'L'BXTBQOKS I fc;; chc llcd-'.if. r- C r-cch-Di If 3. Ofice c f OvCaa Defease FIRST AID in the Prevention and Treatment of CHEMICAL CASUALTIES MEDICAL DIVISION OFFICE OF CIVILIAN DEFENSE Washington. D. C. U. S. Government Printing Office, December 1941, Washington, D. C, For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Price 10 cents 16—25129-1 PREFACE This booklet is intended for the personnel of Emergency Medical Field Units and others who may be immediately concerned in the decontamination of persons and the ad- ministration of first aid to chemical casualties. Identifi- cation, characteristics, and tactical uses of the various agents are discussed only briefly; the reader is referred to the Civilian Defense textbook, “Protection Against Gas,” for a more extensive discussion of these matters. For in- formation on medical care and treatment consult Technical Manual 8-285, “Treatment of Casualties from Chemical Agents,” prepared by the War Department and published by the Government Printing Office. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure A.—Blister following liquid mustard. Figure B.—Same as Figure A after two weeks. Figure C.—Blue stage of phosgene poisoning. Figure D.—Mustard vapor burn of body and eyes. Figure E.—Mustard vapor burn of body after two weeks. Figure F.—Liquid mustard burn of foot after five weeks. Figure G.—Diagram indicating operation of decontami- nation station. 1 CONTENTS Chapter Page I. General Considerations 4 A. Kinds 4 B. Recognition 4 1. Basic Rules for Identification by Odor 5 2. Table of Odors and Effects 5 C. General Protective Measures 6 If. Lung Irritants (Phosgene, Chlorpicrin, Chlo- rine, Nitric Fumes) 7 A. Latent Period 7 B. Effects 8 C. Symptoms 8 D. First Aid 8 MMMm Blister Gases (Mustard, Lewisite, Ethyldi- chlorarsine) 9 A. Special Characteristics 9 Table of Differences between Lewisite and Mustard, 11 B. Mustard ... 12 1. Effects 12 2. Prevention—First Aid 13 C. Lewisite. 16 1. Early Effects.. 16 2. Late Effects 16 3. Prevention—First Aid 16 D. Ethyldichlorarsine 17 1. Immediate Effects 17 2. First Aid 18 IVm Tear Gases (Lacrimators) (Chloracetophenone, Chloracetophenone Solution, CNB Solution, Brombenzylcyanide). 18 A. Effects 18 B. First Aid..... 18 2 Chapter V. The Irritant Smohes (Sneeze Gases or Sternutators) (Adamsite, Diphenylchlorarsine)... 19 A. Effects .. 19 B. Diagnosis 19 First Aid... 19 VI» Incendiaries (Thermit—molten or burning metal, Oil, White Phosphorus) 20 A. Thermit and Oil- 20 B. White Phosphorus 20 First Aid 20 VII. The Screening Smokes (hc Mixture, White Phosphorus, Titanium Tetrachloride, Sulfur Trioxide-chlorsulfonic Acid Solution) 21 A. White Phosphorus 21 B. Titanium Tetrachloride and Sulfur Trioxide- Solutions 21 C. First Aid 21 VIII. The Systemic Poisons (Hydrocyanic Acid, Arsine, Hydrogen Sulfide, Carbon Monoxide) 22 A. Hydrocyanic Acid and Hydrogen Sulfide. 22 1. Immediate Effects.. 22 2. First Aid. 22 B. Arsine 23 C. Carbon Monoxide 23 1. Effects 23 2. First Aid 23 IX. Decontamination Stations 24 Steps in Decontamination 24 Appendix — 26 Recommended Contents of Special First-aid Chest for Gas Casualties Page 3 FIRST AID in the Prevention and Treatment of CHEMICAL CASUALTIES CHAPTER I—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS There is always a possibility in modern warfare that chemical agents may be used against unprotected civilian populations. Information on prevention and treatment of casualties from these agents should be disseminated widely, therefore, so that the population may be properly protected. Some of the agents with the most unpleasant and severe immediate effects do not cause permanent in- jury; proper precautions will prevent casualties from the more insidious and dangerous agents. Speed in applying protective measures is important; treatment immediately after exposure is more beneficial than anything that can be done later, after signs of injury appear. A. Kinds Chemical warfare agents are classified according to their effects. Substances of widely different chemical compo- sition may fall in the same group because their action on the human body is similar: 1. Lung Irritants 2. Blister Gases 3. Tear Gases 4. Irritant Smokes (Sneeze Gases) 5. Incendiaries 6. Screening Smokes 7. Systemic (Internal) Poisons B. Recognition For his own protection, every individual should learn to recognize the odors of chemical agents. The trained indi- vidual must recognize them in order also to protect a dis- abled person in his care. “Sniff Sets” have been prepared 4 by the Chemical Warfare Service for use in familiarizing students with the various odors. Care must be taken in unstoppering sample bottles; heat may cause pressure enough to blow the cork out and spatter the agent. I. Basic Rules for Identification by Odor a. Do not smoke while sniffing. Smoking dulls the sense of smell. b. Do not inhale deeply; sniff. c. Sniff only once. Repeated sniffing dulls the sense of smell. d. After each test, breathe out strongly through the nose several times. Do not sniff a new sample until the old perception has vanished. e. First sniff; then think. The memory of odors can be trained by practice. f. Learn odors by memory of the thing sniffed. A thing is odorless only when no perception of odor is obtained. Every perception of odor must be named. g. Remember that in the field more than one agent may be present; the enemy may mix agents to produce confusion. 2. Table of Odors and Effects CHEMICAL WARFARE OTHER IMMEDIATE SYMBOL ODOR Lung Irritants EFFECTS Phosgene CG Silage; fresh-cut hay Coughing; tightness in chest; eye irritation. Chlorpicrin PS Sweetish; flypaper Tears; nose and throat irri- tation; vomiting. Chlorine Nitric fumes CL Disagreeable; like bleaching powder Pungent Choking; coughing; pain in chest; smarting eyes. Coughing; brown stain. Itlister Gases Mustard HS Garlic; horseradish None. Lewisite M-l Geraniums Smarting skin; burning eyes. Ethyldichlorarsine ED Biting Nasal irritation. Tear Gases Chloracetophenone (also solution) CNB solution CN Locust or apple blos- soms; fruity Tire patching cement Flow of tears; irritation of skin. Flow of tears. Brombenzylcy- anide CA Sour fruit Flow of tears; nasal irrita- tion. 5 CHEMICAL WARFARE OTHER IMMEDIATE SYMBOL ODOR EFFECTS irritant Smohes (Sneeze Gases) Adamsite DM None Headache; vomiting. Diphenylchlor- DA None Sneezing; vomiting; head- arsine ache. incendiaries White phosphorus WP Matches Burns; glow from particles. (also used as screening smoke) Screening Smokes HC mixture HC Acrid Slight suffocating feeling. Sulfur trioxide in FS Acrid (strong) Prickly sensation on skin; chlorsulfonic eye irritation. acid. Titanium tetra- FM Acrid (mild) Slight eye irritation. chloride Systemic (Internal) Poisons Hydrocyanic acid Bitter almonds Headache; dizziness; col- lapse. Arsine Garlic; metallic None. taste Hydrogen sulfide Rotten eggs Headache; dizziness; col- lapse. Carbon monoxide None Headache; collapse. C. General Protective Measures The Army gas mask is the best individual protection against chemical warfare agents. It will not, however, protect against carbon monoxide, ammonia, or oxy- gen-deficient atmospheres and is, therefore, not suitable for use in fighting fires or in industrial accidents where ammonia fumes are present. It is important to learn by practice how to put on and adjust the mask quickly. The amount of agent in the air (the concentration) de- termines the intensity and rapidity of the effects produced. The higher the concentration, the shorter is the period of exposure required to produce a casualty. Get out of the contaminated atmosphere or area as soon as possible. Gases tend to travel downwind. If gas has been released in your immediate vicinity by bomb explo- sion or spray, move upwind. If gas has been released up- 6 wind from you, move across the wind till you are out of the stream. Most agents are heavier than air and tend to settle in hollows. Therefore, avoid low places or basements. The second story of a building is practically safe. Close doors and windows, stuffing cracks and chimneys; this will keep gas out for hours. If windows are blown out by explo- sions, hang wet blankets over openings to keep gas from blowing in. The blankets should be fastened tight at the edges. CHAPTER Ml—LUNG IRRITANTS Phosgene (CG) Chlorpicrin (PS) Chlorine (CL) (Nitric fumes) All chemical warfare agents may act as lung irritants under certain circumstances, but with phosgene, chlor- picrin, chlorine, and nitric fumes, lung irritation is the most conspicuous effect. Nitric fumes have not been used directly in an attack, but are one of the gaseous products of nitrate explosives. Rescue Squad workers and others required to enter poorly ventilated buildings or tunnels following explosions may be exposed to dangerous con- centrations of nitric fumes. A. Latent Period There is usually a latent period of 1 to 12 or more hours between exposure to lung-irritant gases and development of symptoms. Cigarette smoke is unpleasant during this period, but there may be no other indication that an indi- vidual has been gassed. This latent period always occurs after exposure to phosgene and may be longer than 12 hours; after exposure to chlorine, there may be none. After chlorpicrin, the latent period is short and may be less than an hour; after nitric fumes, it is long like that of phosgene. Chlorpicrin may cause eye irritation and vom- iting in addition to lung irritation. 7 Persons exposed to lung irritants must be kept quiet during the latent period when they feel perfectly well. Any activity may cause sudden collapse and death. Pa- tients must lie quietly and not attempt to feed themselves or even sit up. B. Effects Lung irritants cause pulmonary edema, a water-logged condition of the lungs which may cause the victim literally to drown in his own body fluids which pour into the irri- tated lungs. It is difficult for the heart to force blood through the damaged lungs, and death may result from circulatory collapse (heart failure) if the patient does not “drown.” C. Symptoms There may be none for 12 to 24 hours after exposure, except that cigarette smoke is unpleasant. Examination of the chest by a physician reveals nothing abnormal. The patient then begins to breathe rapidly, becomes flushed and then bluish, and may develop a painful cough with swelling of neck veins (Blue Stage—Figure C). He may cough up blood-tinged frothy sputum and appear to be strangling. He may develop circulatory failure and turn a greyish leaden color, become cold and clammy, as in shock (Grey Stage). After recovery from this, he is still in danger of developing bronchopneumonia. D. First Aid 1. Remove from the gaseous atmosphere and keep pa- tient absolutely quiet in bed or on a stretcher. He must under no circumstances walk or even sit up, even though he may feel perfectly well. Keep him warm with blankets and hot drinks, and get him to a doctor as soon as possible. He must not smoke; it may cause coughing, which is an additional strain on the heart. 2. Do not give artificial respiration to relieve difficult breathing in the blue or grey stages. The lungs are full of fluid and any additional manipulation may be fatal. 3. If symptoms appear, the patient should be given oxygen to breathe if available. 8 CHAPTER Hi—BLISTER GASES Mustard (HS) Lewisite (M-I) Ethyldichlorarsine (ED) Because of their ability to render an area unhabitable for days, the blister gases are among the most important and effective chemical warfare agents. They are more liable to be used against a strategic civilian area than the lung irritants, which are quickly dissipated. The blister agents are not true gases but are oily volatile liquids. They may be used as a bomb filling or may be discharged from an airplane as a fine spray which behaves as a gas. The liquid slowly vaporizes into a true gas. Both vapor and spray are heavier than air and tend to drift into and linger in cellars, ditches, and other low places. Both liquid and vapor irritate, burn, and blister any skin or mucous membrane with which they come in con- tact. Because of their persistence and insidiousness, blister agents cause many casualties, but the death rates are low. Only 2 percent of blister-agent casualties in the First World War were fatal. A. Special Characteristics I • Persistence Under normal weather conditions in temperate climates, they may persist for days in an area sheltered from wind and sunlight. In winter they persist longer. 2. Power The power of these agents is so great that a drop the size of a pin head can produce a blister the size of a quarter (Figure A, B). Exposure for 1 hour to air containing 1 part per million of vapor can cause a casualty. The eyes are particularly susceptible. 3» Penetration of Materials and of the Human Body The blister agents “soak in” as ink soaks into a blotter. This is not the same as “eating in” of an acid; the penetra- tion takes place without damage to clothing. Because the 9 agents are highly soluble in fats, they also readily soak into the body. A drop of mustard on the skin glistens for about 2 minutes and then is absorbed. Only metals, glass, highly glazed tiles and porcelains, and specially-treated fabrics resist their penetration. The agents penetrate rubber. 4. Insidiousness Even in concentrations sufficient to cause burns, the presence of these agents, particularly mustard, may not be detected by odor or by any immediate irritation. 5. Delayed Action Their ability to cause damage before any evidence of their presence is recognizable makes these agents dangerous. A patient may be sufficiently contaminated to cause extensive burns and show no signs of injury for 12 or more hours. O. Universal Action These agents burn and blister any tissue, on the surface or in the interior of the body, with which they come in contact. Their effects are not limited largely to one set of body structures as is the case with tear gases and lung irri- tants. Although the skin is most apt to be exposed, the lungs may be injured by breathing vapor and the stomach by swallowing contaminated food, water, or even saliva. There are two types of blister agents: 1. Those which cause only local surface irritation. 2. Those which also cause systemic (internal) poisoning. These usually contain arsenic. More than any other type of chemical agent, the blister gases, especially those containing arsenic, will poison food and water, and render other supplies dangerous to handle until they have been decontaminated. Before transporting or treating blister-agent casu- alties, medical unit personnel must apply to them- selves those individual or collective measures which are necessary for their own protection, or they will also become casualties. A gas mask protects only the face, eyes, and lungs; protective ointment must be used on exposed parts and protective clothing worn where possible. 10 Table of Differences Between Lewisite and Mustard It is important to distinguish between mustard and lewisite burns because of the greater severity and danger of arsenic poisoning from lewisite. Odor* MUSTARD Very slight odor; like gar- lic or horseradish. LEWISITE Definite odor; like geraniums. Persistence in Contaminated Area Summer 4 or 5 days in open; 1 week in woods. 24 hours in open; 2 or 3 days in woods. Winter Several weeks. One week or more. (At low temperatures lewisite is more is therefore more dangerous volatile than mustard and in cold weather.) immediate Effects On skin None, even from liquid. Sharp tingling from liquid. Nose None. Breathing vapor for a few min- utes causes sharp burning irritation. Eyes None from vapor. Mild irritation from liquid. Immediate severe pain from liquid. Skin Burns Much itching; little pain. Blisters filled with clear fluid and surrounded by an area of erythema (red- ness). Painful as well as itching; blis- ters filled with cloudy fluid. No surrounding erythema (redness). Late Effects Skin Burns only skin. Burns through skin into muscles. Eyes Severe inflammation but rarely scarring with loss of vision. Inflammation more severe and usually causes some scarring and permanent impairment of vision. Entire body Produces no systemic (inter- nal) poisoning. Produces systemic poisoning with arsenic. • Prolonged exposure to either mustard or lewisite in concentrations barely detectable by odor will cause casualties. 11 The effects of this group of chemicals vary with the portion of the body exposed. Signs and symptoms may be delayed, particularly with mustard. The length of the latent period depends on the concentration of the agent and on the individual sensitivity of the skin. Prolonged exposure to concentrations barely detectable by odor will produce casualties. B. Mustard 1. Effects In persons unprotected by masks, eye symptoms are gen- erally the first to appear. These begin with smarting and watering of the eyes 2 or 3 hours after exposure to vapor, followed by reddening and swelling. There is considerable pain, especially from bright light, and swelling may com- pletely close the lids. If liquid is splashed into the eyes, there is almost immediate burning and all symptoms de- velop more rapidly. Eye burns vary from simple irrita- tion and redness following mild vapor to severe ulceration from liquid mustard. Sneezing and running nose are also early symptoms. Skin burns from vapor may not appear until 12 or more hours have elapsed, but may develop within 1 hour after contact with liquid mustard. The first symptom may be severe itching, followed by a sunburnlike redness, upon which small and large blisters develop. Shortly before the development of blisters, the surface of the reddened skin can be rubbed raw with slight pressure and friction. When liquid has been splashed on the skin, the blisters may be arranged in a ring around a central, whitish, indurated area. The blisters are surrounded by a zone of redness. Because of the depth of skin destruction, mustard burns may require some weeks to heal and may become infected. Vapor burns are more severe on areas of the body cov- ered by clothing, which interferes with the dissipation of the mustard, and also on those areas subject to friction where the skin is moist or thin. The elbow, knee, and neck folds, external genitalia, and armpits are particularly susceptible. The fluid contents of mustard blisters are not irritating to the skin. Irritation of the lungs is first indicated by hoarseness followed by a harsh brassy cough, later followed by pro- duction of yellowish sputum. These cases are serious 12 because bronchopneumonia may develop. This condition was responsible for most of the deaths from mustard gas during the First World War. Stomach irritation with nausea and vomiting may result from swallowing contaminated food, water, or even saliva. Figures A, B, D, E, and F illustrate various stages and types of mustard burns. Figure A shows a blister 48 hours after contamination with liquid mustard and B the same area after two weeks. Figure D shows the appearance of an individual burned by vapor. Note the red eyes and the sunburn-like blush of the areas covered by clothing, par- ticularly the skin folds. Figure E shows the desquamation (peeling) two weeks after a vapor burn on the body. Figure F shows the healing appearance five weeks after liquid mustard was spilled on the foot. 2. Prevention—First Aid To be effective, treatment must begin within a few min- utes after exposure. Immediate prophylaxis is effective only up to 5 minutes after liquid contamination. It is of little value after exposure to vapor because in this form most of the agent has penetrated the skin before the person reports for treatment. Contaminated clothing must be removed quickly, using proper precautions (mask, gasproof gloves, apron, pro- tective ointment) to protect the attendant. Clothes must be placed in a covered metal container until decontami- nated. (Figure G.) Great care must be used in the removal of mustard from the skin; otherwise the agent will merely be spread. The steps are as follows: a. Gently apply dry pads to absorb any mustard re- maining on the skin. b. Gently and repeatedly dab the area with sponges dampened with gasoline (nonleaded), kerosene, carbon tetrachloride, or alcohol. These solvents, except carbon tetrachloride, are inflammable; keep away from open flame. Have sponges only damp with solvent; if dripping wet, the agent may be dis- solved and spread over the skin. c. Scrub the skin surface within and beyond the margins of the contaminated area with soap and water. d. Pat the area dry with a towel. Do not rub. 13 FIGURE A.—Blister following liquid mustard. FIGURE B.—Same as figure A after two weeks. 14 e. Burn or bury the materials contaminated during the procedure. Keep away from the smoke while contaminated materials are burning; it may con- tain mustard vapor. The protective ointment (Chemical Warfare Service) also effectively removes mustard from the skin surface if it is ap- plied with rubbing and then wiped off. Products containing active chlorine, such as bleaching powder and commercial bleaching solutions, may also be used. Bleaching powder should be mixed with 1 or 2 parts of water. Dry bleaching powder may be used if water is not available, but the reaction with mustard will generate heat. Even so, the effect will be less than if mustard were left on the skin. Ordinary bleaching powder does not exceed 30 percent chlorine; high-test bleaching powder of 70 percent chlorine should never be used dry; reaction with mustard will cause burns. Bleaching powder and solutions are irritating and must be removed from the skin as soon as possible (within a few minutes) or they will increase the burn. Be sure to keep them out of the eyes. If reddening of the skin indicates that the burn has already begun to develop, do not use these compounds; they will only increase the irrita- tion. It is preferable to apply antipruritic ointment (Appendix, Item 10) to relieve the itching. The eyes should be irrigated with a 2 percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) unless they have been protected by a mask. The solution should be run directly into the eyes with a rubber tube from an enema can or similar container. Petrolatum on the edges of the eyelids will prevent their sticking together. A 2 percent solution of butyn may be instilled in the eyes to relieve pain. Cocaine must not be used; it may cause ulceration. The eyes must not be bandaged. If it is likely that mustard has entered the mouth or nose, the mouth and nasal passages should be rinsed and the throat gargled repeatedly with 2 percent solution of sodium bicarbonate. The patient should be kept quiet and warm to guard against bronchitis and bronchopneu- monia. If nausea and vomiting indicate that contaminated materials have been swallowed, the stomach should be washed out by repeated drinking of warm 2 percent solu- tion of sodium bicarbonate. This will induce vomiting and wash out the irritant. 15 After decontamination, all persons with eye, nose, and throat burns and with any but slight skin burns should be hospitalized. Skin burns must be treated surgically as any severe extensive burn. €• Lewisite Lewisite is similar to mustard in physical characteristics but is more volatile and hence more effective in cold weather. It is also more immediately irritating and is more dangerous because it contains arsenic. Water breaks it down into a solid oxide containing arsenic, which is also irritating and poisonous. This solid is extremely persistent; contact with ground which has been contaminated with lewisite will cause burns for a long time thereafter. 1. Early Effects Symptoms develop earlier and are more severe than with mustard. Liquid lewisite in the eye causes immediate pain. On the skin, redness appears within 15 to 30 minutes after contamination with liquid, and blisters soon appear, reaching their maximum within 12 hours. The entire area blisters, leaving no red margin around the blister as is usually observed in mustard burns. The blister fluid contains arsenic and is itself capable of causing burns and general poisoning. 2. Late Effects Lewisite burns are more painful and more dangerous than mustard burns. Lewisite in the eye may cause blindness. In addition to painful burns which may later become infected, symptoms of arsenic poisoning may appear. These are dryness and soreness of the throat, diarrhea, and restlessness. Later, paralysis of arm and leg muscles may develop. Until neutralized or removed, lewisite continues to penetrate, burning through the skin into muscle or other body tissue. It differs in this respect from mustard, which never penetrates beneath the skin unless carried into a wound by contaminated shell or bomb fragments. 3» Prevention—First Aid a. Eyes. Liquid lewisite in the eyes is an emergency. The eyes must be treated immediately and repeatedly with instillation of 2 percent hydrogen peroxide. If this is not 16 FIGURE C.—Blue stage of phosgene poisoning FIGURE D. Mustard vapor burn of body and eyes FIGURE E.—Mustard vapor burn of body after two weeks FIGURE F.—Liquid mustard burn of foot after five weeks available, they must be irrigated with a 2 percent solu- tion of sodium bicarbonate. Delay may result in blindness, b. Skin. Treatment must begin within 1 minute after contamination with liquid lewisite to be really effective. Contaminated clothing must be quickly removed with precautions to protect the attendant, and treatment should be started while clothing is being removed. The contaminated areas should be swabbed immediately and repeatedly with hydrogen peroxide. Solutions with 10 or even 20 percent available oxygen are best, but are unstable. (These strong solutions must not be used in the eyes.) The ordinary 2 percent solution available in drugstores will suffice. If hydrogen peroxide is not available, a solution of 10 percent sodium hydroxide (lye) in a 30 percent solution of glycerin in water, alter- nating with 70 percent alcohol, is the second choice. The glycerin protects the skin from the lye. If no glycerin is available, 5 percent lye in water may be used. Lacking all these, the solvents and technique described for liquid mustard must be used. Following treatment, the skin should be washed with soap and water and patted dry. All contaminated cloths or sponges must be burned or buried. It is extremely urgent that patients contaminated with lewisite come immediately under medical treatment. The doctor must open the blisters as soon as possible to prevent further absorption of arsenic. In opening the blisters, he must be careful to prevent infection and must remember that the blister fluid itself is capable of producing burns. If liquid lewisite has remained on the skin for any con- siderable length of time, surgical removal of the contami- nated area may be necessary to reduce the risk from the arsenic which it contains. D• E thy Idichlor arsine This compound may also be employed as a blister agent. It is less persistent than lewisite or mustard, lasting from 1 hour in the open in the summer to 12 hours in the woods in the winter. 1. Immediate Effects It is more irritating to nose and throat than lewisite or mustard. Immediate symptoms of sneezing and often 17 vomiting are therefore common. It is less irritating to the skin and therefore less apt to blister. It is capable, however, of causing arsenic poisoning. 2. First Aid Immediate measures are the same as for lewisite. Nose irritation may be relieved by inhaling dilute chlorine from a small amount of bleaching powder in a wide-mouthed bottle or can. If vomiting is persistant, the stomach should be washed out by repeated drinking of warm 2 per- cent solution of sodium bicarbonate. CHAPTEH IV—TEAR GASES (LACRIMATORS ) Chloracetophenone (CN) Chloracetophenone Solution (CNS) CNB Solution (CNB) Brombenzylcyunide (CA) These are substances which produce severe but tempo- rary eye irritation. Permanent damage rarely results. Many other chemical warfare agents also irritate the eyes but require greater concentrations than the tear gases. The tear gases, however, may cause panic in an uneducated population that does not understand their relative harm- lessness and the rarity of serious after effects. Tear gases are not persistent, except brombenzylcyanide which is as persistent as mustard. A. Effects Exposure immediately produces spasm of the eyelids with sensitiveness to light, inability to open the eyes, copi- ous tears, and some irritation of a freshly shaven face. Chloracetophenone solutions may cause a mild rash in warm weather and occasionally vomiting. If the solution itself gets into the eyes, there may be permanent damage. B. First Aid The individual should be removed from the contami- nated air and face the wind with eyes open. If irritation is marked, the eyes may be irrigated with boric acid or a 2 percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). The eyes must not be rubbed or bandaged. Skin irritation may be treated by sponging with a solu- tion of 4 percent sodium sulfite in 50 percent alcohol. All symptoms usually disappear within an hour. 18 CHAPTER V—THE IRRITANT SMOKES (SNEEZE GASES OR STERNUTATORS) Adam site (DM) Diphenylchlorarsine (DA) These agents are used to produce irritation of the nose, throat, and eyes, and are dispersed in clouds or smokes of very fine particles rather than as true gases. Their action is so delayed that symptoms may not appear until after the mask has been put on. When this occurs, an untrained person may think his mask unsatisfactory and remove it, becoming a casualty from further exposure. These agents are very insidious. They have no odor and are usually de- tected only when symptoms appear. A. Effects There is pain and a feeling of fullness in the nose and sinuses accompanied by violent sneezing and running of the nose. Severe headache may develop, followed by burning in the throat and tightness and pain in the chest. Nausea and vomiting may occur, and eye irritation may produce a flow of tears. A striking peculiarity of these agents is the mental depression they induce. Severely gassed persons may attempt suicide. R. Diagnosis This is based on the presence of the symptons just de- scribed, followed by relatively rapid recovery despite the miserable appearance and condition of the individual. C. First Aid Remove to pure air if possible. A nasal spray of ponto- caine and neosynephrin gives relief. (See Appendix No. 12.) Inhalation of dilute chlorine from a small amount of bleaching powder in a wide-mouthed bottle or can is also effective. Headache may be controlled with 10 to 15 grains of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). There are no after effects and the individual recovers within a few hours. Severely exposed individuals must be watched for sui- cidal tendencies. Continue to reassure them that their symptoms will be of brief duration and are not dangerous. 19 CHAPTER VI—INCENDIARIES Thermit—Molten or Rurning Metal Oil White Phosphorus A. Thermit and Oil Burns from molten metal are apt to be deep and severe due to the high temperature. Immediate first aid con- sists in flushing spattered globules of metal with large quantities of water to produce cooling. Flaming oil on clothing or skin must be smothered. Treatment is the same as for burns from any other cause. B. White Phosphorus This agent ignites by itself in the air. Water or wet cloths will quench the fire, but as soon as the particle dries in air, it again begins to burn. The effect of particles on the skin is the same as of any heat burn; they stick and burn until removed, or until air is excluded by covering with water or treating with copper sulphate (blue vitriol). First Aid Keep the burn wet with water or wet cloths until the particles can be squeezed or picked out. Warm water, about 40° centigrade (104° Fahrenheit), melts phos- phorus and makes squeezing easier. If squeezing does not bring out the particles, they must be picked out with forceps. Do not use mud as formerly recommended; it may cause infection. Urine is sterile and is satisfactory if there is no other source of water. Unless there is water and time for immediate treatment, apply a 5 to 15 percent solution of copper sulphate to the burn. This coats the phosphorus with copper phosphide, shuts out the air, and stops the burning until the particles can be removed. After the phosphorus has been removed, further treat- ment is exactly the same as for any other heat burn. 20 CHAPTER VMM—THE SCREENING SMOKES HC Mixture (HC) White Phosphorus (WP) Titanium Tetrachloride (FM) Sulfur Trioxide-chlor sulfonic Acid Solution (FS) These are used to screen positions or troop movements or to mask gas-cloud attacks with other agents. They do no damage in ordinary field concentrations but may be dangerous in the heavy concentrations formed at the site of release. They are of practical concern, therefore, only to the military personnel, or to persons in the immediate vicinity of an exploding shell or bomb containing the agents. A. White Phosphorus The smoke from white phosphorus is harmless, but particles from a shell explosion will cause burns and should be treated as described under incendiaries. R. Titanium Tetrachloride and Sulfur Trioxide Solutions The liquids produce acid-like burns of the skin. They are irritating and unpleasant to breathe, but are not dangerous. Spray in the eyes may cause serious burns. First Aid This consists in washing with large quantities of water. In the eyes, this should be followed by irrigation with a 2 percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). If severe, the patient must see a physician. 21 CHAPTER VIII—THE SYSTEMIC POISONS Hydrocyanic Acid Arsine Hydroyen Sulfide (Carbon Monoxide) Although not immediately irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, or lungs, these agents cause systemic (internal) poi- soning and, if inhaled in sufficient quantity, they may cause death. Hydrocyanic acid and hydrogen sulfide may be immediately fatal; arsine produces destruction of the red blood cells, which block the kidneys and may cause death in a few days. Carbon monoxide, while not used as a war gas, may be encountered following breaks in illuminating gas mains. A. Hydrocyanic Acid and Hydrogen Sulfide 1. Immediate Effects Odor of bitter almonds (hydrocyanic acid) or rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide) may be noticed, but strong concentra- tions dull the sense of smell and the individual may be overpowered and collapse immediately. Weaker con- centrations may produce headache, dizziness, and nausea. 2. First Aid Anyone rendering first aid in a gassed area to an individ- ual who has just collapsed must be protected by a mask or he will also collapse. Do not enter a gassed area with- out a mask to bring anyone out; you will not get out yourself. First aid consists in inhalation of amyl nitrite fumes and artificial respiration, until a physician can begin medical treatment. Artificial respiration should be continued for hours, even though it appears hopeless. 22 B. Arsine Odor of garlic and metallic taste are the only immediate effects. Persons exposed to arsine must be kept quiet, and hospitalized as soon as possible. Meanwhile, they should be given large quantities of alkalies such as sodium bicar- bonate, citrate, or phosphate to drink. This alkalinizes the urine and may help to prevent coagulation in the kidneys of protein from the red blood cells destroyed by the arsine. C. Carbon Monoxide This is the colorless, odorless constituent of automobile exhaust and artificial illuminating gases which causes many fatalities. It replaces the oxygen in the blood and the vic- tim is rapidly asphyxiated. It may be encountered in enclosures where fire has been burning with a limited air supply, in basements and tunnels where gas mains have been ruptured, and in other closed places. 1. Effects With high concentrations, the victim collapses without warning after breathing the contaminated atmosphere for a few minutes. Lower concentrations first cause headache and dizziness followed by collapse. 2m First Aid Immediate removal from the contaminated atmosphere is most important. If breathing is shallow or has stopped, artificial respiration must be instituted and continued until the patient is breathing normally again. This may require some hours. As soon as it can be made available, the individual should be given oxygen to breathe. Do not wait for oxygen before starting artificial respiration. 23 CHAPTER IX—DECONTAMINATION STATIONS Because of the persistent nature of blister gases, arrange- ments must be provided for their removal from clothing and skin at special “Decontamination Stations.” Persons contaminated with these agents must not be brought to regular First Aid Posts or Casualty Stations. Steps in Decontamination Ambulatory contaminated individuals including stretcher bearers, presumably masked, walk through a box for the decontamination of shoes as they enter. This box is filled with bleaching powder and dirt mixed in the ratio of 1 scoop of bleach to 2 of dirt. This proportion is proper for the usual bleaching powder with 30 percent chlorine. If bleach with a different chlorine content is used, the pro- portions of bleach and earth should be adjusted accord- ingly. Inasmuch as contaminated materials are being brought into this room, an exhaust fan near the floor is provided, and masks and protective clothing are worn by the permanent attendants. Clothing is removed and deposited in covered metal cans, and an attendant is on duty for the undressing of stretcher cases. If the stretcher has been contaminated, the casualty must be shifted to a clean one. The individual then sponges himself or is sponged by the attendant with hydrogen peroxide, lye, kerosene, or alcohol, as described in the text. The con- taminated sponging materials must also be deposited in covered metal containers. The individual then goes through a gas lock and is bathed with soap and water. The gas lock must afford space for the admission of a stretcher with bearers. Again an attendant is on duty with a spray for bathing stretcher cases. The individual then goes to the clean-clothes issue room where there is a physician in attendance for care of the wounded. Provision must be made there for irrigation of the eyes of contaminated individuals. The wounded may be evacuated from this room to the hospital by ambulance. 24 I-BOX Of SAND AND BLEACHING POWDER FOR DECONTAMINATION OF SHOES. 2- FANS NEAR DOOR. 3- METAL CAN FOR CONTAMIN- ATED CLOTHING. 4- ON STRETCHER DECONTAMIN- ATED BY ATTENDANT WITH PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND MASK 6-KEROSENE SPONGE TO REMOVE MUSTARD. 6- PAIL FOR CONTAMINATED CLOTHS AND OU.. 7- FOR GAS MASKS 8- LOCKS-BLANKETS AT EITHER END. 9- WOUNDED BATHED BY ATTENDANT 10- IRRIGATION 11- AND NURSE CARE FOR WOUNDED. 12- EVACUATED TO HOSPITAL AFTER DECONTAMINATION Figure G indicates the steps in the decontamination procedure and suggests a suitable arrangement of facilities. The essentials are plenty of covered metal containers for contaminated clothing and materials, a gas lock composed of a short tunnel, the ends of which are closed with blankets, to keep contamination from following the subject into the shower room, plenty of hot water, and a supply of clean clothing. Partitions separating the sexes can be arranged with sheets if space is limited. Although public buildings, such as schools, may be adapted, it is possible that tempo- rary or even portable structures may be feasible for decontamination. 25 APPENDIX Recommended Contents of Special First- Aid Chest for Gas Casualties 1. Bleaching powder—30% 2 lbs. 2. Protective ointment—3-oz. tube 10 3. Hydrogen peroxide—10% available oxygen, 1 qt. 4. Kerosene 6 qts. 5. Alcohol—70% 1 qt. 6. Soap 6 cakes 7. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) .... 5 lbs. (Two teaspoonsful per pint make 2% solution) 8. Lye 1 lb. 9. Butyn N. N. R. 3 gr. hypo, tablets, 10 tab- lets per vial 2 10. Antipruritic ointment for mustard burns . . 3 ounces Benzyl alcohol 50% Stearic acid 30% Glycerin 10% Ethyl alcohol 8% Pontocaine 1 % Menthol 1 % 11. 4% solution sodium sulfite in 50% alcohol . 8 ounces 12. Neosynephrine hydrochloride 1% 4 Pontocaine hydrochloride Boric acid saturated solution . .12 04 . 2 ounces 13. Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) 5-gr. tablets . 100 14. Cupric sulfate (blue vitriol) 1 lb. 15. Amyl nitrite U. S. P. Ampules—5 min . . 2 doz. 16. Absorbent cotton 1 lb. 17. Enema can and tube for irrigating eyes . . 1 Uses of Above Agents 1. For decontamination of skin from blister agents; for inhalation following irritant smokes. 2. For protection of skin and decontamination following blister agents. 26 3. For removing lewisite from skin. 4. For removing mustard from skin. 5. Following Nos. 4 and 8. 6. To remove Nos. 3, 4, and 8. 7. a. For eye irrigation following blister gases, tear gas, or other chemical agents. b. For washing nose, throat, and stomach following blister agents. c. For drinking after arsine exposure. 8. For lewisite if Nos. 1 and 3 not available. 9. For preparing solution to relieve pain in eyes from mustard and lewisite. 10. To relieve itching following mustard burns. 11. For removing tear gases from skin. 12. For nose spray following irritant smokes. 13. For headache following irritant smokes. 14. For phosphorus burns. 15. For hydrocyanic acid poisoning. SUBJECT INDEX Adamsite, irritant smoke 17 identification 6 Alcohol, lewisite 17 mustard 13 Antipruritic ointment for itching from mustard ... 15 formula (appendix item 10). . 26 Arsenic, blister gases 10 blister fluid 16 ethyldichlorarsine 18 lewisite 14, 17 poisoning 16 Arsine, systemic poison 22 alkalis in treatment 23 identification 5 Artificial respiration, dangers after lung irritants . . 8 in systemic poisons 22, 24 Aspirin following irritant smokes 19 Page 27 Page Baking soda for arsine 23 ethyldichlorarsine 18 eyes 15, 16 lewisite 16 mustard 15 nose and throat 15 screening smokes 21 tear gases 18 vomiting 15,18 Blankets in gasproofing decontamination stations . . 28 rooms 7 Bleaching powder, chlorine content 15 dry, heat from 15 decontamination of shoes .... 28 ethyldichlorarsine 22 eyes, keep out of 15 irritant smokes 23 mustard, neutralizes 15 paste 15 skin irritation from 15 Blister, lewisite 16, 21 mustard, (Figures A, B, D, E, F) 12 Blister gases, Chapter III 9 Blue Stage, lung irritants, (Figure C) 8 Blue vitriol, for phosphorus burns 20 Brombenzylcyanide, tear gas 18 identification 5 Bronchitis, after mustard 15 Bronchopneumonia, after lung irritants 8 after mustard 13 chief cause of death from mus- tard 13 Butyn for eyes after mustard 15 Burns, eyes, (Figure D) 12, 15, 16, 21 lewisite 16 molten metal 20 mustard, (Figures A, B, D, E, F) 12 white phosphorus 20,21 skin, (Figures A, B, D, E, F) 12, 16, 20 Carbon monoxide, systemic poison 22 artificial respiration for 23 oxygen for 23 Carbon tetrachloride, removing mustard 13 28 Page Chloracetophenone, tear gas 18 identification 5 Chlorine, lung irritant 7 identification 5 Chlorpicrin, lung irritant 7 identification 5 Cigarette smoke, unpleasant after lung irritants . . . 7, 8 Citrate, sodium, for arsine 23 Clothing, contaminated 24 penetration by blister agents 9 protective against blister agents 10 CNB, tear gas 18 identification 5 Cocaine, danger in eyes after mustard 15 Copper sulphate for white phosphorus 20 Decontamination of skin, lewisite 17 mustard 13 Decontamination of shoes, (Figure G) 24 Decontamination station, Chapter IX, Figure G . . 24 Death, blister agents 9 lung irritants 8 mustard 13 systemic poisons 22 Depression, mental, from irritant smokes 19 Diphenylchlorarsine, irritant smoke 19 identification 6 Edema, pulmonary, from lung irritants, (Figure C) . 8 oxygen for 8 Ethyldichlorarsine, blister gas 9, 21 identification 5 Eyes, lewisite, effects 16 treatment 17 mustard, effects, (Figure D) 12 treatment 15 tear gas 18 Fan, exhaust, for decontamination station, (Figure G) 24 First-aid chest, contents (appendix) 26 Gas lock 24 Gasoline, decontamination of mustard 13 Glycerine, with lye for lewisite 17 Grey Stage, lung irritants 8 Headache, after irritant smokes 19 after systemic poisons 22, 23 aspirin for 19 29 Page HC mixture, screening smoke 21 Hydrocyanic acid, systemic poison 22 Hydrogen peroxide, after lewisite, eyes 17 skin 17 Hydrogen sulfide, systemic poison 22 Identification, table of agents 5 Incendiaries, Chapter VI 20 Irritant smokes, Chapter V 19 Kerosene, decontamination of mustard 13 Lewisite, blister gas 9 Lung irritants, Chapter II 7 Lungs, edema from irritants 8 irritation from mustard 12 Lye, decontamination of lewisite 17 Mental depression from irritant smokes 19 Metal containers for contaminated clothes, (Figure G) 13, 25 Mustard, blister gas 9 Nausea, from mustard 13,15 irritant smokes 19 Neosynephrin spray for irritant smokes 19 formula (appendix item 12) 26 Nitric fumes, lung irritant 7 identification 5 Odor, identification of agents by 4 table 5 Ointment, protective 10 for decontamination of skin 15 Oxygen, for pulmonary edema 8 for carbon monoxide 23 Paralysis, from arsenic in lewisite 16 Petrolatum, for eyelids 15 Phosgene, lung irritant 7 identification 5 Phosphate, sodium, for arsine 23 Phosphorus, white, incendiary 20 screening smoke 21 Pontocaine, spray for irritant smokes 19 formula (appendix item 12) 26 Protective ointment 10 for decontamination of skin 15 Pulmonary edema from lung irritants, (Figure C) . . 8 oxygen for 8 Screening smokes, Chapter VII 21 30 Page Skin burns, lewisite 16 mustard (Figures A, B, D, E, F) . . . . 13 phosphorus 20 decontamination, mustard 13 lewisite 16 protection 10 tear gas 18 Sneeze gases, irritant smokes 19 Sniff sets 4 Soda, see baking soda Sodium bicarbonate, see baking soda citrate, for arsine 23 hydroxide, for lewisite 17 phosphate, for arsine 23 sulfite, for skin irritation with tear gases . . 22 Suicidal tendencies, after irritant smokes 19 Sulfur trioxide, screening smoke 21 Systemic poisons, Chapter VIII 22 Table, distinction between lewisite and mustard . . 11 identification of agents by odor 5 Tear gases, Chapter IV 18 Titanium tetrachloride, screening smoke 21 Urine, alkalinization for arsine 23 Vomiting, after chlorpicrin 7 ethyldichlorarsine 17 irritant smokes 19 mustard 13,15 tear gas 18 White phosphorus 20, 21 31 CD FH PROTECTION IN CIVHJAN DEFENSE U. S. OFFICE OF CIVILIAN DEFENSE Washington, D. C. Prepared by the War Department With the Assistance and Advice of Othei• Federal Agencies Approved by the Advisory Committee on Civilian Fire Defense Issued by the OFFICE OF CIVILIAN DEFENSE December 1941 Prepared under the direction of the Quartermaster General with the cooperation of the Office of Chief of Chemical Warfare Service and suggestions of the National Technological Civil-Protection Committee INDEX Fire Protection INTRODUCTION. 1. General. 2. The Normal Fire-Fighting Organizations. 3. Auxiliary Reserve Forces. 4. Neighborhood Fire Watcher Plan. 5. Fire Watch Service. Chapter I INCENDIARY BOMBS. Section 1—General Considerations. 6. General. 7. Incendiary Bomb Problems. 8. Fire Department Limitations. 9. Responsibility of Householder. Section 2—Incendiary Materials and Devices. 10. General Classification. 11. Intensive Type Incendiaries. 12. Scatter Type Incendiaries. 13. Incendiary Bombs. 14. Other Incendiary Munitions. Chapter II FIRE FIGHTING OPERATION DIFFI- CULTIES. 15. Alarm Communications System. 16. Road Obstructions. 17. Water Supply. 18. Operations During Bombardment. 19. Blackouts. 20. Injuries to Firemen. 21. Rescue Work. 22. Fire Stations. FIRE DEFENSES. 23. General. 24. Fire Department. 25. Water Supply. 26. Advanced Planning. Chapter III . Chapter IV EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION. Section 1—Auxiliary Fire Force. 27. Organization. 28. Personnel. 29. Training. 30. Apparatus. 31. Equipment. 32. Care of Apparatus. Section 2—Neighborhood Fire Watcher Plan. 33. General. 34. Organization and Personnel. 35. Training. 36. Fire Watcher Equipment. 37. Fire Watcher Operations. 38. Fire Watchers’ Posts. Chapter V COMBATING INCENDIARY BOMB FIRES. 39. General. 40. Advance Preparations. 41. Equipment. 42. Number of Fire Fighters. 43. Magnesium Bombs, 44. Thermit Bombs. 45. Scatter Type Bombs. 46. Use of Gas Masks. Chapter VI . PRIVATE PROTECTION. 47. General Principles. Chapter VII FIRE ALARM SERVICES. 48. Existing Services. 49. Emergency Conditions. 50. Extension of Existing System. 51. Telephones. 52. Special Telephone Circuits. 53. Use of Fire Alarm Systems During Raids. 54. Private Alarm Systems. 55. Radio. 56. Other Means. Chapter VIII MALICIOUS BURNING. 57. Causes. 58. Identification. 59. Continued Vigilance. Chapter IX . FOREWORD Iluncfrecfs of thousands of incendiary bombs, " each capable of starting its own blaze and potential conflagration, were dropped in an 8-hour air raid upon London in April 1941. In the average well-built city only about 15 percent of the area is occupied by buildings— the balance consisting of roads, parks, lawns, and unoccupied lots; while a varying percentage of the buildings are themselves fire-resistant. Assuming a uniform pattern and no duplica- tion of coverage, only about one out of six or seven incendiary bombs will land on a roof or anything else that will burn. Even at that, each thousand bombs will start about 166 fires— and, therefore, potential conflagrations. Over 2,000 fires were started in London in that raid. But from 650-700 planes, each carrying a normal load of one thousand 2% pound incendiary bombs, or their equivalent in weight, were required. Even one bomber proceeding at 200 miles an hour and dropping the usual 50 bombs a second can light a fire about every 15 yards—so that even a moderate-sized house might very well have two fires set by incendiary bombs from the same bombing plane. Incendiary bombs are frequently dropped in containers which explode and scatter the bombs from a low altitude. A building within the area over which such a container bursts may receive several hits. In spite of the fact that many more incendiary bombs were dropped in the raid in April 1941 than in the December 1940 raid, far less damage resulted from the April raid because the London fire defense was prepared to meet the situation. This booklet describes a plan for the average American community, based on the only practicable means thus far proved effective for over- coming this menace; that is, continuous observation during attack and prompt extinguishing of bombs and incipient fires by those most concerned—the individuals who live or work in the structures menaced. Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION J. General•—Fires result from the general use of materials and processes involving fire and flammable or explosive substances. In organized communities, fire defenses are maintained at public expense or by volunteer services. Such defenses, comprising fire depart- ments, water supplies, and water-distribution systems, fire-alarm serv- ices and fire-prevention activities, vary widely as to extent and effectiveness. The program for defense contemplates a regular local fire-fighting organization that is organized and equipped to afford protection against the normal fire hazard of the community. Emergency or auxiliary forces must be organized, equipped, and trained, and all able-bodied persons instructed in fire-fighting methods to meet the added fire-defense problem of enemy attack. 2- The Normal Fire Fighting Organizations are the regu- larly organized fire departments, full paid or volunteer, and the private fire brigades maintained in industrial plants, warehouse areas, business establishments, or institutions. Auxiliary Reserve Forces consist of trained personnel organ- ized and equipped to augment the regular fire-fighting forces in the event of an emergency. These reserves are organized as separate fire companies or as sections, attached to regular companies. The auxiliary forces have definite assignments with the regular fire department dur- ing periods of emergency. 4. Neighborhood Fire Watcher Plan.—Groups of citizens organized under District Fire Watchers constitute the first line of defense against incendiary aerial bomb attacks. It is only through the prompt detection and extinguishment of such fires that major fires can be prevented. Through the proper functioning of the Fire Watcher groups, the regular and auxiliary fire forces may concentrate on the fires of serious consequence. I 5. Fire Watch Service. —In addition to the lookouts posted on high buildings or other elevations to observe the approach and move- ment of the enemy, time, place, and nature of occurrences, there should be an organization of civilians throughout all sections of the community to observe and report on fires as they occur. The location of these fire-watch service posts vary according to the type of buildings in the area, the topography and the communication facilities available. These Fire Watchers report directly to the Sector Warden’s office the location of fires, their magnitude, and the apparent relative threat of each fire, considering the weather conditions and direction of wind at the same time. Their duties also include an immediate attack upon fallen incendiaries, to control them before a blaze is started. Place watchers on high places, stand- pipes, steeples, etc., so that all roof areas can be watched with the fewest posts. 2 Chapter II. INCENDIARY BOMBS SECTION I—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 0. iieneral,—Substances which, on burning, generate tremendous heat and thus readily set fire to other combustible material with which they come in contact are referred to as incendiary materials or incendiaries. The use of incendiary substances to cause destruc- tion of buildings, crops, food, ammunition supplies, or other combus- tible material of military importance has been resorted to in prac- tically all wars. In modern warfare, incendiary materials are dropped from aircraft in bombs and are employed by ground troops in artillery or mortar shells, grenades, and flame-throwers. In the usual case where a town or city is attacked by ground forces, it is evacuated beforehand by the civilian population. Thus, a civilian’s fire-fight- ing problems, due to warfare, are principally those resulting from hostile air attacks. At any rate, the procedure as described herein for dealing with incendiary bombs would apply also to incendiary grenades or shells. 7. Incendiary Bomb Problems.—Air attacks upon a town or city may be made with high explosive or incendiary bombs, or both. High explosive bombs dropped upon any built-up area are frequently followed by fires. Upon its explosion, a high explosive bomb is immediately destroyed, but any resulting fire must be attacked in the customary manner. In the case of an incendiary bomb, however, the incendiary material of which it is composed is not immediately consumed after the bomb is ignited. This material continues to burn for a period of one to twenty minutes, or even longer, the time depending upon the size and composition of the bomb. So intense is the heat generated that unless a bomb which has penetrated a building is promptly extinguished or removed it may quickly burn through one floor and drop to the floor below, thereby spreading the fire. Hence, it frequently is of first importance to deal with the bomb itself, leaving the burning area about it to be attended to later. How- ever, the proper procedure for dealing directly with an incendiary bomb is somewhat different from that which applies generally in fire fighting. This procedure varies according to the particular kind of bomb encountered. For example, the usually proper course of deluging a dangerous blaze with water might be a serious mistake in dealing with certain kinds of incendiary bombs. As will be seen later 3 herein, water in these cases is effective and should be used, but only in a certain way. Indiscriminate dousing of water on a burning magnesium alloy bomb would in all probability produce an explosion, thus needlessly endangering the fire-fighter and spreading the fire. On the other hand, if the bomb is a phosphorous bomb, a liberal use of water, in the absence of certain special means, is clearly indicated. From this brief discussion it should be evident that to cope intelli- gently with incendiary bombs one must know something about them. He must know how to identify the different types and understand the specific methods of fire fighting indicated in each case. 8. Fire HepaM’tment Limitations.—A citizen may ask why he need concern himself with these matters when there is a fire de- partment available and maintained at the public expense to provide proper fire protection. The answer is that no fire department system, even though greatly augmented with auxiliary services, can be expected to deal with the multitude of fires which may result from an air attack in which incendiary bombs are used. A modern bombing airplane can carry from 1,000 to 2,000 small incendiary bombs, any one of which, dropped from a considerable altitude, is capable of penetrating an ordinary house roof whether of tile, slate, shingles, or composition material. Such small bombs, which gener- ally weigh about 2 pounds, are not designed for any high degree of accuracy in their use. They are employed in large numbers and when dropped they are scattered over a considerable area. Even though a single building is the target aimed at, many other buildings in the same area may be hit. In a closely built-up city, based upon calculations as to the average proportion of the built-over area to open space, it is estimated that one out of every six bombs dropped is likely to strike and penetrate a building. On this basis, a single airplane releasing 1,000 such bombs on the city might be expected to cause 166 different fires. In attacks on cities, however, many airplanes, hundreds perhaps, will be employed. Obviously, then, it would be impracticable for the city fire department to deal with all the fires thus caused. 9. Responsibility of Householder•—In areas subject to air attack the responsibility of providing for his own fire protection in time of war, especially in case his house is struck by an incendiary bomb, devolves directly upon the householder. He owes this duty not only to himself but to his community, State, and country. This responsibility involves the provision of the necessary fire-fighting equipment and the knowledge and will to use it. In this connection, the householder cannot always depend upon the usual household water supply from city mains. If there are any considerable number of fires, it is probable that so much water will be consumed by the fire department that there will be little or no water pressure in house pipes. Likewise, special fire-fighting equipment which depends upon electric power lines of the city should not be relied upon, for these lines may be broken. This responsibility of the householder applies also to the owners of apartment houses, hotels, factories, or other buildings where a number of persons are congregated. All necessary special equipment and trained personnel for dealing promptly with incendiary bombs should be present in such buildings at all times when the city is subject to air attack. 5 The regularly organized fire departments can afford protection against fire only if they are notified promptly in the event of fire. It must be emphasized that delayed alarms are probably one of the principal causes of large and disastrous fires. Under normal condi- tions the fire department should be called without delay, care being taken to insure that all occupants of the building are promptly noti- fied. This course should be followed during air raids with the one difference in procedure that, instead of calling the fire department directly, the Sector Warden for the district should be notified and he in turn transmits the alarm to the fire department employing facilities available to him. It may be expected that the usual communications systems, such as fire alarm, telegraph, and telephone facilities, will be disrupted either physically or through overload by an abnormally large number of calls. The householders, employees, or other persons at the scene of an incendiary-bomb fire must endeavor with every means at hand to combat the bomb and control the fire. It has been proved that, when used promptly, individual fire-fighting appliances, such as usually are available in the neighborhood, are effective against small to medium-sized bombs, i. e., the bombs up to 12 to 14 pounds. Thus, the successful solution of the problem lies in the cooperative efforts of all concerned. Prompt action by householders will reduce losses and in many cases suffice so that the regularly organized fire departments can concentrate their efforts on fires of major pro- portions. SECTION 2.—INCENDIARY MATERIALS AND DEVICES IO. General Classification.—Incendiary materials, according to the way in which they are used, may be classed as: (a) Intensive. (b) Scatter. The intensive type of material is that which is held together as it burns and is consumed entirely at the one spot where a bomb con- taining the substance falls or is placed and ignited. The intense heat of the burning material is thus concentrated so that the material’s immediate incendiary effect is confined to a small area. The scatter type is that which is dispersed, usually by an explosive charge, so that small fragments of the burning material are scattered about and thus may cause fires to break out simultaneously in a number of places. 6 II. Intensive-Type incendiaries,—(a) This class of incendi- ary substances includes two different kinds or types. One of these types consists of the thermits, which are mixtures of powdered alumi- num and iron oxide, sometimes containing small quantities of other ingredients. The thermit mixture, when ignited, reacts chemically to form a mass of molten iron which, in turn, acts as an incendiary in igniting flammable material with which it is brought in contact. The chemical reaction by which the molten iron is produced takes place rapidly and with considerable violence. It does not depend on a supply of oxygen from the air. However, any incendiary action of the molten iron will depend upon a supply of oxygen from the air. (fo) The second type of incendiary material, commonly called “electron” bombs, is represented by a magnesium alloy case containing an igniting core of thermit that is ignited by a “first fire” mixture such as aluminum powder, barium nitrate, and black powder. The mag- nesium alloy case is ignited by a relatively small charge of the ignition mixture and the case itself then melts and burns with a very high temperature until consumed. Magnesium alloy, to burn, must be supplied with oxygen from the air or surrounding material. A con- siderable percentage of the electron bombs contain a small explosive charge which is added primarily to discourage fire fighters from approaching the burning bombs. The action of this explosive charge is delayed, but if there has been no explosion 2 minutes after the bomb lands, it is probably safe to remove the bomb with a long-handled shovel. i2. Scatter-Type Incendiaries.—(a) The most generally used and generally effective scatter-type incendiary material is white phos- phorus, which burns spontaneously on exposure to the air producing an intense white smoke. It thus lends itself to use in munitions con- taining an explosive charge sufficient to rupture the container and disperse burning pellets of phosphorous over a considerable area. The burning phosphorus particle, when it lands, may set fire to dry grass or other easily combustible material. Phosphorus will not set fire to heavy planks or heavy wooden construction but will set fire to wood shingle roofs, dry grass, ripe grain, and woods. Due to the intense white smoke produced, phosphorus bombs are more likely to produce a panic than fire, and thus prove a demoralizing agent rather than an incendiary. (h) Another scatter type of incendiary is solid oil to which there may be added finely divided metallic sodium or potassium or sodium hydride. The purpose of the latter ingredients is to rekindle the fire in case the oil comes in contact with water, either at the hand of a fireman or by other means. 7 TYPICAL KILO MAGNESIUM (ELECTRON) INCENDIARY BOMB (c) Liquid flammable oils are also included in this general class. The violence of their burning may be increased by diluting with gasoline, turpentine or other highly flammable liquids which are, mutually soluble with the oil. Such incendiary material, on burning, produces tremendous heat. However, the relatively large volume or bulk of such liquids in comparison to their weight militates against their use in small bombs. Their principal use in warfare is in flame throwers. (d) Squares of cardboard or other combustible material containing a small amount of phosphorus at the centers, called “incendiary leaves,” have been scattered promiscuously in great numbers from airplanes. The “incendiary leaves” are kept wet until after they are scattered, whereupon they burst into flame as they become dry. The incendiary squares are particularly likely to set fire to fields of ripe grain, dry woods, or combustible roofs. 8 13» Incendiai'if Bombs*—(a) Intensive Type.—Incendiary bombs may be produced in any size or weight desired, subject to the carrying capacity of an airplane. Large bombs, weighing 50 pounds or more, may be used in certain cases but, in general, small bombs, which can be employed in large numbers simultaneously, are con- sidered most effective. Typical of such bombs is the so-called “electron bomb,” used extensively in the war in Europe. This is a magnesium alloy bomb, consisting of a cylindrical case 2 inches in diameter and 9 inches long, made of magnesium alloy and containing a charge of readily ignited powder. Metal fins are provided on one end to steady the bomb in flight and to cause it to strike on its nose. Upon impact, an ignition device inside the bomb is actuated, thus firing the starting mixture, which burns with sufficient heat to ignite the casing. The bomb weighs about 2% pounds and will burn for 15 to 20 minutes. Another intensive-type bomb that calls for exceptionally well- planned defense activities is the thermit bomb. It is composed of a thin, noninflammable case filled with thermit that is ignited by a “first fire” mixture. Such bombs are made in sizes ranging from perhaps 10 to 132 pounds and are fired either with a firing pin on impact or with a time fuse so set as to ignite at a predetermined time after release. It is believed that Japan is prepared to use thermit bombs of both 33- and 132-pound type and that Germany may be expected to do likewise. (b) Scatter Type.—White phosphorus bombs as used by the Japanese are of the 15 kilogram (33 lb.) and 50 kilogram (132 lb.) types. They are composed of a charge of white phosphorus and a burster charge in a thin steel container. When exploded the white phosphorus is showered in, small particles over an area of 50 to 100 square yards, depending upon the size of the bomb. The particles of white phosphorus ignite upon contact with the air and will be burning shortly after leaving the shell, producing a spectacular incident. As incendiary agents the particles are very limited, igniting only dry and flimsy materials such as dry grass, leaves, etc. The greater danger from white phosphorus bombs is in the possible contact of particles with the human body, in which case they produce serious burns. When white phosphorus burns it produces an intense white smoke and is commonly used for smoke screens. The smoke is harmless, though it may produce mild throat irritation and coughing. Because of its appearance and the throat irritation the use of white phosphorus bombs might be demoralizing to unsuspecting and unknowing civilians and even cause panic. 9 Type of Incendiary Size Composition Method of Extinguishing Small “Electron” bombs. 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds). Cylinder of combustible magnesium alloy containing thermit mixture to ignite the magnesium alloy. May contain an explosive charge. Spray (not a stream) of water. Cover with sand. Remove with long-handled shovel to a metal con- tainer with layer of sand in bottom. Medium and large “Electron” bombs. 2-25 kilogram (4.5 to 55 pounds). Same as above. All large incendiary bombs will con- tain some explosive. Same general methods as above but experienced fire fighters are required to handle the largest bombs of this type. Thermit. 15 kilogram (33 pounds). 50 kilogram (132 pounds). Noninflammable case containing mixture of iron oxide and aluminum (thermit) ignited- by a “first fire” charge that is ignited either by impact or fuse. May contain an explosive charge. Burning thermit cannot be extinguished. Molten iron produced may be cooled to reduce spread of fire. White phosphorus bombs. 30 pound (may be of any size). White phosphorus with an explosive charge to ignite and scatter the phosphorus upon impact. Water will extinguish burning phosphorus. Copper sulphate solution, if available, is even more effective. Remove all fragments to a safe place and burn. Avoid handling the fragments with bare hands. Multiple effect bombs. 12 kilogram (26.5 pounds). Separate incendiary units of phosphorus and mag- nesium alloy which scatter upon impact and igni- tion. The burning magnesium units can be handled in the same manner as the electron bombs. Burning phosphorus can be extinguished with water and then should be removed to a safe place while wet. Oil bombs. Large drums. Fuel oil or solidified gasoline. May contain other combustible substances. Scattered and ignited by a black powder burster charge upon impact. Smother with sand. “Incendiary leaves.” Approximately 4- x 4- inch squares. Moist squares of cardboard or nitrocellulose coated with phosphorus which ignite as they become dry. Immerse in water or copper sulphate solution. Burn in some safe place. Be sure that all are collected as one unrecovered square may cause a serious fire. TYPES OF INCENDIARY BOMBS 10 Because of the smoke produced by the burning, phosphorus particles may be easily located, and should be allowed to burn out if possible. If extinguishment is required it may be done by the use of water, but it must be remembered that the burning will be resumed as soon as the particles become dry. Extreme precaution should be taken that the white phosphorus particles do not come in contact with the skin. However, the danger from the smoke produced may be disregarded. 14. Other incendiary Munitions.—(a). Artillery and Mor- tar Shells.—Shells containing white phosphorus for use with artillery or chemical mortars are designed primarily for the smoke-producing effect of the burning phosphorus. Thus, the incendiary action of these shells generally is incidental although the physical hazard from nearby bursts is considerable. Specially designed incendiary shells, containing thermit mixtures, may be used in these weapons. (b) Grenades.—Incendiary grenades are small munitions, very similar in construction to bombs, designed to be thrown by hand or projected from a special contrivance attached to a rifle. The hand grenade can be thrown about 35 yards, whereas the rifle grenade can be projected for 200 yards or more. (c) Flame throwers.—The flame thrower is a device for throwing burning heavy asphaltic oil or other suitable fuel in a solid stream by means of gas pressure or a mechanical pump. A small device of this kind is designed to be carried by a man on his back, while a larger type may be used from a trench or fighting tank. 11 Chapter 111. FIRE-FIGHTING OPERATION DIFFICULTIES Fire fighting under war conditions is complicated by circumstances which affect the transmission of fire alarms and maintenance of communications, hamper the response of appara- tus, nullify good fire-fighting practices, deplete sources of water supply and reduce the available manpower. J5. Alarm Communication System•—Existing telephone and telegraph systems, of which many of the wire circuits are above ground, are vulnerable to aerial attack. Underground wire circuits are also subject to damage by bombing. Central offices are vital objectives for attack. These installations must be safeguarded. Short wave radio is being used more and more for communications within the police and fire departments. Public and private facilities, including signaling systems in industrial plants and amateur radio equipment, must be coordinated. Provisions for messenger service must be included in any plan. 1O* Hoad Obstruction s»—Craters from high explosive bombs and debris from demolished buildings will make some streets impass- able to vehicles. Decentralization of fire apparatus is one factor to consider in overcoming this condition. Intimate knowledge of all routes is essential to drivers of apparatus and provisions must be made to keep this information up to the minute for the chief and company officers and dispatchers as well as the drivers. 1T. Water Supply.—Water supply may be seriously affected by bombing. The probability of many simultaneous fires scattered ovet a wide area makes it essential that consideration be given to the advanced development of plans and records to permit emergency operation. Auxiliary sources of water supply must be considered and provisions made for their use, including precautions against contamination of the domestic water supply. 12 IS. Operations During Boinbardinent.—The fire depart- ment will be required to operate at fires during the progress of aerial attacks. The personnel must be on the alert to seek whatever shelter may be at hand to escape the effect of falling bombs, fragments from antiaircraft firing, and possible strafing activities of enemy planes, while at the same time, continuing the attack on the fire. Auxiliary forces must take care of incipient fires in their areas, leaving the major fire-fighting equipment and forces available to combat seriously threatening fires. Fire Watchers should be assigned in advance to definite posts which will be taken upon the sounding of an air-raid alarm. 19. Blackouts.—Response of apparatus and operations at fires will be hampered by “blackout” restrictions. Drivers will need to proceed with extreme caution to avoid accidents. Firemen will meet great difficulty since they must work in total darkness, other than the illumination offered by the fires themselves. Complete familiarity with all apparatus and equipment, and a first-hand knowledge of the fire district are essential in meeting “blackout” conditions. Hand equipment should be painted chrome-yellow or some similar color to render the pieces more visible. 20. In juries to Firem en.—Abnormal casualties may be expected in the fire force and first aid must be part of the training of these units. The multiplicity of fires and long hours of arduous duty and danger will limit the physical endurance of the firemen. Adequate relief forces will be needed to afford the men sufficient recuperation periods. 21. Bescue Work.—The fire-fighting units must be reserved for fire-fighting purposes wherever possible, but conditions may require the force to aid the separate units organized for rescue, demolition, decontamination, and similar work. 22. Fire Stations.—Fire-alarm equipment and cable facilities must be protected by sand bags or by reinforcement of structures against bombing or the collapse of buildings. Fire apparatus should be distributed in order to facilitate response and to prevent destruc- tion of several pieces if any building should be demolished. 13 Chapter IV. FIRE DEFENSES 23- General.—(a) The problem of providing adequate fire pro- tection divides itself into two phases: (1) Use of regular fire-fighting facilities of the community, and (2) Provision of additional fire-fighting organizations, equipment and facilities to meet the demand resulting from attack by a hostile power. (b) The adequacy of existing fire defenses varies greatly. In many communities, these facilities are seriously deficient. As a first step in planning for defense, necessary improvements should be made in the existing fire-fighting facilities, including the fire department, water supply, fire alarm and related services, to afford adequate protection against the normal fire hazard of the community. (c) Fire departments and other municipal agencies should have plans for expansion to meet the growth of industries and housing in their communities. The local defense coordinator may secure from the Fire Underwriters Board or Bureau information as to the ade- quacy and efficiency of the local fire defenses. Recommendations from such a source, based on standards established by experience, will provide a sound plan for improvement of local conditions. 24. Fire Department•—(a) The responsibility for control of fires rests primarily with the regularly organized fire departments. Some changes may be required to place the fire departments upon an emergency basis; existing apparatus may be relocated or additional fire companies or locations established. (6) Distribution.—Distribution of fire-fighting forces is of even greater importance than under normal conditions. For efficient protection in normal times fire department companies should be stationed within three-fourths of a mile running distances from all parts of industrial and mercantile districts, and within 1}/% miles from all sections of closely built residential districts. Under emergency conditions, this coverage must be supplemented. (c) Manpower.—In order to maintain the department at the highest possible effective strength, the off-shift and any relief men must be subject to call for all emergencies. In order to have the personnel at a high standard of physical condition, arrangements must be made for relief and rest periods. 14 (d) Apparatus.—In order to use the manpower of the depart- ment effectively, extra apparatus if available should be in service for each company. Reserve apparatus will be needed for this regular service. Additional standard equipment and improvised apparatus, con- sisting of commercial trucks carrying pumping equipment, hose and other fire-fighting appliances, may be needed. (e) Private fire brigades.—A survey should be made of all private fire brigades, including the facilities of industrial fire depart- ments, their equipment and organizations. Such surveys will reveal the extent of assistance to be expected from private fire brigades or whether assistance from the municipal forces will be needed in the areas served by those organizations. (/) Aid from other municipalities.—Aid from other munici- palities in apparatus and men can be arranged for on call but, ex- cepting where communities are immediately adjoining and the alarm systems are integrated, reliance should not be placed upon outside aid during attacks, (g) Emergency operations.—Plans for operations will differ basically from the normal. In the event of attack, each station is responsible for the protection of its district and may have to operate alone. The regular units must be dispatched first to the fires which constitute the greatest threat to the community or its essential points. Areas where fire walls or fire breaks may confine the spread of fire may be left to the fire wardens to permit the regular forces to con- centrate at the more serious fires. Confidential surveys and operating plans are a prerequisite to the proper execution of this program and should be undertaken by the fire department officer in charge of each district, in cooperation with the chief of the department, and the local Director of Civilian Defense. 25. Water Supply-—(a) The importance of the public water sup- ply, both from the standpoint of public health and fire protection makes it essential that every precaution be taken to assure the con- tinuance of an adequate, reliable, and pure supply. (h) Survey.—There should be an immediate survey of the water system to determine vital points at which failure might occur in the source of supply, pumping stations, and distribution systems. Par- ticular attention to the following items is necessary in any plans to lessen the possibility of total interruption of service. (c) Adequacy.—In addition to the amount of water required for domestic and industrial uses, plus normal fire-fighting demands, it will 15 be necessary to provide for the greatly increased demands of numerous simultaneous fires, some of which may be of major proportions. The usual supply works will be taxed to full capacity. Plans must con- template the use of additional sources of supply and storage, including lakes, rivers, cisterns, wells, industrial supplies, tanks, and swimming pools. Any plans for connections between the water system and auxiliary sources of water supply must include provisions for treating the raw water to prevent contamination of the public water supply. Such connections must not be made except in emergency. (d) Reliability.—Duplication of essential parts of the water sys- tem, such as the sources of supply, pumping stations, supply mains, and major control points, provides the best means of assuring reliabil- ity. Where duplication is not feasible, additional sources, storage, or connections to other supplies are necessary. Stand-by pumping service, using internal combustion engines, located at a distance from the main pumping station, is desirable. (e) Distribution system.—A survey of the water system wTill reveal weak points where a single failure might cause interruption or serious curtailment of service. In planning for emergencies, con- sideration should be given the following: (1) Installation of additional control valves at strategic intervals along arterial and other important mains. (2) Provisions for added ground cover over important mains. (3) Duplication of important bridge crossings or exposed mains. (4) Arrangements for adequate safeguards against sabotage and aerial destruction of vital points, by patrolling and camou- flage, (5) Extension of system to unprotected areas, (6) Preparation of map and sufficient number of plat books show- ing data relative to the operation of all valves to facilitate isolating sections in which breaks occur. (/) Emergency operations.—Emergency ground crews, organ- ized, equipped, and trained to make shut-offs, repair or replace dam- aged mains, are essential to the defense plans. Provisions must be made and materials kept readily available for by-passing ruptures in important mains; fire hose lines can be used to interconnect hydrants on either side of a break during repairs. The fire department must be acquainted with the water system in order to cooperate effectively with the water department. 16 (g) Additional sources.—In addition to the sources of water which may be used to supply the water system, advanced prepara- tions must be made to employ all available water for fire fighting. (1) Natural.—In order to make full use of available lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, suitable ramps or platforms and possi- bly low dams or suction pits will be required to enable fire pumping engines to draft water. Every precaution must be taken to prevent water from untreated or contaminated sources from entering the domestic water system. Fire pumping engines drafting water from untreated sources must not be connected in any way with hydrants or hose lines through which impure water might enter the water mains. (2) Waste water.—Sewers may be blocked off by inflated bags and gutters may be dammed to allow waste water to be pumped. (3) Improvised storage.—Cisterns or improvised storages, such as canvas tanks, may be required in areas where natural sources are not available to supplement the water distribu- tion system. (4) Portable supplies.—Fire pumping engines which carry booster tanks provide a limited supply readily available for use in small fires; these tanks may be replenished by bucket brigades. Street flushing tanks may be used for additional supply or may be provided with small size pumps for fire fighting purposes. (5) Other possible sources.—Many buildings with air condi- tioning systems such as hotels and theaters have wells which can be adapted to fire fighting use. 26. Advanced t*lunniny.—Advanced planning with complete understanding of the emergency plan by all responsible parties is essential to successful defense. Confidential surveys and operating plans should be undertaken by the department heads concerned, and detailed operating procedures determined so far as is practical. In any emergency operation, simplicity of plan is of prime importance in the accomplishment of the desired end. 17 Chapter V. EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION SECTION 1.—AUXILIARY FIRE FORCE 27, Organization.—The auxiliary fire force consisting of an organization of well-trained and disciplined personnel, to augment the regular fire department forces in times of emergency, should at all times operate under the direct supervision of the regular fire depart- ment. Auxiliary fire-fighting forces should not supplant, in any way permanent personnel. The function of this auxiliary force is to assist in the manning of regular, reserve, or additional improvised apparatus and equipment. In some cases separate auxiliary fire companies may be established at new locations, as substations of the regular fire companies. Members of this force should have definite assignments and should be subject to call for duty as required. The Fire Chief will determine by survey the number of auxiliary companies needed. 23, Personnel,—Personnel for the organized auxiliary force may be drawn from the following sources: (a) Able-bodied pensioned members of the regular fire department. (b) Eligibles on the Civil Service list for appointment to the regular fire department. (c) Other able-bodied citizens who can stand the rigorous duties. Men entering this branch of the fire-defense services should possess physical qualifications which will assure their being capable of per- forming the required duties. (d) Enrollment of men within the age limits established for Selective Service should be limited, insofar as possible, to those whose service has been deferred and who have been assigned a low priority. (e) The number of men for an auxiliary company will be determined by the Fire Chief. 29m Training.—It will be necessary to establish a regular training program, varying from a modified brush-up course in the case of pensioned members who are recalled for duty, to a complete elemen- tary course in fire protection and fire fighting for the inexperienced personnel. A follow-up training program to maintain the interest and efficiency of this force over periods of comparative inactivity. 18 must be employed. State and local firemen training courses, many of which have been in operation for a number of years, provide facili- ties for training key personnel. 30. Apparatus.—(a) Pumping units must be provided to deliver sufficient quantities of water at satisfactory pressure for fire fighting. It may be expected that pressures in the street mains will be lower than normal and in some cases it will be necessary to depend upon natural water sources. (b) Regular fire department pumping apparatus should have at least 500 gallons per minute pump capacity and carry the standard fire department equipment. Available reserve apparatus will be placed in service. (c) Additional equipment.—Pumps of at least 500 gallons per minute capacities and a specified minimum of hose, tools, and appli- ances will be required to augment the regular fire department apparatus. (1) Commercial trucks with front or mid-ship mounted pumping units with direct drive or power take-off from the propelling motor. (2) Pumps with independent internal-combustion engine drive, mounted on truck bodies, or on two- or four-wheel trailers. They must be either self-propelled or capable of being towed behind trucks. A trailer and towing medium forms a unit. (3) Tank trucks of a commercial type or commercial trucks carrying 250- to 500-gallon water tanks will provide port- able supplies of water. Such units if equipped with booster pumps (100 gallons per minute) may be used as emergency fire-fighting units. Street sprinkler trucks can be adapted to this service. 31. Equipment.—Provision must be made for essential fire- fighting tools and appliances with each unit of emergency apparatus. The equipment suggested for these units is as follows: One 14-foot ladder. One 24-foot extension ladder. One pick head ax. One door opener. One crowbar. One pike pole. Two electric lanterns. Two Bureau of Mines gas masks. Two nozzle tips. Two 1" nozzle tips. Two iy8" nozzle tips. Two 5/u" nozzle tips. Six hose and ladder straps. One hose jacket. Two 434r/ spanners. One 234x/ spray nozzle. 19 One strainer. One reducing coupling, 2^". One double male, One double female, 23^". Two playpipes with handles, 2H"- ' Two shut-off nozzles. One pair bolt cutters, 30" handles; bolt. One \x/l" spray nozzle. Two shut-off nozzles with fi” tips. One 2H" x * W' gated wye. Four 12-quart buckets. One scoop shovel. One 100-ft. rope. One first-aid kit. Two 10-foot lengths of 4" hard suction hose with couplings. One 20-foot length of 3%" soft suction hose with proper couplings. One double female coupling, 4x 43^". Six universal spanner wrenches. Two adjustable hydrant wrenches. Two 4-gallon pump tank extinguishers. Two adapters, to » 1Y2" to garden hose. One wye, x 2x not gated. One Siamese connection with clapper valve. One lot of miscellaneous equipment and adapters for mutual aid. An essential item of equipment for every piece of fire apparatus is a ten (10) gallon container of pure drinking water. Fire fighters must not be permitted to drink any water which might be con- taminated. This is of particular importance during major fire- fighting operation because of the need for large quantities of drinking water by fire fighters. In the event of a breakdown of equipment during fire-fighting operations, calls for assistance should be made through the person responsible for dispatching apparatus whether it is the regular dispatcher or the control center. .*12. Carp of Apparatus•—The maintenance and repair of fire- fighting apparatus which includes the regular fire department equip- ment and the auxiliary equipment should be under the direct super- vision of the mechanical repair force of the fire department. Simple, comprehensive, and definite rules for the operation and servicing of the equipment, including the handling of gasoline, should be made available for the emergency units as well as the regular fire department. However, the repair and adjustment of such equipment is the direct responsibility of the fire department and must be undertaken only by the regularly assigned maintenance force. Service and inspection 20 reports on each piece of apparatus should be kept by the operators assigned to each piece of apparatus. Strict adherence to established rules for the care of equipment and apparatus, including the care and treatment of hose and equipment, such as, hand pumps, entry tools, and ladders, must be observed in order to assure the availability and serviceability of fire-fighting equipment. No one should tamper with the mechanical equipment or pumping unit and only the regularly appointed operators or mem- bers of the mechanical maintenance force shall operate or adjust such equipment. SECTION 2.—NEIGHBORHOOD FIRE WATCHER PLAN 33. General.—Continuous observation to discover fires as they start, to locate incendiary or explosive bombs, and tp extinguish incipient fires, are essentials in successfully overcoming the menace of aerial attack. Local Fire Watcher groups, in every Wardens’ Sector of the community, organized under the Air Raid Wardens’ posts but trained by the fire department, provide the basis for successful defense. Through the proper functioning of the Fire Watcher plan, the full effectiveness of the regular fire-fighting forces and auxiliaries can be realized. 34. Organization and Personnel.—Fire Watchers and the personnel of Fire Watcher groups should be chosen from men of estab- lished reputation who are residents, shopkeepers, professional workers, or employees in the vicinity. Assistant Fire Watchers should be des- ignated to act in the absence of anyone assigned to a post. Fire Watchers must be capable of directing the work of others and in the selection of these leaders consideration must be given to their avail- ability at all times. They need not be on duty at all times but should be available when needed. The Air Raid Wardens should maintain rosters to assure that the minimum number of men will be in the sector in emergency. (a) Residential districts.—Each city block in residential areas requires as many as 5 men besides the watcher. (b) Other districts.—Larger units are needed in mercantile, in- dustrial, apartment, or tenement districts. At least 10 men who live or work nearby, in addition to the Fire Watcher, must be available at all times; duplicate units may be organized for day and night. 21 (c) It is recommended that Fire Watchers and their helpers be organized in groups of three, with provision for adequate coverage of each block. ( *FINS OR VANES TO GUIDE FALL CA6INC OF MA0NE5IUM A LI6HT WEIGHT METAL SIMILAR TO ALUMINIUM ESCAPE HOLES STRIKING HEAP They are usually released 20 TO 50 AT A TIME, SPREAD LIKE SHOT BEFORE STRIKING. VbTH, ABOUT 14-" WEIOHT, 2.2 POUNDS RPFED FROM A HEIGHT OF 20,000 = T/THEY DEVELOP ENOUGH FORCE > 'ENETRATE AN AVERAGE ROOF... The THERMITE FILL INC? OF (ROM OXIDE AMO FINELY DWIPED ALUMINUM IS THEN IGNITED AND DEVELOPS A FIERCE HEAT OF . OVER 4500 DEGREES / ,TU6/ THEY USUALLY START BURN!NG TOP STORY OR ATTIC THE FLAME ROARS OUT OF THE ESCAPE HOLES. If not quickly QUENCHED, THE 30M3 WILL BURN THROUGH THE FLOOR , SETTING ADDITIONAL FIRES ON THE FLOOR BELOW... V MA6NESIUM A|)NG CATCHES (5, WITH A ■ftTERINO ACTION... BUT, WITH PROMPT ACTION AND SIMPLE TOOLS, A MAGNESIUM BOMB CAN BE QUENCHED/ FMINO MOLTEN METAL IS THROWN U T AND SURROUNDING INFLAMMABLE aerial catches fire FIRE DEFENSE Jr will be vekv difficult to FIGHT A MAGNESIUM BOMB UNLESS SOME WORK. IS DONE BEFORE THE ATTACK »✓/ |L Roof beams JOISTS AND STUDS CAN BE TREATED TO RESIST FLAME — GIVING MORE TIME TO REACH THE BOMB All FURNITURE TRUNKS AND JUNK OF ALL KINDS SHOULD BE REMOVED FROM ATTIC OR TOP FLOOR/ Paint does no good/ A HEAVY COAT OF ORDINARY WHITEWASH HELPS SOME A % INCH PLASTER LAYER ON THE FLOOR OR 3 INCHES OF DRV SAND ’ EARTH OR FURNACE ASHES HELPS... -IF THESE MATERIALS CAN BE OBTAINED/ THEY ARE SUPERIOR TO WHITEWASH , ... IT MAY BE LAID ON IN CLOSELY PACKED SANDBAGS, MORE CONVENIENT AND CLEANER (IF STRUCTURAL STRENGTH PERMITS } NEXT, ASSEMBLE YOUR BOMB FIGHTING EQUIPMENT ..PUT IT WHERE YOU CAN' QUICKLY GET IT OM YOUR WAV TO THE TOP fj FLOOR OR ATTIC... NOT UP THERE.' PRACTICE PICKING IT UP ON THE j RUN/ HERE'S COMPLETE EQUIPMENT: HEAVY GOGGLES HEAVY GLOVES TWO BUCKETS OF PRY SAND A PUMP TANK LIGHT WEIoHT LONG - HANDLED SHOVEL. BUCKETS OF WATER (AND EXTRA STORAGE) FLASHLIGHT INTRO LUNG WITH SAND ,,BROACH THE BOMB IN A CROUCHING OR “Zav'LING POSITION . PLACE THE SAND iET UPSET, TO ALLOW A FULL-ARM J , SWING TOWARD THE BOMB fteV TO COVER. THE BOMB WITH DRV SAND,TO CONFINE IT'S ACTION / SO THAT YOU CAN GET NEAR ENOUGH TO SCOOP IT UP ON THE SHOVEL _ S/kn THE BOMB ie UNDER FAIR CTROL, SCOOP IT UP OW THE •HVEL, FIRST RIOHTIKJO THE M. First-Aid Treatment of Gas Casualties. General Considerations 40 37 Lung Irritants 41 37 Blister Gases 42 39 The Irritant Smokes 43 47 Tear Gases 44 48 Incendiaries 45 48 The Screening Smokes 46 49 The Systemic Poisons 47 5C Contents of First-Aid Chest 48 51 CHAPTER IV. COLLECTIVE PROTECTION. Section I. Scope. Paragraphs Page Definition 49 53 Section 2. Has Alarms. Purpose 50 53 Procedure 51 53 Section it. tiasproof Shelters. Definition 52 54 Relative Danger 53 56 Improvised Gasproof Home Shelters 54 57 Nonventilated Shelters 55 58 Ventilated Shelters 56 59 Air Conditioning Equipment 57 64 Section 4. Decontamination. General 58 64 Decontamination Materials 59 65 Decontamination Methods 60 66 Decontamination Equipment 61 70 Decontamination Squads __ 62 70 Section 5. Protection of Food and Water. General Rule 63 71 Contamination of Food 64 71 Decontamination of Food 65 72 Protection of Food 66 72 Purification of Water 67 72 CHAPTER V. PROTECTION OF ANIMALS. General 68 74 Horses 69 74 Horse Masks 70 74 Dogs 71 75 Birds 72 75 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES Page 1. Low-flying airplane laying persistent-gas spray on a factory._ 3 2. Planes laying persistent-gas spray curtain on a city 4 3. Typical persistent-gas bomb dropped from airplane 6 4. Nonpersistent gas vaporizes upon release 8 5. Persistent gas vaporizes slowly 9 6. Physiological effects of chemical agents 12 7. War gases accumulate in low places. 20 8. Gas clouds move with the wind 21 9. Bright sunshine causes rising currents of air 21 10. Rain helps to get rid of gas 22 11. Noncombatant gas mask 26 12. Gasproof clothing 32 13. Cross-section of bottle in sniff set 35 14. Four steps in correct use of sniff set 36 15. Gas casualties should be hospitalized 39 16. Mustard gas blister - ; 39 17. Gas decontamination station 40 18. First-aid treatment for mustard gas 44 19. Materials used in treatment for mustard gas 44 20. Irrigate the eyes___: 45 21. Rinse mouth and gargle throat 45 22. After exposure to irritant smokes, inhale dilute chlorine 48 23. Gas alarm may be given by any percussion sound 53 24. Air-lock doorway leading down to shelter 55 25. Shelf detail 55 26. Blanket detail 55 27. Low level gas shelters need air supply. 56 28. Blanket air trap at entrance to improvised shelter 57 29. Wooden cover for window to prevent gas leaks 58 30. All cracks and openings should be sealed 59 31. Best height location for protection against gas 60 32. Location of gastight room 60 33. Supply of air for breathing 61 34. Equipment for gastight room 62 35. Some contaminated articles should be burned 66 36. Decontamination of ground 67 37. Decontamination of roads 68 38. After decontamination, waste should be washed away 68 39. Decontamination of walls 69 40. Decontamination of floors 69 TABLES General Reference chart of war gases (in cover pocket). 1. Identification of chemical agents 34 2. Differences between lewisite and mustard 42 FOREWORD Events abroad have amply demonstrated that civilians as well as a nation’s armed forces must be prepared to withstand any means of attack that an enemy may employ. Among these is chemical warfare, commonly known as gas warfare. If war gas were to be used in an attack upon this country, an enemy would probably act without warning in order to exploit the effect to the utmost. It is essential for civilian defense, therefore, that infor- mation and training be given in protection against gas. Thorough preparation is the surest way to reduce the number of casualties and perhaps even to discourage use of war gas entirely. To this end, steps have already been taken by the Office of Civilian Defense. Specially qualified State and local officials are being trained in protection against gas as well as in other aspects of civilian defense. This training is being given at the Civilian Defense School at Edge- wood Arsenal, Maryland, by the Chemical Warfare Service in accord- ance with arrangements made by the Office of Civilian Defense with the War Department. The graduates of this school, in turn, will nstruct others in the identification of war gases, protective measures, and methods of decontamination. The purpose of this textbook is to provide governmental agencies and others with essential information so that responsible authorities :an make plans well in advance of any possible need. No requests 'should be made for gas masks or other protective equipment for civilians at this time. Information on these and related points will ae issued at a later date. This publication is expected to be used as the basic text for instruc- tion of public employees and such volunteers as may be enrolled in the various specialized groups of the Citizens’ Defense Corps. F. H. LAGUARDIA, U. S. Director Civilian Defense. WASHINGTON, D. C., December 1941. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 1 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Manual for the Instruction and Guidance of the Civil Population “Whether or not toxic gas will be employed in future wars is a matter of conjecture, but the effect is so deadly to the unpre- pared that we can never afford to neglect the question.”—From Final Report of General John J. Pershing as Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces in the World War. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. I. Purpose and Scope. The purpose of this manual is to provide a general guide for civil communities in setting up an organization for protection against gas attack and in the training of gas-defense instructors and supervisory personnel. It aims to set forth in simple, readily understandable terms the nature of chemical warfare, the characteristics of the dif- ferent types of war gases, including their effects on the human body, the means of their identification, and proper measures for protection against them. This book is not intended as a reference work for doctors and other medical personnel. The pathology of war gases and technique of treating gas cases are subjects dealt with in standard medical literature, including special publications of the Medical De-, partment of the Army. 2. The Gas Danger. Military operations today are no longer confined to more or less localized battlefields. The development of air forces and fast moving armored units operating on land has made it possible to strike at “military objectives” deep in hostile territory. Thus, towns anc cities far beyond the range of an enemy’s field guns, especially areas oi great importance as railway or supply centers, are now subject to at tack. In these far-flung operations it is always possible that toxic ga; may be used. 2 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS To reap the benefit of surprise, a nation bent upon making use of gas would try, in all probability, to conceal that fact until the moment of its employment. This might not be difficult. Indeed, preparations for chemical warfare are more or less easily concealed, since many of the war chemicals have commercial uses also and their manufacture, in limited quantity at least, is a normal industry. Gas might be used in an attack upon a civil community either alone or in conjunction with other means. It is a reasonable assumption that the better the people are equipped and trained to deal with gas, the less the likelihood of it being used against them. Quick-acting types of gases may be employed against a town or city to produce immediate casualties, throw the population into a state of panic and disrupt their defensive organization. Slow-acting chem- icals, which may remain effective in liquid form for several days or more, may be used to “contaminate” important establishments such as factories, railway yards, docks, etc., so as to prevent their use or delay the repair of damage to them caused by demolition bombs. Such gases may also be used on city streets, or on roads and grain fields in rural districts to cause general havoc and casualties. They may be sprayed or sprinkled from airplanes, in the form of a fine rain, or used in bombs dropped therefrom (figs. 1,2, and 3). FIG. I. Low-flying airplane laying persistent gas spray on a factory. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 3. Limitations of Gas• The vulnerability of any community, town or city, to gas attack depends largely upon its location. So great is the extent of this country that its vulnerability will vary greatly with different com- munities. It may be expected that, in the event of war, endangering any civil community in this country, the War Department will give timely warning to States which, in whole or in part, are considered to be in the zone of immediate danger. But, aside from these considerations, it should be realized that there is necessarily a limitation upon the extent to which gas might be used. Despite the great increases in recent years in the cruising radius and carrying capacity of aircraft, the idea of a gas attack on such a scale as to wipe out the population of a large city, or even a large proportion of it, is still regarded as fantastic. Even in limited areas, to be highly effective gas usually must be employed in great quantity. Few nations have the resources in raw materials and manufacturing capacity to wage chemical warfare on an extensive scale. Fortunately, the United States of America is well provided for in these respects, should occasion arise for its resort to chemical means. FIG. 2. Plane laying persistent gas spray curtain on a ctiy 4 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 4. The "New Gas" Possibility. There have been, from time to time, reports in the press concerning new, all-powerful gases against which, so it is said, existing means of protection would be entirely ineffective. Such stories may be re- garded as unfounded. The consensus of military chemists is that the discovery and use of some new gas against which a modern gas mask would not give protection is very unlikely. There are many substances which, under certain conditions, are more injurious than known war gases but, for one reason or another, they cannot be used effectively in the open air. However, it cannot be said that the possibilities of chemistry have been exhausted. Throughout the world, both in Government arsenals and private laboratories, new chemical weapons, or new means of using existing ones, are constantly being sought. Thus, it is imperative for the national defense that research and development work on gas protective devices and meas- ures be continued with unceasing vigilance. 5. Why Traininy Is Essential. Probably the greatest danger in the event of a gas attack upon a PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 5 civil community is the likelihood of panic. Assuming adequate supply and distribution of gas masks, this can be avoided. There may always be some casualties but these may not necessarily be fatal. However, when panic results from a gas attack, not only will there be a heavy toll in gas casualties, but many incidental injuries and fatalities from falls, trampling, and traffic accidents are inevitable. To prevent this, the mere provision of gas protective equipment is not sufficient. The people must be trained in the use of such equip- ment, have confidence in it, and overcome their fear of gas. Panic arises from fear, but knowledge and understanding dispel fear. In defensive preparations gas protective training is of the utmost importance. Every adult person should have a fair knowledge of war gases, their action upon the body, the means of detecting their presence, and the first aid measures for those exposed to them. He should know what a gas mask is, how it works, and how to construct a simple but effec- tive gas proof shelter in his home. It is desirable too that he under- stand “decontamination” or the process of getting rid of certain types of war chemicals which may be used and which are not quickly de- stroyed or removed by the natural action of wind and weather. FIG. 3. Typical persistent-gas bomb dropped from airplane. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS CHAPTER II. WAR GASES. SECTION 1. CLASSIFICATION. 6. Nature of Chemical Warfare. Chemical warfare is defined as a method of war in which substances are used for their direct chemical action to injure persons, or to produce screening smoke, or to set fire to combustible material. The substances used for these purposes are referred to as chemical agents. Screening smokes, as such, are practically noninjurious. In- cendiary materials and methods of combating them are dealt with in a separate Civil Defense pamphlet on fire fighting. We are con- cerned here only with those chemical substances used to cause bodily injury. These are all referred to as “gas” because they can be dis- seminated into the atmosphere in the form of a cloud, thus rendering the air at and about the target dangerous to breathe. The normal state of some chemical agents is a gas, but they may be compressed and liquefied for loading into artillery shells, airplane bombs or other containers. Upon release from their containers by an explosive charge or other means, these substances return quickly to their nor- mal gaseous state. Other chemical agents are normally liquids, but they vaporize quickly enough after their release in the open air to form a gas cloud. Still other chemical agents are solid materials but can be disseminated in the form of a smoke or dust cloud in the air by means of burning or explosive munitions. 7. Persistency. Chemical agents which are true gases and hence vaporize com- pletely almost immediately upon their release are quickly acted upon by wind and air currents. The gas mixes with the air and is thus diluted so that in a short time it disappears entirely. Such gases are said to be nonpersistent. On the other hand, chemical agents which are normally liquids vaporize slowly after their release, giving off their toxic vapors for a considerable period of time. They are called persistent gases. This distinction is easily understood if one compares these effects with those of familiar chemicals which are in common daily use. For example, consider the chemicals which one obtains for his motor car at a service station. If gasoline is spilled on the car or ground, it will PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 7 soon disappear by evaporation. It is less persistent than water, which, if spilled, will leave a wet spot for some time. On the other hand, if motor oil is spilled, it will remain for a very considerable period of time unless wiped off. It evaporates much more slowly than either gasoline or water and, therefore, might be called highly persistent. War gases likewise vary greatly in their persistency and, in the case of any one of them, persistency varies with different weather conditions. In warm weather a substance evaporates faster, and, hence, is less persistent than when the weather is cool. Also, if there are winds or rising air currents, the agent will evaporate faster and be less persistent than when the air is comparatively still. ft. Concentration. Another term which it is necessary to use in describing and ex- plaining the effects of chemical agents is “concentration.” This refers to the amount of the chemical which is present in a unit quan- tity of air. It is not something which the ordinary person can or need measure, but, if the odor of gas is sharp and strong, he will know that the concentration is high, and if the odor is faint, this usually is a good indication that the concentration is light. The more of a toxic or poisonous material present in the atmosphere, the more quickly and severely will one exposed to it be affected. Everyone is familiar with such quantity effects in his ordinary experience. A large dose of medicine usually will have a much more FIG. 4. Nonpersistent gas vaporizes upon release, mixes with air, and soon disappears. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS drastic effect and will act more quickly than a small dose; but small doses, taken repeatedly, may in time produce the same effect as one big dose. This is true also of war gases. In the case of exposure to a war gas, the degree of injury depends both upon the concentration of the gas and the length of the period of the exposure. Thus a whiff or two of some gases may cause no injurious effect at all, but if one continues to breathe them, each breath of the substance adds its effect to that of the previous one so that, eventually the exposed person may be seriously hurt or killed. We may say then, that a long exposure to a toxic gas in light con- centration will tend to produce the same effect as brief exposure to the gas in high concentration. 9. Household Analogies. It will help the average person in understanding these properties of war gases if he can be made to realize how similar they are to the properties of certain familiar substances in common household use. War gases usually are much more toxic or poisonous than any danger- ous household chemicals, but they have much in common. Similar- ities in the matter of persistency have already been noted. Consider now the effects of exposure. Everyone knows that gas used for heating or lighting is poisonous, and that if he turns on the gas jet in a tightly closed room and remains there, letting the gas escape, a high concentration will be built up so that he will be killed by asphyxiation. On the other hand, he knows that a few whiffs of FIG. 5. Persistent gas vaporizes slowly and gives off toxic vapors for a long time PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 9 such gas may make him sick, but will not kill him, or even cause permanent injury. Much of the same situation obtains in the case of exposure to a war gas. A person who has breathed some gas before he has been able to adjust his gas mask should not be overcome with fear and feel that he is going to die because he has been exposed. He should get his mask on as quickly as possible to prevent further ex- posure. He may suffer somewhat from the experience, but if the exposure has been brief, he may have no serious injury. Again, everyone knows that if he drops some acid on his body it will produce a severe burn; or, if he exposes his bare skin to poison ivy, a rash, developing into itching blisters, usually is the result. These effects, though less severe, are not altogether different from the effects on the skin produced by exposure to mustard gas. Still again, who has not suffered a smarting of the eyes, and perhaps of the nose, as a result of exposure to household ammonia or red pepper? These effects are not dissimilar to those of tear gases and certain other irritant agents. 10. Classification of Chemical Agents. From the foregoing, it is evident that chemical warfare gases may be classified according to their physical state under normal conditions, according to their persistency, and according to their physiological action or the way in which they injure the body. These classifications, with one or more examples in each class, are set forth below. The common name of each agent used as an example is given and, also, the brief chemical warfare symbol for the agent is shown in brackets. a. Physical state: Gas—phosgene (CG); chlorine (Cl). Liquid—mustard gas (HS); Lewisite (M-l). Solid—The tear gas, chloracetophenone (CN); the irritant smoke, Adamsite (DM). b. Persistency: Nonpersistent agents—phosgene (CG); chloracetophenone (CN) when used in burning type munitions; Adamsite (DM). Persistent agents—mustard gas (HS); Lewisite (M-l); tear gas solution (CNS); chlorpicrin (PS). c. Physiological action: Lung irritants—phosgene (CG); chlorpicrin (PS); chlorine (Cl). Vesicant or skin-blistering gases—mustard gas (HS); Lewisite (M-l). Lacrimators or tear gases—chloracetaphenone (CN); tear gas .solution (CNS). 10 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Sternutators, or those that irritate the nose and throat and cause vomiting—Adamsite (DM). Systemic (internal) poisons—hydrocyanic acid (HCN); carbon monoxide (CO).* It should be realized that the preceding grouping according to phys- iological action is based only on the most pronounced effects. Most chemical agents share in some degree the injurious characteristics of others. Thus, almost all of them, if breathed long enough, will cause injury to the lungs. A number of the chemical agents which irritate the eyes and cause some flow of tears are not classed as tear gases since they produce other and more serious injuries. Both mustard gas and Lewisite are deadly to breathe, but the fact that they injure any part of the body they touch, including the outer skin, causes them to be classified as vesicant or blistering agents, rather than as lung irritant gases. 11. Type Agents. During and since the World War, many thousands of chemical compounds have been studied by chemists to determine their possible value for war purposes. Among these are many which are much more toxic or poisonous than those considered here, but injuriousness is not the only characteristic a substance must possess in order to be suitable for war use. If the substance is to be used as a gas, this gas must be heavier than air so that, when released, it will not be immediately dissipated but will tend, for a time at least, to hug the ground. Thus, hydrocyanic acid gas and carbon monoxide, both extremely poisonous, are generally considered unsuitable for war use because they are lighter than air. Again, if the substance is normally a gas, it must be one which can be liquefied readily and so loaded into shells, bombs, or other containers. It must be available in large quantities and easily manufactured. Not many substances possess all of these necessary properties for war use. In this manual, no attempt is made to describe all of the chemical agents in each group. Only those which may be called “type agents” or typical of the group to which they belong are considered in detail. In general, if one knows the characteristics of the “type agent,” he will know all he needs to know of all agents of that particular class. ‘Not considered useful as war gases but typical of gases in this physiological group. 422892°—41 2 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS SECTION 2. TYPICAL EXAMPLES. 12. Lung Irritant Gases. a. Example.—A typical example of this class of chemical agents is phosgene, symbol CG, which in concentrations producible in the open may cause death. Phosgene was used extensively in the World War. It is a nonpersistent gas and in open areas is usually dissipated within 10 minutes after its release. Being heavier than air, it tends to flow into low areas, in which places, especially in cool weather, it may accumulate and remain in effective concentration for an hour or more. If used on a city, it may be expected to accumulate in such places as areaways below the street level, cellars, etc. FIG. 6. Physiological effects of chemical agents. Lacrimators cause eyes to water and shut tight. Sternutators irritate nose and throat, often cause headache, nausea, depression. Lung irritants retard normal breathing, cause edema Systemic poisons absorbed in sufficient quantity may cause death. Vesicants burn and blister the skin; lewisite causes arsenic poisoning. 12 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS b. How detected.—Phosgene can be detected by its characteristic odor. In low concentration this is sweetish and rather pleasant and generally is described as like that of green corn or new-mown hay. In high concentration the odor is less agreeable and somewhat like that of ensilage, or fermented fodder. Phosgene gas itself is colorless but a cloud of this gas may be perceptible to the eye. It appears whitish, like a thin smoke, due to the presence of condensed water vapor in the cloud. c. How used.—-Phosgene may be used in explosive shells or air- plane bombs. It may also be released from cylinders in the user’s own position when the wind is such as to blow the cloud to the target. Large clouds of this type may travel in effective concentration for several miles. The agent is highly injurious only if breathed; hence it may be expected that the user will seek surprise effect by producing an effective cloud quickly with a view to causing exposure before people can adjust gas masks. For this reason, phosgene attacks may well be expected at night. Cool, cloudy weather favors the use of this type of gas. High winds and rain are unfavorable for its use. d. Effects on the body.—When breathed, phosgene acts directly upon the lungs, causing the air cells to fill with fluid from the body. The normal process of respiration, in which oxygen is transmitted from the air to the blood, is thus retarded or stopped entirely. If the concentration of the gas is high, casualty effect usually takes place rapidly after brief exposure. If the concentration is low, the physiological effects frequently are delayed. Catching of the breath, coughing, and choking, usually follow the breathing of phosgene. Sometimes there is vomiting. These symp- toms may shortly disappear and for several hours afterward the victim may feel well and thus not realize that he is injured. How- ever, if the lungs have been seriously affected, these symptoms will return and in more violent form. As a rule, if there is no return of such symptoms within 24 hours of exposure, the affected person can be regarded as out of danger. A person exercising, or merely standing erect, requires much more oxygen to sustain life than one lying at complete rest. Since lung injury, due to breathing phosgene or similar gases, reduces the capacity of the lungs to supply oxygen, it is manifest that such a gas victim should be placed at complete rest at once. The gravest danger of sudden collapse and possibly death is incurred when a person who has been exposed, disregarding or not realizing his injury, continues to exert himself. In addition to its effect on the lungs, phosgene also irritates the eyes, causing the flow of tears. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 13 e. Effect on material.—Phosgene in high concentration, especially if moisture is present, has a corrosive action on metals. Food exposed to it may be contaminated. /. Protection required.-—A modern gas mask provides complete protection against phosgene and all known agents of its class. g. First aid.—A person who has been exposed to phosgene should be placed at complete rest, kept warm, and given light stimulants such as hot coffee or tea. Medical aid should be sought as soon as possible. (See Ch. Ill for further details on first aid.) 13. Vesicant or Blistering Gases. a. Example.—The outstanding example of this type of gas is mustard gas, symbol HS, which in concentrations producible in the open may cause death. Mustard gas is an oily, slowly evaporating liquid, characterized by its vesicant or blistering action. It is highly persistent. The period during which it will remain effective after its release will vary from several hours to several weeks, depending upon the temperature, the amount of the substance, and the way in which it is used. Mustard gas will permeate any material which is at all porous, rendering it dangerous to touch, until decontaminated. Likewise, mustard gas will adhere to and contaminate metal surfaces. b. How detected.—Mustard gas has a characteristic odor which is very much like that of garlic. The sense of smell, however, soon becomes fatigued by this odor so that, after a time, if exposure to low concentrations of the gas is continued, the presence of the gas may not be noticed. A somewhat similar agent, Lewisite, has the distinct odor of geraniums. Liquid mustard gas, splashed or sprayed on vege- tation and light-colored surfaces, shows as brownish spots. The vapor itself is invisible. c. How used.—Mustard gas and similar agents may be dissem- inated by means of explosive shell or airplane bombs or they may be sprayed in the form of a fine rain from containers carried on aircraft. d. Effects on the body.—Even in very low concentration, mus- tard gas has a very serious effect upon the eyes, causing irritation and, frequently, temporary blindness. The vapor of the mustard gas will quickly penetrate ordinary clothing, causing burns upon the skin, particularly at moist, delicate parts such as the armpits. A small droplet of the substance in liquid form, sufficient merely to cover the head of a pin, will cause a severe burn. The casualty effect of mustard gas is delayed usually from four to six hours after exposure in the case of the vapor, and from one to two hours in the case of the liquid substance. The first symptom of skin burns usually is itching. This is fol- lowed by a rash which changes later to watery blisters and, possibly, PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 14 a deep wound. Unless a great amount of the skin surface is thus affected, such wounds are rarely fatal unless infected, nor do they usually cause permanent injury, though long periods of hospital treat- ment are required to cure them. Mustard gas burns generally do not cause much, if any, pain. The breathing of mustard gas vapor results in general inflammation of the entire respiratory tract and renders the victim highly susceptible to pneumonia. In cases of fatal mustard poisoning, death usually is the direct result of pneumonia from breathing the gas. The effects of the somewhat similar agent, Lewisite, are similar, but the action of Lewisite is considerably quicker. Moreover, Lewisite contains arsenic and, unlike mustard gas, is absorbed into the bodily system, producing arsenical poisoning. e. Effect on material.—Mustard gas and similar agents contami- nate materials exposed to them, rendering them dangerous to touch. (See Ch.IV on decontamination.) /. Protection required.—-In addition to the gas mask, special clothing is required for protection of the body against mustard gas and similar agents. It is not practicable, nor is it considered neces- sary, for all of the people to be provided with such clothing. Persons charged with decontamination work or other duties requiring them to remain in gassed areas should be equipped with it. (See Chs. Ill and IV.) g. First aid.—Persons who have breathed mustard gas should be treated as lung irritant cases. Their clothing, if contaminated, should be removed as soon as possible and they should be bathed with water and soap. In case liquid mustard has come in contact with the body, protective ointment or a paste of bleaching powder and water should be applied to neutralize the mustard and then removed (in a few minutes). If redness or blisters has already developed do not use bleaching powder or ointment. In this case, or if they are un- available for normal decontamination, the affected area should be cleaned with kerosene, gasoline, carbon tetrachloride or alcohol, care being taken not to spread the contamination. Following this, hot water and soap should be used. (See Ch. III.) 14. Nose and Throat Irritants ( Sternutators ). a. Example.—These agents, sometimes called sneeze gases, are also frequently referred to as toxic or irritant smokes, since they are not disseminated as gases but rather in the form of a cloud of minute solid or liquid particles. Such clouds are nonpersistent. Typical of this group of agents is a substance known as Adamsite, symbol PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 15 DM. It is a solid material which is disseminated by a burning process. There are similar agents which can be used in explosive shells or bombs. b. How detected.—Adamsite has no distinctive odor. It is some- times described as rather like that of coal smoke or burning smokeless powder. The cloud given off from munitions containing Adamsite is canary yellow in color but, after traveling a few hundred yards, becomes invisible. c. How used.—Irritant smoke agents may be used in burning type munitions called candles or, in the case of certain types, in shells or airplane bombs containing an explosive charge. In the latter case, it may be difficult to distinguish the bursting shells or bombs from ordinary high-explosive types. The particles which make up clouds of these agents will not penetrate a gas mask which is provided with a suitable type of mechanical filter. These agents are effective in very low concentration. Brief ex- posure to them may cause such immediate distress as to keep victims from adjusting their gas masks or cause them to remove their masks afterward. A high state of “gas discipline,” developed by training, is required to prevent this. It must be realized that an attack with agents of this type is likely to be followed by the use of a more deadly gas such as phosgene. d. Effects on the body.—Irritant smoke agents affect particularly the nose and throat, causing irritation. Headache, nausea, and severe mental depression are also frequent symptoms. Casualties caused by these substances are rarely fatal, but the victim may be incapacitated for 12 hours or possibly longer. e. First aid.—The victim should be put at rest and his gas mask kept on until he is removed to a gas-free area. Spraying of the nose and throat with soda or boric acid solution and allowing the patient to inhale, lightly, chlorine gas given off from chloride of lime are helpful. Clothing should be loosened. If the case is severe, the patient should be removed to a hospital. (See Ch. III.) 15. Tear Gases. a. Example.—There are a number of agents of this type, the principal effect of which is to irritate the eyes, causing a copious flow of tears. All of them are highly effective in very low concentration. Some are liquids and some are solid materials. Chloracetophenone, symbol CN, is typical of the group. It is a solid crystalline substance which, when evaporated by the application of heat, gives off its irritating gas. So used the agent is nonpersistent. The substance may be dissolved in liquids and used in explosive munitions or in airplane spray apparatus. In such cases it is per- sistent, and considerably more severe in its effects. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS b. How detected.—Chloracetophenone has a rather sweetish pleasant odor, frequently described as like that of apple blossoms. However, the action of the gas on the eyes takes place so rapidly, that frequently this odor is not perceived. c. Action on the body.—Tear gases act directly upon the eyes, causing irritation which results in a copious flow of tears. In such concentrations as usually are obtained in the open, the effects of these gases are transitory. d. How used.—Tear gases may be used in explosive shells, bombs, and grenades, and certain liquid types may also be sprayed from airplanes. Such gas may be employed alone or in conjunction with high explosive munitions. It is used to harass, force the wearing of gas masks. If used against a city, the purpose would probably be to cause confusion and delay and lower the morale of the people. e. Protection required.—The gas mask furnishes complete pro- tection against all agents of this type. /. First aid.—Usually, all that is necessary after exposure to such gas is to leave the gassed area and face the wind. The eyes should not be rubbed. In severe cases, the application of cold water or boric acid solution is desirable. (See Ch. III.) 16. Systemic Poisons. a. Examples.—Although not immediately irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, or lungs, these gases cause systemic (internal) poisoning, and if inhaled in sufficient quantity, may cause death. No such gases suitable for war purposes are now known, but the possibility of their being discovered cannot be disregarded. Hydrocyanic acid gas (HCN), familiarly known as prussic acid gas, having an odor like bitter almonds, is an example of gases in this group. Unlike other gases described herein, its action is not cumulative or progressive, a definite concentration of the agent being necessary to produce any effect. Brief exposure to such a concentration, however, usually has fatal result. HCN was tried in the World War but was discarded. It is lighter than air and thus is quickly dissipated after its release. Another agent in this general class is carbon monoxide (CO), which is odorless. It, too, is not classed as a war gas but is sometimes encountered in war, being one of the products from the explosion of high explosive bombs and shells. It is also present in coal gas used for cooking and heating in many cities. There is no danger from this gas in open areas but, where a bomb or shell explodes in a building or other enclosed space, or when a broken main permits it to seep into a cellar, a concentration of this gas sufficient to be dangerous may result. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 17 b. First aid.—Effective first aid treatment for exposure to either of these two gases generally involves the administration of oxygen. The modern gas mask for war use protects against HCN but not against CO. 17. Chart of War Gases. Descriptive data concerning “type agents” and other well known gases in each of the physiological classes are given in large chart in pocket on inside of cover. 18. Uses of Gas The intentions of the enemy with respect to a city or town subjected to gas attack may be indicated by the type of gas and the manner of its use. For example, if he wished to disorganize a city with a mini- mum of material damage, he might try to gas it. In case he planned an immediate occupation, he would use a nonpersistent type of war gas which would cause casualties. If he did not intend to occupy the city or intended to delay his occupation of it for several days, a persistent chemical agent might be used. In any event, it is practically certain that an enemy will avoid entering any area contaminated by persistent gas. If the enemy’s purpose were to harass and lower the morale of the populace, he might use tear gas. If a nonpersistent gas is used, it is likely that the bombardment will be sudden and intense but of short duration, since such gas only injures persons exposed before they can adjust their masks. However, an attack of this nature is likely to be repeated later on. If persistent gas is used, the bombardment may be slow and deliberate, since surprise effect is not essential for positive results. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS SECTION 3. EFFECT OF WEATHER ANU SURROUNUINGS ON GAS 19. War Gas Hugs the Ground Gases, to be suitable for war purposes, must be heavier than air. If lighter than air, they are so quickly dissipated after their release that an effective concentration of them cannot be developed. Since war gases are heavier than air, they tend to hug the ground. They mix with the air, becoming in time more and more dilute and finally disap- pearing entirely. These heavy gases flow downhill more or less as does water and tend to accumulate in low lying places. In open country, they will accumulate and remain effective in ravines and gulleys for a considerably longer time than they do over high, open ground. Likewise, they will persist longer in woods than in open areas. If used against towns and cities, gas may be expected to accumulate in subways, cellars, sewers and other such low lying places in a city. It therefore is evident that persons on the upper floors of buildings might be entirely safe, whereas those at ground level would be exposed to a higher concentration. Even the upper floors of a two or three story house are considerably safer in this respect than a lower floor or cellar. On the other hand, the lower floors or cellars are usually considered safer places of refuge against high explosive bombs. These conflicting factors must be taken into account in providing places of refuge against attack. Gas tends to pass around and over a house if doors and windows are closed. However, unless all cracks and crevices are sealed, the gas will eventually penetrate the house. 20. Wind. Gas clouds move with the wind. Low velocity and steadiness of the wind are favorable for the use of gas. Under such conditions a gas cloud tends to remain intact and the enemy may then make use of the wind to blow the gas over the target. However, if the wind velocity is high, more than 10 or 12 miles per hour, or if the wind is gusty, the gas cloud is torn apart and quickly dissipated. 21. Rising Air Currents. When the sun shines brightly, the ground surface becomes warm and radiates heat, causing rising currents of air. This is very pro- PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 7. War gases being heavier than air accumulate in low places such as valleys, cellars, and subways. nounced in warm weather and is one of nature’s most potent means of ridding the atmosphere of any pollution. In this connection, it should be realized that only for a limited period will any chemical agent released in the open sunshine remain effective. At night, when the ground is cool, rising air currents are less pro- nounced than during the daytime and may even be totally absent. For this reason, as well as because of the greater opportunity at night for surprise effect, gas attacks may particularly be expected at night. 22. Rain. A heavy rain is fatal to almost any gas attack. In the case of some agents, such as phosgene, the gas is destroyed by chemical action with the rain water. Gas of any type is beaten out of the air by the rain drops and drained away if not chemically destroyed. Fogs or mists, however, will not appreciably affect gas clouds and may even favor the use of gas since at such times wind and rising air currents usually are absent. 20 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 22, Clouds, Cloudy, overcast skies favor the use of gas since such conditions are not conducive to rising air currents. 24. Temperature. The warmer the weather, the more quickly chemicals are vaporized; and the more quickly this happens, the sooner they are dissipated. Thus, in general, cool, cloudy weather is favorable for their employ- ment. However, an exception is to be noted in the case of such highly persistent agents as mustard gas. Warm weather accelerates the FIG. 8. Gas clouds move with the wind. Steady move- ment of low velocity spreads war gas in dangerous concentration over a large area. FIG. 9. Bright sunshine causes rising currents of air that help to disperse concentrations. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 10. Rain helps destroy any type of gas and washes liquid away. Mustard gas, however, is hydrolyzed slowly. evaporation of these particular agents, thus producing a higher vapor concentration of them than obtained when the weather is cool. Mustard gas will freeze at a temperature considerably above the freezing point of water, which is 32° Fahrenheit, and thus remain inert, but as soon as the temperature rises sufficiently, it will melt and again give off its toxic vapors.* Frequently, such gas, released at night when the air and ground are quite cool, gives off very little vapor so that no gas may be perceived; however, when the sun comes out and the temperature rises, a considerable concentration may be developed. * Freezing point of crude mustard gas, depending upon impurities present, varies from 46° to 50° F. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS CHAPTER III. INDIVIDUAL PROTECTIDN. SECTION 1. CLASSIFICATION OF PRO- TECTIVE MEASURES. 25. Classification. Passive defense against gas attacks involves two classes of measures, individual and collective. a. Individual protection.—Individual protection pertains to the provision and use of gas masks, gas protective clothing, training in the identification of gases by their odors or by other means, and in first aid measures for treatment of gas casualties. b. Collective protection.-—Collective protection pertains to the provision and use of equipment to protect a number of persons as a group. This subject is discussed in chapter four. SECTION 2. GAS MASKS. 26. Types and Functions. A gas mask is a device which is worn over the face to protect the eyes, respiratory passages, and lungs from toxic gases, irritating gases, and smoke present in the atmosphere. There are many different types of gas masks. Some of them, used in industries, are designed for particular purposes, for instance , to pro- tect against ammonia fumes in refrigeration plants, or for protection against high concentrations of certain gases used for fumigation, or to protect firemen against carbon monoxide likely to be encountered in burning buildings. These special gas masks are not designed for protection against war gases and should not be used for that purpose. Likewise gas masks for war use are designed to protect solely against war gases. It should be realized also that gas masks do not supply air. They merely filter and purify air which is drawn through them. They are not designed for use in places such as mine shafts, etc., where there may be a lack of sufficient fresh air. For protection in any such places a self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus or a mask pro- vided with a long hose extending to the outside should be used. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 23 27. Masks for War Use• A modern gas mask for protection against war gases consists of two essential parts—the facepiece and the canister. The facepiece, which is made of rubber or other suitable material, is designed to fit the face closely so that when the mask is worn no air is breathed except that which is drawn through the canister. The facepiece is provided with lenses for vision and a one-way air outlet valve to permit passage of expired air. An elastic head-harness is attached to the facepiece to hold it in place. The canister is attached to the facepiece. It contains granules of specially prepared and treated, highly porous carbon called activated carbon. Activated carbon has the peculiar prop- erty of attracting and holding war gases but at the same time allowing the pure air with which such gases are mixed to pass on through into the facepiece. Granules of specially prepared soda lime may be mixed with the carbon to provide additional chemical protection against some gases. In addition to the activated carbon and soda lime granules, the canister contains a filter made of fibrous material which stops any of the minute solid or liquid particles of which irritant smokes are com- posed. Thus the mask provides complete protection against any type of air-borne chemical agent which, so far as is known, may be used as a war gas. After continued use in an atmosphere where gas is present the can- ister may become “saturated” so that it will retain no more gas. It is then unserviceable and should be replaced. However, under ordinary conditions the canister will fail gradually, allowing only very small amounts of gas to pass through it before it will permit a dangerous amount of gas to pass. A trace of gas can be detected by its odor or irritating effects and will thus give warning that the canister should be replaced. Masks made to meet U. S. Army specifications may be relied upon to protect the wearer against any gas attack that may be expected. 28. Civilian Masks. Among the types of gas masks used in the Army there are two which are considered suitable for use of civilians. These types are known in the Army as: a. The Noncombatant Gas Mask. b. The Training Gas Mask. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 2.9. The N oneomhutant Gas Mash. The facepiece of this type of mask is made of gas resistant fabric. The facepiece of the mask for adults is designed to fit any size and type of face. Small and medium sizes of facepieces are required for chil- dren. The head-harness consists of six elastic straps. Two lenses are sewed in place, and there is an outlet valve on one side of the face- piece, The canister has a rubber inlet valve on the bottom attached to a metal disk. This valve permits air to pass in but not out. The principal parts as we1! as the air flow system of this type of non- combatant mask are shown in figure 11. The mask is carried in a canvas bag provided with a closure and a shoulder strap. This type of mask can be manufactured in quantity at low cost. For the Army’s purposes such masks will be provided to civilians whose duties require them to remain in the theater of opera- tions. SO, Respirators for Children and Infants, In certain foreign countries which have had occasion to make very extensive provisions for gas protection, special respirators have been designed for very small children and infants. The small child’s respirator is similar to the gas mask for adults but is of course smaller. The facepiece is usually made of soft rubber. For babies, a protective helmet is provided. This consists of a bag covering the entire upper part of the body. A canister with bellows is attached so that purified air can be pumped into the bag. A large window made of transparent material permits the baby to see. In general, rather than to rely on these devices for protection of small children, it is considered desirable to evacuate them from cities to less vulnerable areas. SI, The Training Gas Mash, This type of mask is fundamentally the same as the noncombatant mask but is more rugged in construction. The facepiece is made of rubber, and the eye lenses and canister are replaceable. The canister of this mask is the same as that of the noncombatant mask. This mask is used in the Army for training purposes, being considerably less costly than the Service Mask provided for the soldier for war use. This type of mask is considered particularly suitable as a “Civilian Duty Mask” for use by civilian decontamination squads, policemen, firemen, etc., whose duties in civil defense activities may make it desirable to have a somewhat more durable mask than the non- combatant type. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 25 Head harness. Facepiece. - Lens. Filter. Air intake valve.. (contents of canister) — Air outlet valve. - 32. How to Adjust the Gas Mash. I. How to Adjust the Gas Mask. a. As soon as the odor of gas is detected, or upon hearing the gas alarm, stop breathing and hold the breath. b. Remove hat and eyeglasses. c. Place the left hand around the bottom of the carrier at the canister, open the cover flap with the right hand, and remove the mask. d. Bring the mask up in front of the face. Grasp the facepiece in both hands with the thumbs inside and below the lower head- harness strap and with the fingers on the outside of the facepiece. Open up the mask with the thumbs. e. Thrust the chin up and out. Pull the mask over the chin and then over the rest of the face. /. Pull the head harness down into position on the back of the head. Adjust the mask on the face. Women must first brush the hair back so that the mask will rest on the face; otherwise, gas may enter around the edges of the mask. Similarly, men who are not clean-shaven may not get a gastight fit. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS g. Place the left hand over the outlet valve and exhale as strongly as possible, emptying the lungs. This important operation forces out any gas which may have been inside of the facepiece when it was put on. h. Start breathing normally. Replace the hat and close the flap of the carrier. II. How to Test for Gas. a. Even though the “all clear” signal has been given, always test for gas before removing the mask. To do this, first take a moderately full breath of air. Exhale a portion of the air breathed and stop breathing. b. Stoop down and bend forward so as to bring the head as close to the ground as possible, but do not lose the balance or touch the ground with the hands or knees. c. Insert two fingers of the right hand between the face and the facepiece at the cheek, thus permitting air to enter the facepiece. Sniff gently but do not inhale. d. Stand up again. If no gas was detected, remove mask. If gas was detected, clear mask as described in paragraph g. III. How to Remove the Gas Mask. a. Grasp the canister just below the facepiece with the right hand. b. Bend the head slightly forward and pull the mask outward and upward and off the head. c. Hold the mask in the right hand and fold the head harness inside. d. Replace the mask in the carrier and close the flap. IV. How to Adjust the Head Harness of the Gas Mask. a. Loosen the straps as much as possible. b. Put on the mask. Tighten the straps, making certain that the straps on opposite sides of the mask are tightened equally. c. Test for leakage by placing the palm of the hand lightly over the outlet valve on the bottom of the canister and breathing in. The facepiece should collapse on the face. If the fit is too loose, or if there is a hole in the facepiece or canister, leakage will occur and the mask will not collapse on the face. d. Continue to tighten the straps until the fit is airtight. However, if the fit is too tight it will be uncomfortable. 422892°—41 3 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS V. How to Inspect the Gas Mask. a. Examine the facepiece carefully for pinholes, cracks, or tears by holding it up to a strong light. Examine the chin seam for rips or tears and the chin seam tape for any sign of failure. If examina- tion indicates any need for repairs, take care of the mask at once by stopping the leak with adhesive tape. b. Examine the head-harness buckles for breakage and the straps for tears. c. Examine the outlet valve. The rubber disk must not stick to the valve seat. It must retain its elasticity. If it has hardened, cracked, or taken a permanent set, it must be replaced. d. Examine the inlet valve on the bottom of the canister. It too must be flexible. If it has hardened, it must be replaced. e. Examine the carrier for holes, tears, or other signs of wear. VI. Disinfection of the Gas Mask. A mask should be disinfected occasionally, and in every case before it is used by a person other than the original wearer. A three-percent solution of formaldehyde (USP solution) or similar disinfectant is used. The mask must be held upside down, that is, with the canister above the facepiece, to prevent the disinfectant from getting into the canister. This is done with one hand. The other hand is used to sponge the entire surface of the facepiece both inside and out with a small piece of*clean rag which has been saturated with the disinfectant; some of the liquid should be poured into the outlet valve. Any excess liquid is drained out by opening the valve. After drying fifteen minutes in ordinary air the inside of the face- piece is then wiped with a clean cloth to remove any remaining mois- ture. When the mask is thoroughly dry it is returned to the carrier. VII. Care of the Gas Mask. The mask should be kept in the carrier when it is not in use. Noth- ing else should be put in the carrier nor should any weight be put on it. While at home or at work the mask must be kept in a cool dry place. It must not be placed near a radiator. The canister must be kept dry. If the mask is worn during a rain, it should be dried before being re- placed in the carrier. If the canister becomes wet, it must be replaced at once. In time of emergency the mask should always be kept handy in its carrier. When sleeping, the mask should be near the head of one’s bed. Always take good care of your gas mask and keep it ready for use. If you encounter gas, it will save your life. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS I a I c I d I e If I s PROTECTION AGAINST GAS II b III a b c III d III e IV c Va PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Vb Vc Vd Ve SECTION 3. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. 33. Description and Purpose. For protection of the body against vapors or droplets of vesicant gases, persons must either take refuge in a gasproof shelter or wear protective clothing. (Gas shelters are described in the next chapter.) Protective clothing consists of garments made of materials which prevent vapors of mustard gas and the like, or droplets of liquid chemical, from passing through them and coming in contact with the skin. It is needed by decontamination squads and other protec- tive personnel whose duties may require them to work in contami- nated areas. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS To be effective the clothing must cover the entire surface of the body, and all seams and fastenings must be gastight. There must be no holes or tears. Such clothing used in the Army is of the coverall type. Attached to the suit is a hood, which when adjusted covers the head and fits snugly around the edge of the gas mask facepiece. Straps are provided to tighten the sleeve about the wrists and the legs of the garment at the ankles. Rubber or oilskin type gloves, rubber boots, or specially treated leather shoes, comp1ete the equipment. The coverall made of oilskin type material is not only resistant to penetration by mustard gas or similar agents, but also is impervious to air. In consequence such clothing can only be worn with safety for limited periods. It interferes with evaporation of perspiration from the skin, so that the individual becomes overheated. To con- tinue wearing it then is dangerous to health. These effects are more Hood attached to suit fits snugly over head. Tight straps complete neck and face fit. Zipper front has gas-tight overlap. Wrists and ankles arc strapped tightly. Heavy duty rubber gloves fit wrists snugly. Specially impregnated shoes.v FIG. 12. Gasproof clothing. 32 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS pronounced in summer than in winter. In general, it is considered that continuous wearing of such clothing should not be extended beyond two hours; in the summer, it may be intolerable after less than ten minutes. .14. Adjustment. It is difficult for the wearer of such a gas protection suit to adjust the closure of the garment himself; consequently, personnel required to use protective clothing should be trained in aiding each other in this respect. Aid is also necessary in removing the clothing if it is contaminated; otherwise, the wearer is likely to touch contaminated portions and receive a burn. Contaminated clothing must be care- fully handled to avoid spreading the, contamination and must be decontaminated before it is used again. Before putting on the protective suit, the wearer should remove his ordinary clothing and put on a clean suit of long underclothing and clean socks. (See Ch. IV, Sec. 4, Decontamination.) SECTION 4. IDENTIFICATION OF GASES. 33. Chemical Gas Detectors. Ever since the introduction of the use of gases in warfare, chemists have been searching for a universal war-gas detector, or a device which by chemical means will definitely indicate the presence of war gas. There have been developed special kinds of colored paper, powders, and paints which undergo well-defined color changes when liquid mustard or Lewisite strike them. These detectors are suitable for mustard or Lewisite, but as yet no universal detector has been developed. 36. Sensory Detection. The human nose is a very delicate organ, and the average person, with proper training, can distinguish all of the known war gases by their odors. (See table 1, following.) A knowledge of the symp- toms of injury caused by exposure to the various agents and of the appearance of gas clouds may also aid in identifying any gas used. The odor of anything can only be described as like or similar to the odor of something else. This resemblance, in some cases, may be rather faint. Moreover, no one can know exactly how anything will smell to him until he actually smells it. Everyone, if possible, but especially those persons designated to give warning of gas attacks, should be familiar with the odor of each war gas. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS ;*;i Table /.—Identification of Chemical Agents AGENT SYM- BOL ODOR OTHER IMMEDIATE EFFECTS* Mustard Gas HS Garlic, horseradish None. Lewisite Ml Geraniums Sneezing; eye irritation. Phosgene CG In light concen.—Cut corn. In heavy con- cen.—Ensilage. Thin white cloud pro- duced; coughing; tight- ness in chest; eye irrita- tion. Chlorpicrin PS Sweetish, like licorice Lacrimation; vomiting. Chlor acetophe- none. CN Locust or apple blossoms; ripe fruit. Lacrimation; irritation of skin in hot weather. Tear Gas Solu- tion**. CNS Sweetish Lacrimation; irritation of skin. Brombenzylcya- nide**. CA Like sour fruit Eye irritation usual before odor is noted. Eye irri- tation lasts some time. Adamsite DM Odor from burning smoke- less powder. Canary yellow smoke haze; headache; vomiting. *The cloud of vapor is invisible unless its color is noted in this column. Intensity of all odors increases with the concentration. **Gases marked with double star are not included in the sniff set. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 34 :17. Use of 0*as Samples. Small samples of actual war gases can be used for training in gas identification. The following rules apply: b. Before starting the test, take a deep breath of uncontaminated air. Exhale a portion. a. Memorize the odors and associate them with the gas. c. Sniff once and attempt to associate the odor with one of the known war gases. d. Exhale and clear the nasal passages of the gas. e. Do not repeat the test for several minutes. Repeated testing for some gases such as mustard will dull the sense of smell and prevent accurate identification. Caution: Smoking dulls the sense of smell. Do not smoke while learning the odor or at any time while testing for gas. FIG. 13. Cross-section of bottle in sniff set, Ground gloss stopper. 125 CC reagent bottle. 50 CC activated charcoal (dry). Equivalent of I tablespoonful of agent adsorbed by charcoal. Hit. The Sniff . An important instructional aid for teaching odors is the use of a “Sniff Set.” The one used for instruction by the Army consists of seven 4-ounce glass bottles, one of which is shown in figure 13. These bottles contain, respectively, mustard gas (2 bottles), Lewisite, Adamsite, chlorpicrin, phosgene, and the tear gas CN. The gas is PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 35 adsorbed by charcoal and is given off gradually when the stopper of the bottle is removed. If the bottles are not used for a long time, sufficient pressure may be built up in them to throw out some of the contents when stoppers are first removed. Therefore, before using the set the bottles must be opened by someone wearing a mask. The bottles will then be safe for use for the next 24 hours. When not in use the bottles must be kept stoppered. It is important to replace the stoppers in the right bottles. FIG. 14, 39. Use of Sniff Set. It is important to use the set correctly. The following procedure should be employed: a. Shake the bottle gently. b. Remove the stopper carefully. c. Pass the stopper under the nose and sniff gently. If the odor is too faint to recognize, hold the stopper under the nose for a few seconds. d. If this fails, pass the mouth of the bottle under the nose and sniff gently, but do not hold it there. 36 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS SECTION 5—FIRST AID TREATMENT OE GAS CASUALTIES 40m General Considerations. The Army gas mask is the best individual protection against chem- ical warfare agents. It will not, however, protect against carbon monoxide, ammonia, or oxygen deficient atmospheres and is, therefore, not suitable for use in fighting fires or in industrial accidents where ammonia fumes are present. It is important to learn by practice how to put on and adjust the mask quickly. The amount of agent in the air (the concentration) determines the intensity and rapidity of the effects produced. The higher the con- centration, the shorter is the period of exposure required to produce a casualty. Get out of the contaminated atmosphere or area as soon as possible. Gases tend to travel downwind. If gas has been released in your immediate vicinity by bomb explosion or spray, move upwind. If gas has been released upwind from you, move across the wind till you are out of the stream. Most agents are heavier than air and tend to settle in hollows. Therefore, avoid low places or basements. The second story of a building is practically safe. Close doors and windows, stuffing cracks and chimneys; this will keep gas out for hours. If windows are blown out by explosions, hang wet blankets over openings to keep gas from blowing in. The blankets should be fastened tight at the edges. 41. Lunq Irritants. Phosgene Chlorpicrin Chlorine (Nitric fumes) All chemical warfare agents may act as lung irritants under certain circumstances, but with phosgene, chlorpicrin, chlorine, and nitric fumes, lung irritation is the most conspicuous effect. Nitric fumes have not been used directly in an attack, but are one of the gaseous products of nitrate explosives. Rescue Squad workers and others required to enter poorly ventilated buildings or tunnels following explosions may be exposed to dangerous concentrations of nitric fumes. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 37 a. LATENT PERIOD. There is usually a latent period of 1 to 12 or more hours between exposure to lung irritant gases and development of symptoms. Cig- arette smoke is unpleasant during this period, but there may be no other indication that an individual has been gassed. This latent period always occurs after exposure to phosgene and may be longer than 12 hours; after exposure to chlorine, there may be none. After chlorpicrin, the latent period is short and may be less than an hour; after nitric fumes, it is long like that of phosgene. Chlorpicrin may cause eye irritation and vomiting in addition to lung irritation. Persons exposed to lung irritants must be kept quiet during the latent period when they feel perfectly well. Any activity may cause sudden collapse and death. Patients must lie quietly and not attempt to feed themselves or even sit up. b. EFFECTS. Lung irritants cause pulmonary edema, a water-logged condition of the lungs which may cause the victim literally to drown in his own body fluids which pour into the irritated lungs. It is difficult for the heart to force blood through the damaged lungs, and death may result from circulatory collapse (heart failure) if the patient does not “drown.” c. SYMPTOMS. There may be none for 12 to 24 hours after exposure, except that cigarette smoke is unpleasant. Examination of the chest by a physi- cian reveals nothing abnormal. The patient then begins to breathe rapidly, becomes flushed and then bluish, and may develop a painful cough with swelling of neck veins (Blue Stage). He may cough up blood-tinged frothy sputum and appear to be strangling. He may develop circulatory failure and turn a greyish leaden color, become cold and clammy, as in shock (Grey Stage). After recovery from this, he is still in danger of developing bronchopneumonia. d. FIRST AID. (1) Remove from the gaseous atmosphere and keep patient ab- solutely quiet in bed or on a stretcher. He must under no circum- stances walk or even sit up, even though he may feel perfectly well. Keep him warm with blankets and hot drinks, and get him to a doctor as soon as possible. (2) Do not give artificial respiration to relieve difficult breathing in the blue or grey stages. The lungs are full of water and any additional manipulation may be fatal. (3) If symptoms appear, the patient should be given oxygen to breathe if available. 38 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 15. Gas casualties should be hospitalized as soon as possible. 42• Blister Gases. Mustard Lewisite Ethyldichlorarsine These agents, either as liquid or as vapor irritate, burn and blister any skin or mucous membrane with which they come in contact. Because of their persistence and insidiousness, blister agents cause many casualties, but the death rates are low. Only 2 percent of blister agent casualties in the World War were fatal. a. SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS. (1) Persistence.—Under normal weather conditions in temperate climates, they may persist for days in an area sheltered from wind and sunlight. In winter they persist longer. (2) Power.—The power of these agents is so great that a drop the size of a pinhead can produce a blister the size of a quarter. Exposure for 1 hour to air containing one part per million of vapor can cause a casualty. The eyes are particularly susceptible. (3) Penetration of materials and of the human body.—The blister agents “soak in” as ink soaks into a blotter. This is not the same as “eating in” as of an acid; the penetration takes place without damage to clothing. Because the agents are highly soluble in fats, they also readily soak into the body. A drop of mustard on the skin FIG. 16. Mustard Gas blister. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS l-BOX OF SAND AND BLEACHING POWDER FOR DECONTAMINATION OF SHOES. 2- FANS-NEAR DOOR 3- METAL CAN FOR CONTAMIN- ATED CLOTHING. 4- ON STRETCHER DECONTAMIN- ATED BY ATTENDANT WITH PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND MASK 5- SPONGE TO REMOVE MUSTARD. 6- PAIL FOR CONTAMINATED CLOTHS AND OU. 7- FOR GAS MASKS 8- LOCKS-BLANKETS AT EITHER END. 9- WOUNDED BATHED BY ATTENDANT 10-EYE IRRIGATION 11 -PHYSICIAN AND NURSE CARE FOR WOUNDED. 12-WOUNDED EVACUATED TO HOSPITAL AFTER DECONTAMINATION FIG. 17. Gas decontamination station. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS glistens for about two minutes and then is adsorbed. Only metals, glass, highly glazed tiles and porcelains, and specially treated fabrics resist their penetration. The agents penetrate rubber. (4) Insidiousness.—Even in concentrations sufficient to cause burns, the presence of these agents, particularly mustard, may not be detected by odor or by any immediate irritation. (5) Delayed action.—Their ability to cause damage before any evidence of their presence is recognizable makes these agents danger- ous. A patient may be sufficiently contaminated to cause extensive burns and show no signs of injury for 12 or more hours. (6) Universal action.—The effects of these agents are not limited largely to one set of body structures as is the case with tear gases and lung irritants. They burn and blister any tissue with which they come in contact, whether it be on the surface or in the interior of the body. The lungs may be injured by breathing vapor; the stomach may be injured by swallowing contaminated food, water, or even saliva. There are two types of blister agents: (1) Those which cause only local surface irritation. (2) Those which also cause systemic (internal) poisoning. These usually contain arsenic. More than any other type of chemical agent, the blister gases, especially those containing arsenic, will poison food and water, and render other supplies dangerous to handle until they have been decontaminated. Before transporting or treating blister agent casualties, medical unit personnel must apply to themselves those in- dividual or collective measures which are necessary for their own protection, or they will also become casualties. A gas mask protects only the face, eyes and lungs; protective ointment must be used on exposed parts and protective clothing worn where possible. It is important to distinguish between mustard and Lewisite burns because of the greater severity and danger of arsenic poisoning from Lewisite. The effects of this group of chemicals vary with the portion of the body exposed. Signs and symptoms may be delayed, particularly with mustard. The length of the latent period depends on the con- centration of the agent and on the individual sensitivity of the skin. Prolonged exposure to concentrations barely detectable by odor will produce casualties. b. MUSTARD. (1) Effects.-—In persons unprotected by masks, eye symptoms are generally the first to appear. These begin with smarting and water- PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 41 Table 2.—Differences ttetween Lewisite and Mustard * [Lewisite is more volatile at low temperatures than mustard and is therefore more dangerous in cold weather] MUSTARD LEWISITE Immediate effects: On skin None, even from liquid Sharp tingling from liquid. Breathing vapor for few minutes causes sharp burn- ing irritation. Nose __ _ _ None Eyes - None from vapor. Mild Immediate severe pain from irritation from liquid. liquid. Skin burns - - Much itching; little pain. Painful as well as itching; • Blisters filled with clear blisters filled with cloudy fluid and surrounded by fluid. No surrounding an area of erythema (redness). erythema (redness). Late effects: Skin Burns only skin Burns through skin into muscles. Eyes. Severe inflammation but Inflammation more severe rarely scarring with loss and usually causes some of vision. scarring and permanent impairment of vision. Entire body Produces no systemic (in- Produces systemic poisoning ternal) poisoning. with arsenic. * Prolonged exposure to either mustard or lewisite in concentration barely detectable by odor will cause casualties. ing of the eyes 2 or 3 hours after exposure to vapor, followed by reddening and swelling. There is considerable pain, especially from bright light, and swelling may completely close the lids. If liquid is splashed into the eyes, there is almost immediate burning and all symptoms develop more rapidly. Eye burns vary from simple irritation and redness following mild vapor to severe ulceration from liquid mustard. Sneezing and running nose are also early symptoms. 42 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Skin burns from vapor may not appear until 12 or more hours have elapsed, but may develop within 1 hour after contact with liquid mustard. The first symptom may be severe itching, followed by a sunburnlike redness, upon which small and large blisters develop. Shortly before the development of blisters, the surface of the reddened skin can be rubbed raw with slight pressure and friction. When liquid has been splashed on the skin, the blisters may be arranged in a ring around a central, whitish, indurated area. The blisters are surrounded by a zone of redness. Because of the depth of skin destruction, mustard burns may require some weeks to heal and may become infected. Vapor burns are more severe on areas of the body covered by clothing, which interferes with the dissipation of the mustard, and also on those areas subject to friction where the skin is moist or thin. The elbow, knee and neck folds, external genitalia, and armpits are particularly susceptible. The fluid contents of mustard blisters are not irritating to the skin. Irritation of the lungs is first indicated by hoarseness followed by a harsh brassy cough, later followed by production of yellowish sputum. These cases are serious because bronchopneumonia may develop. This condition was responsible for most of the deaths from mustard gas during the World War. Stomach irritation with nausea and vomiting may result from swallowing contaminated food, water, or even saliva. (2) Prevention—First Aid.—To be effective, treatment must begin within a few minutes after exposure. Immediate prophylaxis is effective only up to 5 minutes after liquid contamination. It is of little value after exposure to vapor because, in this form, most of the agent has penetrated the skin before the person reports for treatment. Contaminated clothing must be removed quickly, using proper pre- cautions (mask, gas proof gloves, apron, protective ointment) to protect the attendant. Clothes must be placed in a covered metal container until decontaminated. Great care must be used in the removal of mustard from the skin; otherwise the agent will merely be spread. The steps are as follows: (a) Gently apply dry pads to absorb any mustard remaining on the skin. (b) Gently and repeatedly dab the area with sponges dampened with gasoline (nonleaded), kerosene, carbon tetrachloride, or alcohol. These solvents, except carbon tetrachloride, are inflammable; keep away from open flame. Have sponges only damp with solvent; if dripping wet, they may dissolve and spread the agent as they run over the skin. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 43 FIG. 18. (c) Scrub the skin surface within and beyond the margins of the contaminated area with soap and water. (d) Pat the area dry with a towel. Do not rub. (e) Burn or bury the materials contaminated during the procedure. Keep away from the smoke while contaminated materials are burning. It may contain mustard vapor. A protective ointment developed by the U. S. Army also effectively removes mustard from the skin surface if it is applied with rubbing and then wiped off. Products containing active chlorine, such as bleaching powder and commercial bleaching solutions, may also be used. Bleaching powder should be mixed with one or two parts of water. Dry bleaching powder may be used if water is not available, but the reaction with mustard will generate some heat. Even so, the effect will be less than if mustard were left on the skin. Ordinary bleaching powder does not exceed 30 percent chlorine; high-test bleaching powder of 70 percent chlorine should never be used dry. Bleaching powder and solutions are irritating and must be removed from the skin as soon as possible (within a few minutes) or they will increase the burn. Be sure to keep them out of the eyes. If reddening of the skin indicates that the burn has already begun to develop, do not use these compounds; they will only increase the irritation. It is preferable to apply anti-pruritic ointment (par. 48, item 10) to relieve the itching. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 44 The eyes should be irrigated with a 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) unless they have been protected by a mask. The solution should be run directly into the eyes with a rubber tube from an enema can or similar container. Petrolatum on the edges of the eyelids will prevent their sticking together. A 2-percent solution of butyn may be instilled in the eyes to relieve pain. Cocaine must not be used; it may cause ulceration. The eyes must not be bandaged. FIG. 20. FIG. 21. If it is likely that mustard has entered the mouth or nose, the mouth and nasal passages should be rinsed and the throat gargled repeatedly with 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate. The patient should be kept quiet and warm to guard against bronchitis and broncho- pneumonia. If nausea and vomiting indicate that contaminated materials have been swallowed, the stomach should be washed out by repeated drink- ing of warm 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate. This will induce vomiting and wash out the irritant. After decontamination, all persons with eye, nose, and throat burns and with extensive skin burns should be hospitalized. Skin burns must be treated surgically as any severe extensive burn. c. LEWISITE. Lewisite is similar to mustard in physical characteristics, but it is more volatile and hence more effective in cold weather. It is also more immediately irritating and is more dangerous because it contains arsenic. Water breaks it down into a solid oxide containing arsenic, which is also irritating and poisonous. This solid is extremely per- sistent; contact with ground contaminated with lewisite will cause burns for a long time afterward. (1) Early effects.—Symptoms develop earlier and are more severe than with mustard. Liquid lewisite in the eye causes immediate pain. On the skin, redness appears within 15 to 30 minutes after contamination with liquid, and blisters soon appear, reaching their maximum within 12 hours. The entire area blisters, leaving no red PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 45 margin around the blister as is usually observed in mustard burns. The blister fluid contains arsenic and is itself capable of causing burns and general poisoning. (2) Late effects.—Lewisite burns are more painful and more dan- gerous than mustard burns. Lewisite in the eye may cause loss of vision. In addition to painful burns which may later become infected, symptoms of arsenic poisoning may appear. These are dryness and soreness of the throat, diarrhea, and restlessness. Later, paralysis may develop. Until neutralized or removed, lewisite continues to penetrate, burning through the skin into muscle or other body tissue. It differs in this respect from mustard, which never penetrates beneath the skin unless carried into a wound by contaminated shell or bomb fragments. (3) Prevention—First aid.-—(a) Eyes.—Liquid lewisite in the eyes is an emergency. The eyes must be rinsed immediately with 2 percent hydrogen peroxide. If that is not available, they must be irrigated with 2 percent solution of sodium bicarbonate. Delay may result in blindness. (b) Skin.— Treatment must begin within 1 minute after exposure to liquid lewisite to be really effective. Contaminated clothing must be quickly removed with precautions to protect the attendant, and treatment should be started while clothing is being removed. The contaminated areas should be swabbed immediately and repeatedly with hydrogen peroxide. Solutions with 10 or even 20 percent available oxygen are best but are somewhat unstable. The ordinary 2-percent solution available in drug stores will suffice. If hydrogen peroxide is not available, a solution of 10 percent sodium hydroxide (lye) in a 30-percent solution of glycerin in water, alternat- ing with 70 percent alcohol, is the second choice. The glycerin protects the skin from the lye. If no glycerin is available, 5 percent lye in water may be used. Lacking all these, the solvents and technique described for liquid mustard must be used. Following treatment, the skin should be washed with soap and water and patted dry. All contaminated cloths or sponges must be burned or buried. It is extremely urgent that patients contaminated with lewisite come immediately under medical treatment. The doctor must open the blisters as soon as possible to prevent further absorption oi arsenic. In opening the blisters, he must be careful to prevent infection and must remember that the blister fluid itself is capable of producing burns. If liquid lewisite has remained on the skin for any considerable length of time, surgical removal of the contaminated PROTECTION AGAINST GAS area may be necessary to reduce the risk from the arsenic which it contains. d. ETHYLDICHLORARSINE. (1) Immediate effects.—It is more irritating to nose and throat than lewisite or mustard. Immediate symptoms of sneezing and often vomiting are therefore common. It is less irritating to the skin and therefore less apt to blister. It is capable, however, of causing arsenic poisoning. (2) First aid.—Immediate measures are the same as for lewisite. Nose irritation may be relieved by inhaling dilute chlorine from a small amount of bleaching powder in a wide-mouthed bottle or can. Repeated drinking of warm 2 percent sodium bicarbonate solution should be used for vomiting. 4:t. The irritant Smokes (Sneeze liases or Sternntutors }• Adamsite Diphenylchlorarsine These agents are used to produce irritation of the nose, throat, and eyes, and are dispersed in clouds or smokes of very fine particles rather than as true gases. Their action is so delayed that symptoms may not appear until after the mask has been put on. When this occurs, an untrained person may think his mask unsatisfactory and remove it, becoming a casualty from further exposure. These agents are very insidious. They have no odor and are usually detected only when symptoms appear. a. EFFECTS. There is pain and a feeling of fullness in the nose and sinuses accom- panied by violent sneezing and running of the nose. Severe headache may develop, followed by burning in the throat and tightness and pain in the chest. Nausea and vomiting may occur, and eye irritation may produce a flow of tears. A striking peculiarity of these agents is the mental depression they may induce. Severely gassed persons may attempt suicide. b. DIAGNOSIS. This is based on the presence of the symptoms just described, followed by relatively rapid recovery despite the miserable appearance and condition of the individual. c. FIRST AID. Remove to pure air if possible. A nasal spray of pontocain and neosynephrin gives relief (par. 48, item 12). Inhalation of dilute PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 47 FIG. 22. chlorine from a small amount of bleaching powder in a wide-mouthed bottle or can is also effective. Headache may be controlled with 10 to 15 grains of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). There are no after effects and the individual recovers within a few hours. Severely exposed individuals must be watched for suicidal tenden- cies. Continue to reassure them that their symptoms will be of brief duration and are not dangerous. 44. Tear Gases (Lacrimators). Chloracetophenone Chloracetophenone Solution CNB solution Brombenzylcyanide a. EFFECTS. Exposure immediately produces spasm of the eyelids with sensi- tiveness to light, inability to open the eyes, copious tears, and some irritation of a freshly shaven face. Chloracetophenone solutions may cause a mild rash in warm weather and ocassionally vomiting. If the solution itself gets into the eyes, there may be permanent damage. b. FIRST AID. The individual should be removed from the contaminated air and face the wind with eyes open. If irritation is marked, the eyes may be irrigated with boric acid or a 2-percent solution of sodium bicar- bonate (baking soda). The eyes must not be rubbed or band- aged. Skin irritation may be treated by sponging with a solution of 4 percent sodium sulfite in 50 percent alcohol. All symptoms usually disappear within an hour. 45. Incendiaries. Thermit—molten or burning metal Oil White phosphorus a. THERMIT AND OIL. Burns from molten metal are apt to be deep and severe due to the PROTECTION AGAINST GAS high temperature. Immediate first aid consists in flushing spattered globules of metal with large quantities of water to produce cooling. Flaming oil on clothing or skin must be smothered. Cases are then treated as burns from any other cause. b. WHITE PHOSPHORUS. This agent ignites by itself in the air. Water or wet cloths will quench the fire, but as soon as the particle dries in air, it again begins to burn. The effect of particles on the skin is the same as of any heat burn; they stick and burn until removed, or until air is excluded by covering with water or treating with copper sulphate. First aid.—Keep the burn wet with water or wet cloths until the particles can be squeezed or picked out. Warm water, about 40° C. (104° F.) melts phosphorus and makes squeezing easier. If squeezing does not bring out the particles, they must be picked out with forceps. Do not use mud as formerly recommended; it may cause infection. Urine is sterile and is satisfactory if there is no other source of water. Unless there is water and time for immediate treatment, apply a 5 to 15-percent solution of copper sulphate to the burn. This coats the phosphorus with copper phosphide, shuts out the air and stops the burning until the particles can be removed. After the phosphorus has been removed, further treatment is exactly the same as for any other heat burn. 46. The Screening Smokes. White phosphorus Titanium tetrachloride Sulphur trioxide—chlorsulfonic acid solution HC mixture a. WHITE PHOSPHORUS. The smoke from white phosphorus is harmless, but particles from a shell explosion will cause burns and should be treated as described under incendiaries. b. TITANIUM TETRACHLORIDE AND SULPHUR TRI- OXIDE-SOLUTIONS. The liquids produce acid-like burns of the skin. They are irritating and unpleasant to breathe, but are not dangerous. Spray in the eyes may cause serious burns. First aid.—This consists in washing with large quantities of water. In the eyes, this should be followed by irrigation with a 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). If severe, the patient must see a physician. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 47. The Systemic Poisons. Hydrocyanic acid Arsine Hydrogen sulfide Carbon monoxide Although not immediately irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, or lungs, these agents cause systemic (internal) poisoning, and if inhaled in sufficient quantity, they may cause death. Hydrocyanic acid and hydrogen sulfide may be immediately fatal; arsine produces destruc- tion of the red blood cells which block the kidneys and may cause death in a few days. Carbon monoxide, while not used as a war gas, may be encountered following breaks in illuminating gas mains. a. HYDROCYANIC ACID AND HYDROGEN SULFIDE. (1) Immediate effects.—Odor of bitter almonds (hydrocyanic acid), or rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide) may be noticed, but strong concentrations dull the sense of smell and the individual may be over- powered and collapse immediately. Weaker concentrations may pro- duce headache, dizziness, and nausea. (2) First aid.—Anyone rendering first aid in a gassed area to an individual who has just collapsed must be protected by a mask or he will also collapse. Do not enter a gassed area without a mask to bring anyone out; you will not get out yourself. First aid consists in inhalation of amyl nitrite fumes and artificial respiration, until a physician can begin medical treatment. Artificial respiration should be continued for hours, even though it appears hopeless. b. ARSINE. Odor of garlic and metallic taste are the only immediate effects. Persons exposed to arsine must be kept quiet and hospitalized as soon as possible. Meanwhile, they should be given large quantities of alkalies such as sodium bicarbonate, citrate or phosphate to drink. This alkalinizes the urine and may help to prevent coagulation in the kidneys of protein from the red blood cells destroyed by the arsine. c. CARBON MONOXIDE. This is the colorless, odorless constituent of automobile exhaust and artificial illuminating gases which causes many fatalities. It replaces the oxygen in the blood and the victim is rapidly asphyxiated. It may be encountered in enclosures where fire has been burning with a limited air supply, in basements and tunnels where gas mains have been ruptured, and in other closed places. (1) Effects.—With high concentrations, the victim collapses PROTECTION AGAINST GAS without warning after breathing the contaminated atmosphere for a few minutes. Lower concentrations first cause headache and dizzi- ness, followed by collapse. (2) First aid.—Immediate removal from the contaminated atmos- phere is most important. If breathing is shallow or has stopped, artificial respiration must be instituted and continued till the patient is breathing normally again. This may require some hours. As soon as it can be made available, the individual should be given oxygen to breathe. Do not wait for oxygen before starting artificial respiration. 48. ileeommended Contents of Special First Aid Chest for Gas Casualties. 1. Bleaching powder—High test 2 pound. For decontamination of skin from blister agents; for inhalation following irritant smokes. 2. Protective ointment—3-ounce tube 10. For protection of skin and decontamination following blister agents. 3. Hydrogen peroxide—10 percent available oxygen 1 quart. For removing lewisite from skin, 4. Kerosene 6 quarts. For removing mustard from skin. 5. Alcohol—70 percent 1 quart. Following No. 4 and No. 8. 6. Soap 6 cakes. To remove No. 3, No. 4, and No. 8. 7. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) 5 pounds. A. For eye irrigation following blister gases, tear gas, or other chemical agents. B. For washing nose, throat, and stomach following blister agents. C. For drinking after arsine exposure. 8. Lye 1 pound. For lewisite if No. 1 and No. 3 not available. 9. Butyn. N. N. R. 3 gr. hypo, tablets, 10 tablets per vial 2. For preparing solution to relieve pain in eyes from mustard and lewisite. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 10. Antipruritic ointment for mustard burns. 3 ounces. Benzyl alcohol 50 Stearic acid 30 Glycerine 10 Ethyl alcohol 8 Pontocaine 1 Menthol 1 Percent To relieve itching following mustard burns. 11. 4 percent solution sodium sulfite in 50 per- cent alcohol 8 ounces. For removing tear gases from skin. 12. Neosynephrine hydrochloride 1 percent, 4 Pontocaine hydrochloride 04 _ 2 ounces Boric acid saturated solution 12 For nose spray following irritant smokes. 13. Acid, acetylsalicylic (aspirin) 5-grain tab- lets 100. For headache following irritant smokes. 14. Cupric sulphate (blue vitriol) 1 pound. For phosphorus burns. 15. Amyl nitrate U. S.) „ , . , _ . \ 2 dozen. Ampules—5 mm. For hydrocyanic-acid poisoning. 16. Absorbent cotton 1 pound. 17. Enema can and tube for irrigating eyes__ 1. 52 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS CHAPTER IV. COLLECTIVE PROTECTION. SECTION 1. SCOPE. 49. Definition. Collective protection consists of measures for the protection of a number of persons as a group. Such measures involve the provision of special equipment for a variety of protective activities, namely, the construction and. operation of gasproof shelters, gas alarms and gas alarm systems, decontamination equipment and procedure, and measures for the protection of food and water. These subjects are dealt with separately in the following sections. SECTION 2. GAS ALARMS. 50. Purpose. A gas alarm is a device to give warning of a gas attack. The usual form of such warning is a distinctive sound, sufficiently loud to be heard readily throughout the area to which the alarm applies. In the case of a large city, a number of such alarms might be necessary and, in addition, it probably would be desirable to supplement these means by local alarms serving small sections. For the latter purposes, church bells, horns of the Klaxon type, or rattles, might be used. FIG. 23. 51. Procedure. In case of the bombardment of a city, it is impossible for the in- habitants to tell before the attack is actually launched whether the enemy will use gas, high explosive, or incendiary bombs, or all three of PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 53 these means. Consequently, the best procedure is to regard any warning of attack as a potential gas attack and act accordingly. If gas is used on a large city, it may well happen that the entire city is not affected, but only one or more sections. In such a case, while everyone should be on the alert, people in areas some distance from those which are gassed may not have to adjust gas masks or seek refuge in gas shelters. The alarm system, however, should be such that people in each section of the city may be given warning in proper time in case their section is attacked directly or is endangered by gas drifting or being blown from another part of the city. This necessitates a highly coordinated alarm organization, including gas detection personnel, making use of telephone and other means of rapid communication. As soon as the alarm pertaining to any portion or section of the city is sounded, or the presence of gas is detected, all persons in the affected area adjust gas masks, leave the streets and seek refuge in shelters. SECTION 3. fiASPROO SHELTERS. 53. Definition. A gasproof shelter is an enclosure sealed to prevent entrance of contaminated air or provided with equipment to remove gases from entering air. It is not necessary for the occupants to wear gas masks in such a shelter. If a gas attack upon a community is prolonged or if a persistent gas is used, such shelters are required for eating, sleep- ing and rest. Gasproof shelters are also desirable for carrying on such impor- tant activities as medical aid stations, hospital operating rooms and telephone exchanges, in which the use of gas masks would be a de- cided encumbrance. Gasproof shelters are of two general types, nonventilated and ventilated. a. Nonventilated shelter.—This is merely a room, building, cellar, cave, or other enclosure, sealed so as to prevent air from the outside from entering. Such shelters can only be occupied for a limited time since the air within them becomes foul after continued occupancy. The time during which such a shelter can be used de- pends upon its size and the number of persons occupying it. b. Ventilated shelter.—This is an enclosure rendered reasonably gastight, and equipped with apparatus to draw in outside air through a canister which removes gas. Such shelters can be occupied in- definitely. 54 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 24. Air-lock doorway leading down to shelter opening at each end is covered with blanket. FIG. 25. Shelf detail: Cross-section showing how blanket is stored when not in use. Heavy black line represents edge of blanket. FIG. 26. Blanket detail: Strips of wood nailed across top and bottom of blanket and at points between; top of blanket nailed to doorframe. Side view at extreme right. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 55 FIG. 27. Air may be pumped down from upper levels to a basement shelter, provided double gas curtains are used in entrance. 53. Relative Danger. Assuming the inhabitants of a city are provided with gas masks and adequately trained, it is considered that the relative danger to life from the different forms of air attack is of the following order: (1) High explosive bombs; (2) incendiary bombs; (3) gas bombs. However, unless adequate gas protection is provided, the gas attack assumes first place in the order of relative danger. From this it is evident that, if one has a gas mask, his first consideration in seek- ing protection against air raids is shelter against high explosive bombs. In case gas is also used, he can rely on his gas mask for protection. It is desirable, of course, that bombproof shelters also be made gasproof. This usually can be done without much additional ex- pense or labor. The construction of bombproof air-raid shelters is dealt with in another manual. Hence only gas-proofing provisions are considered here. 56 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 54. improvised Gasproof Home Shelters (Nonventilated Type). A gasproof room in the home, to which the family together with the family pets can resort in case of a gas attack may be of service. However, it must be realized that the enemy is likely to use high explosives before the gas attack. The blast from the high explosives will probably shatter windows and otherwise interfere with the gas- proofing measures adopted in the home. Nevertheless, materials may be ready at hand to seal such a room as effectively as circum- stances permit although too much reliance cannot be placed on its being entirely gasproof. In the average home, the preferred location for such a shelter is the first floor or basement. Two exits should be provided. An air-lock doorway should lead into the shelter. A short passageway with the opening at each end covered by oil cloth or a blanket may serve as the air lock. Such an air lock prevents drafts of gas-laden air from being drawn into the enclosure as persons enter or leave the shelter. To render the room reasonably gas-tight all openings should be closed. Oil cloth, coated fabrics, or other nonporous materials may be used to seal all openings. Transparent cellulose tape is useful for this purpose. Dampened blankets may be tacked over the window frames. Chimney openings should be sealed and all fires in the room must be extinguished. FIG. 28. Blanket may be used to cover entrance to gasproof room. Fasten at top and sides with lath, leave sufficient length and bottom opening to pass through. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 57 Nonventilated Shelters. In erecting a structure that is specifically designed as an unventilated gas shelter, approximately 20 square feet of floor space should be allowed for each person to occupy the enclosure. Assuming the ceiling is of normal height, 8 to 10 feet, this will provide sufficient air for continuous occupancy of the shelter for about 10 hours. Thus a room 10 feet square will accommodate 5 persons, or one 20 by 12 feet will accommodate 12 persons. Walls and ceiling must be constructed of concrete at least 12 inches thick, not lined with steel or waterproofed since this affects the absorption of carbon dioxide. Even with this provision it is estimated that at the end of ten hours a maximum of 2 percent of carbon dioxide (the allowable limit) may be reached if the shelter is occupied by adults averaging 160 pounds. If the walls are lined with steel or waterproofed on the inside, then the allowable limit of occupancy for such a shelter is five or six hours. Beyond this time, respiratory difficulties, headache, nausea, and even fainting may be caused by an excess of carbon dioxide. The above figures are for shelters constructed in the temperate zone, where the ground temperature does not exceed 70° F. In warmer climates a larger floor space per occupant should be allowed. When the foregoing recommendations for air space are adhered to, there will be ample wall-surface area for dissipation of body heat for the maintenance of tolerable temperatures, even in tightly sealed shelters, provided the wall surface area is uninsulated. FIG. 29. Wooden covers for windows if properly caulked, prevent gas leaks and help stop glass splinters. Also useful as blackout screens. 58 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 30. All cracks and openings should be sealed to gasproof a room. Arrows show where to look for cracks and leaks. Discomfort from continued occupancy of a shelter of this type is Dccasioned not only by lack of fresh air, but also by temperature and ack of air circulation. The use of an electric fan in the room is nelpful. Also it is very desirable to place cotton bags filled with activated charcoal and soda lime in such shelters. NOTE.—In underground shelters with all openings completely closed to guard igainst gas attack, the rise in air temperature will be 16° or 17° above the initial vail temperature in 8 hours, while in shelters above ground the rise in room ;emperature, under similar conditions but with 50 square feet of 12-inch concrete vail surface per person, will be approximately 10° during an 8-hour occupancy. However, where entrance doors may be left ajar, this rise in temperature, as veil as the carbon dioxide concentration, will be greatly reduced. >6*. Ventilated Shelters. If a gas-proof shelter is to be occupied either for a greater length of ;ime or if a smaller volume of air space is to be allowed per person ;han that specified in paragraph 55, then mechanical ventilation is lecessary. In order that the carbon dioxide concentration shall lever exceed the maximum allowable limit of 2 percent, it is necessary o supply 33 cubic feet of air per hour per person. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 31. Best height for protection against gas. Gas is denser near the ground; at upper floors it is greatly diffused. If there are three or four floors above, a room is protected from roof hits of explosivebombs. FIG. 32. Location of gastight room: Room I is best location because it has (a) one win- dow and one door, (b) three protected sides, (c) fourth side partially protected from explosion wave by detached house. Order of choice of rooms is indicated by numbers. 60 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS The apparatus used to provide fresh air is called a “collective pro- tector.” It consists of a large canister or battery of canisters of virtu- ally the same type construction as a gas mask canister, and a suction fan, operated either by hand power or a motor. By means of such an apparatus, fresh air is drawn into the enclosure, any gas or irritant smoke being filtered out or absorbed by the canister. It is desirable that the air intake be as high above the ground level as feasible and it is considered good practice to provide dual air intakes to guard against the possibility of one being choked by a nearby explosion. The size and capacity of the collective protectors should be stan- dardized and so designed that in an emergency they can be operated by hand by two people or by foot power by one person. This limits the power requirements per unit to about one-tenth horsepower. NOTE.—Through such a unit with a resistance equal to approximately that of the weight of a 4-inch column of water, it is possible to draw approximately 80 cubic feet of air per minute with the expenditure of one-tenth horsepower. This will give a minimum air capacity of 1% cubic feet per minute for 52 persons. A gage should be provided to indicate normal air flow. These units will normally be driven by power supplied by one-fourth horsepower motors. For shelters for more than 52 persons but less than 105 persons, 2 such units should be provided. For shelters for more than 104 persons but fewer than 157 persons, 3 such units should be provided. FIG. 33. Supply of air for breathing. Each square on floor of room is one yard (one stride). An average room 10 x 12 feet and 9 feet high will provide breathable air, without renewal, for I person for 20 hours, 2 people for 10 hours, 3 people for 7 hours. Allow 50 cubic feet per person per hour. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Hammer (claw type) and nails. Caulking materials, Scotch tape. Toilet—Chemical type or simple container with tight cover. Water for drinking, washing, soaking towels, and caulking. Food in containers: Simple packaged foods, thermos bottles of coffee, milk, or other beverages. Flashlight with extra bulbs and batteries. Radio—Battery-operated if possible. FIG. 34. Equipment for gastight room. If blister gases should be used in an attack, a gas refuge might have to be occupied for 6 or 8 hours. Supplies and equipment must be placed in the room in advance. There will be no time to collect them after the gas alert sounds. Since smoking quickly makes the air unbreathable, no smoking materials should be put in the room. 62 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS These units are intended to be operated by hand only as an emergency upon failure of power. It is the practice abroad to provide a bypass around the canister to give increased air quantity when not used in gas defense, but this practice is questionable for small units because of the danger of not having the bypass closed in case of gas attack. For shelters housing more than 150 persons, it is recommended that an independent power plant be provided for driving a larger unit or units. Such a power plant will usually consist of a generator driven by a gasoline or propane motor. A battery and self-starter will presumably be provided for the motor. The ventilating units may then be of any size and driven by independent motors taking their power from the regular electric power lines of the city. In the event that fails, the motor-driven generator will supply current at the proper voltage for the ventilating units. In severe weather sufficient heating capacity must be supplied in the air units to heat the air to about 60° F. In Europe it has been found undesirable to introduce air in crowded shelters at a lower temperature than 60° F. The incoming air is heated by an electric heater in the air circuit in the discharge side of the fan. The heated air should be discharged from a header with nozzles or holes which will cause intimate mixing by ejector action and thus prevent too great a difference between the exit air and the room temperature. In underground shelters it is quite possible to provide cooling by means of uninsulated wall surface which has free access to natural air circulation within the room. To provide the maximum cooling area possible it is required that slatted wooden floors be provided, never solid wooden floors or matting. The quantity of air supplied in ventilated shelters is insufficient to remove more than a fraction of the heat given off by the body and by lights. Unless artificial cooling is to be provided, the uninsulated wall surface area should be not less than 25 square feet per person in underground shelters, and not less than 50 square feet per person in above-ground shelters. It is recommended that in the larger shelters having independent power plants that an air-cooled refrigerating machine be provided which will furnish cooling for a recirculating air-conditioning unit located within the enclosure. In such a case, the floor space can be reduced to 6 square feet per person either in the under-ground or the above-ground shelter. Such cooling systems must be of ample capacity to take care of approximately one-half of the total heat given off by the people in an under-ground shelter, or three-fourths of the heat in an above-ground shelter. This will require one-ton capacity of refrigeration for each 50 persons under ground or one ton for each 33 persons in an above-ground shelter where there is a minimum of PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 6 square feet available per person and the walls, floors, and ceiling are of uninsulated concrete. For example, above-ground shelters for 500 persons would require approximately 6.7 tons of refrigeration with air- cooled condenser. 57. Air-Conditioning Equipment. Existing types of air-conditioning equipment present such variety of design and construction that no statement can be made as to the applicability of such equipment in connection with gas proofing. In each case, it is believed the services of a competent ventilating engineer should be obtained before any attempt is made to use such equipment. SECTION 4. DECONTAMINATION. 5H. General. Decontamination is the process of neutralizing or destroying gas in areas which have been subjected to it. In general, no such measures are necessary following an attack with nonpersistent gas, since it quickly disappears through natural causes. However, if persistent gas is used, liquid contamination of streets and the exterior of buildings may result and, unless special measures are adopted, the chemical will remain a source of danger for some considerable time. The chemical may have been sprayed on the city from airplanes or used in airplane bombs or artillery or mortar shells. Contamination also will result in the interior of any building in which such bombs or shell may fall. Upon the explosion of a mustard gas bomb or shell, part of the chemical will immediately pass off into the atmosphere as a gas. Part of it may be disseminated in the form of fine droplets float- ing in the air, while the remainder will be spattered about the bomb or shell crater. This, depending upon the size of the bomb or shell and the amount of the explosive charge, may be a considerable portion of the chemical filling of the munition used. In addition to such liquid contamination, materials exposed to mustard gas vapor will absorb the gas and thus become contaminated. The best method of decontamination is to treat the affected area with another chemical which reacts with the gas, leaving a residue which is harmless or which can easily be washed away with water. Decontamination work is arduous and dangerous. It requires trained personnel provided with gas masks and protective suits which cover the entire body. 64 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 59. Decontamination Materials. a. General.—Materials used for decontamination are either chem- icals which destroy chemical agents or which may be used to cover the contaminated area so as to prevent the escape of toxic gas there- from, at least temporarily (fig. 26). h. Bleaching powder.—The principal decontaminating agent for mustard gas is bleaching powder, otherwise known as chloride of lime. This material is a white powder, not very stable, which readily gives up its chlorine when exposed to the air or moisture. Chlorine reacts with mustard gas to destroy it, but must be brought into intimate contact with the gas. Bleaching powder should be kept in air-tight containers until the moment of its use. Dry bleach should not be placed directly upon liquid mustard gas because the chemical process which takes place results in the evolution of heat and flame. This drives off a high concentration of mustard vapor which may be carried some distance by the wind, endangering people who would otherwise be safe. In using bleach on mustard gas, the bleach is either mixed with water as a paste or mixed with sand or earth. The use of bleach is affected by the percentage of available chlorine, which varies between different types of bleach. Chloride of lime when freshly packed may have as high as 35 percent available chlorine. There are commercial compounds, under such names as H. T. H. and Perchloron, which contain as high as 70 percent available chlorine. There are also available commercial bleaching solutions which con- tain from 5 to 15 percent of available chlorine. If using a compound which varies from the standard of 30 to 35 percent available chlorine, it is a safe rule to use 1 part of bleach, to 1 part of inert material for each 10 percent of available chlorine; thus, with 1 pound of 70 percent H. T. H. or Perchloron, 7 pounds of earth may be used; with 1 pound of 30 percent commercial chloride of lime, 3 pounds of earth may be used; or with 1 pound of 10 percent chloride, 1 pound of earth may be used. c. Water.—Cold water has little, if any, effect on mustard gas except that, if applied with pressure, it will tend to drain the sub- stance away. Hot water is fairly effective. Mustard gas is heavier than water and will lie at the bottom of pools and puddles, remaining effective for a long period of time, though the water over it will retard the escape of mustard vapor. Water, either hot or cold, reacts quickly with Lewisite to destroy it. However, a solid residue is left which is dangerous to touch, though it gives off no gas. Even long after decontamination of a Lewisite area, it is dangerous to sit or lie down in the area. After PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 65 treatment with water, such an area therefore should be covered with a layer of earth, sand, or ashes. Articles contaminated with Lewisite which are to be handled should be treated with an alkali such as sodium hydroxide. d. Earth.—Earth, sand, ashes, or sawdust may be spread over a contaminated area to give temporary protection. The covering should be at least 3 inches thick. This does not destroy the chemical agent. It forms a seal, preventing for a limited time the escape of toxic vapor. If practicable, the covering should be wetted down with water. e. Sodium sulphide.—This chemical, prepared as a 1 percent solution with water, reacts somewhat more slowly than bleaching powder to destroy mustard gas. Since no heat is evolved in the process, mustard vapor is not driven off when it is used. The solu- tion is more effective if heated. It may be used either as a spray, or mixed with sand in a proportion of one part (by weight) of the solution to four of sand. Six gallons of sodium sulphide solution are required for each square yard of area to be degassed. /. Green solution.—This solution, which has a greenish color, is prepared by dissolving one pound of bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) in one gallon of commercial hypochlorite solution. This mixture is less efficient for destruction of mustard gas than bleaching powder but is also less corrosive to metals. It should be generously used with sponge or rag. 60. Decontamination Methods. a. General.—Decontamination may be done by: (1) Destroying the chemical agent by the use of other chemicals or by burning. (2) Removing the chemical agent by washing it away. (3) Covering the chemical agent with a seal, after which it will slowly be destroyed by the action of nature. FIG. 35. Contaminated articles that cannot be decontaminated should be burned. 66 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS b. Burning.—Grossly contaminated articles which it is not prac- ticable to decontaminate should be destroyed by burying them in the ground or by burning. In case such articles are burned, this should be done in the open or in an incinerator provided with a tall chimney in which there is good draft, since the burning process will drive off a high concentration of mustard-gas vapor. Areas of land covered with dry grass and underbrush may be decontaminated by being burned over. Care in such cases should be taken to see that there are no persons down wind of the area within such distance as to be endangered by the gas cloud given off. c. Application.—The application of these methods with respect to different types of materials is discussed below. FIG. 36. Decontamination of ground. (1) Ground.—Small areas of ground contaminated with mustard gas may be treated by spreading bleaching powder (mixed with sand or soil) over them and .spading this mixture in the soil. Figures 27 and 28 illustrate simple decontamination procedure on roads and ground. About 1 pound of bleach is required per square yard of ground. The labor involved is considerable. If no bleach is available, the contaminated area should be covered with wet earth or sand. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 67 FIG. 37. Decontamination of roads. FIG. 38. After decontamination, wash away wastes. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS (2) Streets.—Paved streets, lightly contaminated, may be rendered safe for use by washing them down with a heavy stream of water from a hose. Bleach paste or sand and bleach mixture should first be used on all heavily contaminated portions (fig. 27). (3) Walls and floors.—The walls of buildings should be sprayec or scrubbed with a mixture of equal weights of bleach and water. Both wood and concrete absorb mustard. Therefore, a second decontamination may be necessary. After this treatment, the walls should be scrubbed with hot water, soap, and washing soda. Paint absorbs mustard gas. Floors should be covered with a paste of bleach and water to a depth of 1 inch and left there from 6 to 24 hours. The paste should then be removed and the floor scrubbed. FIG. 39. Decontamination of walls, FIG. 40. Decontamination of floors PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 69 The windows of the building must be left open until all traces of the agent are gone. Figures 29 and 30 illustrate decontamination of walls and floors inside of buildings. (4) Metal equipment.—Metal equipment should first be washed with rags containing gasoline or kerosene. These rags must be destroyed at once. Bleach solution should then be applied. This is followed by washing with soap and hot water and, finally, after thorough drying, the surface should be oiled. If the metal equipment would be seriously damaged by corrosion, the bleach should not be left on the metal for more than a few minutes. In lieu of these measures, noncorrosive decontaminating fluids, if available, may be used. (5) Clothing.—A person who suspects that his clothes have come in contact with mustard vapor should remove his clothes at once and bathe. The clothes should then be aired out of doors in the sunlight for at least 2 days. If the clothes have been contaminated with liquid mustard, they should be steamed for 4 to 6 hours. A steaming unit can readily be made from a large can with a false bottom. The clothes are laid on the false bottom and the can is closed. Heat is then applied. If any odor of mustard gas remains, the clothes should be treated again. Ordinary dry cleaning will not suffice for treating contaminated clothes. Contaminated shoes should be shuffled in sand and bleach mixture to remove unabsorbed liquid, but once the agent has pene- trated the leather, little can be done to make them safe. HI. Decontamination Equipment. In addition to protective clothing, gas masks and decontamination materials, the following items of equipment are needed in decon- tamination work: a. Shovels. b. Swabs for application of bleach. c. Cloths. d. Sprayer.—This may be a small hand-operated device, such as a garden sprayer, or a large, power-driven apparatus, which can be carried on a truck. For spreading bleach solution on city streets, a vehicle of the nature of a water sprinkler might be used (fig. 31). 62. Decontamination Squads. It is probable that individual householders will have to do a certain amount of decontamination work if their homes are affected. How- PROTECTION AGAINST GAS ever, it is contemplated that decontamination squads would be set up in each community to deal with major decontamination problems. They would consist of a foreman or squad leader and at least five squad members. The foreman should be a graduate of a course of instruction similar to that of the area leader, as described in chapter VI. His job would be to supervise the work, see that equipment is kept in serviceable condition and replenished when necessary, maintain the headquarters of the squad, and train his squad members. Headquarters should be in a small garage or other such building. The squad members should be men who are used to hard physical labor. Equipment should consist of a truck, shovels, pickaxes, crow- bars, wheelbarrows, a portable spraying device, a portable hand-pump similar to that shown in figure 31, chemicals, fire hose, 3/4-inch hose, several sets of protective clothes, decontaminating apparatus for the clothes, showers and dressing room for the men, and first-aid equip- ment. Street-flushing trucks should be supplied by the municipal street- cleaning department for washing liquid agents off the streets. Munic- ipal street-cleaning personnel should be trained for this work. When a gas alarm is sounded, the squads should go immediately to their headquarters and, as soon thereafter as possible, they should report ready for work wherever their services are needed. SECTION 5. PROTECTION OF FOOD AND WATER. 66. General Rule. As a general precaution, food supplies, and water for drinking, cook- ing, or washing should be kept away from contact with chemical agents. Food having a peculiar odor or taste and suspected of having been exposed to chemical agents, should be discarded. Water suspected of such contamination should, in no circumstances, be used unless subjected to purification processes. 64. Contamination of Food. Food may be contaminated either by direct contact with chemical agents in liquid or solid form or by exposure to the vapor. Some foodstuffs absorb gas more quickly than others. Fatty and oily substances, such as meats and butter and also meals and flour, are PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 71 rather quickly contaminated. Green vegetables are somewhat less affected by vapors. 65. Decontamination of Food. Little has been done in the way of developing means for decon- taminating food; probably, because of the obvious fact that no one method would apply in all cases. Moreover, the use of chemical means of decontamination very likely would destroy the taste of food or otherwise impair its value. Food contaminated with phosgene, chlorine or other highly volatile substances, might possibly be purified by ventilation, boiling, or other treatment with water. However, the food would probably have a disagreeable taste and be unpalatable. Food, contaminated by mustard gas, or by arsenical agents such as Lewisite and irritant smokes, could not be rendered safe to use by such means and should be discarded. 66. Protection of Food. For protection against chemical agents, food should be kept in gas- tight containers or in storage rooms, sealed against penetration by gases. Canned or bottled goods exposed to gas can be used if the container is immersed in boiling water before opening. Food which is not sealed in cans or bottles should be carefully wrapped in some imper- vious material, such as cellophane. Ordinary paper or cloth coverings are of no use. Waxed paper gives protection against gas vapors but only limited protection against liquid chemical agents. Warehouses for the storage of foodstuffs in bulk, such as meat and fresh vegetables, should be made gastight. In homes it is recom- mended that, for protection against gas attack, food be kept in original containers or gastight bottles or jars until the time of use. Refriger- ators, if not gastight, should be made so by the use of rubber gaskets to seal all cracks and apertures. Where food containers have been exposed to a gas such as mustard gas or Lewisite, prompt washing of the containers, cans, or bottles, and prompt removal of waxed paper, providing the latter are intact, should be carried out. However, precautions should be taken not to spread the gas in doing so, or to become gas casualties; and wrappers or containers carrying gas should be disposed of so as to avoid further contamination. 67. Purification of Water. The contamination of a city’s public water supply by significant amounts of toxic war gases is relatively unlikely. Some of these 72 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS gases are of low solubility in water. Others tend to dissociate in water or to react with the mineral constituents of water and form harmless end products. The pollution of an impounding or storage reservoir on the water supply system of a large city to the degree that harmful results upon the water user could ensue would require such large quantities of the material as to suggest its improbability. On the other hand, as long as the water purification plant was functioning, its use of coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration with the attendant dosages of alum, activated carbon, ammonia, and chlorine would tend to remove the organic compounds as an incident of the modern treatment process. So long as water is available from public supplies through regular sources, it should be assumed that the local water supply authorities, the state sanitary engineers’ staffs and related Federal engineering groups would have satisfied themselves that the water delivered was safe for use. It should be also assumed that these groups would issue proper warning to the public to take steps for their own protection if the supply could not be safely used. In case of private water supplies such as wells or cisterns, and where water is stored on premises in tanks not airtight, the water should not be used until the health authorities have indicated its safety. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 73 CHAPTER V. PROTECTION OF ANIMALS. 68. General. Domestic animals are affected by exposure to chemical agents in much the same way as man. Insofar as practicable, such animals should be removed from cities subject to attack and taken to rural districts. 69. Horses. a. Susceptibility.—Horses and mules appear to be unaffected by tear gas, but they are affected in the same way as man by lung irri- tant gas, and are perhaps even more susceptible than man to injury from vesicant agents such as mustard gas. The lungs and respiratory passages of a horse are highly sensitive to lung irritant and vesicant gases. The entire skin area of the horse is affected by vesicant gas but the most vulnerable are those tender parts where the hair is very fine or absent and where the sweat glands are most active. The eyes do not appear to be affected by tear gases or irritant smokes but they are highly sensitive to vesicant vapors, while liquid vesicants in the eyes will cause serious injury and possibly permanent blindness. Chemical wounds on the feet of a horse may incapacitate him. Injuries to the fetlock, coronet, the white line and the space between the bar and the frog are serious. Inflammation of the digestive tract of a horse, with the formation of ulcers, may be caused by eating contaminated forage, grazing in a contaminated pasture or drinking from a pond in which chemical shells or bombs have exploded. b. First aid.—First aid treatment for horses injured by gas is practically the same as for man. In lung injury cases, the animal should be kept warm and quiet, and removed from the gassed area by ambulance if possible. If the skin or feet have been exposed to vesicant agents, the affected parts should be treated with bleach paste for 3 minutes and then washed with soap and water for 30 minutes. Serious cases should be hospitalized. 70. Horse Mashs. A horse or mule does not breathe through the mouth, hence the horse mask need only cover the nostrils. A corrugated rubber tube connects the mask with large canisters through which the air breathed PROTECTION AGAINST GAS by the horse is drawn. The canister of the horse mask purifies the air in the same manner as does the canister of the Service Mask worn by the soldier. Exhaled air passes out from the mask through a rubber outlet valve. A head strap holds the mask in position. (See fig. 32.) 7J. Dogs. Masks were provided for dogs used in foreign armies in the World War. Such masks were usually made of the same materials as the horse mask and covered the entire head of the animal. Dogs are not used in the United States Army and, hence, dog masks are not pro- vided. Dogs subject to exposure to gas should be placed in gasproof shelters or destroyed. 72. Birds. Lofts for homing pigeons used in the Army are made reasonably gasproof by sealing all holes except certain openings for ventilation which are stopped by means of chemically treated blankets. Pigeon containers are covered with a gasproof material to which a collective protector of small size is attached. A hand operated bellows is used to force air through a canister so that purified air is supplied to the birds in the container. Such means might be used to protect other caged birds. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 75 class| NAMES AND SYMBOLS FORM ODOR PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT TACTICAL CLASS PROTECTION FIRST AID [After removal from gassed area] PERSISTENCE FIELD NEUTRALIZATION GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS " MUSTARD s(C(ldh2)2ci2 Dl CHLORETHYL SULFIDE LIQUID AND VAPOR Garlic, Horseradish, Mustard Delayed effect. Burns skin or membrane. Inflammation respiratory tract leading to pneumonia. Eye irritation, conjunctivitis. w Undress; remove liquid mustard with protective ointment, bleach paste, or kerosene; bathe; wash eyes and nose with soda solution. One day to one week. Longer if dry or cold. Cover with unslaked lime and earth. 3% solution of Na2SD3.1 The importance of proper first aid for gas victims can- not be overemphasized. The following are general rules which apply in all cases. ESICANTS LEWISITE chcich-asCU CHLORVINYI-DICHLORARSINE LIQUID AND VAPOR Geraniums Burning or irritation of eyes, nasal passages, respiratory tract, skin: Arsenical poison. -f t Undress; remove liquid Lewisite with hydrogen peroxide, lye in glycerine, or kerosene; bathe; wash eyes and nose with soda. Rest—Doctor. One day to one week. Longer if dry or cold. Wash down with water. Cover 1 with earth. Alcohol. NaOH 1 spray. 6.H.-WI. LIQUID AND VAPOR OR DAS ffl Stinging, like pepper in nose Causes blisters, sores, paralysis of hands, vomiting. Severe on long exposure. f Undress; remove liquid with hydrogen peroxide, lye in glycerine, or kerosene; bathe; wash eyes and nose with soda. Rest—Doctor. One hour. Cover with earth, caustic. 1 A. Act promptly and quietly; be calm. 0. Put a gas mask on the patient if gas is still present or, if he has a mask on, check to see that his is properly adjusted. If a mask is not available, wet a handkerchief or other cloth and have him breathe through it C. Keep the patient at absolute rest; loosen clothing to facilitate breathing. 0. Remove the patient to a gas-free place as soon as possible. E. Summon medical aid promptly; if possible, send CHLORINE cu GAS Highly Pungent Lung irritant. % Remove from gassed area. Keep quiet and warm. Coffee as stimulant 10 minutes. Alkaline solution. oo CHLORPICRIN ccLNOa NITR0CHL0R0F0RM GAS Flypaper, anise Causes severe coughing, crying, vomiting. _J7 2T bO kia f Wash eyes, keep quiet and warm. Do not use bandages. Open 6 hours. Woods 12 hours. NaS03—Sodium sulfite in alcohol solution. C9 DIPHOSGENE cicooc-cu TRICHLORMETHYL CH10R0F0RMATE GAS % v— Ensilage, Acrid —- Causes coughing, breathing hurts, eyes water, toxic. /Jd o \ GS o—J Keep quiet and warm. Give coffee as a stimulant. 30 minutes. Alkali. PHOSGENE cocu CARBONYL CHLORIDE GAS Irritation of lungs, occasional vomiting, tears in eyes, doped feeling. Occasionally symptoms delayed. Later, collapse, heart failure. m Keep quiet and warm, bed rest Coffee as a stimulant. Loosen clothing. No alcohol or cigarettes. 10 to 30 minutes. Alkali. Musty hay, Green corn CO f C10RACET0PHEN0NE u,co-mi GAS Makes eyes smart. Shut tightly. Tears flow. Temporary. _z. vu Wash eyes with cold water or boric acid solution. Do not bandage. Face wind. For skin, sodium sulphite solution. 10 minutes. Strong, hot solution of sodium carbonate. the victim to a hospital. F. Do not permit the patient to smoke, as this causes coughing and, hence, exertion. KEY HOSPITAL CASE CJ CO BROMBENZYLCYANIDE CaHsCH-BrCN GAS O Sour fruit Eyes smart, shut, tears flow. Effect lasts some time. Headache. -2T ; r. Jj Wash eyes with boric acid. Do not bandage. Several days. (Weeks in winter.) Alcoholic sodium hydroxide spray. ADAMSITE (CaH.)2-NHAsCi DIPHENYLAMINECHLORARSINE GAS f ' Coal Smoke Causes sneezing, sick depressed feeling, headache. Keep quiet and warm. Loosen clothing. Reassure. Spray nose with neo-synephrin or sniff bleaching powder. Aspirin for headache. 10 minutes. Bleaching powder solution. uu h“ oo CO DIPHENYLCHLORARSINE (c,h.)2-AsC1 SMOKE ( Causes sick feeling and headache. Remove to pure air, keep quiet Sniff chlorine from bleaching powder bottle. Summer 10 minutes. Bleaching powder solution. FIRST Ain -Z Shoe Polish TREATMENT H C MIXTURE zw-CaCU SMOKE Sharp-Acrid Harmless. None needed. Produces no effect requiring treatment While burning. None needed. 3 SMOKE SULPHUR TRIOXIDE so,-so,hci IN CHLORSULFONIC ACID SMOKE Burning matches Causes prickling of skin, flow of tears. 1A7 Wash with soda solution. 3 to 10 minutes. Alkaline solution. ($j INCENDIARY CO CO LU TITANIUMTETRACHLORIDE Ticu SMOKE Acrid Harmless. None needed. Produces no effect requiring treatment - 10 minutes. > None needed. Q MASK PROTECTION 1 IT NEEDED r WHITE PHOSPHORUS P SMOKE Burning matches Burning pieces adhere to skin, clothing. <6^ None needed. Pack in cloths wet with copper sulphate (blue vitriol) or water or immerse in water. Pick or squeeze out particles. Treat for burn. 10 minutes. Burns out. & FULL PROTECTIVE 1 yj CLOTHING NEEDED ca ◄ UJ o THERMIT SAkSfeOa s INCENDIARY None 5,000 degree heat ignites materials. s None needed. Treat for severe burn. > 5 minutes. Quickly cover with earth or sand ’REPARED DY OFFICE OF CIVILIAN DEFENSE CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS REFERENCE AND TRAINING CHART