WARY APPLIANCES 
AMERICAN SCIIOOI /^CORRESPONDENCE 
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS SANITARY APPLIANCES 
INSTRUCTION PAPER 
PREPARED BY 
WILLIAM BEALL GB \Y 
SANITARY AND HEATING ENGINEER 
AND 
CHARLES B. BALL 
CHIEF SANITARY INSPECTOR, CITY OF CHICAGO 
MEMBER, AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS 
PAST PRESIDENT, AMERICAN SOCIETY OF SANITARY ENGINEERING 
AND 
ARTHUR BATEMAN 
HEAD, SANITARY DEPARTMENT, AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 
MEMBER, AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION 
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF SANITARY ENGINEERING 
BRITISH INSTITUTE OF SANITARY ENGINEERS 
ROYAL SANITARY INSTITUTE 
REGISTERED MASTER PLUMBER 
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 
CHICAGO ILLINOIS 
U.S.A. COPYRIGHT, 1917, 1919, BY 
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 
COPYRIGHTED IN GREAT BRITAIN 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED SANITARY APPLIANCES 
TRAPS 
Object of Traps. There are endless varieties of traps mar- 
keted, and each shape and type may have some particular 
advantage for the purpose it is used. 
Broadly, we can define a trap as a device holding a quantity 
of water and having an upper portion which dips into the water 
and forms the seal. 
The seal should be at least 1| inches in depth for traps up to 
2 inches in diameter and may be 2| inches deep for water closets 
and the large traps. 
The object of the trap is to cut off from the interior of the 
building, by means of the water seal, the foul gases which are ever 
present in soil and waste pipes. To accomplish this object satis- 
factorily, a trap must be placed immediately under every sanitary 
fixture and the water seal of such trap must be kept intact, 
otherwise the occupants of a house may be placed in a position 
of false security, thinking no foul gases can pass the trap, yet the 
seal may be broken and dense volumes of obnoxious gases enter 
into and pollute the entire building. 
Characteristics of Good Trap. A good trap embraces the 
following features: It should be free from all sharp angles and 
corners in which foul matter may collect or, in other words, it 
must be perfectly self-cleansing. It must have a good depth of 
water seal, yet contain only a minimum quantity of water. It 
must be constructed of a material which will not be acted upon 
by sewage or foul gases in the trap and that can be joined readily 
to both the sanitary fixture and the waste pipe. 
Methods by Which Water Seal May Be Broken. The seal 
of a trap may be broken by five distinct methods, namely, evapo- 
ration, momentum, capillary attraction, leakage, and siphonage. 
Evaporation. The trap seal is broken by evaporation by 
the drying-up of the water seal in the trap, due to the passing 
away of the water in the form of invisible vapor. This process 2 
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of evaporation is forever taking place not only in traps but on a 
large scale. All surface water, which includes the ocean, lakes, 
rivers, etc., is being constantly evaporated to form the clouds 
which produce the rainfall. To avoid the seal being broken by 
evaporation, the fixtures should be used periodically; or the trap 
should be filled with oil-an expensive method if there are a large 
number of traps in the building; or they may be filled with a 
strong salt solution. This difficulty occurs only in those buildings 
which are unoccupied for considerable periods or in basements or 
cellars where drain traps are unobserved or forgotten. For the 
latter an anti-siphon mechanical trap may be used. 
Momentum. The water seal of a trap may be broken also by 
momentum, especially if the trap is of round pipe construction 
and badly shaped. The result of the latter is that the trap may 
have a small depth of water seal and yet contain a large quantity 
of water, having what is termed an easy flow through it. The 
sudden discharge of a large quantity of water from a considerable 
height will cause the water to attain such a velocity in its passage 
through the trap that only a small amount will be retained in the 
trap, thus breaking the seal. In the case of very high buildings, 
the force of the wind blowing over the terminal of the vent shaft 
and then suddenly changing its direction, as is often the case in 
squally weather, sets up oscillations so that the momentum of 
the moving water will occasionally break the trap seal. 
Capillary Attraction. Capillary attraction is the action which 
causes the oil to rise in a lamp wick or causes blotting paper to 
absorb ink. Should a piece of rag, string, or lint catch on the 
outlet side of the trap and have one end of this material in the 
seal of the trap, the water will be drawn up along this string 
and allowed to flow down the soil or waste pipe. In a remarkably 
short time the seal will be broken. A practical experiment may be 
tried by the reader by procuring a glass and filling it with 
water. Now take a piece of ordinary darning cotton and place 
it in the water, allowing one end to hang over and below the 
outside of the glass. In a short time the glass will be emptied 
of water. 
Leakage. The trap seal may be broken also through leakage. 
A leaky connection on a drum trap, a sand hole in a cast-brass SANITARY APPLIANCES 
3 
trap, or a defective packing around the trap screw will speedily 
break the seal. The seal of traps with weirs may also be broken 
by leakage. The water weir may be imperfect and the seal leak 
into the waste pipe without betraying the defect by outward 
leakage. 
Siphonage. Traps introduce into plumbing the element of 
siphonage. This may be normal and desirable, as in the case of 
closets which discharge their contents by siphonic action, but 
undesired siphonage in fixture traps and the means of preventing 
it are prime factors in every plumber's work. 
Ordinary siphonage can best be illustrated by a few simple 
diagrams showing the principles involved. In Fig. 1 is shown a 
Fig. 1. U-Tube 
with Legs of 
Equal Length 
Fig. 2. U-Tube 
Inverted 
Fig. 3. Inverted U- 
Tube with Legs of 
Unequal Length 
U-tube with legs of equal length filled with water. If we invert 
the tube, as shown in Fig. 2, the water will not run out, because 
the legs are of equal length and contain equal weights of water, 
which will pull downward from the top with the same force, tend- 
ing to form a vacuum at A. Cohesion of the particles of water, 
together with equal atmospheric support of the water at the 
open ends of the tube, prevents any appreciable void space 
when the U is of short length. If one of the legs is lengthened, 
Fig. 3, so that the column of water is heavier on one side than 
on the other, the -water will run out. The atmospheric pres- 
sure being practically equal on both legs, the greater weight of 
the water in the long end, through cohesion, pulls the water 
in the shorter tube up over the bend, in much the same way 
as an unbalanced chain would run over a pulley. The columns 4 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
0 
of water in the tube in this case may be likened to a piece of rope 
hanging over a pulley; when equal lengths hang on each side, it will 
remain stationary; but if one end is longer and therefore heavier 
than the other, the whole rope will be drawn 
over by the longer and heavier portion. 
If the short leg, Fig. 3, be dipped in a ves- 
sel of water, as shown in Fig. 4, we then have 
the conditions necessary to form a common 
siphon. The atmospheric pressure, which be- 
fore acted on the water at the bottom of the 
short leg of the tube, now becomes operative on 
the surface of the water in the vessel, and the 
flow through the tube will continue until the 
water-level in the vessel falls slightly below the 
end of the tube, admitting air and breaking 
the siphonic action. Gravity acts proportionally on the water of both 
legs of the U during siphonage, and the point of tension is therefore 
at the highest point of the bend. 
If the bend should be pierced at the top, air-pressure would be 
established at both ends of each leg, and gravity would instantly 
empty the short leg into the vessel. It is in this manner that a crown 
vent to a common fixture trap breaks the flow and throws enough 
Fig. 4. A Common 
Siphon. 
Fig. 5. Trap Fulfilling Siphon- 
age Conditions. 
Fig. 6. Siphoning of Trap 
Broken by Crown Vent. 
water back into the body of the trap to preserve the water-seal. 
Fig. 5 shows the principle of Fig. 4 applied to the trap of a plumbing 
fixture. If the bowl is well filled with water, so that when the stopper SANITARY APPLIANCES 
5 
is removed from the bottom, the waste pipe for some distance below the 
trap will be filled with a solid column of water, siphonic action like 
that just described will take place and the trap will be drained. A 
sufficient amount of water runs down from the fixture and sides of the 
pipe above the trap to partially provide for the seal, its full restoration 
being assured when a crown vent is used, by water being thrown back 
from the short leg of the siphon (center leg of the trap) as shown in 
Fig. 6. 
The direct action of the water of a fixture 
in breaking its own trap seal by siphonage, is 
called self-siphonage. A more common form of 
trap siphonage in defective work, is where two or 
more fixtures connect with the same waste pipe, as 
shown in Fig. 7. In such cases, the seal of the 
lower fixture is more apt to be broken by the dis- 
charge of the upper. The falling column of 
water leaves behind it a partial vacuum in the soil 
pipe; and the outer air tends to rush into the pipe 
through the way of least resistance, which is often 
through the trap seal of the fixture below. The 
friction of the rough sides of a tall soil-pipe, even 
though it be open at the roof, opposed to the 
flow of air through it, will sometimes offer more 
resistance than the trap seals of the fixtures, with 
the result that the seals are broken, and gases 
from the drain are free to enter the building. 
Kinds of Traps. The kinds of fixture traps 
are innumerable. They can be divided into two 
general classes-those that seal with water only, and those that have 
a mechanical seal as an adjunct to that of the water. These may 
be again divided into plain and anti-siphoning classes. 
The trap having no concealed partitions and with all its walls 
exposed to view, is best. If the water leaks through the wall, its 
defectiveness is evident, and the annoyance from the leak suggests 
repairing. 
Of the simple water-seal fixture traps, the open-walled drawn 
lead is used for ordinary work. It can be had with equal-length arms 
or with extended inlet or outlet, so as to reach from fixture to floor or 
Fig. 7. Two Un- 
vented Fixtures Con- 
nected toSameWaste 
Pipe, Causing Self- 
Siphonage. 6 
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wall without a piece of intermediate pipe. The form shown by full 
lines in Fig. 8 represents a full "S" pattern. When the ends are 
bent as per dotted lines A and C, the trap is called a running trap; 
Fig. 8. "S"-Pattern Trap. 
Fig. 9. A Bag Trap. 
when the ends are at D and C, it is said to be a half-S or P trap; 
when the ends are set as at D and E, it is called a %-S trap. F is a 
clean-out screw for emptying and cleansing. The distance represented 
by X should, in a trap for ordinary purposes, be | to 2 inches, according 
to size. Frequently this distance, which constitutes the water-lock, 
is much reduced; and sometimes the trap is unsealed by the plumber 
stretching its bends in order to reach some faulty roughing-in. 
In buildings where the plumbing may be left unused for weeks 
from time to time, as is likely in rented houses, deep-seal traps, or 
those with mechanical seals also, should be 
used. This point is not so important in de- 
tached houses or those rented to one family 
only at a time, since, when a family moves 
out, there is no one to suffer. But in flat 
buildings, where some of the flats may be 
vacant for a time sufficient for an ordinary 
seal to be broken while other families are 
living in the house, deep-seal traps are more 
essential. 
Fig. 9 shows what is termed a bag 
trap, made to bring the inlet and outlet in the 
same vertical line. These traps are inter- 
changeable with any others with straight-line outlet-for instance, 
as shown in Fig. 12. 
An open-wall trap partly cast and partly tubing, generally made 
Fig. 10. Open-Wall Trap, 
Partly Cast. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
7 
of brass, is shown in Fig. 10, the vent connection to wall being at A. 
This form of trap generally has a swivel-joint at B, which is below the 
water line, so that the body may be swiveled to meet roughing-in 
openings in any direction within two diam- 
eters of the line of fixture outlet. The bag 
form shown is most convenient for D-shape 
or standing waste bowls which present the 
outlet comparatively near the wall. The 
regular "S" of this type suits bowls with 
center outlet, and will reach a wider range 
of variation in roughing-in. 
Fig. 11 shows a common lead drum or 
pot trap, most convenient to the plumber. It 
is furnished without openings, and the plumber makes bends, and 
wipes-in his inlet and outlet at points in the circumference most con- 
venient to reach the fixture opening. A is the screw-top clean-out; 
and B, the wrench-face for turning it. 
The trap is furnished, when desired, 
with nickel-plated brass flanged cover, 
as shown at C, to screw on at the floor- 
level. F is ordinarily the outlet, the 
inlet being wiped-in near the bottom 
to give it the water-lock. This is not 
proper, however, as it puts the sewer 
air against the clean-out cover, which 
might leak gases into the building 
without betraying any evidence of its 
defectiveness by water leakage. To be 
strictly correct, F should be the inlet; 
and the outlet, in the shape of an off- 
set, or that of an inverted P-trap with- 
out the trap-screw, should be wiped- 
in near the bottom in a way to retain 
the proper seal and thus bring the sewer 
air against the water-seal instead of the 
clean-out cover. 
Traps that retain their seals by means of interior weirs are of 
doubtful character, even at their best; none but well-tested cast-brass 
Fig. 11. Common Lead 
Drum or Pot Trap. 
Vent 
Fig. 12. Section of Flask or Atlas 
Trap, with Two Interior Weirs. 8 
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traps of such a pattern should ever be installed. Fig. 12 is a section 
of a flask or Atlas trap, with vent, 
usually made of cast brass and de- 
pending upon two interior weirs to 
form the seal, one retaining the 
water, and the other dipping into the 
water to prevent sewer air from get- 
ting into the house through the fix- 
ture. If the water weir of such a 
trap becomes defective, there is no 
evidence except odors by which the 
occupants may discover it. If the 
dipping weir is defective the value 
of the water seal is nil. In either 
case the trap is no barrier to the admission of drain air to the house. 
Fig. 13 illustrates a form of trap 
suitable for use with baths. It has 
a submerged inlet connection which 
is expanded so that the flow enters 
the trap at a dipping angle which 
produces a swirl with cleansing 
effect. The extension collar A is 
made so that the screw-cover B 
forms the gasket joint below the 
water-level. The method of pro- 
viding the outlet in this trap makes 
it open to the same objection raised 
in connection with Fig. 11. This 
form, however, has the merit of being 
accessible for inspection without dis- 
turbing its service, which is impos- 
sible with the flask pattern shown 
in Fig. 12. 
The lavatory trap shown in 
Fig. 14, has an interior weir as 
shown at A; but the wall is doubled 
in such a way as to betray defec- 
tiveness by water leakage. It is made of cast metal, and is furnished 
Fig. 13. Bath Trap with 
Submerged Inlet. 
Fig. 14. Lavatory Trap with Interior 
Flanged Weir. Weir is Double-Walled 
to Betray Leakage. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
9 
with either glass or metal dome. The strong point claimed for this 
trap is the cleansing effect obtained by the flange extension of the 
exit, as shown at A, deflecting some of the 
water, which, together with the swirling effeci 
produced by the tangential inlet, makes the 
trap self-cleansing. 
Of the traps having a mechanical seal sup- 
plementing the water-lock, Fig. 15 is a specific 
type. The mechanical valve D is a rubber ball 
lighter than an equal bulk of water, playing ir 
the cup C. It acts by flotation, and presses up 
against the inlet A with a force equal to the dif- 
erence in weight of the ball and the water it dis- 
places. The body is generally made of lead; 
and the cup of glass, with screw-joint and 
gasket at F. This trap is proof against back- 
water; and, in case the waste line becomes choked below, will pre- 
vent a fixture from flooding even when others are discharged at a 
higher level. It has, however, several faults that counterbalance its 
merits. The inlet is open to the 
same criticisms that an interior wall 
of any other trap would be; the an- 
nular space at R accumulates filth; 
and the mechanical seal is worthless 
when most needed-that is, in the 
absence of the water-seal. 
Another mechanical seal trap, 
shown in Fig. 16, is the exact oppo- 
site of the previous example. The 
ball sinks by gravity, and effects a 
mechanical seal even when the water 
seal is absent. This trap is not so 
easily siphoned as a plain trap. It 
has a clean-out screw, and can be had 
with vent opening. Air from the 
sewer side acts against the clean-out 
cap through which access is had to the ball, and there are interior 
walls to become defective with little chance of discovery in practice. 
Fig. 15. Trap with Me- 
chanical Seal Acting by 
Flotation. 
Fig. 16. Trap with Mechanical Seal 
Acting by Gravity. 10 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
A combined mechanical and water-seal trap, is shown in Fig. 17, 
in which D is a hollow, flexible ball inclosing a metal ball D1, thus 
giving a resilient seating surface that finds its place by gravity in 
water. The arrangement is proof against back-water, and the 
mechanical seal is positive without the aid of water. A represents 
the basin; B, the basin coupling; C, the valve seat; F, a glass cylinder 
body; and GG, a clamp with thumb-screw Gl, for clamping the 
cylinder body in place. This trap holds a large amount of water, and 
is not likely to become unsealed from lack of use, as part of the seal 
is protected by the 
ball, and should the 
water evaporate, 
the mechanical seal 
is still effective. 
There are no in- 
terior walls through 
which the trap 
could lose its seal 
without betraying 
the fact by leakage. 
Generally speaking, 
mechanical seals in 
fixture traps cannot 
be depended upon. 
Anti-siphoning 
traps are a blessing 
in instances where pipe ventilation is difficult. It would be better to 
have none of them, however, than to attempt to supplant pipe venti- 
lation by their use to any great extent. 
It would be impossible here to consider the whole list of traps 
individually in an adequate manner. What has been said should be 
enough to enable one by careful study to decide each case intelligently 
upon its merits. Many special traps are deserving of more favor 
than is generally shown them. It is perhaps the fear on the part 
of the users of these articles of seeming to indorse the horde of 
cheap competitive articles that causes many to ignore alike the 
good and bad. This fear is well grounded. The wolves will creep 
in if the door is opened at all. 
Fig. 17. Trap with Combined Water-Seal and Gravity- 
Acting Mechanical Seal. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
11 
BATH FIXTURES 
BATHTUBS 
Classification. Bathtubs are a prime factor in plumbing and 
are made of various materials; they range in length from 4 to 6 
feet, and the general shapes are the American, French, and 
Roman. The American pattern has a rounded bottom, one slop- 
ing end and one straight end. The French style has a flat bot- 
tom, one sloping end and one straight end. The Roman design 
ha§ a flat bottom and two sloping ends. 
The rims of bathtubs vary from 1| to 5 inches in width. The 
larger rims are easy on one in getting in and out of the bath and 
are often used in lieu of a bath seat. 
At one time, bathtubs were made of slate; wooden case lined 
with lead, zinc, copper, or sheet iron; cast iron painted; stoneware; 
and marble; but practically all modern tubs are made of cast iron, 
enameled, with a vitreous glaze fused on the iron; or of solid 
porcelain, potter's clay properly fired, with a vitreous glaze fired on. 
Desirable Features for Bathtubs. The following points should 
be observed in selecting a bathtub: 
It should be made of suitable material. 
It should have provision for both filling and emptying rapidly. 
It should be an adequate size. 
It should be so constructed that all wooden or other casing is 
dispensed with. 
It must have an overflow capable of carrying away the water 
obtained from both faucets. 
All bath wastes must be trapped and vented and the size of 
the pipes should never be less than 1| inches. The trap should 
be placed as close to the fitting as practicable, and provision 
should be made for cleaning the trap. In many localities, a drum 
trap provided with a trap screw 4 inches in diameter must be in 
full view above the floor and vented through a Y or similar fitting, 
is given preference over the floor or running trap. 
Discussion of Types of Bathtubs. The most modern form of 
the American pattern cast-iron enameled bathtub with waste, 
overflow, and water supply connections is shown in Fig. 18. The 
very latest improvement, and one which has come to stay, is the 12 
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integral base which does not allow a particle of dust to find its 
way under the tub. 
A fine enameled iron bathtub on the Roman pattern is 
shown in Fig. 19. It is provided also with integral base and can 
Fig. 18. Enameled-Iron Bathtub with Floor Cut Away to Show Waste, Overflow, and Supply 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago 
be placed in either the right or left corner or free from all walls; 
but the best position, everything considered,' is with the fitting 
side near the wall and not against either end of the room. 
Fig. 19. Enameled-Iron Bathtub with Four-Inch Roll Rim, Fixtures Located 
in Center of Wall Side 
The solid porcelain tubs are ideal from a sanitary point of 
view, yet they are very heavy, averaging 1200 pounds each, and 
occasionally the floor is not capable of supporting them. Further- 
Courtesy of Crane Company, Chicago SANITARY APPLIANCES 
13 
more, the porcelain absorbs a tremendous amount of heat, and an 
efficient domestic hot-water supply must be installed, otherwise 
the tubs feel cold to the body and the wrater cools rapidly. These 
tubs are capable of withstanding considerable rough treatment and 
can be recommended highly for hotels and public institutions. 
The last word in bathtubs from a sanitary standpoint is 
illustrated in Fig. 20, and embraces every modern feature, being 
provided with integral base, glazed inside and outside, and made 
to tile into the walls 1| inches at the back and both ends. It is 
made in solid porcelain or porcelain enameled cast iron, and the 
following are the approximate measurements: length, 5 feet, 5 feet 
Fig. 20. Set-In Bathtub with Integral Base-Very Modern Equipment 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago 
6 inches, or 6 feet; width over all, 30 inches; inside depth, 19 
inches; height from floor to top of rim, 21 inches. 
SPECIAL BATHS 
Shower Baths. At one time, shower or rain baths were used 
principally in barracks, gymnasiums,, schools, etc., but now the 
public demands both the shower and spray in the toilet rooms. 
Many medical men advocate the action of jets or streams of 
water as the most hygienic method of bathing, for the impact 
results in stimulating the proper action of the skin and the body 
does not collect the soap and dirt floating on the surface of the 
water. 14 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
Fig. 21. Nickel-Plated Brass Shower Bath with Slate Cabinet 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago SANITARY APPLIANCES 
15 
The older form of showers which direct the water vertically 
upon the head of the bather are not so desirable as those in which 
the outlet is inclined and placed at about the level of the shoulders, 
thus avoiding wetting the head unless desired. Indeed, all the 
essentials of a bath of this kind are met by a water-supplied rub- 
ber tube discharging at about the level of the waist over a tight 
floor or pan provided with a drain. 
Showers, sprays, and rubber hose suitable for attaching to the 
bathtub faucets can be purchased for about $1.00 in any plumbing 
or hardware store, while the most elegant shower with mixing 
Fig. 22. Typical Sitz Bath 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago 
valve, douche, needle spray, rose spray, and shampoo attachment, 
Fig. 21, can be purchased for $230.00. 
A point concerning shower fixtures and relating to the safety 
of the user, to which special attention should always be given, is 
that of the valve arrangement. An adequate mixing valve is an 
essential part of the shower, especially so with the elaborate com- 
binations, otherwise one is liable, inadvertently, to scald himself 
at first by turning on the hot water alone. 
Sitz Baths. Sitz baths are primarily for bathing the hips and 
loins in a sitting posture but may be fitted with special features 
if so ordered. Solid porcelain and enameled iron are the usual 16 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
materials of construction. The fixtures approximate in dimen- 
sions, 15 inches in height at the front, 26 inches at the back, and 
are about 30 inches wide. In 
the back, at a proper height, is a 
horizontal slit accommodation fit- 
ting for a liver spray, a wide 
wave-like spray of water, either 
hot, cold, or of intermediate tem- 
perature, as suits the individual. 
Fig. 22 shows the latest type of 
sitz bath with integral base, 3-inch 
roll rim, china indexed handles, 
etc., while in the bottom, in con- 
junction with the outlet, is a hot 
and cold douche under control of 
the user. In the center of the douche, and operated independently, 
is a bidet jet, making the fixture exceedingly useful. 
Fig. 23. Porcelain Foot Bath with Standard 
Fittings 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, 
Chicago 
Courtesy of Crane Company, Chicago 
Fig. 24. Typical Baby Bath 
Foot Baths. An ordinary sitz bath can be used conveniently 
for a foot bath, but where there is no demand for such a bath, SANITARY APPLIANCES 
17 
a porcelain or porcelain enameled iron foot bath with integral 
base and 2|-inch roll rim, Fig. 23, can be installed. The approxi- 
mate size of the foot bath, length over all, is 25 inches; width over 
rim, 21 inches; depth inside, 10 inches; and from floor to top of 
rim, 13 inches. 
Baby Baths. Before leaving this branch of the work, it may 
be advisable to mention the "baby bath", Fig. 24. It is needless 
to say that only the wealthy can afford such a luxury, and there is 
no special demand for them. However, they are most convenient 
for the nurse as they fill and empty rapidly and are economical in 
the use of water. 
WATER CLOSETS 
Essential Features. The last few years have brought about 
some wonderful improvements in the style and construction of 
water closets. Comparing our present water closets with those of 
the pan and hopper types installed a few years ago, encased in 
woodwork and forming a chamber in which foul matter collected 
and developed, we find we have almost reached the acme of per- 
fection. Nevertheless, all manufacturers of sanitary fixtures are 
constantly endeavoring to improve their product. 
There are several points to be observed in selecting a suitable 
closet, which are as follows: 
It must be constructed of a nonabsorbent and noncorrosive 
material. 
It must have a small surface area, as this is always likely to 
become foul. 
The basin should contain a large quantity of water. 
It must have a good trap and a good depth of water seal. 
The back should be as near vertical as practicable to obviate 
fouling. 
It must be provided with a good flushing rim which will direct 
the water in such a manner that it will thoroughly cleanse the 
interior surface of the bowl and carry the excremental matter 
through the trap and into the soil pipe. 
It must be constructed on the open or independent principle 
and fixed free from all casings or coverings. 
Types of Water Closets. Types of water closets are innumer- 
able and are separable into classes according to the principles of 18 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
action. Porcelain and painted or enameled iron are the materials 
used. Porcelain is more fragile, but has the better finish, and is 
susceptible of a greater variety of design and ornamentation. The 
all-vitreous body of water-closet china of today is far superior to 
the glazed clay ware of the past, which, depending only on surface 
impermeability, soon cracked badly, thus permitting absorption, 
the forerunner of odors which no plumber's skill could prevent. 
Enameled iron has not so durable a surface, but will stand rough 
usage, and has the advantage of very seldom cracking from frost 
even though the water in the trap freezes. 
The greater relative advantage and durability of the porcelain 
closet over the best qualities of enameled-iron fixtures should not 
be overlooked. There is less adherence of the foul wastes to a 
porcelain surface than to the enameled surface. It is also a fact 
that enamel is subject more or less to abrasion by the use of harsh 
scouring materials, as well as to decomposition by uric acid and 
water-closet discharges, and is therefore not a very durable 
material. These statements can be confirmed by observation of 
closets which have been in use for a number of years. 
Iron closets of the better forms are used most in public places, 
stores,.warehouses, etc. The pan closet, of iron with earthenware 
bowl, is not now installed. For these, a trap was placed under the 
floor. The pan, operated by the same lever as the flushing valve, 
retained water, partially sealing the body from the bowl. The 
flush was by the swirling of a stream which entered tangentially 
under the rim. The bowls were round, as is necessary in all hop- 
per closets thus washed, for water will not swirl in an oval bowl. 
The objection to the pan water-closet is due principally to 
the fact that the outer bowl or container is a receptacle of filth 
which can never be cleansed properly. When the pan deposits its 
contents in the lower portion of the fixture, a considerable amount 
of the filth is spattered upon its inner walls and is not subject to 
the cleansing effect of the stream of water which scours only the 
upper bowl. When the closet is operated, the odors from this 
concealed surface permeate the room in an objectionable manner. 
The pneumatic form withdrew sewer air from between two traps 
and expelled it into the room through the bowl and was also 
expensive; it was therefore discarded. This objectionable "feature SANITARY APPLIANCES 
19 
of construction is present in pneumatic range closets. The range, 
however, is rapidly losing favor and will shortly be discarded. 
The pan and plunger forms of closets were seperseded because 
of their filthiness, although with them, flush and supply valves 
were brought to a high state of perfection; this is a benefit which 
the trade will always profit from by continued application of 
the principles, as is being done with time valves in various ways 
on direct flushing devices now in use and with ball cocks built 
on the principle of the old Jennings diaphragm valve. 
A sectional view of the combined hopper and trap pedestal of 
today is shown in Fig. 25. It is made in one piece, in both porce- 
lain and enameled iron. This form resulted from the separate 
hopper and trap fixtures before mentioned. The combined form 
has an oval bowl and integral flushing rim for tank supply. 
•The wash-out closet is a modification of the combined hopper 
and trap, being formed with a dipping bed under the mouth of the 
bowl, which retains enough water to keep soil from sticking to the 
surface. The water-bed makes it necessary to discharge the con- 
tents at either the front or rear of the bowl. The back-outlet 
wash-out is most repulsive to view; in them the drop-leg, which 
the flush never washes thoroughly, is always in view, so that its 
filthy condition suggests cleansing by hand. The front-outlet 
wash-out, shown in section in Fig. 26, is of more inviting appear- 
ance; but the drop-leg, although hidden, is there just the same. 
This type is rapidly becoming obsolete. 
Both the wash-out and the combined hopper and trap types 
have one fault in common. The trap almost always contains the 
soil from one usage. When the contents of the trap are flushed 
out after using, sometimes a similar mass refills it. Of course, two 
or three consecutive flushes would leave comparatively clean water 
in the trap, but this is not to be expected in regular usage. 
On certain occasions the wash-out may serve a useful purpose 
on account of the water-bed. The stools of children or the sick 
may thus be easily observed at the will of the physician or at the 
discretion of those in charge, while such is impossible where the 
soil is submerged at once. 
Pneumatic siphon closets of various types have been put on the 
market. A good example of the type requiring two traps with an 20 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
air-space between, is shown in Fig. 27. A specially constructed 
flushing tank is connected with the air-space between the traps. The 
falling of the flush water creates a partial vacuum in the bottom com- 
partment of the tank, which induces siphonage of the bowl contents. 
In the effort to maintain a plenum in the flushing compartment 
of the tank while the flush water is flowing into the closet, the air 
between the traps is extracted, being drawn up through the air-pipe 
into the tank. Atmospheric pressure presses the water out of the 
bowl and upper trap when the pressure below it is sufficiently 
reduced. This water, added to the flushing water and that of the 
lower trap seal, which has been drawn above its normal level in 
response to the vacuum, is sufficient to form the long leg of an ordinary 
siphon; and thus both traps would be entirely emptied were it not for 
Fig. 26. Section of Combined Hop- 
per and Trap Closet 
Fig. 25. Section of Front Outlet 
Wash-Out Closet 
the vent in the crown of the lower trap breaking the siphonage in 
time to save a water seal for the lower trap. 
The upper trap with water visible in the closet bowl in repose, is 
supplied by the after-fill, thus establishing conditions for the next' 
action. The lower trap of such closets must be back-vented, and it 
is essential that the upper trap have no back vent. 
The proper action of the tank is necessary to operate a pneumatic 
closet. A closet constructed on any other principle can be flushed 
with a bucket, by hand, if its tank is out of order. When a pneu- 
matic closet gets contrary, pouring water into the bowl by hand 
simply fills or overflows it. The outlet is air-bound, and no passage 
of water to the soil pipe can take place until the barrier of air between 
the traps is removed. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
21 
The closets now accorded first place and generally used in the 
best work, are of the Jet-Siphon type, illustrated by the sectional 
view, Fig. 28. These use more water than is necessary to flush 
other kinds of closets, because a portion of the water is employed to 
produce the siphonage. A channel leading 
from the flush-water inlet to the bottom of 
the trap, conveys a stream of water to the 
trap leg, and injects it upward therein. The 
water in the channel has considerable ve- 
locity, and, being discharged into the water 
in the trap, imparts its energy to the whole 
mass, which, aided by the rise due to the in- 
coming water from the flushing rim, moves 
upward at a proportionally slower but in- 
creasing speed depending on the ratio of 
mass and jet. When the water in the trap 
has been lifted in this way to an extent 
where sufficient of it can fall over the weir into the out-leg of the 
trap, a siphonic movement begins, and true siphonage finally takes 
place. Before the closet tank is emptied, siphonage sweeps out the 
trap thoroughly; and what water falls back into the bowl when 
the siphon breaks, together with the incoming jet and flush, often 
causes a second siphonage. 
Accuracy in pointing the jet and in shaping the surfaces of its 
environment, are essential. If the 
surface above the jet-hole favors 
interference by the water flowing 
from the bowl, siphonage will be 
delayed and abortive, and may not 
take place at all. So, also, if the 
jet is not directed so as to main- 
tain approximate concentricity in its 
travel through the mass of water, 
its energy is not expended to advan- 
tage, and failure is likely. 
There is no excuse for iron closets not siphoning perfectly. The 
iron pattern can be altered until it gives the best effect in practice, 
after which all closets cast from it should do the same. With porce- 
Fig. 27. Section of Pneu- 
matic Siphon Closet, with 
Two Traps and Inter- 
vening Air-Space. 
Fig. 28. Section of Jet-Siphon Closet. 22 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
lain ware, however, every closet made requires the same skill in 
design; and notwithstanding how perfectly the closet may be 
formed and the jet-hole cut, shrinkage in the kiln during the dry- 
ing and burning process is apt to warp the wall and change the 
product so that it will not act properly. Closets of both mate- 
rials, apparently perfect, often fail when first tried after installation, 
owing to foreign matter or fragments of enamel, clay, or iron 
lodging in the jet and changing its action. Usually these obstruc- 
tions are easily removed by the plumber. 
The jet principle has been added to the combined hopper 
and trap closet before mentioned, producing in it a siphonic action 
resulting in very much improved service over that of the simple 
form. With the jet-action, the combined hopper and trap is 
generally termed a wash-down siphon. The so-called "jet" is 
applied in two ways. In some makes, the flush rim has an extra 
large and specially formed fan-wash feature, which directs a sluice- 
like stream down the back wall of the bowl. This stream, in 
addition to wetting the paper and forcing it down into the water, 
where it will be promptly carried out, sweeps round the curve of 
the bowl outlet in such a way as to lend its force to the water in 
the trap to produce apparent and not infrequently true siphonage. 
Another form of the wash-down siphon is provided with a 
channel from the flush inlet, down outside the back wall of the 
bowl, to near or even below the water level in the bowl, where 
the jet enters through a slit. The action is much the same as 
with the special fan-wash mentioned but is generally superior in 
siphonic effectiveness. 
Jet-siphon closets are not provided with vent openings in the 
closet proper, except for the local bowl ventilation. Wash-Out 
traps are, or should be, vented. The simple hopper and trap 
should be vented in the trap. Wash-down siphons, generally, are 
not vented, but it is permissible to vent them low down in the 
outlet leg of the trap. 
The jetector wall closet, Figs. 29 and 30, wastes through the 
wall and does not rest upon the floor or depend on the wall or 
partition for its support. The closet is fastened directly to the soil 
stack by means of the screws 5, 6, 7, and 8, Fig. 29, and has been 
tested with a weight of 1800 pounds placed on the bowl without SANITARY APPLIANCES 
23 
any injury to the closet or hanger. It is undoubtedly the best 
sanitary closet on the market and is most economical in the use of 
water, a perfect flush being obtained with 2 to 3 gallons of water, 
as the action is direct. 
It cannot clog except 
within easy reach of the 
hand, and any stoppage 
is readily removed. The 
flush is instantaneous; 
three-fourths of the water 
used follows the contents 
of the bowl, giving both 
the closet and soil stack 
a thorough scouring at 
every flush. The down 
draft also is instanta- 
neous and removes local 
odors from the bowl at each flush, thus making it self-ventilating. 
Frost=Proof Closets. Many eminent sanitarians who have 
experimented with frost-proof closets contend that it should be 
made a criminal offense to advertise them, for they are not 
sanitary. The length of 
pipe between the trap 
and the closet bowl is 
always foul, and often- 
times there is direct con- 
nection between the 
closet trap and the water 
supply pipe to the tank, 
which is most insanitary. 
The frost-proof 
closet in its present form 
has been evolved in good 
faith by certain manu- 
facturers to protect clos- 
ets from the destructive attack of ice formation during the winter 
months. In satisfactorily overcoming the danger the evolution of 
the apparatus seems to have been along lines which have not taken 
Fig. 29. Jetector Wall Closet, Showing Details of Support 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago 
Fig. 30. Section of Jetector Closet 
Courtesy of Federdl-Huber Company, Chicago 24 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
into account sanitation laws already existing in many places and 
principles already known and established throughout the country 
governing the restrictions of fouling areas in sanitary apparatus. 
Notwithstanding these log- 
ical contentions, frost-proof 
closets are now being used exten- 
Fig. 31. Layout for Frost-Proof Closet 
with Galvanized-Iron Supply Tank 
Fig. 32. Layout for Frost-Proof Closet 
without Supply Tank 
Courtesy of Standard Sanitary Manufacturing Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 
sively in outhouses and other exposed places. Although they can- 
not be considered the acme of sanitary perfection, owing to the 
large area exposed to fouling and the small area of water contained 
in the trap, no other form of closet will stand such locations SANITARY APPLIANCES 
25 
under like conditions and, being installed outside, adequate ven- 
tilation is always assured. 
In the most approved types, the basins consist of an enameled 
cast-iron round hopper connected with a 4-inch cast-iron soil pipe 
which discharges into a trap about five feet below the level of the 
floor. The supply valve also is placed below the freezing depth 
and is operated by a pull or by seat action. 
A typical frost-proof closet with galvanized-iron supply tank 
is shown in Fig. 31. The pressing down of the seat opens the 
supply valve and allows the water -to flow into the tank. On 
rising from the seat, the supply valve closes and the water in 
the tank flushes the basin. After the flushing has taken place, 
the water remaining in the pipe above the valve drains off into 
the water-closet trap, through a small drain tube. When the 
fixture is not in use, there is no water standing in the flush tank 
or at any point in the piping above the supply valve. In Fig. 32 
the flush tank is omitted, the closet being flushed direct from the 
supply pipe. 
Closet Tanks. Closets are operated with pull or push-button 
tanks requiring the attention of the user and are also made of the 
seat-action type. Children are likely to be forgetful and visitors 
to public toilet rooms indifferent to such an extent that automatic 
closets are desirable for public places and schools. 
Closets are fitted with two styles of tanks-one placed about 
7 feet from the floor and serving with a flush pipe never more than 
1| inches in diameter, and the other placed low down, as close to 
the bowl as connections will permit. Examples of the high-tank 
and low-tank arrangements are shown in Figs. 33 and 34, respec- 
tively. The low tanks are wider and deeper than the high style 
but do not extend out from the wall so much. The low position 
delivers the water at much less velocity than the elevated style 
and, to secure the utmost speed and the necessary volume, the 
flush connection is never less than 2 inches in a low-tank closet. 
The rim and jet channel are proportionately larger in bowls 
intended for use with low tanks. High tanks are about 17 by 9 
by 10 inches. Sheet lead and sheet copper are used for closet 
tank linings. Some kinds of water, through galvanic action, 
attack the soldering of the seams in copper-lined tanks with more 26 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
effect than where lead alone is used. Generally, however, copper- 
lined tanks give satisfaction if the copper is heavy enough (12 to 16 oz.) 
and properly put in. Some makers lock-seam the linings water-tight, 
and solder on the outside before placing the copper in the wood case. 
On account of the greater depth of low 
tanks, swelling of the wood case has, 
doubtless, been the cause of most of the 
trouble experienced with this type. When 
Fig. 33. Modern High Tank 
Closet 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, 
Chicago 
Fig. 34. Modern Low Tank Closet 
Courtesy of The Trenton Potteries Company, 
Trenton, New Jersey 
put together in the factory, the wood is very dry, and after being 
used for a short time, increases in height as a result of swelling 
from dampness. If the lining be tacked to the wood at bottom and 
top, injury is sure to result. Tacking at the top only is open 
to similar objections. It is now the practice to omit fastening 
the lining. Cast-iron tanks enameled two coats in and out give 
excellent service and so far have caused no trouble from sweating. 
Iron tanks with sheet metal interior lining have also proven satis- 
factory. Very great care has been found necessary with ball cocks 
for low tanks, in order to secure proper after-fill, the flush connection SANITARY APPLIANCES 
27 
being too short to aid much in resealing the bowl with its drainings. 
Low tanks flush with much less noise than high ones, and permit 
placing the closet under windows and low ceilings. Low ones require 
more width on account of the tank, and more depth from the wall to 
the front, as the seat and lid must be placed far enough forward to be 
thrown back and remain leaning against the front of the tank. Low 
tanks are provided with ventilated covers; while the high pattern 
which is out of children's reach, 
is left open at the top. The fewer 
working parts in a tank, the less 
likely it is to get out of order. 
A type of seat-action after- 
wash closet very seldom placed in 
private houses, is that with closed 
metal tank, as represented in Fig. 
35. Depressing the seat opens a 
valve in the supply, and the water 
passes up through a flush pipe 
into a closed tank. The air in the 
tank is compressed until the air- 
pressure counterbalances that of 
the water. When the seat is re- 
leased, the supply valve closes 
and a valve is opened, establish- 
ing communication between the 
closet and the tank. The com- 
pressed air then expels the water 
in the tank, flushing the closet 
just as a large supply with cor- 
responding pressure would do without a tank. Closed-tank closets 
depend on pressure. The space occupied by the air in the tank 
is inversely proportional to the pressure; hence, even in heavy pres- 
sure, considerable of the tank's capacity is yet occupied by air 
when equilibrium is established; and the less the pressure, the 
smaller the amount of water it is possible to get into the tank. They 
are therefore not fit for very light pressures, though they sometimes 
serve well in the basement of a building where failure would be 
certain on the upper floor. 
Fig. 35. Siphon-Jet Closet with Seat- 
Operating Pressure Tank 
Courtesy of Crane Company, Chicago 28 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
Condensation on single-shell sheet metal tanks is annoying. Open 
tanks of porcelain and iron are used more or less, but sweating is 
hard to overcome. Zinc paint and ground cork finishes have been 
employed with some satisfaction; and drip-cup collars discharging 
into the flush just under the tank on high-tank closets have served 
in this capacity, but nothing overcomes the sweating so well as a 
tight wood case. Insulated metal cases and double enameled cast 
tank, before mentioned, will prove the only serious rivals to the wood- 
case tank. Some makes of the pressure-tank closet require too much 
weight on the seat for successful operation by a child, and children 
would as a rule leave the seat too soon to allow the tank to fill reason- 
ably well. The after-fill is accomplished by projecting the flush 
connection into the tank an inch or more, and drilling a hole | inch 
or less in diameter through it near the bottom of tank. The rapid 
flow ceases when the water-level falls to the upper end of the inward- 
projecting flush connection, and the after-fill drains into the flush. 
The flush fittings of an open tank consist essentially of a valve 
to admit water to the flush pipe; an overflow always open to the flush 
pipe; and a lever and connection, with chain and pull or button, to 
open the flush valve. A simple example of these is the siphon goose- 
neck, with flush-valve disc on one end and lever connection at the 
other. Prongs extend below the disc to guide and keep it in place. 
The overflow is through the gooseneck. Lifting the gocseneck an 
instant permits enough water to flow down the flush to start the 
siphon through it when the pull is released. The tank then siphons 
to the lower end of the gooseneck arm. 
Where shortness of flush pipe or form of closet requires a decided 
after-fill, this is secured by special provision in the flush fittings, or 
by leading some of the supply delivered by the ball cock into the 
overflow. 
The supply fittings of a closet tank consist merely of a ball cock 
of suitable form. For light pressure, simple leverage suffices. For 
heavy pressure, the inlet in the valve would have to be too small, or 
the ball too large and stem too long, for a small tank, if simple lever- 
age were employed. Therefore compound-leverage cocks are usually 
substituted where the pressure contended with is over 30 pounds. 
There are ball cocks made in which the buoyancy of the ball merely 
operates a small secondary valve in a way to establish the initial SANITARY APPLIANCES 
29 
pressure over a disc of larger upper surface than that of the under 
side which covers the main water inlet of the cock. The disc is 
thus seated by the differential principle regardless of the pressure; 
and a 4-inch ball will close almost any size valve against any 
pressure. 
When the cock is attached through the bottom of the tank, 
no precaution against sound is necessary. When the cock is fitted 
in high up, a pipe from the delivery is extended to near the bot- 
tom of tank for the purpose of muffling the sound of the water as 
it fills the tank. An unmuffled delivery and a high-tank flush 
make considerable noise when the closet is flushed and are sug- 
gestive and very embarrassing to sensitive people. Silent action is 
therefore the goal for which many strive. Silence at the expense 
of thoroughly washing the closet surfaces and flushing out the 
contents, is not desirable; some noise is necessary to the rapidity 
of action essential to thorough scouring and evacuation. 
Tanks requiring the flush valve to be held off the seat during 
the entire flush are now no longer installed. Perfect silence in the 
flush pipe of a high-tank closet has been obtained by a type of 
flush fitting that permits the pipe to hang full of water. The 
flush valve being opened, water begins to flow into the closet 
immediately. When the valve closes, no air having access at the 
upper end of the flush, the pipe remains filled. The flush valve 
of such a closet must close absolutely water-tight to prevent con- 
tinual dribbling into the bowl. 
Flushometers. Of late years, direct flushing valves or flush- 
ometers of many forms have been a feature of water-closet design. 
These valves make individual closet tanks unnecessary. 
A section of a good type'of flushometer is shown in Fig. 36A, 
in which the letters A to M represent the following: A-oscillat- 
ing handle; B-release stem; C-by-pass; D-cylinder; E-piston; 
F-waterway to valve; G-waterway to closet; II-regulating by- 
pass; I-regulating screw; J-loose key; K-specially treated 
leather washer; L-encased leather seat washer; and M-refill disc. 
The Boyle valve is of the balanced plunger type, that is, the 
piston is balanced so that the pressure of the water on the top will 
overcome the pressure at the bottom and close the valve. When 
the pressure at the top is removed, the pressure at the bottom 30 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
A 
Fig. 36. Direct-Flushing Closet-Flushing Valve Shown 
in Section Above 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago SANITARY APPLIANCES 
31 
will raise the piston and open the valve. The piston is fitted with 
a specially treated leather washer which prevents the cylinder 
from being harmed by sand or other foreign matter. This washer 
can be replaced when necessary by removing the valve cap and 
lifting out the piston. It has only three moving parts: the handle, 
the release stem, and the piston. 
Action. The action is as follows: When the oscillating handle 
A is pushed, it moves the release stem B, which allows the water 
in the cylinder D to run out through the by-pass C. This releases 
the pressure of the water on the top of the piston E and allows 
the water from the supply F to force it up and to run into the 
closet through the outlet G. While the water is running to the 
closet, a portion goes up the regulating by-pass II into the cylin- 
der D where its pressure forces the piston E to close. The faster 
the water enters the cylinder D through the regulating by-pass II 
the quicker the valve will close, and vice versa. The length of the 
flush is controlled by the regulating screw I which is adjusted by a 
loose key at J. This permits the valve to be regulated from the 
outside without disturbing the interior. The supply to the valve 
should be as straight and with as few bends as possible. It 
should never be less than l|-inch iron pipe size and should be 
increased as conditions demand. The pressure of the water at the 
valve should be maintained at not less than 20 pounds per square 
inch. When a large number of water closets are installed in one 
building, it is best to supply the flushometers from a large tank 
installed for this purpose. From the tank, a proper size flush 
main is run direct to the closets, independent of the water supply 
or other fixtures. One tank with large flushing main will serve all 
the closets, and thus the individual tanks and equipment are not 
needed. Furthermore, no trouble is then experienced in providing 
suitable space for the small tanks. The valves may, if desired, 
be placed out of sight, and only the operating lever brought to 
view in a convenient position. 
Range Closets. Batteries of individual closets are usual in 
office buildings and many other such structures; but in schools and 
in many public places open to all classes, ranges divided into stalls 
or compartments have been considered a satisfactory solution of 
the problem. 32 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
The objections to the range type of fixture are inherent in the 
design. The fouling surface of a trough fixture is much greater than 
that of the number of individual closets to which the fixture corre- 
sponds, and certain parts of this surface are not subject to an adequate 
flushing action. A certain portion of the surface, much larger relatively 
than that in individual fixtures, is exposed to spattering with the 
filth, and is alternately wet and dry. It is also true that the method 
of applying the water for scouring purposes is much less satisfactory 
than with single closets. A further objection to the range fixture is 
that in general its material is less desirable for the purpose than the 
earthenware or porcelain used for closets. On account of these 
deficiencies, for some ten years past, individual closets have been 
used in public schools in certain cities which have given the most 
attention to this branch of sanitation, and their use is being ex- 
tended. 
Range closets have automatic flushing tanks acting at any 
required interval between flushes. The tanks are, as a rule, without 
moving parts, and give good service without much attention after the 
supply is once set to flush at the interval desired. Whether the 
users of a closet are indifferent or irresponsible, does not change the 
result of abuse; and the range type of closet overcomes many annoy- 
ances attending the use of ordinary individual closets in unsuitable 
places-institutions for the insane and feeble-minded, for example. 
Ranges, like seat-action closets, are not dependent on the user, who 
may forget to pull a chain or push a button and thereby leave the 
closet foul. 
Various forms of ranges are now operated on the siphon eduction 
principle. Siphonic eduction is accomplished in three ways-first, 
by the double trap and air-pipe to the tank indicated by the sectional 
view. Fig. 37, and operating exactly like the individual pneumatic 
closet already described; second, by a siphon outlet-end in which the 
water falls over a central weir that maintains the proper depth of 
water until the flush begins, and causes siphonage by breaking up 
and filling the channel as it passes through a constricted bend below. 
The latter method is shown in section in Fig. 38. Still another type 
of range is made to siphon by jet-action, just as the individual jet- 
siphon closet does, the trap providing a retaining weir which holds 
the water at the proper level in the range between flushes. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
33 
There are wash-out ranges with sloping weirs at the outlet to 
retain enough water to keep soil from sticking. These are open 
troughs, and the plumber provides the trap. Some siphon ranges are 
of the open-trough pattern, but the trap or the siphon outlet is a part 
of the fixture. All open-trough ranges can be supplied with a venti- 
lating section from which a large vent pipe may be carried to a stack 
in which a draft is insured by a hot flue or some other means. Such 
ventilation changes the air in the room; and by having lids to all the 
seats, odors from the entire trough may be uniformly removed by 
Fig. 37. Section of Range Closet, with Double Trap and with Air-Pipe to Tank to Cause 
Siphonic Eduction. 
leaving up one lid only, at the end opposite the vent pipe. Some 
forms, having individual flushing-rim bowls cast integral with the 
section, are supplied by one general flush pipe, as indicated by the plan 
and elevation shown in Fig. 39. In these, each bowl is separately 
water-sealed, as the normal water-level is above the general conduit 
into which the bowls discharge. 
Other forms, which receive the entire flush at one end, are water- 
sealed between the seat holes. The seat-openings, instead of converg- 
ing like flushing-rim bowls, diverge downward, so that, as the water- 
level recedes in the sections during flushing, soil falls away from the 
surface by gravity instead of grinding against it. Therefore, so far 34 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
as cleanliness is concerned, the type with diverging surfaces but with- 
out the scouring effect of flowing water in the openings is, in operation, 
the practical equivalent of the flushing-rim type with converging 
surfaces. The open-trough ranges, including the jet-siphon type, 
have perforated wash-down pipes along the sides and ends, which, 
however, have little value. The open troughs are made in cast 
sections as long as convenient, joined by flanges with rubber gaskets 
and bolts. S u i t- 
able feet or chairs 
for supports are 
furnished with these 
fixtures. 
Cast partitions, 
partitions and 
backs, and full 
compartment p a r- 
titions, with slat 
doors and indica- 
tors, are furnished 
to order in any 
style or combina- 
tion desired. For 
example, the range 
for a schoolroom 
may consist alto- 
gether of 24-inch 
sections or divi- 
sions, except one in- 
tended for the teach- 
ers' use made 30 inches and fitted with door and full-length partitions 
to give a thoroughly private compartment. Ranges are usually made 
of cast iron, and almost invariably finished with enameled interior and 
painted exterior. Bowl or section ventilation is provided for where 
possible. Wood seats and covers are generally used; but enameled- 
iron top frames with hinged seats and covers, and rigid enameled seats, 
are also made. 
The lower trap of a double-trap range must be ventilated. All 
soil-pipe stacks into which ranges discharge, and fixtures connected 
Fig. 38. Section of Range Closet, with Siphon-Outlet End. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
35 
to them, must be well protected against siphonage, because the 
volume of water discharged at one time by a range is sufficient 
to siphon traps that ordi- 
narily would retain their seals. 
Urinals. Sectional urinals 
are made of the same mate- 
rials and finish, and with much 
the same types of design, as 
range closets. They are gener- 
ally installed in the same classes 
of buildings as range closets; 
but such urinals will often be 
found in the same toilet-room 
with individual closets. Roll- 
rim enameled troughs, with 
back and with simple per- 
forated wash-down flush pipes 
on the back, are available. 
Solid porcelain stalls, are also 
in the market. 
Single urinals are usually of porcelain, although some have been 
made of iron. Pedestal flushing rim urinals, resembling an extra 
Fig. 39. Sectional Elevation and Plan of Range 
Closet Seat with Flushing-Rim Bowl Sup- 
plied from General Flush-Pipe 
Fig. 40. Standard Types of Vitreous China Urinals 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago 
tall water-closet bowl, are now regular market fixtures. The common 
types are plain or lipped, Fig. 40, made in flat-back and corner 36 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
designs. Direct-flushing valves of the same type as used on closets, 
adapted to the pur- 
pose, and cocks of 
various types, are the 
means of flushing gen- 
erally provided for a 
single urinal. When 
two or more are placed 
in one toilet-room, an 
automatic tank with 
branched flush pipe is 
employed. These 
tanks are of greater 
variety than those 
used with range clos- 
ets. The tilting 
bucket, pivoted within a tank case, which empties itself periodically 
by means of the flow of water changing the center of gravity to the 
unsupported side and tipping it just before it overflows, is a familiar 
type of automatic 
urinal - flushing tank. 
The standard tank 
with immovable parts, 
which siphons auto- 
matically, is the most 
prevalent. A section 
showing the "Wat- 
rous" automatic tank 
valve is given in Fig. 41. 
Another design 
consists of a tank with 
common siphon, fitted 
with a ball cock which 
opens, instead of clos- 
ing, as the water in the 
tanklifts the ball. The 
interval between flushes is governed by a small bibb cock. When water 
lifts the ball, the ball cock also admits water, the tank filling 
Fig. 41. "Watrous" Automatic Tank Valve 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago 
Fig. 42. Urinal Stalls of Slate, Flushed by Perforated 
Pipe, with Guttered Floor 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago SANITARY APPLIANCES 
37 
rapidly. The higher the ball is lifted, the faster the tank fills, so 
that by the time the water-level reaches a point where water 
begins to flow over the neck of the siphon, it is coming into the 
tank rapidly enough to more than keep pace with the overflow 
necessary to start the siphon. True siphonage, however, empties 
the tank much faster than the supply can fill it; and the tank is 
soon empty, leaving the small bibb cock to admit water again 
slowly to where this action can be repeated. 
Individual urinals which siphon by admitting additional water 
to that which normally stands in the fixture, and various other 
types, will be best understood from a study of dealers' catalogues. 
In good work, marble backs and partitions usually enclose the 
urinals on three sides. Marble and slate stalls of various con- 
struction, with channeled and guttered floor, as shown in Fig. 42, 
all washed by perforated pipes fixed along the surfaces, are fre- 
quently used in lieu of specific urinal fixtures. A thick base of 
slab material is sometimes used, the gutter and drain-hole being 
cut in it. Cast-iron gutters, galvanized or enameled, with an outlet- 
end adapted to a soil-pipe connection are supplied by the makers. 
MISCELLANEOUS FIXTURES 
Drinking Fountains. Drinking fountains are now frequently 
used in stores, schools, and residences, the various fixtures adapted 
to such installations being readily obtainable. The basins or drip- 
slabs for public indoor fountains, are often cut to order by the 
manufacturer; and the cooling and faucet arrangements are pro- 
vided by the plumber. Porcelain, enameled-iron, and marble 
fountains of stock designs are made. Most municipal regulations 
for schools require rough-like basins to be provided with sanitary 
drinking cups, Fig. 43, to prevent infection. The fixture shown in 
Fig. 44, consisting of solid porcelain, in which the drain-slab and 
the high back consitute a single piece, is of recent design, presents 
an excellent appearance, and has the advantage of being easily 
kept in immaculate condition. The two fountain drinking cups 
are built low to give a plentiful flow without spattering, and the 
compression cocks below are easy of manipulation. 
One device, which serves well for common use, is the ordinary 
lavatory provided with a stiff perforated bottom fitting extending 38 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
well up toward the top of the bowl. This, with a proper faucet 
on the slab and a cup-chain fitted to the extra faucet-hole, makes 
a useful but not attractive fixture. 
Fig. 43. Enameled-Iron Fountain Receptor with Self-Closing Heads Particularly 
Designed for Schools and Other Public Places 
Courtesy of Crane Company, Chicago 
Recessed porcelain and enameled fountains designed to be 
placed in wall niches and having concealed connections, as sug- 
gested by Fig. 45, are neat and require very little room outside 
the finished wall line. Countersunk slabs with strainer waste, 
with back either integral 
or separate as design or 
material dictates, are made 
in marble and porcelain. 
Marble fountains are adapt- 
able to any location, because 
the slab and back can be 
cut to any shape or dimen- 
sions preferred. The foun- 
tain proper, faucet, cup, and 
waste-pipe connection with 
strainer, are all that is sup- 
plied by the makers. 
A type of fountain 
shown in Fig. 46, is provided with a flowing jet of water from 
which one can drink without placing the lips in contact with any 
metal surface. The small central bowl or cup is constantly sub- 
Fig. 44. Double Vitreous China-Fountain with 
Integral Back and Separate Back Shield 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago SANITARY APPLIANCES 
39 
merged and cleansed in the stream of water which passes out- 
wardly over it, thus avoiding the danger incident to the common 
use of the same drinking cup by many persons. The surface does 
not afford lodgement to possible germs of disease which are most 
liable to transmit 'contagion when allowed to become dry and 
adhere to a surface. In fact, city ordinances require that all 
public drinking fountains be of the sanitary type. 
Yard Fountains. Plumbers are rarely called upon to design 
the basin or attend to building the retaining walls of yard fountains 
or those built in parks and other public places, but they must 
be prepared to supply them with water and drain off the waste. 
The basins are invariably circular. A conical bench is usually 
left in the center of the basin with sloping sides. The size of the 
bench or mound through which the supply rises is made to suit the 
fountain fixture. All sediment collects on the ring of low surface 
surrounding the bench and the waste pipe is brought through the 
bottom at the lowest point. The overflow enters at the bottom, but 
it may be entered higher up and on the waste pipe side if desired. 
The center is undoubtedly the best position for it, as the current to 
the overflow causes more sediment to collect on the overflow side 
and there is thus less chance of the drain being banked over when 
needed. The overflow should be protected by a netting to keep 
leaves and other rubbish out of the waste pipe. The drain should 
extend about two inches above the bottom so that a reasonable 
deposit of sediment will not interfere with its prompt action. A 
beehive strainer or netting should cover the outlet. 
Suitable fountain fixtures may be found in catalogues. Such 
fixtures are numberless and range in price from a few dollars to 
almost any figure. 
Lavatories. Lavatories are made from porcelain, enameled 
iron, marble, and onyx, in numerous patterns. The number of 
designs is so large that they are best understood if considered in 
the classes into which they may be divided. In marble and onyx 
fixtures, the slab, back, and bowl are necessarily separate pieces. In 
any but very accurate fitting and erecting, the unavoidable joints 
soon invite the accumulation of dirt, soapsuds, and other foul 
matter. Poor workmanship, settling, abortive countersinks, and 
faucet bosses not cut free within the countersink, have in many cases 40 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
brought slab types of basins into unjust repute, or, at least, have 
given basis for strong talking points against them, which have 
been effectively so used. If made and installed in the most 
approved manner, these styles, properly cared for, offer little 
Fig. 45. Cast Bronze Recessed Drinking Fountain 
Courtesy of Crane Company, Chicago 
reason for severe criticism. One fact, however, must be borne in 
mind when comparing marble with other materials used for plumb- 
ing fixtures-namely, that marble is not an impermeable stone. 
Nearly all marbles (excepting only the very hardest and most dense) 
are quite absorbent, and depend upon the surface finish given to the SANITARY APPLIANCES 
41 
slab to resist the entrance of liquids into the body of the stone. As 
soon as the surface becomes roughened by wear, the greasy and acid 
wastes penetrate into the pores, and the marble becomes permanently 
discolored. Only a limited observation of the bad condition of marble 
floors or urinal slabs which have been subjected to use for a few years, 
is necessary to confirm this statement. 
Ordinary Tennessee, Veined Italian, Hawkins County Tennessee, 
and Statuary Italian marble, range in cost in the order mentioned. 
Fancy imported marbles and onyx are much more 
expensive. Tennessee marble varies in color 
from grayish brown to very dark reddish brown, 
uniformly intermixed with light specks. The 
Hawkins County marble is bright reddish and 
white-mottled. All the ordinary materials are cut 
in stock sizes, and may also be had to order, like 
the more costly, in any size and shape desired. 
The type with apron or skirting, has legs, and the 
slab is supported by the skirting. When supported 
by brackets or leg-brackets, the strength of the 
slab is alone usually depended upon for support 
between the bearings. If brackets are properly 
spaced (as far from the ends as fittings will 
permit will never be too close together for any 
ordinary size), the weight is so balanced as to 
leave very little sagging strain on the slab. 
Built-in lavatories similar to Fig. 47 are often used and with 
appropriate fittings are very effective. 
Porcelain and enameled-iron lavatories have bowl, back apron, 
and soap-cup in one piece. The pedestal of the lavatory illustrated 
in Fig. 48 is separate, of course, and no back is required, but the 
general features of integral construction are shown. The only injury 
possible to them is the marring or fracture of the glaze or enamel. 
Porcelain and iron lavatories, which can be furnished at reasonable 
cost, unlike those of marble, are adapted to pedestal support; and 
some very desirable patterns are therefore made in these materials 
only. Neither pedestal nor wall lavatories without backs, are suitable, 
except where the wall or wainscoting is of marble, tile, or other water- 
proof material. 
Fig. 46. Enameled-Iron 
Fountain 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber 
Company, Chicago 42 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
Fig. 47. Solid Porcelain Lavatory with Self-Closing Basin Faucets and Direct Lift Waste 
Courtesy of Crane Company, Chicago SANITARY APPLIANCES 
43 
To provide for leaving the floor clear and free of obstruction, lavatories 
supported on brackets or hangers, as indicated in Fig. 49, with supply, 
waste, and ventilating pipes fitted on or into the wall, are best. If 
found practicable, a neater job results if all pipes leading to and 
from pedestal lavatories are carried through the pedestal. A supply 
and waste run to the floor is generally far easier and cheaper to secure 
than the fitting of all pipes to the wall. 
The purchaser seeking iron or porcelain fixtures, has no choice 
of styles beyond that which the market regularly affords. If he pre- 
fers the workable materials, he should insist upon certain features of 
design which are essential to the best service. Abrupt edges and sharp 
corners should be avoided; the slab ought to be at least 1|inches 
thick, and the back not less than 12 
inches high; the general dimensions 
must be as liberal as space will 
allow or the service demands (not 
less than 22 by 32 inches for a 14 by 
17-inch bowl); the countersinking 
must be deep, T% to | inch; the 
faucet bosses must not join the gen- 
eral border level at all; the faucets 
must not be less than 12 inches 
apart, ncr so near the bowl that it 
will be difficult to secure them to 
the slab; nor may they be placed so 
close to the back as to make repair- 
ing troublesome with any type of Fuller faucets; the joint surface of 
the bowl must be ground to fit the slab, and provided with not less 
than four well-drilled anchor-holes for clamps to secure it. 
Round bowls were formerly quite generally in use, but are now 
almost relegated to memory. The width of slab needed for a roomy, 
round bowl is too great; and at best the arms of the user, must be 
cramped in a somewhat vertical and awkward position, while the 
smaller sizes are very uncomfortable in this respect. The sudden 
opening of the faucet when the bowl is empty, is likely to ricochet water 
with annoying results. This is caused by the water striking the 
curved bowl at a tangent; the action is not peculiar to the circular 
bowl; the oval or crescent, or, indeed, any shape of bowl that presents 
Fig. 48. Lavatory on Pedesta 1 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, Chicago 44 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
a curved surface to which the faucet stream is tangent, favors the same 
result; the ovals in integral fixtures are the most annoying. Marble 
and onyx have an advantage over porcelain and enameled lavatories 
so far as ricocheting is concerned. The opening in the slab is not so 
large as the bowl, and thus a horizontal overhanging ledge is formed 
all around, above the bowl, which generally intercepts the water in a 
way to keep it off the floor and person. Porcelain and enameled 
fixtures have not this virtue. The bowl surface, being integral with 
the slab, is uninter- 
rupted and continu- 
ous; hence ricocheting 
is more violent with 
them than is possible 
with the separate bowl. 
Oval bowls are now 
in general use on all 
types of lavatories. 
They employ slab 
space to the best ad- 
vantage, and are the 
most convenient for 
use. The crescent or 
kidney shape, illus- 
trated in Fig. 50, is, 
however, as far super- 
ior to the simple oval 
bowl as the oval is to 
the round. It permits the forearms to lie in a natural and most 
convenient position when dipping water to lave the face. This form 
of bowl should be accompanied with a scalloped or recessed front. 
The D-shaped bowl, and other bowls embracing the prime feature 
of the D-shape, while not so graceful in appearance, are, without 
exception, to be preferred, on the score of utter absence of ricocheting 
when the faucets are properly placed. The D-shape, a transverse 
section of which is shown in Fig. 51, has a semi-oval front, with the 
end lines continued parallel some distance past the major axis, and 
with a straight-line back nearly vertical. This form gives a nearly 
flat surface in the bottom between the back wall and major axis, on 
Fig. 49. Vitreous China Lavatory with Integral Back 
Courtesy of Trenton Potteries Company, Trenton, New Jersey SANITARY APPLIANCES 
45 
which surface the stream strikes and breaks when the bowl is empty. 
A depth of water is quickly formed under the stream, which checks 
any spraying or spattering. 
The traps used for lavatories are leaa or brass (either cast or 
tubes), or combinations of these materials, plain or vented or of anti- 
siphon design. One trouble with 
lavatory trap ventilation, is the dif- 
ficulty of obtaining a vertical rise 
directly above the trap. These vent 
connections should be carried as 
nearly vertical as possible, as high 
at least as the bottom of the lavatory 
slab, before any horizontal run is 
made; otherwise the choking of the 
waste pipe would float solid matters 
into places from which gravity 
would not dislodge them. In the absence of water-wash in the vent 
pipe, these solids would obstruct the vent and defeat its purpose. 
This danger is not given due attention by many plumbers. The 
patent and horn overflow bowls, with plug and chain, are the cheapest 
effective means of controlling the overflow and waste from the bowl. 
The standing waste, of essentially the same design as the waste fitting 
for a bathtub, with the body fitting projecting through the slab at the 
rear of the bowl, is perhaps the most satis- 
factory waste and overflow arrangement. 
Various schemes for operating basin stoppers 
by means of levers and swivels, are em- 
ployed; but none of them has come into 
more than limited use. 
Basin faucets, aside from special designs, 
are made on three general operating princi- 
ples-(1) screw-compression; (2) eccentric 
action without springs; and (3) self-closing. 
They are also made in two types-with reg- 
ular and low-down nozzles. All of these are represented in 
Fig. 52. The regular type has the nozzle some distance above the 
base flange, and screws into, or is cast on, the body. The low- 
down type has its nozzle with a flat bottom, hugging the slab as 
Fig. 50. Plan of Lavatory Slab with Cres- 
cent or Kidney-Shaped BowJ. 
Fig. 51. Transverse Section 
of D-Shayed Lavatory 
Bowl. 46 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
closely as practicable. The objection to the low-down is the inac- 
cessible narrow space between the nozzle and slab, which becomes 
filthy and is difficult to clean. High, projecting nozzles obstruct the 
space over the bowl, especially when washing the hair, but are other- 
wise most satisfactory. The high nozzle gives trouble with patterns of 
faucets that separate in the body for repairs, such as the Fuller type, 
which closes rapidly with pressure. The fault, however, is often 
that the slab is so shallow as to necessitate the faucets being placed too 
close to the back to turn without removing the nozzles. If these are 
cast on, removal of the whole faucet is required before it can be 
separated. Some faucets are made with union joint in the body, 
thus avoiding such trouble; but these are not widely used. 
The false economy which often dictates the purchase of a small 
slab, generally also prevails in the selection of its trimmings. Com- 
pression faucets close against the pressure, and are slow in action, 
causing practically no reaction. They are generally responsible for 
the omission of air-chambers on supplies of medium pressure. On 
account of their slow action, they are suitable for high pressures 
although but little weight is given this fact by the trade. The features 
essential to good, lasting service in the compression faucet, are: a 
cross-handle, a stuffing box, a raised seat, and a swivel disc. Self- 
closing faucets of various patterns are made with a view to preventing 
waste of water, the intention being to compel the user to hold the faucet 
open only as long as water is needed, and to insure automatic closing 
when it is released. There are none such except the crown-handled, 
that an ingenious person cannot find means to hold open at will; yet, 
withal, self-closing faucets are of great value in reducing wastage. 
A rabbit-eared faucet can be kept open by placing a ring over the 
handles while squeezed together; the telegraph bibb, by weighting 
down or tying up the lever; and the T-handled, while not so easily 
controlled, can be tied open by a lever secured to the handle. The 
crown-handled design can be operated with ease by the hand of the 
user, but does not readily lend itself to unauthorized control by means 
of a mechanical stop. Self-closing faucets require strong and well- 
designed springs to close them against the force of the water. They 
have sometimes come into disrepute through leakage for lack of 
adequacy in this feature of their construction. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
47 
Lavatory supports should have positive means of leveling the 
slab, such as set screws, screw-dowels, or whatever adjustment the 
kind of lavatory and support may be best suited to. Lavatory 
brackets are generally at fault in having limited bearing at the bottom 
of the wall-face. This point of the bracket is where all the strain is 
thrown against the wall, and the effect is noticeable if the upper end 
springs away ever so little. Full-length brackets are not open to this 
criticism, but they interfere with the washboard or other finish next 
the floor. 
Sinks. These are made in four general classes according to the 
purpose to be served-namely, Kitchen, Pantry, Slop, and Factory 
or Wash-Sinks. The materials used are:-Porcelain; enameled. 
Fig. 52. Common Types of Basin Faucets 
galvanized, and painted cast iron; enameled, galvanized, and painted 
wrought iron; brown glazed ware; copper; slate; soapstone; various 
compositions; and occasionally wood. Porcelain and enameled 
cast iron are most used, galvanized and painted sinks being confined 
principally to factory use. Sinks of extreme length, in one piece, 
or sectional, 6 to 8 inches deep, as shown in Fig. 53, with supply 
and faucets over the center line or at the side, belong to the factory 
class. There are roll-rim patterns, with bracket support and iron 
back, and with faucets fitted through the back. These are generally 
8 inches deep and about 20 inches wide. The installation shown in 
Fig. 53 is particularly good on account of the skeleton character as 
it will collect little dirt. 
Kitchen sinks vary in size according to general requirements. 
Common sizes are 18 by 30 inches and 20 by 30 inches. The depth 48 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
ranges from 6 to 7 inches. There are two types of iron sink-flat 
rim, w'ith outlet at end; and roll-rim, with outlet in center. Neither 
style of outlet is always desirable as to connection; but the center 
outlet drains more directly. The flat-rim is not provided with 
legs. Cast legs were formerly furnished, being attached to the sink 
by slipping into dovetails. When legs are desired for this type, the 
plumber provides gas-pipe legs, with or without a top frame. Iron 
splash-backs are provided for flat-rim sinks, but not of the deep 
pattern in which air-chambers may be placed. Plumbers drill these 
sink rims to attach brackets or legs, and sometimes also to secure 
to them hardwood cap- 
ping or drainboard. 
Hardwood drainboards 
are generally provided 
by the plumber's car- 
penter. Hardwood 
splash-backs, set free of 
the wall to permit circula- 
tion of air behind the fix- 
ture, are also provided. 
Sometimes marble 
splash-backs are pro- 
vided. Marble is best, 
but is not in keeping 
with a flat-rim sink. The 
back may extend to the 
end of the drainboard, as represented in Fig. 54, or merely cover the 
length of the sink. Omitting the back behind the drainboard, is not 
often done. The drainboard should be free of the wall when the 
back is not extended. Iron sinks, with roll rim on front and ends, 
are furnished with diainboards suited to attach to either or both 
ends. These may be added as an after-consideration, or changed 
from side to side at will, if there is but one drainboard, or removed 
entirely, without marring the looks or service of the sink. This 
interchangeability commends itself to both plumber and customer. 
Roll-rim sinks, with the end recessed to receive a drainboard, are 
also made, but in any subsequent change of location require setting 
in the original position, so far as the drain is concerned. 
Fig. 53. Individual Factory Lavatories 
Courtesy of The Trenton Potteries Company SANITARY APPLIANCES 
49 
Open strainers are most frequently fitted to sinks, in which case 
the sink cannot be then used for washing dishes, but merely serves as 
a support for dishpans and other vessels and as a catch-all for drip- 
pings from the drainer. Hence the open-strainer sink must be large 
enough to accommodate suitable washpans, etc., while one fitted 
with a plug-strainer should be relatively small if it is designed to use 
the sink proper as a washpan. A new form of sink waste connection 
is now a feature of the better class of enameled sinks, in which the 
connection is made by means of a spud and coupling something like 
Fig. 54. Roll Rim Enameled-Iron Kitchen Sink Supported on Brackets. 
Splash-Back Omitted behind Drainboard 
the ordinary lavatory coupling. In it the strainer is held down in 
a way less likely to cause injury to the sink lining at the waste hole. 
The use of wooden sinks in large installations, such as hotel 
kitchens and restaurants, is not unusual, the theory of their use being, 
that less breakage of crockery occurs, by reason of the softness of the 
material. However, because of the objection to any porous material 
which retains moisture and is subject to decomposition, wood is never 
suitable for this use, though with copper-lining it is permissible. 
Rubber mats are essential for both sinks and drainboards having 50 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
enameled or glazed surfaces, in order to avoid accidental injury to 
both the fixture and the articles cleansed. As a matter of fact, the 
average dwelling has but one sink, which serves both kitchen and 
pantry purposes. Dual service is not always satisfactory, however, 
as no sink can be well adapted to both uses for a large family. 
Porcelain and iron sinks have generally been supplied with loose 
backs; but sinks of one piece-that is, with sink and back integral-- 
are now obtainable. Sinks with integral apron or skirting all around, 
placed free of the wall, are suitable where the wall is waterproof. 
Sinks are built from slabs of natural stone as desired, and may 
be with or without drainboard or skirting. They are generally pro- 
vided with a high splash-back. These sinks are not limited to the 
patterns of a moulding room, and easily keep pace with the desires 
of the purchasers. Selection is confined to a choice of material. 
In the use of any natural stone, such as slate or soapstone, for 
plumbing fixtures, and especially for sinks, it should not be forgotten 
that angles and rectangular corners are with difficulty maintained 
entirely free from deposit. Although the flat surface can be readily 
scoured, it is always difficult to clean the sharp angles and corners 
satisfactorily. The difficulty is increased by the fact that some 
plastic jointing material, such as putty or cement, must be used in 
putting together the fixture; small fragments of this material project 
into the angles and render the corners rough. 
Air-chambers may be cast in iron sink-backs, or independent 
cast or pipe chambers fitted in the cavity. The ordinary sink-back 
is not well suited to the convenience of the plumber where supplies 
to any fixtures pass up behind the sink. The faucet-holes cannot 
be changed, and slots for pipe are not provided at the top edge. 
Sawing these gaps after the goods are enameled, leaves the fixture 
with an unfinished appearance. The proportion of shank to the 
handle of faucets of the Fuller pattern used on sink-backs, must be 
such that the handles will turn straight back. 
A popular fixture of comparatively late design, adapted for small 
dwellings and now made in the cheaper materials, is the kitchen sink 
in combination with a single laundry tray, Fig. 55. In this, the 
drainboard serves as a cover for the tray when the sink is in use. 
Sinks have also been supplied in combinations with lavatories, one sink 
being placed in the center or at the end of a battery of lavatories. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
51 
A pantry sink, Fig. 56, should always be provided with a drain- 
board. It is a smaller fixture than the kitchen sink, and is nearly 
always of the plug-strainer and overflow type. Its faucets are gener- 
ally of the high-nozzle barber-shop type, but of smaller capacity and 
better adapted to rinsing than are kitchen-sink faucets. Indeed, 
the pantry sink proper need not necessarily differ at all, unless in 
size from sinks used for other purposes. Every feature of its trim- 
mings and setting is intended to best serve the butler's needs. 
The waste matter from the butler's sink is not like that from the 
kitchen sink; hence the waste pipe is not necessarily so large, nor is a 
grease-trap so badly 
needed. Grease in 
considerable quan- 
tities finds its way 
into kitchen-sink 
waste pipes. It 
floats on the stream 
of waste water as it 
travels through the 
pipe, and, being 
always next the in- 
teriorsurface, either 
adheres thereto on 
contact, or by a re- 
duction in tempera- 
ture is chilled and 
congealed and thus clings to the pipe walls. Successive layers of 
grease are in this way accumulated, and the bore of the pipe is 
finally reduced so much that solid matter easily completes the stop- 
page. Forcing out, and then filling the pipe with boiling lye water, 
and again flushing with hot water, will usually remove most of the 
obstruction. Sometimes the lye loosens the grease in chunks, which 
cleg the pipe seriously at the first favoring point, and the pipe must 
then be cleaned manually. 
When once choked with grease, the pipe must ultimately be 
opened and cleaned by hand, often at material expense when long 
lines are deep underground. To avoid this trouble, various traps 
(of which two examples are shown in Fig. 57) have been designed to 
Fig. 55. Kitchen Sink and Single Laundry Tray Combined. 52 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
separate and collect the grease, either by flotation alone or by 
chilling and flotation combined-generally by the former. The 
former were previously improvised by the plumber, being placed in 
the drainpipe just outside the building. This location left too much 
pipe subject to choking between the grease-trap and the sink; and 
the trap itself often became a generator of bad odors in warm weather. 
The grease-traps now commonly furnished are placed in the 
kitchen under the sink, and frequently serve as the regular trap for 
the fixture. The grease 
is easily removed by lift- 
ing out the container or 
by skimming from the 
tQp. Hinged bolts with 
thumb-nuts secure the 
covers so that they can 
be easily and quickly 
opened and securely 
closed. 
Traps which chill 
the grease are not used 
so much as those acting 
by simple flotation, but 
they do the work per- 
fectly. The chilling proc- 
cess is accomplished by 
means of a water jacket through which the cold-water supply passes. 
The water entering low, surrounds the wall of the pot trap within, 
and passes out high up on the opposite side (see fixture at left in 
Fig. 57). Circulation-or, rather, change of water-in the jacket, is 
dependent on the amount of water used at the fixtures. 
The usual slop sink is 18 by 22 inches and about 12 inches deep. 
Generally it is furnished mounted on a trap standard, as in Fig. 58, 
which serves the double purpose of support and waste-trap. 
Care should be taken before installing a fixture placed upon a 
trap standard, to examine carefully whether the seal of the trap is 
provided for by suitable interior partitions. It is not uncommon to 
find defects in the casting, if of iron or .brass-or in the porcelain, if 
of that material-which would seriously affect the maintenance of the 
Fig. 56. Pantry Sink. SANITARY APPLIANCES 
53 
water seal. In fact, it is desirable in connection with slop sinks, as 
with all other fixtures, that the trap be of such a form as to show 
clearly, even after being set in place, the position of the various por- 
tions which constitute the trap and maintain the water seal. 
The waste pipe for slop-sinks is never less in diameter than 2 
inches, and is usually 3 or 4 inches. The outlet is invariably through 
an open strainer. 
Slop sinks are made in all the materials common to other fixtures 
except natural stone. These sinks are to the chambermaid what the 
kitchen sink is to the cook. The shape and liberal-sized waste are 
well adapted to removing slop and scrub water. In the complete 
fixture, the sink is provided with an elevated tank and flushing rim 
to cleanse the fixture walls; also with hot and cold supplies for drawing 
water, rinsing mops, etc. The supplies are usually connected between 
the valves, and terminate with a long spout with pail-hook and brace. 
The spout supports the pail over the center of the sink while filling. 
The ordinary slop sink is provided with hot and cold faucets; and as 
the rims of the cheaper kinds are plain flanges, no tank flushing is 
possible. 
Laundry Trays. These are made in all the materials used in 
other plumbing fixtures. Wood trays were formerly common but 
their unfitness because of absorption and odors, coupled with the 
increase in cost of lumber and the lessening in cost of the better 
materials, has effectually driven them out of the business. 
Fig. 57. Types of Kitchen Sink Traps for Separating and Collecting Grease. 54 
SANITARY APPLIANCES 
The same inherent objection may be urged against the use of wood 
covers as obtains against that material for the body of the fixture. 
Trays are made singly and otherwise, but generally used in sets 
of two or three, except in the combination with sink already described. 
They are supported by a center 
standard or a metal frame, as best 
suits the material used. 
Some means of attaching wring- 
ers are provided, if possible. The 
waste is usually 2-inch. One trap 
answers for a set of trays. The 
size is about 26 by 30 inches at 
top and 15 inches deep. The walls 
are all nearly vertical except the 
front, which inclines about 30 
degrees, making the width at bottom 
considerably less than at top. Some 
makers furnish one tray with each 
set, designed to serve as a wash- 
board, the interior of the front wall 
being corrugated like the surface of 
a portable washboard. The incli- 
nation of the front is about right for 
scrubbing, whether the tray or an 
ordinary board is used, and the sup- 
ports place the top of trays conven- 
ient to the work. 
All trays were formerly made with 
faucet-holes in the back; and the 
plumber furnished a hinged cover. 
Side-handle faucets were necessary 
to allow the cover to close, as holes 
for top-handle faucets would be so 
low as to make useless too much of 
the space above them. The faucet- 
holes were seldom fitted water-tight. Holes are not now made in 
trays unless ordered, and the side-handle wash-tray bibb is disap- 
pearing. They were always annoying. If placed with the handles 
Fig. 58. Slop Sink Mounted on 
Trap Standard 
Courtesy of Federal-Huber Company, 
Chicago SANITARY APPLIANCES 
55 
right and left as intended, the seat eould not be examined, and 
no reaming or dressing of the faucet seat could be done without re- 
moving the faucet. When placed with the faucet handles facing each 
other, they were wrong-handed and too close together. It was awk- 
ward to supply air-chambers-especially so when all the faucet holes 
were equidistant from the top. When placed for one line of supply 
above the other, one line of holes was too low. These objections com- 
bined brought about the practice of omitting the covers, putting the 
supplies over the trays, and using regular sink faucets. Overflows are 
provided only when so ordered. 
Enameled backs with air-chambers and faucets are supplied with 
roll-rim enameled-iron trays. A complete set of three trays, with all 
Fig. 59. Porcelain Enameled-iron Laundry Trays with Fittings Complete 
Courtesy of Crane Company, Chicago 
attachments and fittings, is shown in Fig. 59. Flat-rim trays are 
made with or without faucet-holes, and are intended to have a hard- 
wood frame to secure them rigidly. The wood frame and cover can 
be had with the fixture, but the plumber often supplies them. Nickel- 
plated or plain brass wastes and traps are furnished for trays, but 
the plumber can provide lead or cast-iron waste, if wanted. EXAMINATION PAPER SANITARY APPLIANCES 
Read Carefully: Place your name and full address at the head of the 
paper. Any cheap, light paper like the sample previously sent you may be 
used. Do not crowd your work, but arrange it neatly and legibly. Do not 
copy the answers from the Instruction Paper; use your own words, so that we 
may be sure you understand the subject. 
1. How can the water seal of a trap be broken by siphonage? 
2. Define a mechanical trap and state the advantages it 
possesses over the ordinary type. 
3. What are the essential features of a good bathtub? 
4. Which do you prefer for the ordinary type of residence, 
a solid porcelain or an enameled-iron bathtub? 
5. Mention three types of water closets which are better 
than the hopper and say why they are superior. 
6. Which do you prefer, a high or a low tank, to supply a 
water closet? 
7. Sketch and describe a good form of range closet. 
8. Sketch, in section, a good form of flushometer. 
9. Describe the different types of drinking fountains and 
their use. 
10. What, in your opinion, is the best material for lavatory 
basins? 
11. How are the effects of grease in sink water avoided? 
12. How is the flushing of urinals effected? 
13. Sketch and describe a good type of pantry sink. 
14. In what respect does a slop sink differ from a kitchen 
sink. 
15. Sketch two laundry tubs of modern pattern and show 
the necessary waste and vent pipes. 
After completing the work, add and sign the following statement: 
I hereby certify that the above work is entirely my own. 
(Signed)