it should be frozen to prevent deteriora- 
tion. If handled promptly it seldom becomes moldy. Sour meat is not often 
found. 
e. Condition. For Army acceptance cuts should be clean, fresh, sweet, a good 
color, and free from sliminess. Frozen cuts should be delivered solidly frozen 
and should not show excessive freezer burn or evidence of thawing and refreezing 
indicated by loss of bloom. Cuts should be individually wrapped in greaseproof 206 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
paper or packed in boxes or other substantial containers lined with greaseproof 
paper. 
/. Cuts. With exception of a small percentage of shipper pigs for special trade, 
fresh pork is marketed in the form of cuts rather than carcasses. Army messes 
utilize cuts to better advantage than carcasses. A regular ham should have the 
foot cut off through or above the hock joint, and have entire back covered with 
the skin. The shank of a skinned ham is cut in the same manner as for regular 
hams, but the skin is removed from the back to within 4 inches of the shank, 
and much of the fat trimmed away. Skinned hams are more economical for use 
in Army messes because of the greater waste on regular hams. A fresh shoulder, 
hock on, should have the foot removed above the knee joint; a shoulder, hock off, 
should have the leg removed at approximately the elbow joint, A skinned 
shoulder should have the skin removed from the back to within 4 inches of the 
shank and have excess fat removed. Skinned shoulders have the hock on. 
77. Veal. a. United States Department of Agriculture Standards defines veal as 
meat derived from young cattle 1 year or less of age. Many States also have 
established definitions for veal. By general acceptance the trade considers 
genuine veal to be derived from young calves fed on whole milk or that have 
suckled their dams. Such veal has flesh of a light pinkish-brown color, fine, 
delicate texture, firm, white fat, and red bones with glistening white cartilage. 
Calves fed on skim milk do not produce fat that is so white, firm, or abundant. 
Calves approaching 1 year of age and given feed other than milk gradually lose 
the light pinkish-brown color and assume the darker red of mature beef. Since 
veal carcasses have little or no outer covering of fat, they are dressed skin on 
to prevent excessive drying and darkening. Some carcasses are shipped with 
skin on to protect them further during transportation. However, most carcasses 
are skinned before they leave the packing plant. For Army use veal should 
never be accepted skin on, and final acceptance on initial inspection should never 
be made until after the skin is removed because of prevalence of bruises. Veal 
tissues are tender and easily bruised. Bruised carcasses should not be accepted 
for Army use because of waste involved. Because of lack of fat covering, veal 
cannot be aged like beef since it dries out excessively with age. In addition, veal 
is invariably tender and does not need aging to make it tender, nor does it im- 
prove in flavor. Veal should be used as soon as possible after it is chilled thor- 
oughly to avoid discoloration, or it should be frozen for holding. Veal is never 
marbled as is mature beef. 
b. Reinspection of veal at delivery point should include determination of net 
weight, sufficiency and condition of coverings, condition and soundness. Net 
weight should be exclusive of coverings. Coverings should keep meat clean and 
should restrict circulation of air and thus preserve surface color. Veal should 
not show surface moisture, stickiness, or slime, all of which indicate improper 
temperature. A dark surface color indicates excessive drying. Veal that has 
lost its bloom should be rejected. Firmness is largely dependent upon presence 
of fat. Veal that has firm, white fat covering the kidneys, in the pelvic cavity, in 
the lumbar region, and a covering over the outer surface is invariably firm. 
Absence of fat in those regions indicates poor feeding, the meat is soft, flaccid, and 
has inferior food value and palatability, and such veal should be rejected. Milk- 
fed veal is seldom obtained in weights prescribed by Federal specifications, 
78. Lamb. The United States Department of Agriculture defines lamb as meat 
derived from young sheep 1 year of age or less. Lamb is meat derived from 
immature sheep, and is characterized by red bones, white cartilages, small com- 
pact carcasses, a light reddish meat color, and presence of the breakjoint. No 
distinction is made in sex. 
a. General. Bones of young lambs are red in color. This is best observed in 
the cut bones of the brisket, in the ribs in the inner wall of the thoracic cavity, 
and at the breakjoint. This redness diminishes as the lamb nears maturity. 
Cartilages of young lambs are glistening white, but lose some whiteness and size 
with maturity. Practically all lambs marketed in the United States are produced 
on the range from mutton breeds which produce lambs that are short-coupled, 
blocky, and compact. The meat is a pinkish-red color which deepens with ap- 
proach of maturity. Hind feet are removed at the fetlock joint. Front feet are 
removed just above the fetlock joint at what is known as the breakjoint. The SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
207 
articular surface of the shank bone is removed with the foot, leaving a broad 
surface with eight raised eminences. 
b. Breakpoint. In young lambs the break] oint is red in color and smooth to the 
touch; as the animal approaches maturity the redness disappears and the broken 
surface becomes rougher. In mature sheep (more than IV2 years old) the break- 
joint is ossified and does not break, leaving the rounded articular surface on the 
end of the foreshank. Sometimes attempts are made to make an artificial break- 
joint by cutting or breaking off the end of the shank, but this is readily detected 
by its white appearance and rough and splintered surface. Sheep are considered 
by the trade to be lambs so long as they show a well-defined break joint. 
c. Market. Some lambs in the Southern States are dropped (born) about the 
New Year and reach market as “hot house” lambs about Easter. These are small, 
very immature lambs for which there is very limited trade. They are usually 
dressed “pelt on” to preserve color. Range lambs are usually dropped during 
March and April and begin to move to market about July 1. Young lambs are 
plentiful during the fall and winter. Those reaching market during late winter 
and spring are really yearlings, but are considered lambs if the breakjoint is in 
evidence. During this period it is frequently difficult to obtain lambs of weights 
prescribed by specifications. 
d. Dressing. In commercial practice the spleen is allowed to remain with the 
carcass. It is found loosely attached to the diaphragm (skirt). Federal specifica- 
tions require that all viscera, including the spleen, be removed. Before the 
World War practically all lambs were “caul dressed,” that is, the belly edge of 
the carcass was spread wide and held in place with cross sticks across the back, 
and the caul was spread over the face of the lamb to give it a fatter appearance. 
This also allowed disposal of cheap caul fat at lamb prices. Caul is the wide, 
lace-like, filmy fat attached to the paunch. “Round” lambs are simply lambs 
that have not been spread as above. All lambs are now round-dressed, caul 
dressing having been discontinued. Because of protection afforded by the pelt, 
bruising is much less common than in pork, veal, or beef. 
e. Storage. Lamb does not improve in tenderness and flavor with age. Aging 
is not practiced commercially. It is best while still possessing bloom of freshness. 
Lamb to be held for periods longer than a week or two should be frozen and it 
should be kept under refrigeration until used. 
79. Mutton, a. Definitions. (1) Mutton is meat derived from sheep nearly 1 year 
of age or older. 
(2) Wethers are male sheep castrated when young. 
(3) Ewes are female sheep and the term is usually applied to mature sheep. 
(4) Bucks are mature male sheep. 
(5) Dry ewes are ewes not producing milk. 
b. General. Mutton is characterized by whiter and harder bones, deeper red 
color of meat, less compact conformation than lamb, and absence of the break- 
joint and presence of a rounded articular surface at the end of the foreshanks. 
c. Carcass. Cut surfaces of brisket bones of mutton usually have lost their 
soft texture and red color and are hard, brittle, and reddish-white to white, de- 
pending upon age of the sheep when killed. Ribs on inner surface of the thoracic 
cavity are white and large. Meat is a deeper red than that of lamb. In the 
United States the only mutton that reaches market is from breeding stock, largely 
ewes and a small percentage of bucks. Practically no wethers are held beyond 
the lamb stage. Because they have been used for breeding purposes, old ewes 
are less compact in form than lambs, and are rangy, lanky, and ribs are dis- 
tended (barrel-shaped). Because they have given birth to young, the vent is 
much larger than on lambs and bucks. Usually no udder tissue is present on the 
dressed carcass but is cut away on the filling floor. The neck of a ewe is usually 
long and slender and hip bones prominent. While some fat ewes reach the mar- 
ket, most ewes are thin, poor in flesh, and poorly covered. Bucks usually show 
masculine characteristics of the entire male animal, thick, short neck, heavy 
shoulders, little or no cod fat, and an open inguinal canal. The breakjoint is 
absent in all mutton. 
d. Delivery requirements. Federal specifications for mutton prescribe that de- 
liveries consist of not more than 50 percent ewes. The balance must be well- 
matured wethers. Since wethers are practically never grown to full maturity 208 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
but are marketed as lambs, inspection and reinspection of mutton should be 
largely concerned with the percentages of wethers and ewes delivered. Buck 
carcasses are invariably coarse and tough and for that reason are undesirable. 
They should be excluded from delivery. Wether carcasses lack masculine char- 
acteristics of bucks and have an abundance of cod fat depending upon degree of 
fattening, and there is no evidence of an open inguinal canal. Necks of wethers 
are short and plump but the shoulders and necks are not massive as in bucks. 
Cod fat should be abundant. In the inspection of ewes care must be exercised to 
secure prescribed quality. Very few ewes have compactness of form, quality or 
finish required by specifications. 
e. Storage. Mutton does not improve in flavor or tenderness with age. While 
mutton may be kept in a chilled state for 2 weeks or more, it is not improved by 
such storage. Mutton is best while possessing the bloom of freshness. When kept 
for longer periods, it should be frozen. Frozen mutton does not deteriorate 
appreciably during the first 6 months in cold storage. It loses its bloom after that 
period, the fat becomes crumbly and a dull color, and because of the considerable 
surface exposed to air drying is inevitable. Frozen mutton should be checked 
carefully for net weight. 
80. Specialties, a. General. Meat specialties are perishable products and should 
be chilled promptly, kept under refrigeration at all times until used, and frozen 
solid if not used promptly. For prompt chilling, beef hearts, livers, tongues, and 
oxtails are hung from hooks, while kidneys, sweetbreads, brains, and sheep and 
hog hearts are spread on trays. The more promptly and completely they are 
chilled, the better will be their keeping qualities. In reinspection at delivery, 
consideration should be given to proper identification, quality, and condition. 
b. Hearts. Purchases are restricted to beef hearts. In official establishments 
all beef hearts are cut open for inspection purposes. Should whole hearts be de- 
livered, the inspector should suspect that they may have come from an unofficial 
establishment, and should look for the inspection mark which should be branded 
on each by means of a burning brand. They should have the heart caps (auricles) 
removed since these are thin-walled, fibrous, and of inferior food value. Hearts 
from young cattle have a small piece of cartilage embedded in the muscle tissue. 
In those from old cattle this cartilage may have turned to bone. Hearts from 
grain-fed beef cattle are thick-walled, meaty, and have a collar of firm, creamy 
white fat around the base and along the seam between the lobes of the heart. 
Hearts from dairy cows and from underfed cattle have less fat, and it is not so 
firm nor so creamy white in color. Calf hearts have much the same characteristics 
as beef except that they are smaller, are frequently sold cap on, and amount, 
firmness, and color of fat will depend upon feed the calf received. Hog hearts 
are smaller, fat is much whiter and less firm than beef, caps are not removed, and 
they have a softer, oilier feel than beef hearts. Sheep hearts are much smaller 
than hog, and fat is much firmer. To meet specification requirements, beef hearts 
should be strictly fresh, firm, thick meated, surface free from moisture or slime, 
free from blood clots, have a lively red color of meat, and fat should be abundant 
but not excessive and of firm texture and creamy white color. 
c. Livers. (1) General. Federal specifications provide for purchase of calf, beef, 
and lamb livers. Since these represent a considerable range in quality and market 
value the inspector should be able to recognize kind and quality offered. Calf 
livers have the highest market value. 
(2) Veal and calf. In many markets distinction is made between veal and 
calf livers. Both should weigh not to exceed SVa pounds. Veal livers are from 
young, milk-fed calves and are a light chocolate color, while calf livers frequently 
are from older calves or from those not fed on milk, and are a darker brown 
color, some being almost black. Veal livers are always tender, have very little 
tendonous structure, and have the most desirable flavor and appealing color. 
Calf livers compare very favorably with veal in tenderness, but because of the 
difference in feed the calf received are not so palatable in flavor, have less nutri- 
tive value, and are not so attractive in color. 
(3) Yearling. “Yearling” is the term commonly applied to bovine livers 
weighing to 7 pounds; those over 7 pounds are called beef. Yearling livers 
are from young beef cattle, have good conformation and color, and are very 
desirable because of their appearance and good flavor, and because they have de- SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
209 
veloped little tendonous structure. They are second to veal and calf livers in 
market value. 
(4) Beef. Beef livers are designated as steer and cow livers and vary greatly 
in market value. They weigh over 7 pounds. Steer livers are short, plump, very 
thick at the large end and taper gradually to a very blunt edge at the opposite 
end (see Plates 1 ® and 2). Cow livers are usually elongated and are usually 
thin in the middle and large at each end (see Plates 1 @ and 3). The color may 
vary from a very light straw to almost black. Very light-colored livers are al- 
ways very friable and easily broken down. While some straw-colored livers are 
taken from fat steers, most of them come from cows nearing parturition. Cow 
livers are usually very dark in color. Dark-colored beef livers are invariably 
tough. The surface of cow livers is frequently uneven and sometimes pitted. 
For Army use beef livers should be plump, firm (without being flabby or hard), 
short, of light mahogany color, and have smooth, unblemished surfaces. Mutilated 
(cut or torn) livers should not be accepted. 
® Steer. 
Plate 1. Beef liver. 
® Cow. 
Plate 2. Steer liver (side view). 
(5) Lamb. Lamb livers are smaller than veal, are invariably a dark 
mahogany color, and differ in conformation. Calf livers have two main lobes 
and a third smaller lobe. When held with the large end upward, the two main 
lobes hang one below the other in almost straight lines, with only a small notch 
on one side to indicate the division between the two main lobes (see Plate 4 ®). 
Lamb livers have a very deep notch (extending almost half way across) which 
divides it into two distinct lobes, and the lower lobe has a distinct twist to one 
side (see Plate 4 ®). In both veal and lamb livers the third lobe is attached be- 210 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
hind the upper main lobe. Sheep livers can be differentiated from lamb only by 
size. Little or no distinction is made between the two by the trade. Lamb livers 
lack the flavor characteristic of veal and good beef. 
Plate 3. Cow liver (side view). 
(6) Hog. Since hog livers are inferior to either lamb, veal, or beef in flavor, 
tenderness, and market value, the inspector should be able to differentiate be- 
tween them. Hog livers are divided into four lobes of about equal size by three 
deep notches (see Plate 4 ® ). When laid flat these lobes spread out fanwise 
and the free edges of the lobes are very thin. Hog livers are invariably dark in 
color. They should never be accepted in lieu of veal, beef, or lamb. 
The gall bladder should be removed from all livers delivered under Federal 
specifications. 
® Veal liver ® Lamb liver. ® Hog liver. 
Plate 4 
The difference in shape and conformation of veal, beef, sheep, and hog livers is 
shown in Plates 1, 2, 3, and 4 above. 
d. Kidneys. Beef kidneys vary in color from a sickly yellowish-white to almost 
black. Steer and heifer kidneys usually have a light or dark mahogany color 
while cow kidneys vary greatly. The difference in texture also varies greatly; 
steer and heifer kidneys are usually firm and well shaped while those of a cow 
may be misshapen and are usually soft and flaccid. Beef kidneys are divided 
into many irregular lobes by deep fissures (see Plate 5 ® ). These lobulations 
are characteristic of bovine kidneys. To meet specification requirements beef 
kidneys should be plump, firm, and a mahogany color. Beef kidneys are differ- 
entiated from those of other food animals by their size, shape, and presence of 
lobes. Calf kidneys are lobulated but are smaller than beef (see Plate 5 ® ). Hog 
kidneys are smaller than calf, are elongated, and are not lobulated (see Plate 
5 ®). Sheep kidneys are much smaller than hog, have a smooth surface (not 
lobulated), and have a distinctive kidney bean shape (see Plate 5 ®). 
e. Sweetbreads. Sweet breads are the thymus glands of young bovines. The 
gland lies along the left side of the throat and extends into the thoracic cavity. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
211 
It is largest in veal calves and is still of considerable size in yearlings. The gland 
is divided into two parts, the one from the throat being elongated and the other 
at the thoracic end being rounded and about the size of the palm of the hand. 
Calf sweetbreads are large, very tender to the touch, and almost white in color. 
They are the most desirable from the standpoint of tenderness and flavor, and sell 
at a much higher price than beef. Beef sweetbreads are smaller than calf, are 
much less tender to the touch, and are of a reddish tint. Calf sweetbreads are 
usually sold in pairs, that is, both throat and thoracic portions wrapped together 
® Beef. 
® Veal. 
(D Lamb. 
Plate 5. Kidneys. 
© Hog. 
in waxed paper. Sweetbreads are chilled by spreading on trays. If they are not 
to be marketed at once, they are packed in tin pails of about 5 pounds net weight 
and frozen. Sheep sweetbreads are very small and are packed in molds and 
frozen in blocks of about 1 pound. Inspection should determine class and condi- 
tion. There are no grades within classes. Sweetbreads should have a fresh, 
wholesome aroma, be free from sliminess, and have good color characteristic of 
the class. 
f. Brains. Inspection of brains is chiefly for class differentiation and condition. 
Federal specifications provide for use of calf and hog brains. Calf brains are much 
larger than hog or sheep but smaller than beef. Calves are not usually stunned 
before slaughter and the brains are therefore seldom clotted with blood. With 
exception of Kosher, beef cattle are always stunned, resulting in blood clots in 
practically every beef brain. Clotted blood is undesirable since it reduces keeping 
qualities. Calf brains should be firm but tender, and should have a creamy white 
color slightly tinged with red. Hog brains are small when compared with calf or 
beef. They are very soft in texture and are difficult to remove from the skull 
in whole condition. When placed on trays they flatten out and when handled are 
broken easily. The two lobes are separated easily. The cerebellum (second 
brain) seldom remains attached to hog brains. They are about the same size as 
sheep, but the latter are firm and very compact. The two lobes do not separate 
easily and the cerebellum is usually attached. When placed on trays sheep brains 
retain their plump, rounded contour. Sheep brains usually have a whiter color 
than hog. Since sheep brains have a higher market value than hog, there need be 
no fear that they will be substituted for hog. It is difficult to differentiate between 
a large calf and a young beef brain, but this is of little importance if they are in 
good condition. Brains should have a good color, have characteristic texture of 
the class, and have a fresh, wholesome aroma and appearance. 
g. Tongues, beef. Federal specifications require short-cut beef tongues. Long- 212 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
cut beef tongues have attached the larynx, the epiglottis, two or three rings of the 
trachea, and fat. Most of these are inedible or of little use in an Army mess. 
Short-cut tongues have all of these appendages removed. Inspection should in- 
clude trimming, quality, and condition. Closely trimmed tongues have all inedible 
(cartilage) parts and excess fat removed. Quality is indicated by size and texture 
of the tongue and color and texture of fat. Cow tongues are usually small and 
are hard and tough to the touch, and fat is usually scanty, of soft texture and a 
yellowish cast. Good beef tongues are plump, meaty, tender to the touch, and fat 
is abundant, of white color and firm texture. Fresh beef tongues retain their 
mucous membrane covering (skin), and are characterized by their roughness, 
having large papillae near the base and along the sides, and very hard, rough, 
but small papillae near the tip. Calf tongues have the same characteristics as beef 
except that they are smaller. Hog tongues are much smaller than beef. They are 
always short-cut but retain the epiglottis. The mucous membrane of hog tongues 
is always smooth, and that at the tip is usually loosened due to the heat in the 
scalding vat. Hog tongues do not have the fine flavor of beef or calf and are much 
less desirable. Sheep tongues are very small. Beef tongues are subject to in- 
juries. In inspection for the Army, any tongue showing scars of injuries or 
abscesses or having cuts or bruises should be rejected. Tongues should have a 
fresh appearance and aroma and be free from sliminess. Weight is of considerable 
importance in selection since the better quality is usually the heavier. 
h. Oxtails. Oxtails should be selected for color, meatiness, and texture. Tails 
from all cattle become oxtails in the trade. Cow tails are practically always 
bony, meat is scanty and tough, and fat is a yellowish color. Such oxtails are 
undesirable. Oxtails from young beef cattle are plumper, more meaty, meat is 
more tender, and fat is creamy white in color and of firm texture. Such oxtails 
are desirable. In a large measure, texture of the meat can be detected by pressure 
with the thumbnail. 
i. Storage. Meat specialties have poor keeping qualities. They should be kept 
under refrigeration until prepared for use. Frozen products should not be de- 
frosted until just before using. They should be protected from dust and insect 
contamination by suitable wrapping or packaging. Defrosting frozen products 
is done most safely in a refrigerator. 
81. Cured and smoked, a. Cured. (1) General. Cured meats have better keep- 
ing qualities than fresh. Curing also changes the flavor by addition of salt and 
other curing agents and by enzymic changes taking place during curing process. 
Cured meats are very seldom frozen. Meats should not be cured until they are 
ready to be consumed as such or as preparation for smoking. 
(2) Fat hacks, dry-salt. Good quality fat backs are indicated by soft, white, 
smooth, flexible skin and firm, white fat. Fat backs have no bone and very little 
lean meat. They are brushed as free of salt as possible for shipment and have 
salt crystals over entire surface. If delivered with excess salt, a tare test should 
be made by weighing before and after brushing with a broom. Yellow or a 
rusty color fat indicates keeping in cure for a long period. 
(3) Pork bellies, clear, dry-salt. The term “clear” means removal of all bones. 
Commercial practice sometimes leaves a small portion of sparerib on the brisket 
end, but Federal specifications require entire clearance of bone. Quality and 
surface salt are determined in the same way as for fat backs (see (2) above). 
Dry-salt bellies are made from heavy and from coarse bellies. All good quality 
weighing under 12 pounds are made into smoked bacon. The best dry-salt 
cured bellies are made from barrow and gilt weighing 14 pounds and up. Prac- 
tically all old sow bellies are dry-salt cured and are invariably seedy. Those 
that are large and coarse and that have large nipples (teats), or with evidence 
that large nipples have been cut away may be expected of being from old sows. By 
cutting into tissues underneath and near the nipples presence or absence of seeds 
may be determined. Seeds are mammary gland tissue and are neither meat nor 
fat. Seeds that have been lactating (producing milk) are reddish brown in color. 
Size (extent) of seeds depends upon number of litters the sow has borne. They 
usually are not extensive after the first litter but increase in extent with each suc- 
cessive litter. Black seeds result from deposit of black pigment in mammary 
gland tissue, and are frequently found in dry sow bellies. Old sow bellies are 
undesirable because they are coarse and wasteful, and their acceptance is for- 
bidden under Federal specifications. Barrows and gilts have rudimentary nipples SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
213 
and small, insignificant seeds or none at all. Gilt seeds, if present, are usually 
colorless (white). Barrows sometimes show traces of black seeds. Dry-salt 
are seldom trimmed as carefully as bacon bellies. Old sow bellies, particularly, 
are seldom cut square but are irregular in outline (see Plates 6 to 11, inc.). 
(4) Beef, corned, bulk. Bulk corned beef is pickle cured. During curing proc- 
ess the beef absorbs moisture as well as curing agents, and when taken from 
pickle will weigh from 5 to 8 percent more than the green weight. When cured 
corned beef is allowed to drain for a few hours after being taken from pickle it 
loses approximately 4 percent of its cured weight. In packing barrels or smaller 
containers for curing, only sufficient green meat is put in the container to pro- 
duce prescribed net weight after draining. If delivered in pickle, the proper net 
weight should be ascertained by pulling and draining the meat for at least 2 
hours, or making a deduction of 4 percent from the pulled weight. If delivered 
dry it should be taken at delivered weight. Federal specifications permit delivery 
in commercial containers. Both methods are used in commercial practice. Brisket 
corned beef must have all bones and deckel removed. Deckel is a layer of muscle 
and fat on the outer surface of the brisket. Plate (naval end) beef retains all 
bones. Commercial practice allows two or three vertebrae to remain on the rump, 
but Federal specifications require removal of all bones. Corned beef from steer 
and heifer carcasses are thick-meated and fat is white or creamy white, while 
that cut from cow carcasses is not so thick-meated and fat is usually not so firm 
and has a yellowish cast. Notwithstanding that corned beef has been cured, it 
should be kept under refrigeration until used. In pickle in tight containers it 
will keep for a longer time out of refrigeration than will the dry product, and 
will not ordinarily spoil until the pickle spoils. Kept in pickle, particularly in 
warm temperatures, it will absorb salt rapidly and become very salty. A rusty 
color denotes age. 
b. Smoked. (1) General. Cured and smoked meats have good keeping qualities. 
Ordinarily they do not need chillroom refrigeration but keep best at temperatures 
between 50° and 60° F. Good smoking is indicated by dry surface, shrunken 
skin, and a bright, light cherry color. Pale color, soft, flaccid skin, and soft, 
moist meat indicates insufficient smoking. Such meat does not store well, par- 
ticularly if wrapped or piled, since moisture in undersmoked meats furthers mold 
and bacterial growth. For satisfactory smoked products, meats must be properly 
cured before smoking, as undercuring and insufficient chilling before curing 
frequently result in sourness. 
Sourness occurs most frequently in thick pieces and those that contain bones, 
such as hams, shoulders, etc., and is determined by use of a trier which is in- 
serted into the meat at points most likely to show sourness, and is smelled as 
soon as it is withdrawn. A good trier will carry to the nose any odor of decom- 
position. Meat should never be tried in rapidly moving air since the odor is 
carried away before the trier reaches the nose. Triers must be made of good, 
highly polished steel. Iron triers do not carry odors accurately. 
Commercial smoked meats usually carry the brand name, and each piece should 
carry inspection legend and establishment number. Smoked meats are usually 
wrapped. Only net weight should be paid for, and test for tare should be made 
on all shipments of wrapped products received. Wrapped hams, bacon bellies, 
etc., have the net weight stamped on the wrapper taken at time of wrapping. 
Smoked meats are subject to shrinkage when held for sometime and if not kept 
dry are prone to mold, particularly if kept wrapped. Mold is not harmful to 
health but if extensive may impair a moldy taste to the meat, and it usually is 
removed readily by wiping with a dry cloth, by washing in salt brine or vinegar, 
or by trimming. Products that are moldy at time of delivery should be rejected. 
Removal from wrappings and hanging in good air circulation retards or prevents 
mold growth, but it also furthers shrinkage. 
Smoked meats kept in a cooler usually lose some of the smoked color and bloom. 
Those removed from a cooler and placed in warm temperatures will sweat, and 
this surface moisture furthers mold and bacterial growth and reduces color. 
Smoked meats should be kept dry. 
(2) Hams. Ham inspection should be for type, grade, and condition. 
(a) Cut. American short-cut hams have the foot removed through or above 
the hock joint. Sometimes this cut is so high that the marrow canal of the shank 
bone (tibia) is open. Both regular and skinned hams are short-cut. Regular 214 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
hams retain skin and fat over the back while skinned have skin removed to with- 
in 4 inches of the shank and surface fat trimmed off, the fat remaining being 
evenly tapered to the lean at the butt end. Skinned hams are more economical 
than regular in an Army mess unless skin and excess fat can be utilized to ad- 
vantage. Regular hams with 1% inches or more of fat at the butt end are quite 
wasteful. Such hams are seldom made into first grade regular hams but are 
skinned or placed in lower grades. 
(b) Grade and quality. Grade is indicated by conformation and quality. 
Good grade hams are short, plump, and thick, with short shanks, giving the 
highest percentage of good quality edible meat. Good quality is indicated by 
thin, smooth skin, firm fat, meat of fine texture and lively color, and small bone. 
Smoked calas or picnics which are made from shoulders should not be mistaken 
for hams. They are inferior in texture and tenderness, and have a higher per- 
centage of bone and tendonous tissues to edible meat. The cut surface of ham 
meat usually shows a phosphorescent sheen. This is not a defect but a natural 
result of curing and smoking processes. A well-smoked ham is firm, the skin 
shrunken and not soft and flaccid. The best place to observe degree of smoking is 
on skin of the shank. If this is well-shrunken, firm, and good smoked color the 
ham has been properly smoked. Stockinetted hams do not show as deep smoked 
color as those smoked naked. 
(c) Trier inspection. The trier should be inserted successively in the 
marrow canal of the shank bone (if it is open), into the shank near the stifle 
joint, along the thigh bone (femur), and under the aitchbone. Expertness in trier 
inspection results only from considerable practice. The sense of smell first must 
be trained to determine the natural aroma of sound smoked hams. Sourness is any 
variation from soundness including any putrefactive process, formation of gas, 
rancidity of fat, etc., and varies greatly in degree. The aroma of sound hams 
varies also. The inspector must learn to differentiate these various odors, and 
this is acquired only by experience. 
(d) Boned and rolled. Boned and rolled hams are prepared by boning the 
cured hams, tying tightly with string, and smoking. Some are stuffed into arti- 
ficial casings instead of being tied. A recent development in smoking is pre- 
cooking during the smoking process. Such hams are subjected to smokehouse 
heat to cook sufficiently to make them tender and also render them safer for 
eating by destruction of any trichinae that might be present. Such hams are 
usually labeled to indicate precooking and need only warming to prepare for 
the table. Since only a small proportion on the market are precooked, all hams 
prepared in Army messes should be cooked to insure safety from trichinosis. 
(e) Storage. Keeping qualities depend upon kind of cure, extent of smok- 
ing, and moisture content. Mild-cured hams ordinarily do not keep as well as 
hard-cured. The longer the smoking process and the hotter the temperature dur- 
ing smoking, the drier the hams become and the better their keeping qualities. 
A recent development in curing is artery pumping, that is, pumping pickle is 
forced into all parts of the ham through blood channels. With artery pumping 
more pickle is introduced and retained in the ham. Because of their higher 
moisture content, such hams do not keep as satisfactorily as those cured by other 
methods. Practically all smoked hams produced in official establishments are 
now artery pumped. Under-dried hams are apt to mold. Commercially smoked 
hams are not designed for long keeping. They should be consumed within 2 
weeks after smoking for best results. Army commissaries and messes should not 
stock smoked hams for more than a maximum of 1 month; 2 weeks would be safer. 
(7) Oversea shipments. Hams prepared for oversea shipments by heavier 
smoking have better keeping qualities. For shipment to the tropics many are 
wrapped in an asphaltum covering which excludes air, moisture, and light. Those 
packed in asphaltum covering receive a hard cure and a heavy smoke. They 
keep well for months with very little mold growth because of the small amount 
of air present. Army hams are sometimes packed in airtight, hardwood quarter 
or half barrels. They are packed naked and all spaces around the hams are filled 
with dry salt. At time of packing the salt is practically free of moisture but it 
rapidly draws moisture from the meat and becomes moist. If such packages are 
allowed to remain in one position for a month or two the salt in the bottom 
becomes wet. Hams packed in salt lose weight, and also absorb salt and become SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
215 
salty in taste. The smoked color is bleached by the salt and they become pale in 
appearance. Those in contact with wet salt become soft and flaccid. Such hams 
are not ordinarily transported and held under refrigeration. Salt prevents sur- 
face mold but it does not prevent internal souring. 
(3) Bacon, (a) General. Clear bellies are free of bones. However, the car- 
tilages (featherbones) embedded in meat at the ends of the floating ribs are not 
bones and are not removed. Bacon bellies cannot be rejected because of presence 
of featherbones. Good quality is indicated by soft, smooth, thin skin, firm white 
fat, and firm meat of lively color and fine texture. After smoking, the skin is no 
longer soft and flexible but should be thin and smooth, and good qualities of fat 
and meat should be evident. Thick, rough, wrinkled skin; soft, oily fat of brownish 
color; and soft, oily meat of dull color or coarse, dark-colored meat indicate poor 
quality, and bacon with such characteristics should be excluded from deliveries. 
Plate 7. 
(b) Trim and cut. Trimming varies with the grade, being greatest in Type 
I, grade 1. The extent of trimming is illustrated in Plates 6 to 11, inclusive. In 
commercial practice the shoulder is cut from the side immediately behind the 
elbow joint. The skin at this point is soft and contracts considerably during the 
smoking process. The brisket is the forward part of the belly, and extends as far 
back as there is evidence of soft tissues behind the elbow. Type I, grade 1 
bacon should have the brisket completely removed (see Plate 8). It is not neces- 
sary to remove the brisket from Type II (dry salt-cured). Type I, both grade 
1 and grade 2, must be seedless. In commercial practice the belly edge of both 
barrow and gilt is cut back close to or beyond the line of nipples to insure re- 
moval of all seeds, (see Plates 8 and 9). Barrow bellies for Type II (dry salt- 
cured) bacon are not cut back to remove the nipples but gilt or sow bellies must 
be cut back to insure that they are seedless (see Plates 10 and 11). All bacon 
delivered under Federal specifications must be square-cut which requires removal 
of the “bootjack” and the “backstrap” (see Plates 6 to 11). In cutting pork 
middles a scribe saw is used to separate spareribs from loins. At times this 
scribbing cut may be so deep as to mutilate tissues underneath. After loin and 
spareribs have been removed from the middle, the fat back is severed from the 216 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Plate 0. Cut for Type I, Grade 2, Bacon. 
Plate 11. Sow Belly Cut for Type II, Grade 1, Bacon. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
217 
clear belly on a line from Vz inch to 2 inches beyond the scribbing cut, leaving 
any mutilated tissues on the belly. Bellies should be properly trimmed or back- 
strapped to remove any evidence of such injuries. If not they should be rejected. 
Backstrapping consists of removing the strip of fat and skin along the fat back 
edge of the belly to make it square cut. 
(c) Quality. Bacon bellies of good quality have thickness proportionate 
to their length and width. Abnormally thin bellies usually are not good quality 
and are placed in lower types and grades of bacon. Trimming for Type I bacon 
reduces length and width but not thickness. However, since such bacon is made 
largely from bacon type hogs, thickness is usually not out of proportion to width 
and length. Proportions of lean and fat vary with sex and extent of trimmings. 
Barrows have an extra streak of lean in the belly edge. The greatest amount of 
lean is in the belly edge; there is none in the fat back edge. When the belly edge 
is trimmed back to make seedless, a large percentage of the lean is removed. 
Such bellies should not be rejected. If cut too wide and include too much fat 
back the proportion of lean is greatly reduced and such bellies should be re- 
jected. Barrows used in Type II bacon contain the highest percentage of lean. 
When cut very close to the shoulder and the brisket is allowed to remain on, a 
rather large area of lean may appear in the brisket end. This should not be con- 
strued to comply with the requirement “well streaked with lean.” 
(d) Cure. In dry-sugar box-cure no pickle or other moisture is applied to 
the meat. The meat comes out of cure at about green weight, having absorbed 
about the same weight of curing agents as the loss in moisture. When properly 
smoked Type I bacon should be firm and dry. Proper smoking is indicated by a 
golden brown or cherry color and firm, dry skin, meat, and fat. Bacon with soft, 
flaccid skin and pale color, and that bends easily is usually undersmoked or is 
inferior quality, or has not been properly dry-sugar box-cured. Type II, dry- 
salt cured bacon loses about 3 percent in cure and from 9 to 12 percent additional 
smoke. Such bacon is very dry and firm. 
(e) Storage. Keeping qualities of bacon vary with kind of cure and degree 
of drying during smoking. Commercially smoked dry-box cured bacon is not 
designed for long storage, but should be consumed if possible within 2 weeks. 
Army organizations should not stock such bacon beyond a maximum of 1 month; 
2 weeks would be safer. Bacon smoked for 48 hours has much better keeping 
qualities. Type II, dry-salt cured bacon has excellent keeping qualities and will 
remain in good condition for 6 months or longer when packed in crates, and 
from 1 to 2 years in cans. Sliced bacon, because of the much greater exposure 
to air, has lessened keeping qualities. Bacon fat becomes yellow with age due 
to oxidation and disintegration of the fat, and acquires an acrid (acid) flavor. 
(f) Condition. Bruises are sometimes difficult to detect in fresh bellies 
but become very prominent after smoking due to dark discoloration of blood in 
the bruised area. Bruised bacon bellies should be rejected. Trier inspection of 
bacon bellies should be along the line of featherbones and in the brisket end. 
Type II bacon, which is hung for smoking by means of strings through the flank 
end, sometimes shows sourness in and around the string holes. Sourness is much 
more prevalent when hung by the brisket end. Mold on bacon is of little im- 
portance unless it penetrates beneath the surface in crevices or torn places. How- 
ever, bacon that is moldy at delivery time should be rejected since it is evidence 
of age or improper handling. Bacon kept where air can circulate freely about 
each piece does not mold appreciably, but it will shrink in weight. 
(g) Style. Canadian style bacon is made from the eye of heavy loins with 
a thin layer of fat from back attached, and is very lean. It is dry-cured, and 
usually smoked in stockinettes or artificial casings. Briskets are dry-cured and 
smoked on wire screens. They present a higher proportion of lean than bacon 
bellies, and when cut sufficiently wide are desirable. They are cut in varying 
widths from 2 to 5 inches. Squares are cut from the jowl, and are cured in dry- 
cure or dry-salt cure, and are smoked in the same way as briskets. They con- 
tain very little lean meat and are not desirable as breakfast bacon. 
(4) Beef, dried, (a) Cuts. Dried beef is made from the three divisions of the 
round, inside, outside, and knuckle (beef hams). The inspector should be able 
to identify cuts as well as slices made from them. The inside is the largest of the 
three cuts and is composed of one group of muscles of the same color and tex- 218 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
ture. Naturally, the inside terminates at the shank and in a triangular point, but 
commercial practice now molds the inside into a more compact form (see Plate 
12) that results in more slices of uniform size and shape. The outside is much 
smaller than the inside, is narrower, and much thinner. It is composed of two 
groups of muscles which differ in color and texture. The shank end of the outside 
terminates in a more acute triangular point than the inside (see Plate 13). The 
knuckle is shaped like a mule’s foot, compact and rounded, and the group of 
muscles of which it is composed is divided into three divisions of about equal 
size. The knuckle bone (patella) is present in the small end of commercially 
dried knuckles (see Plate 14). 
® Not molded. 
@ Molded. 
(D Slices. 
Plate 12. Dried Beef Insides. 
(h) Slices. Sliced dried beef is just as distinctive as the cuts. Slices from 
the inside are large, oval in form, of uniform color and texture throughout. Very 
delicate connective tissues may divide the slice into two or three indistinct 
sections (see Plate 12). Slices from outsides are narrow and long, and are divided 
into two distinct sections by a layer of connective tissue and fat. The two sec- 
tions differ distinctly in color and texture. The smaller section has very light 
color and fine, delicate texture and gives appearance of having been sliced 
across the grain, while the larger section is much darker in color, has a coarser SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
219 
texture, and gives appearance of having been sliced with the grain (see Plate 13). 
Slices from knuckles are rounded or roughly triangular in outline and are di- 
vided into three almost equal parts by two layers of connective tissues, all sec- 
tions having the same color and texture (see Plate 14). Knuckles are darker 
® Inside view. 
® Outside view. 
Plate 13. Dried Beef Outsides. 
® Slices. 
in color than insides, much darker than the light colored end of outsides and 
about the same color as the darker end of outsides. The cut surface is frequently 
phosphorescent. 
(c) Quality. Dried beef is made from canner and cutter grades of cows 
and from low grade bulls. Very dark meat indicates bull meat. The meat is hard 
cured, and dried for a period of from 4 to 7 days. Smoking is no longer commer- 220 
cially practiced. The beef loses from 35 to 45 percent of its weight in drying 
process. Dried beef cuts (unsliced) should be firm and dry, and have a bright 
mahogany or cherry color. A dry, lifeless (“perished”) surface appearance (par- 
ticularly outsides) indicates poor quality. While presence of fat indicates better 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
® Knuckles. 
Plate 14. Dried Beef Knuckles. 
® (Slices. 
quality, fat is undesirable since it deteriorates rapidly. Surface fat and fat in 
grooves between muscle bundles should be trimmed away before delivery. 
(d) Storage. Dried beef hams can be kept for a considerable time, but are 
best when sliced and used within a month or two. Sliced dried beef has limited 
keeping qualities. Packed in boxes or cellophane-wrapped, it keeps well for 2 
to 4 weeks. Packed under high vacuum in hermetically sealed glass or tin con- 
tainers, it keeps well for several months. However, all sliced beef acquires an old 
flavor with age, and in sealed containers may be edible after a year but not 
palatable. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
221 
82. Sausage, a. General. Federal specifications prescribe ingredients and pro- 
portions thereof that enter into manufacture of various kinds of sausage for 
Army use. The only way these can be assured is by inspection at time of manu- 
facture. In finely chopped sausage especially it is impossible to determine accu- 
rately by physical inspection quality and proportions of materials used. Inspec- 
tion at delivery point should include net weight, kind of casings, number of 
links to the pound, condition, and if not inspected at origin, quality, 
(1) Net weight. Net weight should be exclusive of wrappings. Dry sausage 
is not apt to shrink after it is packaged for shipping but fresh and smoked may 
shrink if exposed to warm temperatures and moving air. 
(2) Casings and links. Casings are either natural or artificial. Natural cas- 
ings are derived from animal tissues (intestines, etc.) and are digestible, while 
artificial casings are made of cellulose and are not digestible. Artificial casings 
are made in sizes to resemble natural, are usually transparent, and have a glossy 
appearance. Natural casings are duller in appearance and vary from near trans- 
parency to opaque. Pork sausage in casings and frankfurter style are linked, size 
and length of links varying with size of casings. Since these products are con- 
sumed largely by number rather than by weight, the number of links per pound 
is important. 
(3) Condition. Condition of sausage is important, particularly in fresh, 
smoked, and cooked type, and refers to deteriorations due to growth of bacteria 
and molds resulting from contaminated materials, too high temperature and hu- 
midity, too long storage, etc. Three conditions in particular that the inspector 
should observe are external slime, external mold, and internal greening. 
(a) External slime results from bacterial growth. Slimy sausage when 
offered for delivery should never be accepted because it indicates faulty handling. 
Slime may at first be colorless but in later stages may turn gray or faintly green. 
When confined to surface of sausage in casings, slime can be removed by washing 
and gentle scrubbing. Usually the sausage inside is sound, but very slimy sausage 
ordinarily should not be used. 
(b) External mold is common on dry sausage (cervelat, etc.), but is un- 
desirable on other types. Its presence indicates contamination with mold spores 
and storage at too high a temperature, in too high humidity, and with too little 
circulation of air. Fresh, smoked, and cooked sausage delivered in moldy con- 
dition should be rejected. When held a few days in a mess icebox, these types 
may acquire a growth of mold. This mold is harmless and can be easily washed 
away if confined to the casing. Mold that penetrates through breaks in the casing 
may impart a moldy flavor but it is not injurious to health. 
(c) Internal greening is caused by bacterial growth. The green areas may 
be in rings or in spots, in outer layers, or in the center. To detect internal green- 
ing the sausage should be cut across its long axis with a sharp knife. Any show- 
ing green areas should be rejected upon delivery and should not be eaten. Gray 
rings found beneath the casing in the outer layers differ from greening in that 
they are usually caused by abrupt temperature changes during manufacturing 
processes. They are harmless but detract from appearance. 
All sausage should be dean. Contamination with dirt, filth, insects, rodents, 
etc., is inexcusable. Sausage should not be cut until all surface slime, mold, or 
dirt has been removed. A sharp thin knife should be used, and cut surface should 
be uniform in appearance throughout. The inspector should be familiar with 
factors that stand for good condition in the various kinds, and any deviation 
from any appearance of freshness, bright color, and fresh odor typical of the 
variety is sufficient ground for rejection. 
(4) Quality. Quality is indicated by the appearance and feel, and more par- 
ticularly by appearance and texture of cut surface. Use of fresh meats produces 
sausage of bright color while stale meats result in dull, lifeless color. Fresh meats 
have good binding power and cut surface of such sausage is cohesive and con- 
tinuous, while that made from stale meats and from offal (tripe, etc.) is not co- 
hesive but crumbles easily. Appearance of the cut surface reflects proper or im- 
proper methods of chopping and stuffing the meat. Dull knives shred meat instead 
of cutting it; imperfect removal of sinew and gristle is indicated by presence of 
small pieces of gristle or connective tissues on cut surface; excessive use of water 
may result in soft texture or excessive shrinkage and shriveling in smoked and 
qooked; stuffing too loosely results in air pockets; all of which are undesirable.. 222 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
b. Pork. There is no standard of fineness for pork sausage. It is made com- 
mercially by grinding or chopping and may be coarse or fine. Specifications re- 
quire use of trimmings with not more than 40 percent trimmable fat. The only 
way this may be determined is by testing the meat before it is ground. Trimmable 
fat is fat that can be removed by careful hand-trimming. However, pork muscle 
usually contains varying percentages of fat so that laboratory determination of 
fat in the finished sausage is not indicative of trimmable fat in pork trimmings 
used. The specification as amended permits a maximum of 45 percent fat in the 
finished product. Pork sausage should have sufficient fat to make it juicy and 
palatable but not be too wasteful when fried. It should have a bright color, a dull 
color and crumbly texture indicating stale or frozen trimmings. It is packed in 
bulk in cartons and in tin containers, and should be packed as compactly as 
possible to reduce area exposed to air. It is also made in the form of patties and 
in bricks or bars that may be cut to suit individual taste. These are protected 
from air by waxed paper wrappings or paper-lined cartons. It is stuffed in either 
hog or sheep casings. Hog casings are much wider than sheep, and links are 
shorter than sheep. Unless frozen, it has very limited keeping qualities and should 
be kept under refrigeration constantly until cooked. It should be consumed with- 
in 24 hours after received, and should be received in a thoroughly chilled, dry 
state. It soon loses its bloom and acquires an acrid flavor due to deterioration 
of fat and liberation of fatty acids. Frozen pork sausage should not be defrosted 
until ready for use. Except the canned products, it is always delivered in an 
uncooked state. 
c. Bologna style. Bologna sausage is a finely chopped product stuffed into casings, 
smoked, and cooked. The commercial product may contain cubes of pork fat, 
cheek meat and meat products, and be stuffed in beef middles, beef bungs, weas- 
ands, or artificial casings. Under Federal specifications only pork and beef trim- 
mings are allowed, and the sausage is stuffed into beef middles. Commercially, 
beef middles may be single or sewed. Single casings vary from IV2 to 2Vz inches 
in diameter, while sewed casings vary from 2V2 to 4V2 inches in diameter. Middles 
are usually cut 18 to 20 inches in length. Artificial casings may be of any desired 
diameter. Bologna offered for delivery should be free of slime or mold, have a 
bright smoked appearance, and the casing be plump, full, and free from breaks. 
The cut surface should have uniform pinkish-red color and fine texture free from 
air pockets and coarse pieces, or pieces of gristle or coarse connective tissue. 
Nonuniform or faded color, green rings or green centers, and soft, friable texture 
is cause for rejection. It has better keeping qualities than fresh pork sausage, 
but requires refrigeration and should not be stored for more than a week unless 
frozen. 
d. Frankfurter style. This is another smoked and cooked sausage made from 
finely chopped meat, and stuffed into hog or sheep rounds or artificial casings. 
Hog casings are tougher than sheep which run approximately 2/3 of an inch to 1 
inch in diameter; hog from 1 to 1-2/3 inches in diameter. Artificial casings are 
usually of one size approximating medium or wide sheep casings. Length of links 
should vary with size of casings. Bureau of Animal Industry regulations permit 
artificial coloring but it must be confined to the casing. However, Federal speci- 
fications prohibit delivery of artificially colored sausage. Frankfurter style offered 
for delivery should be in clean, sound packages, be dry and clean, free from mold 
and slime, and have a bright smoked appearance. Broken casings are undesirable. 
Links should be full, plump, firm, and not wrinkled. Internal condition and quality 
is best ascertained by breaking a link across the long diameter and by cutting 
it lengthwise with a sharp knife. The meat should be very finely chopped, be 
free from coarse pieces and pieces of gristle or coarse connective tissue, be juicy 
without being watery, cohesive, and have a uniform pinkish-red color through- 
out. Crumbly or very friable meat indicates use of stale or frozen meat or offal. 
Links should withstand considerable bending without breaking, and when broken 
across the surface should be rugged but cohesive, and not crumbly. Faded areas 
or discolored rings, spots, or centers, and large air pockets are undesirable and 
sausage showing such defects should be rejected. Frankfurter style has approxi- 
mately the same keeping qualities as bologna. It should be under refrigeration 
until used. The fresh product should not be stored for more than a week without 
being frozen. Sausage in cartons kept in an ordinary icebox is almost sure to be- 
come slimy or moldy within a week. SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
223 
e. Liver saxisage. Liver sausage is cooked, finely chopped, and stuffed in hog 
bungs or other casings of animal origin. Braunschweiger is smoked liver sausage 
and is almost invariably stuffed in hog bungs. Artificial coloring is not permitted 
under specifications. Fresh liver sausage is highly perishable and suffers con- 
siderable fading and discoloration when held. It should have a clean, bright 
exterior, and cut surface should present a bright, uniform, grayish-pink color. 
When exposed to air the cut surface rapidly becomes a dull gray. Braunschweiger 
has a smoked appearance externally and a higher meat color. A dull, lifeless 
color indicates staleness and such should be rejected when offered for delivery. 
A faded ring just inside the casing soon develops when liver sausage is held 
for a short time, and it should be ordered for delivery only for immediate use. 
It should not be stored for more than a few days. Federal specifications prescribe 
delivery in hog bungs, beef rounds, or beef middles. Hog bungs are about 30 
inches in length and vary considerably in size. They are largest near the crown 
end and gradually taper to the small end. Size is designated by the diameter about 
18 inches from the crown. They may be either whole (unsewed) or sewed. 
Whole bungs run from 1 to over 2 inches in diameter and hold from IV2 to 4V2 
pounds. Sewed bungs run from 2V2 to over 3 inches in diameter and hold from 
5 to 7 pounds. Beef middles are 18 to 20 inches long. Single (whole) middles run 
from IV2 to 2V2 inches in diameter, sewed run from 2xk to 4x/2 inches in diameter 
and may be cut in any desirable length. Beef rounds are always single (not sewed). 
f. Cervelat. Cervelat is a dry sausage. The meat is chopped fine, stuffed in hog 
bungs or beef middles, and smoked. Some soft forms are also stuffed in artificial 
casings. It does not contain garlic. There are two distinct types, dry and soft. 
Dry cervelat is airdried for 60 to 90 days; is firm and dry, and is not cooked. 
Gothaer is a high-grade dry cervelat. Other dry cervelat is put out under brand 
names. Soft cervelat is not air-dried but is smoked at a temperature that cooks 
the meat. It is sold as fresh summer sausage. Thuringer is a soft type. Dry 
cervelat has excellent keeping qualities. It does not need refrigeration, but should 
not be exposed to high temperatures. It will keep for months if properly cared 
for. Soft cervelat and all other varieties of soft summer sausage have limited 
keeping qualities. They may be kept for 1 or 2 weeks under refrigeration, but 
because of higher moisture contents are apt to mold. Federal specifications stipu- 
late that the dry sausage be delivered which excludes Thuringer and other soft 
forms. During the long drying period dry sausage usually becomes moldy. Be- 
fore shipment this mold is washed off. A slight growth of fine mold that can be 
washed off on the surface at delivery time is of little importance. However, wet 
or slimy or very moldy sausage should not be accepted. Casings should be un- 
broken. The cut surface should be firm and of a bright color. Federal specifica- 
tions permit delivery in hog bungs only. 
83. Lard and lard substitutes, a. Lard. Lard is rendered hog fat. Two types 
are purchased. Type I, open kettle-rendered, has dark cast, grainy appearance, 
and aroma is that of fresh pork frying in an open pan. The dark cast is that of 
unbleached lard, and the grainy appearance results from slow chilling without 
agitation. Any lard may be made smooth (not grainy) by agitation during chill- 
ing or by very rapid chilling. Because it is made of the hardest hog fats, it has 
a higher melting point than refined steam lard. Open kettle-rendered lard should 
have characteristic color, appearance (grain), and aroma of this type, be free 
from any rancidity or foreign odor, and texture should be firm but somewhat 
crumbly, but not sticky. Type II, refined steam lard is rendered from less hard 
fats under steam pressure and in presence of moisture; it is bleached and chilled 
quickly under agitation. Refined steam lard is slightly less hard than open 
kettle-rendered, is smooth (without grain), has a bluish-white color, and an aroma 
similar to that of pork cooked in water. Refined steam-rendered lard is usually 
marketed under the name of “pure” while Type I is usually designated “open 
kettle-rendered” though both are equally pure. Refined steam lard should have 
characteristic appearance and aroma of this type and be free from any sour, 
rancid, or off-odor, and should not be sticky or gummy. Good steam-rendered 
lard can be made only from fresh hog fat. Use of pickled fats gives dark color, 
off-odor, and less desirable texture. Texture is ascertained by pressure with 
the finger. While degree of resistance to pressure will vary with temperature, 
lard should be plastic and flow away smoothly from the finger on pressure. 
When the finger is removed it should not stick but fall away cleanly. Inspection 224 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
should be made at room temperature. Aroma should always be determined in still 
air since a draft may carry away the odor. If any doubt exists concerning aroma, 
product should be heated. Color of the melted lard can be ascertained best in a 
clear glass bottle by holding the bottle of melted lard up to the light. Lard has 
a much greater range of plasticity than lard substitutes; that is, it remains in a 
firm or plastic state without melting over a greater range of temperature than do 
substitutes. Free fatty acids are easily ascertained by a simple laboratory test, 
and the content should not exceed 1 percent. In good, fresh lard it is much less 
than that. Lard is a perishable product, deteriorating rapidly in warm tempera- 
tures, in direct sunshine, and in presence of moisture and air. Therefore it should 
be stored at temperatures near 40° F. in opaque containers, and shielded from air 
and moisture by protective paper wrappings or in tight containers. Repeated 
warming and chilling make it deteriorate rapidly. At a constant temperature of 
40° F. and in protective containers, good lard will keep for months. It is pro- 
duced whenever hog fat is available for rendering. 
b. Substitutes. Lard substitutes are made from animal and vegetable fats or 
from vegetable fats alone. They are made to resemble lard in consistency and 
appearance and are used for the same purposes. However, they differ from lard 
in color, texture, aroma, and plasticity range. Type II which contains oleo stearine 
has a somewhat yellowish or creamy-white cast, Type I a white to creamy-white 
color. None resembles closely the dull white to bluish-white color of lard. When 
properly chilled, substitutes are more brittle than lard; under pressure by the 
finger the product does not flow away smoothly. In aroma they are very bland 
or odorless, and lack the outstanding and characteristic lard aroma. If chilled 
too much they are not worked easily, and when warmed they soften up and be- 
come oily much more rapidly, and their plastic and workable range is much 
shorter than that of lard. Lard substitute should have characteristic color and 
texture of the type to which it belongs. Aroma should be bland and free from 
rancidity or foreign odor. Hydrogenated substitutes have excellent keeping 
qualities. Some keep well even without refrigeration. Type II substitutes require 
the same degree of care and refrigeration as does lard. A transparent or trans- 
lucent appearance of either lard or lard substitute is evidence of breaking down 
of fat, liberation of fatty acids, and rancidity. Such lard or lard substitute is 
inedible. 
84. Canned meats. Inspection of canned meats for quality of materials and per- 
centage of ingredients used must be made before and at canning time. Reinspec- 
tion at delivery point or in storage includes packaging, condition and soundness 
of containers, condition and, in some instances, quality of can contents. 
a. Packages. For use within the continental limits of the United States cases 
are made almost entirely of corrugated fiber board. For oversea shipments wooden 
boxes either of veneer or sawed construction are used because of their greater 
stability. When delivered or when stored, cases should be sound, clean, and un- 
broken. Broken cases indicate rough handling. Because of means used in loading 
and unloading vessels, cases of meat shipped overseas are frequently broken. 
All broken cases should be opened and condition of cans noted. Rarely can much 
damage be done to cases without some damage to cans also. All cans should be 
removed from broken cases and carefully inspected. Cases containing broken or 
leaky cans should never be placed in storage. All broken cans should be removed 
and disposed of. Any cans stained or smeared by contents of broken cans should 
be cleaned, and if necessary, relacquered before placed in stock. 
b. Containers. (1) Condition. Cans should be inspected for cleanliness, lacquer 
coating or label, and soundness. They should be free from dirt and grease. 
Practically all meat contains fat and in the packing process some grease is almost 
sure to be smeared upon surface of cans. Greasy cans are unpleasant to handle. 
In commercial practice such cans are washed in an alkali bath, and those so 
treated show some mottling of the tin. Unless this has progressed too far it is 
of little importance, and is not evident after the cans are lacquered. If grease 
is not removed, lacquer does not adhere. Canned meats designed for oversea 
shipments are invariably given an outer coating of lacquer to protect the tin 
against rust. Lacquer should be evenly applied and completely cover the can. 
It should be of sufficient flexibility and tenacity that it will not chip or break 
when the cans are handled. Inspection should ascertain that cans are lacquered 
properly. Cans protected by labels should have the labels neatly and securely SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
225 
attached. They should bear true name of product, net weight, name of canner, 
inspection legend, and establishment number. All meat cans prepared under Army 
inspection also bear month and year of canning. The above data may appear 
upon the label, but establishment number and date of packing are usually em- 
bossed in the tin of the can top. Products packed under inspection usually have 
all pertinent data embossed in the tin either in the body or the cap of the can, 
and no label is used. 
(2) Soundness. Soundness of cans is ascertained by touch or by percussion. 
For the inexperienced inspector the former method is recommended. In inspecting 
cans by this method they are taken in the hands one by one and felt for loose 
tin or convex surfaces. All meats are canned under vacuum and ends of round 
and all six surfaces of pyramidal or square cans should be concave and closely 
contact the product within. Any loosening of tin on any surface that should be 
concave can be detected readily by touch. Slightly loosened tin may be indica- 
tive of low vacuum, but ordinarily convex surfaces or loose tin indicates leaky 
cans or development of gas within the can. There are two exceptions to tfris 
general rule. Cans packed at low altitude may show loose tin when taken to 
high altitudes because of decreased external air pressure. When cans are filled 
by power stuffers such as are used in canning corned beef, the pressure exerted, 
within the can by the plunger sometimes forces the bottom of the tin into a 
convex shape that does not become concave even under vacuum. If doubt exists 
as to can soundness under either of these conditions a few should be incubated 
at a temperature between 90° and 100° F. for 10 days. If sound they will remain in 
their original state, but if leaky or not sterile, fermentation and swelling will ensue. 
A little practice will enable the inspector to differentiate between sound and un- 
sound cans. In the percussion method, cans are struck on the flat surface, par- 
ticularly the ends, with a metal rod or wooden stick. Sound cans with proper 
vacuum give an unmistakable tense sound when struck. Leaky cans, short 
vacuum cans, springers, flippers, and swells give forth an entirely different sound. 
However, considerable experience is necessary to be able to differentiate between 
the various sounds. Inspection by touch is less rapid but more accurate. If doubt 
exists as to can soundness, it is best to err on the safety side. No cans with 
loose or distended tin should be passed for food unless proved sound by incuba- 
tion or otherwise. 
(3) Contents. Products which are to be sliced and eaten cold such as corned, 
beef, ox tongue, etc., should be chilled before opening for inspection. Others 
should be at room temperature. Inspection should be made if possible in natural 
light away from drafts, and in air free from foreign odors. A vacuum gage to 
determine extent of vacuum may be used but is not essential. If all flat surfaces 
are concave and closely contacting contents, the number of inches of vacuum is 
of little importance. Vacuum varies greatly in different products. Sliced dried 
beef in glass is usually sealed in about 28 inches of vacuum, while Army Type II 
bacon in 12-pound cans is sealed in about 15 inches of vacuum. In the latter case 
a greater vacuum would result in buckling. Altitude also affects vacuum regis- 
tered on a vacuum gage. 
Some cans are provided with key-opening bands and, when present, should be 
opened by this means. Others are opened by means of a can opener by cutting 
around edge of the cap. For pyramidal and conical cans, the large end should be 
removed. The end should be removed as smoothly as possible to allow easy re- 
moval of contents, especially on products such as ox tongue which should be 
retained whole. As soon as the cap is removed aroma of contents should be noted. 
It should be typical of the product and free from any sour rancid, or foreign 
odors. Containers are designed to hold definite weights of various products, and 
trade practice has established desired fill. They are filled as full as compactness 
of the product and drawing of proper vacuum will permit. Under-filled cans are 
undesirable. Color, texture, compactness, quantities of gelatin or moisture, and 
flavor should be typical of the product being inspected. Canned meats that have 
been stored several months may show iron sulphide discoloration. This is prac- 
tically always confined to the surface and can be scraped or trimmed off. Army 
canned meats in storage for a considerable length of time should not be con- 
demned for iron sulphide discoloration, but those showing this defect on delivery 
should be rejected. Use of enamel-lined cans eliminates this defect. 
c. Storage. Canned meats have excellent keeping qualities, and do not require^ 226 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
refrigeration. With the exception of sliced dried beef and sliced bacon, those 
purchased for Army use will keep well for a year or more. Canned corned beef 
has been known to remain in excellent condition for more than 10 years. They 
should be stored, if possible, in dry storage at a temperature not over 70° F. 
Temperatures below 60° F. enhance keeping qualities while temperatures above 
90° F. lessen storage life. 
Section XII 
DAIRY PRODUCTS 
85. General, a. Inspection of dairies, creameries, and cheese factories, and of 
fresh, malted, condensed, evaporated, and dry powdered milk, butter, cheese, and 
ice cream is a function of the Veterinary Corps of the Medical Department. The 
following publications embody the customary procedure in dairy products inspec- 
tions and standards; 
(1) Military Meat and Dairy Hygiene, Eakins. 
(2) Subsistence Bulletin No. 14—Dairy Products. 
(3) United States Department of Agriculture Revised Tentative United States 
Standards for Quality of Creamery Butter. 
(4) United States Public Health Service Milk Ordinance and Code. 
b. The prescribed examination and testing of herds which are the source of 
military fresh milk supply can be conducted only by accredited or authorized 
veterinarians. Cattle testing and dairy inspection procedure is described in a 
(1) above. Pasteurization procedure is described in a (2) above. Pasteurization 
of milk can be ascertained only at the pasteurization plant by observation of time 
and temperatures. No laboratory test of milk after pasteurization provides an 
accurate determination of correct pasteurization. Bacteriological, Babcock (butter- 
fat), lactometer (to determine total milk solids), sedimentation (to determine 
gross dirt), acidity, and other laboratory tests are described in (3) above. These 
tests require equipment seldom found except in laboratories equipped for testing 
dairy products. However, there are other tests than can be made without use of 
laboratory equipment. 
86. Milk. a. Fresh. (1) Containers. Fresh milk for Army use is delivered in 
glass bottles or fiber containers. Glass bottles are easily inspected for dirt, ex- 
tent of cream line, and color of the milk. Bottles should be scrupulously clean 
showing no sediment in the bottom, and be sound without any broken or chipped 
edges, especially around the mouth. Broken glass is dangerous and is difficult 
to clean. Color of milk varies with breed of cattle and nature of feed. Jersey 
and Guernsey cattle produce milk of deeper yellow color than other breeds. 
Green and succulent feeds produce milk of deeper yellow color than dry feeds. 
Therefore, milk usually has a deeper yellow color during spring and early sum- 
mer. The cream line is a fairly accurate indication of butterfat content but it is 
influenced by pasteurization. Cream line, color, and gross dirt in milk are not 
readily ascertained in fiber containers. Milk bottles and fiber containers should be 
closed with clean stoppers which show day milk was bottled or delivered. Cer- 
tified milk bottles have hooded caps which are printed to show name of product, 
name of producer, and license number under which producer operates. 
(2) Quality. In consistency milk should pour smoothly and evenly from the 
container. Any stringiness observed on pouring should be grounds for rejection. 
Colostrum in milk is readily detected by boiling a small quantity. If colostrum 
is present it will curdle. Milk should have a sweet, pleasant aroma and flavor. 
During spring months garlic odor and flavor is frequently present, and such milk 
should be rejected. It should have a temperature not above 50° F. when delivered. 
Higher temperatures indicate improper handling and such milk should be rejected. 
(3) Storage. Milk should be stored under refrigeration. Fresh clean milk 
will keep for several days without spoiling, but for Army use it should not be 
stored for periods longer than 36 hours. 
b. Evaporated. Inspection of evaporated milk should include inspection for 
consistency, flavor, color, separation, grainy sediment, and curdy, curdled, and 
fermented milk. 
(1) Consistency. In consistency evaporated milk is much denser and more SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
227 
viscous than fresh, but should be entirely fluid, even and smooth, and not show 
any curd specks. The latter is tested by means of a spoon which is dipped into 
the milk and gently raised above the surface with the convex surface of the bowl 
of the spoon upward. The milk should flow off the spoon without leaving any 
curd specks. Another method consists in tilting the opened can until the milk 
just touches the edge of the can opening. By inserting the spoon on its edge and 
slowly raising the bowl, keeping the spoon handle in touch with the milk, a film 
of milk is drawn up in the triangle between spoon bowl, spoon handle, and sur- 
face of the milk. This film should not show any curd specks. 
(2) Flavor. Flavor should be clean and free from any disagreeable or foreign 
flavors. It differs greatly from that of sweet milk because of sterilizing process 
to which it is subjected. The inspector should be familiar with the normal flavor 
of evaporated milk in order to ascertain presence of off-flavors. 
(3) Color. Color varies with desire of individual manufacturer. Some brands 
are almost as white as fresh milk, but most evaporated is much browner. Some 
manufacturers believe that the latter has a richer, more cream-like appearance. 
Unless very brown, in which instance it is apt to have a high cooked or burnt 
flavor, no distinction should be made between brands of different color. 
(4) Separation. The chief defect is cream separation or creaming, resulting 
from long standing in one position. The butterfat gradually separates and is 
forced to the top by the heavier, denser milk serum, and may adhere to top 
and side of the can. Cans which stand still in one position for several months 
are bound to show some separation. If extensive, it may interfere with pouring 
from the can. However, such milk is usually sound and its food value is not 
altered. It can be used for cooking purposes about as well as the unseparated 
product, but not as well in coffee or on cereals. Evaporated milk showing this 
defect upon delivery should be rejected. When the condition is found upon 
reinspection in storage, it should not be condemned. 
(5) Grainy sediment. Grainy sediment is found frequently and appears as 
small, rough, very hard granules, sometimes loose and sometimes adhering to 
the bottom of the can. If incorporated in food they are unpleasant when bitten but 
otherwise are of no importance. Grainy sediment is undesirable, and lots showing 
a considerable number of cans with this defect unon delivery should be rejected. 
When found in cans in storage, such lots should not be condemned. 
(6) Curds. Curdy milk results from precipitation of curd because of faulty 
manufacture. The curd appears as flakes or lumps. There is no off odor or flavor. 
This milk is not injurious to health, but because of its similarity to sour curdled 
milk, it should be rejected upon receipt and should not be used if the condition 
is found after storage. Sour curdled milk is due to bacterial action resulting in 
acid curdling. It is inedible and should be rejected when offered for delivery 
and condemned when found in storage. 
(7) Fermentation. Fermented milk results from leaky cans or incomplete 
sterilization. It results in brown or swelled cans. It is inedible and should be 
rejected or condemned whenever found. 
(8) Storage. Evaporated milk in cans has excellent keeping qualities. Under 
fair storage conditions it will keep for a year without developing defects other 
than cream separation. However, it must be stored away from heating coils or 
radiators or immediately under galvanized iron roofs. As it is produced in great 
quantities throughout the year there is little need for long storage. 
(9) Standards. Federal standards have been established, and all manufac- 
turers produce milk just meeting minimum requirements of the standards. Very 
seldom is any found that does not meet those standards. Determination of milk 
solids is a laboratory procedure and requires special equipment not available 
in the field. Dirt and other sediment may be determined by the sedimentation 
test, and acidity by titration. These also are laboratory tests and require labor- 
atory equipment. 
c. Sweetened condensed. This product is inspected for consistency, flavor, color, 
and soundness. 
(1) Consistency. Because of its high sugar content, sweetened condensed milk 
is quite dense and viscous. The freshly made product is a very dense fluid and 
when poured from the can considerable quantities adhere to the tin. It should 228 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
be smooth to the touch without any evidence of grittiness. Sandy or gritty milk 
results from crystallization of the milk sugar, resulting in very hard, rough sugar 
crystals which feel like grains of sand between the teeth or between the fingers. 
Sandy milk is not inedible and is not injurious to health, but that offered for de- 
livery should be rejected. Settled milk results from settling of sugar (sucrose) 
upon long standing. Being heavier than the watery constituents of the milk, the 
sugar gradually settles to the bottom. It is somewhat difficult to reincorporate 
the sugar with the milk once it has settled out. Such milk can be used for 
cooking and baking purposes. Settled milk should be rejected if offered for de- 
livery, but should not be condemned if found in storage. Sweetened condensed 
milk is not sterilized in the can as is evaporated, depending upon its sugar con- 
tent for preservation. Because of its nonsterile condition, the chief defects aris- 
ing in this product are lumpy and thickened (cheesy) milk. Lumps and buttons 
are produced by molds and bacteria resulting from use of poor milk and from 
insanitary equipment and methods of manufacture. Such milk should be re- 
jected upon delivery. However, this defect is largely confined to the surface and 
when removed the milk may be used with safety. Thickened and cheesy milk 
results from age or use of insufficient sugar. It may become custard-like or have 
the consistency of soft cheese. It is not harmful but not desirable, and should 
be rejected. 
(2) Color. The color of freshly made sweetened condensed milk is creamy 
white. A brown color develops with age, particularly if it is not stored in a 
cool place. Old milk has a deep brown color. While browning is not harmful 
it is undesirable. Milk offered for delivery that shows browning should be 
rejected. 
(3) Flavor. Since condensed milk is not heat-processed, it does not have 
the cooked flavor characteristic of evaporated milk. Flavor should be clean and 
free from any foreign taint. In storage it may develop rancid or metallic flavors. 
The former is due to fat-splitting bacteria and the latter results from faulty 
manufacturing methods or equipment. Both are undesirable and their presence 
warrants rejection. Gaseous fermentation produces swelled cans. Such milk is 
inedible. 
d. Dry powdered. The laboratory procedure for examination of powdered milk 
is described in detail in Federal specifications. These tests depend entirely on 
laboratory equipment and technique, and are not adaptable to field inspection. 
(1) Color and texture. Inspectors should be familiar with the difference in 
color and texture of skimmed and whole milk powders and of spray-dried and 
film-dried powders. Skimmed milk powder is of a light creamy white color 
while whole milk powder has a distinct creamy or yellowish cast. Spray-dried 
powders have a very fine, fluffy, floury appearance and feel, and require no grind- 
ing in preparation for market. Film-dried powders come from the drums in 
broad, thin sheets that must be ground and bolted in preparation for market. 
Film-dried is granular in consistency. 
(2) Storage. Keeping qualities of powdered milk depend upon exclusion of 
air, light, and moisture. Because of its low fat content, skimmed milk powder 
is not readily oxidized, but whole milk rapidly deteriorates due to oxidation. 
Rancidity rapidly develops in whole milk powder exposed to air. When milk 
powder is exposed to air, it absorbs moisture and caking ensues. Moisture ab- 
sorption also furthers bacterial action, and renders the powder less soluble. The 
only solution for these defects is hermetic sealing in vacuum or in inert gas. A 
vacuum can be maintained and use of inert gas (nitrogen) is possible only in 
hermetically sealed containers. Containers with friction plugs or cover are not 
hermetically sealed. In hermetically sealed containers either in vacuum or in 
inert gas, milk powders keep well for months. They should be stored away from 
heat. The best storage temperature is 35° to 45° F., but these powders stand up 
well at room temperature. 
87. Butter, a. General. Butter inspection procedure is outlined in Subsistence 
Bulletin No. 14—Dairy Products. Butter grades and butter scoring factors are 
given in the above bulletin and in U. S. Standards of Quality of Creamery Butter. 
Tests for butterfat, salt, and moisture are simple laboratory procedure. Compli- 
ance with specification requirements for quality of cream, percentage of acidity SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
229 
in cream, and pasteurization can be determined definitely only at the creamery 
before or at churning time, but grain and flavor reflect cream quality and hand- 
ling methods. Grades are based on factors ascertained by physical examination. 
Flavor is ascertained by smelling and tasting; body, by feel and appearance; 
color, by visual examination and by use of a standard butter-color rod; salt, by 
taste; and style, by visual examination. For tub butter a long butter trier is 
essential; for smaller packages a cheese trier is better adapted. A plug is drawn 
by inserting the trier as nearly through the sample as possible, giving the trier 
a turn and withdrawing it. From the plug the inspector makes his determination 
of flavor, body, color, and salt, after which the plug is returned and the trier 
withdrawn. The chief grading factor is flavor. Only a very small percentage 
of market butter shows serious defects of body, color, or salt. The inspector 
should remember that most market butter falls within a very narrow score range. 
Very little market butter scores higher than 93, and that scoring less than 89 
has such serious defects, particularly of flavor, as to be undesirable for table 
use. Butter scoring 90 possesses aroma, flavor, body, and color that make it 
satisfactory for table use as well as for cooking or baking. Butter scoring 92 
or higher must have highly desirable qualities of aroma, creaminess, freshness, 
and palatability, and be almost perfect in body, texture, color, salt, and style. 
Butter of higher score only possesses higher aroma and flavor. It must be kept 
under refrigeration at all times. Good butter will keep well in an ordinary ice 
box for a month if protected from foreign odors. If it is to be kept for a longer 
period, it should be frozen and held at a temperature not higher than 0° F. 
b. Rating. The rating of the various factors used in scoring butter as given 
in United States Department of Agriculture Department Circular 236, is quoted 
below: 
Five Classes of Defects in Quality 
In the inspection of butter its quality is considered from the standpoint of flavor, 
body, color, salt, and package. In determining the final score, each of these factors is 
rated' separately, with the following number of points given to each: Flavor, 45; body, 
25; color, 15; salt, 10; and package, 5; total, 100. The ratings given to each factor are 
governed by the absence or presence of certain defects. A careful reading of the fol- 
lowing rules used by the Federal Bureau of Agriculture Economics in the inspection 
of butter under the food products inspection law, will indicate the effect of defects 
on the rating given each factor and the final score of the butter: 
The Rating of Flavor 
The rating given to flavor shall be determined by the flavor characteristics as follows: 
A. Desirable flavors, minimum rating of 37 points. 
(a) Butter that is fresh, fine, sweet, mild and clean in flavor, and has a certain 
creaminess or richness that gives it a particularly pleasing taste and aroma, shall receive 
a rating of 40 to 45 points, inclusive. 
(b) Butter that is fresh, fine, sweet and clean in flavor, if of fresh make, or fine, 
sweet, and clean, if storage, shall be given a rating of 38 to 39 points, inclusive. 
(c) Butter that is fresh, sweet and clean in flavor, if of fresh make, or sweet and 
clean, if storage, shall be given a rating of not less than 37 points. 
B. Objectionable flavors. 
(a) Maximum rating of 36 points. Butter that is free from “foreign” or “off” 
flavors, but which shows any of the following taints or flavors, shall receive a rating 
of 36 points or less for flavor, according to the degree of defect, and shall receive a 
maximum of 36 points, provided the flavor is only slightly objectionable; 
(1) Mechanical .taints—flavors having their origin in the process of manufacture 
or in the conditions under which the butter is held after manufacture, but not indi- 
cating aged or stale cream: Burnt, oily, heated, mealy, frozen cream, greasy, lardy; 
also storage and fruity flavors in Held butter. 
(2) Bacterial taints—flavors having their origin in bacterial development, but not 
indicating aged or stale cream: Cowy, barny, acidy, yeasty, summery, cheesy, curdy. 
(3') Feed taints—flavors having their origin in feed conditions at the point of pro- 
duction, but not indicating age or stale cream; Weedy, frosted feed. 
(b) Maximum rating of 35 points. Butter showing the following objectionable 
flavors shall be given a rating of 35 points or less, according to the degree of defect: 
Metallic, wintry, bitter; also “old” flavor in Held butter. 
(c) Maximum rating of 33 points. Butter showing the following objectionable 
flavors shall be given a rating of 33 points or less: Unclean, musty, distinct lime or 
alkaline flavors. 230 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
C. Foreign flavors. 
(a) Maximum rating of 33' points. Butter showing a taint of gasoline and having 
no other objectionable flavor, shall be given a rating of 33 points or less. 
(b) Maximum rating of 32 points. Butter showing garlic or wild onion flavor, 
shall be given a rating of 32 points or less. 
D. Off flavors, maximum rating of 32 points. Butter that shows any of the following 
flavors, ordinarily termed “off” flavors, shall be given a rating of 32 points or less, de- 
pending upon the extent of the defect: FishyT tallowy, unclean, stale cream, stale oily, 
stale metallic, stale sour, stale cheesy. 
The Rating of Body 
Butter receiving the maximum rating of 25 points for body must have a firm, waxy 
texture and a perfect grain, as indicated by a jagged or irregular toothed edge, when 
the butter is broken apart. It must be free from salviness or excess free moisture, and 
must not show a milky brine. 
Butter receiving the full rating of 15 points for color must be free from all foreign 
color specks, waviness, streaks or mottles, and must be uniform in color in all parts. 
The ratings given to the various degrees of uniform color shall be as follows: 
A. Light color: Butter having a light straw color shall be given the full rating of 
15 points. 
B. Medium color: Butter having the color of the natural grass product, without the 
use of additional color, shall be given the full rating of 15 points. 
C. High color: Butter having a color higher than that of natural grass butter shall 
be given a maximum rating of 14 points. 
The Rating of Color 
Butter which is not excessively high in salt, and which shows no undissolved salt, 
and in which the salt is uniform, shall be given the maximum of 10 points for salt. 
The ratings given butter showing different amounts of salt properly dissolved, shall 
be as follows: 
A. Unsalted butter shall be given the full rating of 10 points. 
B. Light salted butter, that contains 1%% or less of salt and has a very slight salty 
taste, shall be given the full rating of 10 points. 
C. Medium salted butter, that contains over U/2% and not above 3%% of salt, and 
has a mild and yet distinct salty taste, shall be given the full rating of 10 points. 
D. High salted butter, that contains over 3%% of salt and has a sharp, briny or pro- 
nounced salty taste, shall be given a maximum rating of 9 points. 
The Rating of Salt 
Butter receiving the full rating of 5 points for package must be neatly and properly 
packed in sound, uniform packages, which are clean and entirely free from mold. 
88. Cheese. Inspection and grading procedure, grades, grading factors, and 
definitions of terms used in grading American Cheddar cheese and Swiss cheese 
are given in Subsistence Bulletin No. 46—Cheese. The inspector should be 
familiar with terms used in cheese grading. Familiarity with the characteristics 
of texture and flavor resulting from aging is acquired only by experience. Other 
grading factors are not difficult of understanding and application. Cheese im- 
proves in flavor with age if kept at proper temperatures. It is never frozen but 
should be kept under refrigeration. At room temperature or in summer heat, 
it has limited keeping qualities. In an ordinary ice box and protected from 
drying, Cheddar and Swiss will ordinarily keep well for weeks. Cottage cheese 
is highly perishable and should not be stored longer than 36 hours. 
The Rating of Package 
Section XIII 
POULTRY AND EGGS 
89. Poultry. The classes of poultry purchaseable under Federal specifications 
are dressed chickens, fowl, ducks, geese, and turkeys. Inspection of poultry em- 
braces determination of class, grade, and condition. 
a. Chickens. (1) Classes. The classes of chickens are based on age, size, weight 
and sex. Broilers are young chickens of either sex weighing 2Vz pounds or less, 
fryers 2V2 to 3Vz pounds, dressed. Roasting chickens are young cockerels weigh- 
ing 3V2 pounds and up, dressed. Fowl are mature female chickens weighing ZVz pounds and up, dressed. Stags are male chickens older than cockerels but not 
fully mature. Cocks are mature male chickens. Stags and cocks weigh 3Vz 
pounds and up. Capons are male chickens that were caponized (castrated) when 
young. Age of dressed chickens is indicated by size, condition of flesh with regard 
to tenderness or toughness, flexibility or hardness of cartilages, smoothness or 
roughness of legs, and extent of spur development. Young chickens (broilers and 
fryers) are small; older chickens increase in size. In broilers, fryers, capons, and 
roasting chickens the flesh is tender and can be cut easily by pressure with the 
thumb nail. Flesh of fowl is less tender. Flesh of stags and cocks is dark in 
color and hard and resistant to pressure. The cartilage at the rear end of the 
keel of young chickens is soft and flexible; that of fowl, stags, and cocks is hard 
and inflexible. Legs and feet of young birds are smooth and shiny while those of 
old birds become roughened, being scaly and gnarly in very old birds, and lose 
their shiny appearance. Broilers have no perceptible spur development; fryers 
have perceptible but very small spurs; capons and roasting chickens have small 
spurs that are short, wide, rounded, and not horny; fowl have very narrow, short 
spurs; stags have pronounced straight but rounded spurs; and cocks have long, 
hard, curved, pointed spurs. Size and weight develop with age. There is little 
to differentiate sex in young chickens, but as the birds near maturity definite sex 
characteristics develop. Male chickens (cockerels, stags, and cocks) develop more 
luxuriant plumage, larger combs and wattles, larger heads, larger legs and wings, 
and greater spur development than do females (pullets and hens), and body de- 
velopment is uniform, remaining narrow and shallow in the rear. Female chickens 
are characterized by small heads, small combs and wattles, small wings and legs, 
rudimentary spur development, and the body becomes deep and wide especially in 
the rear. 
(2) Grades. Grades of dressed chickens are based on color, fatness, freedom 
from blemishes (torn skin, broken bones, crooked breasts, etc.), absence of pin- 
feathers, bruises, and engorged blood vessels. Color refers to color of skin, legs, 
and fat. Color is a breed characteristic and is also influenced by feed. Broilers 
and fryers are frequently produced from the egg breeds (leghorns, etc.), which 
have comparatively white skins. Roasting chickens and fowl are produced largely 
from the dual purpose breeds which have yellow legs and yellowish skins. Milk 
feeding produces white or creamy white fat while corn feeding produces fat of a 
yellow cast. Fatness depends upon the quantity and distribution of fat. Prac- 
tically all broilers, fryers, and roasting chickens are milk-fed just before slaughter. 
Fattened fowl usually have considerable fat deposited in and around the abdominal 
cavity. While blemishes may not reduce food value of chickens, they detract from 
appearance. Imperfect bleeding is indicated by engorged blood vessels along neck 
and near thighs, and may appear on other parts of the body. Engorged blood 
vessels appear as reddish streaks in or underneath the skin. Tom skin is the 
result of careless handling during dressing. Bruises are a source of waste and 
further early deterioration. Crooked breasts are deformities and detract from 
appearance and also interfere with carving. Black pinfeathers detract from ap- 
pearance of dressed chicken, particularly if the skin is white. 
Fancy grade includes chickens with good color, tender flesh, meaty breasts, free 
from such defects as crooked breast bones, broken bones, tom skin, bruises, black 
pinfeathers, etc., and with evenly distributed fat of good color. 
Choice chickens must have good color, tender flesh, and fairly meaty breasts 
but may have a small percentage of birds with small skin tears, an occasional 
broken wing or leg if the edible tissues are not injured thereby, and small super- 
ficial bruises. In commercial practice the crops of undrawn birds are emptied by 
cutting a hole through the skin and crop. These holes are not sewed up. 
(3) Dressing. Chickens are dressed by slack scalding or hot scalding. Dry 
picking is no longer commercially practiced. Slack scalded birds are immersed 
in water at a temperature not higher than 130° F. Practically all broilers, fryers, 
roasting chickens, and fatted fowl are slack scalded. Slack scalding leaves the 
skin soft, flexible, and unshrunken, and not water-soaked. The feather follicles 
are closed and the skin is without tears and has a bright bloom. Slack scalded 
birds are air chilled in refrigerated rooms. Hot scalding consists in immersing 
birds in water at a temperature of about 180° F, Stewing hens, cocks, and birds 
prepared by local markets are largely hot scalded. Hot scalding shrinks the skin 
leaving it tightly drawn over the flesh, water-soaked, and it tears easily. Feather 
SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
231 232 
follicles are open and skin has lost its bloom. Scalded birds are usually chilled 
by immersing in cold water. Chickens may be undrawn or drawn. Undrawn 
birds have all internal organs intact and head and feet remain on. Under specifi- 
cations all frozen chickens are undrawn, though freezing drawn chickens is in- 
creasing commercially. Under the specification “drawn” means full-drawn, that 
is, head, feet, and ail viscera, including crop, gullet, lungs, windpipe, abdominal 
viscera, and oil sac should be removed. Gizzard, heart, and liver (free of gall 
bladder) are wrapped in nonabsorbent paper and returned to the abdominal cavity 
or delivered in separate package. 
(4) Production. Production of dressed poultry is seasonal. Broilers are pro- 
duced largely from middle of June to early August, fryers from late July to 
October, and roasting chickens from October to late December. At other seasons 
only frozen chickens of these classes are available. 
(5) Storage. Frozen chickens keep well from one season to the next. Storage 
defects are freezer burn, shrinkage, and loss of bloom. Freezer burn is dehydra- 
tion of the skin in small areas usually around feather follicles. It gives the skin 
a pockmarked appearance, though it detracts little or none from food value. It is 
largely prevented by proper wrapping and packaging. Shrinkage of chickens in 
cold storage is negligible. Chilled chickens, both drawn and undrawn, have 
limited keeping qualities. In undrawn birds contents of the digestive tract are 
apt to ferment unless temperatures close to freezing are maintained. The open 
visceral cavity of drawn birds offers a good surface for bacterial growth. Inspec- 
tion of undrawn, chilled chickens should include observation for protruding and 
discolored vents, and sliminess and bad odors underneath wings and thighs. The 
visceral cavity of drawn, chilled chickens should be carefully inspected for slimi- 
ness and bad odors. Fresh (unchilled) chickens have very limited keeping quali- 
ties. They should be prepared for cooking as soon as possible after killing and 
drawing. Unchilled chickens should never be piled in deep layers. Aging does 
not improve tenderness and flavor of chickens. 
b. Ducks and geese. With the exception of green ducks which are produced to 
a limited extent near some large cities, marketing ducks and geese is seasonal. 
They are not found on the market except in cold weather, particularly near the 
holidays, and are sold fresh almost exclusively. Only those not consumed during 
the holidays are cold stored. No distinction is made in sex in ducks and geese, as 
no difference in conformation, quality, tenderness, or edibility exists. Age of 
dressed ducks and geese is determined by condition of the trachea (windpipe). 
In young birds the cartilages of the trachea are soft and yielding, while in old 
birds they are hard and resistant to pressure. Old birds have darker flesh than 
the young but this is usually difficult to determine in the dressed birds because 
of the fat covering. Dressed birds should be plump and breasts should be full and 
rounded. Protrusion of the breastbone above surrounding meat indicates poor 
condition. Federal specifications permit purchase of fancy grade only. Fancy 
ducks and geese have good color, bright bloom, are plump and meaty, well-covered 
with fat, and free from such defects as bruises, torn skin, broken bones, pinfeathers, 
etc. Yellow-skinned birds are more attractive than white-skinned. 
c. Turkeys. The classes of turkeys are young and old toms, young and old hens. 
Toms are male turkeys and hens are females. The distinctive differences between 
toms and hens are the same as between cockerels and hen chickens, and in addi- 
tion the nose wattle (the fleshy wattle over the beak) is larger and longer on the 
male, and the beard (bunchy growth of hair on breast) is larger on a tom than 
on a hen. Under Federal specifications only young toms and young hens may be 
purchased. Age differentiation and grading factors for turkeys are identical with 
those for chickens. Fancy young turkeys must have an attractive bloom; be 
plump with well-rounded breasts; soft meat; well covered in and beneath the skin 
with white fat; be free from bruises, torn skin, broken bones, and pinfeathers; 
head wrapped in paper; feet clean, smooth, and a bright color; have little or no 
spurs; have soft, flexible cartilage at end of keel; and be in prime condition as 
evidenced by dry skin free from any sliminess or off-odor. Choice young turkeys 
must have the same characteristics as to age and condition, but may have slight 
bruises, slightly torn skin if not on the breast, and may not be so full meated or 
so well covered with fat as turkeys of fancy grade. Turkeys have the same keep- 
ing qualities as chickens under the same conditions, and the same principles of 
storage and preparation apply. Frozen poultry is best defrosted in a refrigerator, 
the same principles applying as for frozen beef. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT SUBSISTENCE SUPPLIES 
233 
90. Eggs. Inspection of eggs includes determination of net weight and quality 
or grade. 
a. Net weight. Bulk eggs are delivered in cases of 30 dozen each. Cases are 
made of wood divided into two compartments each having five sets of fillers hold- 
ing 3 dozen eggs each. Egg cases vary slightly in weight with the kind of wood, 
dryness, etc., but average between 7 and 8 pounds per case. Several forms of 
fillers and flats are used. Fillers are usually of the “honeycomb” type and are 
made of hard calendered cardboard. Flats may be of flat, hard calendered card- 
board or made of pulpwood and be in cup shape to retain eggs in a vertical posi- 
tion (mapes flat). Fillers and flats weigh from 4 to 5 pounds. The tare on eggs 
will vary from HV2 to 13 pounds per case. Federal specifications prescribe net 
weight per case required during various months for various grades. All cased 
eggs should be weighed upon receipt to determine net weight. An occasional test 
of weight of cases, fillers, and flats will establish tare. 
b. Cases. Cases need not be new, but they should be sound, clean, and free from 
stains and bad odors. Fillers and flats should be sound, clean, sweet, and free 
from any soiling. For Army deliveries new fillers and flats are prescribed. 
c. Classes. Three classes of eggs are specified by Federal specifications: fresh, 
storage or refrigerator, and processed (oil treated). Fresh eggs are those that 
have not been in cold storage, the term not necessarily meaning that they have 
been laid recently. They may be 30 days or more from laying time. They must 
show certain definite quality characteristics as revealed by candling. These 
characteristics are set forth in the publications referred to in f (2) below. Storage 
or refrigerator eggs are those which have been in cold storage and may be from 
1 month to 9 months from laying time. Processed (oil treated) eggs are those 
treated by dipping momentarily in hot oil to seal pores of the shell, thereby re- 
tarding shrinkage and also destroying molds and bacteria, thus enhancing keeping 
qualities. Shells of processed eggs usually have an oily feel, and small spots of 
oil stain usually may be found on flats where the eggs have rested. Processed 
eggs may be either fresh or refrigerator, the latter being processed while fresh. 
For delivery under Federal specifications, refrigerator eggs should not be proc- 
essed after being under refrigeration. Only strictly fresh eggs should be processed, 
d. Infertile eggs. Infertile eggs cannot be determined by candling. Fertile eggs 
that have been exposed to heat usually show some development of the “hatch 
spot” (germ), but infertile and strictly fresh eggs should show no such develop- 
ment. To secure infertile eggs, it is necessary to obtain them from flocks known 
to keep hens separated from cocks and cockerels. 
e. Washed and sandblasted eggs. Washed eggs are undesirable in that they have 
limited keeping qualities because water penetrates pores of the shell carrying 
with it any bacteria or molds that may be on the shell or in the water. Eggs are 
washed only when too dirty to sell as is. Sandblasted eggs are undesirable chiefly 
because they indicate that the eggs were dirty. In sandblasting the bloom and 
outer layer of the shell is worn away by attrition from a flow of sand. Excessive 
sandblasting weakens the shell and makes it more fragile. Sandblasted eggs lose 
their protective outer covering and are less resistant to invasion by bacteria. 
f. Grade. (1) Determination. Grades are based on quality and condition. 
Quality and grade in eggs are determined by candling. Loss in eggs is based on 
defects which lessen or destroy food value. All inedible eggs (rotten, broken 
(leaking), spots, broken yolk, frozen (split), hatched (blood veined), and sour 
eggs) are counted as full loss, while small, dirty, checked, badly stained and 
seconds are counted one-third loss. The grade of a lot of eggs is based largely 
upon loss established in candling one-half case from each of a representative 
number of cases taken at random from the lot. Under Federal specifications no 
loss from inedible eggs is allowed, but a tolerance is allowed in each grade for 
loss other than inedible eggs. In order to understand grading factors and toler- 
ance terms, the inspector must be familiar with trade terms and definitions as 
outlined in the United States Standards and Grades for Eggs. 
(2) Equipment. Inspection personnel should provide themselves with the 
following: 
United States Standards and Grades for Eggs, United States Department of 
Agriculture. 
Subsistence Bulletin No. 16, Poultry and Eggs. 
Air Cell Gage, United States Department of Agriculture, and egg candling 
device. 234 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
United States Standards and Grades for eggs defines terms used in candling as 
well as United States grades and factors upon which those grades are based. Sub- 
sistence Bulletin No. 26, Poultry and Eggs, describes candling procedure and gives 
commercial grades established by certain commercial exchanges. An air cell gage 
is desirable in determining degree of shrinkage. A candling device is essential. 
A portable candling device may be purchased or a satisfactory one may be made. 
The best light is electric, but a candle or other light may be used. 
Section XIV 
FISH 
91. Fish. Inspection of fresh fish is concerned with variety, style of dressing if 
any, and condition upon delivery. 
a. Variety. No restriction is made by Federal specifications as to variety. The 
varieties available vary with the section of country in which purchased. Inspec- 
tors should be familiar with varietal characteristics. No attempt will be made in 
this manual to describe the many varieties which may be purchased. 
b. Dressing. Commercially, fresh fish may be delivered round or gutted, heads 
on or off, gills in or out, scales on or off, skin on or off, split or unsplit, in sides, 
chunks, slices, and fillets. Trade custom prescribes form in which ordinarily 
marketed. Proposals for bids should state definitely the form desired. 
c. Condition. (1) Stage. Condition refers to freshness or lack of it. Three stages 
of condition are recognized, fresh, stale, and putrid.. 
(a) Fresh. Fresh fish are characterized by a bright appearance, glittering 
scales that adhere tightly, surface slime natural to the species that is free of de- 
composition odors, bright, shiny, outstanding eyes, bright red gills that are free 
of off-odors, closed mouth and gill covers, firm, elastic abdominal wall free from 
evidence of bloating, flesh that is firm and resilient, bright red blood in the ab- 
dominal wall particularly under the backbone, and a fresh odor characteristic 
of the species. When laid across the hand a fresh fish bends but little. 
(b) Stale. Staleness is indicative of deterioration and results from bacterial 
and enzymic action. It is characterized by a dull appearance, dullness and slight 
loosening of scales, change in natural slime to greater stickiness or dryness, some- 
what sunken and less brilliant eyes, dull-colored gills, abdominal wall somewhat 
soft and flaccid and may be slightly distended, flesh that does not pit on pressure 
but is less resilient, blood turning a brownish color, and development of a slight 
off-odor. A stale fish laid across the hand is less rigid than a fresh. 
(c) Putrid. Putrid fish are characterized by a very dull appearance, lack 
of brilliance, loosening and falling off of scales, complete dryness or an extreme 
slipperiness of slime accompanied by a putrid odor, eyes sunken or entirely dis- 
integrated, gills a dull brown color and with a putrid odor, open mouth and gill 
covers, soft, spongy abdominal wall frequently with bloating and protrusion of 
the vent, flesh that has entirely lost its resiliency and in which pitting produced 
by pressure remains, blood of a dull brown color, and a general odor of decom- 
posed flesh. When laid across the hand a putrid fish sags at all unsupported points. 
(2) Delivery. A putrid fish is unsafe for eating, and putrid fish and those 
showing advanced staleness should be rejected. While fish showing beginning 
staleness might be used without danger, safety requires that such be rejected. 
Only strictly fresh fish should be accepted. They should be delivered thoroughly 
chilled and iced, and any delivered without ice should be viewed with suspicion. 
Frozen fish should be delivered solidly frozen, and those delivered in a partially 
thawed condition also should be viewed with suspicion. They should be delivered 
in sufficient time to allow defrosting. Fresh fish should be delivered only in 
sufficient time to allow preparation before cooking. Section XV 
92. Excerpts from Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (act June 25, 1938 
(52 Stat. 1040)). 
Sec. 201 (f) The term “food” means (1) articles used for food or drink for man 
or other animals, (2) chewing gum, and (3) articles used for components of any 
such article. 
(k) The term “label” means a display of written, printed, or graphic matter 
upon the immediate container of any article; and a requirement made by or under 
authority of this Act that any word, statement, or other information appear (ing) 
on the label shall not be considered to be complied with unless such word, state- 
ment, or other information also appears on the outside container or wrapper, if 
any there be, of the retail package of such article, or is easily legible through the 
outside container or wrapper. 
Sec. 402. A food shall be deemed to be adulterated: 
(a) (1) If it bears or contains any poisonous or deleterious substances 
which may render it injurious to health; but in case the substance is not an added 
substance such food shall not be considered adulterated under this clause if the 
quantity of such substance in such food does not ordinarily render it injurious 
to health; or (2) if it bears or contains any added poisonous or added deleterious 
substance which is unsafe within the meaning of section 406; or (3) if it consists 
in whole or in part of any filthy, putrid, or decomposed substance, or if it is other- 
wise unfit for food; or (4) if it has been prepared, packed, or held under insanitary 
conditions whereby it may have become contaminated with filth, or whereby it 
may have been rendered injurious to health; or (5) if it is, in whole or in part, 
the product of a diseased animal or of an animal which has died otherwise than 
by slaughter; or (6) if its container is composed, in whole or in part, of any 
poisonous or deleterious substance which may render the contents injurious to 
health. 
(b) (1) If any valuable constituent has been in whole or in part omitted 
or abstracted therefrom; or (2) if any substance has been substituted wholly or 
in part therefor; or (3) if damage or inferiority has been concealed in any man- 
ner; or (4) if any substance has been added thereto or mixed or packed therewith 
so as to increase its bulk or weight, or reduce its quality or strength, or make it 
appear better or of greater value than it is. 
Sec. 403. A food shall be deemed to be misbranded: 
(a) If its labeling is false or misleading in any particular. 
(b) If it is offered for sale under the name of another food. 
(c) If it is an imitation of another food, unless its label bears, in type of 
uniform size and prominence, the word “imitation” and, immediately thereafter, 
the name of the food imitated. 
(d) If its container is so made, formed, or filled as to be misleading. 
Sec. 406. (a) Any poisonous or deleterious substance added to any food, except 
where such substance is required in the production thereof or cannot be avoided 
by good manufacturing practice shall be deemed to be unsafe for purposes of 
clause (2) of section 402 (a); * * *. 
EXCERPTS FROM FEDERAL FOOD, DRUG, AND COSMETIC ACT 
WAR DEPARTMENT 
THE ADJUTANT GENERAL’S OFFICE 
WASHINGTON 
AG 400.163 
(9-5-41) MO-M September 12, 1941. 
SUBJECT: Inspection of Butter, Eggs, Cheese, and Poultry Purchased by Quarter- 
master Marketing Centers. 
TO: The Commanding Generals of all Corps Areas. 
1. Quartermaster Marketing Centers, in addition to purchasing fresh fruits and 
vegetables, are now making purchases of butter, eggs, cheese, and poultry for various 
Army posts and camps in the 1st, 2d, 8th, 6th, and 7th Corps Areas, and it is con- 
templated expanding this service to the other corps areas in the near future. 
2. In connection with the procurement of butter, eggs, cheese, and poultry by the 
Quartermaster Corps Marketing Centers the contractor, when Veterinary Corps point 
235 236 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
of origin inspection is not provided, frequently engages an inspector of the Agricultural 
Marketing Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, to grade the products prior to ship- 
ment. On arrival at the Army post the Veterinary Corps makes an inspection covering 
condition of the food and its fitness for human consumption as well as for its com- 
pliance with contract and Federal specification requirements. 
3. There have been some instances where the veterinary officer making inspection 
at point of receipt has not been in agreement with the grading of the product as 
initially made by the Agricultural Marketing Service inspector prior to shipment by 
the contractor. With perishable food items, especially such as butter and eggs, it is 
entirely possible for grades to change between the time of inspection at point of ship- 
ment and that made at point of receipt, particularly when the foodstuffs have been 
subjected to unfavorable conditions during transit. Thus, it does not necessarily fol- 
low that in all such cases an error in grading has been made either at point of origin 
or at point of receipt. It is a fact, however, that when these instances do occur and a 
contractor has a shipment of butter, eggs, cheese, or poultry graded by an Agricultural 
Marketing Service inspector at point of shipment rejected on a grade basis following 
inspection at point of receipt, a controversy frequently develops. Proper settlement 
of these cases is important because under present conditions the shipments are usually 
large and considerable money is involved. 
4. In order to arrive at a satisfactory and equitable means of promptly settling such 
of these cases as may arise, the following plan has been approved: 
Where any of the food items indicated above are inspected at point of origin by an 
inspector of the Agricultural Marketing Service and are found on inspection at receipt 
to be not the grade contracted for, the vendor will be notified and, if he so desires, may 
request a reinspection. In such event, the Quartermaster Marketing Center which 
made the contract will be immediately notified. On request of the Officer in Charge 
of the Marketing Center the Agricultural Marketing Service of the U. S. Department 
of Agriculture will send a qualified representative to the camp, post, or station to re- 
inspect the shipment in question. At the same time, the Officer in Charge of the 
Quartermaster Marketing Center will immediately make request to the Commanding 
General of the corps area in which the post or camp is located for the detail of a 
specially selected and qualified veterinary officer to make a reinspection at the same 
time as that to be made by the representative of the Agricultural Marketing Service. 
While the Agricultural Marketing Service representative and the veterinary officer 
will make their inspections independently, it is expected that they will compare notes 
of their findings and discuss same before rendering their reports. The result of this 
reinspection will be accepted by the receiving Quartermaster as being conclusive as 
to grade unless it should happen that the Agricultural Marketing Service representa- 
tive and the veterinary officer making the reinspection do not agree. In this event the 
receiving Quartermaster will consider the certificate rendered by the representative 
of the Agricultural Marketing Service and the report of the veterinary officer and 
make final decision as to whether he will accept or reject the contested shipment. 
In all cases where the reinspection by the Agricultural Marketing Service repre- 
sentative and the veterinary officer substantiate the station veterinarian in his initial 
inspection, the cost of the reinspection will be assessed against the contractor, other- 
wise it will be borne by the Army. 
By order of the Secretary of War: 
S/E. S. ADAMS, 
Major General, 
The Adjutant General. 
Copy furnished: 
The Surgeon General. 
The Quartermaster General. CHAPTER 9 
RECIPES 
Section I 
INTRODUCTION 
1. General. All the recipes included in this manual have been put into this 
chapter. These recipes do not include all the recipes found in other cookbooks 
due to the fact that all recipes are not suitable for an Army mess. However, 
a good cook will always be on the alert to discover additional recipes from 
commercial cookbooks and other sources of dishes which are suitable for an Army 
mess. In this manual all recipes are based on service for 100 men. The quantity 
required for a greater or smaller number of men can be easily figured by chang- 
ing the amount of each ingredient proportionally. For convenience of use and 
ease in finding, the recipes have been indexed and arranged in groups as follows: 
Breakfast dishes 
Soups 
Meat dishes (includes poultry, game, and omelets) 
Gravies and sauces 
Fish and sea-food dishes 
Vegetable dishes 
Desserts 
Sweet-dough products 
Hot breads 
Rolls 
Salads and dressings 
Beverages 
In each group recipes are arranged in alphabetical order. The index should 
be used as a reminder of the various ways in which food can be prepared and 
also of the many varieties of foods and dishes which are usable in a mess. 
2. Variation in recipes. The opinions of experienced cooks often vary as to 
the proper quantities of food required to prepare various dishes for a given 
number of men. This variation of opinions is due to individual taste or based 
upon their knowledge of the preference of their particular messes. The recipes 
in this manual are designed to be a guide for those who do not definitely know 
the exact quantities required, and these recipes will produce satisfactory results 
if accurately followed. The quantities shown for 100 men may be successfully 
modified by an experienced cook and should be so modified by experience where 
local conditions justify or demand this. The quantity of food consumed by a 
mess will vary according to the character of duty performed, the number of 
absentees, the season of the year, and many other causes, and the same mess 
will require noticeably varying quantities, dependent upon varying conditions 
of service. Inexperienced cooks should follow the recipes contained herein; 
experienced cooks may successfully deviate from the recipes under certain condi- 
tions, and all cooks should know by experience the proper quantities of food 
required to satisfy their own messes. This knowledge is acquired by the con- 
stant study of these and other recipes and of the preferences of the messes 
which they serve, as evidenced by their consumption or rejection of the dishes 
offered. In messes feeding a large proportion of recruits, or during periods when 
organizations are performing especially hard physical labor, the quantities listed 
may prove short of requirements. 
3. Weights and measures, a. Scales and liquid measures are issued to messes 
in barracks but are not issued in the field. However, in the absence of these, the 
cook can use dippers, cups, and spoons for measuring the quantities called for in 
recipes. The following table shows quantities of frequently used foods measured 
in utensils available in the mess: 
237 238 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Pepper, cinnamon, or other ground spices 1 
Plour or baking powder ( 
1 level spoon, M1918 
Vi ounce. 
% ounce. 
Do. 
% ounce. 
1 pound. 
2 pounds. 
Mour or baking powder 
1 quart size dipper level full 
1 quart size dipper heaping full 
Note. Additional information on weights of foods contained in utensils available in the mess will be 
found in paragraphs 1 and 2, appendix III. 
b. If a recipe calls for 1 ounce of cinnamon, 4 level tablespoonfuls are required; 
if it calls for 2 ounces of baking powder, 8 level tablespoonfuls are required, etc. 
c. When evaporated milk is used in place of fresh milk, the quantity given in a 
recipe should be diluted with an equal quantity of water to produce an amount 
equal to fresh milk. One 14Vz-ounce can of evaporated milk, diluted with 1 pint 
of water, is equal to 1 quart of fresh milk. 
d. Whenever a recipe calls for fresh beef, veal, pork, or mutton, the quantity 
given includes the weight of bones. In other words, the quantities given in this 
manual do not mean boneless cuts of meat. 
e. The following table will be found convenient. Each weight is based on the 
cup or spoon being level full. 
Flour 
Sugar 
Pepper, 
cinnamon, 
etc. 
Standard measuring1 cup 
Ounces 
4 
% 
14 
1/12 
Ounces 
8 
% 
24 
Ye 
Ounces 
Quartermaster tablespoon or mess-kit spoon 
Cup, M1918 
hi 
Standard measuring teaspoon 
Section II 
RECIPES 
Breakfast Dishes 
Cakes, buckwheat 1 
Cakes, corn 2 
Cakes, wheat (hot cakes) 3 
Hominy grits, boiled 4 
Hominy grits, fried 5 
Milk for breakfast foods 6 
Mush, corn meal 7 
Recipe 
Mush, corn meal, fried 8 
Mush, rolled wheat 9 
Oatmeal 10 
Prepared breakfast foods 11 
Toast, French 12 
Toast, milk 13 
Recipe 
Barley soup 14 
Barley and tomato soup 15 
Bean soup 16 
Beef soup 17 
Chicken soup 18 
Clam chowder 19 
Codfish chowder 20 
Corn chowder 21 
Cream of cabbage soup 22 
Cream of celery soup 23 
Cream of tomato soup 24 
Green pea soup 25 
Lentil soup 26 
Macaroni and tomato soup 27 
Noodle soup 28 
Noodles 29 
Soups 
Oxtail soup 30 
Oyster stew 31 
Potato chowder 32 
Potato soup 33 
Puree of beans 34 
Puree of carrots 35 
Puree of green peas 36 
Puree of green peas and tomatoes .. 37 
Puree of lima beans 38 
Puree of potatoes 39 
Puree of split peas 40 
Rice soup 41 
Split pea soup 42 
Tomato soup 43 
Tomato and rice soup 44 
Vegetable soup 45 RECIPES 
239 
Bacon and cabbage 46 
Bacon, fried 47 
Bacon, simmered 48 
Beef a la mode 49 
Beef, braised (pot roast) 50 
Beef, braised, with vegetables 51 
Beef, corned 52 
Beef, corned, preparation 53 
Beef, curry of 54 
Beef dressing 55 
Beef, dried, chipped, or sliced, on toast 56 
Beef fricassee 57 
Beef fritters 58 
Beef hash 59 
Beef hearts, stuffed 60 
Beef loaf 61 
Beef potpie 62 
Beef, roast 63 
Beef rolls 64 
Beef, simmered 65 
Beef, soft roast 66 
Beef, Spanish 67 
Beefsteak 68 
Beefsteak, hamburg 69 
Beefsteak and mushrooms 70 
Beefsteak and onions 71 
Beefsteak potpie 72 
Beef, Turkish 73 
Brains 74 
Brains and eggs 75 
Chicken, creamed 76 
Chicken, curry of 77 
Chicken fricassee 78 
Chicken, fried 79 
Chicken, roast 80 
Chicken stew with dumplings 81 
Dumplings 82 
Chili con came 83 
Chuck steak with onions 84 
Duck, roast 85 
Game, small 86 
Goose, roast 87 
Ham, baked 88 
Meat Dishes 
Ham, simmered 89 
Ham and tomatoes 90 
Ham, smothered 91 
Hamburger 92 
Hash, chop suey 93 
Liver and bacon 94 
Meat loaf 95 
Mutton, simmered 96 
Mutton chops 97 
Mutton potpie 98 
Mutton stew 99 
Omelet, plain 100 
Omelet, cheese 101 
Omelet, ham 102 
Omelet, tomato 103 
Pig, roasted 104 
Pork chops 105 
Pork cutlets 106 
Pork, roast 107 
Pudding, English beef 108 
Sausage, bologna, fried 109 
Sausage, liver, fried 110 
Sausage, pork Ill 
Sausage, pork, in blankets 112 
Sausage, frankfurter 113 
Sausage, frankfurter, in blankets ... 114 
Short ribs of beef 115 
Southern creoles 116 
Spaghetti, Italian style 117 
Spareribs 118 
Stew, chop suey 119 
Stew, pan 120 
Stew el rancho 121 
Stew, Irish 122 
Tamales 123 
Turkey, roast 124 
Turkish stew 125 
Veal cutlets 126 
White fricassee of veal 127 
Veal, roast 128 
Venison cutlets 129 
Venison, roast 130 
Yorkshire pudding 131 
Gravies and Sauces 
Flour batter 132 
Gravy, brown 133 
Gravy, cream 134 
Gravy, giblet 135 
Gravy, stock 136 
Sauce, barbecue 137 
Sauce, Cranberry 138 
Sauce, cream, for codfish 139 
Sauce, plum pudding 140 
Sauce, rhubarb 141 
Sauce, Spanish, fish 142 
Sauce, sweet, chocolate 143 
Sauce, sweet, lemon 144 
Sauce, sweet, vanilla 145 
Sauce, tomato 146 
Baked fish 147 
Codfish, salt, boiled 148 
Codfish cakes 149 
Fish, fresh, fried 150 
Fish and Sea Food Dishes 
Oysters, fried 151 
Oysters, scalloped 152 
Salmon cakes 153 
Salmon hash 154 
Asparagus 155 
Baked beans 156 
Beans, canned 157 
Beans, dry, simmered 158 
Beans, lima, green or soaked, canned 159 
Beans, lima, dry, simmered 160 
Beans, string or snap, canned 161 
Vegetable Dishes 
Beans, string or snap, fresh 162 
Beets, fresh, boiled 163 
Beets, canned 164 
Beets, Harvard 165 
Beets, pickled 166 
Cabbage 167 
Cabbage, Bavarian 168 240 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Cabbage, boiled 169 
Cabbage, fried 170 
Carrots, baked 171 
Carrots, candied 172 
Carrots, mashed 173 
Corn, canned 174 
Corn, fried 175 
Corn fritters 176 
Corn, scalloped 177 
Eggplant 178 
Greens 179 
Hominy 180 
Macaroni and cheese 181 
Onions, boiled 182 
Onions, fried 183 
Onions and grated cheese 184 
Parsnips, baked 185 
Parsnips, mashed 186 
Parsnips, sugared 187 
Peas, creamed, canned 188 
Peas, green 189 
Potatoes, baked 190 
Potatoes, boiled 191 
Potatoes, boiled in jackets 192 
Potatoes, browned 193 
Potato cakes 194 
Potatoes, cheesed (au gratin) 195 
Potatoes, creamed 196 
Vegetable Dishes—Continued. 
Potatoes, French bakecf ... 197 
Potatoes, French fried 198 
Potatoes, fried (sauteed) 199 
Potatoes, German boiled 200 
Potatoes, hashed browned 201 
Potatoes, lyonnaise 202 
Potatoes, mashed 203 
Potatoes, sweet, baked 204 
Potatoes, sweet, boiled 205 
Potatoes, sweet, candied 206 
Potatoes, sweet, fried 207 
Pumpkin, baked 208 
Rice, boiled 209 
Rice, curried 210 
Rice, fried 211 
Rice, Spanish 212 
Rice, steamed 213 
Sauerkraut 214 
Sauerkraut, how made 215 
Squash, baked 216 
Squash, canned, baked 217 
Squash, mashed .» 218 
Succotash 219 
Tomatoes, stewed 220 
Turnips, boiled 221 
Turnips, mashed 222 
Turnips, left-over 223 
Apples, baked 224 
Apple or fruit rolls 225 
Apple sauce 226 
Apricots, dried, stewed 227 
Brown betty 228 
Cake, chocolate 229 
Cake, corn 230 
Cakes, cup 231 
Cake, eggless 232 
Cake, fruit, dark 233 
Cake, marble 234 
Cake, quick 235 
Cake, raised 236 
Cake, spice 237 
Cake, sponge 238 
Cake, white 239 
Cobbler, apple or fruit 240 
Crullers 241 
Custard, egg 242 
Fritters, oatmeal 243 
Fruits, dried, stewed 244 
Gelatin 245 
Ice cream 246 
Ice cream, chocolate 247 
Ice cream, coffee 248 
Ice, lemon 249 
Ice, orange 250 
Desserts 
Ice, pineapple 251 
Icing, boiled, for cakes 252 
Icing, uncooked, for cakes 253 
Meringue 254 
Mincemeat 255 
Peaches, dried, stewed 256 
Pie crust 257 
Pie, apple or fruit 258 
Pie, banana cream 259 
Pie, chocolate, meringue 260 
Pie, cocoanut cream 261 
Pie, custard 262 
Pie, lemon cream 263 
Pie, mince 264 
Pie, pumpkin or squash 265 
Prunes, stewed 266 
Pudding, apple 267 
Pudding, banana 268 
Pudding, bread, with sauce 269 
Pudding, cornstarch 270 
Pudding, Indian, baked 271 
Pudding, plum 272 
Pudding, rice and apple 273 
Pudding, rice 274 
Pudding, sweet potato 275 
Pudding, tapioca 276 
Basic sweet dough 277 
Cake, apple 278 
Cake, coffee 279 
Doughnuts 280 
Sweet Dough Products 
Doughnuts, jelly 281 
Rolls, cinnamon 282 
Rolls, Parkerhouse 283 
Stollen 284 
Biscuit, baking powder 285 
Biscuit, cheese 286 
Biscuit, sour milk 287 
Hot Breads 
Corn bread 288 
Corn bread (sour milk) 289 
Gingerbread 200 RECIPES 
241 
Basic dough 291 
Cinnamon rolls 292 
Finger rolls 293 
Pan rolls 294 
Rolls 
Parkerhouse rolls 295 
Raisin bread 296 
Soft bun bread 297 
Sandwich buns 298 
Apple and celery salad 299 
Baked bean salad 300 
Bean, stringless, salad 301 
Beet salad, pickled 302 
Cabbage salad 303 
Cabbage and apple salad 304 
Celery salad 305 
Chicken salad 306 
Cucumber and onion salad 307 
Lettuce salad 308 
Piccalilli salad 309 
Pimento salad 310 
Potato salad 311 
Raw vegetable salad 312 
Salmon salad 313 
Salads and Dressings 
Slaw (cole slaw) 314 
Tomatoes, sliced 315 
Vegetable salad 316 
Boiled dressing 317 
French dressing 318 
Mayonnaise dressing 319 
Mayonnaise dressing, fruit salad 320 
Mustard salad dressing 321 
Russian mayonnaise 322 
Salad dressing, eggless 323 
Sour cream dressing 324 
Tartare mayonnaise 325 
Tomato French dressing 326 
Thousand Island dressing 327 
Beverages 
Cocoa or chocolate 328 
Coffee, hot 329 
Lemonade 330 
Tea, hot and iced 331 
BREAKFAST DISHES 
1. Cakes, buckwheat 
8 pounds flour, buckwheat 3 pounds sugar or molasses * 
4 pounds flour, wheat 1 can milk, evaporated 
3 ounces salt 6 quarts water 
12 ounces baking powder 12 eggs 
Procedure same as for wheat cakes except that no melted fat is added. 
* When molasses Is used it should be mixed with the eggs, water, and milk. 
8 pounds flour 6 quarts boiling water 
4 pounds com meal 2 cans milk, evaporated 
12 ounces baking powder 12 eggs, beaten 
4 ounces salt 1 pound melted fat 
IV2 pounds sugar 1 gallon water 
Add the corn meal to the boiling water and boil for 5 minutes, cool, then place 
in mixing bowl. Add the milk and the 1 gallon of water. Sift together the flour, 
baking powder, salt, and sugar, and mix. Add the beaten eggs and melted fat 
(butter or vegetable shortening is best). Beat well and cook the same as wheat 
cakes. 
2. Cakes, corn 
12 pounds flour 
3 pounds sugar 
4 ounces salt 
12 ounces baking powder 
3. Cakes, wheat (hot cakes) 
12 eggs 
Vi pound fat, melted 
1 can milk, evaporated 
6 quarts water 
Sift together the flour, sugar, salt, and baking powder. Beat the eggs and add 
to water and evaporated milk. Turn this mixture into the sifted flour mixture 
and add the melted fat (vegetable shortening is best). Then beat into a smooth 
batter. If the batter seems too thick, add a little more water or milk. Grease a 
hot griddle iron or clean stove top with bacon rind or clean fat and pour out the 
batter, a spoonful at a time. Cook until nicely browned on both sides. Serve hot 
with butter or sirup, or both. Hot cakes should be cooked a few at a time. If all 
the cakes required for a meal are cooked before starting to serve, the first ones 
cooked will become tough and leathery. 242 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
9 pounds hominy grits 
7 gallons water 
4. Hominy grits, boiled 
2 pounds sugar 
2 ounces salt 
Bring the salted water to a boil, then add sugar and hominy, and boil for about 
20 minutes or until tender. Remove to the back part of the range and let simmer 
for about 40 minutes. (A double boiler is preferable. One can be made by in- 
serting the boiler containing the hominy into a large boiler.) Serve with butter 
or sirup. 
10 pounds hominy grits, fine 4 ounces salt 
7 gallons water 
Prepare as in recipe 4. Remove from the boiler, spread about 1 inch deep in 
well-greased pan, and allow to cool. Cut in pieces about 2 inches square, roll in 
flour, and fry in deep fat. Serve hot with sirup or butter. 
5. Hominy grits, fried 
6. Milk for breakfast foods 
15 cans milk, evaporated 1 ounce salt 
4 pounds sugar 
Add sufficient water to make IV2 gallons. Whip well for a few minutes. One 
ounce vanilla or lemon extract may be added if desired. This recipe will produce 
a satisfactory substitute when fresh milk is not available. 
10 pounds corn meal, white or 
yellow, (white preferred) 
3 pounds sugar 
7. Mush, corn meal 
7 gallons water 
IV2 ounces salt 
Bring the salted water to a boil, then add the sugar and com meal, meanwhile 
whipping briskly to prevent lumping. Cook for about 20 minutes and then allow 
to stand about the same length of time where it will remain hot. Place in 
vegetable dishes and serve with fresh milk or diluted evaporated milk (recipe 6). 
12 pounds corn meal 
7 gallons water 
8. Mush, corn meal, fried 
3 ounces salt 
2 pounds sugar 
Prepare in the same manner as corn meal mush. Pour the mush into a well- 
greased bake pan to a depth of about 1 inch, allow to cool, cut into pieces about 
2 inches square, dip in a flour batter, and fry in a deep fat. Serve hot with butter 
and sirup. 
This preparation may be improved by dipping each piece in an egg batter before 
rolling in the flour. 
9. Mush, rolled wheat 
Prepare in the same manner as oatmeal (recipe 10), using 9 pounds rolled wheat 
instead of 9 pounds of oatmeal. 
9 pounds oatmeal 2 ounces salt 
V2 pound sugar 8 gallons water 
Bring the salted water to a boil, whip the oatmeal in slowly, adding sugar, and 
boil for 5 minutes. Let simmer 30 minutes and serve with milk and sugar. (See 
recipe 6.) 
Note. This recipe is for the regular style oatmeal or rolled oats. The quick type requires only 
about 3 minutes and no simmering. The package will show whether it contains the quick type. 
10. Oatmeal 
11. Prepared breakfast foods 
Follow the directions given on the packages. 
12. Toast, french 
30 pounds bread, dry 
5 cans milk, evaporated 
7 pints water 
10 eggs 
IV2 pounds cornstarch 
2V2 ounces vanilla 
Slice the bread %-inch thick (be careful not to cut bread too thick). Mix milk, 
water, eggs, vanilla, and corn starch into a batter. Add salt to taste. Dip slices 
in the batter and fry in deep fat or on a griddle. Serve hot with butter or sirup, 
or both. 
13. Toast, milk 
20 pounds bread 
4 pounds sugar 
4 gallons milk, or 16 cans milk, evap- 
orated, and 16 pints water RECIPES 
243 
Slices of left-over bread may be used. Place the bread in a large bake pan (not 
more than one-third full) and brown in a 15-count oven. Serve in vegetable 
dishes with hot sweetened milk poured over it. (See recipe 6.) 
SOUPS 
7 gallons beef stock 
3 pounds barley, pearled 
14. Barley soup 
2 pounds onions, chopped 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Thoroughly mix all ingredients and boil for 1 hour. Ten minutes before serving, 
add enough beef stock to make 10 gallons of soup. Season to taste with salt and 
pepper. 
7 gallons beef stock 
5 pounds barley 
8 pounds tomatoes (fresh or canned) 
15. Barley and tomato soup 
2 pounds bacon, diced 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Thoroughly mix all ingredients and boil for 1 hour. If fresh tomatoes are used, 
they should first be stewed and pressed through a colander. Ten minutes before 
serving, add enough beef stock to make 10 gallons of soup. Season to taste with 
salt and pepper. 
3 pounds beans, dry 
7 gallons water or beef stock 
10 pounds soup bone 
16. Bean soup 
IV2 pounds bacon, diced and browned 
2 cans tomatoes, no. 2V2 or no, 3 cans 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Thoroughly clean and wash the beans. Place them and the soup bone in the 
beef stock and allow to simmer for about 5 hours, or until the beans have gone 
to pieces and will pass through a colander. Ten minutes before serving add the 
tomatoes, the diced and browned bacon, and enough beef stock to make 10 gallons 
of soup. Thicken with a flour batter and season to taste with salt and pepper. 
Serve hot with crackers or croutons. 
17. Beef soup 
7 gallons beef stock 
5 pounds beef, shank, neck, etc. 
2 cans tomatoes, no, 3 cans 
2 pounds rice, if desired 
1 bunch parsley, if desired 
Salt and pepper to taste 
This soup may be made to best advantage on days when simmered beef is 
served. After simmering the beef until done, take it out and skim off the grease. 
Dice the beef very fine and add the stock and tomatoes to the water in which the 
beef was boiled; if desired, a little rice may be added. Ten minutes before serv- 
ing, add enough beef stock to make 10 gallons of soup. Season to taste with salt 
and pepper and serve hot. Sprinkle with chopped parsley. 
7 gallons beef stock 
17 pounds chicken scraps (bones, 
wing tips, necks, legs, etc.) 
18. Chicken soup 
2 pounds rice 
6 ounces parsley, chopped fine 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Simmer the chicken scraps until well done. Remove the bones and place them 
in the beef stock, then boil for 1 hour. Remove the bones and strain the stock. 
Dice the chicken very fine and place in a boiler with the strained stock and add 
the rice and boil for 30 minutes. Ten minutes before serving, add enough beef 
stock to make 10 gallons of soup. Sprinkle with chopped parsley. 
Note. Chicken soup should be made only when chicken Is being served in one of the follow- 
ing forms: Roasted, stewed, fricasseed. It is not economical to buy chickens for the sole purpose 
of making soup. On days when chicken is being served there are ample scrap meat and bone 
from wing tips, necks, legs, etc., to make a delicious chicken soup. 
19. Clam chowder 
6 quarts clams, husked, diced 
12 pounds potatoes, diced, raw 
2 pounds bacon, diced and browned 
7 gallons beef stock 
2 pounds onions, chopped, browned 
2 pounds flour 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Boil the potatoes, clams, bacon, and onions in the beef stock until well done. If 
fresh clams are used, wash thoroughly to remove sand. Thicken slightly with a 
flour batter and serve hot. Season to taste with salt and pepper and add enough 
beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 244 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
9 pounds codfish, salt, shredded 
2 pounds bacon, diced 
2 pounds onions, chopped 
6 pounds potatoes, diced, raw 
20. Codfish chowder 
2 pounds bread 
4 cans milk, evaporated 
7 gallons beef stock 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Brown the bacon and onions in a bake pan, then transfer to a boiler and add 
the potatoes, codfish, and beef stock. Boil until done, about 20 minutes. Add 
enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. Toast sliced 
bread (preferably dried-out bread) in the oven and add it, after dicing, to the 
chowder when the potatoes are done. Then add the milk and season to taste with 
salt and pepper. 
21. Corn chowder 
5 cans corn, no. 2 cans 
2 pounds bacon, diced 
2 pounds onions 
6 pounds potatoes, diced 
8 gallons beef stock 
4 cans milk, evaporated 
2 pounds bread, diced 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Brown the bacon and onions in a bake pan, then transfer to a boiler and add 
the potatoes and beef stock. Boil until done, about 20 minutes. Add enough beef 
stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. Toast sliced bread (preferably 
dried-out bread) in the oven and add it to the chowder after the potatoes are 
done. Add the milk and corn but do not allow to boil. Season to taste with salt 
and pepper. 
22. Cream of cabbage soup 
10 pounds cabbage, chopped fine 
7 gallons beef stock 
4 cans milk, evaporated 
2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
1 pound flour, browned in the fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Boil the cabbage about 15 minutes, add the beef stock, thicken with the browned 
flour, and season to taste with pepper, salt, and celery salt. Add the milk. Add 
enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 
23. Cream of celery soup 
7 pounds celery, diced fine 
7 gallons beef stock 
2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
2 pounds flour, browned in fat 
4 cans milk evaporated 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Add the celery to the beef stock and boil about 1 hour. Season to taste with 
pepper, celery salt, and salt. Thicken with batter made of the fat and flour, and 
just before serving add the milk. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving 
to make 10 gallons. 
24. Cream of tomato soup 
7 gallons beef stock 
4 cans tomatoes, no. 3 can 
4 cans milk, evaporated 
2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
2 pounds flour, browned in fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Add the tomatoes to the stock and bring to a boil. Break up the tomatoes. 
Season to taste with celery salt, mustard, salt, and pepper. Thicken slightly 
with the browned flour, and add the milk and a pinch of soda. Add enough beef 
stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 
10 cans green peas, no. 2 cans, or 
12 pounds fresh shelled peas 
25. Green pea soup 
7 gallons beef stock 
Salt and pepper to taste 
If canned peas are used, boil for 10 minutes in the beef stock. If fresh peas 
are used, boil in beef stock until well done. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes 
before serving to make 10 gallons. 
26. Lentil soup 
Prepared in the same manner as bean soup (recipe 16), substituting lentils for 
beans. 
3 pounds macaroni 
7 gallons beef stock 
2 pounds onions, chopped 
2 pounds bacon, diced 
27. Macaroni and tomato soup 
5 cans tomatoes, no. 3 can, or 
equivalent fresh tomatoes 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Break the marcaroni in pieces about 1 inch long. Add macaroni, onions, and RECIPES 
245 
bacon to boiling beef stock and boil for 40 minutes, seasoning to taste with salt 
and pepper. Add tomatoes and boil a few minutes. Break up the tomatoes. Add 
enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 
7 gallons beef stock 5 pounds noodles 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Boil noodles 40 minutes in the seasoned soup stock. Add enough beef stock 
10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 
28. Noodle soup 
3 pounds flour 
1 Vz ounces salt 
29. Noodles 
9 eggs 
Milk or water to make a stiff dough 
To prepare noodles, sift Vz ounce of salt with each pound of flour, break 3 eggs 
into the sifted mixture, and mix with milk and water until a stiff dough is 
formed. Roll the dough out until it is about Vs inch thick, sprinkle a little flour 
over it, and roll it up. Cut slices from the end of the roll about Vs to V\ inch 
thick and spread on a board or cloth in the sun to dry. 
30. Oxtail soup 
12 pounds oxtails 
7 gallons beef stock 
4 pounds carrots, diced 
4 pounds onions, diced 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut the oxtails into small pieces (about 1 inch long), wash, drain, sprinkle 
with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and brown in fat or bacon drippings 
in a pan on top of the stove. Add to the stock with the carrots and onions, and 
simmer until the meat is tender. If desired, the soup may be thickened with a 
flour batter. Just before serving add sufficient stock to make 10 gallons of soup. 
31. Oyster stew 
10 quarts oysters, fresh, or 20 no. 2 
cans oysters 
7 gallons beef stock 
5 cans milk, evaporated 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Drain the liquor from the oysters. Add flour to the liquor from the oysters 
to make a thin batter. Add the batter to the stock and bring to a boil. Season. 
Add the oysters. Boil 5 minutes. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes before 
serving to make 10 gallons. 
Prepare in same manner as corn chowder (recipe 21), using 10 pounds of 
potatoes in place of corn. 
32. Potato chowder 
33. Potato soup 
10 pounds potatoes, diced 2 cans milk, evaporated 
7 gallons beef stock 2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
2 pounds onions, chopped and browned 1 pound flour, browned in fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Boil the potatoes in the stock until well done, then pass through a colander 
and bring to a boil again. Thicken with the flour batter. Add the chopped 
onions and evaporated milk. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving 
to make 10 gallons. 
34. Puree of beans 
5 pounds dry beans 
7 gallons beef stock 
1 pound bacon, diced and browned 
2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
2 pounds flour, browned in fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Place the beans, bacon, and stock in the boiler, and let simmer over night, or 
until the beans are thoroughly broken to pieces. Pass through a colander, replace 
in boiler, and add a batter made of the flour and fat. Season. Allow to simmer 
at least 1 hour before serving. Ten minutes before serving, add enough beef stock 
to make 10 gallons of soup. 
Prepare in the same manner as puree of beans (recipe 34), using 17 pounds of 
diced carrots braised or fried in a little fat until brown, instead of 5 pounds q£ 
beans, and simmer about 2 hours or until carrots are w;ell done. 
35. Puree of carrots 246 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Prepare in the same manner as puree of beans (recipe 34), using 5 pounds of 
green peas instead of 5 pounds of beans. Only about 1 hour’s simmering is 
required. 
36. Puree of green peas 
Prepare in the same manner as puree of green peas (recipe 36), using four no. 
3 cans tomatoes (or the equivalent in fresh tomatoes), and 6 pounds of green peas. 
37. Puree of green pdas and tomatoes 
38. Puree of lima beans 
Prepare in the same manner as puree of beans (recipe 34), using 5 pounds of 
dry lima beans instead of 5 pounds of dry beans. Two and one-half cans of 
evaporated milk or 3 quarts of fresh milk added just before serving greatly 
improve the flavor. 
10 pounds potatoes, diced fine 
7 gallons beef stock 
2 pounds bacon, diced and browned 
39. Puree of potatoes 
2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
1 pound flour, browned in fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Add the potatoes and bacon to the cold stock and boil until potatoes are com: 
pletely broken to pieces, seasoning to taste. A stalk of fresh celery or a little 
celery salt may be used as additional seasoning. Thicken slightly with the flour 
batter. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 
40. Puree of split peas 
Prepare in the same manner as puree of beans (recipe 34), using 5 pounds of 
split dried peas instead of 5 pounds of beans. 
41. Rice soup 
3 pounds rice 
7 gallons beef stock 
1 pound onions, chopped and browned 
2 pounds bacon, diced and browned 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Wash the rice and add it to the bacon, onions, and cold stock, and boil for 
1 hour. 
42. Split pea soup 
7% pounds split peas 
7 gallons beef stock 
2 pounds bacon, diced and browned, or 
ham bones or bacon rind 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Add the peas and bacon to the cold stock and let simmer for 5 hours. Add 
enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 
12 pounds tomatoes, fresh, or 6 no. 3 
cans tomatoes 
5 gallons beef stock 
2 pounds bacon 
43. Tomato soup 
2 pounds flour 
1 pound sugar 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Place the tomatoes and bacon in the stock and boil for IV2 hours. Remove the 
bacon and press the soup through a colander to separate the skins and seeds of the 
tomatoes. Replace on the range and thicken with a flour batter. Color lightly 
with caramelized sugar. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 
10 gallons. Overripe or bruised (but not deteriorated) tomatoes may, to prevent 
waste, be used in the preparation of this soup. 
3 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans, or 6 
pounds fresh tomatoes 
2 pounds rice 
44. Tomato and rice soup 
7 gallons beef stock 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Chop the tomatoes thoroughly and mix all ingredients. Season to taste, adding 
a small piece of garlic. Boil for 1 or 2 hours. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes 
before serving to make 10 gallons. 
2 pounds cabbage 
1 pound onions 
2 pounds potatoes 
1 pound rice 
2 pounds celery 
45. Vegetable soup 
2 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans, or 4 
pounds fresh tomatoes 
7 gallons beef stock 
Parsley, chopped 
Salt and pepper to taste RECIPES 
247 
Chop and thoroughly mix all ingredients. Start in cold water. Boil for 1 hour 
or more. Add enough beef stock 10 minutes before serving to make 10 gallons. 
Parsley may be added as a garnish just before serving. Many other vegetables may 
be substituted for those indicated. 
(Includes poultry, game, and omeletes) 
MEAT DISHES 
15 pounds bacon, sliced 
25 pounds cabbage 
46. Bacon and cabbage 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Place the washed and cleaned cabbage in the boiler with sufficient cold water 
to cover it. Place bacon on top of the cabbage and boil briskly about 20 minutes. 
To prevent discoloration of the cabbage the boiler should be uncovered during 
the process of cooking. Serve hot with the bacon on top of the cabbage. 
22 pounds bacon, issue, or 24 pounds bacon, breakfast 
Cut about five slices to the inch. If dry salt, issue, bacon is used, place in a 
bake pan containing boiling water, boil for 5 minutes, then drain off water. Fry 
on a hot range or in a quick oven. Stir occasionally so that all the bacon is 
thoroughly cooked. If served with eggs or hot cakes, etc., 10 pounds bacon are 
sufficient. 
47. Bacon, fried 
48. Bacon, simmered 
22 pounds bacon, issue, or 25 pounds bacon, breakfast 
Cut into pieces weighing about 5 pounds each. Wash thoroughly and place 
in cold water. Bring to boil, then reduce temperature and simmer for 2 hours. 
Slice and serve. 
35 pounds beef, fresh (from less 
tender cut) 
2 pounds bacon or pork 
1 pound flour, browned in V2 pound 
butter or other fat 
5 gallons beef stock 
49. Beef a la mode 
2 pounds carrots, diced 
6 pickles, issue, large 
3 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans 
1 clove garlic, chopped fine 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut the beef into pieces weighing about 5 pounds each and rub with salt and 
pepper, allowing V2 teaspoon salt and V4 teaspoon pepper to each pound of meat; 
cut the bacon (or pork) into strips about the thickness of the little finger and the 
length of the pieces of beef, using a narrow-bladed knife. Cut 4 equally spaced 
slits in each piece of the beef, parallel with the grain. Insert in each slit one 
piece of bacon, rolled in garlic and cayenne pepper, and one slice of pickle. Make 
a gravy of the flour, fat, tomatoes, and beef stock. Put the meat in a pan, pour 
the gravy over it, and place the carrots around it. Cook slowly in a slow oven 
(200°-250° F.—20 count) for about 3 hours or until well done. Remove meat from 
oven, slice across the grain, replace in the gravy and cook a little longer, or slice 
and place on a platter with the gravy poured over it. Serve with hot gravy. The 
gravy should be very spicy; therefore, season it well with garlic, bay leaves, 
or Worcestershire sauce. 
45 pounds beef, (from less tender cut) 
8 pounds onions, chopped 
50. Beef, braised (pot roast) 
1 pint vinegar 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut the beef into pieces weighing about 5 pounds each. Wipe with a damp 
cloth. Sear until well browned on all sides. Season. Place in a large Dutch 
oven or camp kettle or any covered utensil. A heavy utensil is best. Add the 
chopped onions and vinegar. If the roast is well covered with fat, basting is not 
necessary. If the beef is lacking in fat, it is a good practice to lard with strips 
of fat or place a layer of fat on top. About 2 pounds of fat pork or bacon are 
required for this. This added fat improves the flavor, melts, and bastes the roast. 
Cook in a slow oven (200°-250° F.) or on top of stove until tender. This will 
require 2 to 5 hours, depending on tenderness of beef used. The beef should be 
turned three or four times while cooking. When done, temove from utensil and 
slice. The roast may be served in either of two ways: Make a thick gravy in the 
utensil in which the beef was roasted and pour this gravy over the sliced beef 
on platters, or make a gravy of the desired thickness and serve separately. 248 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
40 pounds beef, chuck roast 
(not boned) 
8 pounds carrots, sliced 
8 pounds onions, sliced 
8 pounds celery, cut in bits 
51. Beef, braised, with vegetables 
8 pounds turnips, sliced 
1 clove garlic, chopped fine 
3 pounds flour 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut the meat into pieces weighing about 5 pounds each, wipe it with damp 
cheesecloth, and roll in flour. Place vegetables in sufficient salted cold water 
to barely cover them and boil until soft, then rub them through a colander or 
coarse strainer. Sear the meat on all sides. After the meat is seared, transfer it 
to a kettle or kettles. If the beef is lean (lacking in fat), it is well to cut about 
2 pounds of fat pork into strips, or use sliced bacon, and lay on top of the beef. 
This keeps the roast basted. Pour the vegetables and their liquid over the meat, 
together with any preferred seasoning. Cover tightly and let it simmer slowly for 
4 or 5 hours, turning twice. After the meat is cooked, remove from kettle. 
Thicken the liquid remaining in the kettle by adding flour, and pour it over the 
meat. 
35 pounds corned beef 
Wash the meat in warm water and, if it has been in brine until too salty, cover 
it with cold water and bring slowly to a boil. Drain off the water, cover again 
with fresh cold water and reheat. As soon as the liquid bubbles, reduce the heat, 
add a few whole peppers, and continue cooking slowly (always below the boiling 
point) for 2 or 3 hours, according to quality and quantity of beef, until the meat is 
tender. Keep the meat closely covered during the cooking process, and turn it 
when partly done, adding hot water from time to time so as to keep it completely 
covered. Carrots, parsnips, and potatoes may be added during the cooking process, 
if desired. 
52. Beef, corned 
53. Beef, corned, preparation 
4 gallons water 
2 pounds sugar 
8 ounces saltpeter 
16 pounds salt 
60 pounds beef, fresh (brisket preferred) 
Dissolve the salt, sugar, and saltpeter in the water and boil for about 15 minutes 
to make a brine: Pour brine into a 15-gallon keg and allow to cool. The brine 
should be prepared in the evening, so that it will have time to cool thoroughly 
before the meat is put in. Cut the meat into pieces weighing about 5 pounds each 
and probe each piece with a steel at 1-inch intervals to allow the free penetration 
of the brine to all parts. Place the meat in the brine and keep it at a temperature 
from 50° to 60° F. for 7 to 9 days. While in the brine, the meat should be 
removed at least 3 times, alternating the upper and lower pieces. If the meat 
used in hot weather is not refrigerated beef, it should be packed in cracked ice 
for 12 hours before corning. The above recipe should produce 60 pounds of corned 
beef. 
To make spiced corned beef, place in the center of each piece of beef a small 
piece of garlic and add to the brine 1 ounce each of cloves, whole peppers, and 
bay leaves. 
45 pounds beef, fresh 
1 pound flour 
54. Beef, curry of 
2 ounces curry powder 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut the beef into 1-inch cubes and place in a bake pan. Cover with cold beef 
stock or water and" season to taste with curry powder (usually about 2 ounces 
of curry powder is used). Cook in a slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts) 
about 3 hours. When nearly done thicken slightly with a flour batter. Serve hot. 
10 pounds beef scraps of any kind 
14 pounds bread 
2 pounds onions, chopped 
55. Beef dressing 
1 gallon beef stock 
1 ounce sage 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Run the meat scraps through a chopper, soak the bread in cold water and re- 
move excess water by squeezing, mix the meat and bread with the onions, season 
with sage to taste, add sufficient beef stock to make about the same consistency as 
hash, and spread 2 or 3 inches deep oyer the bottom of a> pan. Spread* RECIPES 
249 
a little grease over the top and bake for 40 minutes in a medium oven (325°-400° 
F.—12 to 16 counts). Serve hot with meat and gravy. 
Do not leave on the stove as this causes the dressing to become dry and hard. 
12 pounds chipped or sliced dried beef 
2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
1 pound flour, browned in fat 
4 cans milk, evaporated 
56. Beef, dried, chipped, or sliced on toast 
2 bunches parsley, chopped fine 
Vz ounce pepper 
4 gallons beef stock 
130 slices bread—about 12 pounds 
Melt the fat in the pan and add the flour. Cook a few minutes to brown the 
flour. Add the milk and beef stock, stirring constantly to prevent lumping. Add 
the dried beef and cook 5 minutes. Add the parsley and pepper. Serve hot on 
toast. 
57. Beef fricassee 
45 poundes beef, fresh (from less 
tender cut) 
2 pounds onions 
1 pound flour 
3 pounds fat, butter preferred 
3 gallons beef stock 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Heat the fat in a bake pan. Add the beef, diced into 1-inch cubes, and onions. 
Brown on top of the range or in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts) for 
about 20 minutes. Sift in the dry flour and continue cooking for about 5 minutes. 
Add sufficient beef stock to nearly cover the meat and mix thoroughly. Cook 
on top of the stove or in a slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts) until well 
done. 
58. Beef fritters 
25 pounds cooked beef 
8 pounds bread 
3 pounds onions, minced 
1 pound flour 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Soak the bread and remove the excess water by squeezing with the hands. Grind 
the meat fine and add the bread and minced onions and mix all together. Mold 
into cakes of about 3 ounces each, roll in flour, and fry in deep fat until brown. 
Serve hot with tomato sauce (recipe 146). The fritters may be improved by 
dipping in egg batter before rolling in flour. 
59. Beef hash 
25 pounds potatoes 
5 pounds onions 
25 pounds meat scraps, fresh or cooked 
10 quarts beef stock 
1 clove garlic 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Chop the ingredients fine and add the beef stock until the mixture is of the 
consistency of ordinary mush and place about 3 inches deep in a well-greased pan. 
Smooth the top and grease lightly. Bake in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 
counts) for Wz hours, or until done. Scraps of beef or pork, or a mixture of both, 
or corned beef may be used for making hash. 
60. Beef hearts, stuffed 
32 pounds beef hearts 
10 pounds bread crumbs 
3 pounds onions 
Vz pound fat 
1 gallon beef stock 
2 pounds bacon, sliced 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Wash and clean the hearts and allow to drain. Chop and brown the onions. 
Soak the bread crumbs, squeeze out excess water, and mix with onions. Season 
to taste with thyme and stuff the holes in the hearts with the dressing. Place the 
hearts in a bake pan with a slice of bacon on top of each, and bake in a medium 
(325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) oven. After the hearts have become sealed so as 
to retain the juices, the temperature of the oven should be gradually reduced. 
Cook until done, allowing 30 minutes to the pound and considering the weight of 
individual hearts. Slice thin and serve. 
61. Beef loaf 
20 pounds beef, fresh 
5 pounds bread crumbs 
2 pounds onions 
1 pound flour 
2 or 3 quarts beef stock 
5 pounds bacon 
1 clove garlic 250 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Grind the meat and onions in a grinder. Soak the bread in water and then 
squeeze out excess water. Mix the meat, bread crumbs, and onions together. 
Make into loaves about 4 inches wide by 3 inches high and as long as the pan 
is wide. A loaf of this shape can be cut into pieces of attractive size and about 
the proper size for the individual and the pieces will hold their shape. Then make 
a batter of the flour and beef stock, rubbing this over the loaves. Place in a hot 
oven (450°-500° F.—8 counts) for about 10 minutes, or long enough to produce a 
crisp brown crust, then reduce heat to that of a slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 
counts), and bake for about 1 hour. A slice of bacon may be placed on the top 
of each loaf to improve the flavor. Serve hot with gravy. 
In place of 1 pound of bread crumbs, 1 pound of tapioca may be used to bind 
and furnish a moist loaf which will slice without crumbling. 
Beef loaf may be served with tomato sauce, if desired. 
20 pounds beef, fresh or left-over meat 
17 pounds potatoes 
3 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans, or 
equivalent fresh tomatoes 
5 pounds onions 
62. Beef potpie 
5 pounds turnips 
5 pounds carrots 
1 clove garlic 
1 pound flour 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut the beef into 1-inch cubes, place in cold water, and bring quickly to a 
simmer. Add turnips and carrots cut in 1-inch cubes and simmer until these 
are nearly done. Add cut potatoes, chopped garlic, onions cut in 1-inch cubes, 
and the tomatoes, and finish cooking. Thicken slightly with flour batter and 
cover with raw biscuits (recipe 285). Serve as soon as the biscuits are done. 
45 pounds beef, fresh 
This recipe is for cooking the tender cuts of beef. The less tender cuts should 
be braised, if a roast is desired. 
Cut the beef into pieces of about 5 pounds each and wipe with a damp cloth. 
Sear until all sides are well browned. If the beef is lean (lacking in fat), it is 
well to lard it with about 2 pounds of fat pork, cut into strips, or lay these strips 
over the top. Sliced bacon may be used. This improves flavor and bastes the 
beef while roasting. Place in pan with fat side up. After searing, cook in a slow 
oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts) for about 1% hours (about 20-22 minutes per 
pound per piece; see par. 17, chapter 7). If in larger pieces than 5 pounds, more time 
is required; however, for 5-pound pieces the time of 1% hours after searing should 
not be greatly exceeded as roasting longer than this or allowing the roast to remain 
in the oven after it is done, tends to make the finished roast dry and hard. Roast- 
ing should be started so that the roast will be finished shortly before time to 
serve; for example, a roast for dinner started about 9:30 a. m. will be ready 
to carve at 11:30 a. m. Add very little water, only sufficient to keep from scorch- 
ing at the bottom. When done, carve into thin slices, across the grain. Remove 
all chunks of fat, bones, and tendons, and render for soup stock. Serve hot with 
gravy made from the roast drippings (see recipe 133). 
63. Beef, roast 
64. Beef rolls 
14 pounds meat scraps, cooked, 
left-over 
5 pound bread crumbs 
2 pounds onions, browned 
1 ounce chili pepper 
Pass the meat scraps through a chopper. Soak the bread crumbs and squeeze 
out the excess water. Mix well the meat, bread, and seasoning of salt, browned 
onions, and chili pepper. Make a pie crust or rich biscuit dough rolled into long 
strips, using recipe for dough for apple rolls (recipe 225). Spread the meat-and- 
bread mixture about Vz inch thick over the dough. Roll up lengths equal to that 
of the bake pan, brush top with beaten eggs, and bake in a slow oven (200°-250° 
F.—18 to 20 counts) for 1 hour. 
65. Beef, simmered 
45 pounds beef, fresh (from less 
tender cut) 
3 ounces salt 
1 ounce pepper 
Cut the beef into pieces weighing about 5 pounds each, wipe with damp clean 
cloth. Put in boiling water deep enough to cover and keep the water boiling RECIPES 
251 
for 15 minutes. Add salt and pepper. Reduce temperature to the simmering 
point (see par. 16b, chapter 7), and simmer about 3 hours or until tender. 
66. Beef, soft roast 
45 pounds beef, fresh 
2 pounds onions 
3 pounds flour 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Use meat from the chuck, brisket, shoulder, or any other less desirable part of 
the carcass and cut into 5-pound pieces. Make a gravy of beef stock and flour 
batter (recipe 136). Season well with salt and pepper. Put the meat and onions 
in the gravy and cook in a slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts) until tender. 
The gravy should cover the meat in the pan about Vz inch as in the preparation 
of beef a la mode. Slice the meat and serve on a platter with hot gravy poured 
over it. Serve with dumplings (recipe 82). 
40 pounds beef, fresh (from less 
tender cut) 
3 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans 
67. Beef, Spanish 
8 pounds onions, chopped 
2 pounds bacon 
Cut the beef into 1 Vz -inch cubes and fry in a little fat for about 5 minutes. 
Pour off the fat and add the tomatoes and onions. Add sufficient beef stock to 
cover the meat, season to taste with salt and pepper, and allow to simmer for 
2 hours. Serve hot. 
If desired, season while cooking, with 1 cup Worcestershire sauce. 
68. Beefsteak 
45 pounds beefsteak, fresh, or 
35 pounds of boned 
2 pounds fat 
2 pounds flour 
Cut the steaks into pieces weighing about 3 ounces each, and make tender, 
if necessary, by beating each piece with the flat side of a cleaver. If the steaks 
are beaten, first place a small quantity of flour in a dishpan and season well 
with salt and pepper and roll each piece of steak well in the flour. Fry in shallow 
fat or in deep fat, if preferred. 
69. Beefsteak, hamburg 
40 pounds beef, fresh (raw) 
Salt and pepper to taste 
5 pounds onions 
Use meat from the less tender cuts. Hun the meat through a grinder twice. 
Chop the onions fine, using a sharp knife. Mix meat and onions well and season 
with salt and pepper. Mold into steaks about 3 inches in diameter and about 
% inch in thickness. Fry on griddle or clean stove top. Serve hot with gravy, or 
in hamburger sandwiches. (See recipe 298.) 
This recipe will be improved by the addition of 12 eggs to the meat-and-onion 
mixture. 
45 pounds beef, fresh, or 35 pounds 
if boned 
2 pounds butter 
70. Beefsteak and mushrooms 
2 pounds flour 
6 cans mushrooms, no. 2 can 
Salt and pepper to taste 
For the steak. Prepare and cook the beefsteak as in recipe 68. 
For the sauce. While the steaks are cooking, place the butter in a frying pan 
and heat until smoking hot, then introduce the flour slowly, stirring continuously 
to prevent lumping and scorching. When the butter and flour mixture becomes 
smooth, add to it the mushrooms and their liquid and continue cooking for 5 
minutes. Place the cooked beefsteak on platters and cover with the mushroom 
gravy containing the mushrooms. Serve hot. 
71. Beefsteak and onions 
45 pounds beef, fresh, or 35 pounds 
if boned 
20 pounds onions, sliced 
2 pounds fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Prepare and cook the beefsteak as in recipe 68. Peel and slice the onions. Brown 
in hot fat. Season with salt and pepper. Serve the steak hot on a platter smothered 
with the onions. 252 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
30 pounds beefsteak, fresh, or cooked, 4 pounds onions, chopped and browned 
cut in small portions 1 clove garlic 
3 gallons beef stock 
If fresh steak is used, season the meat with pepper and salt, roll the small 
pieces of steak in flour, and fry in fat. Remove the cooked steak, add 1 pound 
of flour to the frying fat and brown. Add slowly the 3 gallons of stock to make 
a thin gravy, then add the onions. Pour this onion gravy over the steak. 
If cooked steak is used, the onion gravy is made by adding 2 pounds flour to 2 
pounds hot fat then adding the onions. 
Make a regular biscuit dough (recipe 285) using about 10 pounds of flour. 
Cut into biscuits, place them over the top of the steak and gravy, and allow them 
to brown in the oven. Serve hot. 
72. Beefsteak potpie 
25 pounds beef, fresh 
9 pounds rice 
4 pounds fat 
2 pounds flour, browned in fat 
73. Beef, turkish 
4 pounds onions, chopped and browned 
5 gallons beef stock 
1 pound flour, for rolling meat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Beef from the less tender cuts may be used for this recipe. Make a batter of 
the flour and melted fat, adding the stock and onions to make a gravy. Cut the 
meat into 1-inch cubes. Season with cayenne pepper, salt, and a little garlic, 
roll in flour, and fry. After the meat is fried, put immediately into the gravy and 
allow to simmer for 2 hours. While cooking it may be necessary to add a little 
more stock. Meanwhile boil the rice (see recipe 209) and place around a platter, 
making a nest in the center into which the stew is poured. 
74. Brains 
25 pounds beef brains 
8 pounds onions, diced 
5 pounds bacon, diced 
Clean and wash the brains well in cold water, and dice them into about ¥2-inch 
cubes. Fry the bacon to a golden brown and add the brains. Cook in a moderate 
oven (250°-325° F.—16 to 18 counts) about 30 minutes, after which add diced 
onions and season well with chili powder and salt. Cook about 30 minutes 
longer. Serve hot on toast. 
20 pounds beef brains 
3 pounds bacon 
75. Brains and eggs 
50 eggs 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Clean and wash the brains well in cold water, and dice into about 1/2-inch cubes. 
Dice the bacon into small cubes or run it through a meat grinder. Fry the bacon 
until brown. Add the brains and fry until nearly done (about 45 minutes). Add 
the eggs, beaten slightly, and fry about 10 minutes more. Season to taste with 
salt and pepper. Serve with dry toast. 
This preparation may be enriched by the addition of more eggs and reducing 
the amount of brains in proportion. 
76. Chicken, creamed 
25 pounds chicken (fowl) dressed, 
undrawn 
10 pounds veal, diced 
1 dozen eggs 
2 cans pimento, no. V\ can 
4 pounds flour 
10 cans milk, evaporated, diluted with 6 
quarts water (preferably from the 
boiled chicken) 
2 pounds butter, or 1 pound butter and 
1 pound vegetable shortening 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Singe and draw the chickens, cut into fourths, place in pan with the veal, 
cover with cold water, and boil until chicken meat falls off the bones. Remove 
bones (be careful not to leave splinters of bone in the finished product), dice the 
chicken meat and thoroughly mix with the diced veal. Hard-boil the eggs, dice, 
and add to the meat. 
Make a cream sauce using the butter, flour, milk, and broth from the boiled 
chicken. Season to taste. Slice pimento into strips (thin), add to cream sauce, 
and pour the sauce over the meat and eggs. Serve on toast or mashed potatoes. 
Note. The addition of two no. 1 cans of mushrooms will improve this dish. Also, any left- 
over cooked chicken which may be on hand may be used in place of fresh chicken. RECIPES 
253 
45 pounds chicken (fowl) dressed, 10 pounds rice 
undrawn 2 quarts flour (if desired for batter) 
2 ounces curry powder 
Singe chickens over hot flame to burn off small feathers. Cut each chicken 
into about 10 or 12 pieces (natural divisions), wash well, and place in a large 
bake pan on top of the range, covering with about 3 inches of water. When it 
reaches the boiling point, reduce the heat and allow to simmer 2 hours or until 
tender. Season to taste with salt and pepper after the chicken has cooked about 
1 hour. Meanwhile make a paste of the curry powder and about 1 quart of broth, 
taken from the pan after the chicken is half done, and add this paste to the chicken. 
If desired, the chicken broth may be thickened by the addition of a flour batter 
(recipe 132). Serve on platters garnished with boiled rice, (See recipe 209.) 
77. Chicken, curry of 
60 pounds chicken (fowl) dressed, 
undrawn 
4 pounds butter or vegetable 
shortening 
78. Chicken fricassee 
2 pounds flour 
4 cans milk, evaporated, diluted by 4 
pints water or 4 quarts fresh milk 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut each chicken into about 12 pieces (natural divisions). Cover with water, 
season well with celery salt, and allow to simmer until tender. Remove the 
chicken and make a gravy, using 1 pound butter, 1 pound flour, and the water in 
which the chicken was cooked. Pepper and salt the chicken well, fry in shallow 
fat or roll in flour, and fry in deep fat. Put into the gravy when fried. Before 
serving, add the milk and the remainder of the butter. Care should be taken to 
break up the chicken as little as possible. Serve on a platter with or without rice. 
Old fowls may be utilized to advantage by this recipe. 
70 pounds chicken (fryers or broilers) 
dressed, undrawn 
10 eggs, beaten 
79. Chicken, fried 
3 pounds cracker meal, or flour, or bread 
crumbs 
5 pounds fat 
Fowls over 6 months old should not be fried. Remove pin feathers by singeing 
over hot blaze. Divide each chicken into about 10 pieces (natural divisions). Fry 
in shallow fat, or in deep fat. If fried in deep fat, dip each piece in the beaten 
eggs and then in the cracker meal. If the mixture does not adhere to the pieces 
sufficiently, repeat the operation. Drain well in a colander and keep hot until 
served. In case older chickens are used, which are large and possibly tough, fried 
pieces should be placed in a bake pan with about 2 inches of water, the pan 
covered and placed in a slow oven to steam for about 40 minutes. 
80. Chicken, roast 
65 pounds chicken, dressed, undrawn 
4 pounds onions, minced, browned 
2 pounds fat, butter preferred 
15 pounds bread crumbs 
2 pounds flour 
Singe, then clean the chicken well, saving heart, liver, and gizzard, which should 
be cooked and then minced for use in gravy or dressing. To make the dressing, 
moisten the bread crumbs with water, mix with onions and giblets, and season with 
pepper and salt, sage, thyme, or other spices. The bread may be soaked in 
oyster liquor and oysters added to the dressing. Celery, currants, or raisins may 
be used instead of onions. Lemon juice or nuts may be added. This dressing may 
be used with any fowl or fish. Stuff the chicken well with dressing. Sew up with 
strong thread and tie wings down to the body. Make a batter with the flour and 
fat, season with salt and pepper and rub the chicken with it before placing in 
oven. Roast in a slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts). After the chicken 
has been in the oven about 20 minutes, add a little hot water and baste every 15 
minutes until done. This generally requires about 2Vz hours, depending upon the 
quality of the fowl. Last few minutes of cooking should be at a high heat to 
brown the outside of the chicken. Carve and serve hot with gravy (recipe 134). 
50 pounds chicken, dressed, undrawn Salt and pepper to taste 
Singe and clean the chicken well and cut into 10 or 12 pieces (natural divisions). 
Cover with cold water and simmer until nearly done (tender). Then thicken the 
81. Chicken stew with dumplings 254 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
stew slightly with a flour batter (recipe 132), season to taste with salt and pepper, 
add the dumplings, and allow to cook 10 or 15 minutes depending on the size of 
the dumplings. Dumplings may be made in accordance with the following recipe: 
82. Dumplings 
9 pounds flour 
% pound fat 
3 ounces baking powder 
3 ounces salt 
Water to make a soft dough 
Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt together three times. Mix the fat into 
the flour and add enough water to make a soft dough. Roll out on a well-floured 
board to about % inch thickness. Cut into strips about 1 inch by 3 inches. Drop 
dough into boiling chicken broth and boil 20 minutes. Serve with the chicken. 
Dumplings may also be in biscuit form made by rolling the dough and cutting 
with a biscuit cutter. 
20 pounds meat scraps, fresh preferred, 
but may be cooked 
6 ounces chili peppers, ground 
8 pounds chili beans (small red 
beans) simmered 
83. Chili coh came 
4 cloves garlic 
2 ounces chili powder 
2 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans 
2 gallons beef stock 
Simmer the beans until soft. Run 2/3 of simmered chili beans through a food 
grinder. Trim all the fat from the meat and chop into V2-inch cubes, fry, cover 
with about 1 inch of beef stock, add the ground chili pepper and the chili 
powder, and salt to taste. Mix with the ground beans, then add the remaining 
third of the beans whole, the garlic, and tomatoes. While cooking it may be 
necessary to add more beef stock to replace that lost by evaporation. When ready 
to serve, there should be sufficient beef stock to cover the preparation. Baked 
beans may be substituted for chili beans. 
84. Chuck steak with onions 
40 pounds chuck steak 
25 pounds onions 
3 pounds fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Peel and slice the onions. Brown in hot fat. Season with salt and pepper. 
Pound flour into the steaks to make them tender. Brown the steaks on both sides 
quickly in hot fat. Reduce the heat and cook slowly for 20 minutes or until well 
done. Season with salt and pepper. Serve the steaks on a platter with the onions 
around them. 
Prepare in the same manner as roast chicken (recipe 80). 
85. Duck, roast 
86. Game, small 
Pigeons, doves, etc., for Army messes should be made into potpies. They may 
also be prepared in the form of a stew and served on toast. 
87. Goose, roast 
Prepare in the same manner as roast chicken (recipe 80). 
88. Ham, baked 
40 pounds ham 
Prepare ham the same as for simmered ham. If the ham is very salty, let soak 
for several hours in fresh water. Then change water and parboil until nearly 
done. Dredge the ham with cracker meal, sugar, allspice, and cinnamon, and dot 
the surface with whole cloves. Pour 1 quart of hot water in the bottom of baking 
pans, basting occasionally. Bake in a moderate oven for about 40 minutes. 
40 pounds ham 
Wash and scrape the ham. If the ham is very salty, let soak for several hours 
in fresh water. Then change the water. The water in which hams are cooked 
should never be allowed to reach the boiling point. Place hams in near-boiling 
water (enough to cover) 5 to 10 minutes, after which reduce the temperature 
to 180° F. by introducing cold water, and simmer until the hams are properly 
cooked, This process requires about 20 minutes to the pound. If two or more 
89. Ham, simmered RECIPES 
255 
hams are simmered in the same vessel, the time of cooking should be computed 
on the largest ham. Skim all the impurities from the water as they arise. Let 
the hams cool in the water in which they are cooked. 
Mold, if present, may be removed from ham by wiping with a clean cloth 
dampened with vinegar. The water in which the ham was cooked may be used 
to cook cabbage, spinach, etc. 
90. Ham and tomatoes 
35 pounds ham 
3 cans tomatoes, no. 214 or 
no. 3 cans 
1 pound celery 
1 gallon stock 
2 pounds onions 
2 pounds peppers, green, sliced 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Clean and wash the vegetables and dice or mince them. Cut the ham in 14-inch 
slices. Place in baking pans one layer of ham and a layer of minced vegetables. 
Repeat this until the pans are filled. Pour over the stock well seasoned, place 
in oven, and let cook about one half hour, or until ham is thoroughly cooked. 
91. Ham, smothered 
35 pounds ham 
14 ounce cloves, whole 
1 pound sugar, brown 
5 pounds bread crumbs 
1 gallon milk 
2 pounds onions, chopped 
Trim off the rind or skin from hams and wipe with a clean cloth. Cut them 
into slices about 14 inch thick and put in a bake pan, cover with boiling water 
and cook at a simmering temperature from 35 to 40 minutes. Drain off the water, 
place over the top the cloves, onions, and bread crumbs, and add the milk. Bake 
in a moderate oven (250°-325° F.—16 to 18 counts) for about 45 minutes or until 
the top is crisp and brown. 
92. Hamburger 
See Beefsteak, hamburg (recipe 69). 
93. Hash, chop suey 
7 pounds bacon, chopped fine 
8 pounds onion, chopped fine 
17 pounds beef, cooked, coarsely 
ground 
17 pounds turnips, cooked and 
chopped 
5 cans corn, no. 2 cans 
2 ounces chili powder 
2 gallons beef stock 
4 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans 
4 pounds celery, diced 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Place the bacon in a large bake pan and cook in the oven until well browned, 
add the onions and fry, but do not allow to brown. Add the other ingredients and 
bake for 1 hour. The addition of Worcestershire sauce improves the flavor. 
20 pounds liver, beef, sliced 
10 pounds bacon, fried 
94. Liver and bacon 
10 pounds onions, browned 
2 pounds flour 
Slice the bacon thin, about 5 slices per inch, and simmer for 5 minutes. Remove 
from water, roll the slices of liver in flour, and fry quickly in the bacon fat. Brown 
the onions and put on liver. Place fried bacon around the onions and liver. Season 
to taste with salt and pepper. Serve hot. 
Same as for beef loaf (recipe 61) except that up to one half of the beef may be 
replaced with fresh or cooked pork. If pork is used the loaf should be baked 
not less than 2 hours. 
95. Meat loaf 
45 pounds mutton (from less 3 ounces salt 
tender cut) 1 ounce pepper 
Prepare in the same manner as beef, simmered (recipe 65) . 
96. Mutton, simmered 
97. Mutton chops 
45 pounds mutton loin Salt and pepper to taste 
Cut in chops weighing from 2 to 4 ounces and fry the same as beefsteak. Serve 
hot, (See recipe 68.) 256 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Prepare in the same manner as beef potpie (recipe 62) using 20 pounds of mutton 
instead of beef. 
98. Mutton potpie 
99. Mutton stew 
25 pounds mutton 
40 pounds potatoes 
7 pounds onions 
3 gallons beef stock or water 
1 pound flour 
Cut the mutton into 1-inch cubes. Add sufficient beef stock or cold water to 
just cover the mutton and allow to simmer slowly for IVz hours or until the mutton 
is done. Add vegetables and cook until done. Season to taste with pepper and 
salt and thicken slightly with a flour batter (recipe 132). Serve hot with or with- 
out dumplings (recipe 82). If dumplings are added, use only 20 pounds of mutton 
and 30 pounds of potatoes. 
100. Omelet, plain 
150 eggs 
2 pounds drippings or fat 
Salt and pepper to taste 
8 cans milk, evaporated, diluted 
with 8 pints water; or 8 quarts 
fresh milk 
Mix the eggs and milk, season, and whip well, put drippings or other fat into 
the bake pan, and when the fat begins to smoke pour in the mixture, not more 
than 3 inches deep, and bake in a medium oven. 
101. Omelet, cheese 
Same as for plain omelet except that 3 pounds of cheese, chopped very fine, are 
added before cooking. 
102. Omelet, ham 
Same as for plain omelet, except that 3 pounds of finely chopped cooked ham 
are added before cooking. 
Prepare in the same manner as the plain omelet, substituting 8 small cans of 
tomatoes for the 8 pints of water, or for 4 quarts of fresh milk. 
103. Omelet, tomato 
70 pounds pig, little 
10 pounds bread (dry preferred) 
104. Pig, roasted 
3 ounces sage 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Clean, stuff, truss, and skewer a suckling pig. Make 4 parallel gashes, 3 inches 
long, through skin on each side of backbone. Put on rack in dripping pan, brush 
entire surface with melted butter, sprinkle with salt, pour around 2 cups boiling 
water, and cover with oiled paper. Roast in a medium oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 
20 counts) 3 hours, basting every 15 minutes with broth in pan. Remove paper 
after cooking 2Vz hours and brush over with heavy cream. Remove to serving 
dish, put small red apple in mouth, cranberries in eyes and wreath around neck. 
May be garnished with nest-shaped hominy croquettes filled with apple sauce, 
cubes of cranberry jelly, and watercress. 
Pigs weighing more than 35 pounds are not suitable. 
35 pounds pork loin 
Cut into chops about Vz inch thick and weighing from 3 to 5 ounces each. Fry 
in a bake pan or griddle without added fat until done. Use a high heat until 
chops are seared, then finish at lower temperatures as high heat after searing will 
make the chops dry and hard. They may be breaded in flour or corn meal and 
fried with added fat. Serve with gravy made from the drippings (see recipe 134). 
105. Pork chops 
35 pounds pork cutlets 2 pounds fat 
2 pounds flour 
Dredge each cutlet with flour and fry in shallow fat. Season to taste with salt 
and pepper. Serve hot with gravy made from the frying (see recipe 134). Dipping 
in egg batter before flouring improves the product. 
106. Pork cutlets 
107. Pork, roast 
45 pounds pork, shoulder, butt, or Salt and pepper to taste 
loin, or 40 pounds fresh ham RECIPES 
257 
Wipe the roast with damp cloth and cut into pieces weighing about 5 pounds 
each. Place in an uncovered roaster without water and rub with salt and 
pepper, allowing Vz teaspoon of salt and Vs teaspoon of pepper for each pound 
of meat. Sear in a hot oven (450°-500° F.—8 counts) for 15 minutes, or until 
nicely browned, then reduce the temperature to a modrate oven (250°-350° F.— 
16 to 18 counts). Cook until roast is well done, allowing 30 minutes per pound 
in addition to searing time for a 3- to 4-pound loin roast. Fresh shoulder and 
fresh ham require 25 to 30 minutes per pound plus the searing time. 
108. Pudding, english beef 
20 pounds beef, fresh (from less 
tender cut) 
14 pounds flour 
10 ounces baking powder 
2 pounds lard 
2 cloves garlic 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Run the meat through the grinder twice. Season and rub with cloves of garlic. 
Saute lightly. Make a dough using the flour, baking powder, lard, and salt with 
enough water to make a stiff dough (recipe 285). 
Roll out the dough about % inch thick and 20 inches wide and spread with 
meat to about the same thickness as the dough. Roll the dough and meat tightly 
together and cut the roll in lengths % as long as a 4-pound lard pail. Fill the 
lard pails with the pieces of roll, allowing space for expansion of dough in 
cooking. If no lids are provided, tie a cloth tightly over top of each pail. Place 
pails in a boiler containing enough boiling water to reach 1/3 the height of the 
pails, and boil for 5 to 6 hours. Maintain water at this level during cooking. 
Remove cans from boiler and allow to stand 10 minutes before emptying. Serve 
with brown or onion gravy. 
27 pounds bologna sausage 
2 cans milk, evaporated, diluted with 
1 quart water, or 2 quarts fresh milk 
109. Sausage, bologna, fried 
12 eggs 
3 pounds fat 
Remove sausage casing and slice about V2 inch thick and dip in batter made 
by beating eggs and adding milk. Fry in deep fat. Serve hot. Bologna sausage 
may also be served cold with salad, or made into sandwiches. 
30 pounds sausage, liver 
12 eggs 
2 cans milk, evaporated, or 1 quart 
fresh milk 
110. Sausage, liver, fried 
3 pounds fat 
2 pounds bread, dry, ground, or 
crackers 
If in small casings, cut in pieces about 2 inches long. Remove casings, dip 
in batter made by beating eggs and adding milk, roll in crumbs or cracker dust, 
and fry in deep fat. If in large casings, cut in slices. Serve hot. Liver 
sausage may be served with a salad or for sandwiches. 
111. Sausage, pork 
(32 lb. mixture) 
20 pounds pork, lean 
12 pounds beef, lean 
4 ounces salt 
3 ounces pepper, black 
Vi ounce coriander 
% ounce sage 
V2 pint vinegar 
1 clove garlic 
Dice the pork in IV2-inch squares. Grind the beef and mix with the pork, add 
all the seasoning and mix well, then grind again. The more thoroughly the 
sausage is mixed, the better it will be. Mould into patties each about 4 ounces 
and fry without the addition of fat. Serve hot. If too dry, add water. If de- 
sired, 10 pounds of dry bread, or cracker crumbs or corn meal, may be ground in, 
but this does not improve the product. 
112. Sausage, pork, in blankets 
35 pounds link sausages 
2 eggs, beaten 
2 pounds lard 
3 pounds flour 
IV2 ounces salt 
Make a dough of the flour, lard, and salt and roll out as for pie crust (see 
recipe 257). Inclose 1 or 2 sausage links in a piece of dough, wash with the egg, 
and bake until a delicate brown. 258 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
35 pounds frankfurter sausage 
Place sausage in boiling water, but do not allow it to boil thereafter, as this 
causes the skins to crack, rendering them unsightly and injuring the flavor. Long 
cooking also injures the quality; therefore, the sausage should not be put into the 
water more than 15 minutes before serving. Serve hot. 
113. Sausage, frankfurter 
Prepare in the same manner as pork sausage (recipe 112). 
114. Sausage, frankfurter, in blankets 
115. Short ribs of beef 
65 pounds short ribs 
3 pounds onions, chopped 
3 pounds carrots 
1 pound fat 
2 tablespoonfuls pepper 
6 tablespoonfuls salt 
6 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans 
Melt the fat in bake pan. Add onions and short ribs, cut in pieces containing 
1 or 2 ribs, and brown well. Add tomatoes, carrots, and seasoning, and enough 
water to cover all ingredients. Cover the pan and cook slowly in moderate oven 
(250°-325° F.—16 to 18 counts) for 3 hours or until done. Serve hot. 
Note. If the quantity of carcass beef on hand does not provide sufficient short ribs and It is 
not desired to purchase any as a wholesale market cut, any shortage can be made up by using 
chuck meat. 
100 pork hocks, fresh, small (35 lbs.) 
4 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans 
116. Southern creoles 
2 quarts tomato catsup 
3 ounces pickling spices 
Boil hocks for 30 minutes, then pour off the water and add the tomatoes, catsup, 
and spices, salt, and pepper. Bake until the meat is done. Pour the cooking 
mixture as a sauce over the hocks when served. Either strain the sauce to take 
out the pickling spices or cook spices in a small bag so that they may be removed 
before serving. Serve hot. 
10 pounds meat, diced, beef preferred 
(fresh or left over) 
1 pint cooking oil or bacon drippings 
2 pounds onions, chopped 
3 cloves garlic, chopped 
117. Spaghetti, Italian style 
1 can tomatoes, no. 10 cans, or 4 cans, 
no. 2Vz or no. 3 cans 
1 quart tomato pulp or tomato catsup 
8 pounds spaghetti 
Salt and pepper and paprika to taste. 
Heat the .oil or fat and brown the onions and garlic, add meat, and brown. 
Add tomatoes and catsup. Salt and pepper to taste. Simmer until sauce begins 
to thicken and add paprika to give bright red color. Put spaghetti in boiling 
salted water and boil 20 minutes or until done. Drain spaghetti and run enough 
cold water over it to make it firm and keep from becoming a doughy mass but do 
not chill. Pour the hot sauce over it and serve. Grated cheese may be sprinkled 
on top. 
55 pounds spareribs 
118. Spareribs 
Cut the spareribs into pieces of 2 or 3 ribs each. There are two principal 
methods of cooking spareribs: 
With sauerkraut. Place the spareribs on a rack in a bake pan and sear about 
15 minutes or until nicely browned in a hot oven (450°-500° F.—8 counts). Re- 
move spareribs and rack and pour off drippings but save these. Place four no. 10 
cans, or 16 no. 2Vz cans, or 4 gallons of fresh sauerkraut in the same bake pan 
and pour the drippings from the searing over the sauerkraut. Place the seared 
spareribs on top of the sauerkraut, season highly by sprinkling with pepper, salt, 
and a little ground sage, and bake in a slow oven (200°-250° F.— 18 to 20 counts) 
for 1 hour. If the spareribs become hard and dry, this can be corrected by cover- 
ing the pan for the last 15 to 30 minutes of baking and the steam will soften them. 
Any excess liquid makes excellent soup stock. 
With cabbage. Drop the spareribs into boiling water, then simmer for 30 
minutes. Bring the water to a boil again, drop in 50 pounds of cabbage (see 
recipe 168), and boil until cabbage is tender, about 20 minutes. 
119. Stew, chop suey 
25 pounds meat (pork, beef, or veal) 
cut in strips V\ inch thick and 1 inch 
long 
17 pounds onions, sliced 
4 pounds celery, sliced crosswise 
1 pint barbecue sauce (see recipe 137) 
1 or Vz pint molasses 
2 gallons beef stock 
8 pounds rice RECIPES 
259 
Brown the meat, add the stock, and simmer until meat is tender. Add onions, 
celery, and seasoning and cook 30 minutes before serving. This should be served 
with 8 pounds of rice, steamed (see recipe 213). 
25 pounds beef, cooked and diced 
25 pounds potatoes, boiled and diced 
4 pounds onions, chopped 
120. Stew, pan 
3 quarts beef stock 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Mix the beef, potatoes, and onions and season. Put in a well-greased bake pan, 
spreading to a depth of about 3 inches and add sufficient beef stock to cover the 
mixture. Bake in medium oven until nicely browned. It should not be as watery 
as the ordinary stew. All left-over potatoes, except fried, may be utilized in this 
stew. Left-over parts of roasts and gravy may be used. Serve hot. 
20 pounds meat (beef, pork, or veal), 
fresh, without bone and with but 
little fat, cut in about 1%-inch 
cubes 
17 pounds potatoes 
5 pounds onions, small, whole 
121. Stew el rancho 
2 ounces chili powder 
5 pounds carrots, quartered lengthwise 
7 pounds turnips, sliced across grain 
7 pounds cabbage, cut in eighths 
3 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans, or 10 
pounds fresh tomatoes 
Place the meat, turnips, carrots, and tomatoes in a large pan of cold water and 
bring slowly to a boil. Simmer until the meat is tender and then add the re- 
maining vegetables. Season with salt and chili powder, and simmer until vege- 
tables are done. All ingredients should be thoroughly cooked but not broken into 
pieces. The liquid should cover all the solids by about an inch. The stew is im- 
proved by a bunch of parsley chopped fine and added just before serving. A few 
sprigs of parsley may be used for garnishing. Serve hot with the vegetables 
whole, if possible. Any kind of fresh meat and any vegetables may be used in 
this stew. 
122. Stew, irish 
25 pounds beef, fresh, or left-over beef 
22 pounds potatoes, peeled 
4 pounds onions 
1 pound flour 
2 gallons beef stock 
Select cuts of beef suitable for stewing from less tender cuts and dice into 
1/2-inch cubes or smaller, cutting all about the same size. Place in cold water 
and bring to the simmering point slowly. Cook at a simmering temperature 
until nearly tender. Dice the potatoes into 1-inch cubes, chop the onions, and 
add both to the meat. Add beef stock or water to cover the ingredients in the 
pan about 1 inch. Season to taste with salt and pepper and thicken with batter 
made of flour (recipe 132). Simmer until the vegetables are thoroughly done. 
This stew is improved by the addition of 3 pounds of diced carrots or turnips or 
3 no. 3 cans tomatoes. To make a potpie out of this, cover with a biscuit dough 
(recipe 285) and bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts). To 
improve the appearance, the dough may be washed with a beaten egg, which will 
give a golden-brown color. Serve hot. 
123. Tamales 
14 pounds cooked meat scraps 
IV2 pounds corn meal 
8 pounds flour 
5 pounds mashed potatoes 
3 ounces salt 
2 ounces chili powder 
1 clove garlic, chopped fine 
1 quart beef stock 
Run the meat through a chopper, add salt, pepper, garlic, and chili powder, and 
mix well. Add the beef stock. Mix the corn meal flour and potatoes with enough 
water to make a stiff dough. Roll out this dough V\ inch thick, using flour foi 
dusting. Cut the dough in long strips about 2% inches wide. Place on each strip 
enough meat to form a core about V2 inch in diameter. Fold the sides of the strip 
together and seal by moistening the edges with water and pressing together. Cut 
the rolled strips into pieces about 5 inches long. Fresh meat may be used in 
making tamales, in which case the fat is cut off and the meat is cut into %-inch 
cubes and cooked until well done in a small amount of fat. Then proceed as out- 
lined above. Fry the tamales in deep fat. Serve hot. 260 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Prepare in the same manner as roast chicken (recipe 80), substituting 70 pounds 
of turkey, undrawn, or 50 pounds of dressed and drawn turkey for the chicken. 
124. Turkey, roast 
28 pounds raw lean meat 
9 pounds rice 
1 pound flour 
1 pound fat 
3 pounds onions, sliced 
125. Turkish stew 
2 gallons beef stock 
3 ounces cayenne pepper 
1 bunch parsley 
1 clove garlic, chopped fine 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Dice the meat into 1-inch cubes, roll in flour, and fry brown in shallow 
fat. Brown the onions and add the meat, cover with beef stock, and season 
with the cayenne pepper, salt, parsley, and a little garlic. Simmer on top of 
the range or in the oven for about 2 hours. Steam the rice until the grains 
may be crushed between the fingers but still retain their original form (see 
recipe 209). Make a border of the rice around the platter, leaving a dent into 
which the stew is poured. Garnish with parsley. 
126. Veal cutlets 
42 pounds veal 1 pound flour 
Cut in slices weighing about 4 ounces each, roll in flour, and fry the same as 
beefsteak (recipe 68). Serve hot with cream gravy made from the frying 
(recipe 134). 
127. White fricassee of veal 
40 pounds veal 
Wipe with a clean, damp cloth. Cut into 1-inch cubes and prepare by the 
same method as for white fricassee of chicken. Serve with dumplings. This 
will require from about 2Vz to 3 hours to cook. 
42 pounds veal 1 pound fat 
Prepare in the same manner as braised beef (recipe 51), except cook the veal 
thoroughly done. 
128. Veal, roast 
40 pounds venison 1 pound flour 
Prepare in the same manner as veal cutlets (recipe 126). 
129. Venison cutlets 
130. Venison, roast 
42 pounds venison, ham preferred 
1 pound fat (suet preferred) 
1 pound bacon (sliced in thin strips) 
Cut into pieces weighing about 5 pounds each. Lard well every 2 inches, the 
strips of fat used for larding being well seasoned with pepper and salt, and, 
if desired, a little garlic. Roast in the same manner as beef, except that it should 
always be cooked until well done. Serve hot with gravy poured over it. Be care- 
ful to lard well or the cooked product will be dry. 
Other parts of the venison carcass may be roasted in the same manner, but 
will require less cooking, depending upon size and thickness of the pieces. Parts 
not suitable for roasts may be utilized in steaks, hash, stews, and fritters. 
131. Yorkshire pudding 
10 pounds flour 
8 ounces baking powder 
12 eggs 
2 ounces salt 
Pinch cayenne pepper 
Sift together three times the flour, baking powder, salt, and cayenne pepper. 
Add eggs, whipped to a foam, and sufficient water to make a dough somewhat 
softer than that used for biscuits. Drop the dough from the hand into the pan 
in which beef has been roasted, keeping the handfuls about 1 inch apart. Bake 
in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts). The above recipe may be 
improved by substituting milk for water. RECIPES 
261 
132. Flour batter (for thickening liquids) 
GRAVIES AND SAUCES 
Flour Water 
The quantity of flour used will depend upon the quantity of liquid to be 
thickened and the thickness desired. One quart of water, mixed with 1 pound 
of flour will thicken to gravy consistency about 2V2 gallons of liquid. The thick- 
ness of the liquid will also depend upon the length of boiling, after putting in 
the batter, as long boiling evaporates more of the moisture and results in thicker 
liquid. Care must be used in mixing the batter with the liquid as constant stirring 
is necessary to prevent lumping. 
133. Gravy, brown 
1 quart fat 2 gallons water 
2 pounds flour 
The gravy should be made in the pan used in roasting the meat, as only by 
this method can all the extractives lost from the meat be retained in the gravy. 
Brown gravy is made from the drippings of roasted meat or fowl and the frying 
of pork. One quart of fat will make 2 gallons of gravy. Take the fat in the 
roasting pan after the meat or fowl has been removed, heat to the smoking point 
and add enough flour to absorb the hot fat, stirring constantly to prevent burning 
and lumping. When the flour is brown, add cold water (about 1 gallon to the 
pound of flour used) and continue cooking and stirring until the gravy is smooth 
and of the desired thickness or consistency. Salt and pepper to taste. Serve hot. 
Brown gravy may also be made from stock by the same procedure, except that 
2 quarts of stock is used instead of 1 quart of drippings; however, gravy made 
from stock is not nearly as palatable as that made from roast drippings. 
134. Gravy, cream 
1 quart fat 
2 pounds flour 
8 cans milk, evaporated, diluted with 
8 pints water, or IV2 pounds pow- 
dered skim milk dissolved in 7% 
quarts water, or 2 gallons fresh milk 
Cream gravy is made from the fryings of beef or fowl. Follow the same 
procedure as in making brown gravy, except that the flour is not browned and 
milk is used instead of water. 
135. Gravy, giblet 
This should be made only when poultry is roasted or fried. Chop the cooked 
gizzards, hearts, and livers of the fowls and add to a cream gravy made from 
the drippings. (See recipe 134.) 
136. Gravy, stock 
2 quarts stock 
2 pounds flour 
2 gallons water 
Heat the stock to the boiling point, sift in the flour slowly, stirring constantly. 
If a brown gravy is desired, continue cooking until the flour is browned, then 
add the water and continue cooking and stirring until of the desired thickness, 
but if white gravy is desired do not brown the flour. Season with salt and 
pepper. Serve hot. This gravy should be made only when drippings or fryings 
are not available. 
IV2 pounds onions, browned to a crisp 
5 ounces salt 
IV2 quarts vinegar 
2 ounces pickling spice 
137. Sauce, barbecue 
1 ounce pepper, red 
1 can tomatoes, no. 3 cans, or 1 quart 
tomato catsup 
6 ounces sugar 
Thoroughly mix all the ingredients except the sugar. Caramelize 4 ounces 
of sugar and put in IV2 quarts of water. This will make the water dark brown. 
Pour the sugared water over the whole and bring to a boil. Set in a cold place 
and, after the mixture has cooled, add 2 ounces of sugar. 
138. Sauce, cranberry 
17 quarts cranberries 6 pounds sugar 
Wash and stem the berries, put in a boiler, cover with about 1 inch of cold 
water. Cover tightly and boil until berries break to pieces and cover themselves 
with their juice. Remove the lid and simmer for 30 minutes. If a sauce free 
of skins is desired, rub through a colander. Then pour into an earthen or 
wooden vessel and cool. Serve cold with chicken, turkey, or other kinds of meat. 262 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
2 pounds fat 
7 cans milk, evaporated, or 23 ounces 
powdered skim milk dissolved in'5Vz 
pints water 
139. Sauce, cream, for codfish 
1 pound onions, minced 
10 eggs, hard boiled, minced 
1 pound pickles, minced 
Thicken 1 gallon of boiling water with a flour batter (recipe 132) and season 
with pepper and salt. Bring to a boil and acid the fat, milk, onions, eggs, and 
pickles; whip well and spread over the fish on the platter. The sauce may be 
improved by the addition of 6 or more hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine. 
140. Sauce, plum pudding 
1 Vz pounds sugar 
1 tablespoonful lemon extract 
Vz pint vinegar 
3 quarts water 
4 ounces cornstarch or flour 
1 can milk, evaporated, diluted with 1 
pint water, or 3XA ounces powdered 
skim milk dissolved in % pint water 
Vz ounce salt 
Dissolve the sugar in 3 quarts of water. Bring to a boil and add a batter 
made of the cornstarch or flour and Vz pint of cold water. Add the vinegar, 
milk, extract, salt, and a pinch of baking soda. Simmer until smooth. 
141. Sauce, rhubarb 
25 pounds rhubarb 0 pounds sugar 
Vvash tne rnuoarb and dice in V2-inch cuoes and piace in a boiler with about 
1 inch of water. Cover tightly and simmer for about IV2 hours. Then remove 
the nd. and aliow tne water 10 evaporate for about 1 hour. Sweeten with sugar 
and serve alone as a fruit sauce, or with roast mutton, lamb, or veal, or poured 
over plain cake. The sauce may be improved by adding other fruit or fruit juices. 
142. Sauce, Spanish, fish 
2 pounds fat 
4 pounds onions, minced 
7 pounds tomatoes, minced 
5 cloves garlic, mixed 
5 ounces red pepper, ground 
2 gallons beef stock 
Salt to taste 
Fry onions and game in shallow fat until well done, then place in double boiler 
with the tomatoes, oeef stock, and seasoning, and heat thoroughly. Thicken slightly 
with a flour batter (recipe 132). 
143. Sauce, sweet, chocolate 
Same as sweet sauce, vanilla (recipe 145), except 8 ounces melted chocolate 
are used in place of V4 cup vanilla extract. 
144. Sauce, sweet, lemon 
Same as sweet sauce, vanilla (recipe 145), except Vs cup lemon extract is used 
in place of V4 cup vanilla extract. 
9 pounds sugar 
IVz gallons water 
8 ounces cornstarch 
145. Sauce, sweet, vanilla 
V4 cup vanilla extract 
Vz teaspoonful salt 
V4 pound butter or vegetable shortening 
Mix sugar and cornstarch, stir into the boiling water and boil until slightly 
thickened. Add butter, flavoring, and salt, and cook until of desired thickness, 
which will depend upon use. This sauce may be made richer by using milk in 
place of all or a part of the water. Variations of this sauce may also be made 
by adding cooked fruit (run through a grinder) or by caramelization of part of the 
sugar. 
10 cans tomatoes, no. 3 cans, or equiv- 
alent in fresh tomatoes 
2 pounds onions, chopped fine 
1 ounce cinnamon, ground 
Vz ounce cloves, ground 
5 chili pods, chopped fine, or chili 
pepper ground 
146. Sauce, tomato 
3 ounces salt 
3 ounces sugar 
2 pounds butter, or 1, pound butter and 
1 pound vegetable shortening 
1 pound flour 
1 clove garlic, chopped fine 
Boil slowly all the ingredients, except the flour and butter, in 2 quarts of water 
for IVz hours. Remove from the range and run through a fine colander or sieve. 
Replace on the range. Heat the butter in a frying pan, add the flour, stir until 
smooth, and add it to the sauce. Excellent for fish, meats, or croquettes. FISH AND SEA FOOD DISHES 
RECIPES 
263 
147. Baked fish 
50 pounds fish, fresh 5 pounds bacon or salt pork 
Dress fish and place in a bake pan containing about 1 inch of water with 1 to 4 
slices of bacon over each fish according to size. Season well with pepper and salt. 
Bake in medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 1 hour or until done, 
basting frequently. The entrails may be withdrawn from beneath the gills with- 
out opening the belly and the fish filled with dressing (see recipe 80). Fish 
weighing less than 2 pounds are not suitable for baking. 
148. Codfish, salt, boiled 
25 pounds codfish 
Cut the fish into pieces weighing about 2 ounces each. Put in a boiler of cold 
water and boil for 15 minutes to remove the salt. Change the water and boil 
until done, ordinarily about 30 minutes. Serve hot with cream sauce (recipe 139). 
17 pounds salt codfish 
17 pounds potatoes, mashed 
20 eggs 
149. Codfish cakes 
1 pound flour, 
or 2 pounds cracker crumbs 
2 pounds fat 
If whole cod is used, soak, remove the bones, and pass through a meat chopper. 
Mix with the potatoes and eggs, and season with pepper and salt. Mold into 
cakes weighing about 3 ounces each and roll in cracker crumbs or flour and fry 
in deep fat. Serve hot with tomato sauce (recipe 146). These cakes may be im- 
proved by dipping in egg batter before frying; the batter is made by mixing 12 
eggs and 2 cans of evaporated milk diluted with 2 pints of water or 2 quarts of 
fresh milk, or 7 ounces powdered skim milk dissolved in IVz pints water. 
50 pounds fish, fresh 
1 pound corn meal or cracker meal 
150. Fish, fresh, fried 
1 pound flour 
2 pounds fat 
Clean and slice (or split) into pieces not more than 1 inch thick. Season with 
salt and pepper, roll in flour and corn meal, and fry in deep fat until thoroughly 
browned. Serve hot with tomato sauce (recipe 146). 
4 gallons oysters (selects) shucked 
(6 or 8 for each man, according to 
size) 
151. Oysters, fried 
30 eggs 
7 pounds cracker dust 
7 pounds fat 
Dip oysters in egg batter and then in cracker dust. Take one oyster at a time 
between the hands, press flat, and lay in the hot deep fat. Fry until slightly brown. 
Serve hot with tomato or Worcestershire sauce. 
12 quarts oysters, standards, or shucked 
(about 6 oysters for each man) 
3 pounds bacon 
6 cans milk, evaporated, or 18 ounces 
152. Oysters, scalloped 
powdered skim milk dissolved in 5 
pints water 
10 pounds bread, diced and toasted, or 
10 pounds crackers 
Dice the bacon and fry until crisp. Add the oysters and bring to a boil, then mix 
in the bread or crackers and simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Add the milk just before 
serving. 
20 cans salmon, 1-pound cans 
30 pounds potatoes, mashed 
20 eggs 
153. Salmon cakes 
2 pounds cracker or bread crumbs 
2 pounds fat 
Mix the ingredients well, season to taste with salt and pepper, make into cakes 
about 3 inches in diameter, roll in flour, and fry in deep fat. Serve hot with 
tomato sauce (recipe 146). 
154. Salmon hash 
20 cans salmon, 1-pound cans 
30 pounds potatoes, mashed 
1 quart beef stock 
Mix both ingredients well, adding a little beef stock. Season with salt and 
pepper, spread 3 inches deep in a greased bake pan and bake in a medium oven 
(325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 40 minutes or an hour. Serve hot. 264 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
VEGETABLE DISHES 
15 cans asparagus, No. 2 cans, or 20 15 pounds bread, toasted 
pounds fresh asparagus 
Canned asparagus. Open the cans and heat (not boil) the contents. Serve hot 
on toast with a cream sauce made from the liquid from the asparagus. Season with 
salt and pepper to taste. 
Fresh asparagus. Clean and wash asparagus and put in boiling salted water for 
15 minutes. Drain and serve on toast as above. 
155. Asparagus 
156. Baked beans 
18 pounds beans, dry 
4 pounds bacon, sliced 
1 pint molasses 
1 pint catsup 
2 ounces mustard, dry, or 6 ounces pre- 
pared 
2 pounds onions, chopped 
2 pounds tomatoes, fresh, or 1 no, 3 can 
For serving as an additional vegetable, use one half of this recipe. 
Wash and soak the beans for 4 hours or over night in cold water. Drain, place 
in hot water, and simmer for 2 hours. Drain and place beans in bake pan or 
covered earthen crocks. Mix in the chopped onions and tomatoes. Season to 
taste with salt and pepper. Place sliced bacon on top of the beans. Make a mixture 
of the molasses, catsup, and mustard, adding a little vinegar if dry mustard is 
used, and pour over the beans, cover the pan and bake in a slow oven (beiow 200° 
F.—24 counts) for 4 hours, or until tender. Serve hot. 
In cold weather the soaking may be over night, in which case the 2-hour sim- 
mering will not be necessary. In hot weather the beans may sour if soaked when 
a cool temperature cannot be obtained. When this condition is met with, beans 
may be baked as follows: 
Wash the beans in cold water, drain and place in cold water, simmer 45 minutes, 
drain and put beans in bake pan, mix in chopped onion and tomatoes. Season 
with salt and pepper. Place sliced bacon on top of the beans. Make a mixture 
of molasses, catsup, and mustard, and pour over the beans. Cover the pan and 
bake in slow oven for 5 hours, or until tender. Serve hot. 
157. Beans, canned 
4 cans beans, baked, no. 10 cans, or 20 cans beans, no. 2 cans 
For serving as an additional vegetable use one-half of this recipe. 
Open the cans and empty into bake pans or, if they cannot be heated in the oven, 
place in boilers. They may be served after simply heating (requiring about 15 
minutes) but will be improved by adding 2 bottles or one-half of a no. 10 can of 
catsup, also about 12 whole onions, Vz gallon of pickles, 2 or 3 pounds of sliced or 
cut bacon, 2 quarts of molasses, and 8 ounces of prepared (wet) mustard. The 
quantities of these additional ingredients may be varied according to what is on 
hand. The bacon should be laid on top of the beans, but onions, pickles, molasses, 
and mustard should be mixed through them. If bacon and onions are added, it is 
necessary to bake or cook the beans at least 30 minutes. If this is done the tem- 
perature should be kept below the boiling point if in a boiler, and if in an oven at 
slow heat (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts). 
Note. In the absence of any other means of cooking, canned beans (as well as any other 
canned food) may be heated for serving by immersing the cans for about 15 minutes in hot or 
boiling water. The heat causes an internal expansion which may cause the hot contents to 
spurt out when the can is opened after removing from the hot water, and the cook who opens 
the cans must use care to avoid being scalded. If it is desired to prevent contamination of the 
water in which the unopened cans are heated, the labels should be removed and the cans washed 
clean before immersing. 
158. Beans, dry, simmered 
20 pounds beans, dry salt pork 
4 pounds bacon, sliced, or ham hocks, or 
For serving as an additional vegetable, use one-half of this recipe. 
Wash the beans thoroughly, place in a boiler with about 4 gallons of cold water 
and bring to a boil, then skim and simmer for 4 hours or until done. After they 
have simmered about 2 hours, add the meat and season to taste with salt and pepper. 
Water added during cooking should be boiling hot. Serve hot. RECIPES 
265 
4 cans lima beans, green or soaked 
no. 10 cans, or 20 no. 2 cans 
159. Beans, lima, green or soaked, canned 
2 pounds bacon, sliced, or ham hocks, or 
salt pork 
If the meat is not added the beans can be heated for serving in about 15 minutes 
(see note, recipe 157). If the meat is added, open the cans, add the meat, and 
simmer for about 1 hour. 
160. Beans, lima, dry, simmered 
15 pounds lima beans, dry 2 pounds bacon, sliced, or ham hocks, or 
salt pork 
Wash the beans thoroughly and place them in a boiler with about 4 gallons of 
cold water, boil 10 minutes and skim. Add the meat and season with salt and 
pepper to taste, then simmer 4 hours or until tender. Serve hot. 
161. Beans, string or snap, canned 
4 cans beans, string (or snap), no. 10 
cans, or 20 cans beans, no. 2 cans 
3 pounds bacon, sliced 
Empty the cans into a bake pan or boiler, add the bacon and simmer about 20 
minutes. If necessary to heat the beans in the cans, the bacon may be simmered 
separately and added after the cans are opened. 
26 pounds beans, string or snap, fresh 3 pounds bacon, sliced 
Cut off tips, then break the beans into pieces about 1 inch long, wash and place 
in a closed boiler with sufficient water to one-third cover them. Then add the 
bacon and season with salt and pepper to taste. Simmer for 1 hour, adding more 
water or beef stock, if necessary, to barely keep the beans covered. Serve hot. 
162. Beans, string or snap, fresh 
163. Beets, fresh, boiled 
26 pounds beets 
Clean the beets thoroughly but do not skin or cut off roots. Boil until well done, 
then hold under a faucet of cold water and rub the skins off with the hands and 
remove roots. Cut into slices or, if young and tender, serve whole. Serve hot 
with butter, cream sauce, or gravy. While washing and cooking be careful not 
to break the skins as to do so would cause bleeding. 
164. Beets, canned 
4 cans beets, no. 10 cans, or 16 cans beets, no. 2xk cans 
If desired to serve as boiled beets, heat sufficiently for serving (see recipe 160) 
and serve hot with butter, cream sauce, or gravy; if desired to serve as pickled 
beets, prepare as in recipe 166. 
3 cans, beets, no. 10 cans, or 12 cans 
beets, no. 2V2 cans, or 25 pounds 
beets, fresh 
3 pounds sugar, granulated 
165. Beets, harvard 
3 ounces cornstarch 
IV2 ounces salt 
1 quart vinegar 
1 pound butter 
If fresh beets are used, clean and boil until tender, then drain and remove skins 
and roots. Cut the beets into thin slices or cubes. Sift together the sugar, corn- 
starch, and salt, mix with the vinegar, and boil this sauce 5 minutes, stirring con- 
stantly to prevent scorching. Add the butter and, when melted and stirred in, 
pour the sauce over the beets which should be heated if cold. Let stand a few 
minutes to absorb the sweet-sour flavor of the sauce. 
Serve alone as an additional vegetable, or with meats. If served with meats, 
use one-half of this recipe. 
166. Beets, pickled 
30 pounds beets 2 quarts vinegar 
Boil the beets until done, then rub the skins off under cold water with the hand, 
cut into %-inch slices, and season with salt and vinegar. If desired, 1 pound of 
sugar may be added to the vinegar. Allow them to stand about 5 hours before 
serving. 266 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
167. Cabbage 
When preparing cabbage take off dead and dry outer leaves. Slice about one- 
half inch off the stalk of each head and place the head in cool fresh water, being 
sure that stem end is immersed in the water for several hours. The cabbage will 
take up water through the stem as a flower would, and become cool and crisp. 
Cabbage should never be overcooked until it assumes a tan color. Cooked cabbage 
should always retain the natural green color. It should be cooked only long enough 
to make it tender. This requires only about 20 minutes for boiled cabbage. Always 
boil in an open kettle, as this allows strong odors to escape. 
50 pounds cabbage 
8 pounds salt pork or bacon 
168. Cabbage, bavarian 
IV2 quarts vinegar 
Strip off outer leaves and remove the cores, cut into fine shreds, wash and soak, 
place in a boiler containing the pork or bacon, vinegar, and 2 gallons of water. 
Season with salt and pepper. Boil rapidly in an open boiler for about 20 minutes, 
adding boiling water, if necessary, to keep covered. Then thicken slightly with a 
flour batter (recipe 132) and boil for about 5 minutes longer. Serve hot. 
45 pounds cabbage 8 pounds bacon or salt pork, or corned 
beef 
Strip off the outer leaves, remove the cores, wash, quarter, and soak. Place in 
a boiler with sufficient water to cover. Add the meat, and season to taste with 
salt and pepper. Cook in an open boiler for 20 minutes, adding boiling water as 
required to keep the cabbage completely covered at all times. Serve hot. 
169. Cabbage, boiled 
35 pounds cabbage, boiled 4 pounds bacon drippings 
Chop the cabbage fine and add to it the bacon drippings. Season with salt and 
pepper. Cook on a range in a covered bake pan about Vz hour, stirring frequently 
to prevent burning. Serve hot. 
Fried cabbage may also be made from finely chopped raw cabbage. 
170. Cabbage, fried 
171. Carrots, baked 
25 pounds carrots, fresh 2 pounds bacon drippings 
Scrape and wash the carrots well, and place them in an open boiler containing 
sufficient cold water to cover. Boil until tender. Remove and place in a bake pan 
containing the bacon drippings. Season to taste with salt and pepper, and bake in 
a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for about 20 minutes. Serve hot. 
45 pounds carrots, fresh 5 pounds sugar, granulated, or brown 
1 pound butter (brown preferred) 
1 gallon beef stock, strained 
Clean and scrape the carrots, and slice lengthwise. Boil, until medium done, 
about 20 minutes. Spread the slices in three layers in a bake pan, putting about 
one-third of the sugar and butter on top of each layer. Pour the beef stock over 
the whole and bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) 40 minutes 
to 1 hour, or until well browned. Serve hot. 
This recipe is sufficient for the main vegetable dish to take the place of potatoes. 
If served as an additional vegetable, use one-half this recipe. 
172. Carrots, candied 
173. Carrots, mashed 
30 pounds carrots, fresh 7 quarts beef stock 
2 pounds bacon drippings 
Scrape the carrots and cut into slices not more than one-half inch thick. Place 
in an open boiler containing the beef stock or water. Season with salt and pepper 
and simmer until tender. Add the bacon drippings and mash thoroughly. Serve hot. 
4 cans com, no. 10 cans, or Vz pound butter 
20 cans com, no. 2 cans 
Put com in a boiler and season to taste with salt and pepper. Mix well, simmer 
until hot, and add the butter. If the corn is too thick, it may be thinned with 
milk or water. Serve hot. 
174. Corn, canned RECIPES 
267 
3 cans corn, whole kernel style, no. 
10 cans, or 15 cans corn, no. 2 cans, 
or 20 pounds com cut from roasting 
ears (corn on the cob) after cooking 
175. Corn, fried 
1 cup green peppers, minced 
V2 pound butter 
V2 pound bacon drippings 
Drain liquid from corn. Mince peppers. Heat butter and bacon drippings in 
bake pan until just below smoking point. Place green peppers (minced) in hot 
fat and fry 5 minutes. Add corn to pan and lower heat. Stir frequently. Serve 
when thoroughly heated. Care must be used to prevent scorching. 
3 cans corn, cream style, no. 10 cans, 
or 15 cans corn, no. 2 cans 
24 eggs 
2V2 ounces salt 
176. Corn fritters 
15 pounds flour 
5 ounces baking powder 
2 gallons milk or water 
Beat the corn and eggs together thoroughly. Sift together the salt, flour, and 
baking powder three times. Add a portion of the liquid, then a portion of the 
sifted dry ingredients, stirring well. Continue until the dry ingredients are 
thoroughly mixed in, regulating quantity of liquid to make a thick batter which 
will just drop off a spoon. A thin batter makes a poor product. Using a large 
basting spoon, drop spoonfuls into hot fat and fry until brown. There are two 
methods of frying: (1) In hot fat about one-half inch deep; or (2) in fat deep 
enough to cover the fritters. Serve hot with sirup. 
4 cans corn, cream style, no. 10 cans, 
or 20 cans corn, no. 2 cans 
1 pound butter 
2 pounds flour 
177. Corn, scalloped 
1 quart milk 
4 pounds cracker or bread crumbs 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Make a white sauce (see par. 109) of the butter and flour. Let this partly cook, 
then add the milk and corn. Season to taste. Mix thoroughly, and put a layer 
of this mixture into a bake pan; over this put a layer of broken crackers or bread 
crumbs and repeat until pan is filled. Dot the top with a little butter or vegetable 
shortening. Bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) about 30 
minutes or until nicely browned. 
178. Eggplant 
30 pounds eggplant 
9 eggs 
2 pounds flour 
3 pounds fat 
Peel the eggplant and slice lengthwise. Beat the eggs well and add to them 
about 3 pints of water or milk. Season the eggplant with salt and dip it in the egg 
and water mixture, roll in flour, and fry in deep fat until browned. Place in a 
colander and drain before serving. Serve hot. 
179. Greens 
30 pounds greens 9 pounds bacon 
1 quart beef stock 
Wash in cold water, changing water at least 4 times to remove grit. Put the 
greens and bacon in 4 gallons of cold water and boil in an open boiler until tender, 
about 10 minutes. Serve hot, season to taste with salt, pepper, and vinegar or give 
the following additional preparation. Remove the bacon and strain the free water 
from the greens, chop greens fine and place in a well-greased bake pan, add beef 
stock to moisten, and bake in an oven for about one-half hour. Season with salt 
and pepper to taste. Slice the bacon and serve on top of the greens. Greens may 
be improved in appearance and taste by the addition of minced hard-boiled eggs 
in the serving dish. Excessive cooking will destroy their vitamin properties. 
Beet tops, dandelion, spinach, turnip tops, and other greens may be prepared in 
the same way. 
180. Hominy 
3 cans hominy, lye, no. 10 cans 2 ounces salt 
Place the hominy and salt in a boiler and simmer for 20 minutes. Season with 
pepper to taste. Serve hot. 
181. Macaroni and cheese 
8 pounds macaroni 4 pounds cheese, diced 
Add the macaroni to 7 gallops of salted boiling water or beef stock and boil for 268 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
20 minutes. Strain the free water off and spread about one-third of the macaroni 
in the bottom of a well-greased bake pan, followed by one-third of the diced 
cheese, and continue in alternate layers until all of both ingredients are in the bake 
pan. Bake in an oven about 30 minutes, sprinkle with paprika, and serve hot. If 
desired, 2 or 3 pounds of toasted bread crumbs and 2 or 3 cans of tomatoes may be 
mixed with the cheese between the layers of macaroni. 
182. Onions, boiled 
20 pounds onions 
Select small onions, peel, and boil whole until tender, from one-half to three- 
fourths of an hour and serve with cream sauce. 
183. Onions, fried 
30 pounds onions 
2 pounds lard or drippings 
4 quarts beef stock 
Peel and slice onions, put all ingredients in a bake pan on a hot fire. When the 
stock is all evaporated, the fat in the pan will be sufficient to brown the onions. 
Stir frequently and season to taste with pepper and salt. May be used to smother 
beefsteak or served separately as a vegetable. 
184. Onions and grated cheese 
25 pounds onions 
2 pounds fat 
2 pounds cheese, chopped fine 
Peel and slice the onions and fry until well done. Mix the chopped cheese with 
the onions and bake in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts) for 20 minutes. 
Serve hot. 
185. Parsnips, baked 
30 pounds parsnips 
5 pounds bacon 
2 quarts beef stock 
Scrape and wash the parsnips thoroughly and place them in a well-greased bake 
pan. Season to taste with pepper and salt and add the beef stock. Place strips of 
bacon over the parsnips and cover the pan to prevent evaporation. Bake in a 
slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts) for about 1 hour, or until tender. Serve 
hot. 
186. Parsnips, mashed 
30 pounds parsnips 
2 pounds bacon drippings 
7 gallons water 
Scrape and wash the parsnips thoroughly and place in an open boiler containing 
the water. Simmer until tender, pour off the free water and add the bacon drip- 
pings. Season with salt and pepper to taste, and mash thoroughly. 
Mashed parsnips left over may be served later by preparing as follows: 
Place in a bake pan, level the top, and grease lightly. Place in the oven until 
browned, about 40 minutes. Serve hot. 
187. Parsnips, sugared 
30 pounds parsnips 
5 quarts beef stock 
2 pounds sugar 
1 ounce cinnamon, ground 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Scrape and wash the parsnips thoroughly, slice lengthwise, and place them 
in a well-greased bake pan. Season to taste with salt and pepper. Pour over 
them the beef stock. Cover the bake pan to prevent evaporation. Bake in a 
slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts) for about 1 hour, or until tender. 
Sift the sugar and cinnamon together. About 5 minutes before taking out of 
the oven, sprinkle this sugar-cinnamon mixture over the parsnips and replace 
in the oven until the top begins to brown. 
3 cans peas, no. 10 cans, or 16 no. 2 
cans 
1 pound butter 
1 pound flour 
188. Peas, creamed, canned 
2 cans milk, evaporated, or 6 ounces 
powdered skim milk and V-k pints 
water 
Put the peas into a stewpan and season with pepper and salt to taste, then 
add the butter and bring to a boil. Thicken slightly with a flour batter made 
with milk and flour (see recipe 132), Reheat and serve hot. RECIPES 
269 
14 quarts peas, green 
5 quarts beef stock 
1 pound butter or drippings 
189. Peas, green 
2 cans milk, evaporated, or 2 quarts 
fresh milk 
Hull and wash the peas in cold water. Place in a boiler or stewpan containing 
the hot beef stock and butter. Season with salt and pepper and boil about 15 
minutes. Thicken with a flour batter (recipe 132) and bring to a boil again, then 
add the milk, and serve hot. 
190. Potatoes, baked 
35 pounds potatoes, fresh 
Select and wash (do not peel) potatoes of about the same size. Grease each 
patato and place in a bake pan and cover with a larger pan. Bake in a quick 
oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts) until well done, usually about 45 minutes. 
Do not pierce with a fork. If they seem soft when pressed, they are done. 
Baking over an hour may cause the potatoes to become dark and soggy. Serve 
hot with butter. 
35 pounds potatoes, fresh 
Peel and wash the potatoes, cut into pieces and place in boiling water. Boil 
briskly until thoroughly done (about 30 to 40 minutes). Drain and leave on stove 
a few minutes to dry. Serve hot. 
191. Potatoes, boiled 
35 pounds potatoes 
Select and clean potatoes of uniform size. Soak them a few minutes in cold 
water, then put them in boiling water and cook until tender, which requires 
about 40 minutes. When tender drain off free water. Do not allow potatoes to 
boil until broken as this will cause them to absorb the water and become pasty 
and soggy. Remove the kettle to back of stove, allowing the steam to escape. 
The cooking should be so regulated that they can be served immediately when 
ready. 
192. Potatoes, boiled in jackets 
35 pounds potatoes 
Select and clean small potatoes and boil them until done, then peel and 
grease each potato and spread them in a single layer on the bottom of a 
well-greased bake pan. Bake in an oven until brown, usually about 30 minutes. 
193. Potatoes, browned 
40 pounds potatoes 4 ounces parsley, green, chopped 
2 pounds flour 
Run the peeled and cooked potatoes and the parsley through a food grinder 
and mold into cakes weighing about 3 ounces. Fry in shallow fat until nicely 
browned and crisp. May be served with any kind of meat. Left-over potatoes 
prepared in any manner may be used in this recipe. Soaked bread crumbs may 
be added to fill out quantity for one meal. Do not add more than 5 pounds 
bread to 30 pounds potatoes. 
194. Potato cakes 
30 pounds potatoes (left-over or 
boiled) 
1 gallon beef stock 
2 pounds cheese, chopped or grated 
1 pound flour 
195. Potatoes, cheesed (au gratin) 
4 cans milk, evaporated, or 1 pound 
powdered skim milk dissolved in 3 
pints water 
xk pound shortening 
Vz pound butter 
Use any left-over boiled or baked potatoes. Cut into pieces about the size 
of a lima bean, season to taste with salt and pepper, and mix with the beef 
stock. Melt the shortening, add flour and milk, making cream sauce. Spread 
the potatoes 2 or 3 inches deep on the bottom of a well-greased bake pan. Pour 
the cream sauce over the potatoes, sprinkle with chopped or grated cheese, dot 
here and there with small pieces of butter, and bake in a quick oven (400°-450° 
F.—9 to 12 counts) for about 30 minutes until browned. Serve hot. 270 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
30 pounds potatoes 
2 cans milk, evaporated, or 6 ounces 
powdered skim milk dissolved in 1 Vz 
pints water 
196, Potatoes, creamed 
1 gallon beef stock 
4 ounces parsley 
2 pounds flour 
1 pound butter 
Clean and boil the potatoes with jackets on until well done, then peel and 
slice them crosswise. Allow the beef stock to come to a boil on the range, 
thicken it with a flour batter (recipe 132), and add the milk. Place the potatoes 
in a bake pan and cover them with the beef stock and batter mixture, add the 
butter, bring to a boil, and remove from the range immediately. Meanwhile, chop 
the parsley fine and sprinkle over the potatoes before serving. Serve hot. 
35 pounds potatoes 
2 pounds fat 
197. Potatoes, french baked 
4 quarts beef stock 
Clean, peel, and cut the potatoes in halves lengthwise. Place them in a well- 
greased bake pan and salt to taste, then add the stock and fat. Mix thoroughly 
and cook in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) about 1 hour, or 
until the potatoes are tender. Do not stir while cooking. Serve hot. 
50 pounds potatoes 7 pounds fat 
Clean and peel the potatoes and cut them lengthwise into Vz-inch slices. Fry 
in deep fat until nicely browned. Do not place too many of the potatoes in the 
fat at one time, as this cools the fat and makes the fried potatoes grease-soaked. 
Drain and salt. Serve hot. 
198. Potatoes, french fried 
199. Potatoes, fried (sauteed) 
40 pounds potatoes, unpeeled 1 pound fat 
Wash the potatoes and boil with jackets on until tender. When cool peel 
and slice crosswise. Season with salt and pepper to taste and add sufficient 
hot fat to moisten. Spread over the bottom of a well-greased bake pan to the 
depth of about 2 inches, and fry in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts) 
or on top of the range for about 30 minutes. Serve hot. Care should be taken 
not to get the potatoes too greasy. They may be fried, without first being moistened 
with hot fat, in shallow fat but must be carefully watched to prevent burning. 
200. Potatoes, german boiled 
30 pounds potatoes 2 pounds onions, browned 
Clean, peel, and cut the potatoes into pieces about the size of an egg, place 
in cool water, and boil until done. Then place in vegetable dishes and spread 
about 2 basting spoonfuls of browned onions over the contents of each dish. 
Serve hot. 
Potatoes left over from this recipe may be used in lyonnaise potatoes, salads, 
fried potatoes, hash, stews, and various other dishes. 
30 pounds potatoes 1 gallon beef stock 
Cut the cooked potatoes into pieces about the size of a lima bean. Season to 
taste with salt and pepper, and mix with beef stock. Spread 2 or 3 inches deep 
over the bottom of a well-greased pan. Spread a little fat over the top and 
bake about 30 minutes in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts). Serve hot. 
201. Potatoes, hashed browned 
202. Potatoes, lyonnaise 
40 pounds potatoes, unpeeled 8 pounds onions 
Wash the potatoes and boil them with jackets on until tender, then peel and 
slice crosswise. Wash and slice the onions, fry them brown, and add to the 
potatoes. Season to taste with pepper and salt, adding sufficient melted fat to 
moisten. Spread 2 inches deep in the bottom of a well-greased bake pan. Bake 
about 15 minutes in quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts). Serve hot. 
40 pounds potatoes 
1 pound butter 
203. Potatoes, mashed 
2 cans milk, evaporated, or 6 ounces 
powdered skim milk and iVz pints 
water RECIPES 
271 
Clean and peel the potatoes and boil them until thoroughly done. Drain, salt, 
and mash well. Heat milk and melt butter and add to the mashed potatoes, beat 
vigorously with a wire whip. Garnish with small quantity of chopped parsley. 
The potatoes may be fluffed by the addition of 1 tablespoonful of baking powder 
just before they are beaten with the wire whip. Serve hot. 
40 pounds potatoes, sweet 1 pound fat 
Wash and trim all defective spots. Rub with fat and bake in a pan in a 
medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 1 hour or until done. Serve 
hot in jacket with butter. 
Do not pierce with fork to ascertain if done. When done, the potatoes are 
soft when pressed. This requires about 50 minutes. 
204. Potatoes, sweet, baked 
40 pounds potatoes, sweet, unpeeled 
Peel and trim all defective spots and wash. Boil 40 minutes or until tender, 
then drain. Serve hot. 
205. Potatoes, sweet, boiled 
45 pounds potatoes, sweet, unpeeled 2 pounds sugar 
1 pound butter 1 gallon beef stock, strained 
Wash the potatoes and boil until medium done, about 20 minutes; then peel 
and slice them lengthwise. Spread the slices in three layers in a bake pan, 
putting about one-third of the sugar and butter on top of each layer; pour 
the beef stock over the whole and bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.— 
12 to 16 counts) 40 minutes to 1 hour until well browned. Serve hot. 
206. Potatoes, sweet, candied 
45 pounds potatoes, sweet 5 pounds fat 
Procedure same as for potatoes, french fried (recipe 198) 
207. Potatoes, sweet, fried 
30 pounds pumpkin, fresh 2 pounds bacon drippings 
Peel the pumpkin, remove the seeds, and clean well. Cut in pieces not more 
than 2 inches square. Spread the pieces in one layer in a bake pan and pour 
over them about 1 pound of bacon drippings. Season with salt and pepper, 
cover with a large pan to prevent evaporation, and bake in a slow oven (200°-250° 
F.—18 to 20 counts) until well done. Serve hot. 
208. Pumpkin, baked 
7 pounds rice 4 ounces salt 
3 gallons water 
Wash the rice thoroughly in several waters. When the water comes to a 
boil, sprinkle in the rice and salt. Boil in an uncovered kettle, stirring once 
or twice with a fork. Boil about 30 minutes or until the rice can be mashed 
in the fingers, reduce the heat and keep on stove sufficiently long to drive off 
moisture. When finished, each grain will be whole and separate. If cooked 
too much the grains will burst and stick together. Serve hot, as an addition 
to meat dishes. If served as a vegetable, add gravy, or add raisins and serve 
with milk and sugar. 
209. Rice, boiled 
210. Rice, curried 
7 pounds rice 
3 gallons water 
4 ounces salt 
2 ounces curry powder 
Prepare and cook the rice as for rice, boiled (recipe 209). Make a paste of 
the curry powder and a little water and add to the finished rice. Serve as an 
additional vegetable or with meats. 
7 pounds rice 
2 pounds onions, diced 
211. Rice, fried 
4 pounds fat 
Boil the rice as in recipe 209. Place the fat in a bake pan and heat. Place 
the onions in the hot fat and brown slightly. Add the rice and stir continually 
to prevent burning and to mix the fat with it thoroughly. Rice may be fried 
in a hot oven, but must be stirred every few minutes. About 15 or 20 minutes 
are required to fry it. Serve hot. 272 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
7 pounds rice 
1 pound bacon, minced fine 
3 pounds onions, minced fine 
3 pounds peppers, green, minced 
1 ounce chili powder 
212. Rice, Spanish 
1 can tomatoes, minced, no. 10 cans, 
or 4 no. 2 ¥2 cans 
2 gallons beef stock 
Salt and cayenne pepper to taste 
Wash the rice thoroughly, then fry in shallow fat until nicely browned. In 
the meantime fry the minced bacon, onions, and peppers in another pan until 
browned and tender, then add the minced tomatoes and fry slowly for another 
10 minutes. Place the fried rice and bacon-onion-pepper-tomato mixture together 
in a boiler, add the chili powder, and pour on the beef stock. Simmer until the 
rice is tender. Serve hot alone or with meats. 
213. Rice, steamed 
7 pounds rice 4 ounces salt 
2 gallons water 
Wash the rice thoroughly in several waters. Bring the water to a boil, add 
the salt, sprinkle in the rice, and let boil for 5 minutes, then let cook at a sim- 
mering temperature for 45 minutes with the lid partly open so that the steam 
may escape. When stirring rice, always use a fork to avoid breaking the kernels. 
214. Sauerkraut 
4 gallons sauerkraut, or 4 cans sauer- 2 ¥2 gallons beef stock 
kraut, no. 10 cans 
Add the beef stock to the sauerkraut, season to taste, and simmer for about 
1 hour. Serve hot. 
30 pounds cabbage, trimmed 1 pound salt 
Remove outer green leaves and slice the cabbage fine. Place in a barrel a 
layer of cabbage (about 12 inches) and sprinkle salt over it, then mash with a 
wooden masher until mushy. Add other layers of cabbage and salt until the 
barrel is full. After the barrel is filled, cover the kraut with a clean cloth and 
then with a board prepared to fit snugly inside of the barrel. The board should 
be placed on the cloth and a hundred-pound rock on the board while the cabbage 
is fermenting. Let stand in a temperature of about 70° F. for 1 month. If the 
kraut is made in warm weather, the amount of salt used must be increased by 
¥2 pound. In warm weather the ripening process will be faster than in cold 
weather. When the kraut is ready for use it will have a decided odor, but when 
not fully matured it will have an odor somewhat resembling that of beer. 
The temperature of the place where it is stored has much to do with the acidity 
acquired in any given time. Each time when removing kraut from the barrel, 
thoroughly wash cloth, barrel cover, weight and sides of barrel, before replacing. 
This should be done once a week whether kraut is removed or not. Care should 
be exercised in the selection of a barrel for sauerkraut. Charred barrels should 
not be used. Oak barrels are preferable. 
215. Sauerkraut, how made 
Prepare in the same manner as pumpkin, baked (recipe 208), substituting 
squash for pumpkin. 
216. Squash, baked 
217. Squash, canned, baked 
12 cans squash, no, 3 cans, or 4 cans 1 pound fat 
squash, no 10 cans 
Remove from the cans, season with salt and place in a well-greased pan, 
spread evenly and add a small amount of fat, place in a medium oven (325°- 
400° F.—12 to 16 counts) and bake for one-half hour. Serve hot. 
25 pounds squash, fresh 2 pounds bacon drippings 
4 quarts beef stock 
Peel the squash, remove the seeds, and clean well. Cut in pieces not more 
than 2 inches square, place in a boiler, and pour over it the beef stock. Season 
to taste with salt and pepper, close the boiler with a tight lid, and boil about 
2 hours (or until well done). Add the bacon drippings and mash well before 
serving. Serve hot. 
218. Squash, mashed RECIPES 
273 
2 cans corn, no. 10 cans, or 10 no. 2 
cans 
1 can lima beans, no. 10 cans, or 5 
no. 2 cans 
219. Succotash 
2 pounds bacon, diced 
2 quarts beef stock 
1 pound flour 
Mix the corn, beans, and bacon, season to taste with pepper and salt, and pour 
over the mixture sufficient beef stock to cover it. Simmer until hot (about 15 
minutes), then thicken slightly with a flour batter (recipe 132), and boil for 
5 minutes more. 
220. Tomatoes, stewed 
30 pounds tomatoes, fresh, or 3 cans 5 pounds bread, dry 
tomatoes, no. 10 cans, or 14 cans 1 pound butter (for flavoring, if desired) 
tomatoes no. 3 cans 
For fresh tomatoes place 8 or 10 tomatoes in a colander at a time and set in 
boiling water for about one-half minute. Peel and split them in halves and 
place in the stewpot. Simmer and add 4 quarts of strained beef stock, season 
to taste with pepper and salt, and add croutons made from dry bread. 
If canned tomatoes are used, heat just long enough to be hot for serving, not 
over 15 minutes, season, and add croutons (and butter if used). Serve hot. 
221. Turnips, boiled 
25 pounds turnips 5 pounds bacon or salt pork 
Peel turnips and cut crosswise into 14-inch slices. Add bacon or salt pork, 
pepper and salt to taste, and boil slowly 40 minutes or until done. Keep turnips 
completely covered with water and leave boiler uncovered in order that the 
sulphur may escape. Serve hot. 
Same as turnips, boiled, except the turnips are mashed before serving. 
222. Turnips, mashed 
223. Turnips, left-over 
May be used by baking in the oven until slightly browned while covered with 
a few strips of bacon or salt pork. 
DESSERTS 
100 apples IV2 ounces cloves, ground 
2 pounds sugar IV2 ounces nutmeg, ground 
Select uniform-sized hard apples. Wash and remove the core. Place in a 
bake pan, sprinkle with the sugar and spice. Bake in a moderate oven (250°- 
325° F.—16 to 18 counts) for about 1 hour or until tender. Serve hot or cold, 
with or without sweet milk or sauce. 
224. Apples, baked 
Dough 
4 ounces sugar 
10 pounds flour 
5 pounds lard 
2 ounces salt 
5 pounds sugar 
225. Apple 
or fruit rolls 
Filler 
25 pounds apples, fresh, or 7 pounds 
apples, dried, or 3 cans apples, no. 
10 cans 
3 ounces nutmeg 
3 ounces cinnamon 
Vz pound butter 
Prepare the dough and filler as for apple pie (see recipe 258), stewing the 
apples rather dry to avoid soggy crust. Roll the dough about 14-inch thick 
into strips about 7 inches wide and a little longer than the width of the pan. 
Spread the apple filler moderately thin over the dough and then roll like a 
cigarette. Do not use too great a proportion of filler to dough or the rolls 
will be soggy. Regulate width of dough so that the finished rolls are not over 3 
inches thick. Place in pan, seam side down, and close together so that the rolls 
retain their shape. Bake about 40 minutes in a medium oven (325°-400° F.— 
12 to 16 counts) and serve hot or cold, with or without sauce. Any kind of 274 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
stewed and spiced fruit may be substituted for the apples and the rolls named 
accordingly. 
226. Apple sauce 
8 pounds apples, evaporated, or 30 
pounds apples, fresh, or 3 cans 
apples, no. 10 cans 
Sugar (varies with apples used), about 
5 pounds 
6 lemons 
If evaporated apples are used, place the apples in 3 gallons of cold water and 
bring to a boil, then simmer until tender, about 2 hours. Add sugar to taste 
and flavor with lemon extract or sliced lemons. 
If fresh apples are used, peel, core, quarter, add sugar and lemons, and simmer 
until mushy. 
If canned apples are used, add sugar and lemons and simmer until mushy. 
Serve cold. 
10 pounds apricots, dried 
5 pounds sugar 
227. Apricots, dried, stewed 
6 lemons 
Wash apricots and then place in enough water to cover. Soak about 8 hours 
or overnight, then add sugar and juice of lemon and simmer for 45 minutes 
or until tender. 
228. Brown betty 
15 pounds bread, or bread scraps 
10 pounds sugar, caramelized 
4 pounds currants or other dried tart 
fruit 
Dice the bread into 1-inch cubes and brown in a slow oven. Add the cara- 
melized sugar and the fruit to 5 gallons of water, thicken slightly with a flour 
batter (recipe 132), and pour over the diced bread. Bake in a medium oven (325°- 
400° F.—12 to 16 counts) about 20 minutes and serve with sauce (recipe 145). 
229. Cake, chocolate 
Same as for cake, white (recipe 239), with addition of 1 pound cocoa or 12 
ounces melted plain chocolate. The cocoa or melted chocolate is added at the 
end of the mixing and thoroughly stirred in. 
9 pounds flour 
6 pounds corn meal 
7 pounds sugar 
4 pounds fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
230. Cake, corn 
30 eggs 
8 ounces baking powder 
1 ounce extract 
214 ounces salt 
Whip the sugar, fat, extract, and salt to a cream and beat in the eggs slowly. 
Sift together the flour, corn meal, and baking powder, and add to the creamed 
mixture with sufficient water to make a stiff batter. Bake in a medium oven 
(325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for about 30 minutes. This cake may be made 
in different forms using muffin pans as well as bake pans. Serve hot with butter, 
jam, jelly, or sirup. 
231. Cakes, cup 
See cake, white (recipe 239), and cake, quick (recipe 235). 
1014 pounds flour 
514 ounces baking powder 
314 ounces cinnamon 
2 ounces flavoring extract 
15 pounds sugar 
232. Cake, eggless 
214 pounds fat (butter, lard, or 
lard substitute) 
4 pounds fruit, dried, stewed, ground 
10 quarts milk, fresh, or 10 cans milk, 
evaporated, diluted with 10 pints 
water 
Cream the fat and sugar and flavoring extract. Sift together the flour, baking 
powder, and cinnamon three times and add this and the fruit to the creamed 
mixture with the milk. Water may be used in place of the milk, but does not 
make as good a cake. Stir well and bake about 40 minutes in a moderate oven 
(250°-325° F.—16 to 18 counts). Serve plain or iced. This recipe produces a 
fairly palatable cake which can be made from items included in the field ration, 
or when eggs are not available. RECIPES 
275 
8 ounces citron 
8 ounces lemon peel 
8 ounces orange peel 
3 pounds raisins 
3 pounds currants 
3 pounds nuts, mixed, shelled 
Vz ounce nutmeg, ground 
Vz ounce ginger, ground 
233. Cake, fruit, dark 
Vz ounce cloves, ground 
Vz ounce cinnamon, ground 
6 pounds flour 
4Vz pounds sugar 
4V2 pounds fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
12 ounces molasses 
40 eggs 
Slice citron, lemon, and orange peel very thin and about the size of a postage 
stamp, and wash. Pick the raisins, currants, and nuts over carefully and wash. 
Mix all the fruit and drain in a sieve for 2 hours, then dredge with a mixture 
of the nutmeg, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, and 1 pound of the flour. Cream the 
sugar, butter, and molasses and beat in the eggs. Add the remaining flour. 
When the flour is about half mixed in the batter, add the dredged fruit and 
spices and continue mixing until the fruit is evenly distributed and the mixture 
smooth. This mixture makes 35 pounds of cake. 
The best results are obtained by baking fruit cake in an earthen crock. If this 
is not available it may be baked in a pan. Fruit cake requires a long slow proc- 
ess of baking. From 3 to 5 hours in a slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 counts) 
is required. 
234. Cake, marble 
Same ingredients as for cake, white (recipe 239), with added coloring. After 
the batter is mixed it should be divided into halves or thirds according to the 
number of colors desired. One portion should be left white, the other portion 
or portions should be colored as follows: 
Chocolate. Add 8 ounces cocoa or 6 ounces melted plain chocolate and stir well. 
Pink, red, orange, etc. These, or other desired colors, may be obtained by 
adding prepared commercial vegetable colorings until the desired color is reached. 
After the different portions are colored they are combined, stirring only 
enough to make a pleasing combination of colors. 
235. Cake, quick 
4 pounds fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
12 pounds sugar, brown 
30 eggs 
7 pounds flour, soft 
6 ounces baking powder 
2 cans milk, evaporated, or 7 ounces 
powdered skim milk dissolved, in 2 
pints water 
Vz ounce cinnamon, ground 
Vz ounce nutmeg, ground 
Put ingredients into a bowl and beat all together for 3 minutes. Regulate 
liquid to make a thick batter, adding water or milk if necessary. Bake in a 
medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 40 minutes, or until done. 
Serve plain or with icing. The batter may be used for cup cakes. 
236. Cake, raised 
4 pounds yeast-raised dough (recipe 
277) 
2Vz pounds fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
AVz pounds sugar 
18 eggs 
3 pounds flour 
3 ounces nutmeg 
3 ounces cinnamon 
1 ounce cloves 
3 pounds raisins 
Take the dough when it is ready to punch down the first time and add to it 
the fat and sugar, and mix well. Then add the eggs one at a time, working 
them into the dough. Sift the flour, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg together and 
add to the mixture. Mix or knead thoroughly, put in a bake pan, and set aside 
for about 1 hour, preferably in a temperature of 80° F. At the end of this time, 
the cake should be light and about double in height. Bake in a medium oven 
(325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for about 30 minutes, or until done. Cool before 
removing from the pan. This cake will be improved in appearance and flavor 
by icing. 276 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
2V2 pounds fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
7 pounds sugar 
40 egg yolks 
20 egg whites 
6 pounds flour, soft 
4 ounces baking powder 
237. Cake, spice 
5 cans milk, evaporated; or 1 pound 
powdered milk dissolved in 4 pints 
water 
1 ounce salt 
2 ounces cinnamon, ground 
i ounce cloves, ground 
i ounce allspice, ground 
1 ounce nutmeg, ground 
Cream the fat and sugar. Beat the egg yolks with the creamed fat and sugar. 
Moisten the spices with 1 pint boiling water and beat into the creamed fat-sugar- 
egg mixture. Sift together the flour, baking powder, and salt 3 times, and add 
gradually, with the milk, to the creamed mixture in such proportions as to make 
mixing easy. Beat the egg whites until stiff, and fold carefully into the batter. 
Bake in a medium oven (352°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 40 minutes if made 
in the form of a loaf cake, or 25 minutes if made into cup cakes. Keep the oven 
as near 375° F. as possible throughout the baking. Serve plain or with icing. 
2-1/3 pounds flour, soft 
5-1/3 pounds sugar 
60 eggs 
3 teaspoonfuls salt 
238. Cake, sponge 
4 tablespoonfuls cream of tartar 
V2 cup water, boiling 
3 tablespoonfuls vanilla extract 
Weigh the flour, and sift 3 times with V2 of the sugar. Separate the eggs and 
beat the yolks. Add the remaining sugar to the yolks, and beat well to thoroughly 
mix. Add the boiling water, beating continuously. Add the flour-and-sugar 
mixture slowly and mix thoroughly. Sift the salt and cream of tartar over the 
egg whites and beat until the whites are stiff. Add the extract to the whites and 
mix with the yolk mixture. Bake for 1 hour at 300° F., on lowest shelf or rack 
in the oven; avoid top heat. Remove from the oven and turn the pan upside down 
until the cake is cool. This may be served with fruit as a shortcake. 
7 pounds sugar 
3V2 pounds fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
24 eggs 
2V2 ounces flavoring extract 
13 ¥2 pounds flour 
239. Cake, white 
10 ounces baking powder 
2 ounces salt 
4 cans milk, evaporated, or 13 ounces 
powdered skim milk dissolved in 3 
pints water 
Cream together the sugar, fat, eggs, and flavoring extract, adding one ingredient 
at a time in the order given. The flour, baking powder, and salt should be sifted 
together twice and added gradually. Add a part of the milk from time to time 
as needed to make the mixing easy. If mixed in a mechanical mixer, the beating 
operation should be at second speed. When all the milk is added there should be 
a stiff batter. If too stiff, more milk or water may be added. This may be baked 
in round pans for layer cake or in large pans for shortcake. If used for layer 
cake use 2 to 4 layers to form a cake when cool enough to handle and spread 
any desired filling between layers. Cover top and sides with same filling or an 
icing (recipes 252 and 253). If baked in sheet form, it may be made into layer 
cake or served plain or with a sweet sauce (recipe 145). This may also be made 
into cup cakes. 
Filler 
7 pounds apples, evaporated, or 25 
pounds apples, fresh, or 3 can ap- 
ples, no. 10 cans 
4V2 pounds sugar 
2 ounces cinnamon 
1 ounce nutmeg 
3 lemons, sliced thin 
240. Cobbler, apple or fruit 
Crust 
14 pounds flour 
7 ounces baking powder 
2 pounds lard 
2 pounds sugar 
27 eggs 
2% ounces salt 
2 quarts water 
If evaporated apples are used, wash the apples thoroughly and soak them in 
cold water for 2 hours, then cook them in 2xk gallons water until well done, but 
not broken. Cool them and add the sugar, spices, and sliced lemon. RECIPES 
277 
If fresh apples are used, peel, core, and cut into eighths. Cook in a pan with 
sugar, sliced lemons, and spices until medium soft but not mushy. Avoid stirring 
as this breaks the apples. 
If canned apples are used, cook as for fresh apples, but less cooking is required. 
Crust. Cream the sugar, lard, and salt thoroughly, then add the eggs, one at 
a time, stirring constantly. Pour in the water and mix well. Sift the flour and 
baking powder together several times, then add them to the mixture and work until 
smooth. Take about 2/3 of the dough and roll out V2 inch thick. Line 2 bake pans 
with a bottom crust and bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 
20 minutes. When baked, cover both crusts in pans with spiced apples about V2 inch 
thick. Roll out the remainder of the dough and cover the contents of both pans, 
tucking the sides down well. Bake for 20 minutes in a medium oven. Serve hot 
with a sweet sauce of any flavor (recipe 145). 
Other fruits, fresh, canned, or dried (peaches, apricots, prunes, etc.), may be 
substituted for the apples, and the cobbler named accordingly. 
10 ounces fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
IV4 pounds sugar 
10 eggs 
Vs ounce flavoring extract 
241. Crullers 
5 pounds flour 
2Vs ounces baking powder 
IV4 pints water 
8 pounds fat (for deep frying) 
Cream butter and sugar together, and add the extract. Beat the eggs well, then 
beat into the creamed mixture. Sift the baking powder and flour together and 
add to the mixture. Add the water, stir until the dough is smooth. Roll out 
the dough to a thickness of V2 inch and cut with a doughnut cutter. Fry a golden 
brown in deep fat. Remove, drain, and roll in granulated sugar, or place on a 
plate and dust with powdered sugar. 
242. Custard, egg 
2 gallons milk, fresh, or 8 cans milk, 40 eggs 
evaporated, diluted with 8 pints 2 ounces salt 
water, or 26 ounces powdered skim 24 ounces sugar 
milk dissolved in 9 pints water 2 ounces flavoring extract 
Beat all ingredients to a foam and pour into a well-greased bake pan. Bake 
in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 20 to 30 minutes, or until 
done. When done a silver knife stuck in the custard will come out clean. If 
baked too long it will become watery. Any flavoring may be used. Serve cold. 
243. Fritters, oatmeal 
2 gallons oatmeal mush (recipe 10) 1 pound flour 
2 pounds sugar 8 pounds fat (for frying) 
12 ounces baking powder 
Mix all ingredients except fat to make a stiff batter. With a tablespoon cut 
pieces about half the size of an egg and fry, until a golden brown, in deep fat. 
Remove from the fat with a skimmer, and drain. Dust with powdered sugar or 
serve with sirup. To improve this recipe, add 6 eggs and a few drops of flavoring 
extract to each gallon of mush. Serve hot. 
244. Fruits, dried, stewed 
See: Applesauce (recipe 226). 
Apricots, dried, stewed (recipe 227). 
Peaches, dried, stewed (recipe 256). 
Prunes, stewed, (recipe 266). 
245. Gelatin 
8 ounces gelatin, powdered 
5 ounces sugar 
% ounce flavoring extract 
10 to 15 quarts water (dependent on 
brand of gelatin used—follow direc- 
tions on package) 
Soak the gelatin in V2 pint of cold water for 10 minutes. Bring the remainder 
of the water to a boil, stir in the soaked gelatin until dissolved, and then stir in 
the sugar. Cool the mixture and stir in the flavoring extract. Pour into a mold 
which has been rinsed in cold water. Let stand until it jells. It is then ready to 
serve. The lower the temperature in which set, the quicker the gelatin will jell. 278 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
At 50° F. it will jell in 2 hours, while at 80° F. it will jell in 6 hours. Addition 
of various fruits, after cooling and before jelling, improves and enriches the dish. 
Fruit juices may be used for color and flavor. To remove from mold, set the mold 
in warm water for a few seconds. 
246. Ice cream 
¥2 pound flour or cornstarch 
5 pounds sugar 
¥2 teaspoonful salt 
24 eggs 
12 quarts milk, fresh, or 12 cans milk, 
evaporated and 12 pints water 
1 pint cream, thin 
2 teaspoonfuls vanilla extract 
Mix flour, sugar, and salt. Add eggs (slightly beaten) and milk, gradually. 
Cook in double boiler (over hot water) about 20 minutes, stirring constantly at 
first. If the custard has a curdled appearance this will disappear in freezing. When 
cool add cream and flavoring extract and freeze. Any flavoring extract may be 
used for flavor in place of vanilla, or any fruit may be added for flavor and addi- 
tional richness. This ice cream may be used as a base for chocolate ice cream, 
coffee ice cream, strawberry ice cream, etc. 
4 gallons basic ice cream mixture 12 ounces cocoa or 8 ounces chocolate 
melted 
Add the cocoa or melted chocolate to the basic ice cream mixture, stir well, and 
freeze. 
247. Ice cream, chocolate 
248. Ice cream, coffee 
3% gallons basic ice cream mixture 
6 ounces coffee, roasted and ground 
1 quart water, boiling 
Make coffee from the 6 ounces of coffee and 1 quart of boiling water according 
to any approved method, strain and cool, then add to the basic ice cream mixture, 
stir well, and freeze. 
249. Ice, lemon 
2 ounces powdered gelatin 
15 quarts water 
80 lemons 
7 ¥2 pounds sugar 
1¥4 ounces lemon extract 
Soak the gelatin in 2 pints of cold water for 10 minutes. Squeeze the juice from 
the lemons, grate the rinds, and add the juice, grated rinds, sugar, and the soaked 
gelatin to the balance of the water. Bring to a boil, cool, add the extract, and 
freeze. 
2 ounces powdered gelatin 
15 quarts water 
60 oranges 
250. Ice, orange 
15 lemons 
7 ¥2 pounds sugar 
1¥4 ounces orange extract 
Soak the gelatin in 2 pints cold water for 10 minutes. Squeeze the juice from 
the oranges and lemons, grate the rinds. Add the juice, grated rinds, sugar, and 
the soaked gelatin to the balance of the water. Bring to a boil, cool, and add the 
extract and freeze. 
2 ounces powdered gelatin 
10 quarts water 
7 ¥2 pounds sugar 
251. Ice, pineapple 
15 to 20 pineapples, fresh, according to 
size, or 7 cans crushed pineapple no. 
2 ¥2 cans, or 2 cans pineapple, no. 10 
cans 
Soak the gelatin in 2 pints cold water for 10 minutes. Add the soaked gelatin, 
the sugar, and the pineapple (diced, if fresh) to the balance of the water. Bring 
to a boil, cool, and freeze. 
252. Icing, boiled, for cakes 
4 pounds sugar 
V2 pound butter 
1 pint water 
12 egg whites, beaten stiff 
3 tablespoonfuls flavoring extract 
Boil sugar, butter, and water until it forms a soft ball when dropped in cold 
water. Pour slowly over the beaten egg whites, beating continuously. Add the 
flavoring, mix well, and spread on cakes quickly. If not used immediately, it will 
harden and cannot be spread. Ten ounces of cocoa or 6 ounces of melted chocolate 
may be added to the sugar and water during cooking instead of the flavoring. RECIPES 
279 
4 pounds powdered sugar 
1 pint cold water 
3 tablespoonfuls vanilla extract 
253. Icing, uncooked, for cakes 
14 pound vegetable shortening or butter 
(do not use lard) 
Mix the sugar with cold water until of spreading consistency. Add the flavoring 
extract and shortening and mix well. Spread on cakes and let stand 30 minutes 
before serving. 
Chocolate icing may be made by adding 10 ounces of cocoa or 6 ounces of melted 
chocolate with the sugar before adding the water. If chocolate is added, do not 
use any flavoring extract. 
Any flavoring extract may be used for flavoring instead of vanilla using 2 table- 
spoonfuls instead of 3 tablespoonfuls of vanilla. 
254. Meringue 
34 egg whites 
1 ounce salt 
(For 17 pies, 9 inch) 
1 pound sugar 
14 ounce vanilla extract 
Beat the egg whites until they are foamy and white in appearance and stiff 
enough to hold their shape. Sprinkle sugar over the beaten whites and continue 
beating until the mixture is stiff enough to hold in peaks. During the beating add 
the salt and extract. Spread over pie filling with the aid of a smooth knife and 
brown on upper shelf of a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts). This requires 
about 15 minutes. 
255. Mincemeat 
114 pounds beef, fresh (cooked) or 
corned beef 
114 pounds suet 
5 pounds apples, dried 
214 pounds peaches, dried 
214 pounds prunes, seeded 
14 pound cinnamon, ground 
1 ounce cloves, ground 
14 ounce black pepper, ground 
214 pounds sugar 
14 pound salt 
114 pounds currants 
4 pounds raisins 
14 pound candied citron 
14 pound lemon peel 
14 pound orange peel 
Soak the dried fruit in cold water for 1 hour, then drain, and run the beef, 
suet, apples, peaches, and prunes through a meat grinder. Then mix all the in- 
gredients with only sufficient water to moisten and pack in a clean container, 
preferably a wooden keg. This mixture will keep well when kept free from water. 
Five pounds of this mixture will make 15 pies. 
7 pounds peaches, dried 
3 pounds sugar 
256. Peaches, dried, stewed 
4 lemons 
Wash peaches and place in enough water to cover. Soak about 8 hours or over- 
night, then add sugar and juice of lemons and simmer for 45 minutes or until tender. 
(Makes 3 double 9-inch crusts) 
257. Pie crust 
1 pound flour 
8 ounces fat (lard or lard substitute) 
1/5 ounce salt 
14 pint cold water 
All ingredients should be thoroughly chilled before using. 
Mix the flour with one half the fat by chopping or cutting with a food chopper 
or knife until the size of corn meal. Then mix in the remainder of the fat by 
the same method, except that the fat is cut in so as to leave the mixture in small 
pieces, about the size of a bean, then add the cold water slowly while tossing the 
mixture with a fork. A medium-soft dough, not slack or stiff, is easiest to handle. 
Roll and handle as little as possible. 
Best results will be had by making up pie crust dough in small batches like this 
recipe for 3 pies. 
258. Pie, apple or fruit 
35 pounds apples, fresh, or 7 pounds 
apples, evaporated, or 3 cans apples 
no. 10 cans 
3 pounds sugar 
3 lemons 
% ounce cinnamon 
Fresh apples. Peel, core, and cut into eighths. Cook in a pan with sugar and 
lemon and cinnamon added until medium soft, but not mushy. Avoid unnecessary 
Stirring which breaks the apples, 280 
Evaporated apples. Soak overnight or about 8 hours in cold water. Cook as for 
fresh apples. 
Canned apples. Put into pie crust, add sugar, lemon, and cinnamon, then bake. 
The quantity of sugar and spices used in the stew will have to be increased or 
decreased depending upon the tartness of the apples. Make the pies with double 
crust and bake about 40 minutes in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts). 
Many fruits may be substituted for the apples, as apricots, peaches, cherries, pine- 
apples, etc. 
This recipe is sufficient for about 17 pies. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
259. Pie, banana cream 
Filling. Same as for coconut cream pie (recipe 261) except that instead of the 
coconut, 10 pounds of sliced bananas are added after the filling has cooled. If the 
bananas are added while the filling is hot, they will turn black. 
Crust. See recipe 257. 
260. Pie, chocolate, meringue 
Filling (17 pies) 
17 ounces chocolate, plain 
6 quarts milk, fresh, or 6 cans milk, 
evaporated, diluted with 6 pints 
water, or 40 ounces powdered skim 
milk dissolved in 9 pints water 
1 pound flour 
1 Vz ounces salt 
34 egg yolks 
6 ounces butter 
1 ounce vanilla extract 
5 pounds sugar 
Melt chocolate in double boiler, add sugar, flour, and salt, and stir. Heat milk, 
but not to boiling point, stirring frequently to prevent scorching. When hot, stir 
gradually into the mixture. Cook the mixture about 15 minutes, stirring constantly 
until it thickens. Cover double boiler and set on back of stove. Beat egg yolks 
lightly, and stir about V\ of the hot mixture with the yolks. Return to double 
boiler and cook about 2 minutes. Add butter and vanilla and beat until smooth. 
After the pie crust has been baked, fill with the chocolate mixture, cover with 
a meringue (recipe 254), and brown on upper shelf of quick oven (400°-450° F.— 
9 to 12 counts). (For pie crust see recipe 257.) 
261. Pie, coconut cream 
1 pound flour 
3% pounds sugar 
36 eggs 
1 ounce vanilla extract 
Filling 
6 quarts milk, fresh, or 6 cans milk, eva- 
porated, diluted with 6 pints water, or 
40 ounces powdered skim milk dis- 
solved in 9 pints water 
5 pounds coconut, shredded 
Separate egg whites and yolks and beat yolks lightly. Mix flour and sugar. 
Heat milk, stir about V\ into flour-sugar mixture and beat until smooth. Add 
egg yolks and mix well. Add remainder of milk gradually with constant stirring. 
Put in double boiler and cook for about 15 minutes, then add coconut and extract 
and pour into baked pie shell, place filled pie shell in oven for about 10 minutes. 
Meringue (recipe 254) may be added before the pie is put into the oven. Do not 
cut this pie until time to serve. Serve on the day it is prepared. (For pie crust 
see recipe 257.) 
262. Pie, custard 
Filling 
3V2 pounds sugar 
12 quarts milk, fresh, or 6 cans milk, 
evaporated, diluted with 6 pints 
water 
36 eggs 
12 ounces cornstarch 
xk ounce vanilla extract 
Pinch of nutmeg or mace, ground. 
Beat the sugar and eggs until the sugar is well dissolved. Add the milk, saving 
enough to dissolve the cornstarch. Add the dissolved cornstarch and flavoring. 
Mix. For baking see par. 56, chapter 5. (For pie crust see recipe 257.) 
263. Pie, lemon cream 
Filling (17 pies) 
1 pound flour 
5% pounds sugar 
48 eggs 
17 lemons 
6 quarts milk, fresh, or 6 cans milk, eva- 
porated, diluted with 6 pints water, or 
40 ounces powdered skim milk dis- 
solved in 9 pints water RECIPES 
281 
Mix flour and sugar. Beat eggs and mix with flour and sugar, grate lemon rinds, 
squeeze lemon juice, and add grated rinds and juice to mixture. Stir milk into 
mixture slowly to prevent lumping. Cook mixture in double boiler for 15 minutes, 
stirring constantly until it thickens, then remove from the fire and beat until 
smooth. Pour into pie shells which have been baked to a light brown. Place the 
filled pie shells (with meringue) on upper shelf of quick oven (400°-450° F,—9 to 
12 counts) for about 10 minutes. (For pie crust see recipe 257.) 
For each pie use 1/3 pound of mincemeat (recipe 255), and 2/3 pound of liquid. 
The liquid may be either sugar, sirup, molasses, or cider. Mix the mincement and 
liquid thoroughly and use a double pie crust. Bake about 30 minutes in a quick 
oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts). 
264. Pie, mince 
265. Pie, pumpkin or squash 
Filling (17 pies) 
12 pounds pumpkin or squash, fresh, 
or 3 no. 10 cans, or 7 no. 3 cans 
6V2 pounds sugar, brown or white 
IV2 ounces salt 
34 eggs 
3 ounces ginger, ground 
5 quarts milk, fresh, or 5 cans milk, eva- 
porated, diluted with 5 pints water, or 
1 pound powdered skim milk dissolved 
in 8 pints water 
3 ounces cinnamon or cloves 
If fresh pumpkin or squash is used, prepare and cook as in squash, mashed 
(recipe 218), if canned, cooking is not necessary. Place cooked or canned pumpkin 
or squash in a large bowl or container, the pumpkin or squash must be smooth 
but not watery, if watery, heat until water has evaporated. Mix sugar, salt, spices, 
and milk with the pumpkin or squash. Beat the eggs and stir into the mixture 
and pour into unbaked pie shells. Bake in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 
counts) for the first 20 minutes, then lower to a slow oven (200°-250° F.—18 to 20 
counts) and continue for 40 minutes longer. When completely baked, the filling 
is firm and does not stick to a knife blade, and the edge of the crust is a golden 
brown. If the filling shrinks unduly, it was too moist. (For pie crust see recipe 
257.) 
266. Prunes, stewed 
7 pounds prunes 
3 pounds sugar 
3 lemons, sliced thin 
Wash the prunes and put into a container with the sugar and cold water to 
cover. Soak over night or 8 hours. Then bring to a boil and boil for 30 minutes or 
until tender. Add the sliced lemons in the last 5 minutes. Serve cold. Over- 
cooking causes the prunes to break down and become mushy. 
7 pounds apples, dried, soaked, and 
stewed, or 25 pounds of fresh ap- 
ples, stewed and diced, or 2 no. 10 
cans 
267. Pudding, apple 
26 pounds bread (may be dry) 
7 pounds sugar 
4 ounces cinnamon 
Slice and toast the bread and spread in the bottom of a well-greased bake pan, 
then spread a layer of the apples over the toast and sprinkle with sugar and 
cinnamon; continue alternate layers of toast and apples until the pan is filled. 
Bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) about 20 minutes and 
serve with a plain or caramel sauce (recipe 145). Nearly any kind of fresh or 
dried fruit may be used and the pudding named accordingly. 
268. Pudding, banana 
10 pounds bananas 
6 pounds sugar 
3 pints milk 
1 ounce salt 
7 gallons water 
12 eggs 
4 pounds cornstarch 
1 ounce vanilla flavoring 
V2 ounce lemon flavoring 
V2 pound butter 
Put 6 gallons of water into a boiler. Add the sugar, salt, and milk. Bring to a 
boil. Dissolve the cornstarch thoroughly with 1 gallon of cold water. When the 
mixture reaches the boiling point, pour the dissolved cornstarch in slowly, stirring 
continually. Let it cook at a simmering temperature until thickened. Remove 
from the fire, and when partly cooled add the flavoring, beaten eggs, and crushed 
bananas. Pour into pans and let cool. 282 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
20 pounds bread crusts or dry bread 
4 pounds fruit, fresh, dried, or 
canned 
4 pounds sugar 
2 ounces cinnamon 
269. Pudding, bread, with sauce 
4 cans milk, evap., or 4 quarts milk, 
fresh, or 1 pound powdered skim milk 
dissolved in 2>Vz pints water 
4 pounds raisins 
12 eggs 
Soak the bread in the milk. Season with sugar and cinnamon, add raisins 
and beaten eggs, mix and spread about 1 inch deep in pan. Over this spread 
about 1 inch of fruit stewed (if dried) then another layer of the bread mixture. 
Sprinkle sugar and cinnamon over the top layer. Bake about 40 minutes in a 
medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts). Serve hot or cold with cream or 
sweet sauce. This makes an excellent dish and gives an opportunity to use 
available scrap bread. Shredded coconut may be used to improve the flavor. 
7 pounds sugar 
1 Vz ounces salt 
5 pounds cornstarch 
270. Pudding, cornstarch 
7 cans milk, evap., or 7 quarts milk, 
fresh, or iVz pounds powdered skim 
milk dissolved in 5Vz pints water 
IVz ounces flavoring extract 
Dissolve the cornstarch in 5 quarts of cold water, then add 5 gallons of boiling 
water, the sugar, salt, and milk. Cook for 5 minutes, cool, and add the extract. 
This pudding is improved by dissolving the cornstarch in 5 quarts of milk instead 
of cold water and the addition of 4 eggs to each gallon of pudding made. It 
should never be served plain; various fruits, coconut, etc., should be added. 
Pour into vegetable dishes and when cool place in the ice box; serve with milk 
or sweet sauce (recipe 145). 
271. Pudding, Indian, baked 
4 pounds corn meal 
2 pounds flour 
1 quart molasses 
4 cans milk, evaporated, diluted 
with 4 pints water 
Vz pound butter 
2 gallons water, boiling 
Vz ounce cinnamon 
1 ounce ginger 
Mix the molasses and corn meal together and pour over the boiling water. 
Add the butter, salt, and spices. When the mixture is cool, pour the milk over, 
but do not stir into the pudding. Bake in a slow oven (200°-250° F.—16 to 18 
counts) from 2 to 3 hours. Take care that it does not burn. Serve hot. 
272. Pudding, plum 
10 pounds flour 
6 ounces baking powder 
2Vz ounces salt 
5 pounds beef suet, chopped fine 
4 pounds sugar 
5 pounds fruit, dried, stewed, and 
chopped fine 
Vz ounce cloves, ground 
2 ounces cinnamon, ground 
Vz ounce nutmeg, ground 
Mix the flour, baking powder, salt, beef suet, stewed fruit, spices in the order 
named. Dissolve the sugar in water and add it to the mixture, together with 
sufficient cold water to make a stiff dough. Fill 5-pound lard pails or pudding 
cans two-thirds full of the mixture. If no lids are available, tie a cloth tightly 
over the top of each pail or can. Place in a boiler containing sufficient boiling 
water to reach the height of one-third the pails or cans and maintain the water 
at the same level during cooking. Boil for 8 hours. Remove from the cans and 
split the pudding lengthwise through the center. Serve hot with plum-pudding 
sauce (recipe 140). 
273. Pudding, rice and apple 
30 pounds apples 
Vz pound butter 
1 ounce cinnamon 
3 cans milk, evaporated, diluted with 
3 pints water 
5 pounds rice 
4 pounds sugar 
6 eggs 
1 gallon water 
Peel and cut the apples into small pieces. Cook the rice until tender and 
then drain off the water. Line the bottom of pans with cooked rice, then a 
layer of apples. Cream butter, sugar, and spice. Then add eggs (beaten), water, 
and milk. Pour the mixture over the rice and apples. Bake in a medium oven 
(325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for 30 minutes. Serve with milk or sweet sauce. RECIPES 
283 
9 pounds rice 
24 eggs 
4 pounds raisins 
9 pounds sugar 
1 ounce salt 
274. Pudding, rice 
5 cans milk, evaporated, diluted with 
5 pints water, or 5 quarts fresh milk, 
or 1 pound powdered skim milk dis- 
solved in 4 pints water 
Vz ounce flavoring extract 
Boil the rice for 15 minutes and drain. The rice should not be over-boiled, 
as the kernels should remain separate and firm. Mix the eggs, raisins, sugar, 
milk, salt, and extract. Add rice and sufficient water to cover and stir. Bake 
slowly in a moderate oven (250°-325° F.—16 to 18 counts) until slightly brown. 
Serve with cold or hot sweet sauce (recipe 145). 
40 pounds sweet potatoes 
3 pounds sugar 
18 eggs 
275. Pudding, sweet potato 
2 cans milk, evaporated 
1 ounce lemon flavoring, or Vi pint 
lemon juice 
Wash and cover sweet potatoes with clean water, bring to a boil, and let 
cook slowly for 40 minutes or until tender. Drain off the water. When cooled, 
peel and put them through the meat chopper. Separate the egg yolks from the 
whites, add the egg yolks to the potatoes, then the sugar, milk, and flavoring 
or lemon juice. Mix it thoroughly and place in buttered or greased pans. Beat 
the egg whites until stiff and spread over the pudding. Bake in a medium oven 
(325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) until browned. 
276. Pudding, tapioca 
4 pounds tapioca 
4 gallons water, cold 
7 pounds sugar 
4 pounds fruit, dried, stewed, and 
chopped 
18 eggs 
1 ounce flavoring extract 
Soak the tapioca 2 hours in sufficient cold water to cover; then simmer until 
clear (until the “pearls” have disappeared) which will require about 1 hour; 
then beat or whip in the fruit, sugar, beaten eggs, and extract while hot. Raisins, 
currants, or other fruit may be added. 
If quick (granulated) tapioca is used, no soaking is required. Add tapioca 
to cold water and bring to the simmering point. In about 15 or 20 minutes the 
granules of tapioca will have disappeared. Then add other ingredients as shown 
for pearl tapioca. 
Serve hot or cold with milk or a sweet sauce (see recipes 6 and 145). 
SWEET DOUGH PRODUCTS 
277. Basic sweet dough 
2 pounds flour, soft (pastry) 
614 pounds flour, hard (issue) 
2 quarts milk, or water, or 2 cans 
milk, evaporated diluted with 2 
pints watet 
14 pound yeast, compressed, or 114 
pounds yeast, dried 
1 pound sugar 
,1% ounces salt 
1 pound fat (lard or lard substitute) 
8 eggs 
ounce mace or nutmeg 
14 ounce lemon extract, or 4 lemons 
grated, rind and all 
This recipe produces one basic sweet dough and provides sufficient dough to 
make about 225 buns, doughnuts, etc., or an equivalent quantity of coffee cake, 
etc. Therefore, one basic sweet dough is sufficient for 100 men. For 200 men, 
use two basic sweet doughs; for 50 men use one-half of one basic sweet dough, etc. 
Straight dough method. Cream thoroughly the sugar, salt, fat, and spice, then 
add eggs gradually and cream until light. Add flavoring extract. Dissolve the 
yeast in one-fourth of the milk which should be at a temperature of about 80° 
F. Add remainder of milk to the creamed mass and stir thoroughly to dissolve 
all ingredients. Add hard flour and begin mixing. Pour on yeast solution, add 
soft flour, and continue mixing until the dough is smooth and free from lumps. 
This dough should be slacker than ordinary bread dough. Regulate water or 
milk to have a dough not too slack to handle. Set to rise in temperature of about 
80° F. and cover with cloth. Allow to ferment (rise) until dough around im- 
pressions made by moderate pressure of two fingers starts to recede, then give 284 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
first punch. The first rise requires about IV2 hours. In hot weather, or when 
it is impossible to keep the temperature of the dough down to 80° F., it is best 
to punch the dough young, about 45 minutes after mixing, as over-fermentation 
ruins sweet dough more than any other factor. After punching, allow to stand 
15 or 20 minutes, then work into desired forms. Cover dough not being worked 
to prevent crusting. 
Comments. The addition of 4 ounces of baker’s malt, when available, to the 
above ingredients will improve the dough. AH hard flour may be used if soft 
flour is not available. In such case substitute IV2 pounds cornstarch for an 
equal amount of flour. 
This is a yeast-raised dough to which additional sugar may be added after 
fermentation. It is usually enriched by the addition of eggs, spices, butter, 
citron, lemon peel, raisins, nuts, etc., and is manipulated into desired forms. 
It may be made by the straight-dough or sponge methods. The sponge method 
(given below) is used when speed is essential. 
If the dough must be handled in a cold room, some means should be found 
to keep the temperature up around 80° F. The dough may be placed in a suitable 
vessel and this vessel placed in a fireless cooker or into a larger container lined 
with sacks or hay. Close the top of larger container and keep in a warm place, 
if possible. 
At least 50 different forms of cakes, rolls, buns, etc., may be made from this 
sweet dough. This is done by taking the desired quantity of the sweet dough 
for the product to be made, adding such additional quantities of sugar, butter, 
eggs,, fruits, citron, lemon peel, nuts, etc., as desired for richness, and working 
into desired form. 
Quick sponge method. Dissolve all the yeast (V2 pound) in 1 pint of the 
liquid. Dissolve all the sugar (1 pound) in 1 pint of the liquid. Pour the 
dissolved yeast over 3 pounds of the hard flour and mix slightly. Pour the 
dissolved sugar into the mixture and mix well. Set to stand in a warm place 
(about 90° F.). This will become spongy in about 20 minutes, hence the name 
“sponge.” As soon as it has become light and spongy, put it into a mixing bowl, 
add remainder of liquid, and stir well to break up the sponge. Then cream the 
salt, fat, spice, and eggs, and add flavoring extract as for the straight-dough 
method. Add the cream mixture and stir well, then add remainder of flour and 
mix thoroughly. Allow to rest about 5 minutes and then commence working 
into the desired forms. 
278. Cake, apple 
15 pounds apples, fresh, or 2 no. 10 
cans apples 
1 basic sweet dough (recipe 277) 
1 pound sugar 
1 pound fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
1 pound raisins 
Make in the same manner as coffee cake (recipe 279), but place thin slices of 
cooked, fresh, or canned apples over top of dough about 30 minutes before bak- 
ing. Sprinkle with sugar and cinnamon, and raisins if desired, and bake in 
medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) about 30 minutes. Avoid too 
much heat, as this may cause the fruit to become dry, or very ripe fruit to 
become mushy. Almost any kind of fruit may be used instead of apples. Bring 
edges of dough up around the side of the pan so as to retain fruit juice. 
1 basic sweet dough 
1 pound sugar 
279. Cake, coffee 
1 pound fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
1 pound raisins 
Work all other ingredients thoroughly into the sweet dough, roll out about 
V2 inch thick, and place in any kind of pan available. Allow to rise at 80° F. 
for about 30 minutes, or until the dough has about doubled in size. Bake in 
medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) 20-30 minutes, or until done. To 
determine when baked, raise edge to see whether under side is done. After 
baking, cool and add plain icing (recipe 253) or, instead of icing, sprinkle top 
with sugar and cinnamon just before placing in oven. RECIPES 
285 
1 basic sweet dough (recipe 277) 
3 pounds flour 
Vz ounce salt 
3 ounces yeast, compressed 
280. Doughnuts 
Vz ounce mace, ground 
Vz ounce lemon extract 
Water sufficient to make a slack dough 
Mix all other ingredients with the basic sweet dough, then let rise for 20 
minutes in a temperature of 80° F. Roll out into sheets about Vz inch thick 
and cut with doughnut cutter or form into various shapes as desired. Let rise 
again until about double in size, and fry in deep fat at 365° to 370° F. Too 
stiff a mixture may cause the doughnuts to crack while frying. 
After frying, drain and sprinkle with powdered sugar mixed with a small 
quantity of cinnamon. Icing may be used. 
281. Doughnuts, jelly 
1 can jelly, no. 10 can 
1 basic sweet dough (recipe 277) 
3 pounds flour 
Vz ounce salt 
3 ounces yeast, compressed 
Vz ounce mace, ground 
Vz ounce lemon extract 
Water sufficient to make a slack dough. 
Same as for doughnuts but instead of cutting into doughnut shape, cut off 
pieces of dough about IV2 ounces in weight and roll into a ball. Make depres- 
sion with thumb or any suitable instrument, drop small quantity of jelly into 
this depression, and close by pinching dough together. Let rise, or proof, about 
30 minutes, then fry and sugar in the same manner as for doughnuts. 
282. Rolls, cinnamon 
1 basic sweet dough (recipe 277) 
Vz pound sugar 
1 pound fat (butter, lard, or lard sub- 
stitute) 
6 ounces cinnamon 
Roll the basic dough into sheets about Vi inch thick, 15 inches wide, and 
convenient lengths. Brush with melted fat and sprinkle liberally with sugar 
and cinnamon. Roll the sheet dough into a tight roll as a cigarette and cut 
into V2-inch thick slices with a sharp knife. Place close together in well-greased 
pans with cut sides, which have first been sprinkled with sugar, up and down. 
Let rise until double in size and bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 
counts) 30-40 minutes. Do not bake until hard. Move bake pans occasionally 
while in the oven to insure being well baked on bottom. Turn out of pans to 
prevent sticking. When cool, cover with uncooked icing (recipe 253) if desired. 
1 basic sweet dough (recipe 277) Vz pound fat (lard or lard substitute) 
Procedure same as for parkerhouse rolls (recipe 295). 
283. Rolls, parkerhouse 
1 basic sweet dough (recipe 277) 
1 pound fat (butter, lard, or lard 
substitute) 
2 pounds sugar 
12 eggs 
284. Stollen 
2 pounds raisins 
Vz pound citron 
2 cans pineapple, no. 2 Vz cans, diced 
and drained 
Work all other ingredients thoroughly into the sweet dough. Take 10 ounces 
of dough and roll into a piece 10 by 8 inches, rolling the half nearest the 
operator Vz inch thick and the half away from the operator 1 inch thick, so 
that by folding away from the operator the upper fold is thinner. Space in 
bake pans 2 inches apart. Let rise for about 30 minutes. Bake about 40 minutes 
in medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts). Other fruits may be added 
if desired. After cooling, ice with uncooked icing (recipe 253), 
HOT BREADS 
16 pounds flour 
3 ounces salt 
11 ounces baking powder 
4 pounds fat (lard or lard substitute) 
285. Biscuit, baking: powder 
6 cans milk, evaporated, diluted with 
6 pints water, or 20 ounces powdered 
skim milk dissolved in 6 pints water 286 
Sift the dry ingredients together 3 times and work in the fat. Make a well 
in the middle and add all the milk at once. Stir until mixed. This should make 
a soft dough, if not, add more milk. Turn out on lightly floured board and 
knead quickly for not more than 1 minute. The secret of making good biscuit 
is in handling the dough only enough to mix thoroughly. Roll out to one-half 
the thickness desired in the baked biscuit, cut out with a biscuit cutter, and 
place in bake pans just touching each other. Bake in a quick oven (400°-450°F.— 
9 to 12 counts) for 12 minutes or until brown. Serve hot. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Use the same recipe as for baking powder biscuit (recipe 285) adding 3 pounds 
of finely chopped American cheese. Mix same as for the baking powder biscuits, 
except that the cheese is added with the milk and thoroughly stirred in. 
286. Biscuit, cheese 
287. Biscuit, sour milk 
814 pounds flour 
114 ounces baking soda 
114 pounds fat (lard or lard substi- 
tute) 
2% ounces baking powder 
1 ounce salt 
314 quarts milk, sour 
Mix and sift dry ingredients. Work the fat into the flour mixture. Make a well 
in the middle and add all the milk at once. Stir until mixed. This should make 
a soft dough, if not, add more milk. Handle dough only enough to mix thoroughly. 
Roll out to one-half the thickness desired in the baked biscuit, cut out with a 
biscuit cutter and place in a bake pan just touching each other. Bake in a quick 
oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts) for 12 minutes or until brown. Serve hot. 
288. Cora bread 
914 pounds corn meal, white or yellow 
214 pounds flour 
3 ounces baking powder 
3 ounces salt 
V2 pound fat (lard or lard substitute) 
20 eggs 
4 cans milk, evaporated, diluted with 
4 pints water 
Sift together corn meal, flour, salt, and baking powder. Work in the fat, add 
beaten eggs and milk, and mix well. Pour into a well-greased, heated pan and 
bake 20 minutes in a quick oven (400°-450° F.—9 to 12 counts). Cut into squares 
and serve hot. This may also be baked as muffins in muffin tins. 
9V2 pounds corn meal, white or yellow 
1 gallon milk, sour 
3 ounces soda 
289. Corn bread (sour milk) 
3 ounces salt 
40 eggs 
34 pound fat (lard or lard substitute) 
Sift together corn meal and salt. Work in the fat. Dissolve soda in 14 cup 
water. Add, with the milk and beaten eggs, to the mixture. Mix well and pour 
into a well-greased, heated bake pan. Bake about 20 minutes in a quick oven 
(400°-450° F.—12 to 16 counts). Cut into squares and serve hot. This may also 
be baked as muffins in muffin tins. 
21 ounces sugar 
10 eggs 
2V2 pints milk 
14 ounce cinnamon 
6 pounds flour 
290. Gingerbread 
21 ounces fat (lard or lard substitute) 
2V2 pints molasses 
2% ounces soda 
2 ounces ginger 
Cream sugar, shortening, and spices. Add the eggs gradually, then add soda 
dissolved in molasses and milk. Mix thoroughly. Fold in flour. Grease pans. 
Bake in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts) for about 30 minutes. 
This may also be baked as muffins in muffin pans. 
291. Basic dough 
ROLLS 
10 pounds flour 
6V2 ounces yeast, compressed 
6 pints water or milk 
13 ounces sugar 
13 ounces fat (lard or lard substitute) 
214 ounces salt 
Dissolve the yeast in 2 pints of the water at a temperature of 80° F. Dissolve 
the sugar and salt in remainder of water. Add this to the flour and mix slightly. RECIPES 
287 
Add the dissolved yeast and the fat and mix thoroughly. Regulate the quantity 
of liquid to make a soft dough. Set to rise in a well-greased pan covered with 
a slightly damp cloth. In cold weather, or if the kitchen is cold, it is well to 
keep this cloth dampened with warm (not hot) water. If the temperature of 
the room is about 80°, it is sufficient to allow the dough to rise. Ferment and 
punch as for basic sweet dough (recipe 277). It is best to work up this dough 
while it is still on the young side. Do not allow it to over-ferment. 
This dough makes rolls, etc., which are preferred by many to those made from 
the basic sweet dough. It may be made into a variety of rolls, as parkerhouse, 
sandwich buns, finger rolls, pan rolls, etc., or may be used to make a raisin bread. 
It may also be used to make plain bread which is superior for toast. 
Use the basic dough (recipe 291) and make up into cinnamon rolls as shown in 
recipe 282. 
292. Cinnamon rolls 
Use the basic dough (recipe 291). Scale into 2-ounce pieces, using the method 
shown in recipe 294, but cutting from 32-ounce pieces. Roll each piece about twice 
in a circular motion (do not form into a complete ball), then with the flat hand 
roll out into a cylinder or “snake” about 5 inches long. Endeavor to keep the ends 
square. It requires some experience to make neat finger rolls. Then place the 
rolls well apart on a well-greased bake pan, allow to proof (rise) until about 
double in size, and bake about 15 minutes in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 
16 counts). These rolls are used for hot dogs and are good for lunches in the 
field, on the target range, etc. 
293. Finger rolls 
294. Pan Rolls 
Use the basic dough (recipe 291) scaled into II/2-ounce pieces. Scale off pieces 
of dough weighing 24 ounces and roll out into “snakes” about 2 inches in diameter. 
Double over and cut in half, repeat this with each half; this gives four pieces. 
Cut each of these in half, this gives eight pieces. Cut each of these in half and 
the result is 16 pieces, each weighing IV2 ounces. This method is quick and with 
a little experience will give weights nearly enough accurate for practical purposes. 
Round up each piece into a neat ball and put close together in a well-greased 
bake pan. Allow to proof (rise) until about double in size and bake for about 
15 minutes in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts). Serve hot. 
295. Parkerhouse rolls 
Use the basic dough (recipe 291). Scale into IVz. -ounce pieces as shown in 
recipe 294. Round into neat balls and allow to rest on the table, first sprinkling 
some dusting flour to prevent sticking to the table. By the time the last of the 
dough has been rounded, the first pieces will be ready for working into rolls. 
Place four of these pieces in a row. Use a small rolling pin (a piece cut from a 
household size broomstick is the proper size) and put a crease or dent in the 
middle of each piece. Then brush across the creases with melted butter or a 
mixture of melted butter and lard; then fold over, so that top fold is one-third 
shorter than bottom fold. Seal the two folds together by pressing the top lip, but 
do not apply enough pressure to knock down. Place in well-greased bake pans 
about 2 inches apart, let proof (rise) until about double in size, and bake in a 
medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts). Serve hot with butter, jam, or jelly. 
296. Raisin bread 
Wash 4 pounds of raisins, dredge with flour, then add to the basic dough (recipe 
291) when mixing. Then handle as for soft bun bread (recipe 297). 
Use the basic dough (recipe 291) and make up into loaves. If no individual 
bread pans are on hand, scale into 35-ounce pieces, round, and let rest until loose 
(about 20 minutes). Form into loaves and place six of these in one black iron 
bake pan. Proof (rise) until just above edge of pan, bake about 30 minutes in a 
medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 16 counts). 
297. Soft bun bread 288 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Use the basic dough (recipe 291). Scale into 2-ounce pieces as for finger rolls 
(recipe 293). Round each piece into a neat ball and place 2 inches apart in well- 
greased bake pans. Allow to rise about 15 minutes, then flatten, using the palm 
of the hand, or the bottom of a can, or a board, etc. Then allow to rise until about 
double in size and bake about 15 minutes in a medium oven (325°-400° F.—12 to 
16 counts). 
298. Sandwich buns 
SALADS AND DRESSINGS 
9 pounds apples 
8 pounds celery 
299. Apple and celery salad 
3 pints mayonnaise dressing 
1 head lettuce 
Clean the celery and keep in a damp cloth so that it will remain crisp. When 
ready for use cut into V2-inch pieces. Save the celery leaves for use in soup, etc. 
Peel and core the apples and just before adding them to the mixture cut them into 
pieces similar in size to the celery. Add the mayonnaise dressing and mix well. 
Serve individually on lettuce leaves or in vegetable dishes garnished with lettuce 
leaves. 
16 pounds baked beans 
4 pounds onions, choped fine 
4 pounds sweet pickles, chopped fine 
2 ounces mustard, prepared 
309. Baked bean salad 
1 pint mayonnaise 
Vz pint vinegar 
1 head lettuce 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Mix all ingredients thoroughly and season to taste with salt, pepper, mustard, 
and vinegar. Left-over baked beans from dinner may be used for salad. Serve 
individually on lettuce leaves or in vegetable dishes garnished with lettuce leaves. 
301. Bean, stringless, salad 
20 pounds beans, fresh, stringless, 
cooked and cold, or 3 no. 10 cans 
2 ounces mustard, prepared 
2 pints mayonnaise 
Vz pint vinegar 
1 head lettuce 
Salt and pepper to taste 
To the cold beans add the mustard, salt, vinegar, and mayonnaise, and mix well. 
Serve individually on lettuce leaves or in vegetable dishes garnished with lettuce 
leaves. 
17 pounds beets, fresh, or 2 no. 10 cans 
cut beets 
302. Beet salad, pickled 
2 pints vinegar 
1 pound sugar 
If fresh beets are used, cook and peel them, then dice in cubes; if canned 
beets are used no cooking is necessary. Place the beets in a salad bowl and cover 
with vinegar and sugar solution. Let stand for 1 hour to cool and place in vegetable 
dishes, serve cold. 
20 pounds cabbage 
2 pounds celery, diced 
303. Cabbage salad 
4 bunches parsnips 
1 quart dressing or 1 pint vinegar 
Trim, core, wash, clean, and quarter the cabbage and soak in salted water for 
1 hour. Clean, trim, wash, and dice celery, soak in cold water until ready to use. 
Just before serving, remove cabbage from the water and shake. Shred or chop 
fine and place in a large bowl with the diced celery, then pour over it the dressing 
or vinegar. Mix well. Place in vegetable dishes and cover with minced parsley 
and serve cold. 
15 pounds cabbage 
1 quart mayonnaise 
304. Cabbage and apple salad 
5 pounds apples 
Prepare the cabbage as in cabbage salad (recipe 303). Wash, peel, and core 
the apples and place in cold water until just before serving. At that time remove 
and chop fine and shred the cabage. Mix the cabbage, apples, and mayonnaise, 
and salt to taste. Serve individually on lettuce leaves or in vegetable dishes 
garnished with lettuce leaves. RECIPES 
289 
15 pounds celery, trimmed 
15 eggs 
4 pounds potatoes, mashed 
2 pounds bacon grease or cooking oil 
305. Celery salad 
1 pint vinegar 
1 pint water 
2 ounces mustard, prepared 
5 heads lettuce 
Dice the celery fine, and let stand in cold water. Hard boil the eggs, chop fine, 
and mix with the diced celery. Make a dressing as follows; Mash the potatoes, 
mix in slowly the bacon grease (or cooking oil) with the vinegar and water. Then 
mix in the mustard and a little red pepper and salt to taste. The dressing should 
be of the consistency of cream or gravy. Regulate the quantity of water to get 
this result. Pour the dressing over the celery-and-egg mixture and serve cold on 
dishes garnished with lettuce leaves. 
30 pounds chicken (fowl) 
12 pounds celery, trimmed 
306. Chicken salad 
2 quarts dressing 
5 heads lettuce 
Prepare the chicken as for chicken stew (recipe 81). Simmer until so tender 
that the meat may be easily separated from the bones. Be careful to avoid leaving 
any bones with the meat. Dice the meat when cold, add the diced celery, and 
mix with the mayonnaise. Season to taste with salt and pepper and garnish with 
a little paprika sprinkled over the top. Serve cold on lettuce leaves. 
The above is sufficient for a main dish. To serve as a salad the quantity of 
ingredients may be cut in half. 
If desired, veal may be substituted for one-half the chicken. If simmered with 
the chicken the veal will take on a chicken flavor. 
307. Cucumber and onion salad 
25 pounds cucumbers 
8 pounds onions, sliced 
1 quart vinegar 
Salt and pepper to taste 
Peel the cucumbers and slice thin, cover with salted cold water, and allow to 
stand for 2 hours. Drain, add the onions and vinegar and season to taste with 
salt and pepper. 
308. Lettuce salad 
13 heads lettuce, medium size 
12 eggs, hard boiled, minced fine 
2 pounds bacon, diced and browned 
1 quart vinegar 
2 ounces mustard, prepared 
Wash and clean the lettuce thoroughly and cut into eighths. Soak in cold water 
about 1 hour. Mix the bacon, mustard, minced eggs, vinegar, and a little pepper 
and salt, and pour over the lettuce when cold. Serve ice cold. Lettuce may also 
be cut into eighths and served with thousand island dressing. 
5 pounds cabbage, minced 
5 quarts tomatoes, minced, or 4 no. 3 
caps, or 1 no. 10 can 
5 pounds onions, minced 
309. Piccalilli salad 
5 pounds pickles, sweet, minced 
1 quart vinegar 
1 teaspoonful cloves, ground 
Mix all the ingredients well, season with salt, cayenne pepper, and cloves, and 
add sufficient water to make 3Vz gallons. Regulate the quantity of water to make 
the consistency like thick gravy. 
5 cans pimentos, 1-pound cans 
14 pounds cabbage 
2 pounds celery, diced 
310. Pimento salad 
5 heads lettuce 
2 pounds pickles, sweet 
1 quart mayonnaise dressing 
Prepare the cabbage as in cabbage salad (recipe 303), select one-fourth of the 
pimentos best suited for the purpose and slice them into fine cords like shoe strings. 
Chop fine remaining pimentos and pickles. Remove the cabbage from the water, 
shake, shred, and mix with the chopped pimentos, diced celery, chopped pickles, 
and the mayonnaise. Serve cold on lettuce leaves. 
25 pounds potatoes, boiled and diced 
5 pounds celery, diced 
2 pounds onions, minced 
2 pounds bacon, diced and browned 
311. Potato salad 
1 can pimentos, or 4 green peppers, 
diced 
Vz pint vinegar 
1 quart mayonnaise 
1 head lettuce or parsley 290 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Place the potatoes in a chopping bowl with the onions and celery over them. 
Fry the bacon until brown and while still hot pour over the potatoes. Add the 
vinegar, mayonnaise, and pimentos or peppers mixed together. Mix well and 
season with pepper and salt to taste. Allow to stand for 2 hours, then serve cold 
in dishes garnished with lettuce or parsley. 
6 heads lettuce (medium size) 
1 pound carrots, sliced and chopped 
fine 
2 pounds green pepper, chopped fine 
4 bunches radishes, sliced 
2 pounds cucumbers, diced 
312. Raw vegetable salad 
2 pounds celery, diced 
4 pounds cabbage, grated 
1 pint mayonnaise 
V2 pint vinegar 
2 pounds tomatoes 
Chop fine 3 heads of lettuce, add rest of the ingredients, salt and pepper to taste. 
Serve cold in dishes garnished with the 3 remaining heads of lettuce. 
12 cans salmon, 1-pound cans 
2 Pounds celery, diced 
10 pounds potatoes, boiled and diced 
3 heads lettuce 
313. Salmon salad 
1 gallon mayonnaise dressing 
3 green peppers 
6 lemons 
Cool the cans of salmon and empty contents into a mixing bowl. Be sure to 
add all the oil in the can. Chop salmon fine and mix with the potatoes. Soak the 
diced celery in cold water for 1 hour, chop up the green peppers and add to the 
mixture. Add the mayonnaise and thoroughly mix. Garnish with sprigs of parsley 
or lettuce and serve cold on lettuce leaves with the lemons cut in thin slices and 
laid across the top of the salad. 
20 pounds cabbage 
4 pounds bacon, diced and browned 
1 quart vinegar 
314. Slaw (cole slaw) 
6 pounds onions, chopped fine 
2 pounds sugar 
Wash the cabbage thoroughly and shred or chop fine. Mix thoroughly the onions, 
bacon, vinegar, and sugar. Season to taste with pepper and salt and bring to a 
boil. Remove from the fire and pour over the chopped cabbage. Serve hot or cold. 
30 pounds tomatoes 
Wash the tomatoes well and trim away discolored or bruised spots. Place in 
the refrigerator until thoroughly chilled, then slice thin or cut into eighths and 
replace in the refrigerator until required. Place sliced tomatoes on lettuce and 
serve plain or with dressing (recipe 317) over both. 
315. Tomatotes, sliced 
316. Vegetable salad 
5 pounds carrots 
5 pounds peas 
5 pounds string beans 
17 pounds vegetables, cooked, consisting of: 
2 pounds cucumbers, sliced, or celery, 
diced, or radishes, diced 
Nearly any kind of left-over cooked vegetables may be used in making salads 
by seasoning them with mustard, vinegar, or mayonnaise or french dressing. 
Serve ice cold on dishes garnished with lettuce leaves. 
3 eggs 
V4 pound butter 
% pound sugar 
1 gallon water 
1 pint vinegar 
317. Boiled dressing 
V2 ounce mustard, dry 
1 pound flour 
1 pint milk (approximately) 
Salt and cayenne pepper to taste 
Put mustard, salt, sugar, and cayenne pepper into a kettle, pour over the vinegar, 
and heat to near boiling point. Rub the flour and butter together and add to the 
hot mixture. Beat the eggs, add the water, and let cook until like prepared 
mustard, add milk until right consistency. 
This dressing may be used as a base, instead of mayonnaise, to make other 
dressings such as tartare sauce, thousand island, cucumber mayonnaise, etc. RECIPES 
291 
¥2 teaspoonful paprika 
6 teaspoonfuls salt 
¥2 teaspoonful pepper, white 
318. French dressing 
6 teaspoonfuls sugar 
2¥2 pints cooking or salad oil 
1 pint vinegar 
Put the salt, pepper, paprika, sugar, and vinegar in a dish and beat thoroughly, 
then add slowly the oil, beating continuously. This dressing should not be poured 
over the salad until immediately before serving. A lenjon dressing may be made 
by substituting 1 pint juice of fresh lemons for the vinegar. 
319. Mayonnaise dressing 
6 eggs 
1 gallon salad oil 
8 tablespoonfuls vinegar 
2 tablespoonfuls mustard 
Salt and cayenne pepper to taste 
First, every utensil used should be chilled or cooled. Break open the eggs into 
a mixing bowl and add the cayenne pepper, salt and mustard. Work it in until 
it is thoroughly mixed. Begin dropping in the oil, stirring constantly in the same 
direction, putting in only a few drops at first. When it begins to thicken, drop in 
a few drops of vinegar, then the oil again, a very little. Continue this until all 
of the materials are used. Be careful not to use too much vinegar as this makes 
it thin. It should be thick enough to drop when ready for use. 
Add 3 or 4 cups of whipped cream to mayonnaise dressing (recipe 319). 
320. Mayonnaise dressing, fruit salad 
321. Mustard salad dressing 
1 pound butter 
2 pounds flour 
¥4 pound mustard, dry 
1 % gallons water 
Vi gallon vinegar 
Melt the butter in a double boiler, stir in the ’flour and mustard and cook until 
smooth. Reduce it with the vinegar and water to the desired thickness. Serve 
when cold. 
Add 2 cups chili sauce and 2 cups green pepper, chopped, to mayonnaise dressing 
(recipe 319). 
322. Russian mayonnaise 
323. Salad dressing, eggless 
6 ounces sugar 
4 ounces salt 
1 ounce mustard, dry 
1 teaspoonful paprika 
% pint vinegar 
2 ¥4 pints salad oil 
3 pints water, cold 
6 ounces cornstarch 
Place the sugar, salt, mustard, paprika, vinegar, and salad oil in a mixing bowl 
but do not stir. Make a paste by mixing the cornstarch with half the water, then 
add the other half of the water. Cook the paste over a slow fire, stirring constantly 
until it boils and becomes clear. Then add the hot paste to the other ingredients 
in the mixing bowl and beat briskly with an egg beater or wire whip until smooth. 
Chill before serving. 
1¥2 pints vinegar 
1 quart milk, fresh; or 1 can eva- 
porated milk diluted with 1 pint 
water 
V2 pint salad oil, or 8 ounces melted 
butter 
324. Sour cream dressing 
3 teaspoonfuls salt 
¥4 teaspoonful pepper, cayenne 
6 tablespoonfuls sugar 
4 teaspoonfuls mustard, dry 
Add the vinegar to the milk, then the oil, then all other ingredients, stirring 
briskly with a wire beater. Keep cold. 
Add 2 cups sour pickles, chopped, 1 cup stuffed olives, chopped, and 1 cup 
parsley, chopped, to mayonnaise dressing (recipe 319). 
325. Tartare mayonnaise 
326. Tomato french dressing 
2 cans soup, tomato, no. 1 cans 
IV2 pints salad oil, or olive oil 
¥2 pint vinegar 
¥2 pound sugar 
¥2 ounce onion juice, or ¥2 pound 
onions, finely minced 
1 ounce salt 
Vi ounce mustard, dry 
Va ounce paprika 292 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Mix the ingredients in the order given in an electric mixer or whip by hand. 
Serve cold. 
1 gallon mayonnaise dressing, or 1 pint pickles, chopped, or sweet relish 
boiled dressing 1 cup horseradish, grated (if avail- 
1 quart tomato catsup or chili sauce able) 
Mix the above ingredients thoroughly. One-half pint chopped green olives 
improves the dressing. 
327. Thousand island dressing 
BEVERAGES 
3 pounds cocoa, or 2V2 pounds choc- 5 pounds sugar 
olate, plain 32 cans milk, evaporated 
Put 8 gallons of water into an urn or boiler and bring to a boil. Take out 1 
gallon of the hot water and dissolve the cocoa and sugar in this. If chocolate is 
used, first melt it in a double boiler. Then add to the remainder of the hot water 
and cook 5 minutes. Reduce the heat and add the milk, and stir well. Water may 
be used in place of milk, but this reduces the palatability. 
In hot weather, iced cocoa is popular. 
328. Cocoa or chocolate 
329. Coffee, hot 
12 ¥2 gallons water, cold 5 pounds coffee, roasted and ground 
Bring the water to a boil. Move container to back of stove in order to reduce 
temperature of water slightly under the boiling point. Place roasted and ground 
coffee in sugar interliner bag, or other similar bag, and tie same with cord, leaving 
sufficient room in the bag to permit expansion of the coffee. Place the bag con- 
taining the coffee in water, when water is slightly under boiling point, and allow 
to simmer, not boil, for 10 to 12 minutes. Stir the bag occasionally during the 
simmering period. Remove the bag. Serve at once. 
Observe the following rules to insure good coffee: 
a. Keep roasted and ground coffee in a container as airtight as possible. 
b. Carefully measure quantities of both water and coffee. 
c. When grounds are removed from coffee, throw them away. Do not use these 
grounds to make additional quantities of coffee, and do not use part spent grounds 
and part unused grounds for subsequent brews. Always use fresh (unused) 
ground coffee. 
d. Be sure to bring water to a boil, but do not add coffee to water until the 
water has cooled slightly below the boiling point. 
e. Serve the coffee as soon as possible after completion of brew. The brew 
should not be completed more than 15 minutes prior to time of serving. 
f. Scour the coffee boiler daily. 
g. After removing grounds from muslin bag or sack, the sack should be washed 
in lukewarm, not hot, water, thoroughly rinsed in cold water, and then permitted 
to remain submerged in a pan of cold water until ready to use again. 
13 gallons ice water 
7 pounds sugar 
330. Lemonade 
100 lemons 
10 pounds ice 
Squeeze the juice from the lemons with a lemon squeezer and add it to the 
water. Sweeten to taste with sugar and stir thoroughly before serving. Serve cold. 
331. Tea, hot and iced 
Hot tea 
7 gallons water, fresh 
IOV2 ounces tea 
Cold tea 
1 gallon water 
15 ounces tea 
18 lemons, or left-over lemonade to taste 
9 gallons water 
Hot tea. Bring the water to a boil, remove from the range. Suspend the tea 
from the top of the boiler in a muslin bag and allow to stand in the hot water for 
5 minutes. The bag should be sufficiently large to give the tea plenty of room so 
that the boiling water will penetrate all portions of it. Remove the bag of tea, 
stir the beverage, and serve hot. 
Iced tea. Use 1 gallon of water and 15 ounces of tea and prepare as for hot tea. 
Cool and just before serving add sufficient cold water to make 10 gallons. The 
juice of 18 lemons may be added, if desired. Any left-over lemonade may be 
added to the iced tea. CHAPTER 10 
MESS SANITATION 
Section I 
INTESTINAL DISEASES 
1. General. The intestinal diseases as a group are transmitted from person to 
person by food and water, the infective agents being disseminated in the excreta 
of cases or carriers. The causal organisms are introduced into water with the in- 
fected excreta, and into food through the medium of hands contaminated with 
infected material, by water, by contaminated dishes and utensils, by flies, or by 
direct contact with excreta. 
2. Classification. The important diseases belonging to this group are: 
Typhoid fever 
Paratyphoid fever 
Common diarrhea 
Bacillary dysentery 
Protozoal dysentery 
Cholera 
Helminthic infestations 
Undulant fever 
Food infection 
Botulism 
3. General Importance and Prevalence, a. Intestinal diseases are of great 
potential importance to a military force. However, measures are available by 
which the incidence of intestinal diseases can be greatly reduced below that 
which would and does occur in situations where the spread of these infections is 
inadequately controlled. 
TRANSMISSION 
AGENCIES 
CONTROL OF 
TRANSMISSION AGENCIES 
WATER 
Protection o? raw watih or 
JEWACrE DISPOSAL 
Puqifica noN op water juppiy 
Protection op purified water 
FOOD 
Supervision of sanitary conditions unoir 
WHICH SCOO IS PRODUCED. TRAN! PORTtD 
AND STORED 
Meat infection 
Pasteurization of nhlk 
Elimination of contaminated rood 
SUPPLIES SY INSPECTION 
Physical examination of food 
HAhoi EPS TO ELIMINATE CARRIERS 
AND SICK 
CLEANLINESS OF INDIVIDUAL FOOD 
HANDLERS 
Sanitation or kitchens 
ruts 
Contool or eeuoiNo places 
Protection or poop from flies 
Destruction of adult flies 
HANDS 
Individual personal cieanlinets 
IMMUNIZATION 
AGAINST 
typhoid a paratyphoid um 
WATER 
FOOD 
FLIES 
HANDS 
CASE 
OR 
CARRIER 
7 PROTECTED! 
\ TROOPS J 
Plate 1. General Factors in the Control of Intestinal Diseases. 
h. As sources of infection are constantly present in military organizations, and 
in the civilian populations with which the troops are in contact, any relaxation in 
measures for the control of intestinal infections will almost inevitably be followed 
by the occurrence among troops of some of these diseases in epidemic form. The 
prevalence of intestinal diseases and their importance to a military force are, 
therefore, to a very considerable degree dependent on the extent to which suitable 
control measures are enforcd. In this respect, intestinal diseases differ markedly 
from such respiratory infections as influenza or common colds. In many instances, 
the latter cannot be completely controlled by any practical procedure, while 
uncontrollable epidemics of intestinal diseases seldom if ever occur in military 
forces under normal conditions. 
c. While one attack of certain of the intestinal diseases, particularly typhoid, 
will usually confer permanent immunity, troops generally have a high group 
susceptibility to intestinal diseases. 
d. The group of diarrheal diseases which are classified as common diarrhea are 
from a military viewpoint, under ordinary conditions, the most important of the 
293 294 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
intestinal diseases, largely because of their influence on the noneffective rate. 
This group includes those conditions, diagnosed as enteritis, colitis, or diarrhea, 
which in many instances are probably actually mild dysenteries or food infections. 
These conditions tend to occur as small explosive epidemics and incapacitate a 
relatively large number of men before control measures can be made effective. On 
the other hand, typhoid is of relatively minor importance, but only because it can 
be controlled by available and practical control measures. 
4. General Control Measures. The control of intestinal diseases is based on 
the control of environmental conditions with a view to preventing the transmission 
of the causal organisms by water and food. General measures for the control 
of intestinal diseases include water purification, food protection and control, 
waste disposal, and control of the housefly. 
Section II 
FOOD HANDLERS 
5. The Examination of Permanent Food Handlers, a. General. No one in the 
transmissible stage of a communicable disease or who is a known carrier of the 
causative organisms of such a disease should never be employed as a food handler. 
Medical examiners must devote particular attention to the detection of any 
evidence of communicable disease and the history of an attack of such a disease 
which may have produced a carrier state. Mess officers and other officers under 
whose supervision permanent food handlers may be employed are responsible that 
such persons conform to the provisions regarding physical examination. They 
must cause permanent food handlers in whom they notice signs or symptoms of any 
communicable disease to report to the surgeon. Whenever permanent.food handlers 
are employed, a list of those so employed must be posted in or near their place of 
employment. 
b. Persons to he considered permanent food handlers. The term “permanent 
food handlers” should be construed to include all persons (enlisted and civilian) 
who are permanently assigned to such duties as will require them to regularly 
prepare food or drink and to handle dishes, tableware, or kitchen utensils. In- 
cluded in this category are; cooks, assistant cooks, cooks’ helpers, bakers, butchers, 
meat cutters, waiters, permanent dining room and kitchen helpers handling and 
washing dishes and kitchen utensils, dietitians, mess sergeants, milkers and other 
milk handlers, exchange attendants who dispense ice cream, milk and bottled 
goods, and any other person who comes in constant and intimate contact with food 
in other than unbroken packages which are protected against contamination. 
Medical Department personnel required to make routine inspections of meat and 
meat-food and dairy products should be regarded as permanent food handlers. 
Rotating kitchen police detailed by daily roster are not so included. 
c. Procedure for examinations. Company, troop, battery and detachment com- 
manders, officers in charge of bakeries and of special messes, officers in command 
of hospitals, quartermasters, exchange officers, and others concerned should report 
in writing to the surgeon the names of all prospective permanent food handlers 
under their jurisdiction. The station or organization surgeon will then take the 
necessary steps to have these men examined; he should keep a permanent record 
thereof and should report the results of the examination to the organization com- 
mander without delay, recommending immediate relief of those found unsuitable 
for the work. 
6. Personal Cleanliness, a. Food handlers, particularly those working in kitchens 
or mess halls, should keep themselves scrupulously clean at all times. Those 
working in the preparation and serving of food should wear clean, white clothing. 
White undershirts are permissible, providing they have sleeves long enough to 
cover the unsightly hair under the armpits. Kitchen police and others working 
in the mess hall or kitchen may wear denims while performing particularly dirty 
jobs, such as floor scrubbing or handling of garbage, but not when they are 
preparing food. 
Close supervision will be necessary to insure that food handlers wash their 
hands after visits to the latrine or after handling objects containing dirt or grease. A weak solution of cresol may be used to disinfect their hands. The hands should 
be air-dried rather than wiped. 
It is important that hair be kept short and, where possible, covered with a white 
hat or cap. Fingernails should be short and clean. Thrice daily is not too often 
for fingernail inspection of all mess personnel. The mess officer may make the 
inspection once daily and the mess sergeant twice. 
Mess personnel with colds should be isolated immediately. The respiratory 
diseases spread violently once they reach the kitchen unless complete protective 
measures are taken. 
b. It is the responsibility of the organization commander to instruct mess per- 
sonnel in the ordinary rules of sanitation. The organization commander may call 
upon medical personnel for assistance in this instruction. 
MESS SANITATION 
295 
Section III 
DISPOSAL OF KITCHEN WASTES 
7. Disposal of Kitchen Wastes. Kitchen wastes consist of the food remnants ac- 
cumulated after meals and in the preparation thereof, as well as the water in 
which kitchen utensils and mess gear have been washed. The amount of kitchen 
wastes varies considerably, especially the liquid portion. However, the solids 
average about Vz pound per person per day and the liquids average 200 to 1000 
gallons per company of 200 men per day. These wastes must be disposed of to 
prevent giving rise to offensive odors and attracting flies and rats to the mess area. 
8. Garbage, a. Garbage is composed of the solid and semisolid wastes produced 
in the preparation of food. It includes waste food, the nonedible portions of food- 
stuffs, and waste materials incident to the preparation of food such as tin cans 
and coffee grounds. It does not include ashes or rubbish such as street sweepings, 
rags, boxes, or paper unless the paper is used to wrap the garbage. 
b. Amount and character of garbage produced in temporary or semipermanent 
camps are as follows: 
Amount per man per day 0.5-0.8 pounds. 
Water content 65-80 percent. 
Amount of dry matter combustible 85 percent. 
Amount available for hog feeding 50 percent. 
9. Methods of Garbage Disposal, a. Burial. On the march or in bivouac, burial 
of garbage is the method of choice. In larger camps, if soil is favorable, garbage 
may be buried in trenches 2 to 3 feet deep; however, it requires about 2500 square 
feet of ground for the burial of the garbage produced by 100 troops in one month. 
When garbage trenches are filled to within 1 foot of surface they should be back- 
filled and the earth well tamped down. Garbage pits should not be within 100 
feet of any source of water used for drinking or cooking. 
b. Sale or gift. Arrangements may be made, especially in semipermanent camps, 
to either sell or give the garbage to farmers. This is usually done by contract 
made by the quartermaster. The contractor should be bonded in order that the 
government may be protected in case of failure. All of the safeguards mentioned 
in paragraph 10 should be demanded in order that sanitary defects do not develop. 
If garbage is utilized for animal food the edible portion must be separated from 
the nonedible at the kitchens. The following are nonedible articles: 
Coffee grounds. 
Tea leaves. 
Eggshells. 
Banana peels and stalks. 
Fish heads and scales. 
Citron rinds. 
Tin cans, paper, and other rubbish. 
c. Hog feeding. This is not feasible unless there are at least 500 troops in a 
camp for a considerable period of time. Hogs consume an average of 15 to 20 
pounds of garbage per day. As 500 troops produce about 200 pounds of edible 
garbage per day, this will care for 10 to 15 hogs. Hogs should always be immunized 
against hog cholera. 296 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
d. Reduction. The cost of a reduction plant, both as to construction and opera- 
tion, renders it impracticable for camp or cantonment. 
e. Closed incineration. Closed incinerators are of two types, low temperature 
(1400° F.) and high temperature (minimum 1800° F.). The high temperature types 
cost more to install but consume all noxious gases. The U. S. standard incinerator 
is a typical high temperature incinerator (see Plate 2). 
f. Semiclosed incinerator. The semiclosed incinerator is more easily built with 
Plate 2. U. S. Standard Incinerator. Stack About 50 Feet in Height. 
Plate 3. Incline Plane Incinerator. 
Plate 4. Incline Plane Incinerator, Side View. unskilled labor than the closed type and is protected from rain and wind. The 
incline plane incinerator is a type which may be considered semiclosed and which 
will consume the garbage from about 1000 troops and is easily constructed. A 
trench is dug 11 feet 8 inches long, 2 feet 9 inches wide, and 1 foot 6 inches deep, 
as the firebox is below the level of the ground at one end. (See Plate 3.) The 
rock shown in the figure supports a piece of corrugated iron which is level for 
the first 20 inches and then slopes down to the grate. The upper part of the 
incline plane is roofed over with two pieces of oil drum, each consisting of one- 
third of a drum cut longitudinally. The entire outside except the doors is covered 
with a thick layer of wet clay, dried in place with a slow fire. Kitchen wastes 
are fed through the top door onto the corrugated platform and are gradually 
pushed down the plane toward the grate. Being dried out on the way down 
they are easily burned. 
MESS SANITATION 
297 
Plate 5. Incline Plane Incinerator, End View. 
g. Open incineration. (1) If none of the methods of disposal previously described 
exist, the garbage produced in a camp is disposed of by open incineration. Some- 
times one incinerator is built for the camp and operated by the quartermaster. 
This type is usually a multiple shelf incinerator (see Plate 6) or a rock pile 
incinerator. The latter type is difficult to operate and uses a great deal of fuel 
so is not constructed unless it is impossible to construct other types. 
(2) As a rule company incinerators will be found satisfactory in most camps 
where garbage has to be burned in the camp for relatively short periods. How- 
ever, this type of incinerator may be carried on over a period of many months. 
(3) The company incinerator of choice is the barrel and trench incinerator. 
This consists of a barrel-like stack which is placed over the intersection of cross 298 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
trenches. The stack provides means of preheating and partially drying the garbage 
prior to burning. In constructing a barrel and trench incinerator there are three 
parts to consider, the trench, the stack, and the supporting material and grate. 
Plate 6. Multiple Shelf Incinerator with Side Cut Away to Show Interior Construction 
Plate 7. Barrel and Trench Incinerator. 
(a) Two trenches 1 foot wide and 10 feet long are so constructed that they 
cross at right angles at the center of each trench. Each trench slopes from the 
surface of the ground at each end to a depth of 18 inches at the center at the 
intersection. MESS SANITATION 
299 
(h) The stack may be made of brick or stone either with or without mortar 
and measures about 4V2 feet in diameter at the bottom and 3 feet at the top (out- 
side measurements). The stack may also be made of clay molded over a barrel 
from which both ends have been removed. An oil drum or galvanized iron 
garbage can with ends removed may also be utilized. 
Plate 8. Cross Trench Incinerator. 
(c) The supporting structure may be either wide pieces of corrugated iron, 
sheet iron, or strips of strap iron, iron bars, or rails. The grate irons are made from 
iron rods or pipe and are inserted 3 or 4 inches apart and about 6 inches above 
the ground in all but the metal oil drum and galvanized iron can types where they 
are placed at the bottom of the stack. 
(4) Other types of company incinerators are: 
(a) The rock pit incinerator (Plate 11) which is not economical to operate 
on account of fuel consumption. 
Plate 9. Cross Trench Incinerator with Barrel Made of Packed Clay Molded Over a Wooden Barrel. 
(h) The drying pan incinerator (Plate 12) which may be used where it is 
difficult to dispose otherwise of liquid kitchen wastes. 
(5) Operation of open incinerators is an important factor in the successful 
disposal of garbage. Attendants should be trained to add garbage slowly so that 
it will not put out the fire, to use care in dumping garbage receptacles so as not 300 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
to break in the top of the stack, and to clean the firebox at frequent enough 
intervals so as not to clog it with ashes. 
10. Garbage Collection. Garbage should be collected in standard galvanized iron 
cans with tightly fitting lids. The cans should be transported by truck or wagon 
to the point of ultimate disposal or to a central transfer station. Garbage should 
not be transferred to a garbage cart or wagon or from can to can at the kitchen. 
Plate 10. Cross Trench Incinerator Made with 50-gallon Oil Drum. The Trenches are Longer 
than Normal in Order to Give Room for the Drying Pan. 
Plate 11. Straub Rock Pit Incinerator. 
11. Garbage Stands. In semipermanent camps, garbage stands should be in- 
stalled adjacent to the kitchens. The best garbage stands are built in the form 
of solid concrete blocks with center cores of stone and earth, and with an apron 
of 12 to 18 inches of concrete at the base. In height, the stand may be from 1 foot 
to 44 inches. The higher stands will have to be supplied with steps but are at the 
level of truck floors so as to facilitate can transfers. If concrete is nof available, 
stands may be made of wood, the boards laid crosswise and separated at least 1 inch 
to prevent the retention of organic matter. Garbage stands should not be screened 
or whitewashed. The trend is away from screened garbage racks, since with 
tight-fitting cans the flies cannot get to the garbage, and, without screening, racks 
are more easily kept clean. 
12. Care of Garbage Stands and Cans. a. In order to minimize the danger of 
spilling garbage during transportation, the cans should not be filled to within more 
than 4 inches of the top. The lids should be kept on at all times except when 
removed to deposit garbage. Care should be exercised that no garbage is spilled 
on the ground, and if solid garbage is spilled, it should be immediately collected 
and placed in a can. MESS SANITATION 
301 
Plate 12. Guthrie Drying Pan Incinerator. 
ASHES 
REFUSE 
AND 
TINCANS 
EDIBLE 
GARBAGE 
EDIBLE 
CABBAGE 
Plate 13. One Method of Labeling Garbage Cans for the Collection of Classified Garbage. 
Concrete Garbage Stand. 
b. The platform should bs scrubbed daily with a stiff scrubbing brush and hot 
soapy water, and the ground about the stand should be sprayed at weekly intervals 
with crude oil and firmly tamped. Intervals between collections should not be 
more than 2 days in the summer and 3 days in the winter. Garbage cans should 
be placed in sufficient numbers on the stand so that edible and nonedible garbage, 
ashes, and refuse can be kept separate. Markers may be used as shown in Plate 13. 
Garbage cans should not be whitewashed or painted. 302 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
13. Transfer Station, a. In large camps, where other than company incineration 
is used, it is usually necessary to install a transfer station. This may be at a 
central incinerator or at a point where the garbage is turned over to a contractor. 
This station should consist of a platform (20 by 100 feet in a large camp), at one 
end of which is a storeroom for paper and cans, while at the other end is a room 
where cans are washed. The height of the platform should be about on a level 
with the floor of a truck. A rubbish incinerator is usually installed near the 
platform. 
b. Can-cleaning equipment consists of tanks or vats in which to soak cans in 
cleaning compound, adequate hot-water supply, and stiff scrubbing brushes. 
Equipment shown in Plate 14 may be installed to straighten cans and lids. 
Plate 14. Device Used for Straightening Garbage Cans and Garbage-can Lids 
14. Tin Cans and Rubbish. Tin cans or similar noniniflammable kitchen wastes 
should be burned out thoroughly in incinerators, pounded flat, and then disposed 
of either by burial or on a dump. 
Accumulations of rubbish attract flies and rats, which in turn act as the trans- 
mitting agents of certain diseases to which man is susceptible. All rubbish, not 
garbage, should be collected daily in containers such as gunny sacks which are 
placed on poles at both ends of the company street and in latrines. It should 
then be transferred to company incinerators and burned. In semipermanent camps 
it may be disposed of on a dump, being burned there daily. Care should be taken 
that no unflattened tin cans or boxes remain on the dump to permit accumulation 
of water with the resulting possibility of mosquito breeding. Dumps should pre- 
ferably be located several hundred yards from the tents occupied by troops. 
15. Disposal of Liquid Wastes. In camps where sewers are available, liquid 
kitchen wastes may be disposed of by dumping them directly into sewer lines. 
In most camps, however, this is impossible and some arrangement must be made 
to dispose of these liquids in the soil. In order to facilitate absorption and to 
prevent clogging of the soil, liquid kitchen wastes should have the grease removed 
before they are discharged into any kind of pit or trench. 
16. In Bivouac. Kitchen liquids are disposed of in bivouac by dumping them 
into trenches or pits. These pits or trenches are filled in when the troops depart. 
While waste water may be disposed of on the surface of the ground, it provides a 
breeding place for flies which may annoy other troops who encamp there or per- 
sons who live in that vicinity. 
17. Soakage Pits. The ordinary kitchen soakage pit is built the same as the 
urine soakage pit except that it is equipped with a grease trap instead of a urine 
trough. 
18. Grease Traps. Grease traps are of two general types, filter and baffle. 
a. Filter grease trap. (1) Filter grease traps consist of galvanized pails, cans, 
etc., in the bottom of which a number of small holes are punched. The pail or 
can is placed in the center of the pit with the bottom about 2 inches below the 
surface. It is filled two-thirds full with a filtering material consisting of hay, grass, 
straw, or cloth which catches and retains a part of the grease and the debris such MESS SANITATION 
303 
as bread crumbs or vegetable fragments. Where a larger quantity of liquid is to 
be disposed of, a wooden barrel or a metal or wooden tub may be substituted 
for the pail or can. 
(2) The ash barrel grease trap is a very satisfactory trap of the filter type. 
It is made by drilling about 30 holes in the bottom of an ordinary barrel. About 
8 inches of gravel or coarse wood ashes are placed on the bottom and this is 
covered with about 18 inches of finer ashes. The top of the barrel is covered 
with a piece of burlap for a strainer, held in place with a barrel hoop. About 
twice a week the ashes should be removed and burned to remove the grease and 
then buried. 
KITCHEN SOAKAGEPIT 
Plate 15. Pail Grease Trap. 
b. Baffle grease traps. The baffle or cold water grease trap consists of a con- 
tainer which is divided by a hanging baffle into an influent and effluent chamber, 
the former having about twice the capacity of the latter. The lower edge of the 
baffle is separated from the bottom of the container by a space of about 1 inch. 
The outlet leads from the effluent chamber and is placed from 3 to 6 inches below 
the upper edge of the container. It may consist of a short piece of 1-or 2-inch 
pipe or a wooden trough. A strainer should be made of a perforated pail or box 
containing hay or straw to remove debris before the liquid passes into the con- 
tainer. When in use both chambers are filled at all times with cool water. When 
the warm liquid wastes strike the cool water in the influent chamber the grease 
rises to the surface and is prevented by the baffle from reaching the outlet to the 
soakage pit. Retained grease should be removed at daily intervals and the trap 
emptied and scrubbed weekly. Sediment removed at the time of cleaning should 
be burned or buried. 
19. Soakage Trenches. A soakage trench consists of a central pit 2 feet square, 
1 foot deep, from each corner of which a trench radiates outward for 6 feet. The 304 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Plate 16. Soakage Pit and Grease Traps. Left, Cold Water Grease Trap; Right, Ash Barrel 
Grease Trap. 
Plate 17. Baffle Grease Trap. 
A—Strainer. B—Baffle, c—Outlet. D—Outlet Pipe. E—Space under baffle leading from the 
Influent chamber to the effluent chamber. 
Plate 18. Baffle Grease Trap Made of a Half Barrel. 
A—Influent chamber into which the greasy fluid is emptied. B—Baffle. C—Effluent chamber. 
D—Outlet pipe. E—'Space under baffle leading from the influent chamber to the effluent chamber. MESS SANITATION 
305 
trenches are 1 foot wide, 1 foot deep where they leave the pit, sloping to a depth 
of 18 inches at the outer extremity. The central pit and the trenches are filled 
with rocks, broken bricks, or flattened tin cans. A pail with numerous small 
holes punched in the bottom and containing straw as filtering material is placed 
over the center of the pit as a grease trap. The soakage trench is used when the 
ground water table is so close to the surface that a soakage pit would be flooded, 
or where the condition of the ground makes the construction of a soakage pit 
impractical. 
Plate 19. Soakage Trench. 
A—Central square area. B—Radiating lateral trenches. C—Pail grease trap. 
20. Operation of Soakage Pits and Trenches. In order for a soakage pit to 
function properly, the permeability of the soil must be such that the liquids are 
drained away so that there will be a rest period during which the pit contains 
little or no fluid. At times it may be desirable to have two pits using them on 
alternate days. All debris and as much grease as possible should be removed 
from liquid before it is allowed to flow into the pit or trench. If clogging tends 
to occur, a week’s rest period each month may correct it. 
BUILDINGS AND STORAGE FACILITIES 
Section IV 
21. Mess Buildings. Where mess buildings are provided they should be properly 
screened during the fly season. These buildings should be properly and adequately 
ventilated and lighted. Special attention should be given to floors as these, 
unless made of impervious material, will become grease soaked and unsightly. 
22. Storage of Food. a. General. Food supplies should be protected from insects 
such as flies and roaches, from dust and dirt, and from rats and mice. Perishable 
foods should be stored at a temperature that will inhibit the growth of molds and 
disease organisms. Refrigeration at a temperature of 55° F. or less is desirable 
for meat and dairy products and for some vegetables and fruits. An important 
point in the storage of foods, particularly meat, is to avoid packing or hanging 
so closely that ventilation is impaired. Various devices may be improvised for 
the storage of food in temporary and semipermanent camps. 
b. Storage in temporary camps. (1) In temporary camps food may be stored 
in water tight containers and immersed in springs or streams, care being taken 
to prevent contamination. Food may be buried below the surface of the ground 
where the temperature is lower, lining a pit with burlap, and placing boards on 
the bottom. 
(2) A suspended food container consists of a screened box that permits free 
circulation of air but prevents contamination by insects. The cooling effect may 
be increased by wrapping the box in burlap which is kept damp. Fresh meat, 
bottled milk, and vegetables may be temporarily stored in such a container. It 
should not be used where there is much dust in the air. 
(3) The underground ice box or cooling box is a simple device consisting of 
a double-walled box. It is constructed by placing a packing box within a large 
one, sunk into a pit in the ground so that the outer lid is slightly above the surface 306 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
of the ground. A space 3 to 6 inches wide, filled with sawdust, grass, hay, or 
one for the inner and one for the outer box. A drainage ditch should be dug 
straw, separates the outer walls and the two bottoms. Two lids are necessary, 
around the box and a drain pipe should lead through the bottom of the box to a 
Plate 20. Suspended Food Container. 
small soakage pit below. A box 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, inside 
measurements, has sufficient capacity for the average company mess. If ice is 
available, an ice compartment should be constructed at the end containing the 
drain pipe. Also the box may be used above ground as an ice box. The cooling 
Plate 21. Underground Ice or Cooling Box. 
A—Outer wall. B—Insulating material. C—Inner wall. 
effect is increased by dampening the packing material between the walls or 
wetting down the earth around the box. To facilitate cleaning, the inner box 
should be easily removable. Meat, milk, vegetables, or other perishable foods 
may be stored in such an ice or cooling box. MESS SANITATION 
307 
Plate 22. Underground Food Box. 
Plate 23. Vegetable Bin. 308 
(4) In semipermanent camps, fresh or cured meats, milk, and vegetables may 
be kept in underground storage rooms constructed similar to an old-fashioned 
root cellar. The floor consists of well tamped earth or boards. The walls should 
be boarded. Ventilation is secured by windows at the ends of an outlet through the 
roof. Vegetables should be kept in vegetable bins. The bins are made of spaced 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Plate 24. Underground Storeroom, Longitudinal Section. 
slats to permit the circulation of air. The bottom should slope suffixpntly to permit 
the older vegetables to be used first. 
(5) Bread boxes or storage cabinets should be well ventilated but screened 
to prevent access of flies to the food. 
CLEANSING OF UTENSILS 
Section V 
23. Dishwashing. More attention is now being given to the danger of the 
spread of communicable diseases through the media of dishes and kitchen utensils. 
In order to prevent danger of infection, dishes and utensils must be treated by 
heat or chemicals. Immersion in water at a temperature of 160° F. for 1 minute 
will destroy pathogenic organisms. If the temperature is lower the immersion 
time must be longer, until at a temperature of 140° to 145° F. the dishes must 
remain 30 minutes. 
24. Chemical Disinfecting. Because of the difficulties encountered in disinfecting 
dishes by heat, certain chemicals have been found satisfactory. After dishes have 
been washed in hot soapy water and rinsed in hot clear water they are immersed 
in a chlorine solution containing at least 50 parts per million of free chlorine. 
When the solution is freshly prepared it should contain 200 parts of chlorine per 
million. One ounce of grade A hypochlorite to 25 gallons of water will give this 
strength solution. 
25. Dishes and utensils should always be air-dried, and dish towels should not 
be used. 
26. Mess Kits. Mess kits should have waste food scraped off into suitable con- 
tainer and then be washed in two changes of hot soapy water, rinsed in hot clear 
water, and air-dried. Ordinary galvanized iron cans over a trench may be used 
for mess kit washing (see Plate 25). In semipermanent camps, in order to con- 
serve fuel and save labor, an apparatus similar to the one shown in Plate 26 may 
be constructed. A pit is dug 11 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 4 feet deep; it is filled 
to within 1 foot of the surface with stones. Along the two sides and one end a 
wall of stone, brick, or concrete is built, extending 2 feet above the ground level 
and forming a firebox. The water containers are made from 50-gallon oil drums, 
cut along the longitudinal axis, 4 inches above the center line. Drums with bungs 
should be used and so cut that the bungs will be at the most dependent part of 
the drum when it is placed on the firebox. Pieces of iron pipe of sufficient length MESS SANITATION 
309 
to extend above the water level are threaded at one end to fit the bung hole and 
drilled at the other end to receive an iron rod used to turn them in or out. After 
the drums are placed on the firebox, the space between the drums and walls, 
and between the ends of each drum, is filled with clay. A stack is placed at the 
Plate 25. Fire Trench and Cans for Washing Mess Kits. 
Plate 26. Appliance for Washing Mess Kits for Use in Semipermanent Camps. 
closed end just beyond the last drum and the open space between drum and stack 
is also filled with clay. This device will require a relatively small amount of 
fuel to boil the water, and the draft will be such that it will be found desirable 
to place a damper in the stack. The men can wash their mess kits without being 
bothered by flame or smoke. When washing is completed, the pipes in the bung 
holes are removed and the water escapes into the soakage pit. 
Section VI 
OUTLINE FOR INSPECTION 
27. Sanitary Inspection of Messes. The principal purpose of a sanitary inspection 
of a mess is to determine the existence and nature of any defects which would 
result in contamination of the food and the transmission of disease-producing 
organisms to the troops, or which would impair the nutritive value or lessen the 
acceptability of the food as served to the troops. Sanitary inspections are usually 310 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
made by medical officers, but it is advisable for the organization mess officer to 
use this outline as a check-sheet. 
28. Outline For Sanitary Inspection of Mess. The following outline may be 
followed in making a complete sanitary inspection of a mess. It is suggested as 
a guide only: 
a. Attendants: 
Is mess sergeant qualified for position as to: 
Knowledge of food requirements and preparation of food? 
Ability to maintain discipline? 
Business ability? 
Are cooks adequately trained? How? 
Have food handlers all had “food handlers’ ” examination and been certified 
as to health condition by the surgeon? 
Are food handlers cleanly as to: 
Clothing? 
Hair? 
Hands (inspect fingernails)? 
Personal habits? Care in washing hands after urination and defecation. 
Is there a convenient washroom for food handlers? 
b. Menus: 
Does food served correspond with menu posted? 
Are menus well balanced and amount of food adequate? 
Check file of menus and mess account balance sheet. 
Note: Daily food supplied each man should yield at least 3000 calories, provide 
at least 100 grams of protein, and contain adequate vitamins. 
c. Food supplies: 
Meat and fish: 
Source. 
Quality. 
Freshness. 
Handling. 
Storage. 
Preparation. 
Milk and dairy products: 
Same consideration as meat. 
Has bacteriological and chemical analysis been made? 
Is milk raw or pasteurized? 
Fruit and vegetables: 
Is supply adequate and satisfactory? 
Are men educated to their use? 
Canned foods: 
Is supply satisfactory? 
Bread and bakery products: 
Source. 
Quality. 
Delivery method. 
* Storage. 
d. Food storages: 
Refrigerator: 
Is space adequate? 
Condition and sufficiency. 
Cleanliness. 
Disposal of drip water. 
e. Pantries: 
General neatness, cleanliness, and adequacy of storage facilities. 
Vegetable storage: 
Have vegetable bins been provided? 
Condition of vegetables in storage. 
Do facilities for storage guard against undue wastage by rotting? 
f. Bread boxes: 
Sufficiency, cleanliness, and neatness. MESS SANITATION 
311 
g. Food preparation and serving: * 
Refer to cooks’ training. 
Is food served in a reasonably attractive manner? 
Could you eat and enjoy the meals served and as served to the men in your 
organizations? If not, what corrections are advisable? 
h. Police: 
Dishwashing: 
Does the method meet the requirements of Army Regulations? 
Are trays, dishes, and utensils clean? Look between fork tines and 
around hilt of knife. 
Kitchen utensils: 
Are pots and pans kept grease free? 
Are they properly stored when not in use? 
Are knives and forks clean? Look around handles and hilts. 
Is there a knife rack and a knife sharpener? 
Are stoves kept clean? 
Is fuel supply adequate? 
Kitchen police: 
Cleanliness of floors, walls, and ceilings. 
Are dirty rags allowed to accumulate on ledges, top of bread box, top 
of refrigerator, etc.? 
Are personal belongings of mess attendants allowed to accumulate in 
kitchen? 
i. Waste disposal: 
Is waste handled in a cleanly, satisfactory manner inside the kitchens and 
storerooms? 
Is vegetable preparation and peeling carried out in a neat and satisfactory 
manner? 
Is waste properly sorted and kept in proper receptacles? 
Ashes. 
Combustible trash and tin cans. 
Edible garbage for piggery. 
Nonedible garbage. 
Are empty cans crushed and perforated before going to the trash can? 
Has a trash and garbage stand been provided? Is it kept clean? 
Is the surrounding area kept dry and free from soil pollution? 
Is waste removed at reasonable intervals? 
Are clean containers provided at reasonable intervals? 
How and by whom are containers washed? 
How are wastes disposed of: 
Ashes to dump? Location of dump? 
Combustible trash burned? Where? 
Garbage incinerated? Or sold? 
If garbage is sold, are terms of contract being met as to: 
Frequency of collection? 
Method of collection? 
Cleanliness of cans? 
j. Insects and rodents: 
Is mess screened adequately? 
Is there a supply of fly swatters or other fly destroyers? Are they used? 
Have fly traps been provided and are they kept properly baited and set up 
for use? 
Are roaches and other insects present? If so, what method is being used to 
control them? 
Are rodents troublesome? What steps have been taken for their destruction? Section VII 
FLY CONTROL 
29. General, a. Importance. Flies, especially the ordinary housefly, frequently 
transmit intestinal diseases. This transmission is accomplished in a mechanical 
manner. If the fly has access to human excreta it collects small amounts of excreta 
on its legs and body and in its digestive tract. If it later has access to food or 
eating utensils, some of the excreta is deposited on the food by defecation, regurgi- 
tation, and contact of food with the legs and body of the fly. 
b. Development and characteristics. (1) A brief description of the development 
of the housefly and some of its characteristics are essential to the understanding 
of the control procedures recommended. In its development the fly passes through 
four stages—the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the adult. The eggs are oval, white, 
glistening bodies about 1/20 inch in length. They are deposited by the adult 
female in masses of 150-200 in warm, moist organic materials, preferably horse 
manure. The egg stage lasts about 12 hours, varying considerably with the tem- 
perature. The larvae (maggots) are cylindrical, whitish, segmented, wormlike 
creatures about 1/3 inch in length. They are very motile and feed upon the sur- 
rounding organic material, reaching maturity in 2 to 8 days. When mature the 
larvae migrate to a dry cool place and pupate. The larvae are quickly killed by 
a temperature of 115° F. The pupa is dark brown in color, has a hardened outer 
surface, and is about V\ inch in length. The stage lasts 2-8 days. The adult fly 
emerges from the pupal case and is ready to fly as soon as its wings harden. The 
female reaches sexual maturity and begins to deposit eggs in 3 to 20 days after 
emerging from the pupal case. Under favorable conditions the period from the 
egg to adult may be as short as 1 week. 
Plate 27. Housefly; Stages in Development. 
Thus material in which the immature forms develop may produce flies if 
neglected for longer than 1 week. 
(2) The characteristics of the fly which are important in its control include: 
(a) Their breeding places of choice, which are horse manure, human ex- 
creta, and fermenting vegetable wastes. 
(b) The necessity of moisture, warmth, and soluble food for the develop- 
ment of the larvae. 
312 (c) The fact that temperatures of 115° F. or above will kill the eggs and 
larvae. 
(d) The tendency of the larvae to migrate from the breeding material 
prior to pupation. 
(e) The ability of the larva and adult to crawl through loose manure 
or earth, 
(f) The attraction of adult flies to food by odor. 
(g) Their tendency to go toward light. 
(h) Their tendency to rest on vertical surfaces and hanging objects. 
(i) The optimum for breeding is 80-95° F. 
(j) The range of flight is 200-1000 yards. 
(k) The number is greatest in the late summer and early fall. 
(l) Continuous breeding may occur during the winter in heated buildings. 
30. Control Measures, a. General. The control of flies depends upon a knowledge 
of the characteristics enumerated above and the necessary measures to render 
the customary breeding places unfavorable for breeding, to kill the larvae by 
use of larvicides, to kill the adult flies, to dispose of human excreta in such a 
manner that it will be inaccessible to flies, and to protect food from flies. Preven- 
tion of fly breeding is the most effective part of a fly control campaign. Constant 
vigilance is necessary. 
b. Control of breeding places. The control of breeding places is essentially the 
problem of the proper disposal of horse manure, human excreta, and garbage. 
The disposal of horse manure in semipermanent camps may be accomplished 
by composting, which is the dose packing of manure on a platform. In properly 
composted manure a temperature of 140-160° F. is reached at a depth of 1 foot 
below the surface; such a temperature will quickly kill the fly egg and larva. 
By the use of larvicides the fly larvae on the surface can be destroyed. Plates 
MESS SANITATION 
313 
Plate 28. Manure Compost Pile with Ditches for the Control of Migrating Larvae, 
28 and 29 illustrate the proper construction of a compost platform. The compost 
pile should be located over 1000 yards from the camp and where it will not be 
an unsightly nuisance. A compost platform is constructed by leveling off an area 
of ground 50 feet long and 20 feet wide, digging a trench around the area 12 
inches wide and 12 inches deep with vertical sides, and constructing a second 
trench, very shallow, not over 3 inches deep and 4 inches wide, located just 
within the edge of the platform. 
The manure is placed on the platform as follows: Beginning at one comer, 
place the manure on an area ZVz feet long and 10 feet wide, piling it to a height 
of 4 to 5 feet, packing it down very tightly, and dressing the sides neatly. The 
sides must at all times be kept vertical. The second day’s supply of manure is 
placed on the adjacent corner in a similar manner. On the third day the supply 
of manure is placed immediately adjacent to the first pile and on the fourth day, 
adjacent to the second pile, and on the fifth day the supply is piled on top of 314 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
the first pile. The manure is thus placed on the platform in the succeeding small 
sections as shown in the diagram. This is done for the purpose of confining the 
fly breeding to the smallest possible area. The manure should be kept moist so 
as to promote decomposition. The sides of the pile should be sprayed daily with 
a mixture of cresol, kerosene, and fuel oil. Crude oil or a light road oil is used in 
the trenches, the earth in the trench being kept visibly moist with oil. In the 
preparation of the platform all vegetation should be removed for a distance of 2 
feet from the edges, the earth here tamped down firmly and oiled thoroughly; 
similarly, the earth beyond the trenches should be freed from vegetation, packed 
down, and oiled. The trenches are to be kept clean at all times. A platform this 
size should care for the manure of 100 animals for 2 months. 
Plate 29. Compost Pile. Scheme for Placing Manure on Pile. 
Numbered spaces each represent 1 day’s accumulation of manure 
c. Larvicides. Larvicides are used chiefly in connection with compost piles 
and latrines. The following larvicides are effective in destroying fly larvae and 
are listed in order of efficiency: 
(1) Cresol 2 parts. 
Kerosene 20 parts. 
Fuel oil 78 parts. 
(2) Cresol 2 parts. 
Soap suds 98 parts. 
(3) Waste motor oil. 
(4) Crude oil. 
The above larvicides have the disadvantage that they render the compost 
somewhat unsatisfactory as fertilizer. The following larvicide, while not rapid 
in action, is very efficient and has the added advantage that it does not render 
the compost unsatisfactory for fertilizer: 
Commercial sodium arsenite 4 pounds 
Molasses 2 parts 
Water 50 gallons. 
d. Destruction of adult flies. (1) Swatting. Swatting is one of the essential 
methods of destruction of flies which have entered a screened building. It is, how- 
ever, labor consuming. 
(2) Poisons. Poisons are easy to use and effective. Formaldehyde and sodium 
salicylate are efficient fly poisons. The formulas for preparing them are: 
(a) Commercial formalin 2 parts. 
Milk or sweetened water or milk and 50 percent lime 
water 98 parts. 
(h) Sodium salicylate 1 part. 
Sweetened water (1 teaspoonful brown sugar to 1 
pint water) 100 parts, 
A satisfactory method of using poisons is to fill a drinking glass Vi full of the 
solution, place over the top of the tumbler a circular piece of blotting paper, the 
diameter of which is 2 inches more than the diameter of the tumbler, and cover 
with an inverted saucer. The whole apparatus is then inverted and a match is inserted under the edge of the glass. The liquids seep out, keeping the blotting 
paper moist. 
(3) Fly sprays. Fly sprays are useful in mess halls, especially when applied 
to groups of flies on the wall. The standard quartermaster insecticide is satis- 
factory for this purpose. Another satisfactory spray may be made as follows: 
Soak 1 pound of crude pyrethrum powder in 1 gallon of kerosene for 2 or 3 days. 
Then pour off the fluid for use as a spray. 
(4) Flypaper and wire. Flypaper and wire are very useful when hung from 
the ceiling of mess halls. Commercial types are of course easiest to use but 
satisfactory ones can be made. The mucilage on the wire or paper is prepared 
by heating (without boiling) together one part by weight of castor oil and two 
parts white rosin. The wire used consists of ordinary bailing wire, several 18- to 
36-inch pieces being twisted together and coated with the mucilage by dipping 
the wire into the mucilage container. The flypaper consists essentially of narrow 
strips of paper, wrapping or glazed, 18 to 36 inches in length, each side of which 
is coated with fly mucilage. When they have become covered with flies the wires 
are wiped with a cloth to remove the flies and mucilage and are recoated. The 
used paper is burned. 
31. Types of Traps, a. Fly traps vary in design and size but all consist of two 
main parts, the bait chamber and the trap chamber. The bait chamber is the 
lower and darker part of the trap into which the flies are enticed by the odor of 
the bait. The trap chamber is the upper part and is connected with the bait 
chamber by an aperture through which the flies crawl toward the light after 
having fed on the bait. 
MESS SANITATION 
315 
Plate 30. Square Fly Trap with Broad Windshield to Protect the Trap from the Wind. 
(1) The square trap is from 12 to 18 inches square and 18 to 24 inches in 
height (see Plate 30). 
(2) The round trap is similar to the square trap except as to shape. Nail 
keg hoops are valuable in the preparation of the framework. 
(3) The box trap is made in the same manner as the square trap except that 
the sides are made of boards. The cone and lid are made of screening. 
(4) The triangular trap should not be less than 12 inches high and 12 inches 
long and made as shown in Plate 33. If traps are less than 12 inches in length 
the solid ends exclude much of the light necessary to attract flies into the trap 
chamber. 
b. Comparative effectiveness of square, round, triangular, and box traps. The 
square and round traps are more effective than the triangular trap, principally 
because the light enters the trap chamber from all sides. They are, however, more 316 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Plate 31. Round Fly Trap with Conical Shaped Bait Chamber and Removable Top or Lid. 
Plate 32. Fly Trap Constructed of Packing Box. Corner Cut Away to Show Method of Installing 
Cone, MESS SANITATION 
317 
Plate 33. Triangular Fly Trap with Cone Shaped Bait Chamber. 
Single opening at apex of cone leading into trap chamber. The small tin disk covers an 
opening through which files may be removed from the trap chamber. Another type, probably 
more effective, uses an inside screen of the same shape as the outside of the trap, with small 
holes spaced about four Inches apart. 
Plate 34. Fly Trap, Showing Method of Construction, Using Ordinary Metal Bucket. 318 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
difficult to construct than the triangular trap. Exposure to the weather, and the 
handling to which fly traps are subjected, will cause the square and round traps 
to warp and become unserviceable much sooner than the triangular traps. Despite 
the fact that the triangular trap is somewhat less effective as a single unit than 
the square or round trap, it will as a rule prove more practical for use in camps 
and large stations than either of the latter because of the comparative ease and 
rapidity with which it can be constructed in large numbers, the availability of 
material, and greater serviceability. The box trap will not catch as many flies 
as the square or round trap, largely because the wooden sides exclude the light 
from the trap chamber. The box trap is, however, more durable than any of the 
others and if packing boxes are available, it can be more quickly and cheaply 
constructed. 
32. Fly Trap Stands. The efficiency of fly traps is increased if they are elevated 
above the ground on stands or on boxes, benches or tables. The stand affords a 
smooth base for the trap and a place to alight before entering the trap. It also 
protects the bait from dirt and may be so constructed as to protect trap from the 
wind. 
Plate 35. Square Fly Trap with Removable Top and Pyramidal Bait Chamber. 
33. Location. Fly traps should be placed in or near breeding places such as 
manure piles or latrines, or in the vicinity of mess halls, kitchens, or dumps. 
34. Fly Baits. Baits must have an odor that will attract flies but will not constitute 
a nuisance. The material should be cheap and readily obtainable. In general, 
there are two types of bait, putrefactive and fermented: 
a. Putrefactive baits consist of spoiled raw meat or fish. Fish heads or canned 
salmon may be used. 
b. Fermented baits are those which contain alcohol or in which alcohol is being 
formed. Usually, they consist of a mixture of cereal, sugar or molasses, yeast and 
water, which is allowed to ferment before or while being used as a bait. A 
formula for a cornmeal bait is as follows: 
(1) Ingredients: 
Cornmeal 8 ounces (by volume). 
Molasses 5 ounces 
Water 16 ounces 
Yeast V2 cake 
(2) Preparation. Mix the water and the molasses and heat to boiling. Pour 
the molasses and water while boiling over the cornmeal, stir, and allow to cool. 
Add the yeast and allow to stand exposed to the air for 3 or 4 days. MESS SANITATION 
319 
(3) Bran or cornstarch, or bran and cornstarch, may be substituted for the 
cornmeal if the latter is not available. Sirup made of water and sugar may be 
substituted for the molasses. 
(4) Other fermented baits may be made as follows; 
(a) Two parts of molasses and one part of vinegar. 
(b) Molasses which has been allowed to stand exposed to the air for 3 or 4 
days. 
(c) Crushed, overripe bananas in milk. 
(d) Brown sugar and sour milk. 
Under comparable conditions various baits may be rated as follows: 
Putrefying meat 100 
Fermenting cornmeal 95 
Molasses and vinegar 80 
35. Care. The following directions should be followed in caring for fly traps: 
a. Place bait in wide shallow containers so that volatile constituents are readily 
evaporated and flies have easy access to bait. 
b. There should be at least 3 inches between edge of bait pan and edge of trap. 
c. Two bait pans should be used in large traps. 
d. Baits should be inspected once daily. 
e. Solid baits such as meat or fish should not be allowed to become dry. 
f. Bait pans should be kept filled to desired level and be cleaned and refilled 
when scum forms on surface. 
g. All baits should be kept free from dirt and dust. 
h. Empty traps whenever a sufficient number of flies accumulate so as to 
interfere with light, otherwise empty traps at about weekly intervals. 
Section VIII 
RAT CONTROL 
36. General. The rat is probably the most expensive parasitic animal living at 
the expense of man. In addition to huge economic losses caused by rats these 
animals are causative factors in the spread of several diseases as follows: 
a. Bubonic plague. Hat acts as reservoir and rat flea transmits the disease. 
b. Endemic typhus. Same manner as plague. 
c. Infectious jaundice. Rat contaminates food with excreta containing leptospira- 
icterohaemorrhagiae. 
d. Rat bite fever. Spirillum minus transferred to man by bite of infected rat. 
e. May harbor intestinal parasites, particularly tapeworms. 
f. May transfer pathogenic organisms from feces to food mechanically. 
g. Factors in spread of trichinella spiralis among hogs. 
37. Classification. The genus rattus includes three species of sanitary importance: 
These are the brown rat, R. norvegicus, the black rat, R. rattus, and the roof or 
Egyptian rat, R. alexandrinus. 
38. Habits. Rats are nocturnal animals but at times come out in the daylight. In 
order to make an intelligent effort toward its destruction some knowledge of the 
habits of the various species is necessary. 
a. The brown rat keeps mainly to the lower floors and basements of buildings, 
as it lacks climbing ability. It is a burrowing animal and will burrow into the 
hardest soil to live and breed. The brown rat has great gnawing ability and will 
eat anything without reference to its degree of freshness or decay. 
b. The black rat and the roof rat are both excellent climbers and live in hallow 
walls, garrets, or loose material such as boxes, barrels, or rubbish. These rats are 
cleanly in their habits and prefer grain and fresh, clean food. 
c. All rats are great travelers and are found on ships, in boxcars, and at times go 
great distances themselves in search of food. 
39. Control Procedures. Control procedures are either suppressive or destructive. 
Suppressive measures are designed to prevent rats from reaching a food supply 
and to deny them access to spaces where they can nest and breed. Destructive pro- 
cedures include poisoning, trapping, fumigation, and employment of natural enemies. 
40. Ratproofing. Temporary buildings in camps, especially if they are to be used 
as storehouses, should either be built up off the ground or ratproofed. Rat- 320 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
proofing consists in the use of concrete floors and walls of concrete or of brick and 
stone laid in cement mortar, with the occlusion of all openings with metal flash- 
ings, grating, or screening. See TM 8-255 (now published as Army Medical 
Bulletin No. 23) for methods of ratproofing buildings. Should buildings which are 
not ratproof be used to store food in, the food should be elevated or stored in 
containers which prevent rats from gaining access to the food. 
41. Poisoning, a. Poisoning is an effective rat control measure where there are 
large numbers of rats but it will not kill all of the rats as many will soon learn 
not to touch the bait. The remainder may be killed or trapped. 
b. One of the best poisons is red squill. This may be mixed with either canned 
salmon, ground fresh meat, or cooked cornmeal in the proportion of Vi ounce of 
commercial red squill to 1 pound of the food base. It is well to mix the squill 
with several different food bases as some rats may prefer the meat or fish rather 
than the cereal, or the reverse may be true. Oven-dried rather than sun-dried 
squill should be used as it is much more effective. 
c. Barium carbonate is another very good poison and it has similar advantages 
to squill in that it is relatively nonpoisonous to children, dogs, and cats. It is 
mixed the same way as squill. 
b. Arsenious oxide, phosphorus, strychnine, and thallium are also used but have 
the disadvantage of being highly poisonous to all animals. 
42. Bait Preparation. The consistency of bait should be such that it can be cut 
or shaped into small balls, cubes, or cakes. Balls or cakes should be about Vi inch 
in diameter and should be well moistened rather than hard or dry. Bait should 
not be handled but mixed with a knife or spoon as the human odor may cause 
the rat to shun the bait. The baits are best wrapped in plain squares of paper, 
the corners being brought together and twisted into a torpedo-shaped package. 
The men who wrap the baits should wear rubber gloves and when the baits are 
placed, a pair of forceps should be used to handle them. 
43. Bait Distribution. Baits are best distributed late in the afternoon so that 
they will be fresh when the rats start to search for food. The baits should be laid 
in places that are easily accessible to and frequented by rats. Generally the best 
results are obtained when the baits are placed along rat runways leading from 
rat harborages. These runways usually lie alongside of walls or other similar 
objects. The baits may be placed singly or in groups. Frequently, several kinds 
of bait may be used in one place as, for example, a ground meat bait together with 
a cereal bait. Single baits or groups of bait should be placed not more than 10 to 
20 feet apart along runways or in areas frequented by rats in search of food. 
44. Prebaiting. In order to accustom rats to eating the kind of food materials 
which will be used to carry the poison, unpoisoned baits which are exactly like 
those that are to be employed later, except that they contain no poison, may be 
distributed for several days prior to placing the poisoned baits. The uneaten baits 
should be collected daily and replaced with fresh material. When the unpoisoned 
baits are eaten freely by the rats, all those that remain uneaten should be collected 
and a comparatively large number of poisoned baits distributed. Frequently, this 
procedure will result in the destruction of a large proportion of the rat population. 
45. Trapping, a. Trapping is an effective rat control measure, but requires 
greater skill and more labor than poisoning. A readily accessible food supply 
decreases the efficiency of trapping as a rat control measure. 
b. Rats soon become suspicious of traps, particularly if the traps are unskillfully 
set, and will then consistently avoid them. Where many rats are present, a com- 
paratively large number of traps should be set at the beginning of the campaign 
in order to destroy as many rats as possible before they learn to avoid the traps. 
c. Trapping is a very practicable and efficient procedure for the control of rats 
in large warehouses or storerooms if it is persistently and systematically carried 
out. It also has the advantage that it can be constantly employed to destroy new 
arrivals where the continued exposure of poison would be undesirable. 
46. Types of Traps. There are two general types of traps, snap (guilloting or 
spring) traps and cage traps. Rats soon become suspicious of cage traps so that 
the snap trap is to be preferred. The trap should be strong and durable and prefer- 
ably made of steel. 
47. Trap Baits. Baits may be fried bacon, fish, cheese, liver, fresh bread or 
doughnuts, cantaloupes, or tomatoes. Fried bacon, cheese, and doughnuts as a MESS SANITATION 
321 
rule prove the most attractive baits. If trapping is continuous the kind of bait 
should be changed frequently. 
48. Trap Setting. Bait should be large and fastened to the trigger securely. It 
may be tied on with string or thread. Traps should be placed in locations normally 
frequented by rats. Where the trap is set along a runway, it should be set with 
trigger end against the wall. The trap may be disguised by covering it wholly or 
in part and prebaiting may be used at first by not setting spring of trap. The 
trigger should be so set that the slightest movement of the bait will spring the trap. 
All traps should be scalded or flamed at intervals to remove the odor derived from 
the hands. Traps may be deodorized by dipping in hot melted paraffin. 
49. Fumigation, a. Hydrocyanic acid gas and sulphur dioxide are the gases com- 
monly used for rat destruction. The difficulty in using these gases in the field is 
so great that they are of little value. 
b. Rat burrows in dumps, around the exterior of buildings, or in other locations 
may be fumigated and the rats killed by carbon monoxide delivered through the 
exhaust pipe of an automobile. Where the burrows are accessible, a flexible pipe 
or a rubber hose is attached to the exhaust pipe and the other end is passed into 
the burrow. The carburetor should be adjusted for a rich mixture. In gassing 
the average burrow, the engine should be allowed to run at moderate speed for 
at least 10 minutes. The burrows and harborages treated in this manner should 
be made as airtight as possible by sealing the cracks and the openings of connecting 
burrows with earth. 
c. Carbon disulphide on balls of cotton or waste may be plugged in rat burrows. 
This is more effective in damp weather and when ground is damp. 
50. Surveys, General. Rat surveys are conducted to determine the presence of 
rats infected with plague or to delimit the areas harboring infected rats. Surveys 
may also be made for the purpose of estimating the degree of rat infestation in a 
building or area with a view to deciding upon the control measures to be em- 
ployed. 
51. Survey to Determine Presence of Plague Infected Rats. a. If a rat survey is 
made for the purpose of determining if plague infected rats are present, the 
suspected area is trapped in order to obtain specimens which will represent a cross 
section of the rat population. The rats thus secured are sent at once to a laboratory 
for examination for evidence of plague infection. Usually, trapping should be con- 
tinued until an infected rat is found or, if the area is within a town or thickly 
populated section, until from 30 to 50 rats have been examined for every 100 persons 
living in the area. 
b. If an infected rat is captured, it is a strong indication that a number of other 
plague rats are present in the locality. The point where the infected rat was 
captured is considered as a center of infection. The trapping activities are extended 
to gradually increasing distances from this center until infected rats are no longer 
found and the circumference of the infected area is determined. The area thus 
mapped out may be subjected to intensive rat eradicative measures which progress 
from the circumference inward toward the center. 
52. Survey to Determine Degree of Rat Infestation. Prior to instituting an antirat 
campaign in a military station or camp, a survey should be made to determine the 
extent of the rat infestation and should include the following factors: 
a. The location of burrows and harborages. 
b. The kinds of food materials available to rats. 
c. To what extent the food materials that are accessible to rats can be rendered 
inaccessible. 
d. The kind of control measures that will probably be the most successful under 
local conditions. 
As the rat instinctively seeks concealment, the degree to which a given building 
or area is infested must be determined by signs of the activities of rats rather 
than by the number that are to be seen. These signs consist of damaged food, 
the presence of rat runways as evidenced by tracks and marks of dragging tails 
in the dust, or by greasy appearing, discolored marks on woodwork made by the 
feet and tails of the rats, burrows and harborages, freshly gnawed wood, or rat 
excreta. 
53. Organization of Antirat Campaigns. The results of a rat survey of a station 
or camp will indicate the kinds of control measures that should be instituted. These 322 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
necessarily will vary according to the conditions but, given average conditions 
with moderate rat infestation, successful control can usually be established and 
maintained by reducing the food supply to a minimum and by ratproofing to elimi- 
nate harborages, followed by an intensive poisoning campaign with persistent and 
systematic trapping thereafter. Slight infestation may be controlled by protection 
of food materials and by poisoning. In any event, a definite and predetermined 
plan of action, trained personnel, and constant supervision are necessary for success. 
Section IX 
54. Water-Sterilizing Bag (Lyster Bag). The water-sterilizing bag is made of 
heavy canvas or rubberized cloth and has a capacity of 36 gallons. These bags 
are issued to all organizations at the rate of one for each 100 men or fraction thereof. 
The water-sterilizing bag is used primarily for the distribution of water previously 
disinfected by a water-purification unit or otherwise. Water can be purified in a 
water-sterilizing bag only by chlorination, and owing to the difficulty of chlorinat- 
ing small quantities of water having a varying organic content, it is used for the 
WATER STERILIZATION 
Plate 36. Water-Sterilizing Bag Suspended from Tripod. 
disinfection of water only when no other facilities for obtaining purified water are 
available. The purification of water in the sterilizing bag is essentially an emer- 
gency measure. The proper disinfection of water is essential in preventing disease 
among troops operating in the field. Where the water-sterilizing bag must be 
used for this purpose, the chlorination of the water should be under the direct 
supervision of Medical Department personnel. Ordinarily, however, as the dis- 
infection of the water is a function of the company concerned, the actual work of 
chlorination is delegated, ultimately, to the personnel of the company kitchen. 
Consequently, the chlorination of the water supply for the unit concerned is fre- 
quently left to the kitchen police who, as a rule, are untrained in the technique of 
water chlorination. As a result, the water may be underchlorinated and therefore 
contaminated, or overchlorinated to a degree which renders it nonpotable. 
55. Technique For Sterilizing Water in Water-Sterilizing Bag. The water should 
be as clear as possible. Clarification may be aided by allowing the water to settle 
in a barrel or galvanized can and then decanting or straining. The steps then used 
are as follows: 
a. Fill the bag to the 36-gallon mark, or if this mark is not present, to within 4 
inches of the top. 
b. Draw a small quantity of water through one of the faucets into a canteen cup. 
c. Break an ampule of the calcium hypochlorite into the water in the cup and MESS SANITATION 
323 
with a clean stick rub it into a thin paste containing no visible lumps. Then add 
sufficient water to fill the cup two-thirds full. 
d. Empty the solution of calcium hypochlorite in the cup into the water in the 
bag and stir thoroughly with a clean stick which is long enough to reach the bot- 
tom of the bag. Then flush out each of the faucets. 
e. After the calcium hypochlorite has been in contact with the water in the bag 
for at least 10 minutes, wash out the faucets by allowing a small amount of water 
to run through it onto the ground. Then fill a clean cup about two thirds full 
of water from one of the faucets. 
f. Add one cc (approximately 15 drops) of the orthotolidine solution to the water 
in the cup and allow it to stand for about 5 minutes so that the color will develop. 
Because of the reflected light, the color of the water in the cup is more intense 
than it would be if the same water were placed in a glass tube. A well-marked 
yellow color indicates that the water contains about the proper amount of residual 
chlorine. An orange color is evidence of overchlorination. 
g. If no residual chlorine is present at the end of the 10 minute contact period, 
the chlorination procedure, as outlined above, is repeated. Where it is suspected 
that the calcium hypochlorite is inert, a preliminary test with orthotolidine should 
be made immediately after the addition of the calcium hypochlorite solution to 
determine if the water contains any free chlorine at that time. 
h. As a factor of safety, the water should be allowed to stand for 20 minutes after 
the end of the contact period, or for 30 minutes after the addition of the calcium 
hypochlorite, before being used for drinking purposes. 
i. The calcium hypochlorite now furnished is the kind known as “Grade A” hypo., 
and contains about 70 per cent available chlorine. This is the equivalent of 2.5 
parts per million free chlorine when added to a bagful of water. The organic 
matter in most water supplies in the field will utilize a great deal of this free 
chlorine so .that the residual chlorine will be reduced to 0.5 to 2 parts per million. 
If there is little or no organic matter present only a fractional part of the tube of 
hypochlorite should be used. When there is any doubt as to the purity of water 
furnished a unit it should be chlorinated. 
56. Other Emergency Measures. If water sterilizing bags are not available, the 
water may be sterilized in the unit water cans, clean, galvanized iron cans, pails, 
or barrels. A proportional amount of calcium hypochlorite is used and the method 
of chlorination is the same as with the water sterilizing bag. Circular 
APPENDIX I 
No. 28 
War Department, 
Cir. 28 
Rations.—1. Field rations.—a. Effective May 1, 1941, a field ration is prescribed for 
all camps, posts, and stations within the continental limits of the United States for a 
period of three months, with the exception of the United States Military Academy, 
General Hospitals, and such other small stations as may be approved by the War 
Department upon recommendation of corps area commanders. 
b. The provisions of this circular are not intended to disrupt the procedure of supply 
at those stations which have been authorized by corps area commanders to adopt 
the field ration system prior to May 1, 1941. After May 1, 1941, the provisions of this 
circular will govern at such posts, camps, and stations. 
c. The money value of the prescribed field ration may vary from day to day, but the 
average daily money value over a period of one month will not exceed the money 
value of the garrison ration for the preceding month decreased by two cents, as com- 
puted for the station involved. 
d. The Finance Department will pay as ration savings to each regiment or similar 
unit at the end of each month or other accounting period an amount equal to the 
number of field rations drawn for the enlisted men of an organization multiplied by 2c 
per ration. If the total number of field rations drawn for the enlisted men of an or- 
ganization in any one month or other accounting period is more or less than the number 
actually due, a corresponding addition or deduction will be made in the following period, 
(see par. 7c and d.) 
c. The custodian of regimental or similar unit funds will distribute the ration savings 
funds received from the disbursing officer to the units of their organizations based on 
the number of field rations drawn by these units. Expenditures by organizations of 
ration savings funds will be limited to those authorized by paragraph 14e, AR 210-50. 
2. Garrison rations. The money value of the garrison ration will be computed on 
the first day of each month by the sales officer in accordance with the provisions of 
paragraph 17, AR 30-2210. The following individuals and units will remain on the 
garrison ration system and receive allowances as indicated: 
a. Enlisted men authorized to mess separately—the number of garrison rations due 
plus 10 percent. 
b. Patients at station hospitals—the number of garrison rations due plus 50 percent. 
c. Enlisted men serving and messing on Army mine planters—the number of garrison 
rations due plus 50 percent. 
d. Individuals or small detachments ordered to places of temporary duty where It 
is impracticable to issue field rations but where cooking facilities are provided may 
be placed on a garrison ration status and will be allowed the number of rations due 
plus 50 percent when so directed in written orders by the local commanding offices*. 
Where cooking facilities are not furnished, they will be placed on a commutation of 
ration status at the rate prescribed in paragraph 2 AR 35-4520. 
e. Stations, units, and individuals authorized to remain on the garrison ration status 
or temporarily placed thereon will be governed by the provisions of AR 30-2210. 
3. Monthly menus, a. The basis of the field ration will be a monthly menu to be 
prescribed for all stations within a corps area operating on the field ration system, or 
separate monthly menus for each station or a group of stations within the corps area 
as may be determined by corps area commanders. Menus will be prepared at such 
places as the corps area commander may direct and will be so prepared as to indicate 
the components for each of the three daily meals and a daily recapitulation of the 
total quantity by unit of purchase of each item required to feed the prescribed menu 
to 100 men. Care will be exercised to see that the menu is nutritionally balanced, 
ample variety provided, and full utilization made of seasonal fresh fruits and vegetables. 
b. Based on current prices, a computation will be made of the cost of feeding the 
proposed menu to 100 men for the month. If the resultant average computed cost per 
ration exceeds 2c less than the cost of the garrison ration at that station, reductions 
in items or quantities of items to be supplied will be made so as to reduce the cost 
to the Government to the required figure. If the computation reveals that the esti- 
mated cost is less than 2c less than the garrison ration cost, increase in items or 
quantity of items to be supplied may be made. 
c The proposed menu thus adjusted and approved by corps area or station com- 
mander will be delivered to sales officers at least 20 days prior to the first day of the 
month in which the menu is to be used. Based on estimated strength of garrison for 
the period covered by approved menus, station quartermasters will initiate procure- 
ment instruments so as to insure timely arrival and distribution of the field ration 
components. 
Washington, February 17, 1941. 326 
d. A copy of each approved menu, with a statement of the station or stations to 
which it applies, will be forwarded by corps area commanders to The Surgeon General 
and The Quartermaster General for their information. 
4. Issuance of field rations. Field rations will be issued on the basis of daily strength 
returns, showing number of officers and enlisted men separately, originated by each 
messing organization. Strength returns for units within a regiment, separate battalion, 
or similar unit will be consolidated and reported to station headquarters. A con- 
solidated report showing strength by regiment, officers and enlisted men separately, 
will be submitted to station sales officers who will issue the field rations in bulk, 
either to the division quartermaster or the regimental or similar unit supply officer. 
Breakdown of field rations to smaller units will be effected by the division quarter- 
master or the unit supply officers. Over or under issues of field rations will be ad- 
justed in subsequent strength returns. 
5. Officers on field ration. Officers’ messes will be organized and operated under 
the provisions of AR 210-60. When, due to the exigencies of the service, it is desirable 
that officers mess with organizations, the number of such officers for whom field 
rations are to be drawn will be reported in daily strength returns and the field rations 
will be drawn for such officers, as contemplated in paragraph 4 above. On the last 
day of the month or at the end of the period for which field rations are drawn, a 
report will be submitted to the commanding officer by each organization drawing 
the field ration for officers, listing by name the officers for whom the field rations 
were drawn, the number of rations drawn for each officer, and the amount due the 
United States from each officer computed at a rate equal to the cost of the field 
ration. After verification and approval by the commanding officer, the statement will 
be transmitted to the disbursing officer who pays the pay accounts of the officers 
concerned. The disbursing officer will enter the amount shown by the statement on 
the pay voucher of the individual officer with the notation “Due United States for 
field rations at furnished during the month of ” and will take 
up the amount so deducted to the credit of the appropriation “Replacing Subsistence 
of the Army”. This deduction may be made on the officer’s pay account for a sub- 
sequent month. Fractions of a field ration may not be drawn—hence, if an officer 
eats only one or two meals per day at a mess which draws a field ration for him, he 
is required to make deduction on his pay voucher for the full ration. Timely notice 
must be given to the officer in charge of the mess of full day’s or days’ absence from 
the mess in order that field rations will not be drawn for him during his absence. 
The 2c allowance will not be paid for field rations issued for officers. 
6. Rationing at station hospitals. Patients of station hospitals at stations operating 
on the field ration system will continue to receive the garrison ration. At the end of 
the month or other accounting period, the number of patient garrison rations due will 
be increased by 50 percent. Enlisted men assigned to and messed at station hospitals 
and civilian employees entitled to rations who are not patients will be issued the 
field ration. At the end of each month or other accounting period, the station surgeon 
will submit a ration return for the number of garrison rations due for patients. Funds 
thus received will be deposited to hospital fund account. The post surgeon will pre- 
scribe the kind and quantity of food for patients. Purchases of such food items will 
be made from the commissary or other sources as deemed advisable by the post sur- 
geon. Payments for such purchases will be effected from hospital fund account. 
The food items received as field rations for enlisted men messing at station hospitals 
may be consolidated with food items purchased for patients for the purpose of estab- 
lishing a central mess for both patients and non-patients participating in a hospital mess. 
7. Accounting for field rations, a. Field rations will be accounted for at the com- 
missary by money value in accordance with the provisions of AR 35-6660. Sales 
officers will account by money value for all prescribed articles of the field ration 
including fresh fruits and vegetables in the subsistence subsection of the subsistence 
account. Shipping ticket will be used to make the issues. Each shipping ticket will 
show the designation of the receiving organization, the number of field rations issued, 
the quantity and unit of each item issued, the current sales price of each item, and 
the total money value of the issue. When signed by unit supply officers, the shipping 
tickets will constitute valid vouchers or subvouchers for dropping accountability by 
money value thereof, 
b. At the end of each month the sales officer will prepare a ration return for the 
total number of field rations issued, officers and enlisted men shown separately, during 
that month. This return, supported by a statement listing the number of rations issued 
to each organization, will be submitted to the local commanding officer for approval. 
Commanding officers will cause these returns to be checked for accuracy and issue the 
necessary directives for corrections where applicable. When approved by the com- 
manding officer, this ration return will be filed as a subvoucher to the ration and 
savings account prepared under the provisions of c below. 
c. Ration and savings account. At the end of each month or other accounting period, 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT sales officers at stations operating on the field ration system will prepare a ration 
and savings account (W. D. Form No. 373) listing the following: 
(1) Number of garrison rations due each regiment or separate unit for men au- 
thorized to mess separately. These entries will be supported by ration returns origi- 
nated at regimental or separate headquarters. 
(2) Number of garrison rations due for patients at station hospital and the money 
value of credit purchases made by the custodian of the hospital fund from the com- 
missary under the provisions of paragraph 6 above. Ration return supporting this 
entry will be originated at the station hospital. 
(3) Number of field rations issued, enlisted men and officers shown separately, to 
each regiment or separate unit. This entry is to be supported by ration return origi- 
nated as directed in b above. 
d. The Finance Department will pay to the custodian of regimental or similar unit 
funds the amount due for enlisted men messing separately and the amount due for the 
2c allowance per field ration issued to enlisted men. To the custodian of the hospital 
fund there will be paid the amount due for garrison ration for enlisted patients less the 
amount of credit purchases made from the station sales officer. 
e. Properly signed and approved copies of ration and savings account will be used 
by disbursing officers as vouchers to their money account and by sales officers as 
vouchers for dropping accountability for money value of field rations issued to officers 
and enlisted men (b above) and credit sales to station hospital. 
/. To provide for minor clerical errors and weight discrepancies, station sales officers 
are authorized to drop from accountability on a certificate approved by the command- 
ing officer, an amount not to exceed three-tenths of one percent of the money value of 
the total issues and sales. Shortages in excess of three-tenths of one percent and other 
losses caused by spoilage, etc., not subject to reclamation, will be placed on a Report 
of Survey, as prescribed by paragraph 5b, AR 35-6660. 
8. Reports, a. Army and corps area commanders will submit a report prior to 
July 1, 1941, containing the following information: 
(1) Recommendations as to whether the field ration system should be continued 
or discontinued. 
(2) Recommended improvements on the procedure as prescribed in this circular. 
b. Preliminary reports may be submitted at any time. 
9. Where the provisions of this circular are in conflict with existing War Depart- 
ment circulars or Army Regulations, the instructions contained in this circular 
will govern. 
(A.G. 430.2 (1-28-41).) 
By order of the Secretary of War: 
G. C. MARSHALL, 
Chief of Staff. 
Official: 
E. S. ADAMS, 
Major General, 
The Adjutant General. 
APPENDIX I 
327 APPENDIX II 
ISSUING TABLE OF PROVISIONS PER MAN PER MEAL 
CRACKERS: 
Oysters for table 1/3 lb. 
Breading 1/20 ” 
Soda for table 1/16 ” 
m* 
BREAD FRESH: 
Fresh for table 1/3 lb. 
Pudding 1/6 ” 
French toast 1/4 ” 
Dressing 1/6 ” 
Breading 1/16 ” 
Croutons 1/8 ” 
Hamburger 1/16 ” 
Plain toast 1/4 " 
FLOUR: 
Bread for table 1/4 lb. 
Cakes plain 1/10 ” 
Pie 1/10 ” 
Rolls 1/4 ” 
Baking powder biscuit 1/6 ” 
Hot cakes 1/6 ” 
Thickening 1/30 ” 
Dumplings 1/8 ” 
Fritters 1/6 ” 
Doughnuts 1/6 ” 
Turnovers 1/10 ” 
Custard pie 1/20 ” 
Sea pie 1/8 ” 
Plum duff 1/12 ” 
Cottage pudding 1/8 ” 
Batter 1/20 ” 
Yorkshire pudding ...1/8 ” 
Roux 1/20 ” 
Buckwheat for hot cakes .... 1/8 ” 
Commeal for mush 1/8 ” 
Cornmeal for corn bread ...1/16 ” 
Cornmeal for com cakes ...1/16 ” 
Commeal, fried 1/8 ” 
Commeal for breading ..... 1/40 ” 
Cmllers 1/8 ” 
Coffee cakes 1/4 " 
Com bread ..1/10 ” 
Jelly roll 1/15 ” 
Cookies 1/60 ” 
Gravy 1/50 ” 
BACON TINNED: 
Fried straight 1/3 lb. 
With liver 1/10 M 
For chowder 1/50 ” 
Fried with eggs 1/7 ” 
Boiled 1/4 ” 
With baked fish 1/50 ” 
For beans 1/20 ” 
Potato salad 1/8 ” 
CHIPPED BEEF: 
On toast ,.1/10 lb. 
CODFISH TINNED: 
Creamed 1/5 lb. 
Hash 1/8 ” 
Chowder 1/16 ” 
Cakes 1/8 ” 
Salad 1/16 ” 
Cakes breaded 1/4 ” 
SALMON: 
Croquettes 1/8 lb. 
Cold 1/3 ” 
Salad 1/6 ” 
Hash 1/8 ” 
Baked 1/8 ” 
Loaf 1/4 ” 
Escalloped 1/4 ” 
Creamed 1/4 ” 
SARDINES: 
On toast 1/4 lb. 
Salad 1/8 ” 
VIENNA SAUSAGE: 
Chopped 1/3 lb. 
Plain 1/3 ” 
Fried 1/3 ” 
Sandwiches 1/16 " 
LUNCHEON MEAT: 
Fried 1/4 lb. 
Cold 1/5 
Fried with eggs 1/8 ” 
Omelet 1/16 ” 
Sandwiches 1/8 ” 
CORNED BEEF FRESH: 
Boiled 1/5 lb. 
Hash 1/4 ” 
CORNED BEEF TINNED: 
For hash 1/8 lb. 
Cold sliced 1/6 lb. 
Mulligan 1/4 ” 
Omelet 1/12 ” 
Minced meat 1/8 " 
Sandwiches 1/12 ” 
Cold .. 3/4 
Meat cakes 1/4 ” 
BACON SMOKED: 
Boiled 1/3 lb. 
Fried straight 1/4 ” 
Fried with eggs 1/8 ” 
HAM SUGAR CURED: 
Boiled 3/5 lb. 
Fried 3/4 ” 
Baked 3/5 ” 
Omelet 1/15 ” 
SHOULDER SUGAR CURED: 
Boiled 2/3 lb. 330 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
PORK SAUSAGE: 
Fried 1/2 lb. 
Boiled 2/5 ” 
Cakes 1/2 
VEAL FRESH: 
Roast 2/3 lb. 
Stew 3/8 ” 
Cutlets breaded 3/4 ” 
Fricassee 1/2 ” 
Loaf 1/3 ” 
Croquettes 1/3 ” 
Salad 1/3 ” 
LIVER: 
Fried 3/8 lb. 
HAMBURGER: 
Loaf . 1/4 lb. 
Cakes 1/4 ” 
Minced meat 1/6 ” 
Stuffed peppers 1/6 ” 
CHICKEN OR FOWL: 
Roast 4/5 lb. 
Fried 3/4 ” 
Fricassee 3/4 ” 
Salad with potatoes 1/2 ” 
Salad with celery 1/2 ” 
Stew 2/5 ” 
Croquettes 3/5 ” 
Chop suey 2/5 ” 
FISH FRESH: 
Boiled 1/3 ” 
Baked 2/3 
Cakes 1/8 
Chowder 1/16 ” 
EGGS FRESH: 
Fried 1/6 doz. 
Boiled 1/6 
Scrambled 1/6 ” 
Hot cakes 1/120 ” 
Mayonnaise dressing 1/150 ” 
Batter 1/120 ” 
Plain omelette 1/6 ” 
Dumplings 1/200 ” 
Ham omelette 1/8 ” 
Cakes 1/50 ” 
French toast 1/100” 
Cookies 1/150 ” 
Pumpkin pie 1/60 ” 
Custard pie 1/30 ” 
Corn bread .1/15 ” 
Hamburger 1/100 ” 
Puddings 1/100 ” 
Fritters 1/120 ” 
Croquettes 1/100 ” 
BEANS NAVY: 
Baked 1/29 gaL 
Soup 1/80 ” 
Boiled 1/25 ” 
FRANKFURTERS: 
Steamed 1/3 lb. 
Chopped 1/3 ” 
Griddled 1/3 
BOLOGNA: 
Fried 1/2 lb. 
Cold 1/7 ” 
Omelet 1/16 ” 
Hash 1/8 
TONGUE SMOKED: 
Cold 1/4 lb. 
Boiled 1/4 
BEEF FRESH: 
Minced 1/3 lb. 
Boiled. 3/4 
Chili 1/8 
Chop suey ..2/5 
Pot roast 2/3 ” 
A-La-Mode 3/4 ” 
Steak 3/4 ” 
Stew 1/3 
Croquettes 1/3 ” 
Goulash 1/3 ” 
Pot pie 1/3 ” 
Hamburger 1/3 ” 
Curry 1/2 
Breaded strips 1/2 ” 
Loaf 1/3 
Roast 3/5 ” 
Railroad hash 1/3 ” 
Braised 2/3 ” 
Hash 1/4 ” 
Creamed on toast 1/3 ” 
Cold roast 1/2 ” 
SALT PORK: 
Lean boiled 1/2 lb. 
Chowder 1/50 ” 
For beans 1/25 ” 
SALT MACKEREL: 
Broiled 1/2 lb. 
Boiled 1/2 
Fried 1/2 
MUTTON FRESH: 
Roast 2/3 lb. 
Stew 1/2 
Chops 3/4 ” 
Fricassee 1/2 
Boiled. 3/5 
Sea Pie 1/3 ” 
Curry 1/4 ” 
PORK LOINS: 
Roast 3/4 lb. 
Chops plain 3/5 ” 
Chop suey 1/3 ” 
Pork pie 1/3 ” 
Boiled 3/5 ” 
Chops breaded 1/2 ” APPENDIX II 
331 
BEANS LIMA: 
Baked 1/35 gal. 
Boiled 1/50 ” 
BEANS KIDNEY: 
Chili 1/60 gal. 
Boiled 1/30 ” 
Baked 1/29 ” 
PEAS SPLIT; 
Soup 1/80 gal. 
TURKEY: 
Roast 3/4 lb. 
Salad 1/3 
STRING BEANS TINNED: 
Pickles 1/3 lb. 
Boiled 1/4 ” 
Salad 1/8 ” 
CORN TINNED: 
Stewed 1/3 lb. 
Pudding 1/4 ” 
Fritters 1/16 ” 
Chowder 1/16 ” 
Succotash 1/8 ” 
PEAS TINNED: 
Creamed 1/4 lb. 
Soup 1/6 
With carrots 1/8 ” 
SPINACH TINNED: 
Boiled 1/3 lb. 
TOMATOES TINNED: 
Stewed 1/4 lb. 
Soup 1/8 
Soups 1/40 
Beans 1/20 ” 
Gravy 1/45 ” 
Pot roast 1/40 ” 
Stew 1/20 ” 
Sauce 1/10 ” 
Chop suey 1/20 ” 
Spanish rice 1/8 ” 
Macaroni 1/8 ” 
Cold 1/4 ” 
Chili Concarni 1/20 ” 
Mashed 1/4 ” 
BEETS TINNED: 
Pickled 1/6 lb. 
Salad 1/20 ” 
TURNIPS FRESH: 
Mashed 2/5 lb. 
For stew 1/20 ” 
Mashed with potatoes 1/4 ” 
Boiled 1/3 ” 
New England Dinner 1/5 ” 
Pot Roast 1/20 ” 
Vegetable Soup 1/50 ” 
ASPARAGUS TINNED: 
On toast 1/4 lb. 
Creamed 1/4 ” 
LIMA BEANS TINNED: 
Boiled 1/4 lb. 
Salad 1/8 ” 
Succotash 1/8 ” 
TOMATOES FRESH: 
Sliced 1/3 lb. 
Salad 1/6 ” 
BEETS FRESH; 
Pickled 1/4 lb. 
Salad 1/10 ” 
ONIONS GREEN FRESH: 
Plain 1/5 lb. 
Salad 1/20 ” 
SQUASH FRESH: 
Creamed 1/2 lb. 
Stewed 2/3 ” 
For pie 1/2 ” 
Baked 3/5 ” 
PUMPKIN FRESH: 
Creamed 1/2 lb. 
Stewed 2/3 ” 
For pie 1/2 ” 
Baked 3/5 " 
STRING BEANS FRESH: 
Boiled 2/3 lb. 
Salad 2/5 ” 
PEAS IN POD: 
Creamed 3/5 lb. 
Stewed 3/4 ” 
CORN ON COB; 
Plain 3/4 lb. 
SPINACH FRESH: 
Boiled 4/5 lb. 
CAULIFLOWER: 
Creamed 4/5 lb. 
Au Gratin 4/5 ” 
LETTUCE; 
Sugared 1/5 lb. 
With Salad 1/15 ” 
CARROTS FRESH: 
Stew 1/20 lb. 
Creamed 1/4 ” 
Pot roast 1/20 ” 
With peas 1/8 ” 
For soups 1/50 ” 
RADISHES: 
Plain 1/6 lb. 
Salad 1/20 ” 
RHUBARB FRESH; 
For pie 1/4 lb. 
Sauce 1/4 ” 
PARSNIPS FRESH: 
Fried 1/2 lb. 
Creamed 1/9 ** 
Baked 1/2 ” 332 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
EGG PLANT: 
Fried 1/5 lb. 
Baked stuffed 1/3 ” 
PEPPERS RED AND GREEN: 
Chili 1/20 lb. 
Stuffed 1/6 
Spanish sauce 1/50 ” 
Chop suey 1/100 
Salad 1/20 ” 
Seasoning agent 1/100 ” 
ASPARAGUS FRESH: 
Creamed 1/3 lb. 
PARSLEY: 
For garnishing 1/100 lb. 
POTATOES IRISH: 
Mashed 3/5 lb. 
Boiled peeled 1/2 ” 
With jackets 2/5 
German fried 3/4 ” 
French fried 3/4 ” 
Stew 1/2 ” 
Salad 2/5 
Baked peeled 3/5 ” 
Lyonnaise 1/2 ” 
Escalloped 1/2 ” 
Baked with jackets 1/2 ” 
Au gratin 3/5 ” 
For hash 3/5 ” 
Croquettes 1/2 ” 
Hash brown 2/3 ” 
Creamed 1/2 ” 
For soup 3/20 ” 
Chowder 1/10 ” 
Potato cakes 3/5 ” 
Fish cakes 1/2 ” 
Stuffed baked 2/3 ” 
Railroad hash 1/2 ” 
For yeast 1/200 ” 
CUCUMBERS; 
For salad 1/7 lb. 
Plain 2/5 ” 
CELERY: 
Chop suey 1/15 lb. 
Plain 1/4 
For salad 1/8 n 
For soup 1/30 ” 
Creamed 1/30 ” 
POTATOES SWEET: 
Boiled 3/5 lb. 
Candied 4/5 ” 
Pie 1/5 ” 
Fried 3/4 ” 
Baked 3/4 ” 
ONIONS FRESH: 
Fried 3/5 lb. 
Dressing 1/20 ” 
Boiled 2/5 
Creamed 2/5 ” 
Chop suey 1/5 lb. 
Soups 1/25 ” 
Salad 1/15 ” 
Hash 1/20 ” 
Stew 1/20 ” 
Hamburger 1/30 ” 
Chowder 1/25 ” 
Pot roast 1/50 ” 
Gravies 1/50 ” 
Spanish Omelet 1/40 ” 
Lyonnaise Potatoes 1/20 ” 
CABBAGE FRESH: 
Boiled 2/3 lb, 
Cole slaw 1/3 ” 
Hot slaw 3/5 ” 
Chop suey 1/4 ” 
Vegetable soup 1/20 ” 
Fried cabbage 2/3 ” 
Creamed 3/5 ” 
New England style 1/2 ” 
RICE: 
Steamed 1/8 lb. 
Croquettes 1/6 ” 
Pudding 1/10 ” 
Cakes 1/10 ” 
Soup 1/50 ” 
As cereal 1/8 ” 
Spanish style 1/10 ” 
ROLLED OATS: 
For cereal 1/10 lb. 
TAPIOCA: 
Plain pudding 1/10 lb, 
Fruit pudding 1/15 ” 
APPLES DRIED: 
Sauce 1/10 lb. 
Pie 1/7 ” 
Dumplings 1/8 ” 
Pudding 1/20 ” 
Apple cakes 1/20 ” 
Plum duff 1/50 ” 
Turnovers 1/10 ” 
CITRON: 
Fruit cake 1/13 lb. 
Plum duff 1/13 ” 
Plain cake 1/50 ” 
CURRANTS: 
Pudding 1/100 lb, 
Pie 1/5 
Currant cake 1/50 ” 
Plum duff 1/20 ” 
Cinnamon buns 1/15 ” 
Fruit cake 1/20 ” 
COCONUT: 
Pie 1/10 lb 
Cake 1/50 ” 
Fruit pudding 1/50 ” PEACHES DRIED: 
Pie 1/7 lb. 
CORN STARCH: 
Pudding 1/30 lb. 
Puddings 1/200 ” 
Tomato sauce 1/200 ” 
BARLEY: 
For soup 1/50 lb. 
HOMINY GRITS; 
As cereal 1/10 lb. 
Fried 1/8 
Plum duff 1/30 M 
Turnovers 1/5 ” 
Fruit Salad 1/25 ” 
Fritters 1/10 ” 
APRICOTS TINNED: 
Plain 2/5 lb. 
Pie 1/3 ” 
Turnovers 1/6 ” 
Fruit salad 1/30 ” 
Puddings 1/6 ” 
Short Cake 1/12 ” 
PEACHES TINNED: 
Plain 1/2 lb. 
Pie 2/5 ” 
Turnovers 1/4 " 
Salad 1/7 
Puddings 1/6 
Short cakes 1/12 ” 
PEARS TINNED: 
Plain 1/2 lb. 
Pie 2/5 
Turnovers 1/4 ” 
PINEAPPLE TINNED: 
Plain 2/5 lb. 
Pudding 1/20 ” 
Pie 2/5 
Cake 1/7 ” 
Salad 1/8 ” 
PRUNES: 
Plain 1/5 lb. 
Pie 1/4 
Turnovers 1/10 ” 
Stewed 1/8 ” 
Cake 1/20 ” 
RAISINS: 
Pie 1/15 lb. 
Plain cake 1/50 ” 
Fruit cake 1/40 ” 
Bread pudding 1/50 ” 
Raisin pudding 1/10 ” 
Plum duff 1/30 ” 
Bread 1/50 ” 
APPENDIX II 
APPLES TINNED: 
Pie 1/6 lb. 
Apple cake 1/5 »» 
Sauce 1/7 »» 
Puddings * 1/12 ” 
Dumplings 1/5 »» 
CHERRIES: 
plain 1/3 lb. 
Ple 1/5 ” 
GRAPES: 
Plain lb. 
STRAWBERRIES: 
£fke 1/4 lb. 
Plain *» 
BLACKBERRIES: 
P}ain 1/4 lb. 
Ple 1/5 
BLUEBERRIES: 
gfain 1/4 lb. 
Ple 1/5 ” 
HUCKLEBERRIES; 
Plain 1/4 lb. 
Pia ” 
RASPBERRIES: 
P!ain 1/3 lb. 
Ple 1/5 ” 
CRANBERRIES: 
S?uce 1/7 lb 
Pie 1/5 ” 
Turnovers 1/5 »> 
JAMS: 
pla*n 1/6 lb. 
Turnovers 1/20 ” 
Cakes 1/20 *• 
APPLE BUTTER: 
Plain 1/20 lb. 
MINCEMEAT: 
Pi,e 1/10 lb. 
Plum duff 1/30 *» 
Turnovers 1/20 ” 
PEACHES FRESH: 
PIain 1/2 lb. 
PEARS FRESH: 
Plain 1/2 lb. 
Baked 1/3 ” 
Apple cake 1/100 ” 
Fritters 1/10 ** 
BANANAS: 
Plain 1/3 lb. 
Cake 1/8 ” 
Salad 1/16 ” 
Pie 1/16 ” 
333 334 
LEMONS: 
For iced tea 1/70 lb. 
Lemonade 1/13 ” 
Pie 1/20 ” 
ORANGES; 
Plain 3/7 lb. 
Fruit salad 1/16 ” 
COFFEE: 
Plain 1/30 lb. 
Early morning 1/60 ” 
COCOA: 
Plain 1/25 lb. 
Pudding 1/200 ” 
Pie 1/75 ” 
Chocolate cake 1/100 ” 
Layer cake 1/150 ” 
TEA: 
Plain 1/100 lb. 
Iced tea 1/160 ” 
WATERMELON: 
Plain 5/4 lb. 
CANTALOUPE: 
Plain 3/4 lb. 
PLUMS: 
Plain 1/3 lb. 
GRAPEFRUIT: 
Plain 2/3 lb. 
PINEAPPLE FRESH; 
Plain 1/2 lb. 
For fritters 1/2 ” 
APPLES FRESH; 
Plain 1/3 lb. 
Pie 1/4 " 
Salad 1/15 ” 
Sauce 1/3 ” 
Dumplings 1/3 ” 
MILK FRESH: 
For cereal 1/16 gal. 
Oyster stew 1/35 ” 
CATSUP: 
Plain 1/100 ” 
BUTTER: 
For cakes 1/75 lb. 
For table 1/60 ” 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
CHEESE: 
Table 1/8 lb. 
Macaroni 1/75 ” 
Au Gratin 1/75 ” 
BAKING POWDER: 
Cake 1/150 lb. 
Biscuits 1/75 »» 
Hot cakes 1/50 ” 
Corn bread 1/75 ” 
Dumplings 1/75 ” 
MACARONI: 
Baked 1/15 lb. 
VERMICELLI: 
For soup 1/50 lb. 
MILK EVAPORATED: 
Coffee 1/50 lb. 
Pudding 1/100 ” 
Cocoa 1/125 ” 
Cake 1/50 ” 
Soup 1/80 ” 
Ice cream 1/4 ” 
Cereals 1/10 ” 
Oysters 1/8 ” 
Custard pie 1/3 ” 
Mashed potatoes 1/50 ” 
Minced meat 1/75 »» 
Pumpkin pie 1/90 ” 
Cream pie 1/5 »» 
Creamed vegetables 1/100 ” 
Baking powder biscuits 1/75 ” 
Hot cakes 1/65 ” 
Cream sauce 1/100 ” 
Chicken fricassee 1/60 ” 
PICKLES: 
Plain 1/12 lb. 
SAUERKRAUT: 
p!ain 1/4 lb. 
SUGAR: 
Pie 1/20 lb. 
Cake 1/15 ” 
Bread 1/200 ” 
Coffee 1/25 ” 
Tea 1/30 ” 
Puddings 1/25 ” 
Cranberry sauce 1/3 ” 
Cereals i/jq ” 
Cocoa 1/25 »* 
OYSTERS: 
Dressing l/ioo gals. 
Stew 1/20 ” 
CLAMS: 
For chowder 1/25 gal. APPENDIX III 
TABLES AND USEFUL INFORMATION 
1. Weights and Measures, a. Avoirdupois Weight. 
16 ounces equal 1 pound. 
100 pounds equal 1 hundredweight. 
20 hundredweight equal 1 ton. 
b. Dry measure. 
2 pints =1 quart =1.101 liters. 
8 quarts =1 peck =8.811 liters. 
4 pecks =1 bushel =35.24 liters. 
c. Liquid measure. 
4 gils =1 pint =473.25 cubic centimeters. 
2 pints =1 quart =0.9465 liters. 
4 quarts =1 gallon =3.786 liters. 
SlVa gallons =1 barrel. 
2 barrels =1 hogshead. 
d. Miscellaneous weights. 
(1) 10 eggs, average size without shell, weigh 1 pound. 
(2) Each of the following equals approximately 1 bushel: 
48 pounds apples. 
50 pounds carrots. 
58 pounds onions, dry. 
45 pounds parsnips. 
60 pounds potatoes, irish. 
54 pounds potatoes, sweet. 
56 pounds tomatoes, fresh. 
55 pounds turnips. 
70 pounds corn on the cob. 
(3) The cup, which is part of the individual equipment of each soldier, will 
be found very convenient for determining quantities. The cup holds IVz liquid pints. 
1 level cupful of— 
Pounds 
Ounces 
1 level cupful of— 
Pound 
Ounces 
Apples, evaporated .. 
0 
7 
Oatmeal 
0 
8 
Beans, chili 
1 
4 
Peaches, evaporated . 
0 
14 
Beans, issue 
1 
6 
Peas, dried 
1 
5 
Beans, kidney 
1 
3 
Prunes 
0 
14 
Beans, lima 
1 
3 
Raisins 
0 
14 
Bread crumbs 
0 
13 
Rice 
1 
5 
Coffee, R. & G 
0 
9 
Salt, coarse 
1 
11 
Corn, sweet, dried .. 
0 
14 
Salt, issue 
1 
12 
Corn meal 
1 
2 
Sirup 
2 
2 
Currants 
1 
5 
Sugar, cut-loaf 
0 
14 
Eggs, broken 
1 
11 
Sugar, granulated ... 
1 
14 
Flour 
0 
14 
Tea, black 
0 
5 
Hominy 
1 
2 
Tea, oolong 
0 
6 
Milk, fresh 
1 
9 
Tea, green 
0 
9 
One 3-gallon bucket of potatoes weighs 17 pounds, and when peeled they will 
weigh about 15 pounds. 
One 3-gallon bucket of onions weighs about 14 pounds, and when peeled they 
will weigh about 11 pounds. 
(4) The no, 55 (2-quart size) dipper, level full, holds the following: 
Pounds 
Pounds 
Apples, evaporated 
1V4 
Oil, cottonseed, etc. , 
3% 
Beans, dry 
2% 
Peaches, evaporated , 
2 
Coffee, ground 
2 
Prunes 
2 
Corn meal 
2% 
Raisins 
2 
Fat (butter or lard) 
3% 
Rice 
sy4 
Flour or cornstarch 
2 
Sugar 
sy2 
Oats, rolled 
m 
Tea 
(5) The no. 56 (1-quart size) dipper holds one-half as much 
as the no. 55. 336 
2. Equivalent Weights and Measures, Spoons, Cups, etc. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
Volume1 
Weight 
Level tea- 
spoonful 
Rounding 
tea- 
spoonful 
Heaping 
tea- 
spoonful 
Level 
table- 
spoonful 
Cupful 
Pint 
Quart 
Flour 
Granu- 
lated 
sugar 
Shorten- 
ing 
1 
1/12 oz. 
Vs oz. 
H4, oz. 
y3 oz. 
Ve oz. 
Vs oz. 
% oz. 
% oz. 
1 oz. 
Ve oz. 
% oz. 
% oz. 
2 
1 
3 
1 
1/16 
4 
2 
1 
% oz. 
1 oz. 
6 
3 
2 
Vs 
V* 
Vz 
1 
1/16 
Vs 
Va. 
Vz 
1 
6 
3 
6 
4 
1/16 
Vs 
Va. 
Vz 
% 
1 
i oz. 
2 ozs. 
8 
16 
2 
1 lb. 
1 lb. 
3 
1% 
2 
1 Vz lbs. 
2 lbs. 
Wz lbs. 
2 lbs. 
4 
1 lb. 
1 Where teaspoon, tablespoon, or cup is referred to, it means standard measuring spoon or cup. 
A cupful, teaspoonful, etc., mean level measure. Draw a knife across the top of the measure when 
filled so that the surface is level. 
To measure one-half teaspoon or tablespoon, fill the measure level and cut across the center lengthwise. 
For quarters, cut another line directly across the center of the first one. 
In measuring flour sift before measuring and do not pack it down in the container. In measuring salt, 
sugar, or like products which have become lumpy, break up the lumps before measuring. 
3. Boiling Point of Water Under Various Pressures. The following table shows 
approximate temperatures possible to attain with pressure cookers: 
1.5 pounds of pressure 217° F. 
3.5 pounds of pressure 222° F. 
5 pounds of pressure 230° F. 
10 pounds of pressure 240° F. 
15 pounds of pressure 250° F. 
Note. Since temperatures attained with use of pressure cooker are high, as in- 
dicated above, the cooking time is proportionately shortened. 
4. Teaspoons; Tablespoons; Cups; Miscellaneous Foods. 
Ingredient 
Cup 
Ounces 
Tea- 
spoons 
Ounces 
Table- 
spoons 
Ounces 
Bating powder 
1 
% 
1 
% 
1 
Butter * 
1 
a 
2 
Chocolate (cut fine) 
1 
Chocolate (melted) . 
1 
1 
% 
Cocoa ' 
1 
2% 
8% 
4% 
1 
I 
Com meal 
* 
1 
1 
% 
% 
% 
% 
% 
Cream of tartar 
1 
1 
% 
% 
5/16 
Flavoring extract 
1 
1 
Flour, cake (unsifted) 
Flour, cake (sifted) ... 
1 
4V4 
31% 
1 
1 
1 
Flour, bread (sifted) * 
1 
4 y* 
m 
8% 
4% 
4% 
4 
Flour, bread (unsifted) 
Milk, whole .. 
1 
1 
Milk, powdered, skim _ 
1 
Nuts, ground 
1 
Nuts, shelled 
1 
, 
Raisins 
. l 
514 
2% 
Rolled oats . 
1 
Salt 
Shortening _ .. 
1 
r. 
/o 
% 
% 
V* 
Soda, baking . 
Spices, ground 
3 
Sugar (brown) 
1 
5% 
8 
Sugar, granulated 
1 
% 
Sugar, powdered 
3 
% 
Sirup 
Water 
8 
% 
% 
8 teaspoons 
16 tablespoons 
12 tablespoons 
2 cups liquid 
4 cups liquid 
9 to 10 eggs 
5 whole eggs 
8 egg whites 
12 egg yolks 
=1 tablespoon, 
dry ingredients =1 cup. 
liquid ingredients =1 cup. 
=1 pint. 
=1 quart. 
(minus shell) =1 pound. 
=1 cup or 8 ounces. 
=1 cup or 8 ounces. 
=1 cup or 8 ounces. 5. Conversion Tables. 
APPENDIX III 
337 
United States measures 
Imperial measure (British) 
Metric 
measure 
Weight 
of indi- 
cated volume 
of water 
United States 
Measure 
Gallons 
Qts. 
Pints 
Gills 
Gallons 
Quarts 
Pints 
Gills 
Liter 
Cubic 
centi- 
meter 
Pounds 
(avoir- 
du- 
pois) 
Kilo- 
grams 
1 gallon 
1 
4 
8 
32 
0.833 
3.33 
6.66 
26.66 
3.785 
3785.4 
8.33 
3.785 
1 quart ___ 
.26 
1 
2 
8 
.208 
.833 
1.666 
6.67 
.946 
946.6 
2.08 
.946 
1 pint - 
.125 
.5 
1 
4 
.104 
.417 
.833 
3.33 
.473 
473.2 
1.04 
.473 
1 gill 
.031 
.125 
.25 
1 
.026 
.104 
.208 
.833 
.118 
118.3 
.26 
.118 
Imperial Measure 
(British) 
1 gallon 
1.2 
4.8 
9.6 
38.4 
1 
4 
8 
32 
4.543 
4543.5 
10. 
4.543 
1 quart 
.3 
1.2 
2.4 
9.6 
.25 
1 
2 
8 
1.136 
1135.9 
2.5 
1.136 
1 pint 
.15 
.6 
1.2 
4.8 
.125 
.5 
1 
4 
.568 
567.9 
1.25 
.568 
1 gill 
.038 
.15 
.3 
1.2 
.031 
.125 
.25 
1 
.142 
142.0 
.312 
.142 
Metric Measure 
1 liter 
.264 
1.057 
2.11 
8.45 
.220 
.880 
1.761 
7.044 
1. 
1000 
2.20 
1 
1 cubic centimeter 
.0003 
.001 
.002 
.008 
.0002 
.0009 
.002 
.007 
.001 
1 
.002 
.001 
6. Conversion of Milk in Forms Other Than Liquid Whole Milk to Approximate 
Equivalents in Liquid Whole Milk. 
Evapoi 
rated milk 
I 
)ry skim mil 
k 
Dry wh( 
lie milk 
Liquid whole 
Milk 
Milk (dry 
Butter or 
Milk (whole 
milk 
(evap.) 
Water 
skim) 
shortening 
Water 
dry) 
Water 
(14% oz. 
cans) 
Lb. 
Oz. 
Lb. 
Oz. 
Lb. 
Oz. 
Lb. 
Oz. 
Lb. 
Oz. 
Lb. 
Oz. 
1 quart (9..1 lb.) 
1 
1 
3 
i 
1 
14 
4 
1 
12 
4 
4 
12 
4 
7 
6 
1 
4 
2% 
2% 
7 
3 
4 
6 
10 
4 
6 
10 pounds 
5 
5 
14 
6 
8 
12 
1 
3 
8 
13 
10 
10 
1 
12 
11 
17 
9 
2 
6 
17 
10 
30 pounds _ 
15 
15 
2 
10 
1 
26 
6 
3 
9 
25 
7 
20 
20 
3 
8 
1 
6 
35 
2 
4 
12 
35 
4 
50 pounds 
25 
25 
4 
6 
1 
12 
43 
14 
6 
15 
43 
1 
60 pounds 
30 
30 
5 
6 
2 
1 
52 
10 
7 
2 
61 
14 
35 
85 
6 
3 
2 
6 
61 
7 
8 
5 
60 
11 
40 
40 
7 
1 
2 
12 
70 
3 
9 
12 
70 
4 
45 
45 
8 
3 
2 
78 
14 
10 
14 
79 
2 
100 pounds 
50 
50 
9 
3 
8 
87 
8 
12 
88 
NOTE. While Federal standards 
require the 
use of butterfat in reconstituting dry skim milk to 
whole 
milk, for Army bread-making purposes either the same weight as 
butter in lard or lard substitute may be 
used. 
Explanation of use of milk conversion chart: 
A certain formula for bread 
requires the use of 60 pounds 
of liquid. In lieu of all 
water, it 
is desired to use 
half (30 pounds) 
of water and half (30 pounds) of 
milk. By referring to conversion table, it 
will 
~>e seen that either of the following may be used for the 
milk ingredients: 30 pounds of liquid whole milk or—15 cans of evaporated milk+15 pounds of water or— 
2 pounds 10 ounces of dry skim milk +1 pound 
of shortening +26 pounds 6 ounces of water or—3 pounds 
9 ounces of dry whole milk+25 pounds 7 ounces 
of water. 
Formula using all 
water 
Formula using half 
water, half milk 
(evaporated milk as 
milk ingredient) 
Formula using half water, 
half milk (dry skim 
milk as milk ingredient) 
Formula using half 
water, milk (dry whole 
milk as milk ingredi- 
ent) 
Flour 100 lb. 
Water 60 lb. 
Millc 
Yeast 2 lb. 
Sugar . 3 lb. 
Flour 100 lb. 
Water 45 lb. 
Milk, evaporated 15 cans 
Yeast - 2 lb. 
Sugar 3 lb. 
RbI* 9. Ih. 
Flour 100 lb. 
Water - 56 lb. 6 oz. 
Dry skim milk 2 lb. 10 oz. 
Yeast 2 lb. 
Sugar 3 lb. 
Saif 2 lb, 
Flour . 100 lb. 
Water 55 lb. 
Dry whole milk — 3 lb. 
Yeast —. 2 lb. 
Sugar - 3 lb. 
Salt 2 lb. 
Shortening 2 lb. 
Shortening 2 lb. 
Shortening __ 9 lb. 
Shortening 2 lb. 
NOTE. The conversion table may be used for any other combination of wfiter and whole milk to be 
used in the dough, 338 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT 
7. Conversion of Avoirdupois to Metric System of Weights. 
1 pound or 16 ounces=453.6 grams or 0.454 kilograms. 
1 ounce or 0.0625 pounds=28.35 grams or 0.0283 kilograms. 
Note. For practical calculations use 453 grams as being equal to 1 pound, and 28 
grams as equal to 1 ounce. 
8. Conversion of Ounces to Pounds; Pounds to Ounces; and Fractions of Pounds 
to Decimals of Pounds. 
Rule. To change pounds to ounces multiply by 16. To change ounces to pounds 
divide by 16. 
Ounces 
Pounds 
Fractions Decimals 
PotCnds 
Ounces Fractions Decimals 
1 
%6 
0.0625 
15 
15Ae 
0.938 
2 
% 
0.125 
16 
1 
1.000 
3 
%6 
0.188 
17 
m 
1.063 
4 
% 
0.25 
18 
IVs 
1.125 
5 
%6 
0.313 
19 
1%6 
1.188 
6 
% 
0.375 
20 
1% 
1.25 
7 
%« 
0.438 
30 
1% 
1.875 
8 
Vt. 
0.5 
40 
2% 
2.5 
9 
%6 
0.563 
50 
3% 
3.125 
10 
% 
0.625 
60 
3% 
3.75 
11 
*%6 
0.688 
70 
4% 
4.375 
12 
% 
0.75 
80 
5 
5.000 
13 
0.813 
90 
5% 
5.625 
14 
% 
0.875 
100 
6% 
6.25 
Note. For a given number of ounces or fraction or decimal of pounds not listed 
above, add two or more numbers listed above which will equal given number and 
then add the corresponding equivalents. 
9. Weights of Water and Pails of Water. 
One pint of water=approximately 1 pound. 
One quart of water=approximately 2 pounds, IVs ounces. 
One gallon water=approximately 8.35 pounds. 
A 10-quart pail of water contains 20 pounds 14 ounces of water. 
A 12-quart pail of water contains 25 pounds of water. 
A 14-quart pail of water contains 29 pounds 3 ounces of water. 
First counts 
for searing 
Counts for 
cooking 
after searing 
Time 
Meats: 
Beef roast, 6-pound pieces 
10 
18 
20 minutes per pound. 
Mutton roast, 5-pound pieces 
12 
20 
20 minutes per pound. 
Pork roast, 5-pound pieces 
15 
20 
30 minutes per pound. 
Vea! roast, 5-pound pieces 
12 
18 
30 minutes per pound. 
10. Table of Oven Temperatures as Determined by Hand-Second Counts. 
Counts 
Time 
Fowl: 
Turkey roast, 12 pounds each . 
18 
20 minutes per pound. 
Chicken roast, 3 pounds each 
18 
SO minutes per pound. 
Duck roast, 3 pounds each 
18 
30 minutes per pound. 
Salmon hash 
Vegetables: 
16 
15 minutes per pound. 
Beans, dry 
23 
6 to 8 hours. 
Carrots, according to size 
16 
20 minutes 
Parsnips, according to size 
18 
40 to 60 minutes. 
Potatoes, baked, according to size 
12 
Potatoes, browned 
15 
Potatoes, cheesed .. 
12 
Potatoes, hashed 
12 
Potatoes, lyonnaise 
12 
Potatoes, sweet, according to size 
16 
Squash, according to size 
18 
30 to 40 minutes. APPENDIX III 
339 
Counts 
Time' 
Breads: 
Braided bread, 2-ounce 
14 
20 to 25 minutes. 
Cinnamon rolls, 2-ounce - - - 
12 
10 to 15 minutes. 
Jenny linds, 16-ounce 
20 
30 to 40 minutes. 
Muffins, 2-ounce 
15 
20 to 30 minutes. 
Parkerhouse rolls, 2-ounce 
12 
10 to 15 minutes. 
Raisin buns, 2-ounce 
18 
36 to 40 minutes. 
Sandwich buns, 2-ounce 
12 
10 to 15 minutes. 
Tea bun, 2-ounce, 
18 
35 to 40 minutes. 
French bread, 18-ounce (13 inches long) 
20 
40 minutes. 
Cakes: 
Apple, 16-ounce (6 by 10 inches) 
15 
20 to 30 minutes. 
Coffee, 16-ounce (6 by 10 inches) 
15 
15 to 20 minutes. 
Pies 
12 
30 to 40 minutes. 
Pudding, bread 
15 
30 to 40 minutes. 
Custard .... ... _ ..... 
16 
20 to 30 minutes. 
11. Oven Counts and Oven Temperatures. 
Counts 
Degrees 
Fahrenheit 
Common name for 
oven temperature 
8 
asn f n 500 
Hot. 
Quick. 
Medium. 
Moderate. 
Slow. 
9 to 12 ... 
400 to 450 
12 to 16 : 
99K t.n dm 
16 to 18 
250 to 825 
18 to 20 
200 to 250 
NOTE. It must be remembered that an oven count will vary according to the individual and will lalso 
vary as the hand of the person making the count is sensitive or insensitive to heat. This is affected by 
the occupation of the man making the count. Cooks and others accustomed to working in heat are able 
to keep their hands in a hot oven longer than persons not accustomed to heat. Therefore, the only abso- 
lutely accurate method of determining oven temperature is by a thermometer. However, if no ther- 
mometer is available, the hand-second method will give fairly satisfactory results. 
12. a. Conversion of Fahrenheit degrees to centigrade degrees of temperature. 
Rule. Subtract 32 from Fahrenheit degrees. Multiply the result by 5/9 and this 
result is the corresponding degrees centigrade. 
Fahrenheit 
= Centigrade 
Fahrenheit = 
Centigrade 
0 
—17.8 
85 
29.4 
10 
—12.2 
90 
32.2 
15 
—9.4 
95 
35.0 
20 
—6.7 
100 
37.8 
32 
0. 
110 
43.3 
35 
1.7 
120 
48.9 
40 
4.4 
130 
65.6 
45 
7.2 
200 
93.3 
50 
10.0 
212 
100.0 
55 
12.8 
250 
121.1 
60 
15.6 
300 
148.9 
65 
18.3 
350 
176.7 
70 
21.1 
400 
204.4 
75 
23.9 
450 
232.2 
80 
26.7 
500 
260.0 
b. Conversion of centigrade degrees to Fahrenheit degrees of temperature. 
Rule. Multiply centigrade degrees by 9/5 and add 32. The result is the equivalent 
in Fahrenheit degrees. 
Centigrade 
= Fahrenheit 
Centigrade 
= Fahrenheit 
0 
32 
50 
122 
10 
50 
75 
167 
15 
59 
100 
212 
20 
68 
125 
257 
25 
77 
150 
302 
30 
86 
175 
347 
35 
95 
200 
392 
40 
104 
225 
437 
45 
113 
250 
482 340 
13. Soap, making, a. Boiled hard soap. Dissolve 1 pound of soda lye (sodium 
hydroxide, ordinary issue lye) in 2 quarts of water. In another container (5- 
gallon capacity) melt 5 pounds of clean fat or tallow, scrap or drippings, in 2 gal- 
lons of water. As soon as all the fat is melted add about V4 pint of the dissolved 
lye. Boil over a slow fire. Taste from time to time until the biting taste of the 
soap liquid has disappeared. Add water to replace that boiled away. Add an- 
other % pint of lye as before and continue boiling, tasting, and adding lye and 
water in the same manner until the lye is consumed. The liquid will then be- 
come like honey in consistency and will be transparent as it drops from a spoon. 
Add about V2 pound of salt. Boil until the soap separates from the lye water, has 
lost its honeylike appearance, and drops off a spoon or wooden paddle like greasy 
water. A small quantity pressed between the thumb and first finger will not feel 
greasy but will flatten into thin scales if the soap is finished. Simmer about 10 
minutes and the process is complete. Skim off the soap which floats on the sur- 
face, place in a suitable mold or molds and set aside to harden. 
b. Soft soap. Use 1 quart of the soap made according to the above formula but 
not hardened. Boil in a large kettle with 4 gallons of water until clear and 
uniform in appearance. Set aside to cool. 
c. Inspection of soap. (1) Cut a piece of soap in two and place the tongue on 
the fresh surface. 
(a) If the soap is very sharp to the taste, not enough grease has been used. 
(h) If the soap feels very greasy, too much grease has been used. 
(c) If the soap tastes sharp and also feels greasy, it has not been mixed or 
boiled properly. 
(2) A soap that is sharp to the taste and makes a good lather is much pre- 
ferred for scrubbing purposes. 
d. If the hard soap in process of setting is slightly soft and it appears that it 
will not harden, this difficulty may be overcome by attaching a short piece of 
rubber hose to the spout of an ordinary teakettle and placing the other end of the 
hose in the bottom of the soap kettle, thus introducing steam. In this way heat 
is obtained by using wet steam instead of the heat being applied to the bottom of 
the kettle. Available steam may also be drawn from boilers in lieu of the kettle 
method. A drier mixture and a harder soap result. 
14. Window Washing. For efficient and economical window washing, to \Vz 
gallons of water add 1 tablespoonful of kerosene. Dampen a soft cloth in this 
mixture and use for cleaning. Then rub with a dry cloth which polishes as well 
as dries the window. When the drying cloth becomes old and worn it may be 
used as a washing cloth and replaced by a fresh one. When long, high windows 
are involved, and it is impracticable to wash by hand, the cloth may be attached 
to a handle with a crossbar at the end, similar to a squeegee. (The squeegee is 
simply a handle and a crossbar at the end, into which has been pressed a strip 
of hard rubber.) The use of the squeegee is not recommended, as it does not dry 
the windows thoroughly and requires the use of a drying cloth afterward. The 
above quantity of water and kerosene is usually sufficient for a day’s work, but 
when the windows are very dirty or greasy a large quantity is necessary. 
MANUAL OF MESS MANAGEMENT APPENDIX NO. 4 
MINIMUM STANDARD TEN-DAY MENU 
Breakfast 
1st Day 
2d Day 
3d Day 
4th Day 
5th Day 
6th Day 
7th Day 
8th Day 
9th Day 
10th Day 
Fruit 
Bananas 
Prunes 
Oranges 
Bananas 
Apples 
Oranges 
Prunes 
Bananas 
Grapefruit 
Apples 
Cereal 
Cornflakes 
Oatmeal 
Grape Nuts 
Cornmeal & Bran 
Wheaties 
Oatmeal 
Puffed Rice 
Oatmeal & Bran 
Wheat Shreds or 
Farina or Cream 
Main Dish 
French Toast & 
Scrambled Eggs 
Corn Fritters, 
Fried ham & 
Hot cakes, maple 
Fried Eggs 
Corn Fritters 
Scrambled Eggs 
Shredded Wheat 
of Wheat 
Bacon, Maple Sir. 
Bacon, Maple Sir. 
Hominy 
sirup, sausage 
Bacon, Maple Sir. 
Hot Cakes, Sausage 
Ham Omelet 
Potatoes 
Fried Potatoes 
Fried Potatoes 
Fried Potatoes 
Maple Sirup 
Fried Potatoes 
Drink 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Fresh Milk 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee. Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Bread 
Butter 
Dry Toast, Butter 
Butter 
Dry Toast, Butter 
Butter 
Toast, Butter 
Butter 
Toast, Butter 
Butter 
Toast, Butter 
Dinner 
Soup 
Vegetable 
Bean 
Split Pea 
Tomato 
Vegetable 
Bean 
Tomato 
Duck or Chicken 
Split Pea 
Tomato 
Main Dish 
Baked kidney 
Roast Beef 
Hamburger 
Boast Shoulder 
Veal Cutlets 
Braised Beef 
Long Island Duck 
Baked Ham 
Boast Beef 
Pork Chops 
beans & catsup 
or Chicken 
Potatoes 
Boiled Potatoes 
Baked Potatoes 
Mashed Potatoes 
Baked Potatoes 
Boiled Potatoes 
French Fried 
Mashed Potatoes 
Boiled Potatoes 
Baked Potatoes 
Vegetable 
Creamed Corn 
String Beans 
Buttered asparagus 
Buttered peas 
Succotash 
String Beans 
Peas 
Creamed Carrots 
Pickled Beets 
w/green pepper 
w/Onlons 
Salad 
Cole Slaw 
Celery 
Lettuce & Tomato 
Beet 
Banana 
Cole Slaw 
Celery 
Vegetable 
Tomato & Lettuce 
Desserts 
Fresh Apple Pie 
Coconut Pie 
Pumpkin Pie 
Blueberry Pie 
Raisin Pie 
Fresh Apple Pie 
Cranberry Pie 
Pumpkin Pie 
Blueberry Pie 
Raisin Pie 
Drink 
Coffee. Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Bread 
Hot Bolls 
Cinnamon Rolls 
Oatmeal Muffins 
Hot Rolls 
Cinnamon Bolls 
Bran Muffins 
Corn Bread 
Baking powder 
Hot Rolls 
Cinnamon Rolls 
Spread 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Biscuits, Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Supper 
Main Dish 
Meat Loaf 
Spareribs 
Chili con came 
Spanish Omelet 
Frankfurters 
Macaroni & 
Fresh Beef Hash 
Spaghetti & 
Stuffed Peppers 
Beef Stew w/ 
Potatoes 
Boiled Potatoes 
Creamed Potatoes 
French Fried 
Mustard 
Cheese 
Meat Balls 
Vegetables 
Vegetables 
Spanish Sauce 
Boiled Potatoes 
Italian Sauce 
Mashed Potatoes 
Salad 
Celery 
Sliced Tomatoes 
Pickled beets 
Lettuce w/French 
Pickle relish 
Pickled Beets 
Deviled Eggs 
Fruit 
Olives 
Celery 
Dressing 
Desserts 
Doughnuts 
Chocolate Cake 
Rice-Raisin 
Jelly Roll 
Baked Apples 
Pineapple Rings 
Bread Pudding 
Oatmeal Cookies 
Cake 
Cottage Pudding 
Pudding 
in Sweet Dough 
Drink 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee. Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee. Milk & 
Coffee. Milk & 
Coffee. Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Coffee, Milk & 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Sugar 
Bread 
Bread 
Bread 
Hot Rolls 
Bread 
Bread 
Bread 
Hot Rolls 
Bread 
Bread 
Hot Bolls 
Spread 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
Butter 
N.B. With a properly supervised mess, these menus can be greatly augmented without exceeding the ration allowance.