A REPORT ON CHOLERA. Jill BY D. DOUGLAS CUNNINGHAM, M.8., Edin., ASSISTANT SUIIGEON, HER MAJESTY'S INDIAN ARMY, ATTACHED TO THE SANITARY COMMISSIONER WITH THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA. CONTENTS. PAET I. PETTENKOFER'S THEORY ILLUSTRATED IN MADRAS. P ABA . Impossibility of deciding definitely regarding the validity of the soil theory at the present time ... 1 Certain facts may indicate validity or fallacy of objections to it ... Correctness of the facts on which Pettenkofer found the theory undoubted .. ... ... 3 Dr. Buchanan's interpretation of these facts ... ••• ¦•• ••• ••• ••¦ 4 Objections due to misunderstanding ... ... ••• •¦• •¦• Misapprehension regarding the nature of the observations which are necessary to furnish valuable data ... 6 A class of wells which appear to be incapable of affording exact data ... ... ... ... 7 Characters in observations rendering them of value ¦•• ;•• •¦• Facts in connection with the soil theory observed in the Madras Presidency and Mysore ... ... 9 Madras —Nature of the soil in Madras compatible with liability ... ... ... ••¦ 10 Important bearing of the stations of Palaveram and St. Thomas Mount on the soil theory ... ... 11 Palavebam.— Nature of the soil, water-supply, &c. ... ¦ ... ... ... 12 Eeputation for immunity, &c. ... ... _ ••• ••¦ — ••• ¦¦• 13 Difficulties in explaining the occurrence of cholera in 1009 ... ... ... ... 14 Reasons for liability of a village in the station ... ... — ... ... 15 St. Thomas Mount. — Character of the soil, &c. ... ... ••• ... ... 16 Points to be noted in connection with the soil theory ... _ ... ... .... ... 17 Dr. Balfour's statistics of relative liabilities of bodies of troops stationed at St. Thomas Mount ... 18 The Neilghereies.— The relative immunity of the plateau ... ... ... ... 19 Nature of the soil ... ... ... ,"'.,,, '".,-. i"i n '" '" «? The explanation of the relative immunity afforded by the soil theory not the only tenable one ... 21 Immunity to be ascribed to some physical condition or conditions ... ... ... ... 22 Salem. — Nature of the soil, &c. ... ... ... ••• ••¦ ••• ••• 23 Fluctuations in amount of soil-moisture great... ... ... ••• ... ... 24 Facts regarding cholera ... ... ... ••• ••• •• ••• 25 The locality furnishes special facilities for the local development of cholera according to the soil theory ... 26 Cholera of 'lB7o-71 ... ... ¦•• — ¦•¦ ¦•• ••• ••• 27 Incompatibility of the cholera phenomena of Salem with a purely water theory ... ... ... 28 Absence of data for comparison ... ... •¦• ••• ••• ••• ••• 29 The Sheevaeoy Hills ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 30 Nature of the soil ... ... ¦•• ••• «•• ••• ••• ••• 31 Streams and wells ... ... ... ••• ••¦ ¦•• ••• ••• 32 Entire failure of any contagionist explanation of the immunity of the Shervaroys, &c. ... ... 33 The soil theory meets the requirements of the case better ... ... ... ... ... 34 The Mysore Countey ... ... ... .. •¦¦ ••• ••• 35 Situation of villages, tanks, &c. ... ... ... ... ... -•• ... 36 Important influence of tanks on soil conditions ... ... • ... ... 37 Level of water in wells ... ... ... ¦ • • ... ... ¦ • • 38 Is cholera endemic in the Mysore country P ... ... ... ... ... ... 39 In such a tract as Mysore there should be exempt localities ... ... ... ... 40 Universal contemporaneous liability cannot be expected ... ... ... ... ... 41 Mysore an excellent field for observation on the soil theory ... ... ... ... 42 Localities visited ... ... ... ... ¦•¦ ¦•• ¦•• ••• 43 Bangaloee ... ... ••• ••• ••• .•¦ ¦•• 44 Nature of the soil ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• ... 45 Frequency of cholera in Bangalore ... ... ... ... ... ••• 46 Existence of localities furnishing conditions apparently unfavorable to local development of cholera according to the soil theory ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 Bearing of the chief cholera-facts of this station on the soil theory ... ... ... ••¦ 48 Toomcooe, Cora, and villages reputedly exempt ... ... ... ... ... 49 Situation of Toomcoor ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 Water-levels of wells ... ... ... ... ... ... ¦•• ... 51 Dietary of inhabitants ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52 Cholera-facts of Toomcoor _ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 53 Coincidence of cholera with soil moisture ... ... ... ... ... ... 54 General conclusions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 55 Cuba. — Situation, &&... ... • ... .. ... ••• ••• 56 Sanitary condition. Population ... ... ¦•• ••• ••• ¦•• •• 57 Wells and their water-levels ... ... ¦¦• ••• ••¦ ••• ••¦ 58 Absence of data regarding the season of occurrence of cholera ... ... ... ... 59 Keputedly exempt villages ... •• •¦• ••• ¦•¦ ¦•• ••¦ 60 TIMMABAJANAHULLY... ... ... ••¦ ¦•• •¦• ••¦ ••• 61 Nature of the soil ... ... ••• ••• ••• •¦• ¦•¦ ••• 62 Water-supply ... ... , ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 63 Soil conditions such as should favor immunity ... ... ••• ... ••• 64 LINGANHULLT ... ... ••• ¦•• "• ' ••¦ ••• 65 Water-supply ... ... ••• ••< ••• ••¦ •¦• • 66 Water liable to all the evils of exposure and concentration ... ... • • • ... 67 Tappad Begoob. — Situation ... ... ... ••• •¦• ¦•¦ ••• 68 Nature of the soil ... ... ... ¦•• ••• ••• ••• 69 Number of houses and inhabitants ... ... • ¦ • ¦ • • • • • ¦ • • 70 Evidence regarding immunity ... ... •.. ¦•¦ ••¦ ••• ••• 71 Clospett.— Situation ... ... ••• ¦•• ••• ••• ••• 72 Nature of the ground occupied by the town ... ... •• • •• • ¦• • ¦• • 73 Wells and their water-levels ... ... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ¦ 74 Water-supply ... ... .•• ••• ••• •¦¦ •¦¦ ••• 75 Number of inhabitants. Dietary... ... _ ... ••¦ ••• •¦¦ ••¦ 76 Data regarding the localization of cholera are unattainable ... ... .. ... 77 Liability of Clospett accordant with the soil theory ... ... ... ¦¦• ... 78 Mysobe. — Situation ... ... ... •¦• ••• •¦¦ ¦•• ¦ 79 Nature of the soil ... ... ... • ¦ • • • • • ¦ ¦ • •• • • ¦ 80 Wells and water-supply ... ... ... ••• ¦•• ¦•¦ •¦¦ 81 Dietary of inhabitants ... •¦ ¦•• ••• •• •¦• •¦• 82 Cholera, a disease of showery weather ... > ... •¦• ••• •¦• 83 Eeputed exemption of a pagoda village on Charmandi Hill ... •• • •• • •• • 84 This reputation as regards local development only ... •• • .• • •• ¦ •• • 85 Tanjobe. — Situation... ... ... ¦¦• ••• ¦¦• ¦¦¦ ¦¦• 86 Irrigation of the district ... ... ... ••• ¦¦• ••• ¦•• 87 Soil moisture mainly dependent on the river ... ... ••• ••• ••• 88 According to the soil theory there ought to be two periods of special liability to cholera ... ... 89 Cholera of moist regions in dry season, of dry regions in moist season ... ... ... 90 Soil conditions of the town of Tanjore, wells, &c. ... ... • • . • • • • • • 91 Wells at Vallam ... ... ... ... •¦• •¦¦ ••• ••• 92 Water-supply of Tanjore ... ... ... ... ••• ••¦ ••• 93 Tanjore on a laterite soil and specially prone to cholera ... ... ... ... ... 94 The chief cholera-facts accordant with the soil theory .. ••• ... ••• ¦•• 95 Tbichinopoly. — Situation ... ... ... ••- ••• •¦• ••¦ 96 Tanks, wells, and their water-levels ... ... ... • • • • • • ¦ ¦ • 97 Cantonment ... ... ... ¦•• ••• ••• ¦•• ••• 98 Water-supply ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 99 District and central jails ... ... ... ... ¦•• ••• ¦•• 100 Sreerungum ... ... ... ••¦ ••• ••¦ ••¦ ••• 101 Cholera season ... ... ... # ... ¦•• ••• ••¦ ••• 102 Soil conditions in Trichinopoly less uniform than in Tanjore ... ... ••• ... 103 One suburb of the town is specially liable ... ... ... •• • •• • •• ¦ 104 Physical conditions of this favorable to the development of cholera ... ... ... ... 1 05 The rock fort ... ... ... ... ... ¦¦¦ . ••• . - 106 Cases of cholera must show distinct evidence of local development in order to be of weight against the soil theory ... ... ... •¦ ... •• ••¦ •• 107 Facts regarding the jails ... ... ... ... ¦¦• ••• ¦•¦ 108 Special liability of Sreerungum perfectly accordant with the soil theory ... ... 109 Cholera in 1870-71 ... ... ... •-. ••• ••• •» HO The Ceded Distbicts ... ... ... ... ••¦ ••• ••• HI Characters of soil ... ... ... ... .. ¦•¦ ¦ H2 Eed and black soils differently affected by moisture ... ... ¦•¦ ... ••• 113 Eainfall ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• •¦• H4 Cholera ought to be a disease of the moist season ... ... ... ... ¦•¦ 115 Pacts accord with the assumptions of the soil theory ... ... ... ••• ••• 116 Bellaey. — Situation... ... ... ... ... •¦¦ ¦•• ¦•• H7 Large tank ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• 118 Situation of barracks and bazaars... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 119 Nature of the soil ... ... ... ... ... ... •¦¦ 120 Wells and water-supply ... ... ... ... ••• ••¦ •¦• 121 Facts regarding cholera ... ... ... ... ... •¦ • •• ¦ 122 Special liability of the bazaars accordant with the soil theory ... ... ... 123 Concentration of water-supply with slight development of cholera ... ... ... ... 124 Facts of 1869 in reference to the water theory ... ... ... ••¦ ••• 125 Gooty. — Situation ... ... ... ... ¦• ... ••• • 126 Nature of the soil ... ... ... ... ••• ... ¦•• 127 Rain and cholera ... ... ... ... ¦•• ¦•• •¦• ¦•• 128 Dietary of inhabitants ... ... ... ... ••• ••• •¦• 129 Cholera of 1869 ... ... ... ... , .... ... - •¦• 130 Soil conditions should induce variations in the season of liability of different places ... ... 131 Cottapully. — Situation ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 132 Nature of the soil ... ... ... ... ... •¦• ¦•• •• 133 Village crowded and dirty ... ... ... ... ... •• . •• • 134 Water-supply ... ... ... ... ... •¦. ••¦ ••• 135 Cultivated ground ... ... ... ... ... •• • •• • • • 136 Facts regarding the outbreak of cholera ... ... ... ... ••¦ ... 137 Five times as many cases as at Sreerungum ... ... .. ... ... ¦• 138 i"^ nil Aval pf\Tif»l Mill 1 iv CONTENTS. 5 CONTENTS. PART 11. MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. Table showing the principal characters of choleraic dejecta ... ... - ••• jJJ Reaction of the fluids ... ••• — _ 142 Physical characters of the fluid ...... 143 Specific gravity of the fluid ••• ¦•• ¦" " 144 Physical characters of the sediment ... 1.-Microscopical characters of choleraic dejecta. Percentage of cases containing epithelium ... 145 ffi^e^n^eofepitheMdrfe^iotexceptioAia ... ... - - Jg Disintegrate action of the alkaline fluid. ... ... ••• ••• ••• Distinct epithelium found in post-mortem examinations ... ... .« ¦•• J™ This epithelium sometimes molecular, at others normal II —Percentage of cases containing red blood-corpuscles ... ... ••• " ]\l Effect of the choleraic fluid on red blood-corpuscles ... ••¦ ••• ••• *°* Objection to laying much stress on the occurrence of red blood-corpuscles ... ... " \£ White blood-corpuscles considered el&ewhere ll l, —Percentage of cases containing infusoria, exclusive of vibriones, ¦• ¦•• ••• ¦¦• j^l No special development of fungi on choleraic media ... ... ... •¦¦ 183 Characters of commonest species on choleraic media ... ... ... ... 184 Occasional occurrence of Eurotium ... ... ... ••• ¦•• ••• 185 Characters of another common species... ... • ••• •¦• ••• 18b Other common species ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• JB7 Penicillium much less frequent than Asperpillus ... _ ... ... ... ... 188 General results of experiments and observations on fungi ... ... ... ... 189 V. — Oval and circular cells ... ... ... ••• ••• ¦•• ••• l-'O Constant and abundant ... ... ... ••¦ ••• ••¦ •¦• 191 Illustrative cases ... ... < ••• ••• ••• ••• ¦•• 1^ Assertions that there is no evidence of new cells in cholera ... ... ... ... 193 Much of the material of the flocculi may be due to disintegration of noimal elements ... ... 194 The flocculi not mere masses of debris... ... ... ... •¦¦ ••• 195 Rapid disintegration does not disprove new formation ... ... ••• ••• 196 The dejecta almost always full of cells... ... ... ... ••• ¦¦• 197 What is the nature of these Various kinds present ... ... ... •¦• •¦• ••• •¦¦ 199 A great proportion of undetermined nature ... ... ••• ••• •¦• 200 Complication regarding their nature ... ... ... ... •¦• ••• 201 VI. — Miscellaneous bodies occasionally occurring in choleraic dejecta ... ••• •¦• 202 General results of observations on choleraic dejecta ... ••• ¦¦¦ ••• 203 Table facilitating comparison of choleraic with non-choleraic dejecta ... ... ... 204 Reaction of non-choleraic dejecta ... ... ... ¦¦¦ ¦•• ¦ 205 The dejecta of diarrhoea may assume the characters of those of cholera ... ... ... 206 Microscopical characters, — 1, infusoria; A, Monads and Amwbce ... ... ••¦ 207 Reaction of infusorial dejecta ... ... ... _ ... _ ••• ¦•• 208 Half the cases in which these infusoria were abundant, the result of saline purgatives # ... 209 Illustrative cases ... ... ... ••• >•• ••< ••• *10 2 Paba. Almost every microscopic character of choleraic dejecta may appear in those of diarrhoea ... 211 Mere fluidity of medium does not secure abundance of infusoria ... ... ... 212 B. Vibriones and Bacteria ... ... ... ... ... ... 213 2. Fungi, illustrative cases ... ... ¦-¦ ... ... ... 214 Kesults of cultivations ... ... ... ... ... ... 215 Abundant discharge of fluid without choleraic symptoms ... ... ... ... 216 Assumed non-absorption in cholera ... ... ... • ... 217 Results of cultivation of non-choleraic dejecta ... ... ... ... 218 3. Oval and circular cells ... ... ... ... ... ... 219 Illustrative cases ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 220 Many of these cells probably due to gemmative processes in the Amcebce ... ... 221 Features distinguishing them from oil-globules ... ... ... ... 222 Experiments on development of such cells ... ••¦ ... ... ... 223 This development capable of explaining peculiar appearances of the cells ... ... 224 Formation of masses, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 225 4. Miscellaneous objects occurring in non-choleraic dejecta ... ... ... ... 226 General conclusions ... ... ... ... ... ..- ... 227 NOTE A. results of microscopic examination of specimens of water in various parts of the madras presidency. Madeas. No Water from mess-house tank, Perambore ... ... ... ... ... l Water from left wing lines, Perambore ... ... ... ... ?, 2 Water from right wing lines, Perambore ... ... ... ... ... 3 Water from the Cooum ... ... ... ... ... 4 Water from a well in the Madras Penitentiary ... ... ... ... ... 5 Water from a well in the Madras Penitentiary ... ... ... ... <#> Q Water from a well in the Madras Penitentiary ... ... ... ... ... 7 Water from a tank near the sewage farm ... ... ... ? . Mi 8 Water from a tank in a hutting ground near the sewage farm ... ... ... ?, 9 Water from the tank at the cart-stand, Sydenham's Road, Choolay ... ... ... ... 10 Water from a tank near some huts, Ashtabooguin Eoad, Choolay ... ... ... ... H Palavebah. Water from the tank near the bazaar ... ... ... ?, 22 Water from a well near the priest's compound ... ... ... ?. __ 13 Water from another well ... ... ... ? , , _ 14 Water from a well on the east side of the cantonment ... ... ... ... ... 15 Water from a well near the depot barracks ... ... ... ... ... 16 Water from a well in front of the midwifery ward ... ... ... ... ... 17 Water from a well in front of No. 4 Hospital ... ... ... ... ... \g Water from a well in the native parch erry ... ... ... ... ... 19 OOTACAMUND. Water from the new reservoir ... ... ?, ... ... ... 20 Water from the Dodabet reservoir .., ... ... ... ... 21 Water from the lower end of the lake ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 Water from the upper end of the lake ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 Salem. Si- from the river ... ... ... ... ... 24 r from Kichipolum well ... ... ... ... ._ ...25 v from Chitra Savody well ... ... ... ... ... 26 Sheevahoy Hills. Water from a well at Yercaud ... ... ... ... <## ... 27 Water from a pond below the church, Yercaud ... ... ... ... 28 Bangaloee. Water from the Alsoor tank ... ... ... ... ... ... mt 29 Water irom a well ... ... ... ... ... ... ¦ 3(3 Toomcooe. Water from the large tank ... ... ... ... ... t#> gj Coba. ... Water from the tank ... ... ... ... ... iti 32 TIMMABAJANAHULLY. Water from the well ... ... ... ... ... ... ttt 33 LINGANHULLY. •from the well ... ... ... ... ... __ 3^ Taebad Begoob. 6 CIOSPETT. ¦ 86 .. Mysoee. Water from the tank near the jail ... ••• ••• ¦•• ••¦ '•¦ ~? Water from Karangie tank Water from the large tank Water from Poorniah's channel ... ... ••• — ••• ••• ••• * Water from Veernagerry Soobahi draw-well ... •¦• ••• ••• ••• ** Water from a well in the centre of the town ... ... ... ••• ••• ¦•• ** Water from a well in Kristnaraj Mohalla ... ••¦ ••¦ ••• "' 1 " T? Water from the tank on the summit of Charmandi Hill ... ... ... ••• *jj Water from a well in Davaroy Mohalla _ ... ••• ••¦ ••• ••• ' ar Water from a well beyond municipal limits ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ... 40 Tanjoee. Water from the large tank in the small fort ... ... ... ••• ••• "'is Water from a well in the fort ... ••• ••• ••• ••• •¦• Water from Iyan Colum tank ... ... •• • •• • •¦ • " ' fin Water from a well in the jail ... ••• ¦•¦ ••• '" M Water from the fort ditch ••• •¦• ••<¦ Teichinopoly. Water from a drainage channel ... ... ••• •>• ••• '" eg Water from the Tanjore tank ... ... ••• ... ••• ••• 53 Water from the well used by the Artillery ... ... ... ... •¦• M Water from the Cauvery ... ••• ¦•• ••• •¦• ••• Water from the well used by the Infantry ... ... ... ••• »fa Water from a well in Poothoor ... ••• ••• •• ••• ••• Water from the well between the Artillery hospital and barracks ... ... ... ... 58 Water from a well in William's Road ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 59 Water from Teppa Colum tank ... ... •¦¦ •¦« ••• '" «? Water from Saiyan tank ... ... ••• ••• ••• "* «n Water from Thalavoy tank ... ... ... ... ••• ••• °^ Water from Kotwal Choultry tank ... . ... ••• •¦• ••• °3 Water from Mr. Banbury's new tank ... ... ... ... ••• ... 64 Water from the tank in the rock fort Water from a well in Sreerungum ... ... ... •• • ¦• • ... 66 Bellaky. Water from the tank in the fort ditch ... ... ... ••¦ ...67 Water from the tank near the traveller's bungalow ... ... ... ... ... 68 Water from the well in the Cavalry lines ... ... ... ... ... 69 Water from the well in the graveyard, affording drinking water to the Cavalry ... ... ... 70 Water from a well in the same graveyard ... ... ... ••• ¦•¦ 71 Water from a well in the compound of the Civil Dispensary ... ... ... ... 72 COTTAPULLY. Water from the village well ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 73 NOTE B. COMMON FORMS OF MICROSCOPIC FUNGI IN CALCUTTA, &c. I. — Common Foems in Calcutta. paba. Fungi affecting rice ... _ •• ... ... ... ... ••• 1 Results of experiments on growing rice plants ... ... ... ... ... 2 The German rice fungi not found ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 Frequent occurrence of fungoid grains in the rice of the bazaars ... ... ... ... 4 Results of cultivation of such grains^ ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 Peculiar form appearing in a cultivation on moist earth ... ... ... ... ... 6 Commonest mucedinous fungi in Calcutta ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 Ascophora of rice and wheat-flour ... ... ... ... ... ... 8 Aspergillus developed in water ... ... ... ... ... ... 9 Fungus on mango leaves, &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 Species of Stilbum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11 Sphseriacei ... ... ••• •-. ••• ••• ••• •¦• 12 Splueronemei ¦•• ¦•• ••• •«• ••• ••• ••• 13 bll — Common Foems of Miceo-Fungi in the Neilgheeeies. ice and conspicuousness ... ... ... ... ... ... 15 Eurotiuni •" >•• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• >>• 18 vii CONTENTS. Pa ha 19 lotrichum (?) ... ... ••• ¦•• •'• »• ••• ••• isporium ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ** linthosporium ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ronemei ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• £** us of the coffee plant ... ... ... ¦¦• ••• ••• ••• «™ sporium. iEcidium ... ... ... ... •• • ¦• • ... 25 us on cinchona leaves ... ... ••• ... ••• •¦¦ ••• 26 riacei, &c. ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• 28 lII.— FOBMS OF MICBO-FITNGI COMMON IN TaNJOHE. Only a few species obtained ... ... ... ... ... ... 29 Fungoid rice, &c. ... #.. ... ¦¦• ••• ••• 0 Presence of fungi in the air of various localities ... ... ¦•• ¦•¦ ••• 31 General results of examinations of fungi ... ... .. ... ... ... 32 NOTE C. DEVELOPMENTS OCCURRING IN SOLUTIONS OF CHOLERAIC MATERIALS Experiments on cholerized solutions ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 Formation of " proligerous pellicle" ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 Amceba3 and monads most frequent ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 No infusoria peculiar to choleraic solutions ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 8 REPORT ON CHOLERA. PART I. PETTENKOFER'S THEORY ILLUSTRATED IN MADRAS. 1 In endeavouring- to arrive at any definite conclusions as to the accuracy of the views .urn* t i» n Mim, doflnitolv in regard to cholera, which have been expressed by Professor Impossibility of deciding definitely « ..-V « MW1 J M J ,W * TOm ,,lin« regarding' the validity of the soil theory Pettenkofer, it must be premised that no opinion regarding 1 at the present time. the truth or error of the theory can be formed until an extensive series of accurate data has been accumulated, showing the precise physical conditions of localities during the prevalence of cholera, with the special distribution of the disease in them as regard both time and place ; and until these facts have been compared with the conditions of the same localities during periods of exemption, and with those of other localities which may have been temporarily or permanently exempt. The acquisition of sucli data necessarily requires time, and can only be thoroughly secured by means of prolonged local study and observation. 2. Even a cursory inspection may, however, afford considerable information in regard to the compatibility of the theory with the general history of Certain facts may indicate validity tte distribution of the disease, and may at least serve to or fallaciousness of objections. JofoptTllJ ofoptT11 - na -WW nortnin h nrinri nMontinn* fn if nn tho determine whether certain a priori objections to it, on the of its supposed inapplicability to particular localities, are valid or not. 3. The correctness of the facts on which Professor Pettenkofer has founded his theory Correctness of the facts on which is doubted by no one, but some authorities have questioned Pettenkofer founds the theory undoubt- whether such facts are of universal applicability, while others cd. r'.rmsiflflr th.nt tlioir significance mnv be otherwise internrfited. consider that their significance may be otherwise interpreted. 4. Among the latter we find Dr. Buchanan, who, apparently under the impression that Pettenkofer's ideas are incompatible with the benefits derived Dr. Buchan t ™' g s c s rpretation of from sub-soil drainage, endeavours on a priori grounds to prove that subsidence of water-level necessarily implies in- creased liability to contamination of wells ; this increased liability being supposed to be due to the drainage areas of wells being increased in proportion to the subsidence. But allowing that the drainage areas are increased, this increase is surely almost necessarily associated with a commensurate increase of the filtering layers of soil, and (in those cases at least where the water-level is dependent on local rainfall) with Considerations^regarding tins inter- ft de(jreMe iv the amount of watei . to wagh down i mpur ; t ios, so that, although there may be a certain amount of concen- > o~ ¦ . < XI" V 1 I 1 \ * I O I t Ij X ''II J. '' - ~ V 1I ' 'lili II .V • [Part I random selection of a well and the application to it of an apparatus to indicate changes in the level of the water are not necessarily sufficient to secure valuable results. It is true that in certain localities with a homogeneous and porous soil, in which the water-level is near the surface, almost any well is capable of affording valuable information as to the prevailing conditions of soil moisture. But, on the other hand, in many districts with shallow soil and an undulating surface, no less than three different orders of wells exist (vide Plate I, Fig. 1). First, common surface wells (A) . in which the water level is dependent on V "tliisrsth f .£S,fS lt " the amount of water present in the soil; second (B), wells deeply sunk into the impermeable substratum, but deriving their entire water-supply from the drainage into them of the soil moisture of the locality ; third (C), wells sunk into water-bearing strata below the first impermeable layer. Now it is plain that observations on the level of the water in B and C cannot afford information of any value regarding the soil moisture of the locality in which they are situated ; for the latter is only very partially dependent on local sources, while in the former, although the water is derived from local drainage, it is placed entirely in abnormal circumstances, as regards diminution due to evaporation, removal, &c. Wells such as A will afford the desired information regarding the soil conditions of the precise locality in which they are situated, but they cannot be supposed to give exact information regarding the conditions prevailing in any place, however near to them, which is in a different drainage area, and with a soil different in character, in depth, and in general configuration, (vide I)) ; for it is manifest that the conditions prevailing at any given time in a deep hollow, with considerable soil accumulation, such as in the case of A, will by no means necessarily correspond with those contemporaneously present in a wide and shallow basin in a very thin soil, as in the case of D. The water originally present in the two areas may have been equal in amount, but in D, owing to the shallovvness of the soil and the large exposed suface, evaporation will cause very rapid diminution, and may thoroughly dry the soil at a time when there is still much moisture in the deeper hollow, A. 7. There is still another class of wells regarding the capability of which to afford the requisite data, there must be very great question. This class Another class of wells which includes those wells situated in very deep soils, in which the waterexactdate.' level is permanently very far removed from the surface of the ground. The water in these wells, 80 or 100 feet from the surface, may really occupy the first water-bearing stratum, and may yet be incapable of affording information regardingthe assumedly important changes in soil moisture. In such cases, it is extremely improbable that any amount of organic matter can reach the waterbearing stratum by percolation, as it must almost inevitably be filtered out,* and unless the local rainfall be excessive, it is very problematical whether the surface water due to it can reach this layer either. Taking these things into consideration, it seems quite clear that in such a soil changes in the moisture of the organically polluted layer of soil aud in the waterlevel of the water-bearing stratum, may, and probably do, take place quite independently of one another, and consequently that the indications afforded by one do not determine what the state of the other is. 8. In short, observations are of no value unless they furnish indications as to the condition of that layer of soil in any locality in which accumulation of Characters in observations rendering organ i c ma tter and changes in moisture occur, and observations them of value. °• . , , . n ° , „ , , ;, „ . , on water-level in wells are only useful when they furnish such indications. It has been urged as an objection to the soil theory " that it hardly helps us on _ . ?. ? .. ?, , very far :"f but surely a theory, however open to objection it Practical objection to the soil theory. J . ' '? J .„ . .•?> . *? . *J . "'" J may be on this ground, it it be consistent with facts, is more valuable and more likely to prove of practical benefit than theories of the greatest definiteness and clearness, which are not consistent with facts. It may well be doubted whether any of the theories which have been advanced with regard to cholera is consistent with, and capable of explaining, all the facts as to the origin and spread of the disease, but unfortunately each theorist is apt to imagine that his own peculiar views represent not merely a certain amount of truth, but the whole truth. Until the number of accurate observations and facts as distinguished from mere impressions is very much larger than it is at present, it is only with Necessity of ft wdttogft» the aooumu. the yery greates t reservation that any one theory can he accepted. What is required in the meantime is the careful collection of facts, a comparison of these with one another, and a patient investigation of their adaptability to the various current theories. 9. Without occupying further space with general remarks, I shall give a brief account Facts in connection with the soil of th e facts confirmatory of, or adverse to, the soil theory theory observed in the Madras Presi- furnished by various localities recently visited in the Madras dency and Mysore. Presidency and Mysore. * Vide experiments on filtration of sewage through natural soils. — First Report of the Rivers Pollution Commission. t It must, be remembered, on the other hand, that " the utility of a theory by no means implies its truth. "— yVie Genesis of Species. 10. Madras Town and the immediate neighbourhood. — The most important points to Nature of the soil in Madras compat- be noted here are :— ible with liability. Ist. The nature of the soil on which Madras is built is such as, according to the soil theory, will satisfactorily account for its general liability to cholera, while at the same time, as in any other old sea-bed or alluvial deposit, the variations in the soil in special areas are such as to warrant the expectation of corresponding variations in the general and seasonal liability to the disease. These variations in soil conditions in different areas are such as to require very careful observations as to the particular times and conditions in which the inhabitants are attacked. The first and important water-layer seems almost everywhere to be close to the surface, due to the presence of a bed of very dense, black impermeable clay. The importance of this clay as a water-retaining stratum is demonstrated by the fact that great caution is necessary in deepening the beds of tanks, as, should the excavation be carried so far as to remove the stratum of clay, the water is no longer retained, but runs off into the loose sandy soil beneath. In some places this clay has been laid bare, and here of course the water lies on the surface ; in others the superimposed soil is very thin, and nowhere does it exceed a few feet in thickness. In Perambore, a district peculiarly subject to cholera, this is specially the case. Thanks to the kindness of Colonel 11. Cadell, r. a., I was enabled in December to have an examination made in the compound of the Government Powder Mills, which clearly showed the nature of the soil. The water-bearing stratum was, in the spot examined, at about four feet from the surface, the water occupying a layer of almost pure sand immediately above the black clay, and beneath a layer of sandy-made soil. The special local variations in the thickness of the stratum above the water are very well shown in the same place, as at the other end of the same compound ; the water is two or three feet further from the surface of the ground.* 2nd. — The second point of importance in regard to the soil theory, as applied to Madras, is, that the cholera seasons in Madras coincide with periods Facta regarding the seasonal occur- in a considerable amount of change in soil moisture rence ot cholera m Madras. . . , . . , „" , , is occurring, viz., during the drying after the north-east monsoon, and during the moistening of the south-west monsoon, the disease diminishing or dying out at the periods of greatest dry ness and greatest moisture. The following table, showing average rainfall for Dr. Balfour's statistics. 60 years, and total cholera deaths from 1855 to 1869, is extracted from Inspector General E. Balfour's statistics of cholera: — Jan. Feb. March April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total. Average Monthly rainfall for 60 years ... 089 022 o'4B o'6B 226 165 3"46 438 4"58 1090 1290 642 4782 Total Monthly cholera deaths, 1855 to 1869 2,918 2,866 1,813 960 973 881 2,461 2,875 2,787 2,150 1,396 1,561 23,677 From this table we learn that cholera in Madras increases at two distinct periods of the year, " the two distinct rises being in the cool dry weather of January to February, and during the hot, close, humid, dead atmospheres of July to October." Dr. Balf'our remarks that the severest outbreaks occur in Madras in two periods of the year, possessing very dissimilar physical characters, and certainly the only physical character which the data appear to indicate as likely to be common to the two is a certain degree of soil moisture attained in one by drying, and in the other by moistening. These facts regarding the seasonal occurrence of cholera in Madras appear to be very worthy of the attention Difficulties in regard to the applica- o f the advocates of the various water theories. If water be £ $*£&££ 6Xplana ' f he «**? hl .""£ th f P« ison is manufactured and the vehicle by which it is diffused, there must be special facilities for the entrance of choleraic material into the water-supply of Madras at two distinct periods of the year, — periods in neither of which there is much rainfall to account for general in-washing of the surface and soil impurities. If, on the other hand, water contaminated with organic matter is all-important to ensure the spread of the disease, and if this contamination increases with the diminution in bulk of the water-supply due to the continuance of hot dry weather, how does it happen that the greatest and most persistent decrease in cholera in Madras occurs in the hottest and driest month in the year ?f 11. Palaveram and St. Thomas Mount. — Both of these stations merit careful study in reference to the soil theory, as they show remarkable differt£^Jrta££ Mou°nt S o °n f%* " their bi % J> cholera without any very apparent the soil theory. clilterences in soif . both are much less prone to cholera than Madras, and Palaveram presents a very good example of * It must be noted here that the facts in connection with the Powder Mills by no means favor the idea that soil conditions are all-important in the production of cholera, as, in so far as the evidence goes, the employes, although working in the midst of a district specially prone to cholera, and in a locality the soil of which does not differ from that of the surrounding area— a soil which from its characters would appear, according to the soi In dry, to be specially favorable to the development of the disease — do not suffer much from it, but rather ap; ¦ rto enjoy a certain amount of immunity. — Vide Proceedings of the Sanitary Commissioner for Madras, ji .ember 1870. fFo suits of microscopic examinations of Madras waters, vide Note A., I—ll.1 — 11. 3 pettenkofek's theory illustrated in madras. what may be roughly styled exemption. They are situated respectively at 12 and 9 miles from Madras, on the road between it and Chingleput, and on the southern side of the Adiar river. On this side of the river the soil is very different in its characters, gneiss rock and laterite replacing- the sand and black clay of Madras; and Soil as conipared^with that of it hag been ?e marked by D r , Cornish that, taking the two areas generally, the places situated in the former are much less prone to cholera than those in the latter. This, however, taken alone, by no means necessarily implies any direct influence of soil, as a difference in soil frequently implies a difference in liability to water contamination. 12. Palaveram. — Palaveram is situated to the landward side of a range of low gneiss hills on the ground which subsides gradually from its base towards the Adiar. The soil consists of a reddish clay, beneath which is a thin layer of laterite over the metamorphic rock. Palaveram. Nature of the soil. Towards the base of the hills the soil is very thin, allowing bare rock surfaces to crop out over large areas. There is a plenti- Water-supply. ful supply of excellent water, attainable at no great depth by wells sunk into the laterite and gneies rock.* There is also at least one tank close to the bazaar, but the water of this is not u^ed for drinking purposes. The bazaar is situated on sloping ground, and has perfect natural drainage without any risk of contamination of the Situation of bazaar. I^r-supply. Between it and the sloping ground occupied by the lines, hospitals, and houses he European veterans, there is a slight hollow, and on this the ction of native huts, is situated. 13. The inhabitants of Palaveram have always enjoyed a reputation for immunity from cho- lera, and, in as far as the military population is concerned, this appears to be well founded, the exemption holding good even Eeputation for immunity. to the present time. With regard to the inhabitants of the bazaar, however, complete immunity can no longer be supposed to exist, as in the autumn of 1869, 24 cases occurred. Still the Facts regarding cholera in 1869. £"jj remains th f thei * j 8 V f little liability to the disease /as " this is the first outbreak that has occurred within the Illection of the present medical officer, whose experience of the station extends to eleven •s."t This immunity, or at least slight liability, may be ascribed to various causes, and interpreted so as to support various theories. But it is at any 23/of3. P SaJve°°lmSuity rate entirely opposed to any theory which ascribes the spread ulaveram. or cholera to the influence of contagion strictly so called, for we have here a locality on the high road between Madras and ligleput, both cholera centres. Into this locality cholera has been actually introduced on dus occasions by individuals who have died of the disease shortly after arrival from Madras other neighbouring localities, and yet the military population has remained unaffected, above remarked, in one authenticated instance only, namely in 1869, has there been development of the disease in the bazaar. In connection with this point, it is also worth Liability of the " Dhobie Village." not{n S that the " Dhobie Village," previously mentioned by no means shares in the immunity of the rest of the station, but is liable to frequent outbreaks of the disease; and, as it is situated in the middle of the station, it is clear that isolation is not the protective agent. ¦ The good quality of the water and the thorough natural drainage will satisfy the requirets for immunity according to the water theories, and more especially those of that theory § which regard impure water as ensuring development of the ter and soil theories as applied to v /? ,i it.- r j.i_ • ¦ ± i 1 i v. Palaveram. disease after the addition of the poison introduced by human intercourse. The nature and general configuration of the soil also will satisfy the requirements of the soil theory as preventing accumulation of moisture and organic impurities in it. When, however, we come to the facts relative to 1869, there appears to be no thoroughly satisfactory explanation derivable from any theory, culties in connection with the p j j n , j • j i ? cholera of 1869 * or we nave no recorded facts tending to show any reason for a special condition of soil, or a special liability to contamina- tion of water-supply in this year. It is possible that, were more accurate data attainable, either the soil theory or the theory which regards organically contaminated water as a necessary second factor might account for the exceptional facts; but the other water theory can hardly step in here with its ready assumption of the accidental entrance of choleraic matter into the drinking water, and the consequent manufacture of the poison in this year ; for there was no regular outbreak of the disease indicative of a temporary poisoning of the water. Detached cases occurred, scattered up and down the bazaar, from the 9th September till the 16th October, one case occurring regularly every day for some time. It may be argued that the soil theory as applied to a locality of this kind, with a shal- Argument against the soil theory. lovv soil, hard rocky basis, and general slope of surface, would necessarily imply the existence of complete and permanent * For results of microscopic examination of water, vide Note A., 12 — 19. t Report on Cholera in Southern India for the year 1869, by the Sanitary Commissioner for Madras. 4 DR. 1). CUNNINGHAM S REPORT ON CHOLERA. immunity. But it must be borne in mind that a soil may be shallow and porous, and the general surface be evenly sloped so as to secure thorough drainage, as a general rule ; while at the same time it is quite possible, and may be sometimes actually demonstrated, that localized and partial accumulations of moisture and organic impurities may exist in it. The rocky basis by no means necessarily exactly follows the contour of the ground, but is frequently marked by depressions and irregularities of which no indication is afforded by the surface. {Vide Plate I, Fig. 3.) 15. The liability to cholera of the " Dhobie Village" may be accounted for by either the soil or water theories. For, lying in a hollow, as it does, it Possible reasons for liability of the • naturally subjected to the accumulation of organic impuri- " Dhobie Village." ties and of a varying amount of moisture in the soil,* and the same causes rendering its soil liable to contamination will almost necessarily affect the water in the surface wells, rendering it liable to act as a predisposing agent, and giving it a fair opportunity of receiving material for the direct manufacture of the poison. 16. St. Thomas Mount. — This station, although it has not the decided immunity of Palaveram, is yet by no means specially liable to cholera. The greater portion of the cantonment lies to the east of the Mount on ground which slopes gradually to the native bazaar St. Thomas Mount. Character of the soil. and the low paddy ground between the latter and the sea. The soil, in its general characters, is very similar to that at Palaveram, but the gneiss has here, according to Dr. Cornish, been disturbed by the injection of trap, and the laterite does not form so even and continuous a layer. One of the most marked physical differences between the two localities is the absence of an abundant supply of water in the soil at the Mount, which is probably dependent on the much smaller amount of hill surface present here. The wells are very deep, the water o-enerally standing at a low level in them, and in some cases almost or quite failing in the dry weather. In fact, the majority of the wells appear to belong to the Class Bof page 148. Measurements of water-level in three wells were taken in December with the following results :—: — Level of water Depth of from surface. Water. No. of Well. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. 1. Well at the Troop Barrack 6 0 25 0 12. Well in Artillery Barrack 37 0 16 0 3. Well near Infantry Barrack 36 9 I 34 6 This last well dried up entirely in the hot weather of 1870. The position of the bazaar is of some importance in considering the facts regarding „ , ?. ... cholera in this station. It lies on low ground close to paddy Importance of the relative positions p-m j • >• • j ii . it ° ¦¦ . i .* / of the bazaar and barracks. fields > and ls s0 situated that the sea breeze in passing inwards necessarily traverses it before reaching the barracks, Atmospheric influences of the Mount. lineSj & Cv an( j even wnen the atmosphere is very still, the heating of the exposed surfaces of the Mount must tend to establish an inward current from the low ground. f 17. In reference to the liability of this station to cholera, as compared with the almost complete exemption of Palaveram, it is of importance to note two points, — Ist, that there is here a large bazaar situated on ground of such a nature as by no means to warrant the expectation of immunity in it ; and 2nd, that it is so Points to be noted in this station in situated that currents o f air must constantly be passing from connection with the soil theory. . , . .. . ? , . mi ",, it over the localities occupied by the troops. There are then two reasons, according to the soil theory, why cholera should be more likely to occur among the troops here than among those at Palaveram. In the first place, there is the likelihood of the occurrence of cases directly contracted in the non-exempt area of the bazaar ; and, secondly, there is the probability of exposure to the poison developed in the soil of the bazaar and its * That it is subject to considerable fluctuations in soil moisture was very clearly manifest when it was visited in December 1870, for at that time the shallow surface wells in the gardens round some of the houses were full to within a few inches of the surface, due to the heavy rainfall of the north-east monsoon. One such well was pointed out, in which there was then sor 6 feet of water, and which was said to dry up entirely during the hot weather. f " The climate resembles that of Madras, but from the proximity of the station to the hill from which it derives its name, the temperature exceeds that of Madras generally two degrees." — Reports on Civil Stations and Military Cantonments, Sfc, by Inspector General of Hospitals D. Macpherson, Madras, 1862. 1 5 neighbourhood, and conveyed inwards by currents of air dependent on the sea breeze and the local atmospheric influences of the Mount. Neither of these causes are to be found in existence at Palaveram. In Palaveram the bazaar is situated on Contrast with renditions prevailing ground favoring- exemption, and even were it not so, the at Palaveram. c , ? ... & r • i t ,1 i -i ,1 , p relative positions occupied by the bazaar and the rest of the station in relation to the hills and sea breeze are such that there is no special tendency to the establishment of currents of air passing- from the one to the other. 18. The statistics adduced by Inspector General Balfour in regard to this station are important, as showing- that, even within its limits, different Dr. Balfouv's itatistics of relative ftreag v j Q tlieir degrees o f liability. They show that labilities of bodies ot troops stationed , . * - , . . B „ u-1- l nan P ~ at the Mount. * ne ra^ 10 °* admissions from cholera per 1,000 of mean strength of European Horse Artillery, during- a given period of years, was 13-36 ; that of European Foot Artillery 2*50, and that of the Native Golundauze B*B4. Now, the most marked difference between the soil conditions of the Horse and Foot Artillery barracks is apparent from the well measurements previously given. The " Troop barrack" lies to the south of the Mount on lower ground than the Foot Artillery _, .. ... ... , , barracks, and the well there shows the presence of water close Relative positions of the barracks. . ' . .. . I 1 J 1f 1 to the surface ; while the water-level and occasional failure of the wells in the neighbourhood of the latter buildings seem to indicate that there is no accumulation of soil moisture there, and that the wells, situated as they are on the ground sloping from the base of the hill, are mere local reservoirs which catch the water in its passage 1o the lower ground. The wells of the " Troop barrack" may be more liable to surface contamination, but the others must be more subject to extreme concentration of contained impurities. 19. The NEILGHERRIES. — There appears to be no question that up to the present time, Relative immunity of the Neil- an almost, if not quite perfect, immunity from cholera has gherry plateau. prevailed in the Neilgberry plateau. The generally accepted belief is that the immunity is perfect, but I am informed by Dr. Cornish that a few cases did on one occasion occur in Ootacamund, which could not be accounted for, save on the supposition of a certain amount of local development of the disease. The general immunity is, however, sufficiently remarkable, more especially when the fact of the constant traffic and communication with the plains This immunity exists In spite .of i s borne in mind. Any one descending the Ghat to Metapollium constant communication with localities , -. . J " „ . _, ' , prone to cholera. on the day previous to the weekly fairs at Coonoor and Ootacamund, must realize that isolation and consequent non- liability to introduction of a poison can hardly in this case afford a satisfactory explanation of the non -occurrence of the disease, and this is confirmed when it is remembered that cases of cholera have been imported from the plains, the patients dying in the Ghats, or shortly after arrival on the plateau. The locality in itself seems to rin spite of actual introduction ppesent some conditions unfavorable to the development of of cases of the disease. ', ? , Tn ... „ , ?/. the disease. What the exact nature of these conditions may »y phenomena favorable to Pet- be is of course a matter of doubt in the present state of our J 1. C _.>_ * - * tenkofer's views. knowledge, lut there are many things present which seem to favor Pettenkofer's views as to the importance of soil. tenkofor's views, 20. The basis of the plateau is formed almost exclusively of gneiss rock. On this a thick layer of dense retentive clay is superimposed. The surface soil is formed of vegetable mould from two to Nature of the soil. three feet in thickness, and between this and the clay there is a layer of gravel varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet. The clay stratum varies much in depth in various places; for, formed as it appears to be by the gradual disintegration of the gneiss, it is on the slopes of the Ghats constantly liable to be washed away by the rains; while, on the other hand, on the comparatively level surface of the plateau, it settles down in situ, and accumulates in layers of constantly increasing thickness. It presents various shades of red, white, and yellow, and frequently on section shows the markings of the rock from which it is formed with bands of quartz still persisting in an unaltered state. Its great density is demonstrated by the hardness and sharpness of outline which such sections retain, tlieir surfaces being so compact and firm that they become covered with lichen, like unaltered rocks, and unless directly exposed to the sun, it retains its moisture during long periods of dry weather. Now, when a soil of this kind is associated with general undulation of surface, like that prevailing on the plateau, it is evident that conditions such as those prescribed by Pettenkofer for the development of cholera can only be of very partial occurrence, for the soil water passing readily through the vegetable mould and gravel comes upon the dense retentive clay, and having reached this runs along its surface, and can only accumulate in the basin-like hollows occurring" between some Accumulations of soil moisture can .*¦ j.u. i , <<• mi • i• i c n i ii i_ only occur in localized spots. ?f? f theslopes. « The rain which falls (luring the wet season, instead of running off to waste at once, as it docs from the B?eof the hard ground, is imbibed and retained by these morasses to such an extent that ghout the year, including the whole of the dry monsoon, a constant and abundant supply I 1 J 6 of water is yielded by these natural reservoirs."* It is then only in these hollows that the assumedly important accumulation of organic matters and gradual fluctuations in soil moisture can take place to any extent; and the inhabitants of any collection of houses occupying such a locality cannot be supposed to be living under conditions conferring exemption. Throughout the plateau there are few houses so situated. The Badaga villages, the Toda Munds, &c, are almost invariably on slopes providing thorough Positions of habitations on the plateau reat power of retaining and absorbing such impurities. Where the water is derived directly from any of the marshy hollows, it is liable, oeca- Sonrccsof water-supply occasionally s i ona iiy. a t least, to contain a considerable amount of organic liable to organic contamination. . . J ml .. 1 . . ? . . , :°: ° . , matter, lhat this is the case appears to be demonstrated by the condition of the water' in the new reservoir for the water-supply of Ootacamund. This, in the autumn of 1870, showed very decided microscopic indications of organic pollution, — a pollution the existence of which, though at first much doubted, was confirmed on chemical examination. f Allowing, however, for all ordinary contingencies, the water-supply, unless directly contaminated by drainage, as in the case of the lake at Ootacamund, is of excellent quality, so that the facts speak nearly as much for the water as for the soil theory. The only theory which totally fails to explain the occur- Total failure of^contagionist explana- rence Q (- gQ mark . cd an i nsta nee of exemption IS that of the pure contagionists, in which direct communication of the poison from person to person is supposed in itself to be sufficient to ensure the spread of the disease.. If this were all that were necessary, it is almost incomprehensible ho\v]any locality such as the Ootacamund bazaar, dirty and crowded as it was formerly,^ and to a certain extent is still, should have for so long a time enjoyed an almost complete exemption, in spite of constant communication with localities in which cholera prevails; nay more, even in spite of the actual introduction of the disease into it. This comes out with all the greater force when we take „ , ? „ - into consideration the facts in reference to the occurrence of Facts regarding small-pox. .. ?,. ?. c ? v i i n small-pox within this area or exemption from cholera, for we do not find that the former disease has any difficulty in establishing 1 and diffusing itself, but, on the contrary, that it is one of the most prevalent and fatal diseases occurring among the inhabitants of the plateau. § ¦L O 22. The facts of the case seem decidedly to indicate the probability that the exemption from cholera enjoyed by the inhabitants of the Neilgherry immunity to he ascribed to some , , • , i -i i i a p ,i i • i j-j.-physical condition or conditions. plateau is to be ascribed to some of the physical conditions under which they live; and, certainly, among the most striking of these are the general configuration of the surface, the nature of the soil, and the excellence of the water-supply, the two former taken together providing an abundance of well- * Geographical and Statistical Memoir of a Surrey of the Neilgherry Mountains, by Captain j. Ouohterlony, Madras, 1847. f For results of microscopic examination of water, vide Note A, 20 — 23. % " Hitherto houses appear to have been erected at the will of the occupiers, and streets formed without regard to drainage or ventilation. The lake is being rapidly encroached up<>n by the accumulation of refuse a iid filth on its banks, the same being first turned into garden-ground and afterwards into building sites."— Reports by Inspector General of Hospitals D. Macpherson, 1862. § The most prevalent disease among the aborigines is small-pox." — Macpherson op cit. 7 drained sites for habitation. In reference to the soil, it must be carefully borne in mind that the conditions assumed to confer immunity are not universal Occurrence of eases locally origfeat- throughout the whole area, and that the occurrence of locally iug on the plateau by no means dis- . r° . . «. i 1 • i • ? i J proves the soil theory. originating cases or cholera in no way disproves the soundness of Petteukofer's views, unless it is clearly shown that the precise localities in which they occurred were subject to such conditions. This is of special importance, as it is said that cholera has occurred on the Pnlney Hills, and the mere fact of the occurrence of cholera on such a plateau might be held to decide conclusively against the soil theory as propounded by Pettenkofer ; whereas, the bare fact of the occurrence of cases of the disease, without accurate data as to their localization, is really of no value as proof either in favor of, or against, the theory. 23. Salem. — The town of Salem has long had a bad reputation as a locality specially prone to cholera,* and the facts regarding it are the more worthy of Importance of Salem as a cholera investigation by reason of its close proximity to the exempt locality. area of the Shervaroy Hills. It is 1,000 feet above the level of the sea, and 100 miles in a direct line from the east coast, and it lies in the lowest part of a shallow basin which is bounded by the Shervaroys to the north and by numerous small ranges and detached hills to the south and east. The Tyromany river, which rises in the Situation of the town. Shervaroys, traverses the basin, passing close to the town, and bounding it on the north and west. This river, from its short course and small drainage area, is liable to great fluctuations in the amount of its contained water, and during the dry weather it is reduced to a mere series of isolated pools. The soil throughout the basin is very shallow. It is red and full of fragments of decomposing rock, which prevail to such an extent in some places as to form a sort of gravel which is excavated for use on the roads. The soil within a few feet of the surface passes into the disintegrating rock, and masses of hard unaltered rock Nature of the soil. crop out in all directions. The water-bearing stratum is almost everywhere very superficial, the water in the majority of the wells and in the hollows and excavations in the soil being, at the close of the monsoon, within a foot or two of the surface. t 24. As would naturally be expected in regard to an area like this, which receives the drainage from numerous hill ranges into a shallow and Fluctuation^ Jn^mount of soil the fluctuations in amount o fc oil moisture are very decided. That this is the case was clearly manifest from the facts observed during two visits to the locality, — the first made in the middle of November 1870, the second in the end of January 1871. In November, after the heavy rainfall of the north-east monsoon, all the wells which were visited in the town, with one exception,^ showed water within a foot or two Water-levels in November 1870 and of the surface of the ground, the river was full from bank to January 1871. bank, and numerous shallow depressions of the surface of the ground were occupied by clear streamlets of running water. In January, on the other hand, the wells had sunk considerably, the river had left mud banks exposed in its channel, and the smaller streamlets had, almost without exception, totally dried up. Although a considerable diminution in soil water was evident, there was still, in January 1871, a very unusual amount remaining, due to the exceptionally high rainfall of 1870. § In consequence of this, neither the wells nor the river were so low as usual at that time of year, nor was the general surface of the country so thoroughly parched, but still retained a considerable amount of greenness. 25. The principal facts to be noted in reference to the occurrence of cholera in Salem are as follows: — Ist, the disease usually manifests itself as Facts regarding cholera. an epidemic in the dry weather, beginning to appear in December, when the river has become low,|| and reaching its maximum in March, April, and May ; 2nd, it is believed that its appearance cannot always be ascribed to the introduction of cases from the outside ; 3rd, the old jail, which lay very * " Cholera and intermittent fever have been endemic for many 3-ears, specially in March, April, and May. At this time the numerous tanks and extensive rice-grounds in the vicinity are becoming dried." — Macpherson op cit. t For results of microscopic examination of specimens of water, vide Note A, 24 — 26. $ The exceptional well was that _in the compound of the Civil Dispensary. In it the water-level is far removed from the surface, and it furnishes an apparent example of unfitness for furnishing data regarding the general < onditions of soil moisture in the locality. — Vide p. 148. § r l he following figures, extracted from the meteorological register at the Civil Dispensary, show the relative amounts of the rainfalls of the last three years :— In Tenths. 1. From Ist April 1868 to 31st March 1869 ... 30-ol 2- .. „ 1869 „ „ 1870 ... ... 37-08 3. „ „ 1870 to 23rd January 1871 ... ... 4230 |i The first case has more than once appeared in a street close to the river. 8 low, and close to the river, was very subject to epidemic outbreaks of the disease, while the new central jail, situated at some distance from the town and river, and in an open, high and dry locality, shows little liability ; Uh, the chief articles of diet among the native population are ragi, cumboo. and cholum, and as usually occurs in any locality in which the times for the introduction of the new grain into the bazaar, and for the occurrence of cholera coincide, the natives assume that the two facts stand to each other in the relation of cause and effect. 26. Taking everything into consideration, Salem certainly presents very many features which appear to accord well with Professor Pettenkofer's views The locality furnishes special facili- to the importance of soil conditions in influencing the ties for the local development of localization of cholera. Ihe general nature ot the soil ot cholera according to the soil theory. the valley is precisely that assumed to afford special facili- ties for the development of the germs of the poison if intro- duced at a suitable time ; the town lies on the lowest part of the valley, close to the river, and the period when cholera manifests itself is one in which subsident changes in water-level and soil moisture prevail, — a period, therefore, which in a locality with a shallow soil receiving the drainage from numerous hills, is likely to present the required soil conditions. 27. In connection with the last point, it is worthy of note that, in the dry weather of 1870-71, the manifestation of the disease was at any rate delayed, as, up to the close of January 1871, there had been very little cholera in Salem, so that in this season an unusual Cholera of 1870-71 j—_ - , — degree of soil moisture coincided with a small development of cholera. It may, of course, be argued that this coincidence is only of importance as implying SpeC pli,£t^ Y e? asS^n. im - ™ ™»A b ! llk of ™ter, and consequently an unusual dilution of the organic matters contained in it ; and this, no doubt, may be the case. It must, however, be recollected that there is more or less assumption in such a view of the case, while the state of soil moisture is a positive fact. 28. Why there should have been special obstacles to the entrance of choleraic material Incompatibility of the cholera phe- into the water in , this particular year remains to be shown. notnena of Salem with a purely water Indeed, as regards the general seasonal occurrence of cholera in theory. the station, it is not very easy to understand how any theory laying much stress on such entrance can account for the facts, seeing that the disease invariably tends to manifest itself after the dry weather has continued for some time, and when there are no special facilities provided for the in-washing of material contained in the soil. 29. The want of definite data concerning the conditions prevailing in previous seasons, deprives the observations regarding those of the past year of much of their value ; still there can, at all events, be no doubt that the soil theory appears to hold its ground, and to be quite as much in accordance with facts as any other theory ; and there is every reason to hope that the accurate observations on soil moisture which have been recently established will, in a locality such as this is, afford most valuable information. 30. The Shervaiioy Hills. — These, from their close proximity to Salem, are rendered peculiarly interesting, as they afford an apparent instance of Situation^the^Shen^roy range in p ett enkofer's exempt localities, in immediate contrast to an area which is specially prone to cholera. The range forms one boundary of the Salem valley, and at the nearest point approaches within five miles of the , „ , town. The plateau has an area of about " 100 square miles/ Size and nature of the plateau. j . ? S ? , . ? .. nnn , i nnn r , '. r o«n is f n i»/mi /vhAiir ire n • /4 • ,l, l ? 4UI4 U1 " IL J thiin tifi inhabitants nt nthpr n hpps in t.hpir p.nro fn nroimnf than the inhabitants of other places in their care to prevent the entrance of organic impurities into their drinking water, during the dry weather. and this, as we have already noted, is in general scanty and of doubtful quality during the dry weather. This last point, when taken in connection with the existing exemption, appears decidedly adverse to the universal applicability of the other water theory, which supposes an outbreak of cholera to be the inevitable result of the introduction by human intercourse of' a specific poison into any locality in which the water-supply is liable to contain organic impurities. 34. The above theories being apparently incapable of affording a satisfactory explanation, it remains to be seen how far a theory which holds soil influ- TheS0 ment e ss O of tfaet^t!^ I™'1 ™' ences to be of paramount importance in the localization of cholera can account for the facts observed. That it does, in appearance at least, better meet the requirements of the case, there can be little doubt ; for here, to an even greater extent than on the Neilgherry plateau, it is only on isolated spots that portions of soil furnishing the assumed conditions for liability can exist, and so long as the bulk of the human habitations are not situated in such spots there ought to be a general imrnunitv. * For results of microscopic examination of samples of water, vide Note A., 27, 28. iThe Shervaroy Hills, by W, H. Cornish, Ksq., F. R, C. 8., Sanitary Commissioner for Madras. An account of the Malayalies or Hill-men inhabiting the Shervaroy Hills, by John Shortt, M. D-, &c. 11 35. The Mysore Country.— The most important feature in this tract, as regards Pettenkofer's theory, is the extremely shallow nature of the soil, combined as Importance of certain physical -j. - g w jt|, an undulating surface, which produces an endless series features of the Mysore country. shallow basins and troughs separated from one another by ridges of various magnitude. The basis of the country as usual in the south of India, is composed of gneiss, which crops out through the thin soil in all directions in some places forming smooth flattened surfaces, and in others rising into mounds or abrupt naked hills. The rocks of this basis vary °reatly in appearance in different localities, m some showing very manifest foliation, and in others being hardly distinguishable from granite. They vary also in the amount of disintegration which they have undergone; for while in many places they appear hard and unaffected"even on the surface, in others they are softened, disintegrated, and fissured to various depths. The soil superimposed on this basis is in general red, porous, and full of fragments of the disintegrating rock, iuto Nature of the soil. which it often passes by almost insensible gradations. In many places it is only a few inches in thickness, but in others it has accumulated considerable thickness, and attained a depth which permits of trees flourishing and attaining dimensions much greater than those which they present over the country in general. Some of these hollows are, however, very deficient in soil, and show exposed rock surfaces. The hollows, Bunded tanks and other accumula- wne ther bare or soil-covered, frequently contain accumulations tions of water. wa ter, retained either by the natural contour of the surface, or, as is far more generally the case, by bunds obstructing the line of drainage. 36. These bunded tanks abound everywhere, and are of very great importance to the agriculturist, a?, in a country like Mysore, if there were no means of storing water to a large extent, the small rainfall and the general nature of the soil and surface would inevitably result in. the production of extreme dryness during a great part of the year. Immediately below the bund of the tanks there are usually patches of ground under wet cultivation. The villages are generally situated in the immediate proximity for convenience Villages generally in the hollows. procuring . water for negation an d drinking purposes, and because the natives believe that by living in the hollows they are less liable to suffer from malaria than they would be were their houses placed on the elevated portions of ground. 37. These bunded tanks must, from their very nature, exert an important influence on the conditions of soil moisture in their neighbourhood, an Important influence exerted by these influence entirely different from that of any mere puddled or bunded surface tanks on conditions of i ¦ i , • • i_ • i j_ • i i i soil moisture in their neighbourhood. stone-lined excavation in which water is accumulated, and must artificially induce a state of things not naturally proper to the locality. The bund in obstructing the natural line of drainage and accumulating a body of water behind it, forces moisture and soil water backwards into the soil above, over an _ „ ?. . „ area varying with the lie of the surface and the height of Reasons for this influence. xiij i_ • i_ j.i • i i • • j. the bund, an area which otherwise would in many instances be entirely and thoroughly drained to the exclusion of any accumulation of soil waters. — fide Plate I, fig. 2. In this figure it is shown that in the area A there is an accumulation of soil moisture due to the height of the water in the bunded tank B, an accumulation which would not exist were the bund C removed and the water permitted to follow the natural line of drainage. The areas occupied by these tanks vary greatly at different, times of the year, and many which at the close of the rains show a surface of G :mour o 7wLerintTtank s . the water several miles in circumference, almost or entirely dry up during the hot weather. 38. There are almost everywhere numerous wells, but the water in them is so frequently brackish as to be little used for drinking purposes where tank water is attainable, and not liable to any special source of pollution. The water-level in these wells is in general far removed T . „ „ from the surface, and deeply sunk into the rock. There are, Level of water in wells. , . / i o ± • i • i • i 1 1 however, a certain number of exceptional cases in which the water-level is superficial, and the well a mere excavation into the water-bearing soil of a hollow, or into the rock beneath it to a slight degree. Bearing these very general facts as to soil and water in mind, we have now to consider cholera in connection with them. 39. Cholera is throughout the greater part of the Mysore country invariably introduced from without. Whether there is any part in which it is 181 8 cholera endemic in the Mysore tru] endemic fc a matter of debate> But we find so hi h coumry . ' ji ;; A _ __ t».. T».,lf • v:_ aj—iJ-i.' - _f riL.l an authority as Dr. Balfour, in his Statistics of Cholera, classing the north part of Mysore among the endemic localities of Southern India. The rest of the country shows in general no special proclivity to cholera, and the disease, save in certain ocalities, is not of frequent occurrence. Its frequency in certain places appears, sometimes at east, to be closely related to the existence of special facilities in them for the introduction of the disease or its causes from without, and in such cases, anything which diminishes PETTENKOFER'S THEORY ILLUSTRATED IN MADRAS. 12 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. |_ x tilt X these facilities tends also to diminish attacks. The town of Collar is, as I am informed by Dr. Kirkpatrick, Surgeon to the Mysore Commission, an example of the truth of this statement. It is Facts regarding Collar. alleged that, since the opening- of the Railway has diminished the great stream of traffic and pilgrims through the town, it has lost the special proclivity to cholera, for which it was formerly notorious. 40. It seems to be supposed by some that the existence of cholera in an epidemic form, in a country with a soil like that of Mysore, is incompatible with the truth of Pettenkofer's theory, and there can be no doubt that in such a tract In such a country as Mysore there th t b nume rOUS special localities presenting conought to be exempt localities, r 1 O ditions which ought, according to the theory, to provide exemption from local development of the disease. This, however, can in no sense be asserted of the country as a whole. On the contrary, localities are But 111 * 67617 everywhere present which have the precise characters favoring the existence of the conditions which are assumed to be essential to the local development of the imported cholera germ. 41. From the very shallow nature of the soil in general, the great variation in its amount ? .... in different places, the moderate rainfall, and the very unequal Universal contemporaneous liability j. , ? ? n A • n n . A y i_ j. -i cannot be expected. distribution ot the rainfall water throughout the sou, we cannot suppose that at any given time uniform conditions of soil moisture prevail over continuous areas of any great extent ; and we cannot, therefore, according to the soil theory, expect to find a universal prevalence of cholera at any particular season, as the meteorological conditions which will render one place liable will render another partially or totally exempt. From the generally distributed shallowness and dryness of soil, we ought to find cholera generally prevalent at a different time General prevalence of cholera, ac- o f y ear f rO m that in which it prevails in alluvial or other £?2£ %£££Z£S!iZZ Jinds of porous soils which are highly charged with water; try as Mysore. for it is plain that a continuance ot dry weather, which would only reduce the amount of soil moisture in the latter, would so thoroughly dry the soil in many parts of the former as to render it unfit as a nidus for the supposed germs of cholera. Now the truth is that we do Facts agree withjhe d priori con- find the general prevalence of cholera throughout the Mysore country to be during a time of year when showers prevail, and a certain amount of soil moisture is kept up. On the other hand, in those places in which local accumulations of water are retained, whether by natural or artificial means, there must frequently be localized areas in which the soil at certain seasons is almost saturated, and is in fact in the condition of a shallow, water-logged, alluvial soil, so that with a general prevalence of the „ , • , , disease at one season, localized outbreaks may occur at almost Possibility or localized outbreaks de- . < •/i "i • i • • ¦l. pendent on variations m soil conditions, anytime, without necessarily implying any inconsistency in the soil theory. 42. The country, as a whole, presents an excellent field for observation from the numerous sharply defined differences in character and conditions of soil of '^S^ZtofiftJg* the different areas throughout it. In the meantime, accurate data as to the exact localization of the disease at different times of year, in different places and in the different parts of the same place, are wanting, so that a definite judgment as to the bearing of the country with reference to the soil theory cannot be formed. What we do know is, that the general prevalence of cholera is during the showery weather of the south-west moonsoon, and this taken along with the prevailing soil-characters of the country cannot be regarded as otherwise than favorable to the soil theory as expounded by Professor Pettenkofer. 43. The localities visited in the Mysore country were Bangalore, Toomcoor, with some .. L j • ja ™ villages in the neighbourhood enjoying a reputation for im- Localities visited in the Mysore __Jf fl , 0 ,., i r>|,, ° f 4. Olw i MMM Mn ™ Tm.« "111 munity, and Clospett and Mysore Town as special cholera country. localities. 44. Bangalore. — This station has an elevation of 3,000 feet above sea level, a mean temperature of 75"4, and a rainfall of 25 inches. The rainfall is so very moderate because the existence of " the eastern aud western hill ranges, distant 60 to 80 miles, tends to break the force of the monsoons, and although heavy showers are frequent, rain is rarely of long continuance, and by no means equal either in duration or intensity to the monsoon rains of the adjoining low-lying country of the Eastern or Western Coasts. The rainfall at Bangalore is so fairly distributed Eainfall at Bangalore. over the months from March to October inclusive, that even at the height of the hot weather, the cantonment continues to preserve its verdure little impaired. "* * Beport on the Station, Barracks, and Hospitals of Bangalore, by Robert S. Ellis, c. 8., 1866. Table* showing the Monthly, Quarterly, Half-yearly, and Yearly Fall of Rain. OWE YEAR. : Winter, Spring, MONTHS Summer, and 1859. Autumn. Inches. Inches. Inches. January ... ... 01 ") February - ••• ••• I f 01 41 March ... ••• ••• \J April ... ••• ¦•• 7 May ¦•• ••• 13 t 51 June ••• ••• ?8? 8 J July .- .» I*6 \ 209 August 5-6 } 12-6 September ... ... 5"4 ; October .- 3-2 \\ November ... ... 11 \\ 7"2 December ... ... 2"9 J Year ... 250 ! 45. There is little to be noted here regarding the soil of Bangalore, as it presents precisely those characters described previously as prevailing throughout the Mysore country, . , .. that is to say, it is very shallow, red, and gravelly, resting on Nature of the soil. , • c i i i i- i t i.v c • n a basis or hard rock which crops out on the surface in all directions. Here also the surface of the ground is undulating, consisting of a series of shallow basins and slight limiting elevations, the hollows being frequently occupied by bodies of water either freely exposed on the surface in natural and artificial tanks, or more or less concealed by soil, and only manifesting their presence in shallow surface wells. From the smallness of the rainfall, water is by no means abundant, and a really satisfactory source of drinking water w . , appears to be still wanting. The tanks in the meantime are Water-supply. liable to a certain amount of pollution, and the water furnished by many of the wells is not only scanty but very brackish. The wells, with the exception of a few surface ones, are deeply sunk into the gneiss rock, and their water-levels are far removed from the surface of the ground. The one from which observations regarding Pettenkofer's theory have been Level of water in wells. derived, shows according to the returns a level varying from nearly 37 to a little above 40 feet from the surface ; and it is hardly doubtful that very little information of any value can be hoped for from the observations recorded, seeing that it, in common with the other similar wells, cannot furnish any exact information regarding changes in the soil moisture above the rock. (Vide page 148.) 46. Cholera has frequently prevailed in Bangalore both among the troops and bazaar „ „, , . D , population. Dr. Balfour gives the following statistics Frequency of cholera in Bangalore. lx n . ? *> . it & p regarding its occurrence among various bodies ot troops during periods of time ranging from 8 to 12 years. Average Annual Ratio per 1,000 mean strength admitted, H. M.'s Infantry, 1831-38 ... 3461 Hussars, 1830-38 ... 13-16 Officers, 8 years ... 11-51 H. Co.'s Foot Artillery, 1830-34 ... 9 00 Horse Artillery, 1829-1842 ... 4'Bl 47. In considering the soil theory in reference to Bangalore, it must be admitted that, BM.t« n « fl nf !„„«««„. .mm* «h. wllile there are man y P laces which are evidently subject to the v. , f , ?,. ?,. ? while there are many places which are existence of localities within the -? . , J , t,- n i .station appearing to furnish conditions assuraedly important conditions tor 1 liability, there are on the unfavorable to the local development of other hand very many others which, on a superficial examina- Cholera, +,-„,, Q f l aoc ,f mnn \A n,,i lO nr f/^ V. a a^ ac fn IIOTO a VM-xr tion at least, would appear to be so situated as to have a very great likelihood of immunity, if immunity be necessarily due to the absence of these conditions. Such being the case, until we have exact data regarding the precise local distribution * Extract from Appendix A. of same Eeport. 6 13 PETTENKOFEIi'S THEORY ILLUSTRATED IN MADRAS. Part I] of the cases occurring- in any epidemic with their relative times of occurrence, and of the soil conditions indicated by rainfall, &c, under which they Consequent jee^ofjery accurate oeGnrred) it is usehss to endeavour to draw definite conclusions regarding" the extent to which the soil theory is here appli- cable. In the acquisition of such data, it should be carefully kept in view that it is evidence showing- development from a local centre, and not of the mere occurrence of cases, that is mainly important. A certain number of isolated cases, due to the action of a poison acquired elsewhere, may, according 1 to the theory, appear in any place. Regarling the general seasonal occurrence of the disease, Dr. Kirkpatrick, whose long experience in the Mysore country renders any information derived from him of special value, Facts regarding the normal seasonal informs ¦ that as before mentioned regarding the country occurrence of cholera. . , , / ? ? "_, & , . / in general, cholera usually prevails in Bangalore in the months from May to September, that is, at a time when the shallow soil is frequently moistened by heavy showers. (Fide page 159). These showers may, no doubt, be regarded as of importance, not on account of the changes in soil moisture which they induce, but because of the pollution of the water-supply which they may induce by the in-washing of organic impurities, which may either, directly by poisoning or indirectly by predisposing, lead to a general diffusion of the disease. Still the fact remains that the general season of prevalence is not that in which the water-supply is most deficient, owing Season of occurrence not that of to tl fj, of th v f continued drought, and greatest diminution and concentration ? , , , . , , . -, of water-supply. consequently not that when the inhabitants are most depen- dent on the concentrated water of the tanks.* 48. The chief things to be noted regarding Bangalore appear to be shortly as follows :—: — I*/, that the nature of the soil is such that the occurrence of cholera in the station is by Conclusions regarding the bearings of no means inconsistent with the correctness of the soil theory; the chief cholera facts of the station 2nd, that the usual season for the occurrence of the disease, on the soil theory. when taken in connection with the nature of the soil and distribution and amount of rainfall, seems rather to favor the soil theory, as showing a coincidence between changes in soil moisture and development of cholera, but that it cannot be said to favor it, to the exclusion of the water theories; "6rd, the cholera season includes within it the months in which one of the two seasonal increases of cholera in Madras takes place ; but, in as far as information goes, there is no decided tendency to a recurrence in the cold weather. On reference to the table of rainfall, however, it will be seen that there is no soil reason for Differences in the local rainfalls and a cold weather rise in Bangalore. Up to the beginning of cholera seasons of Madras and Banga- October, the total rainfall of Madras and Bangalore does not lore compared. differ much, being respectively 18-60 and 17*8; while from October to December inclusive, they are 29"2;J and 7*12, and the resulting soil conditions are consequently very different in the two places, there being in Bangalore no saturation by excessive north-east monsoon rains, but a mere gradual transition to the complete dryness of the rainless months of the early part of the year ; Ath, from the nature of the soil on which the station lies, there are areas included within its limits which, according to the soil theory, ought to be exempt; hth, from the same cause the seasonal localization of the disease may be expected to vary, even within the limits of the station, different areas being affected in different years, and at different times in the same year.f 49. Having through the kindness of Dr. Balfour been furnished with a list of villages in the Chittledroog Division of Mysore which have a reputa- TT ° ora r^tSn > i or < ei!Sn Witll a *on for exemption, it seemed advisable to visit some of them with a view to ascertain whether there are any physical peculiarities about them, more especially as by doing so an opportunity was furnished of seeing Toomcoor and Cora, both places which have frequently suffered severely from epidemics, and which therefore afford good fields for comparison with the reputed exempt areas in their neighbourhood. 50. Toomcoob. — The town of Toomcoor is situated on the road between Bangalore and Bellary, and at about 40 miles from the former station. There is nothing special to note regarding 1 the soil, its characters being- Situation of Toomcoor. similar to those previously described as prevailing throughout the Mysore country. The greater part of the town occupies a somewhat elevated and undulating piece of ground, but a portion of it lies on low ground almost on a level with the water of a large tank situated immediately to the * Dr. Macpherson, in complaining of the state of the Alsoor tank in 1858, writes — " In short, all the filth and sewage of three-fourths of this large station is emptied into this tank which gives the sole supply of water to the entire population residing near it, as also to the soldiers who inhabit the barracks over it, the wells within their premises giving no supply whatever in the hot weather " 01" course, the state of the tauk has since then been improved, but the dearth of water continues. t I'or microscopic characters of waters, vide Note A., 21), 30. 14 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. 15 northward. This tank receives the drainage of a range of hills to the north-east, the water being retained by means of a fine and long bund, which, extending Large tunk. from the slightly elevated ground near the town, and running parallel with the high road for some distance in a northerly direction, dams up the water against the higher ground. This tank when full is several miles in circumference, but during the hot weather it shrinks greatly, and occasionally even totally dries up The water in it is employed in the irrigation of a piece of ground of considerable size on the further side of the road, and as a source of bathing water, but it is not used for drinking, at least not by the higher caste natives, as it is polluted by a village of chuck- Water-supply. j erg gjt ua ted on the bank opposite the bund. On the slope, at the town extremity of the bund, exposed rock surfaces crop out, but further to the right the slope of ground is not so abrupt or manifest, and here there are some low-lying houses of the town and numerous small gardens. The following rough diagram may serve to make the positions of the town, the tank, and the bund more readily understood than a mere description can do. C. — Houses and gardens beyond the walls. T. — Tank. B.—Bund. 51. There are numerous wells in the town, the water-level in which varies considerably, as might be expected from the nature of the ground in which they are situated. The water-level in three of them was taken Water-levels of wells. with the following results Well. Distance of vvatpr from surface Depth of water. of ground. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. 1 4 2 9 3 2 C G 12 0 3 11 6 10 4 ed in the soft ground near the larsre tank, and is much use No. 1 is situated in the soft ground near the large tank, and is much used by the natives of the lower part of the town, who state that, although its water-level varies greatly at different times of year, and though it becomes very low in the dry weather, yet it does not absolutely fail. Both the other wells are on the higher ground, No. 2 being that in the court of the native rest-house, and No. 3at no great distance from it. The water in No. 1 and the wells iv its neighbourhood sunk in the soft soil and showing a very superficial water-level, appeared manifestly to be a portion of the body of water retained by the bund, and shewingitself elsewhere on the surface in the tank. What the precise nature of the soil in Nos. 2 and 3 is could not be ascertained, as they were stone-lined beneath the water, but taking their evels into consideration, along with the fact that the surface of the ground rises slightly from No. 1 to No. 2, and from the latter to No. 3, it appears to be extremely probable that they owe their water, in great measure at least, to the same Probability that the wells are main- _ I+l . f IT • jII f If >auinty tnat vie weiis are main- * j it i i - v m n j- 1 c ly dependent on the tank. source, and that we have in loomcoor an excellent example or the great modifying influence of a large surface bunded tank on the conditions of soil moisture in its neighbourhood. 52. The diet of the bulk of the inhabitants consists of dry grains, chiefly ragi, only the wealthier high caste people using rice. Dietary of inhabitants. pettenkofer's theory illustrated in. madras. dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [Part I 16 53. The district and town of Toomcoor have on various occasions suffered severely from epidemic cholera, the year 1869 being the most recent occa- Cholera facts of Toomcoor. gion Qn which made fa ap p e arance. The Superintendent of the District, Major Burce, having kindly allowed me to consult the register of deaths, rainfall, &c, I subjoin the following results :—: — Year. Month. Eain. Cholera. 1864 May ... 6- 82 ) Prevalent in e nd of April, May, and tT "¦ «'S f June; 425 deaths. July ... 6"32 J August ... 13-21 1865 January ... ... February... March April ... 213 ! Prevalent in June and July. This heavy May ... 5*21 ' fall mainly at the end of the month. June ... 450 July ... 10-12 August ... 4-84 J 1866 January ... ... 1 February... March ... ... | Four thousand eight hundred and forty- April ... 4 6t> f()ur deaths cholera began to prevail in llay ... j April and continued prevalent until October, at Cora lt ls seemingly due to gradual percolation through or beneath the bund. In Cora we have coor. a place with a reputation for liability to cholera coincident with the existence in it of those Cora is a locality furnishing those «? conditions which, according to the soil theory, are favorconditions which, according to the soil able to the development of the cholera poison ; for we find theory, are favorable to the local de- in it a soil permeated by a superficial and fluctuating body velopment of cholera. Q f water wel]g at fIU eyentg pogitively showing this to be the case, whether due to the influence of the tank or otherwise). 59. Exact data as to the seasonal occurrence of cholera in Cora are not attainable, but Absence ofdata of seasonof occurrence. Piously seen that the early part of the rains is the season for general prevalence throughout the district (vide p. 162), and there is nothing to show that Cora is in any way exceptional. If the early part of the rains really is the normal season for prevalence, there may appear * For results of microscopic examination of the tank water, vide Note A., 31. 7 17 to be more in favor of the water theories here than at Toomcoor, as the inhabitants are dependent for drinking water on the tank, which is more liable to the in-washing- of surface impurities than the wells at Toomcoor ; but it must be borne in mind that surface drainage from the village is little likely to enter the tank N ° Tmpuritks S thVtank. 8111^ ° f from the Native position of the former to the bund, while for the same reason water from the tank is very likely to enter the soil of the village.* 60. The reputedly exempt villages visited were three in number, vie., Timmarajanahully, Linganhully, and Tappad Begoor. It is of importance to Names of reputedly exempt vil- bear dearly {n min^ j n reg , ar( j to any guch instances of reputed exemption, there are frequently two sources of fallacy present, which necessarily deprive observations regarding the existing local soil conditions of much of their value. These fallacies are, — Ist, one common to localities in any district, whether prone to cholera or otherwise, viz., that native testimony alone is of little value ; and 2nd, one which is most important in the eyes of those who do not believe in the doctrine of the general diffusion of cholera by atmospheric agency, viz., that in districts or countries in which, as in Mysore, cholera appears so much as a disease resulting from the introduction of a cause from without, isolated spots out of the general line of traffic may, up to the present time, have really enjoyed an exemption, but an exemption Sources^o^ faUadesJn due not to.any local conditions, inhibitory to the develop- ment of the disease, but only to non-introduction of the material to be developed. This latter fallacy increases inversely with the size of the exempt localities if similarly situated, but at the same time a place even of considerable size is of much less importance as an example of immunity, if it be situated so as to have small liability to introduction of the disease than a much smaller place is, if situated in any great line of traffic, and consequently of liability to such introduction. These sources of fallacy being in the meantime unavoidable, all that can be done is to examine the existing physical conditions in any reputedly exempt locality, in order to ascertain how far they correspond with those supposed by the soil theory to be influential in conferring immunity, recollecting that even if they appear thoroughly conformable, it still remains a matter of uncertainty whether the exemption be an actual fact, and how far it is a fact solely explicable by the soil theory. 61. TiMMAitAJANAHULLY. — This small cluster of houses is reputed to have always enjoyed _? ? „„. ?, an exemption from cholera. It is situated on the Bellary Situation of Timiuaraiaiianully. i , -i i jm jp -in J road, ten miles beyond Toomcoor and tour miles from Cora, both of which we have already seen to be cholera localities. The houses are, as usual, enclosed by a mud wall, the door of which opens directly upon the road ; within the wall there are only nine houses with a population of thirty. The two nearest villages are situated respectively at one and two miles distance ; neither of them are on the road ; the nearest, Linganhully, has also a reputation for immunity ; the other is said to be subject to cholera. 62. The part of the country in which Timmarajanahully is situated is high and open, and the surfaces of the ground irregular, forming a series of Nature of the soil. small elevations, between which are hollows frequently occu- pied by shallow, sandy water-courses. The soil presents a maximum of shallowness, is of the usual red porous character full, of fragments of stone, and broken in all directions by bare surfaces of rock in various stages of hardness or disintegration. The sides of the water-courses, though rarely more than a foot in section, showed almost everywhere exposed rock, which in such situations was frequently very soft. In some of the water-courses, although when visited they showed surfaces of perfectly dry sand, yet water was to be met with on digging downwards into this for a few inches. The village occupies the side of one of the elevations, and the ground slopes from it in three directions, in front to one side and to the back. 63. The only well or source of water-supply in the neighbourhood is situated several hundred yards from the village, and due to the slope of the Water-supply. y- ground at a lower level than it. The water-level in it was in December 1870 at eight feet from the surface. 64. Even putting the question of the untrustworthiness of native evidence aside, the village, were it situated otherwise than it is, would, from its small size and scanty population, be hardly worth consideration ; but, standing as it does immediately on the Bellary road, a great cholera thoroughfare, it is, in spite of its size, a noteworthy place. The general soil conditions would certainly appear to warrant exemption according to Professor Pettenkofer's views ; for, from the character of the ground and general confio>ura- Soil conditions such as ought to fa- ti fth sur f ace [ t [ s very i mpro bable that water can vor immunity according to the soil ,¦. , , ', . ? J., T* " " . nai^ Oc ' u theory, lodge and accumulate m the soil beneath and immediately around the village, as the general drainage into the surrounding * For microscopic examination of the water of the tank, vide Note A., 32. 18 T)R 1) CUNNINGHAM S REPORT ON CHOLERA. 19 hollows must be rapid and perfect. At the same time, it must be allowed that local accumulation of soil-moisture may occur, even in a locality with a Well free from liability to coutami- general sloping- surface, and also that the well is at some na tiou. distance from the village, and out of thedir ect line of drainage and liability to contamination.* . , 65 Linganhully. This is situated about a mile to the right of the road on the summit of an elevation contiguous to that on which Timmarajanahully Situation of Linganhully. stands, and separated from it by a hollow which is, as usual, occupied by a water-course. The ground slopes gently from the village, but not so much or in so many directions as from Timmarajanahully, and on the slope weathered and disintegrating rock crops out in abundance. The houses, twenty in number, Number of bouses and population. &re ene ] ose( j within the usual four square mud walls, and the inhabitants are said to be from 80 to 100. ...,,_ „ . 66 The water-supply of the village is furnished by an open surtace well situated m a hollow about half a mile distant. It is a shallow unwalled Water-supply. excavation in the soft soil, and contained when visited about five feet of water, the level of which was within four feet of the surface. It dries up during the hot weather, and water is then obtained by excavating in its bed. 67. The conditions of soil prevailing here so closely resemble those at Timmarajana- hully that their influence must be identical, and unfortunately Water peculiarly liable to assumedly the sources of fallacy are equally present, the only difference important concentration of organic iui- b e t wee n the two places being the fact that here the source of purities. rontpr-snnnlv. nltVinnp>li wpll rpmnvftfl frnm t.lift villn.o-p. is r>f water-supply, although well removed from the village, is of that open, exposed, failing character which is frequently indicated as ensuring the organic contamination assumedly so important in favoring the development of cholera.f 68. Tappad Begoor. — This village is situated twenty-three milles from Bangalore, and about half a mile to the west of Toomcoor road. It occupies a slight rising ground separated from the road by a broad shallow depression. Immediately to the north of the village this depression is crossed by a bund Situation of Begoor. which by retaining the surface drainage converts the upper part of the low ground into a broad shallow tank (vide diagram, p. 166). The ground below the bund and in front of the village is under wet cultivation, being Tank. irrigated from the tank in the usual way. The ground on which the houses are situated slopes in front to the cultivated hollow between them and the road, and also to the northwards to the level of the water in the tank, and on the latter slope the gneiss rock crops out on the surface. 69. An excavation about twelve feet deep in this slope showed a soil of the following nature : — the surface was very thin, composed of the usual porous red material, and resting on a subsoil of disintegrat- Nature of soil. ing rock. The upper part of this subsoil was very soft, but its consistence increased with the depth, until towards the bottom of the section a layer was reached composed of pure white rock, very dense and hard to excavate, but still more or less disintegrated and softened. This layer was somewhat moist. 70. The number of houses in the village is above one hundred, and there are said to be eight hundred inhabitants. Their diet is, as usual in this Number of houses and inhabitants. part of the country, mainly composed of ragi. They obtain their drinking water from a well close to the side of the tank. When visited its water-level was at five feet from the surface, i. c., the same as that of the adjoining tank. Although to all appearance closely connected with the tank, and like it mainly dependent on jthe bund, it does not like the former dry up entirely during the hot weather, but continues to be the source of Water-supply. drinking water throughout the whole year. Even in December the tank showed distinct evidence of a rapid process of diminution in area, broad margins of recently uncovered mud being exposed all around it in various stages of drying. 71. This village, like the two previously considered, enjoys a reputation for immunity, v . ? . a reputation which Dr. Kirkpatrick informed me appeared to vi ence regart ing immuni y. c founded on more trustworthy evidence than that in regard to any other such locality that he was acquainted with. He also said that he had been positively and credibly informed of more than one occasion in which, while cholera was prevailing in the neighbouring villages, Tappad Begoor remained free. The headman of the village, on enquiry, stated that the only cases which had occurred within his experience were in the persons of two children who died ten years ago ; but of course little reliance can be placed on such evidence. The same objections to the value of this example — an example of immunity which, if true, is very accordant with the axioms of the soil theory — apply as in the cases of the former " exempt" villages, and the point of main interest in regard to it lies in the close proximity, of the village to the tank, and its soil relations towards it. We have previously seen that, in the cases of Toomcoor and Cora, * For microscopic characters of the well water, vide Note A., 33. t For microscopic characters of water, vide Note A., 34. pettenkofer's theory illustrated in madras. the neighbouring tanks are so situated as to induce those conditions of fluctuating soil-moisture which render them liable, on the soil theory, to the development of cholera within them j but here, although the village is almost as close to the tank as in the former instances, it is yet so situated relatively to it that the local accumula- Importance of relative positions of O n o f wa t e r retained by the bund can hardly by any possitank and village. biHty influence iv goil conditions in any way, for from its position beyond the bund, the latter cannot force back water into the soil beneath it, and any water permeating the bund must simply drain into the hollow in front, and follow the line of drainage which it would naturally have assumed had there been no artificial retention of it in the tank. — Vide diagram.* E. - Road. I B.— Bund. V. - Village. I.- Irrigated ground. I.—Tank. W .— Well. 72. Clospett. — This town has at the present time the reputation of being one of those most prone to cholera throughout the whole of the Mysore country, the disease seldom during the course of any season appearing Situation of Clospett. elsewhere without visiting it. It is situated on the eastern bank of the Arkavutty river, and the high road from Bangalore to Mysore traverses it. The river here, in its course southwards to the Cauvery, passes through a narrow valley bounded on either side by bare rocky hills, which a little beyond the town close in so as to force the river to curve round to the east in order to obtain a passage. At Clospett the river bed is broad, shallow, and sandy, with here and there an exposed surface of rock. At the close of the rains it is filled Nature of river bed. by water, but the amount of this very rapidly diminishes, and after a few months it becomes totally dried up. In December 1870, in spite of the abundant rain of the north-east monsoon, the greater part of the bed was occupied by dry sand, through which separate streams of very clear water were passing in a tolerably rapid current. The dryness of the sand was however quite superficial, as water appeared whenever an excavation was made to the depth of a few inches. 73. The town occupies a portion of ground which passes backwards from the river, almost level with the bank for some distance, and then rises abruptly Nature of ground occupied by the towards the hills. On the opposite or western bank the tOWII. , . „ ,i r • it n ground rises at once from the river, and here a few native houses and the traveller's bungalow are situated. On the slopes on either side of the river, rock crops out here and there on the surface, as for example near the cutcherry on the eastern, and near the public bungalow on the western side. 74. There are numerous wells within the town, and these, as is natural from the w „ ... . , , variations in the nature of the soil, differ much in charac- Wells and their water-levels. -? ? , , * ? . . , , ter, according as they are situated on the higher or lower ground. * For microscopic characters of the well water, vide Note A., 35. 20 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. The water-level of two, one in the low ground, the other on the slope, was measured with the following 1 results :—: — Well. Water level. Feet, No. 1 ... ... 14 ? 2 ... ... 40 Well No. 1 was said by the natives to be sunk in soft soil, and was lined with earthen ware cylinders. The water in it does not fail. No. 2. This is situated within the enclosure of the mosque in the highest part of the town. The natives stated that blasting was necessary in its excavation, and that the water in it fails in dry seasons. Other wells in corresponding portions of the town seemed to be of similar nature, and confirmed the evidence derivable Presence of two distinct Soil areas. n ? n n ,i ' i • j» .• ? Vi -i uniform throughout the whole town oi the town > the lte of the ground and nature ot the soil can only allow of very partial accumulations of soil-moisture, the general drainage being rapid and complete ; while on the other hand the greater part of the * They believe that, although unfit for ordinary use, it possesses medicinal virtues, especially in the treatment of spleen cases. These virtues are, it appears, supposed to arise from the amount of elephant's dung which it contains. t The people who derive their drinking water from these springs are said to be subject to Guinea-worm, while the rest of the inhabitants are exempt from this parasite. X Since the above was written, notices of the prevalence of cholera in Mysore in 1871 have appeared. lower area near the large tank, and situated so as to receive the drainage from the higher ground, must be subject to accumulation of organic matter The lower portions ought to be more an( } to g reat fluctuations in the amount of moisture in its soil, liable than the higher. and ought therefore, according to the soil theory, to favor the development of the cholera poison to a much greater degree than the higher area can do. In Mysore, as in Bangalore and Toomcoor, we find cholera to be a disease not of the dry weather but occurring coincidently with showers, which showers must inevitably alter the conditions of soil-moisture, but which can hardly be supposed to exert any very important influence in polluting the drinking water, as the drainage of the surface and soil of the town msses almost entirely into a tank which is not employed as a source of drinking water, unless in emergencies in which, due to unusual continuance of dry weather, there is a general failure of water. ?.„,„«, ... . ? , . 84. In connection with the cholera facts of Mysore, it is most important to note that in the immediate neighbourhood of -the town, but elevated above Reputed exemption of pagoda village j t to tQe o f near ly I^OOO feet by the abrupt ascent of Charmandi Hill, there is a pagoda village which is generally reputed among the natives as enjoying an exemption from the disease. This village is situated at one extremity of the long narrow ridge which forms the summit of the hill, and the ground falls abruptly from it on three sides. There is here hardly any soil over the rock forming the basis of the hill, and this rock is very little disintegrated, Nature of soil on which the village ag a softened portions, instead of remaining in situ, are is situated. .-,/ , , ,*_ • . ? ,_• _. ? ° i T i_ rapidly washed down into the surrounding low ground It is scarcely conceivable that there should be any accumulation of water or of organic impurities in the soil on which the village is situated, as the rain-water immediately drains downwards on either side into two small hollows about 100 feet below the level of the village, in which it accumulates, forming two small ponds. The larger of these lies on the southern slope of the hill and from it the villagers derive their drinking water; the quality of the latter, in as far as microscopic evidence goes, is anything but pure (vide Note A), as indeed might be expected from the proximity Water-supply. of the tank to the village, and the facilities for the entrance of drainage impurities into it. The water in the other hollow is apparently employed to irrigate the few small patches of cultivated "round belonging to the village, in which a scanty vegetation struggles to exist on a minimum of soil. The inhabitants are said to be about 700 in number. Owing to the existence of the pagoda, a favorite object for pilgrimages, and the fact that all food Number of inhabitants. and bazaar supplies must be brought up from Mysore, Constant intercourse with the low } . necessarily a constant stream of intercourse going to, country. and coming from, the latter place. 85. In regard to the occurrence of cholera, the natives by no means deny that cases have occurred on the top of the hill, as they would be likely to do, if only desirous of increasing the reputation of their pagoda, but merely assert that the disease never developes itself here as from a local centre. They freely allow that cases do occasionally occur in persons coming up from Mysore whether natives of that town or of the village ; that is to say, they admit the occurrence of imported cases, but deny the occurrence of locally Reputation of exemption ouly as re- originating ones. Unfortunately no further information can gards local development. be obtained ; all 'that could be learnt in Mysore being that there was certainly a widely-spread belief in the exemption of the village. Dr. Houston distinctly remembered that on one occasion, while living in the sanitarium bungalow on the top of the hill, he was applied to by the villagers for cholera medicine, but without information whether for cases derived from Mysore or locally originated. It is particularly to be regretted that accurate data are not attainable, as the locality appears fitted to afford an almost crucial test of the universal applicability of the soil theory as developed by Professor Pettenkofer, as well as to furnish most important evidence either favorable This village well suited to test the or ac i verse to the water theories, and it is most desirable that universal applicability of the soil theory. in the eveat of prevailing in Mysore, attention should be specially directed to the phenomena presented by this village.* 86. Tanjore. — The town of Tanjore is situated in the district of the same name, which comprises the greater portion of the delta of the Cauvery. It occupies the extreme apex of a spur of somewhat elevated Situation of Tanjore. ground, which runs inwards from the south-west, and gradually subsides to the level of the alluvial plain. At Tanjore this spur is composed of a porous grit, generally of a yellowish color, which is covered by a layer of red earth, containing much laterite gravel, and here and there sheets and masses of the same Nature of the soil. material of such hard compact consistence as to form useful building stone. 87. The alluvium of the delta is everywhere traversed by irrigation channels which distribute the water of the Cauvery throughout the whole area, and impart to it that extreme fertility for which it is famous. As this distribution of the water has a very important * For miscroscopic characters of waters in Mysore, vide Note A., 37 — 46. 23 pettenkofer's theory illustrated in madras. [Part I dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. 24 bearino- on the conditions of soil -moisture of the district, it is very essential that it should be distinctly borne in mind. It is primarily regulated by the two Distribution of the water of the Cau- ma i n anicuts "at the north and south ends of the island of very by irrigation channels. Sreerungum close to Trichinopoly," where the Cauvery first divides into its two principal channels, the larger of which, pursuing a tolerably straight course, reaches the sea as a considerable river, while the Cauvery follows a devious line through the delta, and feeding numerous channels as it proceeds gradually diminishes in size. 88. In any tract of country such as this, in which irrigation is so thoroughly carried out, it appears almost necessarily to follow that the general conditions of soil-moisture existing at any ""iven time are regulated very much more by the amount of water coming down to it from the regions, drained by the river, and dependent on the rainfall Soil-moisture more dependent on oi - those regions than on the mere local rainfall . If this be the river than on the local rainfall. fa q{ pogitive determinations of soilmoisture, we must, in endeavouring to acquire general ideas as Height of river not necessarily coin- fo th availing conditions, take the main facts in regard to eident with abundant rainfall. , . i » ? ?, ? t i • <• n p n i- the ri\er in connection with the local rainfall, for the former may indicate a high degree of soil-moisture at the very time that the latter would indicate the contrary, so that it is only by combining the evidence of both that any true estimate can be formed. A river like the Cauvery, arising in hills of moderate eleva- • — Zje tion, is necessarily affected by seasonal influences in a very Rivers dependent on melting snows different way from one which, like the great rivers of as compared with those due to rainfall. x . i i- , •. ... /•_ i . •» _ v Northern India, takes its origin m snowy ranges, for hot dry weather in the drainage area of the former will cause a diminished flow in the river, while in the latter it will, due to the increased melting of the snow, cause a precisely opposite result. The amount of water in the Cauvery is then entirely dependent on the rainfall in Coorg, Mysore, the Neilgherry plateau, and the other hilly regions in which its tributaries arise, and the result is that the river "fills in the months of June Two rises nnd^wo subsidences of the ftnd julyj ulv hy the sout h. W est monsoon, when the water deauveiy> scends from the mountainous regions, and again in November by the north-east monsoon,"* so that there are two periods of rise and two of subsidence, the subsidence between the south-west and north-east monsoons being naturally small in comparison with that between the north-east and south-west monsoons. 89. We have then in the Cauvery delta a moist alluvial area in which two distinct and therefore, according to the soil subsidences of soil-moisture regularly take place, one of theory, there ought to be two periods which is more considerable and prolonged than the other, and of special liability. W e should, according to the soil theory, expect to find two periods of cholera prevalence, one of more constant occurrence and greater importance than the other. If we now turn to the actual facts regarding the Extent to which facts agroe with prevalence of cholera in the district, we find that there is these a priori conclusions. * . , * at least a certain amount of coincidence between them, and the a priori conclusions of the soil theory, for we find, Ist, that " Trichinopoly and Tanjore are generally most severely attacked in the season of the north-east monsoon ;" and "-Ind, that in the year 1869 cholera prevailed in Tanjore town "in August, September, and October, and again in December."f Very much stress cannot be laid on the latter fact, which appears to coincide so perfectly with the requirements of the theory, as in other parts of the district we find it noted as prevailing in "November and December," and " from September to the end of the year \" and, in default of actual knowledge of the localities in which such was the case, it is impossible to determine whether there may not be local reasons for variation. At all events we have the broad general fact that in this area the prin- Principal season for cholera is the j { f cholera prevalence coincides with that of main dry weather or the north-east monsoon. X . . . ...' ? . . , ? subsident fluctuation m soil-moisture, and the occurrence of exceptions merely points out the importance of accurate investigation of the local conditions coincident with them. 90. In connection with this, it is noteworthy that in this moist alluvial area in the south of India, as in the lowest part of the Ganges son, while in Mysore and the districts to the north of the Cauvery, as in the districts above the Ganges delta, we find it prevailing during the moist weather of the south-west monsoon. We have two widely separated areas of prevalence in the dry season of the year, and two areas of prevalence in the moist season. That the seasonal conditions for prevalence should be reversed for districts so very distinct in characters of soil as the delta of the Cauvery and the Mysore country are, is plainly in accordance with the views of Professor Fettenkofer, but it is not so easy to trace the same accordance in the case of the Ganges delta and the deep soils of Upper India. Still the fact remains, that in two areas with a moist soil cholera is a disease of the dry weather, while in two with a very dry soil it is a disease of the rains. * Macpherson. t Itejwrt on Cholera in Southern India, for the year 18Gf» t by the Sanitary Commissioner for Madras. Parti] pettenkofer's theory illustrated in madras. 25 91. In regard to the town of Tanjore, situated as we know it to be, not on the alluvium of the delta, but on the apex of a spur of higher ground, Is Tanjore subject to the conditions tJie q Uest ion arises whether the conditions affecting the delta of the alluvial soil ? hold Thfl q{ th& oq which th(j town situated has already been alluded to as consisting of lateritious earth over a soft grit. Now, this o-rit in o-eneral is so porous that no water rests upon it, and only here and there it is retentive enough to allow of accumulation of surface water, so that in order to obtain water, the wells have to be sunk into it for a considerable depth. In fact, the wells appear to be sections carried through this stratum to the level of a body of water continuous with that permeating the soil of the delta. That such is really the case appears to be indicated by the following table, showing the water-levels of Water-levels of wells. E J O - -j — — O wells situated at various points of the gradually sloping ground which the town occupies Wells in upper part op Wells in lower part op Ikb town. the town. No. Water-level. No. Water-level. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches, 1 22 7-5 1 15 05 2 22 0-5 2 14 6-0 8 20 0-5 3 13 110 4 19 30 5 18 4-0 6 18 40 7 17 70 Allowing for the gradual subsidence of the ground towards the delta, the levels in the above wells correspond so closely with one another and with the th dT" general water-level of the delta, that there appears to be small Water in the wells seernin: tinuous with that permeating t room for doubt that the water exposed in the wells is a por- tion of a body of soil moisture continuous with that on the delta, and affected by the same conditions as influence it. 92. Although this appears to be the ease with the wells at Tanjore, it can by no means be predicated of all those throughout the spur, as is clearly manifest from the following facts regarding Vallam kindly supplied by Mr. Cadell, the Collector of the Tanjore District. " There are three principal wells at Vallam from which villagers, almost without exception, draw their water for drinking purposes. These are situated at a distance of about 150 feet from the high level tank, Wells at Vallam. and about 15 feet below the tank Calingulate ; the soil being laterite, the water percolates from the tank, and the water in the wells rises and falls with the supply of water in the tanks. " Vallum Wells. w T«*oi j on (i, i Distance of water-level from surface No. lotal depth. in January 1871 _ Feet. Inches 1 44 0 2 34 0 3 37 0 4 38 0 5 46 3 Feet Inches. a n ( Near the high level 4 oj" tank tanko q ( Towards the dip i a A < of the laterite for- ! C. inations. Vallam is situated on the highest part of the spur, and at an elevation about 80 feet above Tanjore. It lies close to the edge of the higher ground, which does not here subside gradually as at Tanjore, but dips abruptly to the level of the delta. There is a very large amount of laterite in the soil, occurring in beds of several feet in thickness, and it is plain from the facts regarding the wells that the conditions of soil-moisture prevailing here are different from those at Tanjore, so that, according to the soil theory, we have no right to expect an exact coincidence between the cholera occurrences of the two places. "What the conditions under which the disease occurs at Vallam are have yet to Vallam less liable to cholera than be ascerta i ne(^ but the locality is at all events known to be lanjore. ___i, !„„„ +„ «V^l/«.- 4-l.«« rr • __j _i ;a__a_j much less prone to cholera than Tanjore and places situated on the alluvium of the delta. 93. In Tanjore the principal source of drinking water is a large deeply excavated tank, the sides of which are lined with stone. It is situated Water-supply of Tanjore. within the small fort, and receives the drainage of the higher ground outside the walls. From this various channels pass 1) 26 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [Part I into smaller tanks within the town, but a large number of the inhabitants derive their water directly from it. The water in it (tide Note A), although of a red color from the lateritious nature of its drainage area, is, in as far as microscopic evidence goes, very free from organic impurities. The natives, although very partial to it, ascribe the abundance and aggravated character of the elephantiasis endemic in the town to its use. As usual in an irrigated district, the staple article of diet is rice ; and, seeing that the new grain comes into the bazaar in the end of December Dietary of inhabitants. and beginning of January, the native mind is provided with a satisfactory explanation of the coincident seasonal development of cholera. 94. There are two additional facts to be noted, respectively, regarding the town and district of Tanjore : I*^, the town affords an example of Tanjore on a soil abounding in later- a locality with a soil abounding in laterite, and at the same ite and specially prone to cholera. ? j. i i xi i i_v. i j v time prone to cholera, thereby opposing the views advanced by some as to the essential inhibitory influence of a lateritious soil independent of its physical condition ; Znd, the district of Tanjore abounds in trees and is specially prone to cholera. In such a highly cultivated district as this, there is of course very little jungle, but the _. . . _ . . „ abundance of hedge-row trees is everywhere so great that District of Tanjore. swell wooded. the de lta, looked at from the more elevated ground of the laterite spur, presents the aspect of an almost unbroken forest. This appears to indicate that the mere presence of an abundance of trees does not exert much protective influence if associated with high cultivation and a dense population. 95. The main facts relative to the normal development of cholera throughout the Tanjore district present many features which seem to accord Main cholera-facts are accordant _ ii -+V, +V, a ™il fl,™™ nnrl olflimin.li if 1,« ™. Q ™r. well with the soil theory, and although it would be premature to found any conclusions on the phenomena, it is yet with the soil theory. noteworthy that in the cholera season of the north-east monsoon of 1870-71, there was, up to the close of January at all events, and in concidence with a high river-level, some apparently inhibitory influence Cholera of 1870-71. at work, for although isolated cases of, cholera occurred, there was no epidemic development of the disease.* 96. Trichinopoly. — The district of Trichinopoly is situated to the north and west of Tanjore, and is divided into two unequal portions by the Cauvery. The town or fort of the same name is situated Situation of Trichinopoly. on the south bank of the Cauvery, immediately opposite the island of Sreerungum, which, as previously mentioned, is formed by the primary division of the river into its two main branches. A little above the town, an irrigation channel of Town surrounded by irrigation considerable size, the Weycondah, passes off from the river, curving round to the south and east, and giving off numerous branches in its course. One of these is connected with the river by a narrow channel which, passing close to the eastern side of the town, completes the circle of water surrounding it. Immediately around the town, and between it and the suburbs, the ditch of the fortifications was situated, and still in part remains as a shallow hollow choked with weeds and full of stagnant water. A great portion of it has, however, been recently filled up, and the area so gained converted into a boulevard. At the northern end of the town, the celebrated rock of Trichinopoly rises abruptly from the level ground. Immediately around it is a narrow, slightly elevated area formed by The rock. the first projecting surfaces of rock, and from which it rises almost vertically. This terracelike elevation is separated from the rest of the town by a wall and forms the rock fort, while on the rock itself every available space is occupied by pagoda buildings, one of which is situated on the very summit. 97. There are numerous wells within the town, but the water in them is generally of _, , „ .... , . inferior quality, and the main source of drinking water is Tanks, wells, and their water-levels. ? • i j i •" . o n ? , , ° ?, furnished by a series of very fine stone-lined tanks, which are connected with one another and are supplied with water from one of the river channels. From these the inhabitants, save the Brahmins who use the water of the sacred Cauvery, derive their drinking water. The water-level in the wells, when examined in January 1871, varied slightly in different instances, but in all cases was superficial. Measurements were taken in two wells with the following results : — No. Water-level Feet. 9 12 Inches. 1 2 a 0 * For microscopic characters of the waters, vide Note A., 47 — 51, The soil on which the town is built is red and apparently very shallow, as rock crops out in all directions in the sides of the channels surrounding- Nature of the soil. Nature ot the sou. .^ generaUy in a state of a d van ced disintegration, but here and there hard and seemingly unaltered. 98. The cantonment is situated about two miles distant from the town, and separated from it by the Weycondah channel. It occupies a portion of a plain from which isolated masses of gneiss of the same character as the Trichinopoly rock protrude in various places. The soil is red, gravelly, here and there containing laterite, Cantonment. Nature of the soil. and resting on the usual basis of rock. 99. Water is present in abundance, and close to the surface. Its quality varies greatly in the different wells, in some being brackish, and in others \^iter-suppiy. of excellent quality. The following table shows the results obtained by measurements of various wells :—: — Wuter-supply. Water-level from No., &c, of well. Depth of well. surface. No. 1 well, used by Infantry Feet. Inches. 31 0 Feet. Inches. 18 6 No. 2 well in Poothoor, used by 26th Regiment Native Infantry 19 0 11 0 No. 3 well, used by Artillery ... 15 0 8 2 No. 4 well, in William's .Road ... 27 0 16 0 There is very little ground under wet cultivation within the cantonment, but all round the town there are numerous paddy-fields. 100. The Central Jail occupies an open, slightly elevated portion of ground at the base Situation of District and Central of one of the isolated rock masses before alluded to. The Jails ' soil here is of the same description as elsewhere, and the rock is close to the surface, as shown in the sides of the wells. The old District Jail is situated close to the town in a low piece of ground, " rendering drainage difficult." 101. The island of Sreerungum, in which the celebrated pagoda town of the same name „,..,„„ is situated, is low, flat, and only very slightly elevated above The island of Sreerungum. ? . T , . i v • i i i 11.111 1 1 the river. It is sub-divided by several shallow channels, and is apparently in most part a mere alluvial deposit, the loose soil being permeated by water at no great distance from the surface. In one well, in which measurements were taken, the water-level was in January 1871 at 13 feet 8 inches from the surface ; and as the natives stated that the well throughout its whole depth was excavated in soft soil — a statement confirmed by its earthenware lining — it apparently is depend- The Cau^ in th ; a^. hl source of ent on the river for its water-supply. Few of the inhabitants derive their drinking water from the wells, the majority preferring to bring it from the Cauvery, which also naturally serves as the source of supply to the pilgrims. The whole surface of the island is under high cultivation, and there is much paddy ground around the town. 102. The district and town of Trichinopoly has long enjoyed an unenviable reputation as ~, , specially prone to cholera. As previously mentioned, the Cholera season. J- JJ- „ ? , J . . > dry weather ot the north-east monsoon is the season in which the disease manifests itself in epidemic fashion, travelling gradually down the Cauvery from the north-west, and breaking out in force during, or shortly subsequent to, the great Sreerungum festival in the latter part of December. 103. The soil conditions in this district are much more varied than in Tanjore, and the changes in soil- moisture must almost necessarily be very Son condition* 1 in the Trichinopoly much i ess regu i ar an fl uniform. Some parts of the district, district less uniform than in I amore. „ P ? , i,i, r -it-i-ii as tor example those places around the town, sub-divided by P-"imerous irrigation channels, and more especially the island of Sreerungum, must be fluenced by the river, as regards conditions of soil-moisture, in exactly the same way as c low ground of Tanjore. In other portions, however, where, as in the cantonment, there is an absence of channels and a shallow rocky soil, it is not so easy to see how the river can exert any very general influence, and here probably the local rainfall is of more importance. 104. As regards the town itself, the local authorities state that cholera generally appears _ , , . 111 h w first, and manifests itself with greatest intensity in a suburb of One suburb is specially liable. . ' _Tr . .... ,° . . , •' ? ? the name of Varaganen. 1 his is situated on the east side ot Kwn on the low ground occupying the angle formed by the junction of a channel from the ondah with the small channel previously alluded to as passing directly from the river, svel of the water in these channels is, when they are full, almost flush with the surroundround, and well adapted for the irrigation of the neighbouring paddy-fields. The 27 28 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [Part I channel from the Weycondah is closed, and remains dry during February, March, and April, when the river has become low, and the water in the Weycondah not more than sufficient for the supply of the villages further to the east. While it remains open the inhabitants of Varaganeri derive their drinking- water from it, and during the time it is closed from a shallow tank situated on one side of it and filled with water Sources of drinking water in Vara- fe ft There KQ j,- weUs in the ym &g t))e gaueri. . j i* 1 j.ii i ii. i people rely almost entirely on the channel and tank as sources of water. The water-level in the small number present is quite superficial. In one, in which its height was measured, it was found to be at 6 feet 8 inches from the surface. The soil appears to be of the prevailing shallow character, and in some places rock surfaces are exposed. The streets in the village are narrow and very dirty, contrasting, in the latter respect, most unfavorably with those within Nature of the soil. the town, and many houses show distinct evidence of the dampness of the locality in an abundant growth of green algoid matter covering the lower parts of their wells. 105. In the physical conditions of this place, we certainly have everything which is supposed by the soil theory to favor the development of cholera, PhyBlC deve?f tSbS SSert* 0 for we have a lowJ y in S area of shallow, organically polluted soil lying in the angle formed by two irrigation channels, and consequently subject to great fluctuations in soil-moisture, dependent on the varying amount of water in them. We also find that the cholera season coincides with the occurrence of a subsident fluctuation, and commences, not when the channels are at their lowest, that from the Weycondah channel entirely closed, and the inhabitants of the village restricted to the concentrated water of the tank, but while the channels are Cholera season begins before the gra d ua n y subsiding after the floods of the north-east water has become concentrated. ° J ° monsoon. 106. In the area originally included within the town walls, the most interesting locality, as regards the soil theory, is the Rock Fort, as it appears to be almost impossible that any of the assumedly important soil The Rock Fort. conditions for cholera development can be present within its limits, except in extremely localized spots, seeing that the rounded and sloping surfaces of rock, covered as they are by a mere trace of soil, must secure rapid and perfect drainage into the lower part of the town, and thoroughly prevent the accumulation of any fluctuating body of soil-moisture over the general area. Unfortunately no information of a really accurate nature regarding the occurrence of cholera here, as compared with its occurrence throughout the Data regarding Jto occurrence of of the t()w^ ag yfit recorde d. The information attainable in the Municipal Office was to the effect that the inhabitants of the Rock Fort suffered severely from heat, but that cholera had never prevailed in it, the asserted exemption being ascribed to the scantiness of the population, due to the employment of many of the buildings as Government offices. The Tehsildar, who has been for a considerable length of time at Trichinopoly, and who is a man of great intelligence, confirmed this as regards the last ten or eleven years, stating that, while during that period cholera had frequently prevailed severely in the town, a very few cases only had occurred in the Rock Fort. Regarding the occurrence of the disease at any previous period, he did not profess to know anything certain, but had heard that it once did prevail severely. 107. Of course in such a locality the mere occurrence of isolated cases is of little value as evidence against the soil theory, for, as it is surrounded on all Cases must show distinct evidences s [^ es j )V areas presenting the conditions for the development 6° f of the disease, not only is there the liability to the occurrence of imported cases, but, considering the narrowness of the area which ought to be exempt, and the fact that it lies immediately around a huge mass of bare rock which must tend to establish an inward draft of air, there will always be a liability to the intro- duction of the assumed poison developed in the surrounding soil.* If, however, any satisfactory evidence should at any Influence of the rock. future time be obtained, showing the spread of the disease from a centre within the Rock Fort, it will certainly be very much opposed to the universal applicability of the soil theory as at present expounded. 108. The District and Central Jails, presenting as they do such marked differences in their physical surroundings, appear likely to afford a very Facts regarding^tl^_ District and va i uab i e ft e \ d f or f uture observation. Up to the present time they have shown decided differences in their respective liabilities to cholera, for while the low-lying District Jail is subject to the disease, the Central Jail, on an open and high site, has as yet enjoyed a total immunity. This immunity is, at present, of comparatively little value as evidence for or against any theory, as the jail has only been in occupation since 1867, and even were its occupation of much longer duration, the immunity would certainly be capable of being interpreted so as to favor almost any theory ; for although in comparing the localities we find the soil Capable of various interpretations. conditions of the Central Jajl to be legg favorable than those * Vide page 151, regarding a similar influence at St. Thomas Mount. of the District Jail to the development of the germ of the soil theory, we also find much greater isolation in the former than in the latter. In the meantime, the fact of the immunity of the Central Jail appears to be worthy of record, for the sake of comparison with the results which may be expected in the future from the careful observations of two localities so near to one another, and affording- such excellent fields for exact investigation as jails necessarily do. 109. That cholera should be specially partial to a locality such as Sreerungum is thoroughly in accordance with the views of Professor Pettenkofer, for, not Special liability of Sreerungum per- j are jj th i mportant goil conditions of organic contamifectly accordant with the soil theory. i I t> . 3 nation and fluctuating soil moisture present, but the seasonal development of the disease as an epidemic coincides with a subsidence in soil moisture; that is to say, the seasonal development of the disease occurs under the conditions in which it ought to occur in any locality with a superficial water-level and a soil liable to saturation. It is manifest that there are abundant facilities for the introduction of material to be locally developed, for, in a pagoda town to which pilgrims resort in large numbers and from different parts of the country, there is a constant liability to introduction of the disease or of the elements leading to its development ; and when once the poison exists, whether due to direct importation or local development, it has a very fair field for its operation. 110. Proceeding to the consideration of the facts regarding cholera in the seasonof 1870-71 , the first thing to be noted is that, as at Tanjore, the disease, although occurring in isolated cases, appeared to be unable to Cholera in 1870-71. diffuse itself as an epidemic, at all events, until the end of January 1871, for up to that date only 58 cases had occurred in the town, and these were quite scattered, and gave no evidence of diffusion from any common centre. The great Sreerungum festival had also passed over with the occurrence of only ten cases of cholera, half of which were treated in hospital, while the remaining five, due to the native prejudice, did not come under treatment. The small number of the cases could not be ascribed to want of material for the poison Small number of cases in Sreerun- to work upon, for although, owing to the efforts of the gum not to be ascribed to any want of civil authorities in various districts, the number of pilgrims material for the poison to work upon, wag sma \\ ev t h an ugua^ yet tne con course amounted to 15,000 or 16,000, and afforded a very fair field for the operation of any disease requiring mere human intercourse and contagion for its propagation. On the other hand it cannot be ?, . . , , , ascribed to non-introduction of the poison, for there was and the poison was introduced. , .. , ? „ x , iiii.l enough present to produce the few cases above alluded to. The disease was present, but some condition or conditions unfavorable to it prevented its diffusion. A purely contagion theory therefore failing to throw any light on the phenomena of the year, we have next to consider how far other theories answer. There can be no doubt that there are here strong points for the theory which rerongpom soricwa ci leoiy, gards choleraically polluted water as the direct exciting cause of the disease, for there was a smaller rainfall by 3"5 inches in December 1870 than in December 1869, and consequently there was less likelihood of the in-washing of choleraic materials. At the same time heavy showers did occur during and shortly after the festival, so that there was by no means a total absence of opportunities for the introduction of the poison. On the other hand the but showers did occur, conditions under which this exceptional exemption occurred, present some very decided features of accordance with the requirements of the soil theory ; for and the soil conditions present were Cauverv was unusually high for the time of year, and those tending to exemption. .• .. , •> ° ... , n . •'. n ' consequently all those areas more directly under its influence contained an unusual amount of soil water. But many places not immediately influenced by the river also contained a very large amount of soil moisture in the end of 1870 and beginning of 1871. That this really was the case was manifest from the condition of various wells in the cantonment, and from the fact that the excavation of Water-levd .^ J™* 00 ™ 1 weUa new ones in the Central Jail had to be temporarily stopped, owing to the height of the water-level threatening to cause wholesale in-washing of the surface soil. That the water-level in these places was absolutely higher than at the corresponding time of the previous year, cannot be asserted, as there are no data on the point. It may at first sight seem to be impossible that it should have been otherwise than lower, seeing that the total rainfall for the year, although 2 - 9 inches above the average, was yet 6*5 inches below that of the previous year, 5*41 inches of which difference being due to October, November, and December rainfalls of the respective years. The state of the river must, however, be taken into account ; for although not directly determining the amount River may indirectly influence con- or soil-moisture in these places, it appears probable that ditions of soil moisture in localities not a high river level, and consequent large area of soil directly directly affected by it. permeated by its water, will do much to counterbalance a diminished local rainfall, by preventing the rapid drainage of the soil water derived from the latter. In regard to the general cholera facts of the district, it is very manifest that it is quite _ - ? . . premature to draw any definite conclusions regarding their Definite conclusions premature. r , , . . " ? . , • n j_i precise bearing on various theories, and more especially on the 10 29 soil theory, for in a district in which various areas are subject to such very different influences ¦. .1 • . •• • 11 i 1 i C il __ 1 J 1 l S» a •!_„.!•_ _n as regards soil-moisture, it is only by accurate data of the seasonal and local distribution of the disease that conclusions of any value can be reached.* 111. The Ceded Districts. — The only localities which were visited in this part of the ™ ... j ¦ „j „ t^- ? i Madras Presidency were Bellary, Gooty, and a village between Places visited in the Ceded Districts. ? , ? -, i v l • v.:«u „ „ l i j-u l naces visitea »me ceaea tenets. the Kumoolj ia which a gevere local oatbreak of cholera occurred in January 1871. 112. These districts present great variations in the nature of the soil prevailing in various parts of them. As a general rule, the soil is shallow, in many places extremely so, especially in the neighbourhood Characters of the soil. of the numerous ranges of low, flat-topped hills which traverse the country in all directions and divide it into a number of circumscribed plains of various sizes. The nature of the soil, as well as its depth, varies greatly in these plains, for while near the hills it is usually red and gravelly, in the centre and lower parts of the level ground there is frequently much black cotton soil, and in some places, especially near the water-courses, large areas of almost pure sand. The transition from the black to the red soil is often extremely abrupt, a distinct line of demarcation between the two being sometimes visible even within the limits of a single field. 113. It is quite plain that these two soils will be very differently affected by the addition of any given amount of moisture, for the red porous soil Red and black soils are differently n ii nwH wn + pr + n „„<;« fj,,-,,^ U vprv ranidlv whilo ihf oMtnr, allows water to pass through it very rapidly, while the cotton soil, although very porous, does not allow water to pass affected by moisture. through it rapidly, but absorbs a large amount of it, at the same time swelling up and increasing in bulk to a great degree. 114. The rainfall throughout the Ceded Districts is small in amount, owing to the existence of hill ranges on either side, which shut them off Rainfall. from the sea and prevent the occurrence of much rain with either monsoon. 115. Here, as in the case of the Mysore country, from the general shallowness of the soil and the moderate rainfall, we should, according to the soil According to the soil theory cholera theory expect to find the period of general cholera diffusion ought to be a disease of the moist season, , ?J, r.. . r . . ft . ? . , coinciding with the season in which the soil is kept moist by the rains, and not with the dry weather of the north-east monsoon ; since during the dry weather, and when the rain has once fairly ceased, the shallow soil in many places must almost immediately pass into such a complete condition of dryness as to render it quite unfit to afford a nidus for the development of the supposed germ. As in Mysore also, but to a ? . ? , , , , ? more decided extent, owing to the greater amount of soil and there ought to be local exceptions. ... *. + fi l l r 1 <-" +¦ variations, we may expect to find localized exceptions as to seasonal liability, dependent on the various conditions of soil moisture caused by natural position, artificial accumulations of water, or meteorological peculiarities of special years. 116. Now we find that the facts of the case accord very closely with the a priori Facts accord with these assumptions, conclusions of the soil theory; for the normal season for widespread general diffusion of cholera is during the south- west monsoon, while at the same time scattered cases, and small, though severe, localized outbreaks may and do occur throughout the whole year. It is hard to see how contagion can throw any light on these phenomena of seasonal A contagion theory and theories of prevalence, for the south-west monsoon certainly does not rtwt^hrSS^cKS facilitate traffic or intercourse over the greater part of the seasonal occurrence, Ceded Districts. Theories laying great, stress on concentration of water and its contained impurities also fail, and the only theory which appears to be able to hold its own, as compared with the soil theory, is that which regards direct pollution of water as all-important, for the rains X^SywSSnot hat ° fdireCt of «« south-west monsoonf may no doubt be alleged to tend to facilitate the entrance of choleraic impurities into the sources of water-supply. 117. Bellary. — The station of Bellary is situated at the base of an isolated rocky mass, which projects abruptly from the middle of a flat, hill-surrounded plain. The ground slopes very slightly from the foot of the Situation of Bellary. rock, and on this sloping surface the greater portion of the cantonment is situated. The rock is composed of " granitoid gneiss," and on two sides descends abruptly to the plain in smooth bare sweeps and The rock. curves. The remaining sides, instead of showing continuous rocky surfaces, are covered with irregular boulder -like masses, heaped on one another in fantastic confusion. The summit, as is usual in similar situations in this part of India, is surmounted by a fort, and at the foot * For microscopic characters of waters, vide Note A., 52 — 66. t This statement of course refers merely to theories as to local development. 30 on the southern side, occupying a portion of slightly elevated ground, is the lower fort within which the entire European force of the station was located previous to the construction of the new barracks. The lower fort. 118. Immediately to the south-west of the lower fort is a tank, which, occupying a portion of the ditch round the rock, and receiving 1 the water drainage from the bare rocky slopes above, forms the source whence the garrison and the greater portion of the remaining inhabitants of the station derive their drinking water. At a short distance to the south of the fort is a large surface tank, or what is a tank at the close of the rains; for although at that time the water occupies an Large tank. area of several miles in circumference, yet, on account of its extreme shallowness and large exposed surface, it very rapidly diminishes in quantity and soon dries up altogether, leaving a large piece of ground in which various wells are sunk, and on which cultivation is carried on. 119. The new barracks are situated at some distance from the fort on an open and very , „ slightly sloping surface. There are two native bazaars at Situation of the new barracks and of B fl u * g and if there truth in the soil theory, both of them are unfortunately situated relatively to the large surface tank; for while one, Cowl bazaar, occupies the low ground subsiding imperceptibly into the bed of the tank, the other, Bruce Pettah, is situated immediately beyond the bund which retains the water at the opposite end. The former bazaar is close beneath the walls of the lower fort, while the latter is removed from it by the whole length of the tank. On the opposite side of Cowl bazaar from the fort there is a shallow nullah, the sandy bed of which is a water-course during the rains, and close to which the native cavalry lines are situated. o , it *• , ,• O n the other side of these lines towards the rock, and ex- Situation of the Native Cavalry lines. j. v p ji j^/^ii-u -A i J tending from the upper end or Cowl bazaar, is the ground occupied by the greater number of the European houses of the station. 120. The soil is almost everywhere extremely shallow, still there are considerable local variations in its depth, as the outline of the rocks beneath is very irregular and the amount of their disintegration very Nature of the soil. various, so that the contour of the surface can by no means be taken as an accurate index of that of the sub-soil. This is clearly demonstrated by some of the sections presented by the shallow watercourses, in which it is very easy to see that in a portion of ground with a smoothly sloping surface, there may be numerous localized spots in which water is retained. The surface soil is in some places of various shades of red, in others almost white, and is everywhere extremely open and gravelly, due to the abundance of fragments of undisintegrated rock. In many places it is almost impossible to draw a line separating the soil from the decomposing rock from which it is formed. The direction of the foliation of the rock is very irregular, for while in some places it is horizontal, in others it is almost vertical, and in still others it occupies all intermediate angles between the former and the latter position. 121. There are numerous wells in and around the station which afford a scanty supply of water, in many cases of very hard and brackish quality, and only reached at a considerable depth. It appears Wells and water-supply. hardly possible that these wells, with a water-level far removed from the surface and deeply sunk in the rocky strata, should, as a general rule, be capable of affording any exact in- formation of conditions of moisture in the soil above. In- Wells, as a rule, incapable of affording formation on this head can, in a locality with a soil and mois'ture 1011 regarding conditions of SGI1 ' sub-soil of the nature prevailing here, be only approximately attained to by taking observations on the condition of sur- face accumulations of water in tanks, &c, for the layer of water shown in the wells is in many cases of no importance in regard to the soil of the locality in which it is exposed, being effectually separated from it by intervening layers of hard rock, above which the local changes in soil-moisture occur. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind that it is quite possible that in certain places this deep-lying body of water may be the first and assumedly influential layer, as, where Local exceptions. the foliation of the rocks is vertical, and their disintegration has advanced to a considerable extent, nothing in the way of an impermeable partition may intervene between the surface of the soil and that of the water, and moisture applied to the former may speedily drain down through the loose soil and fissured rock to the latter. The well from which the men of the Native Cavalry derive their drinking water appears to be an example of the former class of wells, for although it is situated in the middle of a crowded grave- Well affording drinking water to the jth ig no ev id e nce of the use of its water producing any Native Cavalry. "in A+l 4- . " ' 1 . I V, l evil results, and the water in microscopic characters showed no signs of organic contamination. (Fide Note A., 70.) 122. As regards the occurrence of cholera in Bellary, there are several facts to be noted ; . „,. Ist, the disease, as in the other parts of the Ceded Districts, Facts regarding cholera m Bellary. rpoilavt>l , r nvava a a AnyA ny i ntr +\> a cmntl,.,™^. mmaftftn • 4#/J, in regard to the station during the epidemic cholera of 1869, we find that only 21 deaths occurred out of a municipal population of 37,015, and Cholera of 1869 in Bellary. that „ the attention bestowed upon this station by the military and municipal authorities appears to have had a favorable influence in warding off epidemic diseases or diminishing their severity ;" 51A, the rainfall at Bellary in 1869 only amounted to 11 "62 inches, the average Rainfall in 1869. . , .., . ? „ ._, . rainfall of the station being 24*7 ; §th, during 1869 Amount of cholera in the district. ? I . Jil , , . . i-j.-j.ptjh i j? -\ir there was little cholera in the district or Bellary before May, but it spread rapidly and prevailed severely after the fall of the early rains. 123. In considering the bearing of these facts on the soil theory, it is to be remarked — Ist, that the special liability of Bruce and Cowl bazaars appears to accord well with the requirements of the theory, as these localities, owing to their Special liability of the bazaars is osition re l a tive to the large tank, must be exposed to a accordant with the soil theory. •i i i n n , 8 , . . ..1 - , * special local amount of fluctuation in soil-moisture, a great part of Cowl bazaar being situated on a piece of ground which must be affected by the obstruction of the natural drainage which causes the accumulation of water in the tank, while Bruce Pettah, situated as it is immediately below the bund, is exposed to the gradual percolation of water from the tank into the soil beneath it ; 2nd, that the fact that the lower fort was formerly the site of frequent and severe outbreaks of cholera is not so easy at first sight to adapt to the soil theory, as, taken as a whole, the locality is such that any general diffused accumulation of fluctuating soil-moisture and organic impurities seems almost precluded. Still, as previously noted regarding the station in general, the formation of the soil is such that localized accumulations of water and of organic matter may easily occur beneath a sloping surface. In regard to this fort also, as in regard to the rock fort Influence of thyock on the lower Trichinopoly, we must take into account the inward current established by the heating of the huge mass of bare rock be- neath which it lies, rendering those within the walls liable to be exposed to the influence of morbific agents manufactured in the immediately surrounding localities, and while at Trichinopoly the rock fort is closely surrounded by the town, at Bellary, just beyond the fort walls, are Cowl bazaar and the large area occupied by the fluctuating moisture of the surface tank. Want of thoroughly accurate data, as usual, prevents any definite conclusion being formed, but the above considerations may at least serve to show that the occurrence of cholera in an area such as this is, is no satisfactory demonstration of error in the soil theory. 3rd. — That the facts regarding the cholera of 1869 present various features, which, in as far as they go, are deeid.. , c -.n™ • * , e( Uv in favor of the soil theory, for we find, Ist, that the Facts of ]869 111 reference to the i- 1,1 1 • , 1 , . / ? -? , . . -? ¦, , . soil theory- disease, although introduced into the district, did not spread until the occurrence of the early rains ; and, 2nd, that the station of Bellary enjoyed a marked relative immunity coincident with a local rainfall, and consequently an amount of soil-moisture very greatly below the average. This latter fact would, of course, be of much greater significance if it could be compared with data regarding the rainfall and soil-moisture throughout the district, as cholera, while very slight in the station, prevailed severely in some other places. That the Rainfall of 1869 not below the • pll o -ioan ¦**¦ 4. 1 1 j.u j-i i j. J.i average throughout the whole district. "f™ 1 ?° f ,1869, 1869 f aS not boloW the average throughout the whole district is demonstrated by the fact that at Ramand- roog, only 38 miles from Bellary, the rainfall was 39-6 inches, the average being 360 inches. This implies that at evea such a short distance the rainfall, in place of a deficiency of 13*08 inches, showed an excess of 36 inches. 124. In connection with this point, it is to be noted that the concentration of the water Concentration of water-supply failed impurities due to drought, supposed by some to be so very to induce great development of cholera, influential in inducing wide diffusion of cholera when intro- duced by human intercourse, did not appear to do much in that way in this instance at least. 125. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that the facts are capable of an interpretani. r loan i r , tion favorable to the theory of direct poisoning by means tacts of 1869 in reference to the j? j. n ji jc-j. • c n jiti- i water theory. °* water ; for the same deficient rainfall, establishing an abnor- mally dry condition of soil, may be regarded as tending to prevent the in-washing of impurities into sources of water-supply. But it must be recollected that this hardly affords a very satisfactory explanation of the small development of the (iisease after it was fairly introduced into the station, and when from the occurrence of the Macpherson. PETTENKOFEIt's THEORY ILLUSTRATED IN MADRAS. 33 Paxt I] 21 cases before alluded to, we must, according to this theory, concede that there had been a poisoning of sources of water-supply.* 126. Gooty. — Gooty is situated in the Bel lary Collectorate, and almost due east from the station of that name. It has always been celebrated as a cholera locality, and if human intercourse has any influence Situation of Gooty. on the introduction of the disease or of its germs, it is easy to see why this should be the case, seeing that the town occupies a locality from which the Bellary, Bangalore, Cuddapah, Kurnool, and Raichore roads radiate from a common centre. It occupies a hollow at the base of a range of low hills on which the fort is situated, and in the concavity of the semicircular curve which it forms. To the west of the town the ground sinks to the level of the general surface of the low country, but in all other directions the ground is so much elevated around it as to conceal it completely until it is actually reached. 127. The soil around is red, very porous, and full of fragments of stones of all sizes. Rocks of various kinds crop out through it in all directions, and in many places the surface over wide areas is covered with Nature of the soil. white, snow-like saline incrustations. Although very dry and arid in appearance, the country is by no means so devoid of vegetation here as near Bellary, and the dryness of the soil is at certain times of year more apparent than real. In February 1871, the wells, unlike those of „ .... „ ? . , Bellarv, showed water in the gravelly soil within a few feet Conditions of soil-moisture. „,, * n . , m i \-^ -A • , of the surface. A tributary of the Pennaur river passes at no oreat distance from the west of the town, flowing over a very shallow and sandy bed, while closer to the town on the same side is a very large, shallow, bunded tank. In the level ground on either side of the stream are numerous small marshy Tank. patches, whilst in February 1871, almost every shallow excava- tion either contained water or showed evidences of having very recently done so. 128. The rains begin to fall in the Gooty district in May, and from May to August is said to be the season in which Rain and cholera. cholera usually prevails. 129. The inhabitants of Gooty and the surrounding country depend on clwlum as their main article of diet, and although they have no idea of any special tendency in new grain to produce cholera, they never- Diet of the inhabitants. theless consider it generally unwholesome, and consequently are cautious in using it. 130. In the cholera season of 1869, there was a considerable prevalence of the disease in the town, and it is noted that although prevailing at the railway station and in the population resident in the neighbour- Cholera of 1869. hood as early as April, it nevertheless did not reach the municipal town till the 30th June, the distance between the two places being only two miles. During the season of 1870, there was Absence of cholera in 1870. no cnolera in Gooty, despite of the usual influx of enormous numbers of Triputty pilgrims in September who halted at Sir Thomas Munro's choultry. 131. Time having been available only for a very cursory examination of Gooty and the neighbourhood, it is not easy to pronounce definitely as to Soil conditions are such that different the bearing of the c h o lera phenomena presented by them on places ought to have different seasonal , => Ti • r ±i l 1 c j.i l liabilities 7 the soil theory. Judging from the state or the country in February 1871, it certainly appeared that in many places, as for instance near the railway station, the soil conditions of moisture are such that the disease ought, according to the theory, to prevail during the dry weather, as in these places the porous soil is permeated by a superficial body of water. In other places, however, the conditions are very different, the soil being very shallow and rapidly drying down to the rocky sub-soil, and in these a prevalence during the rains might be looked for. It appears probable that the town of Gooty itself belongs to this latter class, as, due to its position relative to the hills, its soil must during the continuance of the rains be subject to great fluctuations in amount of moisture, while at their close it must rapidly pass into a state of extreme dryness, due to its shallowness, and the facilities for rapid, drainage of surplus moisture into the lower ground. There is, however, no satisfactory evidence on the subject, and the most important point to be noted at present in regard to this district is that in it we find such variations in the characters of the soil as must, if the soil theory be valid, induce corresponding variations in the seasonal liabilities to cholera of various places ; and that in order to estimate the applicability of the soil theory to it, we must have definite inform- Accurate information as to local ti regarding the localization of the disease throughout distribution very important. . » => . . => periods of prevalence, and not merely information regarding the duration of such periods and the number of cases occurring in them. 132. Cottapully. — This is a small village on the road leading from Gooty to Kurnool, and was visited in February on account of its having been, shortly before, the site of a severe localized outbreak of cholera. Situation of Cottapully. It is situated immediately at the base of a small boulder-covered mound, which projects from the surface of one of those circumscribed basin-like plains which characterise this part * For microscopic characters of waters, vide Note A., 67 — 72. [ Part I 34 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. of the country. This mound is almost at the lowest part of the basin, close to a shallow dry watercourse, and is apparently the termination of a spur from one of the surrounding hill ranges, as a slightly elevated ridge passes between the two. The rocky basis of which it is formed is much and irregularly fissured, the rock in the neighbourhood of the fissures much softened and disintegrated, and the superimposed boulder-like masses surmounting it seem to be a result of the more advanced weathering of fragments detached in the same manner. 133. The soil from which the mound projects, as clearly demonstrated in a section __ . „ , ? afforded by a deep excavation at the side of the road, is red Nature or the soil. t " « * • ¦> i n i and extremely porous, in many places composed of almost pure gravel, and in all full of small fragments of stone. 131. The ground slopes slightly from the base of the mound to the level of the water„.,, ... , . . course, and on this slope, immediately below the rock, and Village dirty and crowded. ... '„ „.. r , , i_ 1 j. i ,¦% /» , with a few of its component houses absolutely on the first exposed surfaces, the village is situated. The houses are irregularly huddled together, the ground uneven, and in some places absolutely sloping towards the rock, and the whole place very dirty and crowded with human beings, cows, buffaloes, and goats. 135. The village is, as usual, almost surrounded by walls, the main entrance being by a w , , gateway opposite the rock. Close to this gateway, between it and the watercourse, is a shallow open well, which constitutes the source of supply of drinking water. At the time of inspection, the water in this was at a level of about 10 feet from the surface of the ground, and was reached by means of a flight of stone steps. The sides of the well are lined with uncemented stones. At a few yards distance from the other side of the watercourse, there is another shallow well, which yields water for the irrigation of a small patch of paddy ground situated close to it. The surrounding country is open and tolerably flat, until the hilly boundary of the basin is reached. 136. There is a considerable quantity of ground occupied by fields of cholum, castor-oil, &c. Few trees of any size are present, but there are numer- Cultivuted ground. ous low stunted ones, especially along the line of the watercourse. 137. The circumstances of the outbreak of cholera in January were as follow :—Accord„ , „,, ? ,-.,, ing to information derived from the office of the Assistant Facts of the outbreak of cholera. „". „„ , „ , ,rA ? . "aiouaui Collector of Kurnool, a party of about oO pilgrims, returning slowly in bullock bandies from Sreerungum to their homes in the Nizam's territory, arrived at Cottapully on the evening of the 23rd January. They had left Sreerungum about 20 days previously, just at the close of the festival ; there is no evidence showing that they suffered from cholera previous to their arrival at Cottapully, and there was no cholera known to exist at that time in any of the villages on the road which they had No cholera between Gooty and traversed between Gooty and Cottapully. They remained at Cottapully until the morning of the 24th, and during their stay three of their number were attacked with cholera, but were t:iken with the rest when they left to proceed on their journey. Two of these died in the course of the day's march, and were thrown down by their friends at the side of the road at Yeldurti, a village between Cottapully None at V ldurti anc^ Kurnool, while the third recovered. The pilgrims now proceeded on towards Kurnool, but were fortunately stopped, turned out of the main road, and conducted by a circuitous route into the Nizam's dominions ; no more cases occurring amongst them while in British territory, or for the next few weeks at least, or other villages through which the in any of the other villages through which they had passed, pilgrims passed. sa ve Cottapully. Next, to return to the consideration of the occurrences in that place, we find that cholera broke out on the 25th, the day after the departure of the pilgrims, spreading rapidly and continuing to manifest itself until the 4th of February, up to which time 50 cases and 19 deaths had occurred. After this no more cases had occurred up to the 17th February, when the place was visited. 138. There are several very interesting points to be noted in the phenomena of this outbreak :—lst,: — Ist, here in a small village, and coincident with the arrival of pilgrims from Sreerun, , , gum, we find five times as many cases of cholera occurring Five times as many cases of cholera ¦> • ;i , v a -i. m . *to in Cottapully as in Sreerungum. as occurred in the town of Sreerungum itself, at a time when, in addition to the ordinary resident population, there were 15,000 to 16,000 pilgrims present. A case of this kind appears to point very distinctly to the importance of the existence of some local condition, quite independent of the mere presence , . of cases of the disease, in order to secure the sreneral devpion Something beyond mere contagion , j j-m • ir i i i-i, i • 1 b necessary. ment and diffusion of cholera throughout any given place. 2nd, there is no evidence to the effect that the pilgrims introduced cholera into any of the villages on their way from Sreerungum. This appears to point to the same conclusion as the previous fact. But, 3rd, as they had been 20 days en route from Sreerungum without diffusing the disease, and as cholera Connection between cholera at Sree- i. qr i hovrilv Hppti iVila +r» mnnifpcf i+oolf tVioro fl^ n Li« j? rungum and at Cottapully not clearly J iad hardl y b^? n able ™ itself there the chain of eviestablished. dence connecting the Cottapully cholera with the Sreerungum festival is very far from conclusive. 4nson or syeneral exemntion. . J . . . .... *_ .. .. .. » .*¦ . X the season of general exemption. . . X, '. ..... * , ? ,'¦' /, X consistently with the validity or the sou theory and dependent on local peculiarities of the soil.* 139. As general conclusions of these enquiries into the soil theory, as applicable to the phenomena of cholera in the south of India, I would General conclusions. state — Ist. — That with the present extremely imperfect data, it is quite premature to decide exclusively in favor of any one theory regarding the localization of cholera. %nd. — That several of the existing theories may really involve partial truths, and that they only become incompatible with one another when insisted on as absolute and entire explanations. t 3rd. — That although in the present report much stress has been laid on the soil theory, it is not on account of any assumption of its essential superiority to the others, but because it appears to be little understood in this country, and to be regarded with a considerable amount of prejudice in consequence. It has seemed to me, therefore, very desirable that the existence of any facts in its favor should be distinctly put forward, and the more so, that there seems to be enough of these to forbid the wholesale rejection of the theory, and to warrant the continuance of careful observations which may teach in time the laws of the association of ground moisture with the propagation of cholera. PART II. MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. 14.0. Seeing that the examinations of choleraic evacuations have up to the present time ¦ not yielded results warranting the formation of definite conthe cliaiac .te« of choleraic de- elusions regarding many most important points, perhaps the most satisfactory method of reporting on them is to show, as far as possible, what are the principal characters of such evacuations in Calcutta, leaving the facts in great measure to speak for themselves and to be interpreted at some future period. I have therefore compiled the accompanying table from my notes regarding 100 different evacuations derived from as many consecutively occurring Ot ' fvacuadoL.^ ° h ° lmla cases, and shall now proceed to the consideration of each of its columns in detail. * For microscopic characters of the water, vide Note A., 73. K Error is almost always partial truth, and so consists in the exaggeration or distortion of one variety by ression of another which qualifies and modifies the former." — The Genesis of Species. 35 Table showing the Principal Characters of 100 Cholera Evacuations. g~~ PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS. ¦Js . _ ¦ " "1 1 ! :| I Fluid. Sediment. T^^lT R — C — El , o « " -g i uum - eles. Cercomonads, Bacteria and ri "o ditto. . I I Abundant.whitish „ „ T^ None ... Ditto ditto. flocculent. y few ... „ - Abundant greenish-yellow " ii » >> •¦• » ••• " " "' cells with one or inure clear protrusions. 8 „ „ Faint pink ... „ ... „ .. One cercomo- Scanty ... „ Very abundant. )„ „ Yellowish ... Yellowish floe- „ „ Abundant ... Not noted Not noted. Pinkish ... WMtf*" .- „ .. None - Scanty Very abundant. Notnoted ... Notnoted ... „ .. Abundant cer- Notnoted Notnoted. comonads. One do. ... .. ••• „ Abundant. " " " " None ... Very few ... „ Very abundant. " " "t" t ... " ... ',', ',', Very abundant „ ••• „ Abundant. " " cercomonads „ „ Very abundant Abundant ... „ „ 5 do. ... Very few ... Sarcina None. " " " abundant. Last ante- „ Pinkish ... Grey flocculent „ „ A. few do. ... Abundant ... None Very abundant N™t°noted ? „ None ... Very few ... „ Abundant Not noted Reddish brown... White flocculent .. - Hardly any ... „ Very abundant Two-thirds of Greenish flaky ... „ A few ... Abundant ... „ A tew dear hard evacuation green- outlined. „ green- Grey „ ? ... , Abund^t ... Someof these^ular ?, lsh &«*¦ plastic movement. 22 „ „ Two-thirds prey „ ... „ „ Abundant Very abundant. 23 „ „ Four-fifths grey- „ ... „ „ Very few ... „ •¦• „ *ew. ish brown. ? , , . 2i „ Notnoted ... Notnoted ... „ „ Few, both cer- „ ... „ Very abundant. comonads and amceba;. X,, Yellowish ... Grey ... „ „ A few ... Very few Lasteva- „ Tbree-fourths Large greenish „ „ Very abundant Abundant ... „ „ cuation. pinkish yellow. white flocculi. „ 27 Notnoted „ Pinkish grey ... Large loose grey ? Abundant None ... Very tew ... „ „ floeculi. red cor-28 „ „ Watery, grey ... Scanty large grey „ J&F? One^ecrcomo- A sprinkling... „ A sprinkling... 29 „ „ Yellowish grey, Scanty" '' ... „ A sprink- Abundant ... Notnoted ... „ Notnoted. reddish above ling. 30 „ „ Gr S e e y]lh e brown... Large white floe- „ Numer- None ... „ ... „ Ver^ M^y of tte *»**«£* cuh - ous - fractive. double outline. 31 ¦ " T !S^ Powdery grey... „ None... Few ... Few A sprinkling... Oa^edmu^dlge^ 32 „ „ Greyish brown Large grey gelati- „ „ ? ... Mere trace ... „ Very abundant with pinkish nous flocculi. 33 „ „ PaVe^yellowish One-fourth large I „ „ „ ... A trace ... „ Abundant ... Much undigested vegetable I grey. gelatinous and ussue. 34 „ „ Pale brownish Powdery grey ... J „ A few ... Numerous ... Notnoted ... „ Notnoted. 35 „ „ Fogfth. yel- Large grey floe- I „ None... None ... „ ... „ Very abundant. Theflakejwere Mltfttg 36 „ „ OneSd'grey. Powdery dirty „ „ „ ... Very abundant „ Scanty. and ova^ccUs .MjM^f re^" able size and containing Hevcral distinct small masses within them. 37 „ „ Watery pale brown Large loose brown- ! „ „ One or two... Notnoted Very few ... This was a very slight case. j^ grey floo . | Som^ of the floccuh 38 sth Alkaline Two-thirds pale White ... A very Abundant Abundant ... A mere trace... „ Very abundant. grey. few. ¦ . . ... 39 „ „ Clear watery ... Few large gelati- ; A few ... None ... ; None ... „ ... „ | A sprinkling. nous flocculi. I .. T 40 6th Three-fourths pale Powdery white... None ... „ Abundant ... Very energetic „ Numerous. piukish. granules abundant. 41 3rd „ Two-thirds br )wn- Large grey white „ A few... None ... A few ... „ A few. 42 sth „ Two-thlrd^'pale Not°n CC o U te l d ... „ None... A sprinkling Abundant ... „ Abundant ... A few of the circular cells ' brownish grey. were of ver y lar S e slze slze-43 sth Highly Two-thirds pale White Very ab- Few ... A sprinkling... „ Very abundant « Notnoted AtoUne Brownish^nk 7 ' Scanty large grey „ "^f™* „ ... Very abundant „ None ... This was la doubtful case, noecull " from chronic dysentery. 45 6th , One-half pale White ... „ None... None ... A sprinkling... „ Very abundant Some of these were very *° " ere _ * " retractive, clear, and ag-46 sth Very al- Colorless ... Scanty ... ; „ Numer Notnoted ... „ Very abundant- gregated in masses. 47 4th a ,, me ' Two-thirds dirty Grey powdery ... I „ None... ? ... Abundant ... „ A sprinkling... These cells weremarked by *' " brownish *'"•"»»' " having a very hard sharp 48 Notnoted „ Grey, turbid ... Powdery ... „ A sprinkUng... „ Abundant S^ffi^J^g 49 „ „ Grey, watery ... Large whitefloc „ „ A sprinkling Abundant ... „ „ • ly denned. Phosphatic crystals abuudant. 36 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. C Part ii Table showing the Principal Characters of 100 Cholera Evacuations, — continued. g PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS. | , 6 g § Infusoria. 1 ~| I Fluid. Sediment. corpus- ~~ ~~ ~~ Fungi. °^ a^* 11 S I*'1 *' Rbmahtiitg Chabacthbs. 0 ° " g " uul- cles. Cercomonads, Bacteria and cuiar cellB< 2 oB « amoeba;, &c. Vibriones. 1& W , fio 6th Very]"al- Two-thirds watery Powdery, dirty None ... None ... Abundant ... Abundant ... None ... Abundant ... Cells very clearly denned kaline. grey. and circular. ? 7th „ Half grey, watery Large gelatinous „ „ None ... A mere trace... „ » pale grey floeculi. 53 4th „ Two-thirds grey Powdery grey ... „ „ A few ... Abundant ... „ „ The cells of large size, distinct outline, and refraction. 53 6th „ Three-fourths „ ... „ „ Abundant ... Considerable » >> Many of the infusorial brownish. numbers. bodies here were freely crawling amoebae. 154 Bth „ Grey, watery ... Scanty pinkish I „ „ A few ... Abundant ... » A few ... Much undigested vegetable grey. tissue. 55 „ || Very abundant, Powdery pinkish „ „ „ ... Not noted ... » Abundant, watery grey 56 Not noted „ Half grey, watery Large grey gela- „ -Abundant „ ... Abundant ... » A few ... The infusorial cells eonsisttinous floeculi. Ed of large freely crawling amoeba;. 57 7th „ Two-thirds dirty „ ... „ A few... „ ... A sprinkling... 11 Abundant ... Many of the circular cells grey. were of large size and contained several distinct included bodies. 58 Notnoted „ Transparent ... Scanty, very gela- „ None... None ... Mere trace ... n Very abundant. tinous 59 6th „ | Palo greenish Scanty, white ... „ „ Abundant ... A few ... » Abundant. yellow. 60 stn » ; Two-thirds yel- Large loose grey „ „ „ ... Few ... » Many ... The majority of the still lowish watery. floeculi. cells were dim and rapidly , disintegrating. 61 Not noted Faintly Thick turbid yel- None ... „ „ None ... Abundant Abundant ... The latter cells all marked alkaline. low. by a double outline and clear refraction. Case in reaction. 62 4th Alkaline Two-thirds watery Powdery white... „ „ Very abundant „ ... ¦¦ » ... These also almost all double outlined. 63 Notnoted (| Dirty brownish... Powdery ... „ „ A few ... Not noted ... » » ••¦ Many of the still cells of large size. 61 » „ Notnoted ... Notnoted ... „ ? Abundant ... „ ... ,» » 65 10th v Watery ... Large loose gela- Very ab- ? None ... Very few .'..' » >> ••• These cells of small size tinous floeculi undant. and shrunken. 66 Notnoted |( (| bluish... Scanty larco gela- None... „ „ ... A mere trace... » » tinous floeculi. 67 Ist „ ! „ greenish Powdery ... „ Abundant Very abundant A sprinkling » Very abundant. 68 Notnoted „ „ ... Abundant large „ None... A few ... A few ... » Abundant ... The still cells of small size white floeculi. and shrunken. 69 ii „ „ grey ... Very little ... „ Abundant None ... Notnoted ... » A sprinkling. 70 „ „ „ ... „ ... „ None ... Abundant » None. 71 ii Alkaline, One-half dirty Powdery grey ... „ „ A few ... Abundant ,„ » Ver y abundant. becoming ! brownish, neutral. 72 >, Very al- Clear ... Very scanty ... „ „ „ ... A sprinkling... » » kaliue. 73 ii „ „ ... „ ... „ „ None ... A mere trace .. >. A few ••• These cells double outlined. 74 ii „ Almost colorless Scanty white ... „ „ Very abundant Not noted ... » None ... The infusorial cells very rapidly disintegrating. 75 „ „ Transparent ... Very little ... „ „ None ... A mere trace... » A sprinkling... Cells large, circular, and granular. 76 » „ I Brownish ... Powdery ... „ „ „ ... Not noted >• Abundant. 77 6th „ I Two-thirds white- Large loose floe- „ „ Abundant ... A sprinkling..! .. A few •¦¦ The still cells dim and inish. euli. distinct. "8 4th „ Two-thirds grey, Powdery white... „ „ „ ... Very abnndant » A sprinkling... The still cells in masses, turbid. and with double outline. 73 sth „ Watery ... Scanty ... „ „ „ ... Abundant ... >¦ Abundant ... The still cells dim and disintegrating. 80 Notnoted „ Brownish ... Powdery ... „ „ None ... „ >¦ A sprinkling. 81 >» „ Dirty greyish ... n ... „ „ (J ... A sprinkling... 11 Abundant ... The cells very refractive, clear, and with hard outline. 82 n „ , Pale grey ... „ ... „ „ Abundant ... Abundant ... .» .. 83 .. „ ii brownish Scanty ... „ „ „ ... Notnoted ... » .. grey. 8* >) „ I Almost color- Scanty gelatinous „ „ None ... A mere trace... » » The majority dim, here and less. there masses with hard outline and high refraction. 85 >i „ | Yellowish ... powdery ... „ „ Abundant ... Abundant ... » » 86 >• ii Four-fifths yel- Powdery white... „ „ Very abundant „ ... „ „ lowish. 87 .. „ Almost color- white gelatinous „ „ A few ... A mere trace... » » ••• The still cells were rapidly less sp. gr. 1005. disintegrating. 88 ii ii Colorless, sp. gr. Scanty large loose „ „ None ... Notnoted ... » n 1005. floeculi. 89 3rd „ Watery ... „ ... ] „ ? A very few ... „ ... » None ... Flakes consisting of gelatinous granular matter. 90 \otnoted ( , „ sp. gr. Abundant, white „ „ A few ... Abundant ... Afewyeast Abundant. 1003. powdery. cells and sareinous masses. W Bth At first ! Pale greenish ... Powdery ... „ „ „ ... „ ... Yeast cells None ... This evacuation was not slightly ! abund- examined until. 14 hours acid, be- ant. after passed, coming j alkaline. 92 Notnoted Very al- Colorless, trans- Notnoted ... „ „ None •.. A mere trace... None ... Abundant. kaline. parent. 93 ii „ Dirty green ... Gelatinous ... ' „ „ „ ... Notnoted ... » A sprinkling. w n Alkaline, Muddy, sp. gr. Powdery, abund- [ „ „ n ... Abundant and „ A few ... Undigested tissue abuubecoming, 1008. ant. . of large size. dant. acid. 95 4th Alkaline Pale grey, sp. gr. Abundant, white A few „ Very abundant Notnoted ... ¦• Abundant. 1006. cells. 96 Notnoted „ Watery, clear ... Scanty white None ... „ Abundant ... A sprinkling... » » gelatinous. 9 ? || „ Pale grey ... „ ... „ „ None ... „ ... » „ ... Cells rapidly disintegrating. 98 6th „ Not noted ... Not noted ... „ A few ... Abundant ... „ ... „ „ 99 Notnoted „ Wate r y, color- Fine, white gela- „ None... A sprinkling... Notnoted ... „ „ ... The circular cells were dim less. tinous floeculi. and shrunken in appearance, 100 7th „ ' Pale yellowish Abundant, gelati- „ „ Abundant ... A sprinkling... » ? grey, sp. gr. nous. 1005. 37 MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. Lartll]L artII] 141. The reaction was determined ill 60 of the 100 cases. In 57 of these it was alkaline, in general very strongly so ; in one it was slightly acid, becoming alkaline as the paper dried ; in another it was Reaction. alkaline, becoming acid; and in another alkaline, becoming neutral. In almost every case this alkalinity persisted for days, and indeed for weeks, when the examination of the material was continued so long. In one Persistence of reaction or two instances, however, acidity subsequently supervened, apparently due to fermentive changes in the portions of undigested food present. The mere presence of abundance of undigested tissues, however, by no means necessarily induced this change in reaction, as in some cases in which such materials were peculiarly abundant, the alkalinity was at the same time very persistent. In connection with the question of reaction, it is to be noted that, in one or two cases in which there was no vomiting, and in which the treatment consisted solely of large doses of acid administered by the mouth, it was found on examining the evacuations that no perceptible change had been produced in their reaction. Unfortunately no quantitative test of the degree of alkalinity was employed ; but, in as far as the rough litmus test goes, no influence appeared to be exercised on the character of the evacuations. It is also noteworthy that in every instance, in a limited number of cases, in which the Cases in which acidity of the vomit- experiment was tried,, it was found that with no administraed matters coincided with alkalinity tion of acid, and while the evacuations from the rectum were of the dejecta. highly alkaline, the vomited matters were nevertheless as highly acid. 142. The fluid was in all cases watery in consistence, and almost always of a grey color, ....,, .. , frequently more or less tinged with a brownish, greenish, or Physical characters (A) of the fluid. 11 • i i. r i >j. P ,i , v v V l vp nwioh hnp n snrnp rasps hnwpvur if. rono noi-fonflir frono. yellowish hue. In some cases, however, it was perfectly trans- parent and colorless, and in others marked by more or less of a pink or reddish tinge. This pinkish coloration was distinctly visible in 11 of the 100 cases, in some of these being slight in degree and evenly diffused, in others more strongly marked and increasing in intensity towards the lower part of the fluid, so as to form a distinct red stratum immediately above the flaky matter of the sediment. Sometimes this pinkness coincided with the presence of distinct red blood-corpuscles, as revealed by microscopic examination ; but on the other hand it oftener occurred without manifest blood-corpuscles, and the latter again were in some Pink coloration of the fluid not ne- cases abundant, without imparting a trace of pink color to cessarily associated with recognisable th fl id _ j f instances the fluid was muddy and full of blood-Cells „ ? . . mil i i , fine yellowish or coffee-colored, suspended matters, but in such cases the evacuation was generally derived from a case which had already passed into the stage of reaction. 143. The specific gravity of the fluid in six cases in which it was noted was 1003, 1005, 1005, 1005, 1006, and 1008. The smell in most auuu, xvvu, ±uuu, iuuu, aim iuuo. Aiie smeii m mosc Specific gravity of the fluid. cageg wag of th\ {Vide Plate 11, fig. 2, A. B.) 147. It may be argued that the general absence of epithelium in these 100 cases was _? ? , merely accidental, and that by taking a larger number a This small percentage not exceptional. j-m j. v tit ? • j m Ii • t i i ¦*¦ tJ *¦ n I iTiirnn 1" i»/_ionlt~ wait f i\n Ai"vrni n A/i I a thic! I nnn ah lit vavihr different result would be obtained. To this I can only reply by stating that the results of the examination of all the choleraic materials, which I have had the opportunity of obtaining in this country, have been similar to those shown in the table. It may also be urged that the discharge of epithelium recognisable as such is a phenomenon confined to one stage of the disease ; but up to the present and not dependent on evacuations time I have failed to discover any stage which is characexamLed geS Of "^ bdng terised b^ the appearance of epithelial cells in the evacu- ations, although in very many cases, a considerable num- ber of which furnished the materials, the characters of which have been here tabulated, a systematic series of examinations was made of the evacuations passed at various stages of the disease, from a time when the greater portion of the evacuated material consisted of the debris and undigested tissues occurring in normal and diarrhoeal evacuations to the termination of the case, or until the establishment of reaction.* It is of course impossible to deny that some of the gelatinous matter and molecular debris, so abundant in certain cases, may be the result of the disintegration of epithelial cells. But in connection with the theory that the material forming the sediment in cholera evacuations is mainly the result of such disintegration, it must be recollected Why does the epithelium not appear in that it ig difficult on such a SU pp OS ition to account in the great tiie dejecta . „ „ , .-, , ,i ji_-i c mass of cases for the total disappearance in the discharges of the epithelial cells assumed to be shed in such abundance in the small intestine. Did the fiocculi consist of nothing but gelatinous and molecular debris, the non-appearance of the epithelium might be satisfactorily ascribed to a rapid process of disintegration, induced in the cells by the action of the alkaline fluid; but when we find them, as a general Other forms of^cells appear in abun. M{ of perfectly distinct cells, which, whether they be white blood-cells, gland cells, or " bioplastic" bodies derived from the blood, are not more resistent than epithelium, any explanation founded on the assumption that they are the result of disintegrated epithelium does not satisfy the requirements of the case. 148. That the alkaline fluid of choleraic evacuations does tend to facilitate the disintegration of most cells immersed in it, there can be little Disintegrate action of the alkaline doubt ; but, in as far as my experience goes, this influence acts with much greater rapidity upon the distinct, clearly- defined cells or protoplasmic bodies which usually characterize the evacuations, than upon the epithelial cells which hardly ever are to be found in them ; for while the former tend very rapidly to disappear, the latter persist in a recognisable form EP! S whic7c r oVmS;tcur the <°r days, even at those times of year when the temperature of the air is high and all decomposing processes rapid, and they show no tendency to the very active disintegration which has been assumed to take place within the intestine. 149. That the contents of the intestines, as ascertained by post-mortem examinations, do contain abundant epithelial cells, and in fact mainly consist of such cells immersed in a fluid like that of the evacuations, is a fact which is called in question by no one ; but the cells here are clearly defined and unequivocal, and show no evidences of assuming the appear- ance and characters of those which are found in the evacu- The epithelium found in post-mortem at i ons . p rom the very limited number of examinations of examinations is unequivocal in appear- , , • ¦ -r i_ j ru -i. ance< ** post-mortem materials which I have had the opportunity of making, I have no grounds for founding any opinion in regard to how much of this detached epithelium is to be ascribed to a post-mortem or imme- * For this method of progressive examination, a jail, such as the Alipore Jail, from whence many of the cases examined were derived, affords greater facilities than can be furnished by any hospital, seeing that it ia rarely in the latter tbat cases come under observation so early in the course of the disease as they do ia the former. dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [ Part II 40 diately ante-mortem process. But there always remains a possibility that a considerable amount is due to such processes, and that the absence of the cells, which I shall subsequently describe, and which, although not confined to cholera, are constantly and abundantly present in choleraic evacuations, is due to their rapid disintegration, whicli is of actually observed and not of assumed rapidity, as we shall see hereafter when we come to their consideration. Even a very limited number of post-mortem examinations may, however, show that a cholera ease may prove fatal with very little detachment and destruction Cases may prove fatal with very of ep it O elium, and may serve to suggest that such a process, little affection of epithelium, ?. * ,„ ' ; . J . . ,v a i-j.iv although frequently occurring- in the course of the disease or shortly after its close, may yet have no essential connection with the production of the characteristic symptoms. That the destruction of epithelium is in some cases at least very limited in extent, I cannot but believe, seeing that in several of the post-mortems in which I have had an opportunity of carefully examining the intestines, the evidences of destruction were confined to a small portion — about two feet in extent of the ileum, immediately above the coecum ; for while in this locality the mucous membrane appeared thinned, congested, deficient in follicles and denuded of epithelium, yet throughout the rest of the intestine there was no evidence of denudation, and the epithelial lining only differed in appearance from its normal condition in presenting a somewhat macerated aspect. 150. The epithelium found in the intestinal contents, although sometimes very molecular and marked with distinct granules, was in other cases quite Epithelium in the intestinal contents c ] ear^ an J not to be distinguished in microscopic appearances sometimes molecular, at other times quite frQm obta j ned from cages • of other diseases. The normal. „ ? .., ? Jn ° , . appearances of the epithelium found in various cases is shown in Plate 111, figs. 2, 3, and 4. Fig. 2 shows epithelial cells from the contents of the small intestine. Many of the cells in this instance, as shown in the figure, had delicate, hyaline, bladder-like protrusions proceeding from some part of their outline. Fig. 3 shows a cast from the summit of a villas and numerous small, delicate, colorless vesicles,* at first very distinctly visible, but which were very evanescent, disappearing as red bloodcorpuscles sometimes do, the only evidence of their existence which remained being a very delicate and barely perceptible ring marking their former outline. Fig. 4 shows cells from the contents of the jejunum, as well as some peculiar bodies, possibly gland cells. The epithelium in this case appeared to be perfectly normal in its characters. 151. 11. Red Blood-Corpuscles. — In 14 per cent, of the cases tabulated, red bloodcorpuscles were distinctly visible ; in eight cases they were Percentage of cases containing red preseut [ Q abundance, their presence in some coincided with the pinkish coloration of the fluid previously alluded to, but more frequently with the common pale-grey or brownish color. The individual discs were frequently much altered in form, being distended, and elongated, oval or concavo-convex in outline. — (Plate 11, fig. 3 A.) As a rule, they tended to disappear very rapidly, so that an evacuation which showed them in abundance soon after its exit from the body, frequently after the lapse of a few hours retained none in a recognisable form. 152. This rapid disappearance of the discs is curious when taken in connection with the result of an experiment, in which a portion of a clot derived from a non-choleraic post- mortem examination was immersed in the alkaline fluid of Effect of the choleraic fluid on red choleraic evacuation; for in this case the fluid in place of blood-corpuscles. . „ ... , ' ? j; • , r-j.iv appearing to facilitate the disintegration of the discs, seemed rather to exercise a preservative influence upon them, so that they persisted in abundance in it for some days after they had almost entirely disappeared from two corresponding preparations consisting of portions of the same clot immersed respectively in water, and in the serum of the blood to which it belonged. In more than one instance solitary red corpuscles were seen to be included within cells, whicli were indistinguishable from the other circular colorless cells forming the mass of the sediment, and furnished an apparent example of the involution of red corpuscles by these cells. The various appearances presented by the blood-discs when occurring in cholera evacuations are shown in Plate 11, fig. 3 A, and those which appeared in the experiment on the artificial addition of choleraic fluid to blood-clot in Plate 11, fig. 3E. Although actual blood-discs were detected in only 14 per cent, of the cases in the table, evidences were not wanting in many others apparently indicative of the presence of their constituents as crystals. — (Plate 11, fig. G B.) Possibly some forms of blood-crystals were frequently present in small quantities, usually appearing in preparations examined after the material had been kept for some time, but occasionally while it was still quite fresh. 153. The chief objection to laying very much stress on the presence of blood-discs in choleraic evacuations in Calcutta appears to lie in the fact the o !^,^ WSJCS^ in * hat s ? ma^ PP e 7 sons ****«" *™ a more or less decided choleraic dejecta in Calcutta. dysenteric tendency, so that it is hard to say, from a Calcutta experience alone, how far the presence of blood is an essential and normal feature of choleraic discharges, and to what extent it may be incident * These were apparently similar to those described by Dr. Burdon Sanderson as "hyaline bodies which occurred in immense numbers in the contents of the large intestines of mice" (possibly stroniata of blood-corpuscles). Part ll] 41 MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. on a congested and unhealthy condition of the large intestine. For example, the patient from whom the evacuation No. 44 was derived was found to have been suffering" from chronic dysentery previous to the supervention of choleraic symptoms, so that there can he little doubt that the large proportion of blood-discs present in the discharges was mainly due to this disease. In other cases, however, in which blood-discs formed a prominent feature in the evacuations, there was no evidence of any kind to show the presence of dysenteric or other complications to which the phenomenon might be ascribed. 154. It may appear strange that no mention should be made in this place of the occur- rence of white blood-cells, seeing that the presence of the I iLS^SS!LiSI£tS^ red discs almost inevitably implies their presence also ; but it appears to be more convenient to reserve the difficult questions concerning them until we come to the consideration of the cells occurring in such abundance in the evacuations, and regarding which, while it is impossible to assert that they are all white blood-cells, it is equally impossible in many instances to point out any features by which they may be certainly distinguished from them. 155. 111. Infusoria. A. — Infusoria exclusive of Vibriones and Bacteria. — In 66 . . of the cases tabulated, such infusoria were present in greater or Percentage of cases containing infusoria, 1 ¦, I l, • • , 11 l less abundanca ; in some cases in very email numbers, in others numerous, and in one or two forming the most pro- exclusive of Vibriones, &c minent element in the sediment of the discharges. They presented various forms, but appeared to be reducible to three distinct types: — 1, Cercomonads; 2, peculiar monadiform bodies very distinct from the previous type, and, in as far as observation goes, persistently distinct, no evidences of the transition of one form into the other having been detected; 3, distinct Amoebae. I shall now proceed to Three distinct types. consider each of these types in detail, with the phenomena attending their appearance in cholera evacuations, reserving the questions regarding their occurrence in diarrhceal and healthy evacuations for a separate place. 156. The cercomonad type is certainly by far the most abundant and constant of those , , . occurring in the evacuations of cases of cholera developed in 1. — Cercomonads most abundant. /-i i n -i.li--.li p i- -l i Calcutta, and this is the case, as far as my limited experience goes, throughout the greater part of the Lower Provinces. Frequently they are the sole representatives of unequivocal infusoria (beyond bacterial and vibrionic bodies) present, while in other cases they occur in greater or less number, associated with bodies belonging to the two other types. They, as well as the others, are not confined to any particular stage of the disease, but are found occurring from the commencement of the case to its close, and occasionally in extreme abundance in the contents of the intestines after death. As a general rule, they appear in greatest numbers during the middle of the case, occurring Period of the disease in which they • .._„_,._ f - lv sm _ii ..-U- ;n; n t i lft ---l:-- AV nnmLtinmi. in comparatively small numbers in the earlier evacuations, increasing in abundance as the disease advances, and finally chiefly abound. diminishing or totally disappearing towards its close. The length of time in which they persist in any given evacuation varies greatly, for in some cases, although very abundant and of great activity when the material in which they were present had been very recently passed, „,,,,,, ? ?. they became motionless, and even totally disintegrated within Rapid disintegration and disappearance. J , ?. ,i , ? "> ?, ° , n it a very short time, so that an evacuation, which when freshly passed afforded specimens showing them in abundance in every instance, after the lapse of an hour or two gave no evidences of their presence, or at least tailed to show any of an unequivocal and characteristic appearance. In other cases, however, they remained in full activity, and in undiminished, if not increased, abundance for several days, only disappearing gradually with the advance of decomposition in the surrounding medium. The process of disappearance could in some instances be actually witnessed in a preparation while under observation, individual cells being seen to change their forms, become motionless, and shrink or absolutely break up into small heaps of amorphous granular matter. These variations in periods of persistence probably are dependent on changes in the nature of the surrounding Probable cause of variations in penis- me( ji unl f or changes precisely similar to those occurring in the cells in the natural fluid are frequently observed to follow the addition of re-agents, or even the slight change induced by the addition of a little water to it. 157. Putting aside the ordinary normal changes of form observed in individual cells, there still remain two forms to be distinguished from one another, connected no doubt by insensible gradations, but yet very distinct as occurring in the extreme members of the series. — (Plate IV, Fig. 1 A. B.) The first, and possibly the most prevalent, of these is mainly distinguished from the other by a fusiform outline, a homogeneousness of substance, a Characters of commonest form. very distinct flagellum, and the power of protruding extensions from its body. The cells are usually colorless, but occasionally of a more or less pronounced greenish or yellowish hue. They show no contractile vesicle, but vacuoles and one 13 or two minute granules or dark points are sometimes to be seen in their substance. At the posterior extremity is a delicate, variable process in the form of a tail, which is capable of adhesion to neighbouring 1 bodies, and thereby of serving as a point of support during the energetic movements of the cell. The length of this process varies greatly at different times, but it appears to be subject to complete retraction, and in fact to Caudal process subject to complete re- constitute mere ly a somewhat differentiated member of the traction. . y , . , , , , . „ ? series of protrusions which the body-substance of the cerco- monad is capable of emitting. Whatever its actual nature may be, there can be no doubt that it is of considerable tenacity, as cells may frequently be seen energetically swimming about and dragging after them, by means of their tails, masses of extraneous matter considerably exceeding them in bulk. While in a condition of full activity, the cells, in addition to showing a flagellum and tail, often present an appearance of being provided with cilia along one or both lateral aspects. This appearance of ciliation is however quite deceptive, in as far as it leads to the supposition of the existence Appearance of pseudocilia. of true or permanent cilia, for it is due to the rapid wave-like protrusion of portions of the bodysubstance. As the activity of the cell diminishes, these protrusions become more manifest, not only on account of diminished, rapidity, but by reason of increased size. — (Plate IV, fig. 1.) These figures show the changes of form actually observed to take place in one cell while under observation, and as these changes are on the whole typical of those ordinarily occurring, I subjoin an abstract of notes regarding them which were taken at the time of the observation. A common active oval cercomonad was kept under observation for three hours with the following results. Changes observed to take place in one cell. When first observed it had a distinct flagellum and tail, and was moving actively by means of the former and a series of fine pseudocilia along the margin! of the body. Presently the tail disappeared and the body began to emit large protrusions in place of the liner ones previously employed. These protrusions were either slightly raised conical elevations, passing in a wave-like manner along the margins, or were distinct elongated processes. When merely slightly elevated several protrusions frequently occurred simultaneously, but when elongated they were, at least in a fully developed form, invariably solitary. Even where several protrusions occurred simultaneously, they were usually limited to one side of the body, but occasionally they were present on both sides. The movement of the individual protrusions was from the flagcllar to the caudal extremity of the body, but each new protrusion was emitted anterior to the previous one. Movement of the protrusions. The action of the whole series was of a more or less rowing character, serving to propel the body forward through the fluid in the direction of the flagellum. When fully developed the processes appeared to be shot out with a considerable amount of force, at first as conical projections, but rapidly running out and becoming slender, in some cases to such an extent as to form a long delicate thread, while the Barcode appeared to have a tendency to accumulate at the distal extremity, giving the whole process a more or less capitate appearance. When the process had reached its maximum extension, a momentary pause ensued, and then the apex was swept round towards the caudal extremity of the body, the base at the same time moving slightly in the same direction. During this movement the process was gradually retracted and disappeared, and anew one -was shot out anteriorly Disappearance of the flagellum. jj° S° through the same cycle of changes. After some time the tlagellum disappeared, and the body remained moving by means of protrusions alone, which when wave-like seemed to run all round it. Gradually the protrusion of elongated processes ceased, and only a progressively diminishing wave-like action persisted, the body at the same time becoming somewhat shrunken, and showing a faintly marked double outline. During all this time changing vacuoles had been very distinct, and now one or two granules came clearly into view in the interior of the body. Presently all movement Ceased, and the cell appeared as a minute, oval, shrunken body. After remaining in this condition for a short time it seemed to swell out, became circular, and in few minutes broke Final disintegration. down into a patch of fine granular matter, containing one or two large refractive granules, and quite indistinguishable from the surrounding granular debris. 158. The second variety of cercomonad (B) is distinguished by being usually of a fusiform figure, coming to a point posteriorly, and being abruptly Characters of tal variety of cer- rounded off anteriorly, by showing neither a visible flagel- lum nor distinctly developed protrusions of body-substance, and by being always decidedly molecular, softly shaded and marked by distinct and often prominent granules. The individual cells vary very much more in size than those previously described, being in some cases extremely minute, and in others twice the size of that figured. — (Plate IV, fig 1 B.) Their movements ars in general much less energetic than those of the previous form, or they comparatively seldom attach themselves to surround... ? . ing bodies by their posterior extremities, and hardly ever, They hardly ever emit protrusions. • * , ,• -, ,i J . YVjX » * m as far as my observations go, emit the protrusions so characteristic of the former variety. They sometimes co-exist with that variety, and at others appear to replace it almost entirely. 159. Both forms are capable of rapid multiplication by a process of transverse division, ?. . . and both are probably mere varieties of one species, being VT ° CC ™ eS £^tZr dVrOhMe variations due to peculiarities in the nidus in which they •* ,1 _ _1 ill • are developed, or normal developmental stages occurring independent of extraneous influences. 160. Perhaps the most important and interesting point in connection with the second form is the fact that, owing to their size and general aspect, They may be^ktakm for epitbe- specimens o f it may readily be mistaken for cylindrical epithelial cells. Of course, as long as their characteristic jerking and rotatory movement persists, this mistake cannot be made, but I have frequently seen 42 cells which, had they not been actually observed to pass from the active condition into a state of quiescence, could not have been distinguished from imperfect epithelial cells without the employment of re-agents. 101. Occasionally, along 1 with cells of the normal characteristic form, others are present in differing proportions, which show various degrees of They occasionally present a circular deviation from a pyri form contour, to such an extent in certain instances as to cause them to become quite circular. These circular cells retain the normal molecular shading and distinct granules, and move apparently by means of a delicate flagellum, which although itself invisible manifests its presence by the effects which its movements produce on the fluid and the surrounding solid bodies. Occasionally also these circular, or, more correctly speaking, globular, colls present an appearance of ciliation which is apparently due to the rapid action of minute protrusions of the body-substance, like those so frequently occurring in the previous variety. The cells however, whether globular or pyriform, never emit elongated protrusions. 162. The second monad form is distinguished by very definite characters, and shows no tendency to transition towards those of the common cer- 2 J/ 0 »«rf. of perfectly distinct char- comom( l_mi ate IV, fig. 2.) The cells are more or less ncters from the common cercomouad. ' \ „ ,°, , n . ? . flattened and ot a spathulate form, presenting two distinct surfaces and a narrow intervening margin. One of these surfaces is convex, the other flattened or slightly concave. At the pointed extremity of each cell is a very delicate filament, and near the same point on the concave surface, a few minute cilia or cilioid processes are sometimes visible, moving rapidly in the direction of the caudal extremity. All of the cells are colorless, and most of them almost diaphanous, showing merely faint vacuolation. A few of them, however, show distinct granules in their interior. As a general rule, they are neither so constant nor so vigorous in their movements as the common cercomonad, frequently lying for a considerable period entirely at rest, save as regards their cilia, and more especially as regards their flagellary processes, which are usually kept in gentle motion ; occasionally, however, they move through the fluid generally with their broad extremity foremost, at the same time rotating on their long axes. Perhaps the most curious and characteristic of their movements is an occasional downward flexion of Character of their movements. the posterior pointed portion of the cell upon the anterior expanded part. This movement is utterly unlike anything observed in the common cercomonad. It varies greatly in extent and rapidity, being in some cases so slight as to cause only a faint increase of the normal concavoconvex curve of the cell, in others so great as to approximate the two portions of the body to one another ; sometimes very slow, and at others rapid and of an energetic wagging character. When these movements are well pronounced, they serve to propel the bo ly onwards in the direction of the broad anterior extremity. In no instance was a cell observed to attach itself by its posterior filament, or to use it in any way as a point of support. 163. The)' do not appear nearly so frequently as the common cercomonad, and the most remarkable feature in connection with them is the extreme Not so frequent as the cercomonad. profusion with which they occur in certain ca?es, abounding to such an extent occasionally as to form by far the most prominent and characteristic feature in the discharges. Two of the cases included in the number of those from which the table of characters was But occasionally present in great comp iled s l lO wed this infusorial form in great abundance, abundance. i -r i n i i ,i , , ¦, ¦ i , and I shall here append the notes taken in regard to one of them at the time of observation. The series of evacuations from this case began with No. 62 of the table. Case 11, No. 62, of the table. — Case in which a peculiar form of monad occurred in very great abun- dance. — The patient was admitted shortly after the commencement of Case in which thcy^oceurrcd in extreme symptoms of the disease. Before admission he had passed three evacuations, and that first examined was the 4th. Ist. — 4>th Evacuation. — This consisted of a whitish, watery fluid, and a white powdery sediment. The sediment was completely separate from the mass of the fluid, formed about one-third of the hulk of the whole evacuation, and showed a few small portions of undigested food towards the bottom of it. The reaction was strongly alkaline, and the smell faint and mawkish. Microscopic examination afforded the following results. The fluid contained a considerable amount of active bacterium, and the flakes were full of granular debris and undigested vegetable tissues. Everywhere throughout both flakes and Microscopic characters of the 4th evac flu ; d there were numbers of cells of various kinds. Ist. -The most nu- merous cells present consisted of active cercomonads of the second variety, and both oval and circular in form. 2nd. — In point of abundance were numerous, very refractive oval and circular cells, all motionless and showing a very distinct double outline. 3rd. — Numerous active and still spathulate monads of various sizes. The active specimens were seen swimming through the fluid, revolving on their long axes and progressing sometimes in the direction of their rounded, and at others in that of their pointed, extremities. 4th. — Circular cells of various sizes, showing no evident nucleus, but containing granules of various sizes. Not a trace of recognisable cylindrical epithelium. 2nd. — sth Evacuation. — The general characters of this were identical with those of the 4th, save that the sediment only formed about one-fifth of the whole bulk. The microscopical characters were also similar to those of the previous one, but the flakes contained much less vegetable tissue, aud the cells, especially the small active spathulate monads, were present in considerably increased numbers. 43 2 r d, QtJi Evacuation.— This was almost identical in characters with the sth, but at the bottom of the sediment there were one or two totally undigested dhdl grains. Active circular cercomonads wore present in great abundance. 4,fh gf/ t Evacuation. — This was identical in characters with the 6th evacuation, but full-sized, active and still spathnlate monads were present in greatly increased numbers, in both flakes and fluid. s£/,_ QtJi Evacuation. — This consisted of a large quantity of almost colorless fluid, and a scanty sediment of distinct white gelatinous flocculi. The reaction was alkaline, and the smell mawkish. At the bottom of the sediment were a few totally unaltered grains of dhdl. Microscopic examination afforded the following results. The fluid was quite clear, and contained a mere trace of Bacterium. It was everywhere full of spathulate monads of average size. Many of these exhibited the characteristic flexion movements, others were motionless, but still retaining their characteristic form and clearness of outline, while others showed various degrees of endosmotic swelling and disintegration. None of the small active cells so abundant in the first evacuation of the scries were to be detected. There was no evidence of the presence of epithelium either here or in the flocculi, and only a few granular, circular cells. Wherever a portion of any of the flocculi was thinned sufficiently by pressure to render its structure manifest, it was found to consist of a minutely molecular gelatinous basis, in which myriads of spathulate monads, and a few molecular circular cells were embedded. Many of the former bodies were still active, and those which were not were easily recognisable from their peculiar form. — (Plate IV, fig. 2.) Even while under observation, the process of disintegration proceeded rapidly ; those cells which were at first active becoming still, Rapidity of disintegration. and the still ones becoming more and more ill-defined and dim, until they were utterly indistinguishable, and all thafremained was a layer of gelatinous material in which molecular and granular matter was irregularly distributed. On the following day specimens of the same evacuation were again examined, but they were then so thoroughly disintegrated as to retain no characteristic features, and showed merely amorphous gelatinous flakes strewn with granules, and at rare intervals including more or less recognisable cells. 164. There is a considerable amount of difficulty and numerous sources of fallacy to be encountered in proceeding to the consideration of Ammbce* 3. Anicebse Plates 11, fig. 1, B, I , aU( j o f ie f., c^ s m connection with their occurrence in choleraic figs. 4, 5, 6. evacuations. It is hardly possible to estimate with any exact- ness the percentage of cases in which such bodies occur, and the proportion in which they are present in any given jase, seeing that no definite line of de- ImpossilHlity of laying down an ac- marcation can be laid down which shall clearly separate uncurate line separating true amoebee d , )( d j / f U to th h organism and from ainuuhoid cells. , . " I I » which exhibit amoeboid movements. There appears to be no test by which they can be distinguished from one another, and no characteristics peculiar to the latter bodies which the former cannot assume. Still there can be no doubt that there are cases in which cells which may be properly designated Amoeba do exist, for although these cells do not exhibit contractile vesicles as the higher Awwba, do, neither do many of the Amoebee found- in infusions of various kinds do so, and their movements are not confined to changes of form and emission of protrusion, but in addition to these involve free progression through the media surrounding them. The fact of the existence of such bodies complicates the questions regarding the nature of the corpuscles, which I believe, although not peculiar to cholera, are constantly found in this disease to an extreme degree ; for until some test be discovered which shiill absolutely distinguish the former from the latter, it is clear that any decision regarding the amount of bodies in any given case, which are to be regarded respectively as extraneous Amwba-, and as intrinsic corpuscles resulting from the development of cells or bioplastic elements proper to the organism, must be more or less arbitrary and dependent The distinction must be more or less 0]) assumpt jOIKj 0IK j t wou u c a bsurd to pronounce anthorita- tively that one portion of sareode, bioplasm, or whatever it may be styled, is extraneous, because it moves freely and crawls from one field of the microscope into another ; and that another similar mass is intrinsic, because it merely shows changes of form and emits pseudopodal protrusions; for although the latter class of cells may be incapable of assuming the more developed activity of the former, it is a matter of constant observation that the former, at certain times and under certain conditions, may pass into a state of partial quiescence, losing the power of free progression, and not regaining it while under observation, or even during the remainder of their existence. In the meantime, the safer course appears to be to note those cells alone as Amoeba which are actually observed at some time or other to be endowed with the power of free progression. 105. Even, however, if this classification be rigidly adhered to, we find a considerable number of choleraic evacuations, in Calcutta at all events, Numerous choleraic evacuntions con- j n which Amccba are present in varying numbers. In 18 tain freely-movmg amoeba). i-iij.ii -iij.i J * lri • per cent, or the cases tabulated, unequivocal freely-moving Amoebte were present. All the description which can be given of them is that they consist of portions of bioplasm of various sizes, capable of independent existence and of free progression. They are colorless and softly shaded, containing a varying amount of molecular matter and of distinct granules. The consistence of the body-substance appears to vary considerably, in some cases appearing almost diffluent, in others of firmer texture and greater refractiveness. In some cases more or less distinctly marked vacuolation can be observed. When in full activity they appear to be unprovided with any attempt at a cell wall, as protrusions are emitted from all parts of the body indifferently, but they are capable of * In strict accuracy the bodies occurring in choleraic dejecta are rather Protamceba; than Amoeba;. 44 passing into an encysted condition, and when in that state show an appearance of differentiation of cell and contents. This differentiation is, however, mainly a matter of appearance, as in those cases in which there is a resumption of activity, there is no apparent rupturing of the cyst, but a mere process of softening 1 and absorption of it into the body-substance. 166. They can multiply by a gradual process of self-division, in the progress of which the new cells or bioplastie masses may be separated These can multiply by gemmation. Qr may adhere c i usters Qr serieg of partia l ly unite d bodies. When in series they frequently very closely resemble Hallier's macroconidial chains. — (Plate VI, fig. 6 A.) The varying degrees to which the process of division has proceeded in individual Amoeba gives rise to many variations in form of the resulting 1 solitary or associated cells. In some cases we find figures of eight-shaped bodies, in others large cells with budlike protrusions proceeding from them, and in others again we find masses of small cells, the individuals in which are rendered more or less angular by mutual pressure. When the cells are fairly separated by division, they also vary consi- Various appearances resulting from d Wy in appearance, some being quite circular, others this process of gemmation. •> . i , , • , i , i i more or less cupped at one or two points, and others having 1 their contents shrunken to a greater or less degree ; the outer covering 1 or cell-wall being widely separated from them, apparently as the result of an endosmotic action. These processes of division are merely cursorily alluded to in the present place, as they may be more advantageously discussed in connection with certain experiments, the details of which are ¦ condition, be confounded with cells or bioplastic bodies in- trinsic to the human organism, but capable of changes in form and other bioplastic movements; 2nd, that they may, and actually do, in the processes of self-division give rise to bodies resembling the spores and chains of macroconidia described by Professor Hallier as occurring in one of the evacuations which he examined (vide infra ) ; 3rd, that in the course of a cursory examination small specimens may be readily taken for cells of intestinal epithelium, as, when they are fully extended, and at the same time only They may be mistaken for epithelial moving . very s i 0W i Vj they are capable of presenting appear- ances very similar to such cells. 171. One very interesting question regarding these amoebal cells is, whether they have any relation to the monadiform bodies previously described. In the course of my observations I have never been able to detect any positive evidence of the existence of any organic con- nection between them as I have never witnessed the direct Possibility of the exigence of a de- m . transition of one form into the other jat the same velopinentnl relation between the amco- . , ...„ , ? ' . . to and cercomouads. time, however, judging from analogy, it appears to be quite possible that a genetic relation may exist. This possibility was strongly suggested by the results of several series of observations on the developments occurring in aqueous solutions of choleraic dejections; for although in these, as in every other similar series, there was no reproduction of bodies precisely similar to those occurring in the recent evacuations, yet there was a very distinct development of amoeba? and monads which were undoubtedly members of one genetic cycle. 172. As details of this set of observations may be of some interest, I append a short abstract of the notes regarding one specimen in which such development took place : — On the 12th September 1869 a small quantity of a fresh cholera evacuation was introduced into a clean porcelain capsule, and one ounce of tank water which had been subject- Developmen^c^am^bx^n^monads in so- ed to pro l onged boiling and allo wed to cool was added to it. The preparation was then set on a metal tripod beneath a bell glass which dip- ped into a solution of permanganate of potash all around. Specimens from the film which formed on the surface of the water were examined daily with the following results :— l3th September. — Numerous delicate fragments of film had appeared on the surface. These on examination appeared to be formed of molecular and bacterial bodies embedded in a layer of gelatinous matter, which here and there showed thicker portions tending to cause a certain amount of lobulation of the film. 14th September. — The film was now universal and continuous over the whole surface. In some places it was of considerable thickness. On microscopic examination it showed myriads of active Bacteria, masses of Zooyloea and much gelatinous lobulated matter. 15th September. — The film was of increased thickness and strewn with distinct granules. A few large vibriones present. 16th September. — The lobulation is now highly developed. When the gelatinous basis of the lobuli was thinned out by pressure and examined with a TT l j-inch object glass, Lobulation of the JH^ and appearance of it wm found to cmhlhl numerou? vovy m j nu te circular and oval bodies, each of which appeared to contain within it a highly refractive granule (vide Plate V, fig. 3). They were solitary or in small aggregations or series. In the spaces between the flakes, of gelatinous matter there were swarms of minute and active bacterial particles. 17th September. — The cellules were present in increased numbers, and many of them were of larger size than those observed on the 16th and 18th September. Some of the cellules exhibited more or less decided amoeboid movements. 20th September. — The gelatinous lobules were crowded with Fully developed amaba>. fully developed Amcebce, many of which were slowly making their way out and crawling freely, or showing changes of form in the surrounding iluid (vide Plate V, fig. 4 A). 21st September. — The amcebea were encysting them- Helves in great numbers, the process being observed to take place in specimens under observation. 22nd September. — Hardly any unencysted specimens remained, and the flakes were full of cysts scattered or in masses (vide Plate V, fig. 4 B). 23rd September. — The fiakes were densely covered with encysted cells, which when in masses had frequently a more or leas pronounced yellow tinge. A certain number of active amoebic were still present. 24th September. — Oval and circular monads were present in small numbers (vide Plate V, fig. 4 C). 25th September. — The escape of similar monads from some of the encysted 1 * m cells observed. 26th September. -The monads were now present in abundance, and numerous empty cyst-cells were to be seen. The process of escape of the monads seemed sometimes associated with rupture of the walls of the cyst, in others with gradual 46 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. softening of them. 27th September. — The number of monads was increased and that of full cysts decreased. 28th September. — Very few cysts were now persistent. Discharge of active granules from, and disintegration of monads was observed to take place. Ist October. — The monads were now rapidly disintegrating and a new delicate tilm ¦b^««,*a <•„.„,.,*• r «! of molecular matter had begun to appear in the interspaces of the portions Renewed formation of a film. c,. . . , ,_,, .-P . , 'l T p ,' • j r . , oi the original one. 7th October. — Very few monads remained persistent and the new film was of increased thickness. Bth October. — No monads were now to be found, and the surface film showed merely the appearances presented at an early stage of the series of observations, i. c., a delicate, gelatinous basis full of minute Bacteria and molecular matter, and abundantly besprinkled with granules. The process originally observed was now repeated, and on the 13th of October the flake contained a new generation of Amoeba. And of a new generation of amceb*. On this occasion, however, it contained in addition patches of elongated motionless cells, whicli were subsequently developed into filaments. On the 16th monads began to re-appear. The fluid and sediment now gradually acquired a distinct pinkish hue. and on the 23rd hardly any surface film persisted ; the very faint film present showing abundant Bacteria and one or two monads, while the sediment contained an abundance of green encysted algoid cells. 173. The statement made at the beginning- of this account of developments in solutions _ . . ? , of choleraic material, that bodies exactly similar to those of One mass or tree bioplasm resembles ,i ? • i i i r , , i , i i i i the evacuations had never been observed to be developed, must of course be understood as applied to the monads alone, another. as many mass of mere amoeboid matter cannot be distinguished from one another in any way. In cases also in which the purely choleraic materials unaltered by the addition of water or any other medium were subjected to frequent examination during- periods of weeks, there was no re-development of monads identical in characters with those originally present, and in only one instance was there any development of amoeboid cells. In this instance after the evacuation had remained for several weeks untouched in a tightly stoppered bottle, it was found to be covered with a delicate film in which enor- Case iv which there was a develop- moug numbers o f amoeboid cells of various sizes and in differmentor amoeboid cells iv an unmixed .... „ .. . , , . , . choleraic evacuation. ent conditions ot activity, rest, and more or less decided encystment were present. The appearances of the encysted. and resting cells is shown in Plate V, figure 5, from which it will be seen that they presented a very close resemblance to the cells of a similar nature in the recent evacuations of certain cases. Although kept under observation for weeks, they were not observed to undergo any further development, but remained almost unaltered. The fluid in whicli they were present remained all along strongly alkaline in reaction. It will be understood that this instance is not quoted as proving the reproduction of Amoeba identical in their nature with those originally present, but merely as an example of an unusual development occurring in a choleraic material, for, as was previously remarked, one mass of bioplastic matter is just like another, and in order to ascertain the specific distinctness or identity of any two, their life history must be followed out. 174. B. — Bacteria and Vibreones. — As regards the occurrence of Bacteria and Vibriones, together with the " micrococcus" and leptothrix of Professor Hallier, there are many points in regard to which statements must be made only with the greatest reservation, seeing that our knowledge of the exact nature and relations of Necessity of caution in statements fthb di ,j , b j nc lvl vc l ec l un d er these terms regarding Bacteria and Vibriones. . J , , . n J . ml , is extremely vague and imperfect. There are, however, certain points in regard to which positive statements have been made which do not involve the obscure question of the specific nature of the bodies under consideration, but which refer entirely to the results of observation. On such matters the facts derived from an extended investigation have a direct bearing. 175. Statements have been frequently made tending to a belief in the existence of a peculiar development of Bacteria, Vibriones, &c, in choleraic as contrasted with other materials. In as far as my observations have gone, they do not at all tend to support any such belief ; for, Ist, as regards the fresh evacuations, in very No evidence of peculiar profusion of instances I have found the bodies in question showing such bodies in choleraic ineaui. J . . „ , . , ¦. ? ¦>, n a minimum of development, and the result of progressive series of observations on evacuations occurring during the course of cases of the disease have on the contrary tended to show that the more any member of such a series loses the characters of common diarrhoeal materials and assumes a truly choleraic aspect, the more do bacterial elements tend to diminish in numbers and development. There are no doubt cases in which such elements are abundant in the evacuations, even at an advanced period in the progress of the disease ; but this, in many instances, as Dr. Lewis has well pointed out, appears to be mainly dependent on a retention of the effused fluid within the intestines for some time, so that processes of decomposition have become established in it; 2>irl, in any choleraic material which is kept long enough to allow of the establishment of decomposition, there is of course a considerable development of the usual accompani- They develop abundantly in decom- men t s o f suc h a process, but certainly by no means a posing choleraic media. ,l_l™™ 't ny nn » i n nnv «m.v .lifforinf*. in out- peculiar development, or one in any way differing, in out- ward aspect at least, from that occurring in the evacuations of many cases of simple diarrhoea, or in other fluid media highly charged with organic mutter. 176. It is of course possible that, although there is no unusual development of Bacteria, Fibriones, &c, in point of numbers, the bodies which are developed may be specifically distinct. All 47 48 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [Part II that can be said in reply to this is that there is no proof of any such special character, for the bodies in choleraic materials certainly differ in no appreciable degree in aspect from those found in other decomposing fluids, and experiments on the development of fungi and other organisms as a result of cultivations of choleraic materials have not tended to any other conclusion, for not only has the specific cholera-fungus of Professor Hallier entirely failed to appear in such cases, but also only those forms have been developed which were generally prevalent on other decomposing organic materials in the locality No evidence of the existence of 1 i • ai_ t xi l a. • j peculiar Bacteria, &c, afforded by cul- where > aud ul the season when > the experiments were tried, tivation experiments. Ideas regarding peculiar abundance and high development of bacteria, vibriones, &c, as a characteristic feature in chole- raic materials, appear to have arisen from such materials having frequently not been examined until decomposition had commenced in them, and from want of sufficient comparison of the appearances presented by them with those occurring in common diarrhoeal and other animal fluids. 177. Numerous experiments were tried regarding the influence of various re-agents on the development and activity of bacterial elements in choleraic and diarrhoeal fluid. As a general rule, anything which decidedly altered the chemical re-action of the fluid experimented on, caused cessation of movement, and to all appear- Inluinoe^N-j^ on the develop- ance , at least for a time, retarded the development of Bacte- ria. In experimenting with the alkaline fluids of cholera, artificial increase of both alkalinity and acidity produced this effect, while rendering the acid fluid of common diarrhoea alkaline produced a similar result. 178. In regard to the obscure questions concerning the development of higher organisms from Bacteria, Vibriones, &c, I can say very little from actual observation, and can only state that I have seen bodies resulting from the discharge of the contents of oscillatorial tubes behave as Bacteria, and distinct fungal cells arise by the gradual development of minute particles agreeing with Hallier's description of micrococci. The general results of all my observations and experiments on these points may be stated General results derived from obser- briefl ag follows lgt there is no special abundance or vations on Bacteria and T tbnones. , J „ _ . ' „., . o • i i • development of Bacteria, Vibriones, &c., in choleraic evacua- tions ; 2nd, there is no specific variety of any of these bodies which can be distinguished as peculiar to choleraic materials ; 3rd, there is no development of any special organisms, either as regards form or abundance, associated with the cultivation of choleraic materials. 179. IV, Fungi. — In only 3of the 100 cases tabulated did fungal elements form an appreciable characteristic. With regard to the remaining Percentage of cases containing fungal 97 evacuations, when it is stated in the table that no fungi ceils. ?,. ,-j Tiii i , -ijiin i were present, it is not intended to be understood that through- out the whole of the materials one or two isolated cells may not have been present, but only that no distinct unequivocal specimens were observed as characteristic features in them. It is most probable that, if it were possible thoroughly to examine the whole of the materials of every evacuation, a few isolated spores or other fungal cells might be found in very many of them, as well as anywhere else, and as well as distinct isolated algal A certain number of fungal cells may v desmids diatoms, Pediastra, &c, which are occasionally occur accidentally, as algoid cells occa- , ' , ', • , , . i t i ¦, • , ¦, , tionally do. to be detected in choleraic and diarrhoeal materials ; but it certainly is extremely rare to find fungal cells in any abundance, and showing any distinct evidences of vitality and multiplication. 180. In the first of the three cases in the table the fungal elements consisted of sarcina. Sarcinous masses of various sizes were present in considerable quantity (Plate 11, fig. 4 B) . These masses did not differ from those found on other occasions in choleraic evacuations, not included in the present table, as well as frequently in cases of Cases in which fungal cells were diarrhoea. The case from which the material was derived was present. ru-i- I+T, +' ' iv(' + t- ' ' a slight one, and the evacuation, in addition to containing sarcina, was not characteristically choleraic in various features, both chemical and physical. The second case (No. 91 of the table), in which the evacuations were characterised by the presence of fungal cells, differed from the former in containing abundant yeast cells in place of sarcina}. The presence Sarcinse. of these cells was of comparatively little interest, as the material containing them was not examined until 14 hours after it had been passed, so that there had been ample time for the development of fungal cells in it after it had left the body. "Whether actually developed within the body or not, the cells Yeast cells. showed no manifest peculiarities in appearance, and on cultivation gave rise to no special form of fungus distinct from those occurring on diarrhoeal evacuations and other decomposing organic materials at the same period and under similar circumstances. In the third case (No. 90 of the table) both yeast cells and sarcinse were present. The evacuation was passed by a patient in the Genoral Hospital and was examined immediately. The following are the notes recorded at the time of examination :—: — Case No. 90 of the Table. — The patient was a sailor who belonged to a ship which had only been five days in port. The evacuation consisted of a watery fluid of highly alkaline re-action and of an abundant sediment of pale-grey powdery Illustrative cade, material and white gelatinous flocculi. The specific gravity of the fluid was 1003. The fluid was full of active bacteria, very few clearly defined cells of any description were to be seen, and the whole material appeared to be in an active state of change. The flakes were full of oval and circular cells of various sizes, but the greater number of these were dim and ill-defined. The only active cells were a few large Amcebce of various sizes. One of these was kept under observation for two hours. For some time it crawled from field to field showing every degree of form-change ; by degrees its movements slackened, and ultimately it became circular, molecular, and comparatively dim, remaining in the flake in which it was then situated as a mere still circular cell indistinguishable from many of the cells originally present in a similar condition. In the flakes there were also present a considerable number of sarcinous masses and a few yeast cells, with considerable numbers of Sarcinous masses and yeast cells. partially digested portions of vegetable tissues. The evacuation was reserved in a tightly stoppered bottle and was examined on the following day. The re-action remained alkaline, but the alkalinity was not so strongly marked as on the previous day. The surface of the fluid was covered with a dense layer composed of active Bacteria and short energetic Vibriones, and all throughout the material there was an abundance of similar bodies. The flakes were entirely disintegrated, and sarcinse and yeast cells abundant. Among the debris of the sediment a scanty sprinkling of peculiar cells or cysts were present (vide Plate 11, fig. 4 D), of different forms and containing in their interior a varying n amber of refractive Peculiar cysts. masses and granules. No such bodies were visible in the specimens examined on the previous day, and no satisfactory clue to their real nature could be obtained. The only possibility suggested by their appearance was that they were encysted amoebae in which division of the cell contents had taken place. They were examined with the greater interest as they suggested the cysts described by Professor Hallier as the special choleraic form of fructification of his cholera series of fungi. They did not, however, agree with his descriptions of such cysts, being of much smaller size, without the faintest indication of septation, and neither then nor subsequently did. they show any evidences of being fungal in their nature. 181. As regards the occurrence of fungal spores in choleraic evacuations, I can only repeat what was previously remarked, i. c., that although such bodies may occasionally be present in small numbers, just as algoid and other kinds of vegetable OCCU Tee C im ? n f gST c \drt7r ar€ ' "^ cells occasionally are, yet their occurrence is comparatively very rare. In as far as my observations have gone, the in- dividual cells are neither abundant nor of any special form, but are usually recognisable as belonging to dematieous and sphaeriaceous genera, in which the thick-walled spores are likely to undergo transit through the intestinal canal with little detriment. 182. It would be quite unnecessary here to enter into any lengthy discussion regarding the nature of the cystoid bodies occurring in choleraic, diarrhoeal, and normal evacuations, seeing that the question Cysts. has been fully treated of by Dr. Lewis, and I would merely add that, in addition to the various classes of bodies which he has enumerated as likely to be mistaken for special cysts, there appears to me to be another class which might readily, during the course of a cursory examination, be included under the term of cysts, and of cysts agreeing in some degree with Professor Hallier's descriptions of the specific cholera cysts. I allude Starch cells may be mistaken for to certain f orms of gtarch cell^ for such cel | g whi(jh haye iungui cysts. , , . . • •/.„„!.• „! i i . _i • i_ t escaped destruction in the intestinal canal, but which have been more or less completely emptied by the solution of their contents, frequently appear in the evacuations as delicate cysts presenting appearances suggestive of internal septation, but due, in most instances at least, not to the presence of actual septa, but to slight foldings or creases of the cell wall upon itself. Among the commonest of such cells occurring in the evacuations of cholera as developed in the Native population of Calcutta are dluil cells (Plate 11, fig. 4A. F). Figure A shows such cells, empty and full, from cholera evacuations, and figure F similar cells as obtained direct from washed sections of dluil grains. 183. Not only are distinct fungal elements very rare in recent choleraic evacuations in Calcutta, but there is no special tendency to the develop- N °c2SSo or V c l!°oEd nied£: igi * meilt of such bodies in such mateials eveQ whjm subjected to prolonged exposure to the air. As regards choleraic materials unmixed with any extraneous substances this is very distinctly the case, for although, during the course of observation, such materials were constantly exposed to the air beneath bell-glasses for weeks at a time, yet in very few instances did any distinct development of yeast cells or of other fungal elements take place. A persistent layer of bacterial matter remained on the surface, which in a few instances ultimately showed the presence of a few scattered yeast cells or short mycelial filaments among its constituents ; but in not a single instance did the rapid and abundant development of such bodies, characterising certain diarrhoeal evacuations, take place. The results of extended series of observations on the cultivation of choleraic materials in various media and under various circumstances of exposure to, or exclusion from, external influences have likewise afforded not the faintest support to the idea that there is any special form of fungus associated with such materials. It is not merely the case that there lias been a failure in the appearance of Professor Hallier's cholera series Professor Hatter's choleraic series has of forms^ but ft failm>e in the ap pearance of any special forms whatsoever. In none of the cultivations which came under my own observation did any species of Mucor ever occur, while Penicillinm forms only appeared comparatively rarely. That species of Mucor should fail to appear is not to be wondered at, seeing that the genus does not appear to be of prevalent occurrence in Calcutta, or at all events has not been prevalent since the observations en cultivation of choleraic materials have been 49 in progress. One species of Ascophora does, no doubt, occasionally occur, but with nothing like the constancy and seeming 1 indifference as to medium with Widely diffused and generally pre- which certain forms of Aspergillus do, and it is precisely these other^edia! " PPear cholerized ™in widely diffused and generally prevalent forms which are usually developed in cultivations of choleraic materials. 184. The two commonest forms occurring as the result of cultivations are shown, Plate X, fig. 3, A.; Plate VII, fig. 1, A., fig. 2, A. B. The first (Plates X, fig. 3, A; VII, fig. 2, A), rq , c, , . and by far the commonest, of these is perfectly όbiquitous, Characters of the commonest species. J . .. „ ' . r , J * ' appearing on all sorts of decomposing substances and at all times of year. It consists of a delicate, colorless, closely -jointed mycelium giving origin to numerous erect, jointless, fertile filaments. The summit of the filament forms a rounded capitellum covered with a dense coating of fusiform spicules (vide Plate VII, fig. 2, A), bearing necklaces of spores and frequently proliferating. These spores are globular, at first colorless, becoming of a beautiful vivid canary-yellow, and finally assuming a more or less ochrey or buff tint. The mycelial thi'eads occasionally bear Formation of large spore-like masses j spore .] ike bodies directly without the intervention of on the mycelium. B 1 J any special threads (Plate VII, fig. 5). These are formed by the gradual accumulation of protoplasmic matter in lateral or terminal dilatations. As the accumulation advances the body becomes circular, assumes a yellow color, and is finally separated by the closing in of its investing membrane, which is continuous with that of the filament giving origin to it. These spores, when separated, consist of a delicate but tolerably resistent cell wall containing a mass of seemingly homogeneous yellow protoplasm. When subjected to cultivation they give rise to numerous radiating branched filaments bearing short, erect fertile threads terminating in chains of circular spores (Plate VII, fig. 6). The curious point in reference to these threads was that they appeared, in some instances at least, to be rather penicillioid than aspergilloid in their characters, as they did not terminate in a distinct capitellum, but were divided into two or three separate spore-bearing processes. 185. A species of Eurotium {Eurotium herbariornm ?) was on one occasion observed in asso- Occasional occurrence of Eurotium, c * ation with form of Aspergillus, and seemingly arising from the same mycelium as it did (Plate XI, fig. 4, A, B, C). The soil on which the mycelium was developed was not however a choleraic one, but consisted of decaying bamboo and damp paper. The perithecia (A) were of a brilliant yellow color and beautifully reticulated (B) ; the asci (C) small and containing 3or 4 spores. The same form of Eurotium without any accompanying aspergillus was subsequently found on decaying vegetable matters at Ootacamund, and a similar form, only differing in being perfectly colorless, on dried plants in Calcutta. 186. The second species of Aspergillus* of common occurrence on choleraic materials, as well as on other decomposing substances, is very much more striking in size and structure than the previous one. It is by no means of so constant occurrence as the common yellow form, but occasionally almost entirely replaces it. The mycelium is composed of very delicate branched filaments bearing a great number of clila- Characters of another common ±, • •-!• p t» r tt n - /t»i l ittt g Dec i e a tations or macroconidia of Professor Hallier (Plate VII, fig. 1 A). From this delicate mycelium large erect fertile filaments arise which attain a considerable length, and appear entirely out of proportion to the threads giving origin to them. These filaments bear at their apices very large heads of a rich deep-brown color composed of multitudes of minute circular spores. The structure of the head is complex and of great beauty (Plate VII, fig. 2, B) . The fertile threads, which are erect and jointless, swell at their summits into more or less globular capitella. These are covered externally by a series of wedge-shaped processes, the bases of which are peripheral, and bear three or four small secondary processes or spicules from which the chains of minute brown spores arise. This very characteristic form Structure of the heads. appears to be widely diffused throughout the peninsula, as unmistakable heads of it were found in specimens of water at Trichinopoly. 187. Of much less frequent occurrence than the above forms are two others which are very distinct from them and from each other. The first is a small glaucous green form (Plate VIII, fig. 5 A; Plate VII, fig. 3 A)— apparently As- Other common species. pergillus glaucns. It occasionally occurs in cultivations of choleraic materials as well as in other media, and is seemingly very indifferent as to the nature of its soil. The second is very uncommon, and appears to merit more particular description (Plate VII, fig. 1, B, fig. 3, B). The fertile filaments are very long, slender, and decumbent, usually found trailing among and over the stems and heads of the common yellow form. They are terminated by small heads of a beautiful neutral tint composed of spores aggregated on a * It is very doubtful whether this form can be included under the genus Aspergillus, as the structure of the head is so peculiar. I only retain it here on account of ignorance as to what it should properly be referred to, and because in outward appearance it closely resembles an Aspergillus. 50 Part II ] MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. 51 simple capitellum, and here and there throughout their course they give rise to short, lateral branches bearing similar heads. 188. Penicillium forms appeared neither so frequently nor so abundantly during the _ . .„. . , , , course of cultivations, as the commoner forms of Aspergillus Pemcil hum much less frequent than ,-i-ji Tm „„ i. I.i i i • 1 i r Aspergillus. (lld# when present, the spores showed various shades of greenish grey, fawn or white, but in no instance was any form peculiar to choleraic materials discovered. Plate VII, figure 4, shows penicillium heads and dilatations as developed in choleraic material, Plate XI, figure 2, Penicillium glancum occurring on decaying vegetable matters in Calcutta, and Plate XI, figure 6, the Penicillium commonly occurring in the Neilgherries. The dilatations above referred to are those on which Professor Hallier lays so much stress as affording an evidence of the tendency of Penicillium to pass into Mucor. In addition to dilatations, the mycelial threads occasionally gave direct origin to elongated chains of spores or conidia. 189. The general results of all the observations and experiments which I have been able _ .to make up to the present time may be shortly stated as GCn^ pe ris o ontng? 10nS and follows:-^, distinct fungal elements are not common in or characteristic of fresh choleraic evacuations ; 2nd, there is no special tendency to the subsequent development of such elements or their results in choleraic, as compared with other decomposing materials; 3rd, there is no special form of fungus peculiar to choleraic materials ; 4 • m- The reaction was alkaline and the smell offensive. Microscopic examination showed much fine bacterial and vibrionic matter, and enormous quantities of red blood-corpuscles and active cercomonads, together with a few still circular cells. In several instances blood-corpuscles were seen to be included within or attached to the surface of energetic cercomonads. The patient died at 1 p. M. of the 7th March, and at 2 p. M. the post-mortem examination was performed. While the intestines remained in situ, a portion of the lower part of the ileum was included between a couple of ligatures and reserved for microscopic examination. A small opening was subsequently made in this separated portion, and the contents as they escaped received into a clean gallipot. They consisted of a thick fluid of a red color, and closely resembled the last evacuation, save that Characters of thejuid^ contained in the the color wag hai . dly g0 dark ag mit Microscopic examination also gave almost the same results, the only differences being that in this case there were fewer red blood-corpuscles, and a small number of cylindrcial epithelial cells. Case VII, No. 17, OP the table. — No. 17 was the last evacuation passed by a patient, who died in the Alipore Jail Hospital in August 1869. It consisted of a dirty pinkish fluid, with Illustrative case. a very abundant sediment of large pale-grey flocculi. The fluid contained numerous Bacteria and large Vibriones with a few active cercomonads. The flocculi consisted of gelatinous basis, crowded with beautifully defined oval and circular cells. When first examined they were very distinct, of high refractive power, showing Characters of the cells present. clearly defined vacuoles and content changes, and in some instances even slight changes in form. — (Plate 111, fig. 1.) The contents of the ileum of the same case were also examined. The material of this did not differ _? „ . . .. , sensibly in external appearances from No. 17, but on microscopic examina- Characters of intestinal contents. .. / , , L X „,. .. , ..,' ? , ? *? ? tion showed an abundance of distinct epithelial cells as well as a few red blood-corpuscles.— (Plate 111, fig. 2.) Case VIII, No. 53, of the table. — The patient was a prisoner in the Alipore Jail, and was admitted into hospital on the 7th March 1870, suffering from a slight attack of cholera. No. 53 was the 6th evacuation passed during the progress of the case. Illustrative case. It consisted of three-fourths of dirty brownish-grey fluid, and of one-fourth of brownish-grey sediment composed of minute flocculi. The flocculi were rapidly and completely subsident, the reaction strongly alkaline, and the smell offensive. The fluid contained a considerable amount of bacterial and vibrionic matter. The flocculi consisted of amorphous granular matter, with quantities of fragments of undigested vegetable tissues and other debris like that _ ? , „ characteristic of normal evacuations. Everywhere throughout the fluid, as Characters of the cells present. ? . ? a , j 11 r . • 1 a j.i well as in the flakes, were scattered cells of various appearances. Ist, the most abundant were small, circular, intensely refractive, and frequently showing a double outline more or less distinctly. They were colorless or of a faint greenish hue, Plate 11, fig. 3, B. globular, and either solitary or in couples, forming figures of 8. 2nd, the next in frequency were active cercomonads. 3rd, all throughout there was a sprinkling of molecular cells, some showing bioplastic movements, while others crawled freely from place to place. There was also a certain number of molecular circular cells of similar size to the amoeboid ones, but showing a hard double outline and no manifest movement or change of any kind. 193. The above cases may serve to indicate the prominent features which certain cellular bodies constitute in the dejecta of many cases of cholera *£X^^^*E£Z in Calcutta - . lt would be f as^ t0 multii^ the number of such cases, but it appears to be unnecessary to occupy farther space in what would virtually be mere repetition. As many as eight cases would not have been given in detail, had it not been that certain authors have insisted that there is no process of cell development associated with cholera. This is a statement the universal truth of which I would venture most decidedly to call in question, E t-Tth°e f pt^e e o fnTw e c^. fa - <** in as far as my observations have gone, the majority of perfectly fresh choleraic evacuations appear to furnish very distinct evidences of new cell-growth. 191. That much of the material composing the flocculi may be due to the washing out of disintegrated mucus, epithelium, and gland cells Much of the material of the flocculi f rom tne i m j n a. o f the intestinal canal is very probable, and may be due to disintegration 01 previ- . • . ° , 1 1 • j ii-vi {. j j-i. j j.i ously existing elements. certainly cannot be denied as a possibility; but that the whole of it is due to such a process alone I cannot believe, seeing that, even if it be granted that the epithelium is almost invariably so much disintegrated as not to be recognisable, it makes the appearance of cells resembling gland and mucus cells, in a definite and recognisable form, only the more incomprehensible, as the disintegration of them might be equally expected. 195. Were no cells whatsoever present, and were the flocculi mere masses of amorphous debris and epithelium, the case would be very different : but The flocculi are not mere masses of 1 i-i.ii 1 ? 1 . ,1 -j. • l amorphous debris. unless such is actually proved to be the case, it is not very easy to see on what grounds any opinion that there is no new cell-growth associated with cholera can be founded. That there is necessarily a new cellgrowth, as an essential part of the cholera process, is quite another question, and one which it is not necessary to consider here. 196. It may however be allowed that cells are present in abundance in the evacuations ; but it may at the same time be urged that even the cases quoted themselves go far to prove that there is no new cell-growth, seeing that some cells are noted as being in a state of disintegration when first examined, and all, even those at first most clearly defined, as rapidly passing into such a state; but it does not follow KaP tp\t!rnt%itbn. I)roVe that <* lls H CaUSG integrating are not due to recent formation, and the very rapidity of disintegration, observed to take place in the cells outside the body, is rather in favor of the rapidity of their development within it. When disintegrating pus cells are found in urine, it is not denied that they have arisen by a process of "new cell-growth j " and the rapidity of the disintegration of the oval and circular cells of the flocculi, as observed to take place outside the body, is not greater than that which frequently affects the active ceroomonads and Amoeba associated with them, and which can scarcely be said to be originally disintegrated, although they very rapidly become so. 197. The cases given in detail afford examples of the appearances presented by almost m. , , . , , , „ a U the choleraic dejecta which I have had au opportunity of The dejecta in almost all cases are ___ •,• i 1 t. n j.i i l , • y. full of cells. examining. Jn almost all cases they were characterised by the presence of a profusion of cells, or bioplastic masses of round or oval form, some exhibiting vital movements, others entirely at rest or showing mere content-change; some softly molecular and shaded, others hard, refractive, and showing a more or less distinct double outline; some clear, delicate, almost structureless, others with shrunken contents, cupped or flattened margins, and delicate protrusions ; some solitary, others in masses, series, figures of 8, &c. 198. Now if there be this profusion of cells, and if at the same time it appears to be What is the nature of these cells ? impossible to ascribe their presence to the mere washing out of the normal mucus, epithelium, and " gland cells" of the intestinal canal in a disintegrated condition, to what are they to be ascribed, and what is their real nature ? Unfortunately this is a question to which only a very imperfect answer can be given. 199. In the first place, there can be no doubt that in almost every case the cells present are of several kinds — kinds no doubt closely resembling one another in appearance, but at the same time frequently very Various kinds are present. different in nature, and that the relative proportions of the different kinds vary greatly in different instances. It is very probable that some of the cells, or rather remains of cells, do belong to „ , . „ , the disintegrated mucus and epithelium alluded to by various Some may he remains of mucus, &c. ? s\, ¦, « ,•. t\ -r • i i i ¦ , ¦, authors. Others of them, as Dr. Lewis has clearly pointed out, may undoubtedly be assumed to be white blood-corpuscles, more especially in those cases in which there is distinct evidence of the presence of red corpuscles. Still it must be borne in mind, Ist, that it will not do, Others white blood-cells. because a cell resembles a white blood-cell in size, general appearance, and character of movement, to conclude that it necessarily is a white blood-cell, seeing that there is almost nothing to distinguish white blood-corpuscles from other portions of amoeboid living matter, save that their natural habitat is the blood plasma;* and, 2nd, that cells giving the normal reaction of white blood-cells with acetic acid are, as far as I have been able to ascertain, of rare occurrence in choleraic dejecta, while occurring in abundance in those of dysenteric cases (Plate 11, fig. 3, C, D), even when the latter are as fluid and devoid of color as many of the former. Many of the cells, and among these most of those forming series like the macroconidial chains of Professor Hallier, are, I Many of them infusorial. believe, to be ascribed to processes of division and multiplication, as well as to the resting conditions of those amoeboid and monadiform infusoria which undoubtedly appear to find a congenial medium in the alkaline choleraic fluid (vide experiments on normal and diarrhceal dejecta). 200. Besides all such gland and mucus cells, white blood-corpuscles and infusoria, there remains a great mass of cells to be accounted for — cells which A great P'oportion^of undetermined apparently in a rapid state of division and multiplication, frequently showing more or less manifest bioplastic movement, and sometimes containing several smaller bodies included within them. — (Plate 11, fig. 1, A ; Plate 111, fig. 6, A.) What these cells really are, and how- Possibilities rega^ing^ the origin of they are producedj rema ins a matter of uncertainty ; but there appear to be various possibilities regarding them ; Ist, they may be due to a process of development of " wandered" white corpuscles and bioplastic elements of the blood ; 2nd, they may be due to rapid development of cells from the bioplasms of the mucus, gland and epithelial cells — a development favored by the excessive transudation of fluid from the blood ; 3rd, it is possible that they may be due to the development of foreign bodies of the nature of Dr. Beale's contagion bioplasms. Such appear to be some of the possibilities regarding the origin and nature of these cells ; but however they are accounted for, or fail to be accounted for, they are at all events present, and Whatever may be, they cei . tainly any SO - C alled explanation accounting for them, by the convenient assumption that they are merely disintegrated mucus, epithelium, &c, is worse than no explanation at all, seeing that it is totally inconsistent with the facts in many cases. 201. The whole question would be greatly simplified were not the choleraic fluid, as . . ? , . previously mentioned, such a favorable medium for the Complication regarding their nature. \ ¦, J , n ¦ n ." 1 1 1" ¦ '+1 ' fl '+ 1 f 1 1 development of infusorial bodies within the intestinal canal. * '• In fact, except that it is dependent for the conditions of its existence upon the plasma, it might be compared to one of those simple organisms which are met with in stagnant water, and are called amoebae."— ¦ Huxley. 55 Part II ] 56 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. C Part II As it is, in Calcutta at all events, it appears almost hopeless to endeavour to lay down a definite line of demarcation between the cells which are to be regarded as intrinsic to, and those which are to be considered as extrinsic to, the disease ; such a line at least as would give any security that no cells belonging 1 to the one class should ever be included with those of the other; and certain cases, such as some of those previously quoted, in which undoubted infusorial elements almost entirely replace other forms of cells, almost suggest the possibility that this great development of cells may be a mere accident dependent on the nature of the transuding fluid, and not an essential part of the disease process at all. 202. VI. Miscellaneous microscopic bodies occasionally occurring in choleraic dejecta. — Having now briefly enumerated what appear to be the more constant and characteristic microscojric features of choleraic dejecta as occurring in Calcutta, it only remains to mention a few of the structures which occasionally and accidentally are to be met with in them. As previously mentioned, there is naturally in the earlier dejecta of many cases a large amount „ , , of debris of undigested food, remains of animal and vegetable Large amount or debris m the earlier j- 1 vi 1 n i 1 • tn^ evacuations of many cases. tissues, muscular fibres, starch cells and granules, spiral fibres, •> n /T-kt i TT f» ,i A /~l\ T__ j 1 f* &c. — (Plate 11, fig. 4, A, C). In some cases crystals of ammonio-phosphate of magnesia are present, sometimes in such abundance as to form a very prominent feature. — (Plate 11, fig. 6, A.) Crystals of a Crystals. different nature, previously alluded to as possibly some form of blood crystal, are also sometimes to be detected. — (Plate 11, fig. 6, B.) They are of much more frequent occurrence than those of the ammonio-phosphate, but never occur in the same abundance as the latter occasionally do. Ova of various forms of entozoa are also of frequent occurrence, especially in native cases (Plate 11, Ova of entozoa. fig. 5, A, B), as well as minute free worms in various stages of development. Other cases show distinct evidence of the use of impure drinking water, in the form of desmids, Pediastra, and other algoid cells embedded in the gelatinous basis of the flocculi. — (Plate Alga), 11, fig. 5, C, D.) Oil globules are occasionally present, usually in the earlier dejecta, and seldom in any great abundance. As a general rule, however, Oil globules. they do not appear to be of common occurrence, and many bodies which closely simulate them appear to me to be referable to a class of cells resulting from processes of division in the commonly occurring infusoria, and specially in the Amcebce, processes which will be described in connection with observations on non-choleraic dejecta. There are also occasionally specimens of an Acarns, seemingly the Acarus farina, and its ova, in various stages of disintegration, — an occurrence which cannot Acari. be wondered at, considering the abundance of this animal, which is frequently to be found in flour in Calcutta. 203. As a summary of the general conclusions to which my observations have led me, it may be shortly stated that, I*^, epithelium in a recognis- General results Of Observations On cllO- „!,!„ f., m nnmiva nrilir in n -trnvir email ™vnnnfo«n ,r>P ™o™ . General result^ observations on cho- aUe form occurg Qnly in ft yery gmall percentage of cases; 2nd, red blood-corpuscles, although occurring more frequently than recognisable epithelium, ai'e absent in very many cases ; 3rd, the choleraic fluids form a favorable medium for the development of certain forms of Amcebce and Monads, but these bodies are not peculiar to such fluids. I have as yet, however, failed to find Monads, identical with those of the evacuations, in " the drains," &c, of Calcutta; and as the addition of water almost invariably causes the destruction of those present in the evacuations, it appears doubtful whether they do exist in the supposed profusion in those localities ; Uh, there is no necessary special abundance of Fibriones or Bacteria in fresh choleraic dejecta, no excessive development of such bodies during the decomposition of these dejecta, and no evidence as yet of the presence of any peculiar form in them ; bth, the occurrence of distinct fungal elements is exceptional and accidental ; 6t/t, there appears, as a general rule, to be distinct evidence of the development of a large number of new cells or bioplastic masses within the intestinal canal, but, as we shall presently find, these bodies are not confined to cholera cases, although their abundant presence is a constant and remarkable feature of such dejecta. 204. Having now described the characteristic features of choleraic dejecta, it appears to be desirable that they should be compared with those of the dejecta of healthy and other noncholeraic conditions, in order to ascertain how far, and in what respects, the two differ. With a view to facilitate such comparison, I have compiled the accompanying table exhibiting the characters of 100 non-choleraic dejecta, by means of which the various proportions of certain classes of bodies occurring in them may be compared Table facilitating the comparison of ith certain degree of accuracy with the proportions of choleraic and non-choleraic dejecta. ... , v • • i i • • i rpj . .V similar bodies occurring in choleraic materials. The majority of the specimens were derived either from persons in whom there was no iutestinal affection, or from cases of simple diarrhoea, 2 were from slight cases of dysentery, and 6 from cases of diarrhoea induced by the use of purgatives. The first 66 specimens were obtained in Calcutta ; the remaining 34 in the south of India. This table does not exactly correspond with the former one, as the columns for red blood-corpuscles and epithelium are omitted on account of the extreme infrequeucy of the occurrence of either. When they did occur, the fact is noted in the last column. Table of Principal Microscopic Characters of Biarrliceal and other Non-Choleraic Evacuations. MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS. Reaction. Physical Characters. Infttsobia. Remaining Chabactebs, &c. ' V\ma\ folia Oval and Circular Fungl Cells - Still Cells. [Monads and Vibnones and Amoebiί. Bacterium. 1 Not noted Large amount of fluid and None ... Very abundant... None ... One or two ... This case was one of simple scanty yellowish sediment. diarrhoea. o „ ... Greenish-yellow, watery fluid, One or two Very abundant Very abund- A mere trace ... Ditto; smell sour and yeasty, with frothy scum and and active. ant. Full of fragments of unscanty sediment. digested vegetable tissues. 3 „ ... Two-thirds greyish fluid, one- None ... Very abundant... None ... „ ... Simple diarrhoea. third flocculent sediment, , 4 „ ... Sediment containing much A few ... Not noted ... Very abund- None ... Ditto. obvious undigested debris. ant. 5 „ ... Dirty, brown fluid and scanty Abundant... Abundant ... NoDe ... „ ... Produced by sulphate of magsediment. ' ncsia ncsia-6 „ .. Three-fourths pale greenish-, Abundant of Very abundant Abundant... Abundant ... Ditto; the still oval and circular yellow fluid; sediment white both forms. and of large cells were in masses and flocculeut. size. marked with double outline. 7 „ ... Equal parts dirty-brown fluid None ... Very abundant, „ ... Very few ... Simple diarrhoea. The circuand large gelatinous grey large and ac- lar cells indistinct and dim ; flocculi; 4th stool passed in tive. oil globules abundant. 8 „ ... Fluid whitish, watery, flocculi „ ... Not noted ... Not noted... One ... Ditto. Full of fragments of vescanty, large, yellowish, and getable tissues, tending to float. n Acid .. Dirty greenish watery fluid ; ... Abundant, active Very abund- A few ... Dltto - Yeasty smell, abundant sediment scanty, abundant ant. undigested tissues, and many frothy scum j 3rd stool in 011 globules, ciisc. 10 Thick bright-yellow fluid, „ ... Very abundant Abundant ... ' None ... Ditto - Oil globules abundant. with much evident oily and active, matter above, and many fragments of undigested 11 Faintly acid Pinkish-brown muddy slime „ ... None ... None ... Abundant ... These cells gave with acetic acid the normal reaction or white blood-cells. A scanty sprinkling of red blood-corpuscles was also present. 12 At first alka- Greenish-yellow watery fluid, Two ... Very abundant Very abund- None ... Simple diarrhoea ; smell yeasty ; line, be- full of large, very 'gelati- and active. ant. tendency to froth; contained coming nous flocculi. much starch, shortly afterwards 13 Aci(U)'ecom- Dirty greenish -yellow, watery A few large Very abundant A few ... „ ... Produced by sulphate of maging neutral. fluid and large gelatinous Amcebfe. and active. nesia. flocculi; Bth in case, sp. gr. II Neutral, be- Watery greenish fluid and | One or two Scanty ... None ... „ ... Ditto ditto. Flakes struccomingal yellowish gelatinous floe- tureless molecular, and like kaline. culi. the b;lsis ot oholera flllkes flllkes-15 Alkaline, be- Pale brownish watery fluid, Very abun- A sprinkling... „ ... A sprinkling ... Produced by sulphate of magcoming neu- and abundant pale brown- dant. nesm - lie most of tie cirtral. isli flocculi. cular cells we .™ f oleculitr and some emitted protrusions. 16 ! Faintly al- Watery brown fluid, and scan- None ... Abundant ... „ ... A few ... Produced by sulphate of kaline, be- ty powdery sediment. magnesia A sprinkling of coming crystals (Phcflphatic ?) prostrongly sent> acid. . ... . 17 Very acid... Whitish, opalescent, watery „ ... A few ... Abundant... None ... Ssnnple Uiarrncea. fluid; sediment very scanty. | 18 Alkaline ... Fluid watery, pale yellowish, A few ... Very abundant ... None ... „ ... Ditto. k ull ot epitnosp. gr. 1006 ; sediment blu- 1 llum llumish-white, very gelatinous. , . 19 Neutral ... Watery pinkish fluid, with None ... „ ... A few sarci- Abundant ... The cells very granular Asscanty sediment and large nous mass- cans ova abundant, Simple amount of pasty scum. es. diarrhoea. 20 Not noted. . Pale-grey watery fluid, with , , ... Minute sar- A sprinkling ... The latter cells with delicate abundant sediment of ge- cinous outline and shrunken conlatinous grey flomili. flakes. tents. Simple diarrhoea. 21 Neutral be- Brown watery fluid, with A few, some Abundant . None ... Abundant ... The latter cells gave with acecoining slight sediment of yellow- I of these tie acid the normal reaction fuintly° al- ish powdery matter and I amoeba). of white blood-corpuscles, kaline small flocculi. The case was one ot dysentery with profuse watery stools. A few red bloodeorpusclus also present. 17 57 ¦ Table of Principal Microscopic Characters of Diarrhceal and other Non-Choleraic Evacuations, — continued. MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS. No. Reaction. Physical Characters. Infusobia. Remaining Chabactebs, So. Fungal Cells. Oval and Circular Monads and Vibriones and Still Cells - Ama'boo. Bacterium. 22 Acid ... Dirty pale-yellow fluid with None ... Abundant ... None ... None ... Produced by castor oil in s;im<> yellow oily layer on the sur- case as No. 15. Oil globule face, and full of undigest- very abundant, ed food. 23 Not noted... Pink, yellowish-brown fluid A few ... Abundant and ac- „ ... Abundant ... Simple diarrhoea. tive. 24 Very faintly Brownish fluid ... One or two Very abundant „ ... One or two ... Ditto. acid. and active. 25 Faintly alka- Semi-fluid ... Abundant, Abundant ... „ ... A sprinkling ... Contained the usual debris comline. active. A mon in healthy evacuatious. few large encysted Amcebcί. 20 Neutral ... Formed ... None ... A sprinkling ... „ ... A few ... Ditto ditto. 27 „ ... „ ... „ ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 28 Faintly acid „ ... „ ... „ ... M ... One or two ... Ditto ditto. 29 Faintlyalka- „ ... A few ... „ ... „ ... A few ... Ditto ditto. line. 30 Neutral ... n ... One or two „ ... ? ... None ... Ditto ditto. 31 Faintly acid „ ... None ... „ ... „ ... One or two ... Ditto ditto. 82 | Neutral ... „ ... „ ... „ ... A few ... Ditto ditto. 33 Faintly acid )( ... „ ... „ ... n ... A mere trace ... Ditto ditto. 34 „ ... „ ... I „ ... „ ... M ... A sprinkling ... Ditto ditto. 35 Acid ... M ... One ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 36 „ ... „ ... None ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 37 Faintly acid „ ... One ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 38 Neutral ... Unformed ... A sprinkling „ ..... ... » ••• Ditto ditto. 39 >. ¦•¦ Formed ... None ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 40 Acid.becoin- „ ... ikfcvr.Amaehre „ ... „ ... One or two ... Ditto ditto. ing neu- at first still, tral. afterwards beginn i n g to crawl. 41 Faintly acid M ... None ... „ ... „ ... A few ... The few cells present very dim. Debris as usual. 42 H ... „ ... „ ... „ ... M ... A mere trace ... Ditto ditto. 43 Neutral ... „ ... | „ ... f> ... f> m A very few ... Ditto ditto. *4 Aci(l ••• ? ... „ ... „ ... „ ... \, ... Ditto ditto. 45 i) ... „ ... „ ... „ ?. M ... Only 2 cells visi- These cells with double outline. ble. Debris as usual. 46 ), ••¦ „ ... ; „ ... „ ... M ... A few ... Contains the usual debris. 47 ii ... „ ... ! „ ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 48 " •¦• „ ... i ? ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 49 Not noted... „ ... : One ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 50 Ac ' (l ••• ? ... ' None ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 51 " ••¦ Semi-fluid ... i One or two „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 52 Alkaline ... Fluid ... A few ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 53 Faintly acid Semi-fluid ... One seen ... „ ... „ ... A more trace ... Ditto ditto. 54 » " •• Formed ... None ... ? ... M ... „ ... Ditto ditto. " ¦¦ » ••• .. ••• ii ... A few ... The few cells present very dim. „ , Debris as usual. 56 Very faintly Fluid ... Numerous... Abundant ... „ ... Abundant ... Ditto ditto. acid, alkaline on drying. 57 Acid .. n ... None ... A sprinkling ... „ ... A few ... Ditto ditto. 58 " .... ¦•• i ? ¦•• „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. 59 Neutral ... Semi-fluid ... Numerous... Very abundant... „ ... Numerous ... Ditto ditto 60 Acid ... Formed ... None ... A sprinkling ... „ ... A few ... Ditto ditto! 61 » •¦¦ Semi-fluid ... Two seen ... „ ... „ ... A trace ... Ditto ditto. *j2j 2 " ¦¦ formed ... J None ... „ ... „ ... „ ... Ditto ditto. °? " ••• » ? ¦¦¦ \ » ••• .. ... .. - ii ... Ditto ditto. 64 » •¦• Semi-fluid ... A few ... Very abundant „ ... A few ... Ditto ditto. and active. 65 » ••• Formed ... j One or two A sprinkling ... „ ... None ... Ditto ditto. ™ " •• •» ... ; None ... „ ... „ ... A few ... Ditto ditto. % " •¦ Semi - flll^ ... ii ... „ ... „ ... ? ... Ditto ditto. 8 " •• » ••• ! .. ... „ ... „ ... One or two ... Ditto ditto. *£ " ¦¦ „ " , ••• | » ¦•• .. ... None ... Ditto ditto. '? " ¦¦ f"™ cd •¦ •' ¦¦¦ » - » ... ? -. Ditto ditto. n " ••• I j V eiy abundant. tral on drying . . . \ J 8. Alkaline, becoming acid") , m on drying ... ... j f 1 One or two. 2 A sprinkling. . w , , i J 3 Abundant. 9 - Not noted j 4 I 5 A sprinkling. L 6 One. Total ... 28 Of the 22 specimens in which the reaction was noted, there were 9 either acid or tending to become so on drying, and 13 neutral, alkaline, or tending to become so. Of the 9 belonging to the former class, only 1 showed more than one or two specimens of monads or Amoebee, while of the 13 of the latter class, 11 showed more than one or two, and 4 showed an abundance. These cases are too few to found definite conclusions on, still they appear to indicate the existence of a connection between an alkaline condition of n^^TXZ^J^l* the evacuations and the development of certain infusoria in them, and we shall hereafter see, in considering those cases in which fungal cells formed a prominent characteristic, that the latter cells seldom co-exist with the former, but rather appear to take their place in acid media. This substitution of fungal for infusorial cells may be clue either to the medium originally being of an acid nature, or to some other cause favoring the development of the former class of bodies, and resulting in the induction of acidity dependent on that development. In the first case the infusoria must be supposed never to be largely developed, that is, if it be true that acidity of the medium is unfavorable for them ; while in the second case they may or may not be largely developed at first, but if largely developed, are subsequently worsted in the " struggle for existence." 209. Six of the 28 cases were the result of large doses of sulphate of magnesia, and in 3 of these the infusorial cells were abundant, i. c,, in Half the cases in which infusoria one-half of all the specimens in which they were present were abundant, the result of saline pur- • i ¦¦ ,1 ¦? ? J,, n ,• gatlves . in large numbers, the medium was the result of a saline purgative. 210. The following notes regarding certain of the cases in which infusoria appeared Cases in which the dejecta contain- are her ? snb j°. in ed in order to facilitate the comparison of ed monads, &c. them with similar choleraic cases previously given. Case I, No. 14, of the Table. — The patient from whom the materials of No. 14 of the table were derived requiring active purgation was treated freely with sulphate of magnesia with the following results : — At 6 a. m. oz. 1. of the salt was adminis- Illustrative case, tered. Between the hours of 6 and 9a. m. the patient passed two watery evacuations, weighing together lbs. 6. At 9 a. m. he weighed lbs. 120. Between 9 and 10 a. m. he was twice purged. At 10 a. m, he took drs. 4 more of the salt. At Ip.m. he weighed lbs. 118. Between 1 and 4p.m. he was again twice purged ; at the latter hour ....,.„ ,„. „, he weighed lbs. 117 oz. 4. The patient while under this treatment was Loss of weight of Iba.. 2 oz. 12 in 7 hours. f P- _-«,.„, f• f l_ + v.,,,1 „ v 1 • + for a time rather faint, but had no choleraic symptoms. No. 14 of the table was the sth evacuation in the case. It consisted of a dark-greenish watery fluid, and a sediment of large, greenish-yellow gelatinous flocculi. The reaction was neutral or very faintly acid, becoming faintly alkaline on drying. The fluid contained a sprinkling of minute Bacteria and one or two small active cercomonads. The flocculi were composed of a molecular, structureless, gelatinous material similar to that forming the basis of the choleraic flocculi. 6th Evacuation of the same case. — This consisted of a watery, pale-yellowish fluid, with a scanty sediment of rapidly and completely subsident flocculi of considerable size and whitish colour. The reaction of the fluid was neutral, becoming strongly alkaline as the paper dried. The fluid contained a sprinkling of Bacteria and numerous active cercomonads and Amwbce, the majority of the latter of small size, some lying at rest, others emitting protrusions, and others crawling freely from held to field.— (Plate VI, fig. 6.) The flocculi consisted of the usual molecular gelatinous basis in which were numerous Amwbce, Flocculi similar to those of choleraic dejecta. and Rke thoseof the choleraic flocculi. In some places so many of the latter cells were present as to furnish appearances exactly similar to those of the common choleraic materials. They showed all the varieties of aspect as to shading, outline, &c, previously described in regard to the cells in choleraic materials, and here also it was seen to be impossible to distinguish cells which subsequently proved themselves capable of free progression, from those either not observed to move at all, or merely altering form and emitting protrusions. Ir. one or two places were specimens of the " macroconidial chains" occurring in choleraic media, and probably due, as before mentioned, to processes of division in the Amwbce. — (Plate VI, fig. 6, A.) Case 11, No. 15, of the Table. — This case was that of a man to whom it had been found necessary to administer a continued course of purgatives. The evacuation No. 15 was one which was passed at the close of a period of three days, in each Illustrative case. of which he had taken oz. lof sulphate of magnesia three times a day. At the time at which it was passed he had been frequently purged, and as he was not looking well, was breath- Symptoms present when the material No. 15 ing rapidly, and complained of pains in his lower extremities, the adminwas passed. . ' ° ,. L J n ,i j L . j i j .j ? , istration ot the drug was stopped and opium and acid given in its place. The evacuation consisted of a pale brownish, watery fluid, and an abundant sediment of pale brownish flocculi. The reaction of the fluid was, when first applied to the paper, faintly alkaline, and became neutral on drying. The fluid contained a scanty sprinkling of active Bacteria. The flocculi were composed of gelatinous molecular matter, with numerous particles of undigested food, and large numbers of crystals of various sizes of the ammonio-phosphate of magnesia. Abundant crystals. Throughout both fluid and flocculi were swarms of active cercomonads of the second variety. (Vide page 188). There were also considerable numbers of circular cells like those of choleraic evacuations. Some of these were intensely refractive and with hard, sharply defined outlines ; others were molecular, softly shaded, and contained several granules ; some were free, others embedded in the molecular matter of the flocculi : some still and others emitting delicate protrusions. The patient had evidently been drinking water containing organic impurities, as several fresh desmids and other algoid cells were embedded in the substance of the flocculi. The fluid appeared rapidly to undergo some change, rendering it an unfavorable medium for the cercomonads, as the latter speedily lost their activity and distinctness, so that at the Medium unfavorable to the continued .!„„- n e At\ „,;„,, (.„„ fi.,,™ +1, Q n ™mon/.mn™t ,\f fV,o n K m «ro(m n i\.r. close of 40 minutes from the commencement of the observation few remained in activity, and those were feeble in movement and dim in activity of the infusoria. outline. At the close of 75 minutes not an active cell was to be seen, many had totally disintegrated and disappeared, and the fluid contained nothing but dim circular and oval cells, with irregular molecular patches and delicate rings. The patient continued to complain of uneasiness, burning pain in the epigastrium and pains in the limbs, but after the administration of a dose of opium and acid passed no more evacuations until the morning of the next day. The materials composing the dejecta at that time were precisely similar to those of the previous day. There was the same fluid, flocculi, and active and still cells. The number of cercomonads present was very great, 100 to 120 active specimens being present in some fields. The adininis- Extreme abundance of active cercomonads. tration of opium and acid was continued, and on the following day all purging had ceased and the patient was apparently quite well, having lost the pains in the epigastrium and limbs as well as the peculiar respiration. Obstinate constipation now recurred, and after the lapse of several days castor-oil was administered, it appearing to bo unadvisable to give salines on account of the disagreeable symptoms coinciding with their use previously. The administration of the oil was followed by purging, but the evacuations were of a totally different nature from those induced by the sulphate of magnesia. They consisted of a dirty, pale-brownish yellow fluid, with a yellow oily layer on the surface, and contained numbers of Dejecta produced by castor-oil totally differ- floating and suspended particles of various sizes. The reaction was acid. nf B iaTtl° SBS Ba 1 rr p "ti?nr mSulp a °" The microscope showed the presence of abundant, active Bacteria, with quantities of the undigested debris of food and oil globules of various sizes, but failed to show any cercomonads, circular cells or crystals like those of the former materials. Case 111, No. 25, of the Table. — The evacuation No. 25 was one which occurred during the course of a slight attack of simple diarrhoea. Beyond the diarrhoea and the presence of slight griping pains, the patient complained of nothing. The material was composed of a thick brownish, semi-fluid mass, giving an alkaline reaction. When examined microscopi- Illustrative case. cally with the addition of a little water, it showed the usual debris and Bacteria coi imon in normal evacuations, a plentiful sprinkling of dim circular and oval cells, and one or two larger encysted bodies similar to those figured. — (Plate VI, fig. 1, A.) When a little freshly boiled and filtered alkaline fluid from a cholera evacuation was substituted for the water in the first specimen, similar cells were again seen in abundance, but very much brighter and more distinctly defined. Some of them were circular, some oval ; some were of the common molecular and granular character, others sharply denned and showing a distinct double outline. Some of the cells, both oval and circular, moved freely through the fluid by means of delicate flagella, and one or two of the larger, encysted cells emitted protrusioas or moved in an ainueboid fashion from place to place. — (Plate VI, fig. 1, B.) 18 61 62 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [Part II Case IV, No. 38, of the Table. — This material was derived from a slight case of simple diarrhoea. It consisted of a muss of soft, brown, semi-fluid feculent matter of a neutral reaction. It contained the usual debris, &c, characteristic of normal dejecta. A scanty sprinkling of oval and circular cells and a few large Amoebae were present. — (Plate VI, fig. 1.) Illustrative case. Few of any form were active at first, but after they had been for a short time in contact with the alkaline fluid of a choleraic evacuation treated as in case 111, many of them became very active, the oval and circular cells ?.,.-...,.. . . swimming freely about, and the Amasbce losing their double outline, emit- Effectofalk f n^ fu tl\Vu 8 mg J ting protrusions, and crawling from place to place. When the medium was rendered acid, all movement ceased, and the cells became motionless and dim. Case V, No. 40, of the Table. — This material was derived from a slight case of simple diarrhoea. The evacuation consisted of a thick brown fluid. The reaction was, when first applied, faintly acid, and became neutral as the paper dried. Examina- Illustrative case. tion of the material alone and mixed with choleraic fluid gave similar results. In both cases the normal debris, &c, of healthy evacuations was abundant. There was a very scanty sprinkling of oval and circular cerco monads. In the majority of fields none could be detected, in a certain number there were one or two, and in one at the lower part of one preparation as many as 8 active cells were observed. There were also a few encysted and moving Amoeba present. — (Plate VI, fig. 1. ) 211. The above cases may serve to indicate that the dejecta of cases of diarrhoea may present almost every microscopic feature characterizing- those Almost every microscopic feature of of cl , olerai Th g how ftt aU eyentg that floccu]i with a j choleraic dejecta may characterize those . .. ,J, J . . ? ? . „ .. - -i tinous basis and containing 1 distinct infusorial and amoeboid cells are not peculiar to cholera. of diarrhoea. 212. While, however, the presence of these infusoria is not confined to choleraic dejecta, a comparison of the two tables appears to indicate that euch bodies are both of more frequent occurrence and of greater abundance in such dejecta than in those of health or of diarrhoea. The probability that an alkaline medium has a considerable influence in promoting 1 their multiplication and development has been already suggested, and the facts noted in case No. 4 appear to support this hypothesis ; for in this material the addition of alkaline choleraic fluid caused increased activity in the infusoria which were present, while acid entirely arrested all movement when added to the same fluid. That mere fluidity of the medium is not the essential element in securing 1 their presence appears to be demonstrated Mere fluidity of the medium not b y the latter fact, as well as by the effects induced by the inSrk. toSeCUrethe development ° f addition of water, which does not induce activity in those bodies which are still, and which on the contrary, as a general , — j 2 — j_, ™- rule, stills and frequently destroys those previously active. The same thing is indicated by those numerous cases of diarrhoea in which there is a copious discharge of watery fluid with hardly any or no co-existent infusoria. The consideration of this point, as well as of others in regard to the occurrence of copious discharge of fluid from the intestines independent of any other choleraic symptom, may be most conveniently deferred until the remaining facts in connection with the tabulated cases have been considered. 213. B. Vibriones and Bacteria. — With regard to the occurrence of these bodies, little need be added to what was previously mentioned regarding their occurrence in choleraic media. As a general rule, in non-choleraic dejecta, distinct Fibrionea and Bacteria are present in a proportion increasing with the fluidity of the medium. Their number, as well as their activity, appears to be quite independent of the reaction of the medium, as they lumbers and activity of Bacteria and are to be found indifferently in cases where it is strongly Vibriones independent of reaction of the acid ftg weU ag wfaen ig de( . ided]y alkaline. Although they int'diuin. . , « » , -1,1-1.. ** appear to increase in proportion to increased fluidity, both Bacteria and true active Vibriones are frequently present in the most normal dejecta. As compared with choleraic materials, the dejecta of diarrhoea appear to be more frequently characterised by an excessive development of Bacteria, Vibriones, and the " Leptothnx chains" of Professor Hallier, and the results of the cultivation of non-choleraic materials containing such elements have been the development of all the forms of fungi characterising corresponding choleraic cultivations; so that in the first place there is evidence against any lesser proportion of such elements being present, and in the second place against the non-existence of any particular kind. 214. 2. Fungi. — In 11 cases of diarrhoea examined in Calcutta, the dejecta contained fungal cells, and in S of these cases they were present in 11 "^ abundance forming a characteristic feature in the evacuations, both when fresh and during the progress of decomposition outside the body. In 7of the cases the diarrhoea was of spontaneous origin ; in one only, No. 6 of the table, it was the result of sulphate of magnesia, and in none of them were there any symptoms of cholera. The patients were all natives, and the dejecta were characterised by the presence of a large excess of undigested vegetable tissues in the sediment, and by the copiousness and watery nature of the fluid portions. The following are the notes recorded regarding certain of these cases :—: — Case I, No. 12, of the Table. — The patient was a prisoner in the Alipore Jail, suffering from an attack of simple diarrhoea, without the slightest symptoms of a choleraic nature. The material consisted of a dirty yellowish watery fluid, full of large, very gelatinous yellowish flocculi, which were long in subsiding and ultimately separated into two nearly equal portions, one of which formed a Illustrative case. No choleraic symptoms. loose sediment, while the other floated to the surface. The reaction at first was alkaline, and in the course of a few hours became acid. The smell was faint and yeasty, and there was a gradual disengagement of gas, which tended to form a layer of froth on the surface. The fluid was full of active Bacteria and " micrococcus colonies," email Vibnones, and large " leptothrix chains." In four specimens which were examined only two monads could be found, both of which were of the peculiar spathulate form previously described. No other cells resembling those which are so abundant in choleraic evacuations were to be seen. All throughout the fluid small circular"cells of hard sharp outline and bright refraction were abundant. They were either solitary, or in pairs and small masses, the latter generally composed of four closely aggregated cells.— (Plate VIII, fig. 1, A.) Viewed in deep focus each cell appeared to include a small granule. Acetic acid produced no effect upon them, and iodine caused them to become of a vandyke- Effect of re-agents on the cells. brown, passing into brown-madder. The flocculi were composed of a gelatinous molecular basis, full of vegetable tissues,— spiral fibres, epidermal cells, hairs, empty or partially empty starch cells, and an abundance of starch grains and molecules. Everywhere there was a profusion of cells similar to those of the fluid. They were embedded in the gelatinous basis of the flocculi, either scattered or aggregated into huge irregular masses.— (Plate VIII, fig. 1, B.) The evacuation was set aside beneath a bell-glass and examined at intervals. On the following day the reaction of the fluid was intensely acid. Energetic I ibriones were present in increased numbers, but the material appeared otherwise unchanged, save that the greater number of the flocculi had now subsided to Appearances presented on the following day. tbe Dottom - O' 1 the next day numerous distinct white fungal patches were present on the surface of the fluid, which was of a strongly yeasty odour. The white patches were found to be composed of masses of cells like those originally present, mingled with an abundance of distinct yeast cells. The cells were frequently associated in pairs, yeast cells apparently taking origin from the circular cells (Plate VIII, fig. 2), while various degrees of transitional forms intermediate between the two types were also present. The sediment showed the original masses of cells from which, in some instances, delicate oval cells could be seen projecting and seemingly budding out. Case 11, No. 17, of the Table. — The patient was a prisoner in the Alipore Jail. The evacuation consisted of a whitish, opalescent, watery fluid, and a little sediment composed of minute white flocculi. The reaction of the fluid was strongly acid, and its specific gravity 1006. The fluid was full of short leptothrix filaments, and contained numerous yeast cells, solitary or in branched Illustrative case. Strong acidity of the fluid. masses. The flocculi consisted of the usual gelatinous, molecular mucous basis with a few embedded yeast cells. Case 111, No. 9, of the Table. — The patient was a prisoner in the Alipore Jail. The evacuation consisted of a dirty greenish watery fluid, with scanty sediment of gelatinous flocculi, an abundant frothy scum, acid reaction and yeasty odour. The Illustrative case. fluid contained an abundance of Bacteria, and the flocculi were composed of the usual gelatinous basis in which Abundance of undigested vegetable tissues. an abundance of undigested vegetable tissues were embedded together with masses of fungoid cellules, full sized } r east cells, and numerous oil- globules. This evacuation was the third passed in the progress of the case, and the three subsequent to it retained the same characters. On the following day they were covered by continuous, dense, surface layers of a white color, which here and there showed distinctly mouldy patches. These patches were found to consist of dense thickets of brilliant, colorless, erect jointed filaments, arising from a felt of the same material. Examined under a higher power, these were found to present the characters of Development of Oidium, development oi umum. Oidium Lactis, consisting of scantily jointed filaments branched and bearing strings of greater or less extent of long oval cells. — (Plate VIII, fig. 3.) Case IV, No. 10, OF the Table. — The patient was a native prisoner in the Presidency Jail. He was ad- mitted into Hospital suffering from vomiting and diarrhoea, but showed Illustrative case. no choleraic symptoms. The evacuation was composed of a thick, bright, yellow liquid which could be seen, even by the naked eye, to be crowded with oil-globules towards the surface. It contained abundant fragments of undigested food, and showed no tendency to separate into distinct layers of fluid and sediment. The reaction was decidedly and permanently acid, and the fluid left an oily stain on the paper. The fluid was full of extremely energetic Bacteria, portions Abundant oU-giobuies. of undises t ed ve getable tissues, and oil-globules of various sizes. Mingled with these were masses of fungoid cellules and distinct yeast cells. Abundant oil-globules. Case V, No. 7, of the Table. — The patient was a prisoner in the Alipore Jail. The evacuation, the 4th in the case, consisted of about equal parts of dirty brownish watery fluid, and large, loose gelatinous greyish-yellow flocculi. Fully half of Illustrative case. the latter floated on the surface, and the remainder continued suspended in the fluid, showing no tendency to form a distinct sediment. The smell was offensive and putrefactive, but had none of the characteristics of that of normal choleraic dejecta. The fluid was everywhere full of large active Bacteria and Vibriones. The flakes were ?, . also crowded with similar bodies mingled with fragments of vegetable Abundant undigested vegetable tissues. oil . globuleg> and flmgoid ce]lules> One or two small lloc , uli were found, which resembled those of cholera in some degree, in which there were a certain number of indistinct circular cells. On the following day about one-third of the flocculi floated on the surface, the smell was yeasty, and the reaction strongly acid. * Microscopic examination showed numerous distinct yeast cells, and forms intermediate between these and the cellules of the previous day, which were also present in large quantities. Case VI, No. 13, of the Table. — The patient was a native suffering from obstinate constipation and sj'mptoms of mania. He was treated with large doses of sulphate of magnesia. These caused very free purging. He never had the slightest Illustrative case. Fainting without any choleraic symptoms. choleraic symptoms, but on one occasion fainted, apparently due to the large amount of fluid which was very rapidly drained off" in the evacua- tions. The treatment had the desired effect of curing both the constipation and the mania, and afforded excellent opportunities for the observation of the materials of evacuations caused by the action of saline purgatives. No. 13 was the evacuation caused by the treatment. It consisted of a dirty greyish-yellow watery fluid, with an abundant sediment of large gelatinous flocculi, and a certain amount of similar material floating on the surface. Fragments of undigested food, rice grains, &c, were mingled with the flocculi. The reaction of the fluid was decidedly acid, becoming neutral on drying ; its specific gravity was 1010 ; it had a tendency to frothing and its smell was offensive. The fluid was full of Bacteria and large active and still Vibriones.^ In numerous specimens which were examined, not more than 5 or 6 monads were detected, taking all the specimens together. The flocculi consisted mainly of undigested vegetable tissues embedded in a molecular gelatinous basis, similar to that of the flocculi of choleraic dejecta. A few large Awwlce were crawling from place to place, and here and . „ ? ... there were large masses of Zooglaa. Both in fluid and flocculi there A tew yeast cells present in the Bth evacu- „ *\ .. ... *. 1 ation. were a few yeast cells, solitary or in masses. 63 The 9tli, 10th, and 11th dejecta were subsequently examined. They closely resembled one another in charac- ters, so that one description will serve for all of them. All three closely resembled choleraic dejecta in appearance. They consisted of a greenish-grey watery fluid with an abundant sediment of large gelatinous white flocculi. These were at first entirely subsident, but shortly afterwards some of them showed a tendency to float upwards. The reaction was very faintly alkaline, becoming neutral. The fluid contained a sprinkling of slender Bacteria and Vibriones. The flakes consisted of the usual gelatinous molecular basis, in many places covered with brownish granules, and in others full of the filaments of Leptothrix and an abundance of yeast cells, scattered or in irregular masses (Plate VIII, fig. 4). In other places they contained numerous small Yeast cells abundanUn the 9th, 10th, and indistinct oval cells, quite unlike the sharply defined brightly refractive cells found in choleraic flocculi. The granular matter of the flakes was not due to starch, and was colored bright yellow on the addition of iodine. These evacuations subsequently became intensely acid, and were after a few days covered by dense white layers of yeast cells. 215. Cultivation of the fungal patches, which appeared on the surface of these and similar cases, usually resulted in the development of abun- Resuits of cultivation of such dant heada ()f the common ye]]ow Aspergillus, with occa- sionally a few heads of Penicillium. That fungal cells should occasionally form a prominent feature in the evacuations of the diarrhoea of natives is not to be wondered at, as the great masses of vegetable tissues, which constitute the ordinary native diet must, unless digested, afford an excellent nidus m^t^tt:°l^tSy. forth? development of fungal elements swallowed along with them, or m drinking water. That the fungi have any effect in originally inducing the diarrhoea is very improbable, but that when in large quantities, and undergoing rapid development, they may produce a certain amount of irritation and so tend to keep it up is quite possible. 216. Before proceeding to the consideration of the remaining points in connection with non-choleraic dejecta, it may be remarked that certain of these cases of diarrhoea were characterised by a very profuse and rapid discharge of watery fluid from the intestinal canal, and were yet entirely free of the slightest symptoms of cholera. So profuse was this discharge in Nos. 13 and 14 of the table as to cause syncope in the former, and a tendency towards it in the latter case. In the latter, as previously mentioned, the patient's weight was diminished by lbs. 2 oz. 12 in the course of 7 hours, due to the discharge of a watery fluid and of flocculi similar to those of cholera; and yet with the exception of a tendency Abundant discharge of watery fluid to syncope, there was no symptom of cholera present. This !£iou th of SZST^Sir "¦ !<- of weight cannot be ascribed to mere emptying of the intestinal canal, as it occurred after the passage of lbs. 6 of fluid dejecta. 217. The fact that such profuse and rapid discharge ol fluid from the intestinal mucous membrane can occur without producing any of the special symptoms of cholera is of some importance in connection with statements which are frequently advanced ascribing such symptoms to the profuse discharge. Cases like the above rather tend to indicate that mere rapid discharge of fluid from the intestinal canal will induce symptoms similar to those following rapid discharge of fluid from the body in blood-letting, which has never been found to induce choleraic symptoms even in those cases in which it leads to a fatal result. A difference is, however, said to exist in the conditions prevailing in the syncope of cholera, as compared with . . , , the syncope induced by non-choleraic discharges of fluid, in Assumed non-absorption in cholera. ,i , • ±1 j? ,1 i 1 , ? ,• ? ... ,/ that in the former the assumed destruction of the epithelium is asserted to prevent absorption of fluid from the intestinal canal. Why the mere disintegration and removal of the epithelium should prevent absorption is not very clear, if, as physiologists tell us, " the process of absorption by the blood -vessels is effected by the operation of forces of a purely physical character, the chief of which are embraced under the general term Osmosis."* The destruction and removal of epithelium can only tend to increase the tenuity of the partition between the fluids in the intestine and the blood, and although the current of the latter is retarded, its viscidity is said to be increased, and its hydrostatic pressure on the walls of the vessels to be diminished. That there really is no absorption of fluid in those eases where vomiting is not so excessive as to prevent the access of any fluid to be absorbed appears to be still uncertain, and even if the non-absorption be admitted, it remains to be proved that it is dependent on the mere destruction and removal of epithelium. 218. Numerous careful experiments regarding the development of fungi in materials of diarrhoea and normal dejecta showed all the forms occur- Results of cultivate ,of non-choieraic - n the corresponding series of observations on cultivations of choleraic media. The same forms of A%pergillus and Penicillium constantly recurred, and only in one single instance did any species appear which was not observed in choleraic media. This was apparently a species of Dactglium. — (Plate VIII, tigs. 5, 6.) It occurred in a cultivation contemporaneously with a crop of Aspergillus glancus. — (Plate VIII, fig. 5 A.) To the naked eye it appeared in the form of dusty-brown patches scattered among the green masses of Aspergillus. The mycelium consisted of light-brown, * Carpenter's " Principles of Human Physiology," London, 1869. 64 Part ll] MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. 65 closely septate, branched filaments, marked here and there throughout their course by dila- tations and irregular aggregations of cells. From these ma ™" is > SS ™J l - *T the masses of cells, numerous short, erect, brown, jointed threads arose, bearing at their apices material. clusters of large spores. These spores were fusiform, brown and septate, (the septa being in general three in number), and on germination, gave origin to a colorless, jointed, mycelial filament from either of their extremities. The general results of all the observations and experiments on non-choleraic dejecta which I have been able to carry out have, as stated previously, shown not only that the same fungi are developed in such materials as in choleraic media, but that they more frequently contain distinct fungal elements, as characteristic features of their original condition. 219. 3. Oval and circular cells. — Cells of an oval and circular form, aareeina- in characters with those which constitute such a constant and aJcSTcells KttiSSfcS ortant , feat ™ in the d^ ecta of Solera, were present in dejecta were present, ob per cent, ot the cases here tabulated. In only seven of these, however, were such cells abundant, and as in two of them, which were slight cases of dysentery, they almost entirely gave the normal reaction of white blood-corpuscles with acetic- acid, in only 5 per cent, were cells of a doubtful nature, like the majority of those of the cholera dejecta, present in large numbers. 220. The following are the notes which were recorded regarding some of the seven cases : Case I, No. 11, of the Table.— The patient was admitted into the General Hospital suffering from an attack of dysentery. The evacuation consisted of a small quantity ol" J.L. • _1_ __ *__1 _ • _T_ 1 1 • ii mi ¦• - A •/ . Illustrative rase. thick, pinkish-brown, slimy matter. The reaction was very faintly acid On microscopic examination it was found to be composed of a fluid filled with softly molecular circular cells of the ordinary size, and giving the usual reaction with acetic acid of white blood-corpuscles. There was also a scanty sprinkling of red corpuscles White blood-corpuscles. present.— (Plate 11, fig. 3, C.) Case 11, No. 21, of the Table. — The patient was admitted into the General Hospital, and while under treatment was attacked with profuse watery purging. No. 21 was one of these watery dejecta. It consisted of a brown watery fluid, and a Illustrative ease. scanty sediment of yellowish powdery matter and small flocculi. The reaction of the fluid was neutral, becoming as it "dried, faintly alkaline. The fluid was full of fine Bacteria, the majority of the particles motionless. There were also a few active Cercomonads, and one or two freely crawling Amoeba. The flocculi were composed in great part of brownish granular matter, and here and there showed the colorless gelatinous basis of normal choleraic flocculi. The fluid contained numerous dim half-disintegrated circular cells, some of which showed distinct nuclei ; and here and there throughout the flocculi were large masses of soft, molecular, circular cells. Masses of white blood-corpuscles. J hese "M" 6 " closely resembled those composed of white blood-cells, frequently to be tound in the blood ot cases of snake-bite, and apparently really were formed of such cells, as acetic acid produced the usual reaction when applied to them. (Plate 11, fig. 3, D.) ; there were also a few red corpuscles in the fluid and flocculi. Case 111, No. G, of the Table. — This evacuation was the result of sulphate of magnesia. It consisted Illustrative case. 0± " about tlu ? e P arts of . P ale > greenish-yellow fluid,' and one of whitish flocculent sediment containing numerous particles of undigested food. The fluid was full of large, active Bacteria and Vibriones. The flocculi were composed of the usual gelatinous basis, with numerous portions of undigested vegetable tissues and patches of fungoid cellules. In the fluid there were one or two active Cercomonads, with numerous free f crawling Amasbce, and here and there throughout the „. , „ .. , . . .... . flocculi were masses of similar bodies and of circular cells,°the cells Circular cells the nqgd ebndit.on of & double ftppar?ntly condition of the Amoebce, or, at all events, identical in appearance with the free crawling Amoebce when they assumed that condition under observation. Case IV, No. 50, of the Table. — The patient was suffering from a slight attack of diarrhoea. The evacuation consisted of a thick fluid of normal feculent matter. The fluid, when first applied, was of very faint acid reaction, becoming as it Illustrative case. dried on the paper, decidedly alkaline. It contained the usual debris of normal feculent matter, with an abundance of fine, active Bacteria. Cercomonads were present in considerable numbers, as many as twenty beinc present in some fields. There were also a few large Amwbce, lying at rest, or emitting delicate protrusions, and an abundance of still, circular, refractive cells of various sizes. They showed every degree of definition and Circular cells of a greenish hue. dimness, and as many as thirty specimens were present in some fields ; some ot them were colorless, others ot a greenish hue ; some' showed distinct double outlines ; some were solitary, and some in pairs, figures of 8. and irregular masses. Case V, No. 59, of the Table. — The evacuation was composed of semi-fluid feculent matter of neutral reaction. It contained the usual debris, and a great abundance of active Bacteria. Small, active Cercomonads were present in large numbers, appearing more Illustrative case. distinctly and in greater activity after the medium had been for a short time diluted with freshly boiled alkaline fluid from a choleraic evacuation. They continued in full vigor in this medium for upwards of four hours, but were at once rendered motionless and dim by the addition of a little water. There was also an abundance of circular, refractive cells, of various sizes, either scattered or aggregated into irregular masses and groups. 221. The nature of the cells in these and similar cases is probably various, a varying number of several distinct kinds being present, but as in Many of the circular cells probably ma ny choleraic dejecta, a large number of them are appar- X^ionorJZbi semmative multi " ently ; due to processes of multiplication and self-division in the infusoria, and specially in the Amceba so frequently associated with them. In some cases, both choleraic and non-choleraic, they present certain resemblances to oily globules, but while it is possible that they may contain some oily matter, there are several reasons which tend to show that they are not to be regarded as mere oilglobules. 19 The 9th, 10th, and 11th dejecta were subsequently examined. They closely resembled one another in charac- ters, so that one description will serve for all of them. All three closely resembled choleraic dejecta in appearance. They consisted of a greenish-grey watery fluid with an abundant sediment of large gelatinous white flocculi. These were at first entirely subsident, but shortly afterwards some of them showed a tendency to float upwards. The reaction was very faintly alkaline, becoming neutral. The fluid contained a sprinkling of slender Bacteria and Vibriones. The flakes consisted of the usual gelatinous molecular basis, in many places covered with brownish granules, and in others full of the filaments of Leptothrix and an abundance of yeast cells, scattered or in irregular masses (Plate VIII, fig. 4). In other places they contained numerous small Yeast cells abundant in the 9th, loth, and indistinct oval cells, quite unlike the sharply defined brightly refractive cells found in choleraic flocculi. The granular matter of the flakes was not due to starch, and was colored bright yellow on the addition of iodine. These evacuations subsequently became intensely acid, and were after a few days covered by dense white layers of yeast cells. 215. Cultivation of the fungal patches, which appeared on the surface of these and similar cases, usually resulted in the development of abun- Results of estivation of such dant ()f the common ye j low Aspergillns, with occa•' • ii n l 1.. -P n-. .• •77J mL.i />_ 1 -.11 1 tt sionally a few heads of Penicillium. That fungal cells should occasionally form a prominent feature in the evacuations of the diarrhoea of natives is not to be wondered at, as the great masses of vegetable tissues which constitute the ordinary native diet must, unless digested, afford an excellent nidus Facilities provided for the develop- f tJ development of funga i elements swallowed alons nieut of fungi by the native dietary. X . . 6 "a with them, or in drinking water. 1 hat the fungi have any effect in originally inducing the diarrhoea is very improbable, but that when in large quantities, and undergoing rapid development, they may produce a certain amount of irritation and so tend to keep it up is quite possible. 216. Before proceeding to the consideration of the remaining points in connection with non-choleraic dejecta, it may be remarked that certain of these cases of diarrhoea were characterised by a very profuse and rapid discharge of watery fluid from the intestinal canal, and were yet entirely free of the slightest symptoms of cholera. So profuse was this discharge in Nos. 13 and 14 of the table as to cause syncope in the former, and a tendency towards it in the latter case. In the latter, as previously mentioned, the patient's weight was diminished by lbs. 2 oz. 12 in the course of 7 hours, due to the discharge of a watery fluid and of flocculi similar to those of cholera ; and yet with the exception of a tendency Abundant discharge of watery fluid to syncope, there was no symptom of cholera present. This SSL* iSar^SSSir in " !<™ <* weight cannot be ascribed to mere emptying of the intestinal canal, as it occurred after the passage of lbs. 6 of fluid dejecta. 217. The fact that such profuse and rapid discharge ol fluid from the intestinal mucous membrane can occur without producing any of the special symptoms of cholera is of some importance in connection with statements which are frequently advanced ascribing such symptoms to the profuse discharge. Cases like the above rather tend to indicate that mere rapid discharge of fluid from the intestinal canal will induce symptoms similar to those following rapid discharge of fluid from the body in blood-letting, which has never been found to induce choleraic symptoms even in those cases in which it leads to a fatal result. A difference is, however, said to exist in the conditions prevailing in the syncope of cholera, as compared with the syncope induced by non-choleraic discharges of fluid, in Assumed non-absorption in cholera. ,i , • ,i n n i i ± j.- e2\ •? i. 1 that in the former the assumed destruction of the epithelium is asserted to prevent absorption of fluid from the intestinal canal. Why the mere disintegration and removal of the epithelium should prevent absorption is not very clear, if, as physiologists tell us, " the process of absorption by the bloorl -vessels is effected by the operation of forces of a purely physical character, the chief of which are embraced under the general term Osmosis/''* The destruction and removal of epithelium can only tend to increase the tenuity of the partition between the fluids in the intestine and the blood, and although the current of the latter is retarded, its viscidity is said to be increased, and its hydrostatic pressure on the walls of the vessels to be diminished. That there really is no absorption of fluid in those cases where vomiting is not so excessive as to prevent the access of any fluid to be absorbed appears to be still uncertain, and even if the non-absorption be admitted, it remains to be proved that it is dependent on the mere destruction and removal of epithelium. 218. Numerous careful experiments regarding the development of fungi in materials of diarrhoea and normal dejecta showed all the forms occu Results of cultivations O f non-choleraic ring in the corresponding series of observations on cultivate of choleraic media. The same forms of Aspergillus am Penicillium constantly recurred, and only in one single instance did any species appear whic was not observed in choleraic media. This was apparently a species of Dactylium, — (Plate VII tigs. 5, 6.) It occurred in a cultivation contemporaneously with a crop of Aspergillns glancus. — (Plate VIII, fig. 5A.) To the naked eye it appeared in the form of dusty-brown patche scattered among the green masses of Aspergillns. The mycelium consisted of light-browi * Carpenter's " Principles of Human Physiology," London, 1869. 64 closely septate, branched filaments, marked here and there throughout their course by dila- tations and irregular aggregations of cells. From these Characters of Dactylium (?) develop- filaments, as well as from the masses of cells, numerous short, cd in a cultivation of mm- choleraic , i • • j i v i i i originally present in the evacuations. ot alkaline choleraic fluid to the materials of diarrhoea! and normal evacuations containing infusoria. These experiments were originally undertaken owing to the effect which such choleraic fluids were observed to exercise in increasing the activity of the infusoria in the evacuations, and their result in certain cases was the production of a material not to be distinguished from that characterising the earlier evacuations in many cases of cholera. Case I. — No. 38 of the table, previously quoted in detail as an example of an infusorial evacuation, was ono of the cases affording materials for experiment. On reference to page 209 Illustrative case. it will be seen that the evacuation was composed of semi-fluid feculent matter, showing the usual debris of healthy evacuations, and a scanty sprinkling of Cercomonads and Amoeba. — (Plate VI, fig. 1), the activity of which was increased by contact with alkaline choleraic fluid. A portion of this evacuation was put into a small gallipot, some freshly boiled and filtered alkaline choleraic fluid added,* and the preparation set aside under a bell-glass. On the following day the surface of the fluid was covered by a thin but consistent layer of fine bacterial , , „ ,„ . , matter, with a few molecular or brightly refractive circular cells. The Appearances presented on the following day. -? , , m jj 8 n i_v ii « ? sediment was everywhere lull ot cells resembling those so frequently occurring in choleraic dejecta. They were of various sizes and forms, but were divisible into three classes _ , , „ occurring in the following order of frequency (Plate VI, fig. 5) : — Ist, Three classes of cells present. , • ¦? ° n ,• • in vj. j • • " • i brightly retractive circular cells, solitary and m pairs, or in irregular masses of various sizes exactly like those of choleraic evacuations, and like them in certain cases showing various degrees of compression of the constituent cells. Some of the cells showed a distinct double outline and differentiation of cell wall and contents, while others appeared as mere brilliant colourless globules. Some of them presented a ring-like form, which in most cases appeared to be due to their having a flattened doubly concave figure"; 2nd, active, molecular, circular and oval Cercomonads, the majority being of large size and showing only feeble movement ; 3rd, circular cells with delicate tongue-like protrusions. At the point or points at which the protrusions were situated, there was generally more or less cupping or flattening of the cell, and a deficiency of the double outline which elsewhere characterised it. Ether in excess stilled all movement and somewhat dimmed the cells in certain instances. Acetic acid at Effect of reagents on these cells. °»f d ™ me . d them > ai ? d . almos ,t immediately converted them into mere molecular rings, containing a iew granules oi larger size and rapidly passing on into complete disintegration. Several hundreds of clearly defined cells were present in the majority of microscopic fields, and the material could hardly have been distinguished from that of the early evacuations in many choleraic cases. Number of cells present. * This medium contained no cells, and only a sprinkling of flue molecular matter. 66 On the following day there were not nearly so many cells present, and those which still remained were not sc Appearances presented on the following day. refrac J ivo or clearly defined Many of them showed several large yacuoles.-— (Plate VI, ng. 3.) They appeared to be undergoing a rapid process of disintegration, and acetic acid acted on them in the same manner as on those examined on the previous day. Case II. — The evacuation furnishing materials for experiment was in this case of firm consistence and neutral reaction. It contained a few large encysted Amaibce and a Illustrative case. sprinkling of small dim, motionless oval and circular cells. Two por- tions of it were taken and put in separate gallipots, to the first (A) some boiled choleraic fluid was added as in the previous case, and to the other (B) some of the same fluid rendered acid by the addition of a little acetic acid. Both were then set aside under the same bell-glass. They were examined on the subsequent day with the following results. The reaction of A was alkaline. No active cells were to be seen, but the number of bright still circular cells contained in the sediment was very Increased number of circular cells present, nmch greater than on the previous day, and it now appeared to be demonstratt'cl that those 01 every size were due to a process ot gemmation and sub-division of the large encysted Amoeba originally present. — (Plate VI, fig. 2.) Very few of these retained their original circular form, and the majority showed various degrees of elongation and construction dividing them into two or more lobes. In some cases the construction was very slight, in others greater, so as to produce an hour-glass or figure of 8 outline, and in others, so far advanced, as to cause almost complete separation of the constituent lobes which only remained attached to one another by a narrow neck, while in still other instances cells were seen quite distinct from one another, but associated in pairs, and appearing as though they had resulted from a completion of the process of division. The protoplasmic contents were seen with various degrees of distinctness, in some cases being hardly visible from the encysted and refractive character of the cells, and in others clearly defined and finely molecular. In some cases the protoplasm seemed to fill the cell entirely, „ , , „ „ , , while in others it appeared to be irregularly shrunken from the distended Protoplasm of some cells shrunken. , ,„, , TTT -Tr _ . o j capsule. — (Plate VI, fig. 2.) Acetic acid at once dimmed them, rendering them finely molecular, and ultimately breaking them up entirely, except in certain instances in which, probably due to the strength of the capsule, they remained as dim, granular, circular masses. Ether had comparatively little effect upon Effect of re-agents. them. In some cases it produced a certain amount of dimming, but neither so rapidly, nor so completely as the acid did. The reaction of the other preparation (B) was acid. The sediment contained a few large, encysted, circular cells similar to those observed in the material yesterday. None of them showed any evidences of gemmation or other growth or development, and they were all dim and with shrunken granular protoplasm. Both preparations were again examined on the following day. The first (A) showed an abundance of circular cells, but the process of development appeared in great measure to have ceased, as there were now hardly any gemmating cells, almost all of them beings solitary and many of comparatively small size. Some of them were clearly defined, highly refractive and had a hard look, others showed numerous large vacuoles, and others were molecular and soft. The other preparation appeared to be quite unchanged. On the next day the first preparation showed no apparent increase in the number of the cells. Many of those present (Plate VI, fig. 3,) showed vacuolation with more or less Many of the cells subsequently assumed a shrinking of their contents, and the peculiar greenish tinge so frequently greenish tmtre. , , • • • m it • i i • ,• t»t p ji characterising similar bodies m choleraic evacuations. Many ot the larger cells appeared greatly distended, as though their contents had been increased in bulk and at the same time diluted by osmosis. Case 111. — The evacuation furnishing the materials for examination was, to all appearance, of a healthy and normal character. Its reaction was faintly acid, and it contained the usual debris, a very scanty sprinkling of small, dim, oval, and circular Illustrative case. cells, and a few specimens of the common encysted Amcebce. A preparation with alkaline fluid was made and set aside as usual, and on the following day numerous specimens of it were examined with the following results : — The sediment showed an abundance of refractive cells of average size, some in pairs or small groups, others quite free, and exhibiting every stage of the process of gemmation and division. — (Plate VI, fig. 4.) Few of the large encysted cells observed yesterday remained in their original condition, but some were present, showing one or more bud-like protrusions proceeding from them. Some of the smaller Appearance of green.sh cells. deUcate protrusions of tlleir su b s tance, and many of them were of the greenish tinge observed in those of case 2. Acetic acid at once dimmed the cells, and ultimately ringed or completely destroyed them as usual. Ether produced comparatively little effect, some of the cells remaining quite unaffected, while others were dimmed or ringed in various degrees, but not by any means more Effect of re-agents. affected than active monads contained in another solution were. Carmine produced very little coloration, a few cells becoming dyed, but the majority remaining almost unaltered. Iv regard to this re-agent, as with regard to the ether, the effect, though slight, was quite as strong as on active monads and Amcebce of other materials. 224. Numerous experiments of a similar nature to the above gave, almost without This process of development is ca- exception, similar results, and appeared to be capable of pableof explaining many of the peculiar explaining the peculiar appearances presented by many ot the appearances presented by certain cells ce u s frequently present in choleraic dejecta. It is easy to see in choleraic dejecta. tlmt the few act j vc or enC y S ted Amoeba frequently present in normal dejecta, and consequently frequently present in the intestinal canal, may by processes of gemmation similar to those observed in these experiments give rise to a very large number of smaller cells, when they are supplied with a congenial medium, such as the alkaline choleraic fluid appears to be. , , 225. The resulting cells will naturally vary with variations in the process which gives rise to them. A process of internal sub-division taking place in a strongly encysted cell will naturally tend to the formation of a mass of cellules rendered more or less irregular or angular by mutual pressure within the Formation of masses, insistent capsule. When, on the other hand, the cells, as they are produced, are not confined, but at the same time remain in contact, they will tend to form one of those irregular masses of circular cells which frequently occur in choleraic and diarrlicoiil dejecta. The processes of 67 MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS. 68 nrc. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. C Part II gradual division of elongated cells will give rise to all those forms characterised by an hour- glass or figure of 8 contour. If the constriction of the wall of the original cell be completed, and the resulting cells of lobed cells, subsequently separated, they will be of a regular circular form ; but if after the complete division of the protoplastic contents — which certainly frequently occurs long before complete constriction of the capsule — anything happens to cause rupture of the investing layer along the line of junction of the two lobes, the result will be the formation of two cells more or less flattened or cupped on one side, and liable at this point to the protrusion of the contents dependent on their growth of cupped, flattened, or distension with absorbed fluid. If the progress of gemmation is farther continued before such a process of separation occurs, so that in place of two there are three or more associated, and only partially differentiated cells, the result will be the formation of doubly or irregularly cupped and flattened cells, and irregular cells. many of which will be liable to show two or more protrusions. If the process of gemmation be carried on in one direction, or in two exactly opposite directions, and if the separation °f the cells be not completed, the result will be the formation Formation of chains of « macrocomd.a. of gtructures resemWing the chains of macroconidia described by Professor Hallier, and the concatenate series of cells frequently observed in the dejecta of cases of cholera and diarrhoea in Calcutta. Finally, processes of osmosis and dilution will account for the appearances Effect of osmosis. presented by those cells in which the contents are irregularly vacuolated or shrunken from their investing capsule. 226. It is needless to occupy farther space in describing other bodies occurring in non- choleraic dejecta, as any description would merely involve a 4. Miscellaneous bodies occurring iv repet i t ion of what has been previously recorded regarding the non-choleraic deiecta. • n it ¦ • j i i • j. r> i i miscellaneous bodies occurring in the dejecta of cholera. 227. The general conclusions to be derived from the comparison of the characters of choleraic and non-choleraic dejecta appear to be that as yet General conclusions derivable from a th ig nQ evidence of the existence of any specific cells, or comparison of the characters of healthy , it ? ?-ir. i " r , t n i • mid diarrhocal dejecta. other bodies peculiar to the former and never to be found in the latter, but that there is distinct evidence that many of _ y — _ — — -__-^_ _-_ _ t/ the peculiarities of choleraic dejecta are due to a great increase in the development of certain classes of cells, common to them and to non-choleraic materials, and both intrinsic and extrinsic to the organism, and that, as regards the extrinsic cells at all events, this increased development may be ascribed in great measure to the presence of a favorable medium in the fluid which is effused from the blood. Note A] 69 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WATER IN MADRAS. NOTE A. RESULTS OF MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SPECIMENS OF WATER IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 1. Water from Mess-House Tank, Perambore, Madras. — ""This water is said to be peculiarly productive of guinea-worm and lias not lately been in use." The water was turbid and of a dirty greenish-yellow colour. After standing for 18 hours, the tui-bidity remained undiminished. It had no smell, and hardly any sediment. The small amount of sediment which was present showed numerous amorphous sandy particles, but very few evidences of the presence of organic life. The only organic matters present in any abundance consisted of elongated, finely molecular flakes, in which numerous colourless, refractive, and seemingly encyst- Ed circular cells of small size were embedded. A few active Molecular flakes. Hetcromita. cells of similar size and appearance, and one or two brownish Monads. Amoeba. zoospores, were moving rapidly through the fluid. One small- Zoospores. TWerlnm. m -~J ' v^*:^n~ ~~,l - L m ™I™~l_. Bacterium. sized green Vorticella, and a few peculiar pedicillate colourless Paramecium. C ysts, containing numerous protoplasmic masses in their interior, Vorticella. Ovsts. were also seen. Although preparations of this water were examined in the beginning of December 1870, and again in February 1871, no filariffl could be detected in any of them. A specimen from the surface of the fluid showed a sprinkling of minute granules, one specimen of a small form of Hettromita, one small Amoeba with a distinct contractile vesicle, a few large Bacteria, and one or two very active bodies, apparently referable to Paramecium, or Chilodou, but moving so rapidly as to prevent their identification. 2. Water from Left Wing Lines, Perambore. — This water was found to be very impure on chemical examination during the outbreak of cholera in 1870 among the men of the Native Infantry Regiment stationed at Perambore. "It is chiefly used for culinary purposes, but occasionally as drinking water." The water was turbid, of a yellowish coloui 1 , free of smell, and with a mere trace of deposit. All throughout it there was much fine, actively moving molecular matter, the component particles being solitary or associated in pairs or trios. There was also a sprinkling of very minute circular bodies, each of which contained a highly refractive granule. A few Molecular matter. Anthophysa. i a ,. ge specimens of Goleps (vide Plate IX, fig. 119) were also Coleps. Encysted cells. present> , md in one spec i men a considerable quantity of Anthophi/sa Millleti (vide Plate V, fig. 1). Beyond these, and one or two small colourless, encysted cells, nothing could be detected. 3. Water of the Right Wing Lines, Perambore. — This water, when examined at the same time as No. 2, was like it found to be very impure. "It is considered good, and is largely used for drinking purposes." The water was perfectly clear, of a faint greenish tinge, with no perceptible sediment and no smell. Specimens taken from the bottom showed very little. A few particles of sand, a little mole- cular matter, and a sprinkling of peculiar green algoid filaments were present (vide Plate IX, fig. SG). They were of small size, distinctly jointed, and terminated at either extremity by a colourless lance-shaped cell. The coloured cells contained in their in- Algaj. Coleps. Entomostraca. Moiiads. terior two to four distinct granules. There were also one ov two minute Entomostraca, and a few specimens of Coleps, also a single specimen of a peculiar monadiform body, of a flattened triangular shape with three vibratiie filaments proceeding from the apex, and a curious projection at one extremity of the base (vide Plate IX, fig. 84). Specimens from the surface of the water showed a sprinkling of the green lance-headed filaments previously described, and a few minute, active circular and oval Monads. 4. Water from the Cooum. — This water was quite transparent, but of a slight bluish-brown opalescent tinge, and with a considerable sediment and faint disagreeable odour. The sediment was found to consist in greater part of amorphous brownish matter, with a considerable amount of free molecular matter, minute darting specks and active Bacterium. Molecular matter. Lyngbya. There were also numerous specimens of Pleurosigma and other Bacterium. M° u ? ds ' diatomaceous forms : a small number of minute and very active Diatoms. Vibnones. . , «.»..' . / •,/„ th,,.^ ty &„ *f>\ ..«,! ™ Q greenish Oscillatorian filaments (vide Plate IX, fig. 52), and one or two filaments of Lyngbya, identical with that of Plate IX, Oscillaria. fig. 55. One specimen of an elongated active monad (Plate IX, fig. 79) and one large cystoid body full of cellules were also seen. Specimens from the surface showed a slight film, consisting of very fine molecular and Bacterial matter, the latter extremely active. There were also numerous arge Vibriones, some very active two-celled bodies, each of the component cells, containing a highly refractive granule, and a few minute oval and circular monads. 5. Water from a well in the Madras Penitentiary. — This water is esteemed of good quality by the natives. It was transparent, colourless and odourless, and contained a mere trace of sediment. Specimens from the lower portion of the fluid showed very little. A few cotton fibres, portions of de- -'(> composing vegetable tissues, and particles of sand were present. One or two small, coiouness, circular and oval Monads, one small very active paramecioid body, a Cyclops. few >spec i mens o f' a J)ifflugia (Plate IX, fig. 101), and one Monads. DitHugia. large Actinophrys (Plate IX, fig. 109) were detected. No contractile vesicle could be seen in the latter. Specimens from Actiuophrys. the surface merely showed a trace of fine molecular matter and minute active Bacterium, with a solitary specimen of Cyclops, apparently Cyclops quadricornis. G. Water from a well in the Madras Penitentiary. — This water is said to be very bad. It had no smell, but was of a greenish colour and full of fine greenish flocculi. Specimens from the lower portion of the fluid showed abundant flakes of fine molecular matter, in which, in some cases, small circular cells were embedded, and of filaments of Oscillaria OscUhria' * Euchlauis an<^ n 9^!/ a °^ var ' ous s i zes an^ greenish colour. One specimen of a large rotifer, seemingly a species of Euclilanis, was present. 7. Water from a well in the Madras Penitentiary. — This water was colourless, transparent, with a faint odour, slight brackish taste, and a mere trace of sediment. Specimens from the lower portion of the fluid showed very little. A sprinkling of cotton and other vegetable fibres and a few portions of disintegrating vegetable cellular tissue present, some of the latter being permeated by delicate mycelial threads. There were also present consi- Cyelidium. Diatoms. derable numbers of Cyclidium glaucoma (vide Plate IX, fig. 133), Heteromita. tieggiatoa. of minute jleteromitce, and a few very minute navicular Diatoms. Specimens from the surface showed only a few minute filaments of Beggiatoa. 8. Water from a tank near the sewage farm, Perambore. — The surface of this tank was covered in many places with a luxuriant growth of Pistia stratiotes, and it was from among the rootlets of specimens of this plant that the greater number of the organisms enumerated were obtained. The most abundant and characteristic forms present were — Ist, a larger species of Arcella of a brown colour (vide Plate IX, fig. 103) ; 2nd, a species of vSricola. Eugkna?' Vaginicola (vide Plate IX, fig. 127)° Some loricra contained Amuebro. ' Crumenula. * wo P°lyp s » others only one. 3rd, Amcebce of considerable size, Rotiferro. Monostyla. but apparently unprovided with contractile vesicles ; 4th, a Diatoms. Monads. larcre snccies of rotifer, armarentlv bclonmnir to the family Flnsr.u- large species of rotifer, apparently belonging to the family Floscu- Oscillaria. laricea. The lorica distinctly annulatcd and semi-transparent, and the superior margin of each annulus marked by a row of granules j sth, numerous Diatoms of various species ; Gth, greenish filaments of Lynghya and Oscillaria. In addition to these more abundant forms, one specimen of a large species of Euglena (Euglena spirogyra 1) (Plate IX, fig. 91), one of a large bright green Crumenula (Plate IX, fig. 89), and one of a species of Monostyla, together with oval and circular Monads of various sizes, some large, circular and with short flagella (Plate IX, fig. 77), others very minute and oval, were detected. There were also a few specimens of a species of Zoothamninm (Plate IX, fig. 122). 9. Water from a tank in a hutting ground near the sewage farm. — The surface of this tank was covered with a thick scum, of a bright green colour and closely resembling green oil-paint in appearance. The specimen of Clathrocystis. water containing some of this material gave out an intensely disagreeable animal odour when the bottle containing it was opened. The green colour was found to be due to an immense number of minute algoid cells, Clathrocystis. (T) These were aggregated into hollow, more or less irregularly globular masses, each mass having numerous openings from the outer surface to the central cavity. The component cells were in most cases very minute, but there were also a certain number of larger cells which presented appearances apparently demonstrating that the smaller cells were due to a continued division of their contents. In the figure (Plate IX, fig. 48) one of these larger cells is shown highly magnified. It is much dilated, and the process of content division has proceeded so far as to produce a collection of cellules like those free in the fluid, each of which consists of three or four greenish granules surrounded by a special investment. 10. Water from the tank at the cart-stand in Sydenham's Road, Choolay. — This water was turbid, of a dirty yellow colour, and deposited a slight sediment. This sedi- Anthophysa. I Actinophrys. ment was f ounc i to cons i s t almost entirely of stems of Anthophi/sa, Diatoms. Clnlodon. ««!„«—-«. r, . !,„„,!„ „„• : • •.¦ mi t^i \ only a very few heads remaining in situ. There was little sand or other inorganic matter present. Among the Anthophysa stems Coleps. numerous active infusoria were present. The most abundant and characteristic forms were the following, arranged m order of prevalence :—lst: — 1st (Plate IX, fig. 114), peculiar bell-shaped bodies, with a retractile oral process, and a circle of coarse cilia around it ; they were extremely active, sometimes crawling by means of their cilia, and at others revolving with great rapidity through the fluid by means of the energetic action of the same processes ; 2nd, small disciform Diatoms containing greenish granules ; 3rd, specimens of Coleps (coleps hirtus) like that of fig. 119, Plate IX ; ith, a few specimens of a large species of Actinophrys (Plate IX, fig. 10G) ; there was a distinct gelatinous coating around each cell ; sth, active specimens of Chilodon cucidlulus 1 similar to that of Plate V, fig. 2. 1 1. Water from a tank near some huts, Ashtaboogum Road, Choolay. — The colour of this water Pleuromonas. I Vorticella. W f. fHrt / U . 0W ' j™ 1 f Sta f lin ? ** deposited a considerable Heteromita. j Cyclidia. sediment, llus sediment was found to consist mainly of angular sandy particles with abundant fine molecular matter. The only form of infusoria which was present in any abundance consisted of the common Pleuromonas (Pleuromonas Jaculans, vide Plate V, fig. 6, A). Of this there were numbers of specimens, some still attached by their posterior filament and moving in the normal jerking manner, others swimming 70 Blike small Heteromitce. A few active, free Vorticella heads and Cyclidia, and one peculiar green tornonad (Plate IX, fig. 85). The body was triangular, with thickened margins, and was ed on itself in a sci*ew-like manner. A red eye-speck, delicate flagellum, and nuclear body nt. Its movements were active, progression being accompanied with revolution on its long axis. 12. Water from the tank near the bazaar, Palaveram. — This water was of a yellowish tinge, but quite transparent and depositing no sediment. Examined microscopically, it showed scarcely any- thing : a sprinkling of active granules and a few small oval and Mounds. circular monadiform cells. They were of various shades of green and brown, and of various degrees of activity (Plate IX, fig. 78). 13. Water from a well near the 2^>riest's compound, Palaveram. — This water was transparent, odourless and colourless. There were one or two small fragments Monads. I eggia oa. of sediment, which on examination proved to be portions of disin- Djatoms. | Actmophrys. . .. J*. ? m11 ,,i ... Vi i_.Zu^j^. tegrating vegetable cellular tissue. The only other bodies detected were a few angular fragments of sand, one or two very delicate filaments of Begyiatoa, one small navicular Diatom, and some minute colourless Monads and specimens of Actmophrys. 14. Water from another well at Palaveram. — This water was transparent, colourless and odourless, without any perceptible sediment. Microscopic examination showed almost nothing. One small patch of molecular matter and sandy particles was found. In and around this a Cyclidia. j Bacterium . Monads. | few Cyclidia, green oscillatorial filaments, minute Monads and Bacteria were present. The Monads were both active and still, and the Bacteria were mostly composed of three to four joints, 15. Water from a well on the east side of the cantonment. — This water was transparent, colourless and odourless, and did not show even a trace of sediment. Microscopic examination afforded hardly any results. A few small particles of sand, one or two moving granules, solitary or in pairs, and one small colourless, encysted circular cell were all that could be detected. 16. Water from a well near the depot barracks. — The water was perfectly clear, colourless and odourless, and without the slightest trace of sediment. Microscopical examination showed a few particles of latcrite dust, and one or two small fragments of disintegrating vegetable cellular tissue. 17. Water from the well in front of the midwife? '// ward. — This water was transparent, colour,, , , fl , , tv , less, odourless, and had a very little greyish deposit. This deposit Molecular flakes. Diatoms. ' « , ' . , o n •'. on i i ¦ \ was found to consist of flakes of fine molecular matter, with Pleuromonas. Monads. cotton fibres, portions of vegetable cellular tissue, angular fragments of sand, and grains of laterite embedded in it. There was little evidence of the presence of animal or vegetable life in it. Around the edges of the flakes of sediment were a few free and attached specimens of the common Pleuromonas, while in their substance, embedded in the molecular matter, there was a scanty sprinkling of colourless encysted circular cells of various sizes, with a few small Diatoms, the latter almost all dead. One specimen of a curious monad, with the anterior extremity prolonged into a slender projecting process bearing the flagcllum, was also seen. 18. Water from the well in front of Xo. 4 hospital, Palaveram. — This water was transparent, colourless and odourless. It contained a few active Entomostraca Entomortraca. I Cyclidium. aa-Ta ,7 , T^r " V T Pleuromonas. Chilodon. a deposited a few fragments of sediment of a greyish colour. This sediment consisted in greater part of fragments of dead crustaceans, more or less mixed with particles of sand, and a few branched colpurless mycelial filaments. The Entomostraca belonged to some genus of Cyclopidce, apparently Canthocamptus. In and around the dead specimens were myriads of Plenromonads. There were also a considerable number of masses of encysted cells of various sizes, and a few active specimens of Cyclidium and Chilodon. 19. Water from a well in the native parcherry (the dhobie village previously alluded to), Pala- veram. — This water was transparent, colourless and odourless, Monads. with only an extremely scanty trace of sediment. Microscopically it showed no evidences of impurity. A few fragments of disinte- grating vegetable tissues and one or two minute circular Monads composed almost all the organic structures visible. 20. Water from the new reservoir, Ootacamund. — This water in the autumn of 1870 showed unequivocal signs of organic pollution, due either to the in-washing of material from the adjoining cul- I o J o tivated ground, or to the death and decay of submerged grass Entomostraca. Diatoms. Chilodon. Perliastn Pediastrum. and weeds. It was of a brownish colour, probably due to the Bursariti. Staurastrum. peaty nature of the soil from which it drains. Entomostracous Bpirostomum. Scenedesmus. Crustacea were present in enormous numbers, 'with large ciliated Holopl.rya. Oscillana. • n • r ¦ 1 ¦ , ?-,, . ? „',, i ? , , , mlusoria of various kinds. The majority of the latter belonged apparently to the genera Chilodon (Plate IX, fig. 115), Spirostomum (Plate IX, fig. 126), Bursaria (1) (Plate IX, fig. 113), and Holophrya (Plate IX, fig. 124). There were also numerous elongated, sessile diatoms, a few specimens of Pediastrum tetras (Plate IX, fig. 14), and of a species of Staurastrum (Plate IX, fig. 1/5), an abundance of minute Scenedesmi (Plate IX, fig. 21), and one or two bright green filaments of Oscillaria (Plate IX, fig. 54). 21. II aterfrom the Dodabet reservoir, Ootacamund.— -This water was transparent, almost colourless, and deposited a little sediment composed of isolated fragments. These fragments were found Heggiatoa. T? f to consist almost entirely of portions of disintegrating vegetable Chlamydomonas. AmpliHeptus cellular tissue, with a few filaments of Beggiatoa. Among and Dinobryon. VortieeHn around the fragments of sediment were numerous bright green specimens of Chlamydomonas, with four delicate flagella (Plate TX, fig. 46), an abundance of minute greenish and colourless monads, and a few specimens of two species of Staurastra ; one colony of Dinobryon sertidaria 1 (Plate IX, fig. 92) was detected ; also one or two small llotiferca ; two specimens of a large Vorticella, and a few small specimens of Amphileptus. 71 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WATER IN MADRAS. [ Note A 72 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. 22. Water from the lower end of the lake, Ootacamund. — This was transparent, colourless and deposited a slight amount of greenish sediment. The greater part of this sediment was found to be composed of Desmidiem of various kinds, Cosmarium, Stau- Desinids. I Diatoms. Confervfc. rastrum, Ankistrodesmus, Glosterium, Docidium, &c. (Plate IX, Pediastrum. Oicillarfa. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 24, 26, 29, Coelastruin. Scenedesmus. Chfctonotus. 3i } 34 ? 35), There were also a few specimens of Pediastrum tetras Tank- worms. (p kte IX) figi 14^ and of a larger Sl)ec i es w i t h deeply incised lobes Monads. Paramecium. (Plate IX, fig. 41), and numerous specimens of a species of Cmlastrum 1 (Plate IX, fig. 53), and of various species of Scenedes7nus, (Plate IX, figs. 16, 20, 22). There were, in addition to the above, numerous masses of green cellules (Plate IX, fig. 38), an abundance of Diatoms of various kinds, a few colourless Monads and bright green Paramecia, one or two ¦small tank-worms, and specimens of a peculiar species of Cluntonotus 1 and a few filaments of Confervce and Oscillarice. 23. Water from the lake, Ootacamund. — This specimen was taken from immediately above the Willow-bund. It was of a faint yellowish tinge, contained much fine suspended matter, and deposited a considerable quantity of brownish sediment. The sediment was found to consist mainly of brownish, amorphous, granular matter and disintegrating vegetable tissues. There were numerous Desinids present, but they were by no means so abundant as those in No. 19, and did not form so prominent a characteristic in the sediment. The species were generally identical with those of No. 19, but there were also one or two, not previously observed, among which were an elongate slender Glosterium (Plate IX, fig. 33), and a sjiecies of Gonatozygon (Plate IX, fig. 30). In addition to the above alga?, there were numerous filaments of Ilormiscial (Plate IX, fig. 71). The most characteristic feature in this water was, however, the Desmids. I Polytoma. number and variety of animal forms jn'esent. The most remark- Hormiscia. Amoeba. able of these were two species of Stentor, one of very large size Stcutor. I Euplotes. (Plate IX, fig. 131)) ; abundant greenish-yellow masses of Polytomai large Amcebce, of various forms (Plate IX, figs 108, 95) ; specimens of Euplotes, like those subsequently found at Bellary (Plate IX, fig. 112). and of a peculiar body, apparently belonging to the family Ichthydina (Plate IX, fig. 123). 24. Water from the river Salem, — This specimen was procured at a ghat in the town, where many natives wash and procure their drinking water. It was of a faint yellowish tinge, and had a slight, disagreeable smell. It deposited a little sediment of a sandy look, and after standing for some hours showed a delicate film on the surface. Tli3 sediment was mainly composed of angular particles of sand. Both animal and vegetable forms were present only in very small amount. There Beggiatoa. Coleps. Lyngbya. Euglena. llotit'erflc. Monads. Chilodon. were a certain number of delicate colourless filaments of Beggiatoa, and one or two of a A 7 ery large Lyngbya, previously found in tank waters in Calcutta (Plate IX, fig. 61). Diatoms were present in considerable numbers, the prevailing form being of considerable size and elongated outline. There were also a few Rotiferce ; one or two specimens of Chilodon, Coleps and Euglena Viridis, and a sprinkling of circular encysted cells, solitary or in small masses, and colourless or of various shades of brown and yellowish. The film on the surface showed much fine molecular matter and a sprinkling of small oval and circular Monads. 25. Water from Kichipolum ivell, Salem. — This well is in considerable use as a source of supply of drinking water. The natives say that the quality of the water is not good. It was colourless, transparent, odourless, and deposited a slight amount of sediment. The sediment consisted almost entirely of sand, with a small amount of amorphous, brown, granular matter. Very few organisms, either animal or vegetable, could be detected. The only form which was at all abundant was a good sized disciform Diatom. There were Amphileptus, also a few specimens of Chilodon and Ampliileptus ; one or two Diatoms. Cliilodon. Monads. other species of Diatoms, and a sprinkling of minute Monads and molecular matter. 26. Water from Chitra Savodij well, Salem. — This water was colourless, transparent, and odourless. There was a slight sediment of a green colour composed of materials from the sides of the well. The deposit consisted in great part of filaments of Hormiscia, like those Hormiscia. | Vorticella Diatoms. Cypris. Cypris. llotiferao. Coleps. Chilodon. Pediastrum, found in No. 23, and of masses of stiped Diatoms, and free Cyclidiutn. frustules detached from them. There were also a few Rotifene, numerous specimens of Chilodon and Cyclidiutn, and one or two of a small species of Vorticella, of a Cypris, of the common Coleps, and of a small Pediastrum. 27. Water from a well at Yercaud, Shervaroy Hills. — This water was clear, colourless, odourless, and deposited a mere trace of sediment in the form of a few isolated yellowish fragments. These fragments were found to consist of masses of cells of various sizes, of circular outline save where rendered irregular by mutual pressure, in various stages of Encysted cells. encystment, and of various shades of colour, ranging from colourless and 2>ale yellow to well-marked brown. 28. Water from the pond below the church, Yercaud. — This water was of a faint yellowish tinge and deposited a considerable amount of sediment. The sediment consisted mainly of amor- phous, brownish, granular matter, with numerous angular fragments of sand, and a sprinkling of portions of disintegrating vegetable tissues. Among the flakes of sediment there were a few specimens of a small Staurastrum, and of the stipitate Diatom so common in No. 26; one or two active Cyclidia, and specimens of two Diatoms. Rotiferse. Staurastrutn. Euglena. Cyclidium. Cyclops. Cyclops. species of Rotiferai ; numerous active specimens of Euglena viridis (Plate IX, fig. 88), and one or two of Cyclops quadricornis. Note A ] 73 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OP WATER IN MADRAS. 29. Water from the Alsoor tank, Bangalore. — This specimen contained some of the grass from the edges of the tank, and one or two specimens of a minute dark-coloured Planorbis. The water was of bi'ownish colour and retained a considerable amount of suspended matter, even after standing for several hours, and depositing a considerable amount of sediment. The sediment consisted principally of angular pai'ticles of sand with many molecular flakes, and Oscillaria. Phacus. large numbers of filaments of Oscillaria, Beggiatoa and Hypheo- Lyngbya. Cyclidia. thrix of various sizes. There was a considerable amount of fine Bacterium ' Heteromita Bacterium, and numerous active, darting molecules present. Dia- Bacterium. Pleuromona's. Toms of various forms, some of which wei*e borne on beautifully Diatoms. Deemids. Clathrocystis . branched stipes, were abundant. A few desmids were also present, Difflugia. Pandorina. the commonest forms being two species of Cosmarium (Plate IX, Euglena. Actinophrys. figs. 11, 18). Amasbce of considerable size, but unprovided with any Euglena. Spirostomum contractile vesicle, and a few small Difflugice were also present (Plate IX, fig, 100). A few specimens of Euglena spirogyra% (Plate IX, fig. 91) and of a species of phacus (Plate IX, fig. 86). both of which had been previously found in tank water in Madras, were observed. There were also numerous small, active oval and circular Monads, a few of larger size and with somewhat rigid flagella (Plate IX, fig. 80), one or two Heteromitce, (Plate IX, fig. 81), Pleuromonads, Cyclidia, and small specimens of Actinophrys, with small patches of green Clathrocystis, and a few specimens of Spirostomum (Plate IX, fig. 126). A single average sized specimen of Pandorina was also detected. 30. Water from a well in Bangalore. — Said to be of good quality and free from brackishness. This water was clear, colourless and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment. The sediment was found to consist of angular fragments of sand and amorphous particles. A few minute active Monads and some specimens of Cyclidium were present. At one point, where Monads. s , t ! llsi.l 1 si . a r there was a semi-disintegrated fragment of some insect, a small Cyclidium. Ichtluuium. . ? , -i a , • -v i x a a. • a-ti group of minute coloui'less Astasiai were observed, at first in full activity, and afterwards circular, still, and seemingly undergoing encystment. A solitary specimen of what appeared to be a species of Ichthidium was also noted. 31. Waterfront the large lank, Toomcoor. — This water was of pale-yellowish tinge, deposited a considerable amount of yellowish-brown sediment, and showed Clathrocystis. I Leptothrix. patches of green scum on the surface. The gi*een patches were Vorticella. Diatoms. found to consist of Clathrocystis, apparently identical with that occurring in Madras and figured previously (Plate IX, fig. 48). Among the cellules of this were a few specimens of a small Amcoba. Euglena. Bacterium. | Cyclops. species of Vortialla, and numerous sluggish Amoeboid cells of small size (Plate IX, fig. 94). The latter bodies were each provided with a contractile vesicle showing contraction at regular intervals. They slowly changed form and emitted lobed protrusions occasionally. In the same situation there were also small numbers of large Bacteria with three or four joints. The sediment was found to consist in great part of brownish, amorphous molecular masses, with numerous delicate, free, and attached filaments of Leptothrix. A few Diatoms and large brown, circular encysted cells, and numerous .specimens, alive, dead, and in various stages of disintegration, of Cyclops quadricornis were also present. Within the body of one of the dead specimens a solitary specimen of Euglena viridis was moving actively about. 32. Water from the tank at Cora. — This water was turbid, of a dirty reddish-yellow colour, and deposited a considerable amount of red sediment. It was, Anthophysa, Amceba. however, odourless and tasteless. The sediment was found to Monad*. consist of sandy particles and red amorphous earthy masses, with a Cyolidia, Astasia, profusion of stems of Anthophysa Miilleri in various stages of development. A few retained their heads in situ, while free heads and separate monads abounded in the fluid. All throughout the fluid were abundant minute darting specks, and active Cyclidia, many of which exhibited all stages of self-division. One large colourless Astasia, and a few Amcebai like those previously observed in Bangalore tank water, with a few large circular colourless Monads, were also observed. 33. Water from the well at Timmarajanahully. — This water was colourless, transparent and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment. The small particles of ActinoT"^' sediment present were found to consist principally of angular lc mop lry . sanc ly particles with a few fragments of disintegrating vegetable Beggiatoa. Cyelidia. tissue and some amorphous granular matter. Hardly any evidences of the presence of living animal or vegetable organisms were to be found. One or two very delicate filaments of Beggiatoa, one Cyclidium, and a few Pleuromonads and minute specimens of Actinophrys (Plate IX, fig. 104) were all that could be detected. 34. Water from Linganhully. — This water was of a pale-yellowish colour, with a consider- able amount of sediment of buff-coloured flocculi, and numerous Anthophysa. I Phacus. fragments of a similar "nature suspended in it. It was odourless, Pleuromonas. and without perceptible taste. The sediment was found to consist almost entirely of masses of branched stems of Anthophysa, of the usual shades of brown and yellowish, bearing numerous active heads in various stages of development. The fluid between the stems was full of detached heads, some entire and others in various stages of breaking up, while numbers of free monads, oval and circular, were swimming actively about and going through the usual processes of breaking down, division, &c. There were also numerous Pleuromonads and a sprinkling of angular particles of sand. Besides these bodies, one small collection of greenish cellules, and one specimen of a small bright-green, red-stigmaed body (Plate IX, fig. 87), apparently a species of Phacus, Avere seen. 21 72 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [ Note A 22. Water from the lower end of the lake, Ootacamund. — This was transparent, colourless and deposited a slight amount of greenish sediment. The greater part of this sediment was found to be composed of Desmidiece of various kinds, Cusmarium, Stau- Desurids Diatoms to ue Com P o|Setl OI .uesinuiiem 01 various Kinus, vosmarmm, oiau- Pediastrum. Confervw. rastrum, Ankistrodesmus, Closterium, Bocidium, cfec. (Plate IX, Ccelastrom. Oscillaria. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 24, 26, 29, Sceuedesmus. Cha?tonotus. 3^ 34^ 35), There were also a few specimens of Pediastrum telras Monads.^ Tauk- worms. (p kte j Xj fi jm ftnd of a largor Bpecies with tleeply i llc iseel lobes (Plate IX, tig. 41), and numerous specimens of a species of Ctdastrum 1 (Plate IX, fig. 53), and of various species of Scenedesmus, (Plate IX, figs. IG, 20, 22). There were, in addition to the above, numerous masses of green cellules (Plate IX, fig. 38), an abundance of Diatoms of various kinds, a few colourless Monads and bright green Paramecia, one or two small tank-worms, and specimens of a peculiar species of C/uetonotus 1 and a few filaments of Confervia and Oscillaria'. 23. Water from the lake, Ootacamund. — This specimen was taken from immediately above the Willow-bund. It was of a faint yellowish tinge, contained much fine suspended matter, and deposited a considerable quantity of brownish sediment. The sediment was found to consist mainly of brownish, amorphous, granular matter and disintegrating vegetable tissues. There were numerous Desmids present, but they were by no means so abundant as those in No. 19, and did not form so prominent a characteristic in the sediment. The species were generally identical with those of No. 19, but there were also one or two, not previously observed, among which were an elongate slender Closterium (Plate IX, fig. 33), and a species of Gonatozygon (Plate JX, fig. 3G). In addition to the above algte, there were numerous filaments of Ilormisc'ial (Plate IX, fig. 71). The most characteristic feature in this water was, however, the ])osmids. I Polytoma. number and variety of animal forms present. The most remark- Hormiscia. Amoeba. able of these were two species of Stentor, one of very large size Stoutor. I Euplotes. (Plate IX, fig. 130) j abundant greenish-yellow masses of Polytomai large Amoeba.', of various forms (Plate IX, figs 108, 95) ; specimens of Euplotes, like those subsequently found at Bellary (Plate IX, fig. 112). and of a peculiar body, apparently belonging to the family Ichthydina (Plate IX, fig. 123). 24. Water from the river Salem, — This specimen was procured at a ghat in the town, where many natives wash and procure their drinking water. It was of a faint yellowish tinge, and had a slight, disagreeable smell. It deposited a little sediment of a sandy look, and after standing for some hours showed a delicate film 011 the surface. The sediment was mainly composed of angular particles of sand. Both animal and vegetable forms were present only in very small amount. There were a certain number of delicate colourless filaments of Beggiatoa, and one or two of a very large Lynybya, previously found in tank waters in Calcutta (Plate IX, fig. 01). Diatoms were jn-csent in considerable numbers, the prevailing form being of considerable size and elongated outline. There were also a few liotiferce ; one Be^giatoa. Coleps. Lyngbya. Euglena. Rotit'era?. Monads. Chilodon. or two specimens of Chilodon, Coleps and Eutjlena Yiridis, and a sprinkling of circular encysted cells, solitary or in small masses, and colourless or of various shades of brown and yellowish. The film on the surface showed much fine molecular matter and a sprinkling of small oval and circular Monads. 25. Water from Kichipolum loell, Salem. — This well is in considerable use as a source of supply of drinking water. The natives say that the quality of the water is not good. It was colourless, transparent, odourless, and deposited a slight amount of sediment. The sediment consisted almost entirely of sand, with a small amount of amorphous, brown, granular matter. Very few organisms, either animal or vegetable, could be detected. The only form which was at all abundant was a good sized disciform Diatom. There were Diatoms. AmphUeptua. a lso a few specimens of Chilodon and Amphileplus ; one or two Chilodon. Monads. other species of Diatoms, and a sprinkling of minute Monads and molecular matter. 2G. Water from Chitra Savody well, Salem. — This water was colourless, transparent, and odourless. There was a slight sediment of a green colour composed of materials from the sides of the well. The deposit consisted in great part of filaments of Hormiscia, like those Hormiscia. | Vorticella. Diatoms, Cypris. Cypris. Rotifer©. Colepg. consisted in great part of filaments of Hormiscia, like those Chilodon. Pediastrum. f omu i in No , 23 aml of m&ases o f Htipetl Diatoms, and free frustules detached from them. There were also a few Botiferce, numerous specimens of Chilodon and Cyclidium, and one or two of a small species of Vorticella, of a Cypris, of the common Coleps, and of a small Pediastrum. 27. Water from a well at Yercaud, Shervaroy Hills. —This water was clear, colourless, odour- less, and deposited a mere trace of sediment in the form of a few isolated yellowish fragments. These fragments were found to consist of masses of cells of various sizes, of circular outline save where rendered irregular by mutual pressure, in various stages of Encysted cells. encystment, and of various shades of colour, ranging from colourless and pale yellow to well-marked brown. 28. Water from the pond below the church, Yercaud. — This water was of a faint yellowish tinge and deposited a considerable amount of sediment. The sediment consisted mainly of amor- phous, brownish, granular matter, with numerous angular fragments of sand, and a sprinkling of portions of disintegrating vegetable tissues. Among the flakes of sediment there were a few specimens of a small Staurastrum, and of the stipitate Diatom so common in No. 26; one or two active Cyclidia, and specimens of two Diatoms. Rotifers, Staurastrum. Euglena, Cyclidium. Cyclops. Cyclops. species of liotiferce ; numerous active specimens of Euglena viridis (Plate IX, fig. 88), and one or two of Cyclops quadricornis. Note A] 73 MICUOSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WATER IN MADRAS. 29. Water from the Alsoor tank, Bangalore. — This specimen contained some of the grass from the edges of the tank, and one or two specimens of a minute dark-coloured Planorbis. The water was of brownish colour and retained a considerable amount of suspended matter, even after standing for several hours, and depositing a considerable amount of sediment. The sediment consisted principally of angular particles of sand with many molecular flakes, and Oseillaria. Phacus. lai'ge numbers of filaments of Oscillaria, Beggiatoa and Hypheo- Lyngbya. Cyclidia. thrix of various sizes. There was a considerable amount of fine Bacterium™*' Heteromita Bacterium and numerous active, darting molecules present. Dia- Bacterium. Diatoms. ' PleuromonVs. Toms of various forms, some of which were borne on beautifully Deemids. Clathrocystis . branched stipes, were abundant. A few desmids were also present, Difflugia. Pandorina. the commonest forms being two species of Cosmarium (Plate IX, Euglena. Aetinoplirys. figs. 11, 18). A mcebee of considerable size, but unprovided with any Euglena. Spirostomum, contractile vesicle, and a few small Difflugim were also present (Plate IX, fig. 100). A few specimens of Euglena spirogyra\ (Plate IX, fig. 91) and of a species of phacus (Plate IX, fig. 86). both of which had been previously found in tank water in Madras, were observed. There were also numerous small, active oval and circular Monads, a few of larger size and with somewhat rigid flagella (Plate IX, fig. 80), one or two Heteromitce, (Plate IX, fig. 81), Pleuromonads, Cyclidia, and small specimens of Actinophrys, with small patches of green Clathrocystis, and a few specimens of Spirostomum (Plate IX, fig. 126). A single average sized specimen of Pandorina was also detected. 30. Water from a well in Bangalore. — Said to be of good quality and free from brackishness. This water was clear, colourless and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment. The sediment was found to consist of angular fragments of sand and amorphous particles. A few minute active Monads and some specimens of Cyclidium were present. At one point, where Monads. fB,*??!j'>f 8 ,*??!j'> there was a semi-disintegrated fragment of some insect, a small Cychdium. Ichtlndium. „,*„„*« ™lnnvW Alaiim wm-R observed, at first, in full group of minute colourless Astasice were observed, at first in full activity, and afterwards circular, still, and seemingly undergoing encystment. A solitary specimen of what appeared to be a species of Ichthidium was also noted. 31. Water from the large tank, Toomcoor. — This water was of pale-yellowish tinge, deposited a considerable amount of yellowish-brown sediment, and showed Clathrocystis. Leptothrix. patches of green scum on the surface. The green patches were Vorticella. Diatoms. frmnd fn (wim'st nf Clnt.hrncnst.is. annarentlv identical with that found to consist of Clathrocystis, apparently identical with that occurring in Madras and figured previously (Plate IX, fig. 48). Among the cellules of this were a few specimens of a small Amoeba. Euglena. Bacterium. | Cyclops. species of Vorticdla, and numerous sluggish A mceboid cells of small size (Plate IX, fig. 94). The latter bodies were each provided with a contractile vesicle showing contraction at regular intervals. They slowly changed form and emitted lobed protrusions occasionally. In the same situation there were also small numbers of large Bacteria with three or four joints. The sediment was found to consist in great part of brownish, amorphous molecular masses, with numerous delicate, free, and attached filaments of Leptothrix. A few Diatoms and large brown, circular encysted cells, and numerous specimens, alive, dead, and in various stages of disintegration, of Cyclops quadricornis were also present. Within the body of one of the dead specimens a solitary specimen of Euglena viridis was moving actively about. ¦oc J * 32. Water from the tank at Cora. — This water was turbid, of a dirty reddish-yellow colour, and deposited a considerable amount of red sediment. It was, Anthophysa, Amseba. however, odourless and tasteless. The sediment was found to Cyclidia, Monads. consist of sandy particles and red amorphous earthy masses, with a Astasia, profusion of stems of Anthophysa Miilleri in various stages of development. A few retained their heads in situ, while free heads and separate monads abounded in the fluid. All throughout the fluid were abundant minute darting specks, and active Cyclidia, many of which exhibited all stages of self-division. One large colourless Astasia, and a few Amcebce like those previously observed in Bangalore tank water, with a few large circular colourless Monads, were also observed. 33. Water from the well at Timmarajanahidly.— •This water was colourless, transparent and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment. The small particles of jgiatoa. I Pleuromonas. se diment present were found to consist principally of angular jlidia. | Actinopurys. p . u . ticles with a few fragments of disintegrating vegetable Beggiatoa. Cyclidia. tissue and some amorphous granular matter. Hardly any evidences of the presence of living animal or vegetable organisms were to be found. One or two very delicate filaments of Beggiatoa, one Cyclidium, and a few Pleuromonads and minute specimens of Actinophrys (Plate IX, fig. 104) were all that could be detected. 34. Water from Linyanhidly. — This water was of a pale-yellowish colour, with a considerable amount of sediment of buff-coloured flocculi, and numerous Antbophysa. I Phacus. fragments of a similar nature suspended in it. It was odourless, Pleui'onioinis. and without perceptible taste. The sediment was found to consist almost entirely of masses of branched stems of Anthophysa, of the usual shades of brown and yellowish, bearing numerous active heads in various stages of development. The fluid between the stems was full of detached heads, some entire and others in various stages of breaking up, while numbers of free monads, oval and circular, were swimming actively about and going through the usual processes of breaking down, division, &c. There were also numerous Pleuromonads and a sprinkling of angular particles of sand. Besides these bodies, one small collection of greenish cellules, and one specimen of a small bright-green, recl-stigmaed body (Plate IX, fig. 87), apparently a species of Phacus, were seen. 21 35. Water from the well at Tabbad Begoor. — This water was colourless and transparent, Anthophywi. Amoeba. Pleuromonas. Oscillaria. Vorticella. with a little buff-coloured sediment, and a few fragments of similar nature diffused through it. The sediment, like those of the specimens from Cora and Linganhully, consisted in greater part of entangled masses of Anthophysa stems, among which amorphous granular matter, and angular particles of sand were entangled. In addition to the stems and monads of the Anthophysa, there were numerous active, free, and attached specimens of Pleuromonas, a few large, active and very irritable Vorticella;, one or two amoeboid bodies with pseudopods running out into delicate threads (Plate IX, fig. 105), and a few green filaments of Oscillaria. 3C. Water from the river, Clospett. — This water was transparent, colourless and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment in the form of a few minute yellowish Bacterium. | Diatoms. _ particles. The sediment was found to consist almost entirely of AmlS. I angular particles of sand, embedded in amorphous, brownish- yellow, granular matter. There were also a few fragments of .semi-disintegrated vegetable cellular tissue. Animal and vegetable infusorial forms were present in very small numbers. There were only a few minute Monads, Amoebce, veiy delicate filaments of Beggiatoa, and active darting molecules and Bacteria ; one or two Diatoms, one large Stylonychia % (Plate IX, fig. 118), and one large colourless, monadiform body (Plate IX, fig. 83) with a long delicate flagellum, and attached posteriorly by a short, apparently twisted, pedicle. 37. Water from the tank near the Jail, Mysore. — This water was odourless, slightly turbid, of a faint greenish tinge, and with a slight sediment. The sediment was found to consist in great part of disintegrating vegetable tissues, with numerous small aggregations of starch granules. In some of the fragments of vegetable tissue distinct fungal cells, of a brownish colour, were visible, from Fungal cells. i Zoospores. Amcuba. Euglcnn?. Eugleiisu. Lyngbya. Monads. Paudoriiia. I Tank -worms. which delicate colourless threads passed out into the fluid. One large, fusiform, multiseptate sporewas also observed free, and giving origin at either extremity to a mycelial filament. Throughout the preparation there was much active molecular matter, and a sprinkling of minute Amoeba;, each of the latter provided with a distinct contractile vesicle. In one place a patch of oreen Lyngbya ( Plate IX, fig. 55 ) filaments was observed. There were numerous specimens of brown, circular bodies of great activity, and seemingly of the nature of zoospores ; a few large active, 32-celled Pandorincί (Plate IX, fig. 69); numerous minute oval and circular Monads, one or two large Stylonychuti 1 (like that of fig. 96), a few specimens of Euglena viridis, one of Euglemt, spirogyra, and one or two small tank-worms ( Plate IX, fig. 125). 38. Water from Karangie Tank. — This was colourless, almost perfectly transparent, and deposited only a very slight sediment. The sediment was found to consist almost entirely of angular particles of sand, and showed a mere trace of animal or vegetable organisms. The only Diatoms. | Cyclidia. forms of infusoria observed were a few Diatoms and one or two active Cyclidia. 39. Water from the large tank into which the drainage from the town 2xisses. — This water was Leptotlirix. Diatoms Bacterium. Coleps. Ophiocytium. Monads. Botryococcus, Cbilodon. Merismopedia. Aspidisca. Gla'ococcus. turbid, of a faint brownish tinge, with a slight disagreeable smell, and deposited a large amount of soft brownish sediment. Microscopic examination showed much less development and variety of infusorial forms than might have been expected. The sediment was composed in greater part of brown, amorphous, granular matter, with numerous fragments of vegetable tissue, oil globules, ifec, and in fact to all appearances was of an excrementitious nature. The most prominent and abundant organisms were — Ist, irregularly lobed masses of greenish cellules with a considerable amount of investing gelatinous material, and closely resembling the figures of Botryococcus, given by Rabenhorst ; and 2nd, large plates of Merismopedia, the component cellules of which were colourless and very minute (Plate IX, fig. 63). There were also numerous aggregations of pale bluish-green cellules invested in gelatinous matter, and possibly forming a sta<*e in the development of the larger masses previously alluded to (Plate IX, fig. 64). Active specimens of Glosococcus ? were ako present in large numbers ( Plate IX, fig. G6 ), with a few small Diatoms, specimens of Coleps, and large globular Monads with lobulated greeenish contents. One full-sized specimen of Chilodon ; one of AspUHsca ; one small collection of green cellules situated on a delicate, branched filament (Plate IX, fig. 05) ; one spirally coiled green filament of Ophiocytium 1 and one body consisting of a series of green cells arranged in a spiral curve and invested by a gelatinous coating ( Plate IX° fig. 47) were observed. All throughout there was much free molecular matter, dartinc specks and granules, with a few small Bacteria, one or two patches of fungoid mycelium, and some lon»-colourless filaments of Leptothrix. 40. Water from the springs in PoorniaKs Channel. — This water was transparent, colourless Cyclidium. Amoeba. Pleuromonas. Monads. Authophysa. and odourless, with only a slight trace of sediment. A few active specimens of Cyclops were swimming freely in the fluid. The sediment showed very little on microscopic examination, although as mach of it was collected as possible. What little there was of it appeared to be composed of angular fragments of sand, with a few small fragments of disintegrating vegetable tissues, and granular starch. In the neighbourhood of the latter constituents there were a few specimens of Cyclidia, great numbers of free and attached Pleuromonads, one or two stems and free and attached heads of Anthophysa, and a sprinkling of minute Amoeba; (Plate [X, fig. 99), and active Monads of small size. One large greenish Monad, like those present in the water of the large tank, and one Chilodon, were also detected. 74 [Note A 41. Water from Veemagerry Soobahi draw-well. — This well is situated in the eastei'n part of the town. The water is used as drinking watei". The water-level was 30 feet from the surface, and the depth of water was 10 feet. This water was clear, colourless, and with a mere trace of sediment. Microscopically it showed very little, save a few grains of sand, one or two fragments of vegetable tissue, and a sprinkling Cyclidia. Vorticella. Pleuromonas. of Cyclidia and free and attached Pleuromonads. A solitary circular encysted cell, and one specimen of a short-stemmed, minute, irritable Vorticella, were the only other bodies detected. 42. Water from a well in the centre of the tovm. — "This water is so brackish as to be unfit for use as drinking water." It was transparent, colourless, with a mere trace of sediment, but of a faint brackish taste. On microscopic examination, the sediment was found to consist in greater part of earthy and sandy particles, with a few fragments of vegetable Cyclidium. tissues. In the neighbourhood of the latter there were a few specimens of Cyclidium. 43. Water from a well in Kristnaraj Molmlla, on the south side of the town. — This water is used for drinking. It was transparent, odourless, of a slight greenish tinge, and with little sediment, but contained a considerable number of small green masses and particles suspended in it, and tending to form a layer on the surface. The most characteristic feature in it was the abundance of JEntonw&traca present. Three different species were present in considerable numbers — Ist, the common Cyclops- Bntomoίtraca Amoeba quadricornis ; 2nd, a species of Daphnia ; 3rd, a very peculiar Clathrocystis.' Bacterium. ostracode form not met with in any other water here, nor in any of those examined in other places. The green masses were found to be composed of similar elements to those forming the like bodies in the water from the tank at Toomcoor. Amoeboid cells were, however, present in greater abundance in this case. 44. Water from the tank on the summit of Charmandi Hill. — This water was turbid, due to the presence of many minute greenish suspended particles, and deposited a considerable amount of sediment of similar colour. The greater portion of the suspended matter, as well as of the deposit, was found to consist of masses of cellules, seemingly identical with those of the Clathrocystis found at Madras, Toomcoor, &c. As usual, there were associated with these cellules numerous sluggish Amoebce of various sizes, and provided with distinct rythmically Clathrocystis. Scenedesmui. contractile vesicles. There was also in some of the patches an Sum. Tmcheloceica. abundant development of large, two or three jointed Bacteria. Coleps. In addition to the above, there were a cei'tain number of patches of disintegrating vegetable tissue, numerous large active speci- mens of Coleps hirtusi (Plate IX, fig. 119), a few small Scenedesmi and fronds of a minute cruciate Pediastrum (Plate IX, fig. 43), and one or two large active Trachelocercce (Plate, IX fig. 120), one of which was observed to undergo a process of transverse division. 45. Water from a loell on Davaroy Mohalla, in the west side of the toion. — The water of this well is used for drinking purposes. The upper portion of this water was transparent, the lower turbid, due to the presence of fine suspended flocculi, and there was also a considerable amount of sediment composed of grey flocculent matter. On standing for some time, it acquired a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen, and a faint alkaline re-action, and afforded an example corroborative of the common belief of the natives of the town, that "the water from the wells is spoiled by keeping." The sediment was found to consist in greater part of brownish amorphous matter. The most characteristic feature in it was the extreme abundance of delicate, colourless, or faintly _ . A , „ . . greenish filaments of Bear/iatoa (Plate IX, fiff. 58). There Bejnnatoa. Bacterium. ° , ~ r ,JJ, JJ „ TT \ ? . ' /r ,, * TX / ? "_, Hydrodictyou. J Lyngbya. were .also.. als0 . a few fragments of Ilydrodictyon (Plate, IX tig. 57), a sprinkling of Diatoms and minute Monad*, and abundance of minute active Bacteria and darting molecules. One peculiar Monad with the anterior extremity clear and non-granular, and with a long somewhat rigid flagellum (Plate IX, fig. 7G), and one green filament of Lyngbya, were also observed. 4G. Water from a well beyond municipal limits, on the loio ground on the eastern side of the town. — This well is largely employed as a source of drinking water. The water was clear, transparent and odourless, with a considerable amount of sediment. A few specimens of Cyclops were swimming actively about in it. The sediment was composed mainly of particles of sand, and of amorphous, brownish, granular flakes. It contained numerous fronds of a Diatoms. Cyclidium. i argc S p ec i es o f Pediastrum, subsequently found at Tanjore, a few Cyclops. Raplnduun. ° n T r .. 77 , , , i r» • . t,, J . Pediastrum. Merismopedia. small Vorticelke, and long slender Diatoms, and the remains of a Vorticella. peculiar form of Entomostraca. There were also a few Cyclidia, one or two colourless specimens of what appeared to be a species of Raphidium, and some large plates of bluish-green Merismopedium (Plate IX, fig. G2). 47. Water from the large tank within the small Fort, Tanjore. This water was very turbid, and of a red colour. Even after standing for 2-i hours, the turbidity appeared to be undiininished, and a mere trace of sediment was deposited, in the form of a few isolated particles. These particles, on mici'oscopic examination, were found to consist of small, rough, apparently lateritious masses, „, . . ? , while the fluid contained an abundance of molecules and smaller Pleuromonas. | Anthophysa. _ ? f . ? _ Paramecium. masses apparently of a similar nature. One or two molecular brownish Hakes were present, in the neighbourhood of which there were a few free and attached specimens of Pleuromonas, one small Paramecium, and a small patch of A nthonhysa. 75 48. Water from a tank in the Fort of Tanjore. — This water is, in the opinion of the natives, of very bad quality ; although derived from the tank in the small fort by means of a channel, the water in this tank is not of a red colour. The specimen was clear, colourless and odourless, with hardly any sediment, but contained numerous small, green, floating masses, and showed a considerable number of active entomostracous Crustacea towards the bottom. Entomostraca. I Atncoba. Ckth7ocyBti 8 ?' I Bacterium. The S reen masses consisted of aggregations of cellules (Clathrocystis), previously observed in tank waters in Madras, Toomcoor, &c. In association with the cellules there were, as usual, numerous small Amozbm with contractile vesicles, and a sprinkling of large, motionless Bacteria. The crustaceans were apparently specimens of a large species of the family Daphniadce. The valves of the carapace were not reticulated. 49. Water from Iyan Colwn tank, Tanjore. — This water agreed in general characters with No. 45, but contained less green floating matter, and a much greater abundance of Crustacea, and deposited rather more sediment of a greyish colour. The Crustacea were identical in nature with those of No. 45. The sediment was composed of grey, molecular flakes, with fragments of laterite, cotton fibres, &c. _, , . „ Swimming with an active rotating movement through the fluid Entomostraca, Scenedesmus. . n , v . i • c n -j- Peridinium Vorticella were numerous specimens ot a brownish green species ot Fendv- nium (Plate IX, fig. 110) with a distinct nucleus and flagellum. (The commonest form of Peridinium in Calcutta is shown in fig. 111.) There were also a few small active Scenedesmi, and one specimen of a Vorticella, with a very thick stem, a marvellously distinct stem-muscle, and two separate heads. 50. Water from a ivell in the jail, Tanjore. — This water is considered to be of very good quality, and is used as drinking water in the jail. It was colourless, transparent and odourless, with veiy little sediment, but contained an abundance of minute, grey, suspended flocculi. These flocculi, as their appearance suggested, were Anthophysa. n , . ,l, l J Colons. Amooba. n ,v,. Actinophiys. C^ llduU in greater part composed of masses of Anthophysa stems and fine molecular matter. Entangled amongst these stems were numerous cotton fibres and particles of laterite. Swimming freely in the fluid were numerous heads and detached monads of Anthophysa, abundant specimens of the common Coleps, a few Cyclidia and small specimens of Actinophrys, and some Ammbce with distinct contractile vesicles (Plate IX, fig. 93). 51. Water from the Fort ditch, Tanjore. — This was transparent, of a yellowish colour; it deposited a considerable amount of brownish sediment, and contained numerous small green masses, suspended in it, or floating on the surface. There were also Entomostraca. Sccnedismus. numerous active Crustacea swimming freely about in it. The Clathrocystis. Pediastruin. green masses were composed of the common cellules. The sedi- Bacterium. Actinophrys. , • p .. ftfttev „._* nrmsl - st . f l n f h mwll i«l, mnWnl.av matf** ment, in greater part, consisted of brownish molecular matter, SuirilH M mads incut, in yicatci jjtti t, uuiisisbcu u± uruwiiisn miueuuiar matter, Amoeba." Aspidisoa. with a sprinkling of minute Bacteria, and in some places contained Crumenula. Vorticella. numerous active filaments resembling Spirilla, but showing no ar- numerous active filaments resembling Spirilla, but showing no ar- Coleps. Staurnstrum. tieulations. There were also numerous peculiar A moebce with deli- cate pointed extensions proceeding from their pseudopodal protru- sions, abundant specimens of a bright green, red-stigmaed Crumenula (Plate IX, fig. 89), numerous active specimens of Cofeps, and a sprinkling of Scenedesmi, and of large fronds of a species of Pediaslrum (Plate IX, fig 44). In addition to the above, there were also numerous small disciform diatoms, a sprinkling of minute specimens of Actinophrys, and a few monads and specimens of Aspidisca^ one small very active Vorticella, and one specimen of a peculiar Staurastrum. The Crustacea consisted of a few specimens of Cyclops and numerous specimens of the large smooth Daphnia of Nos. 46 and 45, as well as of a smaller reticulated form. 52. Water from drainage channel, Trichinopoly. — This water was turbid, of a yellowish colour, and urinous aspect. It was perfectly odourless, deposited a considerable amount of brownish sediment, and contained numerous active mosquito larvte. The sediment was found to be principally composed of stems of Anthophysa. Everywhere were myriads of Monads "^ Bacterium. active Monads, the majority of considerable size and circular Pleuromonas. W^oms. f orm (p] ate IX , fig. 71), a f ew minute and oval (Plate IX, fig. 73); Cyclidia. Bcggiutoa. I c i* clulia - the greater number free, a few attached posteriorly by a delicate thread. There were also numerous free Pleuro monads, and long delicate filaments of colourless Beggiatoa, with abundance of minute Bacteria and energetic molecular matter. Flakes of brownish molecular matter were also present in considerable numbers, with a few Diatoms and active Cyclidia. 53. Water from the Tanjore tank, Trichinopoly. — This water is employed as drinking water. The upper portion of the specimen was quite clear, the lower slightly turbid. It deposited a slight buff-coloured sediment. The flakes of the sediment were principally composed of portions of disintegrating vegetable tissues entangled in a luxuriant growth of Anthophysa. Anthophysa stems, bearing an abundance of attached heads. Detached heads and free monads swarmed in the surrounding fluid, which contained much active molecular matter. 54. Water from well at Artillery cookJiouse, used as drinking water by the Artillery.— This water was colourless, transparent, and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment in the shape of one or two detached particles. Microscopic examination showed very little. There was a sprinkling of what seemed to be cells of squamous epithelium, one or two Fungi. Osoillaria. Monads. small fragments of vegetable cellular tissue, and a few minute Oscillaricί and fungal filaments. These, with some lateritious particles, one or two minute active Monads, and a few good sized 76 Note A ] MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF WATER IN MADRAS. 77 circular, encysted cells, were all the structures detected. There was hardly any free molecular matter present in it. 55. River water from the Cauvery, Trichinopoly. — The specimen was taken at the ghat on the Sreerungum side of the bridge. It was of a faint yellowish SLXTuf^' Coir?" colour, depositing a considerable amount of brownish sediment, Astasia. Tank-worms. anc^ containing numerous fine suspended particles, which rendered it slightly turbid. The sediment consisted almost entirely of angular fragments of sand and flakes of amorphous, brownish, granular matter. Here and there were globular masses of minute colourless or pale-greenish cellules. There were also present a sprinkling of diatoms of various species, a few small Pediaetrct (Plate IX, fig. 42), plates of Merismopedia, small active Monads, large colourless Astasim (Plate IX, fig. 82), small slender tankworms (Plate IX, fig. 125), and active specimens of Coleps. 56. Water from the well used by the Infantry, Trichinopoly. — This water was transparent, colourless, and odourless, with no sediment save a few minute separate particles. The fragments of sediment were composed of disintegrating vegetable tissues, with a few very delicate filaments of Leptothrix. In the neighbourhood of these fragments there Leptotlmx. | Glceocystis. was a spr i n kling of delicate cells (Plate IX, fig. G7), apparently a species of Glceocystis, containing three or four minute green cellules. The fluid otherwise was extremely pure and free from molecular matter. 57. Water from a well in Poothoor, Trichinopoly, used by the 2Qth Regiment Native Infantry. — This water was colourless, transparent, odourless, with a few filmy, green suspended flocculi, but very little sediment, in the Phizoclonium. I Diatoms. Ai. i -\ c i lllllJ ₯ • sii V. Cli o 110 I 'OIH.LLI.I IJ.UC'vj VII J.« LJLLIj V CJI y liUUlt/ i*lt_Mlllitjll L* 111 lilt* ctinoplirys. Monads. » I ¦ « 1, , ¦, , . n .v , ml m Spirilla. Leptothrix. form ot a tew scattered, brownish particles. Ihe filmy, green flocculi were composed of filaments of a Confervaceous Alga, seemingly a Rhizoclonium. Among the filaments there were a few specimens of various forms of infusoria. Among the most characteristic of these were a large species of Actinophrys and small, bright-green spirilloid filaments (I 'late IX, fig. 49). There were also a few small discoid Diatoms, and a sprinkling of active Monads. The fragments of sediment were composed of disintegrating vegetable tissues, with angular particles of sand and the common amorphous, brown molecular matter. In their neighbourhood, and attached to them, were numerous specimens of the green sjnrilloid filaments and delicate colourless threads of Leptothrix. 58. Water from the well situated between the Artillery liospital and barracks, Trichinopoly. — This water was perfectly clear, colourless and odourless, with no visible sediment, or suspended matters. Microscopic examination afforded hardly any results. A few small fragments of laterite, and one or two small portions Encysted cells. of disintegrating vegetable tissue, in the neighbourhood of which there were some small colourless encysted cellules, were all that could be found. 59. Water from a well in William's Road, Trichinopoly. — This water was perfectly transparent, colourless and odourless, but deposited a slight sediment of buff- Hypheothrix. Vaginicola ? coloured particles. The sediment Avas found to consist in greater Lyngbya. Heteronnta. „ L , . , „ , ?. » „ ,°, ° ? . Lyngbya. Monads. Amplrilont'us part °^ a dense network of pale green filaments of llypheothrix (Plate IX, fig. 51), among the meshes of which angular particles of sand, fragments of laterite, and amorphous, brownish, granular matter were entangled. There were also a few short filaments of the common Lyngbya, one or two specimens of Vaginicola-like bodies without any lorica, a sprinkling of Monads and small Heteromitai, and some active specimens of Amphileptus, one of which was observed to undergo transverse fission. 60. Water from Teppa Colum tank, Trichinopoly . — This water is not used as drinking water. It was of a dirty yellowish colour, with numerous suspended XU XV tlO yJx. IV KILL V V V Ull\_J V> 101 l Uv»lLJLll . >V lull 11 UIIIUI *./Uks iMini Hjlll.UjVl Clathrocystis. £oleps. d floating masses of a green colour, and a considerable amount Amoeba. Cyclulium. ° ? ° „ , , Bacterium. Chilodon. °* butt-coloured sediment. Ihe green patches were found to be Beggiatoa. Actinophrys. composed of the usual Clathrocystis cellules, and the associated Anthophysa. Scenedesmus. A muebcu and Bacteria. The sediment showed an abundance of Peridlnlum. Cyclops. Paramecium. cotton fibres, with much brownish granular matter, delicate colourless filaments of Beggiatoa, and a few Anthophysa stems. In some places there were small molecular flakes full of Amabce and minute encysted cellules, and here and there were shells or integuments furnished with various horn-like processes, and probably belonging to some species of Peridinium. There were also numerous delicate oval, hyaline, tuberoulated capsules, showing a distinct ring-like mark towards one extremity and resembling ova in appearance ; they were however uniformly empty. In addition to the above, there were numerous specimens of a large Paramecium distinctly visible to the naked eye, and containing yellow globules and two to three stellate contractile vesicles (Plate IX, fig. 131); an abundance of active specimens of Coleps, Cyclidia, and Ammbce of various sizes, and small specimens of A ctinophrys and active Bacteria; one or two specimens of Chilodon, some small Scenedesmi, and a few common tank-worms and fragments of the shells of Cyclops. 61. Water from Saiyan tank, Trichinopoly. — This water was clear, odourless, of a faint, yellow tinge, and deposited a considerable amount of sediment. Fungal filaments. Stylonychia. The sediment consisted mainly of brownish granular flakes, Encysted cells. Coleps. w ith a little sand and some delicate septate mycelial filaments. Actinophrys. Cyclidia. j n gome pl aces the flakes contained numerous encysted circular Ainuh'ileptus Vaginioola. ce^ s °f various sizes. The surrounding fluid contained much free molecular matter ; a sprinkling of minute darting Monads, nu- merous specimens of Actinophrys and Amcebce of various sizes; a considerable number of Amphilepti 78 dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. L note a and small Stylonychice ; a few common tank-worms; one or two specimens of Coleps and some Cyclidia; a single specimen of a very large Stylonychia (Plate IX, fig. 128) ; one small Vorticella and a few of the bodies, observed in No. 56, resembling Vaginicoke, but not provided with loricse. 62. Water from Thalavoy tank, Trichinopoly. — This water is used as drinking water. It was turbid, of a faint yellowish colour, and deposited much brownish Beggiatoa. Actinophrys. sediment. On standing for some days, it acquired a decided odour pSroiZ'as. Coleps. CCmm ' of sulphuretted hydrogen. The sediment consisted in greater Cyclidiuin.' ' P ar^ °f enormous numbers of fine colourless, or very faintly green filaments of Beggiatoa, with abundant active Bacteria, Fteuro- monads and Cyclidia of various sizes. There were also a few small specimens of A ctinophrys, one small Paramecium, and a few active specimens of Coleps. Entangled among the algoid filaments in one place was a solitary head of a fungus showing the characteristic structure of the common brown mould occurring in Calcutta (Plate VII, fig. 2 B). 63. Water from Kotwal Choultry tank, Trichinopoly. — This water is used as drinking water. It was clear, odourless, of a faint yellow colour, and deposited Anthophysa. r^ iffl "- la - an abundant buff-coloured sediment. The sediment was almost Pediastrum. 'Irnchelocerca. , xt • i Scencdesmus. Opliiocytium. entirely composed of amorphous granular matter. No special Diatoms. Aspidisca. form of infusoria was very abundant, but there was a considerable Cyclidia. Bacterium. variety of them present. Those observed were as follows : Ist, Amoeba. Encysted cells. Anthophysa in small amount; 2nd, Pediastra, two species (Plate IX, figs. 42, 44) ; 3rd, Scenedesmus ; 4th, Cyclidiuin ; sth, Diatoms of various forms ; 6th, .small groups of green cellules, each cellule provided with a delicate, colourless i">rocess (Plate IX, fig. 40) ; Ith, Difflugias like those of Madras (Plate IX, fig. 101); Bth, large colourless A mmbce ; 9th, Trachelocercir, identical with those found at Mysore (Plate IX, fig. 120) ; IQth, long bluishgreen spiral filaments of Opliiocytium (Plate IX, fig. 70); l\th, brown encysted circular cells; \2tli, Aspidiscce, — these perhaps the most abundant of all the forms present ; I'dth, active Bacterium and fine molecular matter. 64. Water from Mr. Banbury's new tank, Trichinopoly. — This water is used for washing, &c, but not as drinking water. It was of a greenish hue due to the presence of abundant green sus- pended particles, odourless, and deposited a mere trace of sediment Clathrocystis. I Actinophrys. j n the form of a few brownish particles. The green matter con- Amu;ba. Amphfleptuί. sisted of t]]e common ce llules and their accompanying Amcebce Bacterium. Cyclidiuin. . . .. * J => Betrgiatoa! auc^ Bacteria. The sediment was principally composed of brown, Diatoms. Yeast cells. | Cyclops. closely-jointed, fungoid filaments, and of the more or less disin- tegrated remains of masses of cellules similar to those suspended in the fluid. There were also a few discoid Diatoms ; some detached yeast cells ; a sprinkling of specimens of common Actinophrys, Cyclidium and Amphileptus ; one or two very delicate filaments of Beggiatoa ; some active specimens of Cyclops, and some portions of disintegrating vegetable tissues. 65. Water from the tank in the Jiock Fort, Trichinopoly. — This water is used as drinking water. It contained much floating and suspended green matter, and depo- Clatbrocystia. I Chilodon. sited a mere trace of sediment. The green matter was composed Amoeba. Stylonychia. of th(j cellules of Clathrocystis, Amoeba and Bacteria. The Bacterium. Daplmia. lf-i+ij-i c i • v i sediment was composed of isolated patches of brownish granular matter, and in the neighbourhood of some of these there were a Cyclidiuin. few specimens of Cyclidium, Chilodon and Stylonychia (Plate IX, fig. 116). A few specimens of the small Dapluda, resembling Daphnia pxdex, previously observed in waters in Mysore and Tanjore, were also present. Beyond the above structures the water showed hardly anything, and appeared to be on the whole very pure. 66. Water from a ivell at Sreerungum, Trichinopoly. — This water was colourless, odourless, transparent, and deposited a mere trace of sediment. The frag- Amoeba. pieuromonas. ments of sediment were composed of portions of decomposing Cyclidium. vegetable tissue, with the usual amorphous, brown, granular matter. In and around these flakes there were large numbers of active Pleuromonads, a scanty sprinkling of small Amcebce, free and encysted, and a few large Cyclidia. 67. Water from the tank in the Fort ditch, Bellary. — This water was clear, colourless and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment, and a sprinkling of active speci- Cyclops. j Monads. meus of Cyclops swimming in it. Microscopic examination showed very little. What little sediment was present appeared to be composed almost entirely of grains of sand and other inorganic particles. Hardly a trace of animal or vegetable life was to be detected, beyond the Entomostraca previously alluded to, and a few minute Monads, solitary or in small groups. 68. Water from the tank near the Traveller's Bungalow, Bellary. — This water was of a yellowish colom*, odourless, contained a considerable amount of fine suspended matter, and deposited a buff-coloiived sediment. The sediment was found to be principally composed of brownish granular matter and angular crystalline particles. N itric acid dissolved the greater part of the latter with violent effervescence. In addition to the above, there were numerous fragments of disintegrating Vegetable tissues, cotton fibres and minute navicular Diatoms. There were also a few filaments of Oscillaria and Lyngbya; a few active Vibriones and Bacteria ; numerous minute darting molecules ; a sprinkling of small Diatoms. i Bacterium. Oscillaria. Monads. Lyngbya. Aspidisca. Monads and Aspidisccn, and one or two small tank-worms of the Vibriones. Tank-worms. common form. 69. Water from the well in the lines of the Native Cavalry, Bellary. — This is not used as drinking water. It was clear, odourless, of a faint yellowish tinge, and deposited a large quantity of pale Note A] 70 buff-coloured sediment on the sides and bottom of the vessel containing it. This deposit consisted mainly of brownish granular matter, with an abundance of crystalline particles similar to those of No. 68. Among the materials of the sediment there were numerous filaments of Oscillaria of various sizes. In the fluid there was a sprinkling of Anthophysa, Oscillaria. Bacterium. stems, and abundance of the free monads belonging to them, Pleuromonas. aSKST" with numerous Pkuromonads, a great number of active Bacteria, and much fine molecular matter. One or two tank-worms, Stylonychim, and Asjndiscce, were also present. 70. Water from, the well from which the men of the Native Cavalry obtain their drinking water, Bellary. — The well is situated in the centre of an old grave-yard. This water was cleai', colourless, odourless, and deposited a slight sediment of the common pale buff colour. The sediment was composed of brown granular matter, Avith an abundance of Monads. Lyngbya. crystalline particles similar to those of Nos. GO, 67, and contained Vibriones. Chilodon. „„„„ nnoj.., n e A\ i .\,^ an vn+\nr, ™ m toW o H aanaa \ ibnones. Unlodon. gome port i ons o f disintegrating vegetable tissues, cotton fibres, Bacterium, fetylonyclna. „ n \, *"**•«. , mi i c i i &c. There were few infusoria present. The only forms observed were a few filaments of Lyngbya, and one or two specimens of Chilodon and Stylonychia, and a scanty sprinkling of minute active Monads, Vibriones and Bacteria. 71. Water from a well in the same grave-yard as No. 70 well. — This water is only used for bath- ing and washing. It was of a pale greenish colour, slightly turbid, with an abundance of suspended particles and a scanty sediment. The sediment showed some of the usual amorphous matter and Bacterium. I Daphnia. Oscillaria. Vorticella. Lyngbya. Parameciura. crystalline particles, with an abundance of active bacteria and Amoeba. | i a- i i ti i i v a .«i . j. darting molecules. There were also numerous delicate filaments of Oscillaria and Lyngbya ; an abundance of Amoebce, chiefly in the neighbourhood of disintegrating Daphnicί ; one or two good-sized Vorticellai, and a few specimens of the large Paramecium, previously found in water at Trichinopoly (Plate IX, fig. 131). 72. Water from the well in the compound of the Civil Dispensary, Bruce Pettah, Bellary. — This water is used for culinary purposes, but not for drinking. It was colourless, transparent and odourless, with a mere trace of sediment. The sediment presented the same general features as those of the other specimens of Bellary waters. There was little evidence of the presence of organic pollution, or of animal or Amphileptui. | Euplotes. vegetable life in it. A few specimens of Amphileptus and Euplotes (Plate IX, fig. 112) were seen. This water and that from the lake at Ootacamund were the only ones in which Euplotes was observed. 73. Water from the village well, Coltapully. — This water was of a slight greenish-yellow colour and a faint soft smell, but deposited no sediment, and was quite transparent. Active specimens of Cyclops and of the large Daphnia (?), previously observed in the water of the ditch at Entomostraca. Bacterium Rotifers. Itapbitlia. Kapbitlia. Tanjore, were abundant, with a few large Botiferce, and great numbers of large, slightly moving Bacteria, and still colourless cells, apparently Raphidia. NOTE B. COMMON FORMS OF MICROSCOPIC FUNGI IN CALCUTTA, &o. I.— COMMON FOEMS IN CALCUTTA. 1 As any fun«i affecting rice have acquired special interest in connection with Professor Hallicr's theory of the causation of cholera, it appears best to consider them in the first place. Fungi affecting rice. 2. Cultivations corresponding to those described by Hallier in which growing rice was treated witli choleraic materials have, in my hands, failed to develop any special Results of experiments cm growing f un gj — any forms differing from those appearing in corrective culti- rice plants. vations in which normal dejecta were employed as manuring agents. Owing to the abnormal circumstances under which the plants were placed, — excluded as far as possible from external influences by being covered with bell glasses, — the growth in neither class of cultivations was healthy ; for although the seeds germinated freely, and the young plants at first grew rapidly, yet this growth soon ceased, and they damped off without flowering. This was of the less moment, however, as the fungal development on which so much stress was laid in the German observations was one which affected the leaves, and not the grain, of the rice, and the cultivations afforded ample opportunities for the examination of the former. 3. Now, as regards them, it is certain that in no instance did any fungi similar to those appearing on the rice-leaves at Jena show themselves; in none did any fungal The German rice-fungi did not ap- f orm s characteristic of the " cholera series" appear, and in none were pear. they affected by any fungi which did not likewise occur on the leaves of the plants treated with the non-choleraic media. On the sickly and dead leaves fungal patches did frequently make their appearance, but these were composed of the mycelium and heads of a minute white Aspergillua, apparently merely an ill-developed variety of the common yellow species. Careful examinations of dried specimens of the stems, leaves, and husks of rice have given similar results ; for although in many instances these were found to be more or less affected by mould, yet nothing resembling the fungus described and figured by Professor Hallier was to be found. The mould consisted simply of Aspergillus, similar to that on the leaves in the cultivation experiments, or in a few cases of common I'enicillium gluucum. 4. As regards the rice grains, however, there can be no doubt that in many samples of bazaar rice a certain number of them are more or less affected by a fun- Frequent occurrence of fungoid • j vtl whicll re pl aces the starch, and destroys the grain crams in the rice of the bazaars. ° ° , ml -,1, 1 - « «. ? J . ? . ? r, , ° . b more or less. The degree of affection in the individual grains, and the total number affected in different samples, varies considerably. As a general rule, only a very few fungoid grains are present, but occasionally a sample is met with in which they form a characteristic feature, their presence being easily detected by their becoming of a brownish or black hue, the intensity of which is dependent on the amount of fungal cells present in each. The grains ultimately become somewhat shrunken and furrowed, hard and black, showing a deep black surface on section, but do not break up or show any superficial development of fungal cells in the form of mould, Thin sections show masses and chains of dark-brown fungal cells (Plate X, figs. 1, 2). The individual cells generally contained one or two distinct granules, and in some instances showed traces of transverse septation. 5. Numerous cultivations of such grains were undertaken, but the results obtained were un- „,, ,L., L . ? ? , satisfactory and indefinite. Cultivations m winch glycerine and Results of the cultivation of such , , , J „ . , , ?° J „ (l ; u phosphate of ammonia were employed as a medium generally afforded an abundant crop of the common yellow Aapergillvs (Plate X, fig. 3 A). Occasionally, along with this, there was a certain amount of a iarge brown Mucor or Ascophora, which subsequently occurred in profusion in cultivations of damaged wheat flour (Plates X, fig. 3, B, XI, fig. 3). In one case, in addition to Penicillium glaucum, and the yellow and glaucous Aspergilli, there was a considerable development of a form which had not been previously observed (Plate X, fig. 4). The mycelium was colourless, jointed Peculiar form appearing in cultiva- \ mrG an( J there, showing slight dilitations, and giving origin to tions on glycerine and phosphate of numerous erect jointed, brownish filaments. These filaments ammonia. ? . , , , • , t i ¦,• ¦ *-«»*> divided above into numerous branches sjjreading in a more or less umbellate fashion, occasionall}' giving origin to secoudary branches, and bearing at their apices large, irregularly rounded bodies of a deep-brown colour, composed of several round or oval cells, closely aggregated, and in some cases, to all appearance, partially fused together (Plate X, fig. 4. C). These heads, when cultivated, gave origin to numerous closely-jointed brown filaments, forming dense networks and irregular cellular heaps (Plate X, fig. G), closely resembling those originally j)resent in the lice. There was, however, nothing to prove positively that they had any organic connection with the latter, and the only thing in favour of the supposition that they were so connected, was the fact that on the only occasion on which the form to which they belonged was observed, it was as a result of the cultivation of fungoid rice "rains. 80 [ Note B 81 Note B ] COMMON FOTtMS OF MICROSCOPIC FUNGI IN CALCUTTA, &C. t5. Considering that the natural locality for the further development of the fungal cells in the grain is in all probability the earth, an experiment was tried in Peculiar form appearing in a cul- which the affected grains were planted in moist earth. The result tivation on moist earth. WftS an a |, unt ]. uit development on some grains of the common Aspergillm, and on others of a form which had not been previously obtained during the course of the series of observations (Plate X, fig. 5). The mycelium was densely meshed among the starch grains of the rice, consisting of nearly colourless, jointless filaments, showing occasional dilatations, and arising from brownish cells seemingly identical with those (Plate X, fig. 1) originally present in the grain. Towards the outer surface of the grain, the mycelial filaments were long, with few joints or branches, and of a vandyke-brown colour. These brown filaments gave origin to thick, erect, jointless threads, two or three frequently arising close together, clavate at their apices, and bearing an abundance of minute, colourless spores on a dense layer of spicules (Plate X, fig. 5). To the naked eye, and under low powers and reflected light, the heads were of a beautiful bright bluish-green tint when mature. Whether this or the previous form has any organic connection with the fungal cells of the rice is very doubtful, but the fact that such cells are not uncommon in the grain sold in the bazaar is certain. 7. The commonest mucedinous forms in Calcutta have been already described in connection with the subject of cultivations of choleraic media, and I shall here Commonest mucedinous fungi in , mention one or two other species of microscopic fungi which Calcutta. •> , .. L . » ,¦> ._ S appear to deserve notice on account of their prevalence. 8. A species of Muoor or Ascophora has been already referred to as occasionally appearing in cultivations of rice grains. It was observed on other occasions Ascophora appearing on rice and Qn Vftr f ous media, but by far the finest and most abundant speciwheat flour. _¦?• ? • „ , • _j« ...iij „„+;„,« ,vf AamίrA amBr . a A -?,1,0.,+ mens were obtained in a series of cultivations of damaged wheat flour. The sample was a portion of a supply of Australian flour from which it was found impossible to make good bread, owing to its not "rising," and was sent down from the Darjeeling jail for examination, as in outward appearance there was nothing bad about it. Many specimens were examined, and all gave similar results, showing the presence of an abundance of minute branched fungal filaments. "Cultivations of this flour invariably resulted in the rapid growth of these filaments, and the subsequent development from them of rich crops of a dark-brown Mucor. Comparative experiments were tried with samples of good flour, and although fungi ultimately appeared on them, there was not the immediate development characterising the damaged flour, and the forms developed were almost without exception those occurring with greatest profusion on any other decomposing substances. The mycelium of the Mucor formed a tangled mass of colourless, septate filaments, irregularly branched and showing numerous dilitations. From the mycelium, long, usually jointless filaments arose, which curved downwards and became rooted at their extremities in a Stoloniferous growth. stoloniferous manner (Plate XI, fig. 3. B). At the rooted points they gave origin to two or three erect, amber-coloured threads, bearing dark, brown sporangia (Plate XI, fig. 3 B). Occasionally, in place of curving down and rooting, the elongated filaments divided directly into several sporangiferous branches (Plate XI, fig. 3. A). From the points where the stolons were rooted, a new series of filaments were given off, which curved down and rooted in their turn, and this process being repeated again and again, the fungus rapidly spread over a large circular area. The spores were large, fusiform, and, when mature, of a rich brown colour (Plate XI, fig. 3. D). The dehiscence of the peridiole was usually of the nature characterising Ascophora, consisting of a gradual disintegration and disappearance, followed by collapse of the columella (Plate XI, fig. 3. C), but occasionally it was of the character normal in Mucor. 9. Of occasional occurrence in water, and even in specimens of what is supplied as distilled water, is a peculiar form of AsperyMhis (Plate XI, fig, 1. A). Aspcrgillus developed in water. It appears to the naked eye in the form of soft white floating masses of a woolly aspect, and showing a sprinkling of fawn-coloured heads of spores. The mycelium is colourless and sparsely septate, the individual cells containing numerous oily-looking globules in their protoplasm. The filaments are irregularly branched and bear three distinct forms of fructification. These are, — Ist, large solitary circular cells, each of which is Three forms of fructification. situated at the apex of a side branch of the mycelium ; 2nd, isolated chains of small conidial cells; 3rd, large Aspergillua heads (Plate XI, fig. 1. A), These are borne on thick jointless filaments, and are characterised by the extreme tenacity with which the individual spores of the chains adhere to one another. The spores are of small size (Plate XI, fig. 1), and, when in mass, of a pale fawn colour. 10. On the living leaves of ferns and of mango trees patches of an exceedingly pretty Rhinotrl- chum (1) are not uncommon (Plate XI, fig. 7). It appears usually Fungus on mango leaves. jutj u tt j 10 f orm o f circumscribed rusty yellow spots on the upper surfaces of the affected leaves. On microscopic examination these spots are found to be composed of clusters of thick, erect, jointed filaments, clavate at the apex, and full of masses of brilliant orange protoplasm. The clavate extremity gives origin to a few large spicules, each of which is surmounted by a solitary, obovate orange spore.* 1 1 Two snecies of Stilbum are of very frequent occurrence during the rains. The commonest *¦¦•¦•¦»¦' i _ . . i , x , •__ ._ _n • ii _ l i_ _<• is of bright orange colour, and occurs in profusion on the bark of (lend bamboos. The second species is characterised by a black .stem Species of Stilbum. and salmon-coloured head, and is found on decaying bark * The spores are at first concealed by a delicate colourless capsule, which is ruptured by their growth and by the lengthening of the upper part of the' stem, and frequently remains iv the form of a sheath or collar a little below the head. 23 NOTE B. COMMON FORMS OF MICROSCOPIC FUNGI IN CALCUTTA, &c. I.— COMMON FOEMS IN CALCUTTA. 1. As any fungi affecting rice have acquired special interest in connection with Professor Hallier's theory of the causation of cholera, it appears best to consider them in the first place. Fungi affecting rice. 2. Cultivations corresponding to those described by Hallier in which growing rice was treated with choleraic materials have, in my hands, failed to develop any special Eesults of experiments cm growing f ul] gi — an y forms differing from those appearing in corrective cultirice plauts. vations in which normal dejecta were employed as manuring agents. Owing to the abnormal circumstances under which the plants were placed, — excluded as far as possible from external influences by being covered with bell glasses, — the growth in neither class of cultivations was healthy ; for although the seeds germinated freely, and the young plants at first grew rapidly, yet this growth soon ceased, and they damped off without flowering. This was of the less moment, however, as the fungal development on which so much stress was laid in the German observations was one which affected the leaves, and not the grain, of the rice, and the cultivations afforded ample opportunities for the examination of the former, 3. Now, as regards them, it is certain that in no instance did any fungi similar to those appearing on the rice-leaves at Jena show themselves; in none did any fungal The German rice-fungi did not ap- forms c h arac t e ristic of the " cholera series" appear, and in none were pear. they affected by any fungi which did not likewise occur on the leaves of the plants treated with the non-choleraic media. On the sickly and dead leaves fungal patches did frequently make their appearance, but these were composed of the mycelium and heads of a minute white Aspergittus, apparently merely an ill-developed variety of the common yellow species. Careful examinations of dried specimens of the stems, leaves, and husks of rice have given similar results ; for although in many instances these were found to be more or less affected by mould, yet nothing resembling the fungus described and figured by Professor Hallier was to be found. The mould consisted simply of Aspzrgillus, similar to that on the leaves in the cultivation experiments, or in a few cases of common Fenidllium glaucum. 4. As regards the rice grains, however, there can be no doubt that in many samples of bazaar rice a certain number of them are more or less affected by a fun- Frequent occurrence of fungoid • j wt] wnic]l re pl aces the starch, and destroys the grain grains m the nee of the bazaars. ° ° ' rl * - _ . ». , . ? 1, , c b more or less, llie degree oi affection in the individual grains, and the total number affected in different samples, varies considerably. As a general rule, only a very few fungoid grains are present, but occasionally a sample is met with in which they form a characteristic feature, their presence being easily detected by their becoming of a brownish or black hue, the intensity of which is dependent on the amount of fungal cells present in each. The grains ultimately become somewhat shrunken and furrowed, hard and black, showing a dee]) black surface on section, but do not break up or show any superficial development of fungal cells in the form of mould. Thin sections show masses and chains of dark-brown fungal cells (Plate X, figs. 1, 2). The individual cells generally contained one or two distinct granules, and in some instances showed traces of transverse septation. 5. Numerous cultivations of such grains were undertaken, but the results obtained were im.__ .. ?, ... ? „ . satisfactory and indefinite. Cultivations m which glycerine and Results of the cultivation of such , , , J ? . , , ?° J ': ra ; u phosphate of ammonia were employed as a medium generally afforded an abundant crop of the common yellow Aspergillua (Plate X, fig. 3 A). Occasionally, along with this, there was a certain amount of a large brown Mucor or AscopJtora, which subsequently occurred in profusion in cultivations of damaged wheat flour (Plates X, fig. 3, B, XI, fig. 3). In one case, in addition to Penicillium glaucum, and the yellow and glaucous As2)ergilli, there was a considerable development of a form which had not been previously observed (Plate X, fig. 4). The mycelium was colourless, jointed Peculiar form appearing in cultiva- h ere an( j there, showing slight dictations, and giving origin to ammonia* Blycerillo aUd P lloSl ' bate of numerous erect, jointed, brownish filaments. These filaments divided above into numerous branches spreading in a more or less umbellate fashion, occasionally giving origin to secondary branches, and bearing at their apices large, irregularly rounded bodies of a deep-brown colour, composed of several round or oval cells, closely aggregated, and in some cases, to all appearance, partially fused together (Plate X, fig. 4. C). These heads, when cultivated, gave origin to numerous closely-jointed brown filaments, forming dense networks and irregular cellular heaps (Plate X, fig. 6), closely resembling those originally present in the rice. There was, however, nothing to prove positively that they had any organic connection with the latter, and the only thing in favour of the supposition that they were so connected, was the fact that on the only occasion on which the form to which they belonged was observed, it was as a result of the cultivation of fungoid rice grains. 80 [ Note B 6. Considering that the natural locality for the further development of the fungal cells in the t grain is in all probability the earth, an experiment was tried in uliar form appearing in a cul- w hi c h the affected grains were planted in moist earth. The result tivatiou on moist earth. 11^.11 • n ±.-1 a was an abundant development on some grains 01 the common Asperi, and on others of a form which had not been previously obtained during the course of the series of vations (Plate X, fig. 5). The mycelium was densely meshed among the starch grains of the rice, consisting of nearly colourless, jointless filaments, showing occasional dilatations, and arising from brownish cells seemingly identical with those (Plate X, fig. 1) originally present in the grain. Towards the outer surface of the grain, the mycelial filaments were long, with few joints or branches, and of a vandyke-brown colour. These brown filaments gave origin to thick, erect, jointless threads, two or three, frequently arising close together, clavate at their apices, and bearing an abundance of minute, colourless spores on a dense layer of spicules (Plate X, fig. 5). To the naked eye, and under low powers and reflected light, the heads were of a beautiful bright bluish-green tint when mature. Whether this or the previous form has any organic connection with the fungal cells of the rice is very doubtful, but the fact that such cells are not uncommon in the grain sold in the bazaar is certain. 7. The commonest mucedinous forms in Calcutta have been already described in connection with _ . . the subiect of cultivations of choleraic media, and I shall hero Commonest mueedinous iungi in 1 .• ,-, • » . • » . ? , Calcutta on v mention one or two other species 01 microscopic fungi which appear to deserve notice on account of their prevalence. 8. A species of Mucor or Ascophora has been already referred to as occasionally appearing in cultivations of rice grains. It was observed on other occasions Ascophora appearing on rice and on various media but by far t]ie finest and most abnn dant speciwheat flour. ?.',. •> . „,,.,. „ - ' mens were obtained in a series of cultivations of damaged wheat flour. The sample was a portion of a supply of Australian flour from which it was found impossible to make good bread, owing to its not "rising," and was sent down from the Darjeeling jail for examination, as in outward appearance there was nothing bad about it. Many specimens were examined, and all gave similar results, showing the presence of an abundance of minute branched fungal filaments. Cultivations of this flour invariably resulted in the rapid growth of these filaments, and the subsequent development from them of rich crops of a dark-brown Mucor. Comparative experiments were tried with samples of good flour, and although fungi ultimately appeared on them, there was not the immediate development characterising the damaged flour, and the forms developed were almost without exception those occurring with greatest 2>rofusion on any other decomposing substances. The mycelium of the Mucor formed a tangled mass of colourless, septate filaments, irregularly branched and showing numerous dilitations. From the mycelium, long, usually jointless filaments arose, which c*^i™;^™,, o frrr,,,,+i. curved downwards and became rooted at their extremities in a istoionntious j,rowm, _ stoloniferous manner (Plate XI, fig. 3. B). At the rooted points they gave origin to two or three erect, amber-coloured threads, bearing dark, brown sporangia (Plate XI, fig. 3 B). Occasionally, in place of curving down and rooting, the elongated filaments divided directly into several sporangiferous branches (Plate XI, fig. 3. A). From the points where the stolons were rooted, a new series of filaments were given off, which curved down and rooted in their turn, and this process being repeated again and again, the fungus rapidly spread over a large circular area. The spores were large, fusiform, and, when mature, of a rich brown colour (Plate XI, fig. 3. D). The dehiscence of the peridiole was usually of the nature characterising Ascophora, consisting of a gradual disintegration and disappearance, followed by collapse of the columella (Plate XI, fig. 3. C), but occasionally it was of the character normal in Mucor. 9. Of occasional occurrence in water, and even in specimens of what is supplied as distilled , , . water, is a peculiar form of Asperqillua (Plate XI, fisr 1. A). Aspennllus developed 111 water. T L , , , f "„ v » „ ' °* / 1 B It appears to the naked eye in the form of soft white floating masses, of a woolly aspect, and showing a sprinkling of fawn-coloured heads of spores. The mycelium is colourless and sparsely septate, the individual cells containing numerous oily-looking globules in their protoplasm. The filaments are irregularly branched and bear three distinct forms of fructification. ?„ ? These are, — Ist, large solitary circular cells, each of which is Three forms of fructification. ? , , , ', % •¦> \ 1 *,1 v o 7 • Ij_ 1 situated at the apex of a side branch of the mycelium ; 2nd, isolated chains of small conidial cells ; 3rd, large Aspergillns heads (Plate XI, fig. 1. A), These are borne on thick jointless filaments, and are characterised by the extreme tenacity with which the individual siiores of the chains adhere to one another. The spores are of small size (Plate XI, fig. 1), and, when in mass, of a pale fawn colour. 10. On the living leaves of ferns and of mango trees patches of an exceedingly pretty Rhinotr i- chum (1) are not uncommon (Plate XI, fig. 7). It appears usually in the form of circumscribed rusty yellow spots 011 the upper Fungus on mango leaves. surfaces of the affected leaves. On microscopic examination these spots are found to be composed of clusters of thick, erect, jointed filaments, clavate at the apex, and full of masses of brilliant orange protoplasm. The clavate extremity gives origin to a few large spicules, each of which is surmounted by a solitary, obovate orange spore.* 11, Two species of Stilbum are of very frequent occurrence during the rains. The commonest is of bright orange colour, and occurs in profusion on the bark of Species of Stilbum. deni\ bamboos. The second species is characterised by a black stem and salmon-coloured head, and is found on decaying bark. * The spores are at first concealed by a delicate colourless capsule, which is ruptured by their growth and by the lengthening of the upper part of the stem, and. frequently remains in the form of a sheath or collar a little below the head. ¦I.', 81 common Fomis of microscopic fungi in Calcutta, &c. dr. d. Cunningham's report ox cholera. [ Note"B 82 12, Various sphseriaceious species are very common, as, for instance, that affecting the leaves of bamboos, and one occurring indifferently on various kinds of Sphaeriacei. tus, and minute Monads, characterised by being provided with a distinct contractile vesicle (Plate V, fig. C, A, B, C), while in a limited number of instances there was a development of numerous specimens of small species of Actinophrys, Astasia and Diselmis (Plate V, fig. 6, D, E, F). 4. None of these infusoria were peculiar to choleraic solutions or occurred in greater No infusoria peculiar to choleraic n " mbers in . them in solutions of blood-serum and of various oolutions. other organic materials. 84 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. Fig. 1. — Diagram illustrative of the questions regarding wells as indices of conditions of soil-moisture. A. — Surface well. B. — Well sunk into the impermeable sub-soil, but dependent on local soil-water. C. — Well opening into a body of water beneath the first impermeable stratum. D. — Accumulation of soil-water in a shallow depression. Fig. 2. — Diagram illustrative of the influence of bunded tanks on the conditions of soil-moisture in the neighbourhood. A. — Area in which there is accumulation of soil-moisture. B. — Tank causing the accumulation in the soil of A. Fig. 3. — Diagram illustrative of the existence of local accumulations of soil-moisture beneath an evenly sloping surface. PLATE 11. Fig. 1. — A. — Large cells resembling exudation cells, and amoebae from a choleraic dejection, x 330, B. — Small Amoebae from a choleraic dejection, x 330. Fig. 2. — Epithelial cells from a choleraic dejection, x 330 & 700. Fig. 3. — A. — Blood-corpuscles from a choleraic dejection, x 330. B. — Greenish cells from a choleraic dejection, x 330. C. — White blood-corpuscles from a dysenteric dejection, x 330. D- — Cells from a dysenteric dejection treated with acetic acid, x 330. E. — Red blood-corpuscles after 24 hours' immersion in choleraic fluid, x 330. Fig. 4. — Miscellaneous objects from choleraic dejecta. A.— Dhal cells, x 103. B. — Sarcina, x 330. C. — Starch-corpuscles, x 330. D. — Peculiar cells resembling cysts, x 330. E. — Remains of vegetable tissue, x 330. 3?. — Dhal cells from a dhal grain, x 103. Fig. 5. — Miscellaneous objects from choleraic dejecta. A. B.— Ova of entozoa, A x 210, B x 330. C. — Pediastruin, x 330. D. — Desmids and other algal cells, x 330. Fig. 6. — Miscellaneous objects from choleraic dejecta. A. — Crystals of ammonio-phosphate of magnesia, x 330 B. — Crystals of greenish color, x 330. C— Bacteria, x 330. PLATE 111 Fig. I.— Portion of a choleraic dejection. Fig. 2.— Epithelium and red blood-corpuscles from the contents of the ileurn of the same case. Fig. 3. — Summit of a villas with epithelial cells and delicate vesicles from the jejunum of a case of i-h> m Fig. 4. — Epithelium from the jejunum of a case of cholera. Fig. 5. — Cells from a choleraic dejection. Fig. 6. — A. — Cells resembling exudation cells from a choleraic dejection. B. — Exudation cells from the serum of a blister treated with acetic acid. PLATE IV Fig. 1. — Cercomonads from cholei'aic dejecta. A. — Commoner variety, x 330. B. — 2nd variety, x 330. Fig. 2. — Rarer form of monad from choleraic dejecta, x 330. Fig. 3. — Portion of a choleraic dejection, x 330. Fig. 4. — Cells from a choleraic dejection, x 330. Fig. 5. — Changes of form in Amoebae of a choleraic dejection, x 330. Fig. 6. — Changes of Amoebae in breaking up, x 330. PLATE V. Infusoeia from solutions of choleraic dejecta. Fig. 1. — Anthophysa from a solution of choleraic dejecta. Fig. 2. — Infusoria from solutions of choleraic dejecta. (Cyclidium and Chilodon). Fig. 3. — First appearance of amceba? in a cholerized solution. Fig. 4. — Active and encysted amoeba? and the monads developed from them. Fig. 5. — Cells developed in a choleraic dejection. Fig. 6. — Infusoria commonly found in cholerized solutions. A. — Pleuromonas. B. — Amphileptus. (?) C. — Minute monads with contractile vesicles. D. — Actinophrys. E. — Astasia. P.— Diselmis. (?) PLATE VI Fig. I.— A. — Encysted and still cells from non-choleraic dejecta. B. — Amoebae from non-choleraic dejecta. 24 85 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Fig. 2. — Cells due to the gemmative multiplication of amoebae in a non-choleraic dejection. Fig. 3. — More advanced stage of the same process in the same dejection. Fig. 4. — Similar cells developed in another dejection. Fig. 5. —Similar cells developed in another dejection. Fig. 6. — Cells occurring in a dejection produced by sulphate of magnesia. A. — Cells resembling the macroeonidia of Professor Hallier. PLATE VII ¦. 1. — A. — Large brown aspergillus. (?) B. — Small neutral aspergillus. ¦ 2. — A. — Structure of the head and spores of the common yellow Aspergillus. B. — Structure of the head and spores of the large brown Aspergillns. (?) ¦ 3. — A. — Structure of the head and spores of the common green Aspergillus. (A. glaucus). B. — Structure of the head and spores of the small neutral Aspergillus. ¦ 4. — Penicillium from a cultivation of choleraic material. 5 — Cystoid bodies on the mycelium of Aspergillus. Fig. 6. — Germination of one of these with the development of penicillioid heads from the resulting mycelium. PLATE VIII Fig. 1. — Small fungal cells from a diarrhceal dejection. A.— Free. B. — In the flocculi. Fig. 2. — Development of yeast-cells from these. ¦ 3. — Oidium filaments and cells from a diarrhoeal dejection. 4. — Yeast-cells from diarrhceal dejecta. Fig. 5. — Fungi appearing in cultivations of non-choleraic dejecta. A. — Aspergillus glaucus. B.— Dactylium. (?) Fig. 6. — A.— Dadylium filaments and spores. B. — Bacteria in a non-choleraic dejection free and included in oily matter. PLATE IX. Fig. 1. — Cosmarium, x 330. Fig. 2.— Fig. 3.— Fig. 4.— „ „ ' Fig. 5.— „ Fig. 6.— Fig. 7.- „ Fig. B.— Fig. 9. — Scenedesmus, „ Fig. 10.— Cosmarium, „ Fig. 11.- „ Fig. 12.— Fig. 13.— JR&. 14.— Pediastrum Tetras, x 330. Fig. 15. — Staurastrum, „ Fig. 16. — Scenedesmus, „ Fig. 17. — Micrasterias, „ Fig. 18. — Cosmarium, ? Fig. 19. (?) „ Fig. 20. — Scenedesmus „ Fig. 21.— Fig. 22.— -F^. 23. — Staurastrum, „ Fig. 24.— Fig. 25.— „ J%. 26.— Fig. 27.— Euastrum, „ J^. 28. — Cosmarium, „ Fig. 29.— Closterium, „ Fig. 30.— Fig. 31. — Ankistrodesmus, „ Fig. 32 — Fig. 33. — Closterium, „ Fig. 34. — Spondylosium, (?) „ Fig. 35.— Docidium, x 165. Fig. 36.— Gonatozygon (?), x 330. Fig. 37.— Hormiscia (?), „ Fig. 38.— Propagula of Coleocliaete (P), x 330. Fig. 39.— Closterium, „ Fig. 40. — Propagula of Coleochaete, „ Fig. 41. — Pediastrum, ? Fig. 42.— Fig. 43.— Fig. 44.— Fig. 45.— Fig. 46. — Chlamydomonas, „ Fig. 47. (?) Fig. 48.— Clathrocystis (P), x 7CO. Fig. 49.— Sperulina, x 330. 86 [ Plates Fig. 50. — Beggiatoa, x 700. Fig- 51. — Hypheothrix, x 330. Fig. 52.— Oscillaria, x 700. Fig. 53.— Ccelastrum (P), x 330. Fig. 54. — Oscillaria, ? Fig. 55. — Lyngbya, x 330. Fig. 56. (?), Fig. 57. — Hydrodictyon, „ Fig. 58.— Beggiatoa, x 700. Fig. 59. Op'hiocytium, x 700. Fig. 60. — Anabaina, „ Fig. 61. — Lyngbya, „ Fig. 62. — Merismopedia, „ Fig. 63.— Fig. 64. — Botrycoceus (?) „ Fig. 65. (?) „ Fig. 66. — Gloeococcus, „ Fig. 67. — Gloeocj^stis, „ Fig. 68. — Gonium, „ Fig. 69. — Pandovina, „ Fig. 70. — Opbiocytium, „ Fig. 71.— Fig. 72.- Fig. 73.— Fig. 74— Fig. 75. — Heteromita, „ Fig. 76.— Monas, „ Fig. 77.- „ Fig. 78.— „ Fig. 79.— „ Fig. 80.— „ Fig. 81. — Heteromita, „ Fig. 82.— Astasia, „ Fig. 83.— Colacium (?), „ Fig. 84. (P), „ Fig. 85. (?), „ Fig. 86.— Phacus, „ Fig. 87.— „ Fig. 88. — Euglena viridis, „ Fig. 89. — Crumenula, „ Fig. 90.— Euglena, x 330. Fig. 91.— Euglena (spirogyra ? ), x 330. Fig. 92.— Dinobryon, x 330. Fig. 93. — Amoeba, „ Fig. 94.— „ „ Fig. 95.— „ Fig. 96.— „ Fig. 97.— „ Fig. 98.— „ Fig. 99.— „ Fig. 100.— Difflugia, „ Fig. 101.— Fig. 102.— Fig. 103.— Arcella, „ Fig. 104. — Actinopbrys, x 700. Fig. 105.— „ *330. Fig. 106.— Fig. 107.— «108.— 109.— 110. — Peridinium, „ Fig. 11l — Fig. 112.— Euplotes, x 165. Fig. 113.— Bursaria (P), „ J&.114 (?), *330. .%. 115.— Chilodon, Fig. 116.— Stylonycbia, „ Fig. 117. — Ampbileptus (P), „ Fig. 118.— Stylonycnia, „ Fig. 119.— Coleps, x 350. Fig. 120.— Trachelocerca, x 330. Fig. 121. — Cyclidium, „ Fig. 122. — Aspidisca, „ Fig. 123. (?), „ Fig. 124.— Holophrya (?), x 52. Fig. 125.— Tankworm, x 330. Fig. 126. — Spirosiomum, x 103. Fig. 127. — Vaginicola, x 330. Fig. 128.— Stylonycbia, „ Fig. 129. (?), „ „ Fig. 130.— Stentor, x 165. Fig. 131. — Paramecium, „ Fig. 132.— Zoothamnium, x 103. Fia. 133. — Cvclidium, x 330. N.B.—Figs. 30, 32, 45, 60, 68, 102, and 111 aro from Calcutta specimens. 87 PLATE X. Fungi affecting rice Fig. 1. — Fungal cells in a blackened rice-grain, x 330. Fig. 2. — Similar cells in another grain, x 330. Fig. 3. — A. — Yellow Aspergillus. B. — Ascophora developed in a cultivation of blackened rice. Fig. 4. — Mould which appeared in another similar cultivation. A- — Mycelium, fertile filaments and spores, x 103. B. C. — Fertile filament and spores, x 330. Fig. 5. — Mould which appeared in a cultivation of blackened grains on moist earth. A. — Erect, fertile filaments and heads, x4l. B.— Structure of a head, x 103. C— Spores, x 330. Fig. 6. — Cells developed on the germination of spores of the mould of Fig. 4, PLATE XI. FITNGI. Fig. I.— Aspergillus developed in water. A- — Head, stem and portion of mycelium, x 103. B.— Spores, x 330. Fig. 2. — Penicillium glaucum. A. — Mycelium and erect fertile filaments, x 330. B-— Spores, x 330. Fig. 3. — Ascophora. A. — Branched, fertile filament, x 41. B. — Stoloniferous filament, x 103. C — Head with collapsed columella, x 330. D.— Spores, x 330. Fig. 4. — Eurotium. A. — Perithecia and mycelium, x 103. B. — Portion of a perithecium, x 330. C. — Thecae and spores, x 330. Fig. 5. — Mucor common on the Neilgherries. A. — Fertile filament and head, x 103. B. — Ruptured capsule and spores, x 330. G. — Mycelial filament and young head, x 33. Fig. 6. — Penicilli'.im glaucum from the Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 7.— Ehinotrichum (r), x 103. Fig. 8. — Sphaeronemeious fungus, common in Calcutta. A. — Perithecium and spores, x 103. B.— Portion of a filament and spores, x 330. Fig. 9. — Puccinia, common in the Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 10. — Yellow echinulate spores, occurring on the leaves of Cinchona. &c, x 330. Fig. 11.— Coleosporium of the common tradescantia of the Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 12. — Coleosporium of the Barberry. Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 13.— Fungus affecting the leaves, shoots, and fruit of Phyllanthus. A. — One of the cellular discs, x 103. B. — Profile view of the same, „ C— Detached cells, x 330. D. — Spores (?), „ Fig. 14. — iEcidium of Gnaphalium, Neilgherries. A. — Peridium, x 2G. B.— Cells of peridium, x 330. C— Spores, x 330. Fig. 15. — JEcidium of strobilanthes, Neilgherries. A. — Peridium and spores, x 41. B.— Cells of peridium, x 330. C— Spores, x 330. Fig. 16. — iEcidium (?) occurring on leaves in Calcutta. B.— Peridium, x 103. A.— Spores, x 330. Fig. 17. — Mucor (Ascophora), common in Tanjore. A- — Fertile filaments, columellae and spores, x 103. B.— Spores, x 330. Fig, 18. — Helminthosporium, common on dead bark, Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 19. — Cladosporium, common on living leaves, Neilgherries. A. — Jointed filaments and spores, x 330. B. — Eurotial peritliecium, x 103. C — Portion of a perithecium showing reticulate structure, x 330. D. — Spores contained in the peritbecia, x 330. E. — Large septate spores, x 330. P. — Common spore germinating, x 330. Fig. 20. — Fungus affecting the coffee-plant. A. — Perithecia, x Go. B. — Upper extremity of a perithecium discharging spores, x 330. Fig. 21. — Sphaeriaceious fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, ascus and spores, x 330. Fig. 22. — Sphteriaceious fungus occurring on dead wood, Calcutta. A.— Perithecium, x 103. B. — Ascus and spores, x 330. Fig. 23.— Sphamaceious fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, ascus and spores, x 330. Fig. 24 — Spliaariaceious fungus from the living leaves of a labiate plant, Neilgherries, ascus and spores x 330. Fig. 25.— Sphajriacejous fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, ascus and spores, x 330. Fig. 26.— Sphaeriaceious fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, ascus and spores, x 330. 88 [ Plates dr. d. Cunningham's report on cholera. [ Plates PLATE X. Fungi affecting rice. Fir/. 1. — Fungal cells in a blackened vice-grain, x 330. Fig. 2. — Similar cells in another grain, x 330. Fig. 3. — A. — Yellow Aspergillus. B. — Ascophora developed in a cultivation of blackened rice. Fig. 4. — Mould which appeared in another similar cultivation. A- — Mycelium, fertile filaments and spores, x 103. B. C. — Fertile filament and spores, x 330. Fig. 5. — Mould which appeared in a cultivation of blackened grains on moist earth. A. — Erect, fertile filaments and heads, x 41. B. — Structure of a head, x 103. C— Spores, x 330. Fig. 6. — Cells developed on the germination of spores of the mould of Fig. 4. PLATE XI. Fungi. Fig. I.— Aspergillus developed in water. A. — Head, stem and portion of mycelium, x 103. B.— Spores, x 330. Fig. 2. — Penicillium glaucum. A- — Mycelium and erect fertile filaments, x 330. B-— Spores, x 330. Fig. 3. — Ascophora. A. — Branched, fertile filament, x 41. B. — Stoloniferous filament, x 103. C — Head with collapsed columella, x 330. D.— Spores, x 330. Fig. 4. — Eurotium. A. — Perithecia and mycelium, x 103. B. — Portion of a perithecium, x 330. C. — Thecae and spores, x 330. Fig. 5. — Mucor common on the Neilgherries. A. — Fertile filament and head, x 103. B. — Ruptured capsule and spores, x 330. G. — Mycelial filament and young head, x 33. Fig. 6. — Penicilli'im glaucum from the Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 1 . — Rhinotrichum (r), x 103. Fig. 8. — Sphaeronemeious fungus, common in Calcutta. A. — Perithecium and spores, x 103. B. — Portion of a filament and spores, x 330. Fig. 9. — Puccinia, common in the Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 10. — Yellow echinulate spores, occurring on the leaves of Cinchona. &c. x 30 Fig. 11. — Coleosporium of the common tradescantia of the Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 12. — Coleosporium of the Barberry. Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 13.— Fungus affecting the leaves, "shoots, and fruit of Phyllanthus. A. — One of the cellular discs, x 103. B. — Profile view of the same, „ C— Detached cells, x 330. D.— Spores (p), „ Fig. 14. — JEcidium of Gnaphalium, Neilgherries. A. — Peridium, x 26. B.— Cells of peridium, x 330. C— Spores, x 330. Fig. 15. — iEcidium of strobilanthes, Neilgherries. A- — Peridium and spores, x 41. B. -Cells of peridium, x 330. C. — Spores, x 330. Fig. 16. — iEcidium (?) occurring on leaves in Calcutta B.— Peridium, x 103. A. — Spores, x 330. Fig. 17. — Mucor (Ascophora), common in Tanjore. A. — Fertile filaments, columellae and spores, x 103. B.— Spores, x 330. Fig. 18. — Helminthosporium, common on dead bark, Neilgherries, x 330. Fig. 19. — Cladosporium, common on living leaves, Neilgherries. A. — Jointed filaments and spores, x 330. B. — Eurotial perithecium, x 103. C- — Portion of a perithecium showing reticulate structure, x 330 D. — Spores contained in the peritbecia, x 330. E. — Large septate spores, x 330. F. — Common spore germinating, x 330, Fig. 20. — Fungus affecting the coffee-plant. A. — Perithecia, x 65. B.— Upper extremity of a perithecium discharging spores, x 330 Fig. 21. — Sphseriaceious fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, ascus and spores, x 330. Fig. 22. — Sphaeriaceious fungus occurring on dead wood, Calcutta. A. — Perithecium, x 103. B. — A sens and spores, x 330. Fig. 23. — Sphamaceious fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, ascus and spores, x 330. Fig. 24 — Sphieriaceious fungus from the living leaves of a labiate plant, Neilglierries, ascus and spores Fig. 25.— Sphceriaceious fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, ascus and spores, x 330. Fig. 26. — Sphseriaceious fungus from living leaves, Neilgherries, aecus and spores, x 330. 330. 1 Enpraxifl by C ll'.&arxi.at the SunrvorOmjmils Oftiee.GjUciiti OjCM « 330 « 330 « 330 « 33C « 330 PLATE IV. 380 . .: lihxittil 'LATL V / ' '..»¦ Ckh * 1000 Engraved, cy CWCoaniaL tAe Sur* i FIG. I PIG. IV. «330 iqrwed by CWCoard..at the, Sw\eyor G&uwals Office. (JiLcuXta A3 i Ficn 30 330 i 330 330 PLATE VHI ¦<330 •< 330 A- 330 B-700 JSwmmi Jy C Mart At *• Surveyor GMmh OfTux (Mull PLATE IX. h a. ¦LATE X FIG. 11. 330 30 A.sl-330 A ¦ 103 B.C-330 103 65 8.i' 103 V 330 c» 41 FIG. VI « 330. A ¦ 4! B " 103 C « 330 XI