GRAY'S 
PRESCRIPTIONIST 
A TREATISE 
ON THE ART OF READING AND COMPOUNDING 
PHYSICIANS' PRESCRIPTIONS, WITH TABLES OF 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ANTIDOTES, 
ABBREVIATIONS, ETC. 
BY 
H. C. GRAY, PH. G. 
Author of "Gray's Pharmaceutical Quiz Compend,'' and Gray's Clinical Urinalysis." 
REVISED BY 
A. D. THORBURN, Ph. G. 
Formerly Associate in Pharmacology, Indiana University School of Medicine 
Price by mail, $2.00 
FOR SALE BY 
M. M. GRAY & COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 
P. O. Box 593, CHICAGO, ILL. 
1920 COPYRIGHT 1920 Bv 
M. M. GRAY Preface. 
Three classes-patients, physicians and pharma- 
cists-are vitally concerned in the writing, com- 
pounding and dispensing of prescriptions, and under 
recent laws dealing with narcotic and alcoholic 
liquors, the public generally is admitted to have 
some interest also. 
This treatise, intended primarily to discuss com- 
pounding and dispensing, has been broadened in 
this revision, the third, and now includes a brief 
discussion of the problems involved in formulating 
and writing a prescription. There have also been 
added several pages on packaging the prescription 
in the forms preferred by up-to-date customers. 
Necessarily, much that might have a bearing on 
prescriptions has been omitted, but it is believed 
that most of the matters of importance have been 
discussed at least briefly and in all cases clearly and 
concisely. It has been taken for granted that our 
readers have some knowledge of pharmacy, phar- 
macology and therapeutics. 
While an effort has been made to present the 
subject in the simplest'manner possible, our readers 
are requested to bear in mind the fact that before 
writing a prescription the physician should have 
exercised a most comprehensive knowledge and his 
best judgment in arriving at the conclusions thus 
written and that the pharmacist likewise has oppor- 
tunity in compounding and dispensing to demon- 
strate his technical skill and professional training. 
3 Well written prescriptions are a result of a thor- 
ough education in medicine, just as accurately and 
correctly compounded prescriptions are a culmina- 
tion of thorough training and long experience in 
pharmacy. 
In no way does this volume replace, or make 
unnecessary, reference to more complete and elab- 
orate books on Pharmacy, Therapeutics, Chemistry, 
Pharmacology, Materia Medica, etc. 
The questions that arise before students just 
beginning the consideration of prescription work 
have been given careful attention, and there has 
been an earnest effort to make an easily followed 
path for students in both medicine and pharmacy. 
February 1st, 1920. 
4 THE PRESCRIPTION. 
Definition.-A written prescription is a part of a 
medical treatment and may be compared to a letter 
addressed to a pharmacist giving a written order 
to take or bring from his stock certain articles, as 
named, compound them if necessary, package and 
label them with instructions regarding use or dos- 
age, and to deliver the article, thus prepared, to 
the patient. 
The English word "prescription" has its root in 
the Latin word "scribo," I write: «s commonly 
used this word may mean either the written order 
for the medicine or the medicine itself. 
How Formulated.-The physician who writes the 
prescription and also the pharmacist who com- 
pounds it should acquire a certain routine for ap- 
proaching the problems involved in this work. 
When thoroughly learned and persistently prac- 
ticed, such routine does much to eliminate errors, 
to quicken the work and in all cases helps to avoid 
the appearance of indecision, uncertainty and doubt. 
The pharmacist who is to compound the pre- 
scription should be acquainted with the way in 
5 which it has been put together, since he thereby 
obtains a better understanding of the purpose and 
intent of the prescriber. 
Having made a diagnosis of the case and chosen 
the line of treatment, the physician should decide 
upon the medicament or drug required and then 
select the form or preparation that is the most 
suitable representative of the drug or medicament 
wanted for the case at hand. 
After making the decision to order certain arti- 
cles, but not before then, the actual writing of the 
prescription may begin by writing first the names 
of these articles, then the direction, if any, to the 
compounder, and next the directions to the patient 
for use or dosage: after writing these directions 
the total quantity prescribed may be calculated and 
written and then the quantity of each article, if 
more than one be ordered, should be noted. 
When the prescription has been written, the 
physician should make it his never failing practice 
to read it carefully and verify his work before giv- 
ing it to the patient. 
Writing Directions.-The names of the drugs 
should be written in Latin, using official names 
whenever possible, but the directions should be in 
English, using exactly the wording that is wanted 
on the label. 
Very clear, definite directions are always desir- 
able and, in addition, the use of the medicine should 
be explained to the patient. 
The pharmacist should make no change in the 
directions, copying the wording to the label exactly 
as it appears on the prescription. Many customers 
prefer that the pharmacist should also verbally 
explain the dosage of the medicine, but some dis- 
cretion should be exercised in doing this. 
6 An obligation rests on both physician and phar- 
macist to assure themselves that the patient thor- 
oughly understands the use and dosage of the 
article ordered and dispensed. 
Why Latin Titles Are Used.-The symbol I£, 
often printed or written at the beginning of a pre- 
scription, was symbolical of the prayer to the deity 
Jove-being a distortion of the astronomical sign 
of the planet Jupiter-which in ancient times was 
the first part of the treatment given by the priests 
who practiced medicine: nowadays, this symbol is 
usually written as I£, and is assumed to be an 
abbreviation of Recipe, meaning "take thou." 
If the drug prescribed has an official name, such 
name should always be used when writing pre- 
scriptions, since the official name has a definite 
meaning in regard to purity or strength which is 
understood by pharmacists in most parts of the 
world. These official names are Latin words and 
prescriptions are usually written in Latin for sev- 
eral reasons, of which the most important are: 
First: Latin is the language of science the 
world over; it being a dead or unspoken language, 
is not subject to change by the addition of new 
words and phrases, and changes in spelling, like 
the modern languages. 
Second: It is generally necessary, and always 
well to conceal the identity of the remedies or 
medicines from the patient; the use of Latin accom- 
plishes this practically, as the language, especially 
the part used in a prescription, is understood by 
comparatively few. 
Third :• Latin names are distinctive and exact; 
some drugs have various common names, and some 
names are used for more than one drug. Again, 
7 the vernacular name of a drug, and especially 
vegetable drugs, may be one thing in English and 
a different thing in French or Swedish, etc. The 
use of Latin at once obviates all these difficulties, 
saving one the trouble of learning the names in all 
the different languages. 
"Humulus" is the Latinized name for hops; any- 
where in the world if "Humulus" appears on a pre- 
scription it is known at once that "strobiles of 
Humulus lupulus, Linne," is the article wanted; 
thus it is seen that "Humulus" is the universal 
scientific name for the drug. The English name 
is hops; French, houblon; German, hopfen; Swed- 
ish, hululekottar; Danish, humle. 
By using the Latinized name the necessity of 
learning the vernacular, or common name, in the 
different tongues is avoided. 
Capital Letters.-Except prepositions, each word 
of the title should begin with a capital letter, 
whether it be written in full or abbreviated. 
Abbreviations.-If the names of drugs are abbre- 
viated, the abbreviation authorized by the Phar- 
macopoeia and National Formulary should always 
be used. 
For the name of a drug not official the abbrevia- 
tion, if used, should be so plain and different from 
other abbreviations that there can be no doubt 
about which drug is ordered. 
In general, abbreviations should be avoided ex- 
cept for words that are names of classes of prepa- 
rations such as Tincture, Elixir, Syrup, etc. 
A Latin title for a drug is, of course, given the 
same abbreviation whether it be in the nominative 
or in any other case as required by the grammatical 
construction of the sentence where it appears. 
8 Grammatical Construction.-Official names are 
given in the Pharmacopoeia and National Formu- 
lary in the nominative case, which in Latin, as in 
English, is used for words that are the subjects of 
sentences, and the ending of these Latin words 
change when these names become the objects. 
In prescription writing as now practiced by 
nearly all physicians a skeleton, only, of the full 
wording is written. 
If ten grains of codeine are wanted the complete 
instruction to the compounder or dispensing phar- 
macist would be, "Take thou ten grains of co- 
deine"; in actual practice the sign 1$ symbolizing 
the instruction "take thou" may or may not be 
written at the beginning of the prescription, but in 
either case it is understood by the pharmacist that 
the drug named is wanted in the prescription and 
that he should "take it," i. e., bring it to the com- 
pounding table and weigh or measure it or com- 
pound it as ordered by the prescriber. 
The quantity to be taken or used in compounding 
is in the objective case in the English sentence or 
in the accusative when changed to Latin. Since 
the quantity is usually expressed in symbols and 
Roman numerals, or in Arabic if metric units are 
ordered, the case endings give us no immediate 
concern here. 
The phrase "of codeine" in English is translated 
into Latin, using the official Latin title "Codeina," 
a'nd giving this word the genitive ending-the gen- 
itive case in Latin corresponding to the English 
objective following the preposition "of." 
The English sentence, "Take thou ten grains of 
codeine," thus becomes for prescription writing, 
Codeinae grs. X. 
9 If the official title contains two words or more, 
the grammatical construction remains the same, 
but it is well to remember that such an English 
name as bismuth subnitrate when rendered into 
Latin becomes "the Subnitrate of Bismuth"-hence 
Bismuthi, genitive, meaning "of bismuth," and Sub- 
nitras, nominative, meaning "the subnitrate." This 
official title, "Bismuthi Subnitras," when written in 
full in prescriptions, should be changed to "Bis- 
muthi Subnitratis": both words are thus put into 
the genitive and the English translation is "of the 
subnitrate of bismuth." 
If thirty mils (Cc.) of tincture of iodine are 
ordered, the full statement in English becomes, 
"Take thou thirty mils of tincture of iodine." 
For tincture of iodine the official Latin title is 
Tinctura, nominative case, the tincture, and lodi, 
genitive, of iodine. 
For prescription writing only the case ending of 
the first word Tinctura needs changing, and when 
so written the order appears as, 
I>-take thou 
Tincturae-genitive, of the tincture 
lodi-genitive, of iodine 
Mils 30 
By far the larger number of prescriptions involve 
but little more of Latin grammar than do the 
examples given. 
In some prescriptions where stock pills or tablets 
are ordered it is customary and is better practice, 
because opportunities for mistakes are lessened, to 
write the name of the stock article and direct that 
a certain number be dispensed: in other words, the 
dispenser is ordered to deliver to the patient the 
article itself and not a certain portion or quantity 
of it. 
10 A prescription for compound rhubarb pills con- 
structed as suggested would be as follows in Eng- 
lish : "Take thou the compound pills of rhubarb 
to the number of twelve." 
The official Latin title for these pills is, 
Pilulae-nominative plural 
Rhei-genitive 
Compositae-adjective; case ending to 
agree with noun modified (Pilulae) 
Note that the grammatical construction of this 
sentence differs from the proceeding examples: 
"pills" is in the objective case in English and fol- 
lows a transitive verb: when translated into Latin 
it should be in the accusative case, in which the 
ending for this word is "as." 
Skeletonizing the English sentence and changing 
to Latin as written in prescriptions, we have, 
Take thou 
Compound 
Pills 
of Rhubarb 
9 
Pilulas 
Rhei 
Compositas 
plural accusative 
genitive 
adjective, case ending to 
agree with noun modi- 
fied (Pilulas) 
ablative 
indeclinable 
to the 
number 
of 12 
numero 
duodecimo 
The accusative case is also used when a vehicle, 
solvent or diluent is ordered to be added to the 
other ingredients to bring the total measure up to 
a desired quantity: thus if there be wanted a total 
bulk or measure of four fluidounces, the instruction 
in English is, ''Take thou water of sufficient quan- 
tity to make four fluidounces." 
Skeletonized as in prescription writing "of sufifi- 
11 cient quantity to make" becomes quantum sufficiat, 
and this is abbreviated q.s.: the entire sentence 
then is written, 
Aquam q.s. f^ iv 
When the prepositions "with" or "for" are used 
in English the noun following them is in the objec- 
tive case, but when translated into Latin should be 
put in the ablative-hence the English title Mer- 
cury with Chalk is translated into Latin as, 
Hydrargyrum-nominative, mercury 
cum-preposition, with 
Creta-ablative, chalk 
When written in a prescription this becomes, 
Hydrargyri-genitive, of mercury 
cum-preposition, with 
Creta-ablative, chalk 
For a more complete review of the- changes in 
termination of names in prescription writing ref- 
erence should be made to a Latin grammar for 
rules for declension of nouns and adjectives and 
for the classification of the name words of drugs 
into the various declensions with case endings and 
gender. 
All nouns occurring in titles used in the Phar- 
macopoeia fall into the first, second or third declen- 
sions, except that some few drug name words 
are indeclinable, such as Elixir, Alcohol, Salol, 
Cusso, etc. 
Only a few Latin verbs are used in prescription 
writing. 
Few prescribers attempt to write anything except 
very general instructions for the compounding of 
the medicament ordered. 
Written instructions covering such details are 
entirely unnecessary if the prescriptions are com- 
12 pounded by any registered pharmacist, and espe- 
cially is this true since the Pharmacopoeia and 
National Formulary have been so carefully revised 
and adapted to present requirements. 
If for any reason the usual general instructions 
must be supplemented by specific or detailed orders, 
these latter should be written in English, so that 
the physician may be sure the order is as he wants 
it, and so that the pharmacist may make no error 
in translation at the time of compounding. 
In by far the greater number of prescriptions 
the directions to the compounder are limited to the 
three verbs: 
First, recipe-take thou-implied from the sym- 
bol IJ, written at the beginning of the prescription. 
Second, misce-mix-written just after the names 
of the ingredients. 
Third, signa-mark thou-written just before the 
directions to the patient. 
Less frequently the following verbs are used: 
Imperative; object, if written, should be 
in accusative 
Adde-add 
Cola-strain 
Divide-divide 
Extende-spread 
Fac-make 
Filtra-filtre 
Macera-macerate 
Solve-dissolve 
Tere-rub 
Subjunctive, having subject or predicate 
in nominative case 
Bulliat-let (it) boil 
Fiat-let (it) be made (into) 
Fiant-let (them) be made (into) 
To acquire ease in writing prescriptions and in 
using Latin titles and phrases correctly it is sug- 
13 gested that the student practice first writing the 
complete prescription in English without any ab- 
breviations or omissions; then that those parts 
which should be in Latin be translated and this 
Latin translation be skeletonized as given in the 
examples above. 
A list of Latin phrases and abbreviations used in 
prescription writing is given just before the index. 
Prescription Blanks.-A prescription blank is the 
paper upon which the prescription is written, and 
it is highly desirable that this blank have printed 
on it the name of the physician, his office and resi- 
dence addresses, hours, telephone numbers, blank 
lines for narcotic registry number, date and name 
of patient; if the prescriptions are to be written in 
the metric system, a perpendicular line about one 
inch from the right hand margin as shown on page 
109 is very desirable and prevents mistakes due to 
misplaced or indistinct decimal points. 
The printed information is of much assistance if 
it becomes necessary for the pharmacist, nurse or 
patient to confer with the physician before the 
medicine is compounded, either because of an omis- 
sion, error or obscure direction. 
A written prescription has always been an im- 
portant document legally, but with the recent 
increase in laws and governmental regulations 
somewhat restricting the freedom of a physician in 
prescribing it has become of great importance that 
a physician be able to show a clear record of his 
prescriptions. 
The easiest way to keep such a record is by 
using carbon paper and taking an exact duplicate 
of each prescription, and for this purpose it is desir- 
able to use blanks bound in pads with every alter- 
nate one perforated: the pads of copies may be 
14 filed for future reference and if always dated are 
easily found after referring to the patient's history 
card or ledger account. 
Records of prescriptions fqr narcotics and for 
alcoholic liquids must always be available for 
inspection by officers of the law having the duty 
of enforcing laws regarding these articles. 
A serviceable size for a prescription blank is 
three and one-half by five inches. 
Whether the blanks be printed at the expense of 
the physician or furnished as a matter of courtesy 
by the pharmacist, they should comply with the 
form outlined above or should not be used. 
The patient's name, or at least initials, should be 
written on the prescription and may be of much 
help in identifying the prescription when com- 
pounded and ready for delivery. 
Plain, Distinct Writing Necessary.-According 
to custom, prescriptions are one class of written 
documents in which only handwriting is accept- 
able : for nearly every class of documents except 
treaties of state and prescriptions for drugs, type- 
writing has by common consent been accepted as 
better than handwriting and is binding in law when 
properly signed. 
Since practically all pharmacists have adopted 
the practice of typewriting the directions on labels 
on prescriptions, it is only reasonable to hope that 
physicians may soon begin to typewrite, at least 
those prescriptions written in their offices; carbon 
copies, always desirable, are easily taken in type- 
writing and are satisfactory protection against 
alterations after the original prescription is given 
to the patient. 
When handwriting is necessary it should be very 
15 clear and distinct; at this time, poor handwriting is 
not accepted as a mark of genius. Poorly written 
prescriptions have been the cause of serious mis- 
takes in dispensing, of much friction between the 
prescriber and the dispenser, and properly put the 
prescriber on the defensive in all discussions relat- 
ing to the prescription. 
Since several laws and regulations make it the 
duty of various inspectors to read prescriptions for 
narcotics and alcoholic liquors, the physician is by 
inference required to write these so that they may 
be easily read and be clearly interpreted. As a 
matter of self-protection, a pharmacist is justified 
in refusing to receive, dispense or file a prescription 
so poorly or obscurely written that he would be 
required to interpret it to legal officers when check- 
ing his file. 
Dosage Calculations.-The calculations that arise 
in questions of dosage and of quantity to be pre- 
scribed fall easily into a few general classes and 
are very simple if the composition of the prescrip- 
tion has followed the lines suggested above. 
In general, it is very undesirable to prescribe 
large quantities of drugs unless the patient thor- 
oughly understands and agrees with the reason for 
so doing. 
Enough, only, should be ordered to supply the 
needs of the patient for a few days. 
Consideration should now be given to the pack- 
age or container required for dispensing the pre- 
scription ; patients and pharmacists, also, expect 
that prescriptions for liquids will completely fill 
the bottle used: for ointments, completely fill the 
tube, jar, or box; for powders, capsules, pills, 
cachets, suppositories, etc., this is not expected and 
16 the quantity or number of these latter articles is 
not controlled by the size of the container used. 
When these latter, divided-dosage forms of 
drugs-pills, tablets, capsules, etc.-are ordered, 
multiples of five or of four are convenient quanti- 
ties to write for, since it is much easier to multiply 
the single dose by 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, etc., than by 
9, 13, 17, etc. In dispensing, also, the total bulk 
may be more easily divided into the first named 
portions. 
If the directions call for a dose before or after 
meals and at bedtime, four doses per day are re- 
quired ; if every three hours, five per day are usually 
taken, and hence the patient also may be better 
served by a number selected from the first named 
quantities. To find the number of doses to be taken 
in one day, divide 16 hours-about the normal 
period of wakefulness-by the number of hours be- 
tween two successive doses: if a dose is ordered 
every two hours, 16 divided by 2 equals 8 doses 
per day. 
If a liquid is prescribed, one teaspoonful is a 
desirable bulk for a single dose, quickly compre- 
hended by a patient and easily measured: this 
quantity may be taken usually at a single swallow 
and yet is sufficiently bulky to dissolve the usual 
dose of many chemicals, etc., without making a 
solution irritant because of its concentration. 
' Many physicians make it their routine practice 
to so compose all their prescriptions for liquids that 
one teaspoonful may be taken at a dose. 
To accomplish this, a vehicle, solvent or diluent 
is added to the active medicament. See Vehicles. 
If the directions order a single dose to be for 
example, one teaspoonful, one fluidrachm, the vials 
17 or bottles in use in the United States will contain 
the following number of doses: 
% floz 4 
1 floz 8 
2 floz 16 
3 floz 24 
4 floz 32 
6 floz 48 
8 floz 64 
16 floz 128 
If the dose be a dessertspoonful, each bottle will 
contain one-half as many doses; if one tablespoon- 
ful, one-fourth as many. 
Other sizes of bottles than named in the fore- 
,going table are not ordinarily available for dispens- 
ing prescriptions. 
To meet the general desire that a liquid prescrip- 
tion fill the bottle it is necessary that one of the 
numbers suggested above be selected as the total 
number of doses, and the chosen vehicle should be 
ordered in sufficient quantity to make the total 
bulk or volume of the medicine equal the capacity 
of the bottle containing the desired number of 
doses. 
If the medicine is to be taken in doses of one 
fluidrachm-one teaspoonful-three times daily, 
and this dosage is to be taken for a week, a total 
of 21 doses are wanted : in the table 24 is the nearest 
number of doses that will completely fill a bottle; 
24 doses, then, should be ordered and a 3 fluidounce 
bottle used in dispensing the medicine. 
If four doses, of one dessertspoonful, 2 fldrs. 
each, are to be taken daily for one week, 28 doses 
are wanted but 32 is the nearest number of doses 
that will fill a bottle containing not less than the 
quantity desired: 32 dessertspoonfuls, requiring an 
eight-ounce bottle, should be ordered; the solvent 
or diluent is then added in sufficient quantity to 
make eight flozs. (f§ viii). 
18 Having in this way decided upon the total bulk 
of the medicine and the total number of doses, 
multiply the quantity of the chosen drug wanted in 
one dose, expressed in grains or minims, or Grams 
or Mils (Cc.), by the number of doses: the product, 
if in grains or minims, should be changed to the 
larger denominations, drams or ounces, fluidrachms 
or fluid ounces, and then written on the prescrip- 
tion after the name of the drug: if the product is 
expressed in Grams or Mils (Cc.) no change to a 
larger denomination is necessary. A more detailed 
explanation of such calculations is given in the 
chapter on Weights and Measures, since an under- 
standing of the relations of the various units is 
necessary in solving these problems. 
When the quantity for a single dose multiplied 
by the total number of doses gives a product con- 
taining a fraction, the nearest whole number is 
usually ordered: thus if thirty-two doses are 
wanted, and the single dose is % gr., the exact 
quantity wanted is 10% grs., but all necessary pur- 
poses are served if either 10 or 11 grains are written 
on the prescription. 
If the drug ordered is very potent and the quan- 
tity small so that an error of much over five per 
cent would be caused, the exact quantity should be 
written. The variation due to individual peculi- 
arities in the response by several patients to exactly 
the same dose of drug is more than the apparent 
error thus introduced by using whole numbers. 
Moreover, there is usually more or less question 
about the accuracy of the measurement by the 
patient of the doses: some physicians prefer to 
estimate that one fluidounce will contain only six 
teaspoonful doses because the domestic teaspoonful 
varies in size, and even when the same spoon is 
19 used different quantities are considered by different 
patients to be a teaspoonful. 
The Pharmacopoeia declares one teaspoonful to 
be equivalent to one fluidrachm or four Mils (Cc.), 
and for this reason these equivalents are used 
throughout this treatise. 
The fractional grain weights available for use on 
prescription balances are % grain and its multiples 
-% gr. When other than these fractions are 
ordered, it is good practice to weigh 1 gr. or other 
small, convenient quantity and dissolve this in an 
accurately measured volume of a suitable solvent- 
water, diluted alcohol, diluted acid, etc.-and then 
take such fractional part of this solution as repre- 
sents the desired weight of the dissolved solid. 
If 1/16 grain of atropine sulphate is warned, 
grain may be accurately weighed and dissolved in 
sufficient water to make 40 minims; if 40 minims 
represent % grain, one minim represents 1/40 of 
% or 1/80 grain; if 1/16 grain is wanted as many 
minims must be used as 1/80 grain, the quantity in 
one minim, is contained in 1/16 grain, the quantity 
wanted; to divide one fraction by another, they 
should both be reduced to a common denominator 
which in this case is 80 and hence 1/16 grain is 
changed to 5/80 grain. 5/80-4-1/80 = 5 or 5 
minims of solution, each minim representing 1/80 
grain of atropine sulphate, are equivalent to 1/16 
grain of atropine sulphate and this quantity-5 
minims-is used in the prescription. 
Solutions or triturations of this kind are also ex- 
ceedingly convenient when the set of weights used 
on the prescription balance does not contain a 
weight equal to the fractional part of a grain writ- 
ten in the prescription-for example 1/3 or 1/5 
grain. 
20 Twenty-four doses of 1/120 grain each total 1/5 
grain but if this exact quantity is wanted there is 
no way to obtain it conveniently except by measur- 
ing 12 minims of a solution containing 1 grain in 
1 fluidrachm, or by weighing 2 grains of a 10 per 
cent trituration, since none of the sets of weights 
ordinarily used in prescription compounding con- 
tain a weight of this denomination-1/5 grain. 
In many stores a few stock solutions of alkaloids 
or other powerful drugs are kept on the prescription 
counter: these may be made to represent 1 grain in 
1 fluidrachm, or in 10 minims, or in any other ratio 
that experience has shown most serviceable. 
Such solutions if kept in stock should be pre- 
pared in very small quantities-not more than will 
be used in a few days-and all precautions used to 
insure sterility. 
If the stock solution is used on prescriptions for 
internal use only, sterility may be preserved by 
using chloroform water as the solvent or a few 
drops of chloroform may be added to the solution 
in sterile water. 
If used in eye-lotions or in hypodermic injections 
the chloroform should be evaporated by a very 
gentle heat before the solution is dispensed or the 
stock solution may be made to contain 1 : 500 of 
phenol or cresol, similar to solutions of bacterins. 
Since solutions may be measured much more 
quickly than powders or crystals may be weighed, 
much time may be saved by having on the prescrip- 
tion counter, concentrated solutions of salts such as 
iodides or bromides. When such salts are pre- 
scribed in liquid form these solutions may be used 
in compounding provided the water in the solution 
is not incompatible with the other ingredients. 
Many other time-saving schemes may be developed 
21 by an ingenious pharmacist who closely observes 
the prescriptions brought to his store. 
For some prescription dispensing it is also desir- 
able to have a small quantity of trituration contain- 
ing 10 parts by weight of a drug and 90 parts by 
weight of milk sugar-10% trituration-1/10 grain 
of drug in 1 grain of trituration. 
If atropine sulphate is ordered in capsules each 
to contain 1/120 grain and 12 are wanted, the total 
quantity of atropine sulphate wanted is 1/10 grain 
-1/120 grain X 12 = 12/120 grain = 1/10 grain. 
One grain of the stock trituration of atropine sul- 
phate made as above suggested contains 1/10 grain 
of active drug and hence one grain of this tritura- 
tion should be weighed and used in compounding 
such a prescription. 
22 Analysis.-For the purpose of study, a prescrip- 
tion may be considered to consist of various parts, 
viz.: 
Consisting of a 
symbol, B, an ab- 
breviation for the 
imperative verb, 
receipe, meaning 
take thou. In 
French prescrip- 
tions Pr. or P. is 
used and stands for 
Prenez. 
1. Superscription. 
PRESCRIPTION. 
Basis. 
Adjuvant. 
Corrective. 
Excipient or diluent. 
2. Inscription. « 
3. Subscription. 
The directions to 
the compounder. 
4. Signature.-Directions to the patient. 
5. Prescriber's name, registry 
number and the date. 
The following is an example ot a theoretical pres- 
cription: 
Superscription- R. 
Morphinae Sulphatis.. .Grs. iv. Basis. 
Tincturae Aconiti 3/ Adjuvant. 
Syrupus Rhei Corrective. 
Aquae Anisi Q. S.... . ^iv Vehicle. 
Inscription. 
Subscription.-Misce secundum artem. 
, Signature.-A teaspoonful every three hours. 
Date, registry number, name. 
4-7-'95 T. B. Gray, M. D. 
No. 43,857 
The above prescription was written for facial neu- 
ralgia. The adjuvant (tr. aconite) assists the basis, 
morphine, by decreasing heart action. The syrup of 
23 rhubarb acts as the corrective by overcoming the 
constipating effect of the oasis, and the anise water 
serves as the vehicle in which the rest are adminis- 
tered. 
A prescription may, however, contain the basis 
alone, or the basis with the adjuvant, or the basis 
with a simple vehicle or diluent. A single ingre- 
dient may serve a double or treble office, as in the 
case of some compound syrup or tincture. Again 
the basis may need no aid in doing its work, or cor- 
rective of its action, nor any special vehicle for its 
administration. On the other hand there is no limit 
to the number of ingredients which may be used, 
provided there is something to be accomplished by 
each, and also provided there is no chemical or 
physiological incompatibility between them. 
It is now considered the best practice to have but 
one therapeutically active drug in a prescription 
and, if necessary, to add only such adjuvants, cor- 
rectives, flavors, etc., as will make it most acceptable 
to the patient. If the effects that follow the admin- 
istration of two or more drugs are wanted, separate 
prescriptions of each may be written; have but one 
purpose to be accomplished by one prescription and 
have one prescription for each object sought. 
24 PRESCRIPTION DISPENSING 
The Prescription Department.-We will leave the 
general arrangement of the prescription case to the 
individual idea of each pharmacist, as there is no 
uniformity of opinion on the matter; we mention a 
few points which may contribute to convenience 
and accuracy in compounding. A separate closet 
should be attached to the case for very powerful 
and poisonous drugs, and the pharmacist should 
avoid keeping two dangerous drugs with similar 
names in close proximity to each other. 
A most important feature of the prescription case 
is the prescription balance. 
All prescription departments should be furnished 
with at least two prescription balances, one to be 
used for weighing small quantities (never over 
thirty grains), and the other for larger quantities 
up to one ounce. 
By keeping a balance for small quantities, its 
delicacy will be retained for a very much longer 
time than if used for all weights. 
Since accuracy and correctness in compounding 
depends so largely on accurate and correct meas- 
25 urements and weights, the cleanliness and sensi- 
bility of the balances used is an index to the kind 
of compounding practiced. Clean, sensitive bal- 
ances, well cared for, are the best kind of advertise- 
ment a prescription store can offer to an observant 
physician or thoughtful customer. 
The prescription balance should be cleaned with 
water, and if care is exercised nothing else is 
needed. 
It should always be enclosed in a case, protected 
from the air and dust. 
Equipment of Apparatus and Utensils.-The ap- 
paratus required to completely equip a prescription 
counter varies according to the prescriptions 
brought to the store. 
Just as clean, well-cared-for balances and grad- 
uates denote accuracy in compounding, so does an 
assortment of apparatus, utensils or tools indicate 
that the work at a counter so equipped is something 
more than pouring from one bottle into another. 
Have a plentiful equipment, let it be seen in use 
and thus frequently and persistently demonstrate 
that the prescription department is prepared to give 
the best of service and is able to handle prescrip- 
tions of all kinds. As a rule, the most skilled crafts- 
man uses the best tools and is quick to buy new 
ones required for new work. 
Both for extemporaneous compounding and for 
manufacturing pharmaceutical preparations the fol- 
lowing apparatus, in addition to two balances, is 
desirable: plenty of graduates of all sizes, spatulas 
of steel and horn, mortars and pestles of different 
shapes for pills, solutions and emulsions, glass stir- 
ring rods, tiles, a pill cutter, pill rounder, an ap- 
paratus for sealing cachets, a suppository machine, 
26 porcelain capsules, Florence flasks, a chemical 
thermometer, sand bath, water bath, Bunsen burner 
or spirit lamp, funnels, filtering paper, litmus paper, 
infusion mug, casserole, specific gravity bottle, 
hydrometer, test tubes and graduated burettes, 
percolators, files, cork screws, numbering and dat- 
ing stamps, typewriter. 
Importance of Skillful Manipulations.-Com- 
pounding and dispensing prescriptions is the high- 
est expression of pharmaceutical art and skill. Ac- 
curately and correctly compounding prescriptions 
and neatly dispensing them, in an attractive form, 
is the culmination of thorough training and long 
experience in pharmacy, together with plentiful 
facilities and resources in stock and equipment. 
Each pharmacist who compounds prescriptions 
should, in handling utensils, in weighing, in meas- 
uring, in such work as trituration, filling capsules, 
rolling pills, folding powders, and in all other 
manipulations necessary, strive to develop a skill 
and technique that will impress the customer, espe- 
cially a physician, with his neatness and dexterity. 
Physicians and customers are rightly very fas- 
tidious and exacting in regard to cleanliness, ster- 
ility, accuracy and careful attention to details. 
The manipulations necessary for dispensing the 
prescription even if it be only pouring from one 
bottle to another, or counting a dozen tablets, 
should be performed so neatly and carefully that 
the customer or observer will recognize that the 
dispenser is qualified and "knows how." 
Compounding and dispensing of this class is 
usually given without any grumbling, a higher 
money value by the customer than are slovenly 
and careless methods. 
27 Tablets and pills should be counted out on a 
clean powder paper or direct into the box, and never 
poured into the palm of the hand. 
The dispenser who washes his hands frequently 
and keeps his finger-nails well cleaned when filling 
capsules or folding powders, will have a larger 
business-following than one who is not so careful. 
No dirty utensil should be allowed to stand on 
the prescription counter. After using, they should 
be immediately cleaned, sterilized if necessary, and 
put in place. 
Care of Utensils.-Each and every utensil should 
have a specific place, so that when needed it can 
be found without delay. When used each article 
should be properly and perfectly cleaned and re- 
turned to its place. 
To cleanse vessels of adhering resinous tinctures, 
essential oils, etc., first scrub with plenty of soap 
and powdered pumice, and a little water; then, if 
necessary, use a little alcohol, but remember it is 
expensive; elbow exercise is cheaper. When col- 
lodion has been measured and before the ether has 
evaporated pour the vessel full of water when a 
film is precipitated on the surface of the vessel; the 
film contracts so that it can be removed without 
any inconvenience. 
For cleaning graduates, mortars, tiles and spatu- 
las of oils, ointments, etc., first scrub with plenty 
of sawdust, removing all the grease possible, after 
which use soap, pumice and water; sometimes ben- 
zine is necessary; it is best used on a cloth. To 
remove iodine use ammonia water or hyposulphite 
of soda. 
All utensils should be perfectly dried after being 
washed. A graduate might be required before 
28 having time to dry and the adhering water would 
make a difference in the amount so measured. 
Both the Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary 
give instructions for sterilizing apparatus and bot- 
tles for use in compounding. In the preparation of 
medicines many of which are designed to overcome 
symptoms resulting from the presence of pathogenic 
micro-organisms in the human body, it is surely 
very desirable to take such precautions as will pre- 
vent the introduction of more micro-organisms 
with the remedy. 
Hence there is an increasing demand for some- 
thing more than apparent cleanliness in both ap- 
paratus and technique. Conditions and technique 
on the prescription counter must approach, at least, 
conditions and technique in bacteriological lab- 
oratory work; approximate sterility, at least should 
be secured. 
Bottles and glassware, after being cleaned thor- 
oughly with water, rinsed with distilled water and 
drained, should be plugged with cotton, wrapped in 
paper and heated to 180° C. for one hour. At this 
temperature, the paper should brown slightly or 
char. Do not unwrap the article until required for 
use. 
Wet sterilization, by steam under 15 pounds 
pressure continued for 15 minutes, is more gen- 
erally used in bacteriological work: an autoclave or 
pressure sterilizer is required. 
Immersion for 15 minutes, at least, in alcohol, 
chloroform, ether, phenol or cresol solutions, or 
long exposure to moist formaldehyde vapor is often 
a convenient and effective way of sterilizing mortars 
and pestles, glass rods, spatulas, pill tiles, hypo- 
dermic tablet moulds, suppository moulds, etc. 
29 Books of Reference.-In compounding prescrip- 
tions it often becomes necessary to refer to books 
for information. This should not embarrass the 
beginner and does not embarrass the experienced 
pharmacist. Be quick, however, to find what you 
want, and don't use the book in the presence of the 
patron, as he will likely think you lack competency 
and lose confidence in you. 
Every druggist should possess a library, the more 
extensive the better, but a Pharmacopoeia, Dispen- 
satory, Medical Dictionary, a good work on Phar- 
macy, one on Materia Medica and one on Chemistry 
are absolutely indispensable to a first-class drug 
store. 
The prescription counter should, by all means, 
be as systematic in its general arrangement as pos- 
sible ; the drugs should be in alphabetical arrange- 
ment. A special compartment should contain the 
most poisonous drugs; further than this the require- 
ments and conveniences of each individual store 
should be the guide. 
Reading Prescriptions.-Do not start to com- 
pound the prescription until it has been read all the 
way through. There are no exceptions to this rule. 
Read over the name of each ingredient, and the 
quantity, the instructions to the compounder, the 
directions to the patient. 
If any part of the prescription is not clearly writ- 
ten, it is useless to begin compounding until the 
whole prescription can be translated and under- 
stood. 
If there is an overdose, real or apparent, self- 
protection makes it necessary to clear up this point 
before the work of compounding is begun. 
If the prescription in itself is readable and re- 
quires no correction, make sure that all the in- 
30 gredients are in stock before beginning the work 
of compounding. 
One of the most common inquiries from a cus- 
tomer when handing a prescription over the counter 
is "how long will it take?" In some stores it is 
the rule to always tell the customer how much time 
will be required whether he does or does not ask. 
Before any promise on this point is made, how- 
ever, the pharmacist waiting on the customer must 
be assured that the medicament prescribed is in 
stock or quickly obtainable, that there is no defect 
in the prescription, and that there will be no delay 
from any cause, in the compounding; this practi- 
cally makes it necessary to read the prescription 
immediately it is received. 
Very little can be written to assist the beginner in 
learning to read prescriptions, as his ability to mas- 
ter this branch of the profession depends almost 
entirely upon his general knowledge of drugs and 
his actual experience in handling physicians' pre- 
scriptions. Therefore the beginner should make it 
a constant practice to read and thoroughly master 
every prescription filled in the store each day; this 
can be done during his hours for study, and is about 
the only way to gain proficiency. 
In reading a prescription, if the name of an ingre- 
dient is somewhat obscure or doubtful, one is often 
assisted in determining it by referring to the quan- 
tity ordered, the other ingredients, or the form in 
which the medicine is to be prepared; either of these 
will sometimes suggest what the obscure item is, 
though they more often have no bearing on the mat- 
ter. If it is the quantity of an ingredient you are in 
doubt of, it can often be decided by considering the 
dose of the ingredient, as for instance, where one 
31 is at a loss to decide whether a character is in- 
tended for a drachm or an ounce sign. 
Whenever you are not perfectly familiar with any 
article in the prescription refer freely to your dispen- 
satory or other works of reference. The pharmacist 
who considers himself so competent that this is 
never necessary is a dangerous man, and young men 
too often fail to avail themselves of this help 
through false modesty or fear of being thought in- 
competent. 
Identification of Prescription.-If more than one 
prescription is presented at one time by a customer, 
learn if all are for the same patient, if not, put 
names on each label; serious accidents have hap- 
pened by neglect of this point. 
Not only must care be taken to see that a pre- 
scription be carefully compounded but it is also 
equally important that the customer receive the 
medicine called for by the prescription which he 
brought to the store. 
If a customer receives medicine intended for 
some one else, serious consequences may ensue, 
both to the customer and to the store. 
As a rule the customer knows nothing about what 
kind of medicine has been prescribed for him or at 
the most, knows only that it is a powder or a tablet 
or a liquid. 
In general, the most satisfying way of identifying 
the prescription, is to have the customer's name 
written on.the prescription, on the label, and on the 
outside of the package when ready for delivery. 
Identification checks, numbered or lettered, are 
used in many stores and given to the customer 
when a prescription is presented. 
When a prescription is to be used by the cus- 
tomer himself, mistakes in delivery are often 
32 avoided by having the customer repeat the dosage 
that the physician told him to use and comparing 
this with the directions on the package which the 
pharmacist is about to give him. Even if the direc- 
tions are not repeated in detail it is desirable that 
the pharmacist be assured that the use of the 
medicine is understood by the customer, before it 
leaves the store. 
Calculate Dosage Before Compounding.-Before 
a prescription is compounded, the dosage given 
should be carefully scrutinized. The pharmacist 
should practice calculating the total number of 
doses in the quantity ordered; then divide the total 
quantity of each ingredient prescribed by this num- 
ber ; the result will be the quantity of each ingre- 
dient taken at a single dose. 
In this way the pharmacist should assure him- 
self that the dosage when taken according to the 
directions to go on the label, is not an overdose. 
Always determine the dose of each ingredient of 
each prescription you compound. 
Overdose.-If this dosage, as written, is an over- 
dose or in any way exceeds the quantity recognized 
by authorities as safe, do not compound the pre- 
scription until you receive assurance that no injury 
will result to the patient and that the unusual 
quantity is desired by the physician. 
When a doubt arises as to an apparent overdose 
of some dangerous drug in a prescription, the phar- 
macist must use good judgment and quick decision, 
bearing in mind that his first duty is to protect 
the patient and next to protect himself and the 
physician, and that a physician's mistake does not 
excuse a pharmacist before the law. The first point 
is to gain time ^without exciting suspicion in the 
33 mind of the customer. This can be done by inform- 
ing him that it will be some time before the medicine 
is prepared, and offer to delivc it or request him to 
call for it at a specified time. After thus disposing 
of the customer see the writer of the prescription 
and satisfy yourself as to whether or not it should 
be dispensed as written. If the physician cannot 
be found at the time and you consider it necessary 
to dispense the medicine, either for the good of the 
patient or to protect the physician, do so by reduc- 
ing the dose of the dangerous ingredient to a safe 
limit and notify the physician at the earliest pos- 
sible moment, and any honorable physician will 
appreciate your precaution. It sometimes happens 
that even after such cases have been brought to the 
notice of the doctor he will insist that the dose is 
all right. In such cases if the pharmacist still 
thinks it an overdose he should refuse to dispense 
it, and if he has reason to consider the doctor 
ignorant and incompetent it becomes his duty to 
inform the customer his reasons for such refusal, 
though caution and judgment should be exercised. 
Omissions.-Often physicians omit to specify the 
quantity of one or more of the ingredients in a 
prescription, or the number of powders, pills, etc., 
into which it is to be divided. In such cases there 
is only one course to pursue, viz., see the doctor 
and have the omissions rectified. 
Checking Compounding.-Whenever possible, the 
work of compounding should be checked, using 
whatever scheme or system is best adapted to the 
immediate circumstances. 
Mistakes in handling poisonous drugs are to be 
guarded against in every way possible: and mis- 
takes not involving poisons, ar£ often very em- 
34 barrassing, always an injury to the reputation of 
the store and humiliating to the pharmacist. 
If circumstances permit, re-checking all work 
in the prescription counter by a clerk other than 
the one doing the compounding, is desirable but in 
many stores this can not be done and is always 
expensive. 
No system of checking is so successful in pre- 
venting mistakes as a rigidly enforced rule to attend 
strictly to what you are doing and do only one 
thing at a time: mistakes generally occur from ab- 
sent mindedness or at a time when the dispenser 
is giving attention to more than one thing. 
Every intelligent and skilled pharmacist can 
check his own work himself and often do this better 
than any one else, knowing that upon him alone is 
the responsibility for the work. Divided responsi- 
bility is undesirable no matter what system is used. 
Give close attention to the work at hand. Do 
one thing at a time and know the purpose of the 
work, and after the prescription is compounded and 
before it is given to the customer, let the com- 
pounder himself check over the steps taken. 
Containers.-A feature of the utmost importance 
is the container used for dispensing the article pre- 
scribed. A well chosen container, perfectly clean, 
neatly labeled and sealed and wrapped inspires the 
customer with confidence in the accuracy and cor- 
rectness of the compounding and does as much as 
any other one feature to bring business to the pre- 
scription counter. 
There is obtainable in the market a great variety 
of bottles, jars, tubes, boxes and cartons in various 
shapes and colors; reference should be made to the 
price lists of manufacturers and jobbers since the 
35 space available does not permit describing these 
articles here. 
In many instances where two prescriptions are 
dispensed to the same patient or to the same family 
and one liquid may be for internal while the other 
may be for external use, or the two may be ordered 
taken at different times, it is desirable that the bot- 
tles be of different shapes or colors. 
At least two shapes or colors in pill and powder 
boxes are also desirable. A complete assortment 
of all the containers in stock in the store should 
always be at the prescription counter ready for im- 
mediate use, even though there may be room for 
only a few of each kind. This reduces the oppor- 
tunity for both mistakes and delays. 
Especial emphasis should be given to the urgent 
need for absolute cleanliness. Bottles, jars and 
metal boxes that shine from polishing and paper 
boxes that have the brightness of new articles all 
help to make the medicine attractive to the patient 
and to bring customers back to the store. 
Both the Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary 
give instructions for sterilization of-containers. All 
bottles after washing should be thoroughly dried, 
and both for convenience and for cleanliness they 
should be corked before stocking on the prescrip- 
tion counter. 
The best grade only of corks are suitable for 
use on prescriptions. For preparations and con- 
tainers that have been sterilized the Pharmacopoeia 
orders rubber stoppers, also sterilized. 
Many physicians who prescribe ointments prefer 
that these preparations be sterilized, and the most 
suitable container for such ointments are collapsible 
tubes. A tube one inch in diameter and four inches 
36 long will hold one ounce of ointment, unless the 
preparation be very dense, when a tube three- 
quarters inch diameter will be large enough. 
If melted in compounding the partly cooled oint- 
ment may be poured into the tube: if mixed cold, 
the tube may be filled by using a spatula. The 
open end of the tube may be closed by flattening 
it about an eighth of an inch from the end against 
the counter with a spatula, and then folding over 
the flattened part; again flatten about an eighth of 
an inch and again fold over. A special tool for 
closing tubes, somewhat like a pair of pincers with 
broad jaws, is obtainable and very serviceable. 
The label for a tube should completely encircle 
it, be as narrow as possible and be attached near 
the top. Tubes should be dispensed in cartons and 
a duplicate label be attached on the carton. 
If, for any reason, tubes are not used, ointments 
compounded on prescriptions should be dispensed 
in jars, either amber or flint-glass, or porcelain- 
ware, impervious to fats or fixed oils. 
The label should be attached to the side of the 
jar rather than on the cover. 
If a tin ointment box is used, or if a label is to 
be attached to the cover of a jar, the metal surface 
should be well rubbed with sand-paper to remove 
grease, which prevents the paste from holding the 
paper on the metal. 
For capsules, pills or tablets, square or round 
paper shouldered boxes are usually preferred; ob- 
long boxes are used for powders. . When tablets, 
capsules or pills are dispensed it is desirable to 
cover them with a layer of cotton after placing in 
the box; this prevents rattling and in some cases 
avoids spilling. 
37 These dry preparations, if dispensed to persons 
traveling on the ocean, should be placed in well 
corked bottles or other moisture proof containers. 
Protection from Light.-While numerous chemi- 
cals and liquid preparations may be dispensed in 
flint-glass bottles, without deterioration from ex- 
posure to light, the Pharmacopoeia, by inference, 
recommends that a large number of articles be pro- 
tected from such exposure when dispensed and for 
many articles definitely orders amber or dark 
colored glass. 
Instructions are given that alkaloids and alka- 
loidal salts such as Codeine Sulphate, Cocaine, 
Morphine Sulphate, Atropine, etc., be protected 
from light, and it is self-evident that solutions of 
these articles, being more prone to change than the 
dry substances, should likewise be protected when 
dispensed. 
Tinctures and fluidextracts made from crude 
drugs containing alkaloids are also protected to 
some extent from deterioration if kept in the dark. 
Solutions of Silver Nitrate may change rapidly 
and show a dark colored precipitate, usually silver 
oxide, unless put in dark bottles. 
Since the Pharmacopoeia directs that carefully 
dried digitalis leaves be protected from light, the 
liquid preparations, infusion and tincture, should 
be dispensed with like safeguards. 
While the National Formulary does not order 
amber or dark bottles for elixirs containing Iron in 
Ferric Compounds, such as Elixir Calisaya, Iron 
and Strychnine, it is easily proved by experiment 
that these elixirs, if kept in the dark, retain the de- 
sired light green color for a much longer time than 
if exposed to the light. The use of amber bottles 
when these are dispensed is therefore desirable. 
38 Syrup Ferrous Iodide, on the contrary, is better 
kept in flint glass, but so far as possible exposure 
to air should be avoided. The Pharmacopoeia di- 
rects that Mass of Ferrous Carbonate be exposed 
to light. 
The pharmacopoeial salts and preparations of 
mercury are all easily changed in color by exposure 
to light; and these chemicals as well as preparations 
such as tablets containg them, should be protected 
from such exposure, both while in stock and when 
dispensed. 
Chloroform, especially if used for anaesthesia, 
should be dispensed in dark bottles. 
Oleic Acid should be dispensed in glass or stone- 
ware containers only. 
The following list names the more important 
drugs that, either while in stock or when dispensed, 
should be protected from light: the same protec- 
tion should be given to preparations containing 
these articles: 
Alkaloids and Salts 
Aloin 
Amyl Nitrite 
Aspidium 
Benzoic Acid 
Benzaldehyde 
Betanaphthol 
Bismuth and Ammon. 
Citrate 
Bromoform 
Camphor Monobromated 
Chloral Hydrate 
Chloroform 
Chrysarobin 
Digitalis 
Ether 
Ethyl Chloride 
Eucalyptol 
Ferric Salts 
Formaldehyde 
Hydrobrom. Acid Dil. 
Hydrochloric Acid and 
Dilutions 
39 Hydrocyanic Acid Di- 
luted 
Hydriodic Acid Diluted 
Hydrogen Peroxide 
Hops 
Iodides 
Iodine 
Iodoform 
Mercurial Compounds 
Methyl Salicylate 
Nitric Acid and Dilu- 
tions 
Nitrohydrochloric Acid 
and Dilutions 
Oils, 
Essential, Volatile 
Paraformaldehyde 
Paraldehyde 
Parsley Seed 
Phenol and Phenolic 
Derivatives such as 
Guaiacol, Creosote, etc. 
Pyrogallol 
Pyroxylon 
Resin Podophyllum 
Resorcinol 
Salicylates 
Santonin 
Serums 
Sodium Cyanide 
Solution Arsenous and 
Mercuric Iodide 
Spirit Nitrous Ether 
Spirit Nitroglycerin 
Spirits of Essential Oils 
Strophanthin 
Suprarenalin 
Tannic Acid 
Terebene 
Thymol Iodide 
Tincture Iron Chloride 
Trichloracetic Acid 
Uranium Nitrate 
Vanillin 
Veratrin 
Waters of Aromatic Oils 
Corks and Stoppers.-Solutions of fixed alkalies, 
hydroxides or carbonates, should be dispensed in 
hard glass bottles free from lead and with rubber 
stoppers: if glass stoppers are used they should 
have a thick coating of petrolatum or paraffin. Cork 
stoppers for bottles containing Magma Magnesia 
should be coated with paraffin. 
40 The Pharmacopoeia orders glass stoppers for 
bottles containing Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, 
Ammonia Water or Stronger Ammonia, Solution 
Iron Chloride, most of the liquid acids, Iodine and 
its solutions, Tincture Iron Chloride, Potassium 
Permanganate, Zinc Chloride. 
Ethyl Chloride and Amyl Nitrite should be dis- 
pensed in hermetically sealed containers. 
Solutions of Apomorphine Hydrochloride and as 
a rule, of most other alkaloids, should be dispensed 
in containers that before sterilizing have been first 
rinsed in diluted hydrochloric acid and then in dis- 
tilled water: this acid rinsing takes any easily dis- 
solved alkali from the glass. 
Diagnostic Reagents Containers.-It is especially 
important that the containers for diagnostic 
reagents be selected with care and that the fore- 
going recommendations be carefully followed, espe- 
cially for reagents containing strong alkalies, iron 
chloride, strong acids, etc. 
Deterioration.-To prevent deterioration of his 
stock of drugs and to dispense none but drugs in 
prime condition should be the persistent endeavor 
of every pharmacist. This cannot be accomplished 
without unremitting attention to numerous details. 
The suggestions in the paragraphs dealing with 
containers for dispensing are also applicable to con- 
tainers for stock in bulk. 
In addition to these precautions, all available 
means should be used to guard against undue ex- 
posure to heat, light, air or moisture or other in- 
jurious agents or influences. 
One of the most desirable safeguards is to have 
only such quantities of each article or preparation 
in stock as will be sold within a short period of 
time; fresh goods inspire confidence in their value 
41 and make a strong appeal to the purchaser, and 
especially to a physician, who is vitally concerned 
in having his patients use drugs of pharmacopoeial 
strength and purity. The Pharmacopoeia and Na- 
tional Formulary set a definite time or age limit, 
after which the article should not be used, on only 
a few drugs, of which biological preparations are 
the most important, but it is admitted by these and 
all other authorities that very many drugs undergo 
some decomposition with age and lose both purity 
and potency. 
An observant pharmacist using the opportunities 
that come in handling drugs should acquire ability 
to note any departure in taste, odor, color, con- 
sistency or other physical property from the ac- 
cepted standard and it is very desirable that a phy- 
sician prescribing the article should also familiarize 
himself with these same properties. 
Moreover it is to be always remembered, that 
appearances of two samples of the same drug may- 
be identical, but there may be a wide difference in 
their purity and potency, and this difference may be 
disclosed only when chemical or biological tests 
are applied. 
No drug of doubtful quality should be dispensed; 
and the burden of proving that the drugs dispensed 
are of prime quality, rests on the pharmacist who 
dispenses them. 
It is not within the purpose of this treatise to 
discuss the analysis of drugs for purity and potency 
and reference should be made to the United States 
Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary for author- 
itative tests. 
The United States Pharmacopoeia IX and the 
National Formulary order that the following 
42 articles be given special scrutiny just before being 
dispensed: 
Diluted Hydriodic Acid (no blue color with 
starch paste-absence of free iodine). 
Nitrohydrochloric Acid (1 drop added to 1 Mil of 
20% potassium iodide solution liberates iodine, 
red-brown color-presence of chlorin-e). 
Diluted Nitrohydrochloric Acid (5 drops tested 
as above). 
Apomorphine Hydrochloride (a 1% solution in 
water should not give a green color at once). 
Solution Arsenous and Mercuric Iodide (should 
not be darker than a pale yellow). 
Ointment Rose Water (free from rancidity). 
All biologicals-serums, etc.,-must be prepared 
in establishments licensed by Secretary of the 
Treasury of the United States (or Bureau of 
Animal Industry if for veterinary practice) and 
not used after expiration date on label. 
Ether (kept in sealed filled containers and not to 
be used for anaesthesia if container has been 
opened longer than 24 hours). 
Sterile Distilled Water (not to be used if more 
than 48 hours old). 
Mucilage Acacia (to be frequently made). 
Syrup Wild Cherry (no time limit set, but said 
to lose hydrocyanic acid rapidly). 
Oleoresin Aspidium (mix crystals with liquid 
portion). 
Oleoresin Cubeb (reject crystals if any are de- 
posited). 
Any drug, whether included or omitted from the 
above list, should be right when dispensed and the 
responsibility for its purity and potency rests on 
the person dispensing it. 
43 Labeling and Sealing Container.-The directions, 
doctor's name, date, serial number of prescription, 
and name of patient should be in typewriting on the 
label; a numbering stamp and a dating stamp in 
addition to the typewriter are desirable for the com- 
plete equipment of the prescription counter. 
Typewriting has almost completely displaced 
handwriting on labels on prescriptions. 
On bottles, use a label as wide, but not wider, 
than one side of the bottle and about half or a 
third as long as the body of the bottle. Attach the 
label so that the space between its top and the 
shoulder of the bottle is one-half or one-third as 
wide as the space between the bottom of the label 
and the bottom of the bottle. 
When the article is dispensed in paper boxes some 
pharmacists attach the direction label on the inside 
of the cover: here it remains clean longer than if 
on the outside, but customers usually consider it 
more conveniently placed when outside. 
It is a wise precaution to put the serial number 
of the prescription and the name of the patient on 
the bottom of the box as well as on the cover; this 
may prevent mistakes arising from exchange of 
covers on boxes of the same size and color. 
The prescription clerk has not finished his work 
until the filled container has been carefully cleaned, 
sealed and labeled. Bottles may be sealed by tying 
a paper cap over the cork or by a drop of sealing- 
wax on the side of the cork; boxes and cartons 
may be closed with a paper seal or with wax. 
A sealed container delivered to the customer or 
to the patient is evidence that the medicine is in 
just the form prepared by the compounder and has 
not been tampered with and in addition is proof of 
44 the care and attention given to details by the 
pharmacist. 
Courteous Treatment of Customers.-Customers 
bringing prescriptions to the store should receive 
the most courteous attention and if it is necessary 
for them to wait until the prescription is com- 
pounded, they should have an opportunity to sit 
down and be comfortable. Should they leave the 
prescription and say they will call at a later time, 
every possible effort should be made to have the 
medicine ready for them and to give them prompt 
attention when they return. 
It is the practice in many stores to send a mes- 
senger for a prescription and then to deliver the 
medicine when compounded. Whether this is de- 
sirable or profitable is altogether a matter of local 
circumstances. 
It is always desirable to meet your customer's 
expectation of service. In general, the rule in most 
stores is to give the best service possible and to 
charge a sufficient price to cover the cost. 
It is bad practice to compound a prescription 
according to instructions taken over the telephone. 
Prescriptions by telephone calling for narcotics and 
alcoholic liquors are not legal prescriptions and 
should not be dispensed. For such an article the 
written prescription must be in the possession of 
the pharmacist before it is dispensed. 
A pharmacist who desires to develop a prescrip- 
tion business must obtain the support and confi- 
dence of a large number of people by the best kind 
of business dealings and, in addition, he must secure 
the approval, largely on professional grounds, of 
a number of physicians. 
While a physician is probably entirely within his 
rights if he names the store from which the patient 
45 should secure the medicine, this is not the best of 
practice and as a rule a pharmacist should make no 
effort to secure exclusive specification of his store 
by a physician. 
The best business-building methods are needed 
for the development of a large prescription trade. 
The subject is too extensive for more than a men- 
tion of its importance in this treatise. 
46 PRESCRIPTION OWNERSHIP, 
PRESCRIPTIONS FOR NARCOTICS AND 
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES. 
Control of the Prescription, Copying and Refill- 
ing.-The pharmacist has need to use much judg- 
ment and discretion in answering questions from 
customers about refilling, giving copies and nu- 
merous other matters concerning the prescription. 
Many of these questions are asked because the laity 
do not understand what a prescription is, the reason 
for putting it in writing, nor its importance as legal 
evidence in regard to drugs whose use is closely 
regulated by laws. 
Generally the laity consider that a fee paid to a 
physician is paid for the prescription written and 
handed to the patient: holding this view of the 
transaction, they think themselves entirely within 
their rights in demanding the original or a copy 
of the prescription after it has been dispensed and 
also in distributing this copy to other persons, or 
in continuing to use the medicine without consult- 
ing the physician. 
Both physician and pharmacist have been negli- 
gent in failing to educate the public to a better 
understanding of the true situation. 
47 Requests for copies and for refilling prescrip- 
tions should be carefully considered, much tact used 
in either granting or refusing the request and in 
all cases such action taken as will fully protect all 
four parties-physician, pharmacist, patient and 
general public-whom our present laws recognize 
as usually concerned in the transaction. 
No intelligent patient will refuse to admit that 
the fee paid to the physician included the charge 
for very much more than the written prescription; 
in many cases a fee is paid where no prescription 
at all is written: in all cases the charge, of course, 
is for the entire services of the physician including 
diagnosis, advice as to the use of both drugs and 
food, suggestions for right living and for much 
other work involving professional skill and training. 
The instruction to the patient to use or to take 
certain medication is only a part of the service ren- 
dered by the physician: so that this instruction 
may be useful or effective, the physician is obli- 
gated to make such medication available or 
obtainable. 
A verbal request that the patient obtain certain 
named drugs and use them is always unsatisfactory 
and in nearly all cases fails to accomplish its 
purpose. 
The physician has only two other ways of meet- 
ing his obligation-either himself to obtain and 
deliver or administer the medicine to the patient 
or to give a written order which will authorize the 
delivery of the medicine by some other person. 
The written prescription is such an order and it 
is addressed to the pharmacist or dispenser, even 
if his name be not given. The patient in the ma- 
jority of cases assumes that the prescription is 
addressed to himself. 
48 On the contrary, he acts merely as a messenger 
or carrier. The remark of the physician to "have 
this prescription filled" or "get this medicine" or 
"take this prescription to pharmacy" is so 
commonplace that the relation of this instruction 
to the prescription is not noticed by most people. 
When the skeletonized Latin wording of the 
prescription is rendered into complete English sen- 
tences, there can be no doubt about whom the 
writing is addressed to. 
The impossibility of the patient following the 
instructions for measuring or compounding makes 
it clear that the instructions must be addressed to 
some one trained in this work, if the prescription 
was written in good faith. 
While being a written order for the delivery of 
a certain article, the prescription differs from the 
ordinary order for merchandise, in not making the 
writer financially responsible for the value of the 
goods delivered, in not being definitely addressed 
to or drawn on any named individual or firm, in 
not having a negotiable value, in being valid with- 
out regard to the consideration received, in being 
written by a person authorized by law to practice 
medicine, in being a part of a medical treatment, in 
the intent of the writer, which must be both to have 
the goods supplied and also to cure, relieve, miti- 
gate or prevent a disease or abnormal condition in 
a patient, and in that the laws regarding narcotic 
drugs or alcoholic beverages direct how it shall be 
filed or preserved. If a physician writes an order 
for the purpose only of enabling a pretended patient 
to secure supplies of a drug this order is not a pre- 
scription because it is not a part of medical treat- 
ment. 
No one would ordinarily expect a mercantile 
49 house to return to the purchaser his written order 
on which it has made a delivery of goods: ordi- 
narily, the order remains in the hands of the party 
delivering the goods as a part of the records of 
the transaction. 
The pharmacist should retain the original pre- 
scription for this same reason: if a copy only of 
the prescription is retained, proof should be avail- 
able that it is correct. 
In some respects a better understanding of the 
purpose and place of the prescription is had if the 
patient be considered the object of the care of both 
physician and pharmacist. 
A person sick and not able to care for himself 
calls a physician to take control of the case: the 
physician brings in to assist when necessary the 
nurse, the pharmacist, the sanitarian, the hygienist, 
the diagnostician and other trained practitioners: 
instructions may go to these persons directly or 
indirectly and the giving of these instructions is 
part of the duty of a physician when he assumes 
responsibility for the care of a patient. 
The written prescription, directed to a pharma- 
cist, whether named or unnamed, is only one of 
these instructions: in general, it resembles a letter 
from the physician in charge of the case to the 
pharmacist who is to compound the medicine 
needed. 
When the directing officer of a mercantile organ- 
ization or of a personal service corporation gives 
instructions to another member of the same organi- 
zation regarding the service rendered to a customer 
or client, no ownership of these instructions is con- 
ferred on the person to whom the service is ren- 
dered, nor does ownership of the written prescrip- 
50 tion, the instruction or order from the physician 
to the pharmacist, rest in the patient to whom the 
service of both physician and pharmacist goes. 
Court decisions on the ownership of the pre- 
scription vary, but since the enactment of laws 
regarding the use, administration and dispensing 
of narcotics and alcoholic beverages have given a 
definite status to prescriptions for these articles it 
may safely be assumed that in most instances pre- 
scriptions for other drugs will take on a similar 
status. 
Public welfare is concerned not only with the 
indiscriminate distribution of narcotics and alco- 
holic beverages, but also with the distribution of 
poisons, abortifacients and various articles used 
for self-medication in venereal diseases and in other 
contagious and infectious diseases. 
The interest of the public generally in the pre- 
scription is secondary to that of the patient, but 
does exist and is recognized by recent laws and 
plainly points to a responsibility resting on both 
physician and pharmacist to hold the prescription 
as a clear record of a transaction; the correct filing 
and preservation of the written prescription is an 
important part of the duties of the pharmacist. 
The foregoing views on the control of the writ- 
ten prescription, its filing and preservation rests 
primarily on the fact that the ultimate good of the 
patient, and the public as well, are thereby best 
served. 
While fully accepting and maintaining these prin- 
ciples, there are numerous instances in which phy- 
sicians and pharmacists find nothing wrong in 
giving a copy of the prescription to the patient or 
customer for future use or in refilling the prescrip- 
51 lion without a definite order to this effect from its 
author. 
Prescriptions for narcotics or alcoholic beverages 
may not be refilled or copied. There are no excep- 
tions to this: but prescriptions for other medica- 
ments, not habit-forming and not in themselves 
injurious if used freely, are frequently refilled or 
copied. 
Persons traveling must under some circum- 
stances retain a copy of the prescription written 
for them if the treatment is to be continued, and 
in many cases where the physician himself is tem- 
porarily out of reach or has been prevented from 
repeating his call on the patient, and the medica- 
tion is to be continued, the prescription may be 
refilled to the advantage of all concerned. 
Every pharmacist should learn the views of the 
physicians whose prescriptions come frequently to 
his store, if he can meet them personally and have 
a frank discussion of these problems with them. 
When a pharmacist makes it his practice to refuse 
to refill prescriptions because it is a physician's 
wish that he so refuse, there is a measure of obli- 
gation resting on the physician to support this 
pharmacist in this attitude and to encourage the 
patients to continue to take their prescriptions to 
this store whose practice complies with the physi- 
cian's wishes. 
We may repeat that much judgment and dis- 
cretion are called for when a pharmacist or a physi- 
cian attempts to discuss with a customer or patient 
these various problems in connection with the writ- 
ten prescription and we may also repeat that both 
physician and pharmacist have been negligent in 
permitting the public to acquire a distorted idea of 
52 the purpose and service rendered by the written 
prescription. 
Neither original nor copy should be given to any- 
one except the original owner. Nobody, unless 
specifically authorized by law, should be permitted 
to look over the prescription file; the medicine 
often discloses the disease or affliction of the 
patient. It might sometimes be very embarrassing 
to the patient to have outside parties, or even mem- 
bers of the family, know his troubles, especially 
as they have no right to such knowledge. 
In France the exposure of the prescription for 
the wife to the husband has been made grounds 
for damages (and judgment obtained) as well as 
criminal proceedings, which resulted in the drug- 
gist being fined. 
Keep your prescription file in a private place and 
be careful about giving copies. 
The pharmacist should not tell a customer the 
therapeutic action or effect of the medicine pre- 
scribed. Usually there is no difficulty in avoiding 
a discussion of this kind-especially so in a busy 
store. 
If, however, such questions cannot be avoided 
it is best to state frankly that this is a matter 
which the pharmacist is not at liberty to discuss 
and that the physician considering the case in all 
its angles desires to accomplish certain results, 
which may prepare the way for further treatment 
of the disease, and that the responsibility for the 
choice of the drugs rests entirely on the physician 
and not on the pharmacist. 
As we have said elsewhere, much discretion, good 
judgment and tact is needed in discussing these 
matters and what is right and even desirable in 
53 some instances becomes seriously objectionable in 
others. 
/ 
Prescriptions for Narcotics.-The Harrison Nar- 
cotic Law-the Act of December 17, 1914, as 
amended by the Revenue Act of 1918, approved 
February 24, 1919-contains several provisions de- 
signed to control the prescribing of opium or coca 
leaves or of any compound, derivative, salt or prep- 
aration of these articles. 
Physicians, dentists or veterinary surgeons are 
required to register with the collector of internal 
revenue and pay a special tax of $3.00 per year; 
the special tax for retail pharmacists is $6.00 per 
year; and if the retailer is a manufacturer of prepa- 
rations containing narcotics, he is classified as a 
manufacturer also and required to pay another spe- 
cial tax of $24.00 per year; any dealer not a pro- 
ducer who sells these articles in original stamped 
packages is a wholesaler and for this class the spe- 
cial tax is $12.00 yearly. 
Practically all physicians and pharmacists are 
required to register twice and secure two permits- 
one authorizing them to prescribe or sell narcotic 
preparations subject to a special tax of one cent per 
ounce, and one covering the use or sale of prepara- 
tions containing small quantities of narcotics and 
not subject to the special tax. 
Each person so registered is given a serial num- 
ber and this registry number must appear on orders 
or prescriptions which he may write. 
While not specifically required by law to do so, 
a physician should for his own protection keep an 
exact copy of all his prescriptions containing nar- 
cotics; these copies should be filed in such a way 
54 that they may be conveniently inspected by agents 
or inspectors from the collector's office. 
Prescriptions for narcotics must be dated when 
written and signed with the name, address and reg- 
istry number of the physician. The Commissioner 
of Internal Revenue has ruled that it is contrary 
to law for a physician to dispense a narcotic or to 
write an order simply for the purpose of making a 
habitual user comfortable by maintaining his cus- 
tomary use of such article and not for the purpose 
of curing the habit. Inspectors are instructed to 
regard the person who writes such an order, the 
druggist who fills it and the person obtaining the 
drug as all guilty of violating the law. 
The bottle or other container in which the medi- 
cine is dispensed should be labeled with name and 
address of the patient, the names, addresses and 
registry numbers of both pharmacist and physician, 
and the serial number of the prescription. 
Prescriptions for narcotics must be kept by the 
pharmacist in a separate file, and it is contrary to 
the regulations to copy or refill them. 
Such prescriptions must be held open to inspec- 
tion by employes, agents or inspectors of the 
Bureau of Internal Revenue or other officials en- 
gaged in enforcing state, municipal or federal laws 
regarding narcotics. 
The law requires that a special internal revenue 
tax at the rate of one per cent per ounce be paid 
on preparations containing narcotics and that the 
stamp showing such payment be attached to the 
container; but prescriptions, if labeled as above, are 
exempt from this tax. 
It is obligatory upon the pharmacist or the physi- 
cian to keep himself fully informed about the re- 
quirements of the laws and regulations, and he can 
55 easily do this by consulting the nearest office of 
the Collector of Internal Revenue. 
r 
Prescriptions for Alcohol and Alcoholic Bev- 
erages.-The laws and regulations issued by the 
Commsisioner of Internal Revenue require that 
when alcoholic beverages are prescribed, the pre- 
scription must be written on a form supplied free 
of charge by the commissioner; these are bound 
in numbered books of one hundred forms; the pre- 
scription blank is attached to a stub, which must 
show a copy of the prescription written; when all 
blanks are used the stubs must be returned to the 
commissioner; all mutilated, defaced or unused 
blanks must be returned also. 
In addition to using the official blank, the physi- 
cian must keep an alphabetical record in a book 
showing to whom the prescription was issued, the 
date, the amount prescribed, the patient's ailment 
and the amount and frequency of the dose. 
The law forbids writing prescriptions for alco- 
holic liquors except after a careful physical exami- 
nation or for reasons based upon reliable informa- 
tion showing such prescription to be necessary for 
a known ailment. 
Not more than one pint may be lawfully pre- 
scribed to be used by the same person within a 
period of ten days. 
No prescription for liquors may be filled more 
than once and when filled the pharmacist must 
endorse thereon the word, "canceled," with date 
over his signature. 
The pharmacist must keep a record showing the 
name and address of the purchaser and such other 
information as the commissioner may direct. 
56 In all cases the requirements of state laws must 
also be complied with, and in general these order 
the pharmacist to file such prescriptions or a copy 
thereof with the state or county officer-usually 
the clerk of the county court-having supervision 
over liquor permits. 
It is the intention of the Bureau of Internal Rev- 
enue to carefully scrutinize these records kept by 
pharmacists and to inflict penalties whenever it 
may appear that the alcoholic liquor was not re- 
quired by the nature of the malady or that an 
unnecessarily large quantity has been prescribed 
or that the purpose and intent of the prohibition 
laws have been defeated, and in most of the cases 
the responsibility will be held to rest on the phar- 
macist, who it is assumed should have been sure 
all was right before dispensing the articles ordered. 
To comply, readily with the several laws and 
regulations, the pharmacist must keep three sep- 
arate files of prescriptions-one for prescriptions 
ordering narcotics, one for those ordering alcoholic 
beverages, and one for prescriptions not included 
in the first two files. Each file should be numbered 
serially and kept entirely distinct from the other. 
Like prescriptions calling for narcotics, those for 
alcoholic beverages should not be filled for any per- 
son o'ther than the one named on the prescription, 
nor be copied nor refilled by the pharmacist. 
While some may hold that alcoholic liquors are 
at times necessary and desirable remedial agents, 
by far the majority of physicians will not prescribe 
them, nor will the majority of pharmacists dispense 
them. By this refusal, which usually will be sup- 
ported by public sentiment, very much troublesome 
work is eliminated, and a questionable trade done 
away with. 
57 The position of the Bureau of Internal Revenue 
in regard to the need for wines for medicinal pur- 
poses is clearly stated in a ruling which says, Vlt 
is not believed that there is any legitimate use for 
wines for medicinal purposes, and since it is im- 
practicable to determine the exact purposes of use 
when taken internally, except when used for sacra- 
mental purposes, no wines, as such, may be sold 
for internal use on a physician's prescription or 
otherwise as medicines. All wines must be so 
medicated as to preclude the probability of use as 
beverages when taken internally and to this end 
the instructions as to sworn data, samples, etc., ap- 
plicable to non-beverage alcohol will be strictly 
applicable to non-beverage wines." 
Two other paragraphs taken from the bureau 
regulations are to be noted as demonstrating the 
purpose of the Internal Revenue Bureau to hold 
the pharmacist strictly accountable for even non- 
intentional violations of the spirit of the law: "At- 
tention is hereby called to the fact that nonbev- 
erage alcohol cannot be dispensed to persons who 
do not hold permits, whether upon physicians' pre- 
scriptions or otherwise, except in a quantity of one 
pint or less, and on condition that the alcohol is 
first medicated according to one of the nine for- 
mulas," which may be secured from the Collector 
of Internal Revenue. "The so-called nonbeverage 
spirits and nonbeverage wines must not be dis- 
pensed on a physician's prescription, unless in the 
compounding thereof the same are so medicated 
as to render them absolutely unfit for use as a 
beverage. In case of prescription, the druggist 
will be held absolutely responsible as to the suf- 
ficiency of the medication." 
If it is considered necessary to keep in stock and 
58 sell or dispense alcoholic liquors, the pharmacist is 
obligated to keep himself informed of all the re- 
quirements of the laws and regulations. He can 
best do this by frequent inquiries at the nearest 
office of the Collector of Internal Revenue. 
Even without changes in the law, administrative 
regulations are sometimes changed so radically that 
what was regarded as lawful at one time is con- 
sidered as illegal at other times. 
In general, these regulations provide that articles 
such as aromatic elixir and tinctures used as ve- 
hicles and not medicated sufficiently to destroy 
their potable qualities, shall bear a label declaring 
them to be made with nonbeverage alcohol and 
that the dispensing, sale or use of them as bev- 
erages or in unchanged form subjects the vendor 
or user to severe penalties. All physicians and 
pharmacists, even if homeopathic, are subject to 
the same restrictions, and the burden of proof to 
show that he is complying with the law is upon 
the person claiming the right to use or have alcohol 
or alcoholic liquors in his possession for other than 
beverage purposes. 
In addition to wines, beer, gin, ale, porter, brandy, 
whiskey, etc., the Federal Internal Revenue Bureau 
includes under the term "alcoholic beverages" or 
"liquors" all pharmaceutical preparations contain- 
ing more than one-half of one per cent of alcohol, 
unless they also contain in each fluidounce at least 
one average adult dose of a drug recognized by 
the United States Pharmacopoeia, National For- 
mulary or other standard authority. 
If an average adult dose of the drug present is 
contained in one fluidounce, the preparation is not 
ordinarily classed as an alcoholic beverage. 
59 A specific ruling should be obtained from the 
Commissioner of Internal Revenue or the Prohi- 
bition Enforcement Officer in any case where there 
is a question of the suitability of a preparation for 
use as a beverage. The penalties for violation of 
the law are so severe that the utmost care should be 
taken to comply with the legal requirements and in 
all cases where differences of opinion arise it is well 
to take every possible precaution to keep within 
the limits of lawful action. 
60 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
Weight Defined.-Weight is the measure of 
gravity or the excess of the attraction of the earth 
over that of surrounding bodies for articles on the 
earth; this measure is taken by comparing the 
excess of the earth's attraction exerted upon the 
article being weighed with that exerted upon ac- 
cepted standards. Weight is a property common 
to all substances. 
Volume Defined.-Volume is the extent or bulk 
of an article and, like weight, is measured by com- 
parison with accepted standards. 
Standards and Units.-Several of the standards 
once used and likewise several names for units of 
weights and measures are derived from easily found 
naturally produced objects. 
The name "grain" is now used as a name of a 
weight because a grain of wheat taken from the 
middle of the ear and well dried was one of the 
first legal standards of weight named in English 
law. 
Other terms, such as hand, foot, ell, stone, riding, 
etc., most of which are now obsolete in the United 
States, have a similar derivation. 
61 The importance of accuracy in measurements 
caused these naturally made standards to be dis- 
carded because close observation proved ttyem to 
lack uniformity when obtained under varying con- 
ditions of growth, collec-tion, or preservation. 
Gradually certain names are being universally 
accepted as units of weights and measures and it 
has been and is the earnest endeavor of many 
scientific workers to so define and describe these 
accepted quantities that they can be reproduced 
exactly if the apparatus or utensils now in use as 
measures and weights should be destroyed or if 
it should become necessary to prove the accuracy 
of these utensils. 
Absolute proof of the accuracy of apparatus used 
for weights and measures cannot be had by com- 
parison with other apparatus or utensils which, 
like the first, are subject to damage or change, but 
may be obtained by comparison with physical con- 
stants, natural forces or objects which so far as our 
knowledge goes have not been and cannot be 
changed or modified. 
The length of a pendulum which makes a com- 
plete vibration in one second under definite condi- 
tions is used as a basis for the standards in Great 
Britain. Wave lengths of light and of sound have 
been carefully studied and measured, and this work, 
if reversed, would enable skilled observers to re- 
create our standards of length from light or sound 
waves produced under controlled conditions. 
A meridian of the earth measured under elab- 
orate precautions was chosen as the basis for stan- 
dards of metric weights and measures. 
The most painstaking study should be given to 
questions concerning such standards inasmuch as 
62 all the immense trade, commerce and industry of 
the civilized world and, to some degree, nearly all 
human efforts are so measured. 
Standard Apparatus.-After standards have been 
accurately fixed and widely accepted, it becomes 
essential to provide means for making and dis- 
tributing exact copies of the units adopted. 
Official bureaus of weights and measures are now 
established in nearly all parts of the world, and 
practically all of these, even though using dif- 
ferent names for units, are in agreement as to the 
value of the various units used in measuring and 
weighing. 
A few years after the signing of the constitution, 
the United States Government secured official 
copies of the standards held in London by the Gov- 
ernment of Great Britain and later secured official 
copies of the standards of the metric units held 
in Paris. 
In 1901 the Bureau of Standards was established 
in Washington and since then has done a great 
deal of experimental work to prove the accuracy 
of the official weights and measures. 
A number of states have weighing and measuring 
apparatus which is in agreement with the standards 
in the Bureau in Washington and is held by the 
state officer charged with weight inspection, etc. 
A number of commercial houses have likewise 
copies of those standards which are of direct im- 
portance in their business. A copy of an official 
standard weight or measure should be accompanied 
by a certificate from the bureau or official charged 
with the duty of testing such apparatus, certifying 
that the copy has been tested or compared with 
the standard and reporting the variation, if any, 
63 from the standard: if the copy is almost but not 
quite exactly equal to the official standard it can 
be used if the variation or error is known and 
allowed for. 
Most of the official standard weights and measures 
are made of metal, platinum, gold or silver being 
preferred because less acted upon by atmospheric 
influences, etc., and hence less changeable with age. 
Derivation of Weight and Volume Units from 
Linear Units.-Linear measurements are so seldom 
used in prescription work that it is unnecessary to 
give those tables here, but measurements of length 
are the basis for most of the existing legal stan- 
dards of weight or volume and for many persons, 
the best understanding of weights and measures is 
had by describing the weight or volume units in 
terms of linear measurements. 
It is assumed that our readers are familiar with 
the value of the units of linear measurements and 
with the table 12 inches make one foot, three feet 
make one yard, etc. A space 5 inches by 5 inches 
by 9% inches (231% cubic inches) corresponds al- 
most exactly to one United States gallon (legally 
231 cubic inches). From this the smaller units are 
derived; one fluidounce is approximately 1 inch by 
1 inch by 4/5 inch, and 1 minim is but little more 
than a cube 15/100 of an inch on each edge, or 
more often is compared to a drop of water. 
The metric measure Mil (cubic centimeter) cor- 
responds to a cube measuring about 4/10 inch on 
each edge, and the weight of such a cube of ice is 
almost exactly 1 Gram. 
The exact value of and the relation between the 
units of weights and measures used in prescription 
work should be thoroughly understood. This is 
64 essential: its importance can scarcely be overesti- 
mated; but this study is simplified if obsolete or 
seldom used names are eliminated and only the 
more commonly used terms retained; the value 
of these may be easily comprehended by compari- 
son with familiar objects or by visualizing their 
dimensions in terms of linear measurements. 
Liquid Measures.-The quantity of a liquid may 
be expressed by giving its weight or by giving the 
dimensions in inches or centimeters of the space 
which it occupies, but since liquids at once take 
the shape of the space, cavity or chamber into 
which they may be poured, the quantity is so much 
more easily and conveniently ascertained and ex- 
pressed in terms of fluid measure that in the 
United States, at least, it is the accepted practice 
to so express the quantities of all liquid medicinal 
preparations and the unit "ounce" is generally un- 
derstood to mean fluidounce if the article measured 
is a liquid or an ounce by weight, if the article be 
a solid. 
This practice has spread into other lines of trade 
and in many states laws have been passed requiring 
that fruits, vegetables and other dry commodities 
once sold by the bushel, peck or quart, dry meas- 
ure, should be sold by weight, pounds and ounces, 
instead. 
In prescription writing the symbol 5 is inter- 
preted f$, fluidounce, if written after the name of a 
liquid preparation; but if written after a solid is 
apothecaries ounce by weight. 
Likewise, in prescriptions written in Metric 
weights or measures, the quantities written after 
liquids are called Mils (Cc.) and are measured by 
volume, while those written after solids are Grams 
and are weighed. 
65 While no contusion is caused by this interpreta- 
tion, it should be always remembered that the fluid- 
ounce, apothecaries ounce and avoirdupois ounce 
are not the same quantities. See the tables given 
in this chapter. 
Fluid measure for prescription writing and com- 
pounding is the same as for all commercial fluid 
measurement: and the names mils, liters, minims, 
fluidounces and pints have the same value wherever 
used. 
There are two systems of volume measurements 
for liquids and fluids in use in the United States- 
Apothecaries and Metric. In both of these there 
are a number of units that have become obsolete 
because usage has shown that if a few units are 
accurately fixed they may be multiplied many times 
without serious error. 
Metric Measures of Volume.-Somewhat com- 
plete tables of both these systems are given at the 
end of this chapter, but in the metric system all 
ordinary requirements can be met by remembering 
that Mililiter, for which the United States Phar- 
macopoeia IX gives the abbreviation Mil, is the 
volume of liquid that will fill a cube that is 1 centi- 
meter (.3937 inch) long on each edge, or more ac- 
curately stated, is the volume occupied by 1 Gram 
of water at 4°C under standard atmospheric pres- 
sure (of 760 mm.) 
These two definitions are not exactly equal, and 
for this reason the two names Mil and cubic centi- 
meter are in use, but in ordinary medical and drug 
work the difference may be ignored. Exactly, 1 Mil 
is equal to 1.00027 Cc. 
According to the U. S. P. IX, one Mil (Cc.) is 
about equal to one-fourth teaspoonful; for dosage 
66 purposes one teaspoonful is calculated equal to 
about 4 Mils (Cc.). 
While other units are given in metric tables, no 
other metric unit of volume measurement than Mil 
(Cc.) and its value need be memorized for pre- 
scription work. 
On prescriptions, Mils are written in Arabic fig- 
ures and fractional parts of Mils are expressed 
decimally-thus one-half Mil is .5, two and one- 
half Mils 2.5, etc. Usually the name Mil (Cc.) is 
omitted from the prescription. Thus, "Tincture 
Iodine 60." is understood to mean 60 Mils (Cc.) of 
the tincture measured by volume. 
The utensils or apparatus commonly used in 
measuring liquids for prescription work are usually 
made of glass, either conical or cylindrical in shape, 
lipped and marked or graduated to deliver the 
quantities etched on the glass. Metric measures or 
"graduates" are usually cylindrical and are obtain- 
able in capacities of 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 300, 500, 
1000 Mils (Cc.). Each of these sizes is also grad- 
uated for smaller quantities. Those sizes in black- 
face type are the more serviceable in prescription 
compounding. 
No trouble should be experienced in securing 
accurately marked graduates in the market, but for 
prescription work their accuracy may be easily 
tested by weighing the quantity of pure water 
which may be poured out after the graduate has 
been filled to the mark. Under standard conditions 
the weight of the water should be as many grams 
as the graduates are marked Mils (or Cc.), that is, 
the quantity of water which fills a graduate to the 
line marked 50 Mils (Cc.) should weigh when 
poured out 50 grams, under standard conditions of 
temperature, etc. 
67 Since heat expands liquids but does not change 
their weight, it is self-evident that a quantity of 
liquid having a volume of 100 Mils (Cc./ when at 
a temperature of 25°C will expand to a volume 
several Mils (Cc.) larger when at a higher tem- 
perature, say 75°C. While the volume will be 
larger, the weight has not increased, since no mate- 
rial has been added to it. Unless otherwise stated, 
it is understood that all volume measurements of 
drugs are made at about ordinary room temper- 
ature-20°C to 25°C. 
Other apparatus for measuring liquids include 
pipettes, burettes, volumetric flasks, descriptions of 
which may be had in the catalogues of apparatus of 
chemical or pharmaceutical glassware for scientific 
work. 
Apothecaries Fluid Measure.-In the English 
or Apothecaries fluid measure the requirements of 
prescription work are met by the units, 
minim-approximately equal to 1 drop of 
water 
fluidrachm-approximately equal to 1 tea- 
spoonful 
fluidounce-approximately equal to 2 table- 
spoonfuls 
pint-approximately equal to 2 tumblerfuls 
The relation between these units is, 
60 minims (abbreviated M) = 1 fluidrachm 
(abbreviated fldr.), symbol fa 
8 fldrs. - 1 fluidounce (abbreviated floz.), 
symbol f§ 
16 flozs. = 1 pint (abbreviated pt.), sym- 
bol O 
68 A more complete table is given at the end of 
the chapter. 
The United States Pharmacopoeia IX considers 
one teaspoonful to be equal to one fluidrachm. 
These quantities when written on prescriptions 
are expressed with Roman numerals preceeded by 
the symbol of the quantity wanted: thus, if one 
fluidounce is to be indicated it is written f§i, or 
more usually §i. Fractional parts of fluidounces 
are written as fluidrachms: thus, since one fluid- 
ounce contains eight fluidrachms, one-half fluid- 
ounce is equal to four fluidrachms, and is written 
f3iv, or, more usually, 3iv; occasionally, only, is it 
written gss or $fs (ss = semi, one-half). 
Thus, "Tincture Ferric Chloride faiss" would be 
understood to be 1% floz. of the tincture: "Tinc- 
ture Ferric Chloride 3ii would mean % floz. or 2 
fldr. of the tincture. "Solution Potassium Arsenite 
m xlv" means 45 minims of the solution. 
Usually, glass measures or "graduates" marked 
in the units of apothecaries fluid measure are some- 
what conical in shape and are obtainable in sizes 
made to deliver 60 min, 120 min, 240 min, 1 floz., 2 
floz., 4 floz., 8 floz., 1 pt., 1 qt.; all of these are also 
graduated or marked to measure smaller quantities 
than named. The sizes in blackface type are the 
most generally useful in drug work. Most of these 
sizes are also obtainable marked in both apothe- 
cary and metric units. 
A glass graduate having rather thick walls and 
foot is easily cracked if quickly or unevenly heated 
and therefore unless otherwise specified, liquids 
should be at about 25° C. (77° F.) when measured; 
if it is necessary for any reason to measure a hot 
liquid it is advisable to wet all the inside surface 
69 of the graduate with a few drops of the liquid be- 
fore filling it to the desued quantity. 
When glass graduates are to be sterilized by heat, 
less breakage results if each graduate be wrapped 
separately in gauze, placed in the cold sterilizer, 
and after heating the required time, allowed to cool 
before taking out of the sterilizer. 
In measuring liquids it is necessary to have the 
surface of the liquid at right angles to the axis of 
the graduate when held upright and also to have 
the surface on a level equal to the line of vision. 
Most of the graduates now on the market have 
some of the graduations etched all around the glass 
and the measurement is not accurate unless the 
liquid reaches the same mark on all sides. 
The surface of the liquid in a graduate is not flat 
but is curved, and the bottom of this curved surface, 
or meniscus, is the point that should be brought 
equal to the mark indicating the desired quantity. 
The bottles in use in the United States have the 
following capacities: 
Metric 
Apoth. 
15 Mils 
= f$ss = 4 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon 
30 Mils 
= f^i = 8 teaspoons = 2 tablespoons 
60 Mils 
= f^ii = 16 teaspoons = 4 tablespoons 
90 Mils 
= f'iii = 24 teaspoons = 6 tablespoons 
120 Mils 
= f.^iv = 32 teaspoons = 8 tablespoons 
180 Mils 
= f$vi = 48 teaspoons = 12 tablespoons 
240 Mils 
= f§viii = 64 teaspoons = 16 tablespoons 
480 Mils 
= Oi - 128 teaspoons = 32 tablespoons 
70 The approximate values given above answer the 
usual requirements for prescription work. 
Arranged in one table the commonly used units 
of fluid measure are 
Approximate 
equivalents. 
16.2 
minims 
= 1 
mil (or 
Cc.) % f3. 
3.7 
mils 
= 1 
fldr. 
= 4 mils. 
60 
min. 
= 1 
fldr. 
8 
fldr. 
= 1 
floz. 
29.6 
mils 
= 1 
floz. 
= 30 mils 
16 
floz. 
= 1 
pt. 
= 480 mils 
473 
mils 
= 1 
pt- 
Weight Systems for Prescriptions, Trade or Re- 
search.-There are three systems of weights used 
in drug work in the United States-apothecaries, 
used only in writing or compounding prescriptions; 
avoirdupois, used in the ordinary commercial trans- 
actions in drugs, and the metric, which though used 
occasionally in buying and selling bulk quantities 
and somewhat frequently in prescription work, is 
practically the only system of weights used in 
analysis, research or similar scientific work. 
As in the case of liquid measurements, usage has 
eliminated a number of units once thought desir- 
able, and a few units of weight accurately fixed can 
by multiplying or dividing be fitted to all ordinary 
requirements of prescription work. 
Metric Weights.-In metric weights there is need 
to memorize only two units-milligrams and Grams. 
As stated under fluicl measure, a Gram is the weight 
of one Mil (Cc.) of water under standard condi- 
tions ; one Gram is the weight of a cube of ice meas- 
uring approximately 4/10 inch on each edge. One 
71 1/1000 of this quantity is one milligram. Con- 
versely, one thousand milligrams equal one Gram. 
A complete table of metric weights is given at 
the end of this chapter, but these two units of 
weight, thoroughly comprehended, will supply all 
ordinary requirements in prescription work. 
Gram and its abbreviation, Gm., are both written 
with a capital G to make them easily distinguished 
from "grain" and its abbreviation, gr., both written 
with a small g. 
As is the case for liquid metric quantities, these 
quantities b/ weight on prescriptions are written 
in Arabic figures and decimally and the word Gram 
or milligram is omitted. One Gram is written 1. 
and forty Grams, 40.; one milligram is written .001 
and twenty-five milligrams are 25/1000 of one Gram 
and are written .025; one-quarter of one Gram is 
250/1000, and is written .250. 
While milligrams are written as a decimal fraction 
they may be conveniently read as a whole number 
since the word milligram means thousandth part of 
one Gram; thus 250 thousandths of a Gram and 250 
milligrams are two different expressions for the 
same quantity and the latter is the more desirable. 
When read as a whole number the figures must 
be extended to the third decimal place, thus one- 
tenth Gram may be written .1, but when extended 
to the third decimal place is .100, and is then con- 
veniently read as one hundred milligrams. If a 
metric quantity has one or more figures after the 
third decimal place, these latter figures may be read 
as a decimal fraction of one milligram: thus .0648 
may be read as 64 8/10 mgm. 
As stated under liquid measurements, metric or 
other quantities written after solids on prescriptions 
72 are interpreted as weight, and if after liquids, as 
volume or capacity quantities. 
Apothecaries Weights.-The units of apothecaries 
weight commonly used in prescription work are 
grains, drams and ounces: 
60 grains (abbreviated gr.) equal one dram (ab- 
breviated dr.-symbol 5). 
8 drs. equal 1 apothecaries ounce (sometimes 
called troy ounce and abbreviated tr. oz.-symbol 3). 
1 apothecaries ounce equals 480 grs. 
A more complete table is given at the end of this 
chapter. Both the word grain and the abbreviation 
gr. are written with a small g. 
An apothecaries ounce is about equal to the 
weight of a cube of ice 1 in. x 1 in. x % in. The 
weight of a cube of this size of other solids is not 
necessarily one ounce, usually more; nor does a 
cube of this size of other liquids-than water always 
weigh one apothecaries ounce. 
In considering the relations between units of 
weight and units of volume water is the substance 
upon which exact comparison is based. 
There are no domestic equivalents for small 
quantities by weight since the bulk or volume of 
the same weight of different solids may vary greatly, 
a teaspoonful of calomel, for example, being many 
times heavier than a teaspoonful of powdered boric 
acid. 
Since patients have then, no convenient way of 
accurately measuring single doses of powdered 
drugs, it is necessary when prescribing such articles 
to order the pharmacist to divide the bulk quantity 
into separate doses, each to be wrapped separately 
in paper, etc., or to prescribe such forms as tablets, 
pills, capsules, etc. 
73 Avoirdupois Weight.-Avoirdupois weight, which 
is the system used in ordinary commercial trans- 
actions in drugs, uses the same grain (gr.) as does 
apothecaries weight; an avoirdupois ounce (av. oz.) 
contains 437.5 grains and 16 av. ozs. are contained in 
one pound (lb.). 
Contrast this value in grains of an avoirdupois 
ounce (437% grs.) with that of an apothecaries 
ounce-480 grains-and with the weight of a fluid- 
ounce of water under standard conditions-456 
grains. 
Note also that an avoirdupois ounce does not con- 
tain 8 apothecaries drams, or in other words, that 
% av. oz. is not 1 dram (60 grs.) but is only % of 
437% grs. = 54 11/16 grs. 
The units of avoirdupois and apothecaries weights 
are standardized in the United States by compari- 
son with the units of metric weight rather than 
directly with physical constants, etc. The Bureau 
of Standards has shown that 1 grain is equal to 
.0648 Gm., or 64 8/10 mgm. 
Combined into one table the various units of 
weight in common use in drug work are: 
1000 mgm. = 1 Gram. 
.0648 Gm. = 1 grain. 
60 grs. = 1 dr. 
437% grs. = 1 av. oz. 
480 grs. = 1 apoth. oz. (tr. oz.). 
8 drs. =1 apoth. oz. (tr. oz.). 
16 av. ozs. = 1 lb. 
The foregoing brief table, together with the con- 
densed table of liquid measure previously given, 
show the relative value of the units of weights and 
measures commonly used in prescription work and 
74 if thoroughly understood give sufficient information 
for solving all ordinary problems and calculations 
in dosage and compounding. More complete tables 
are given later. 
Formerly it was not considered good practice to 
name the quantites of some ingredients in the Eng- 
lish system and of other ingredients in the same 
formula in the Metric system, but it is now becom- 
ing the custom to do so, since many pharmaceutical 
preparations, especially those for hypodermic, in- 
tramuscular or intravenous use, are compounded to 
contain a dosage named in terms of the English 
system in a volume of liquid named in terms of the 
Metric system. 
Thus a statement that a solution contains 1/6 gr. 
of Mercury biniodide in each 10 Mils (Cc.) is just 
as well understood by many men as if it be said 
that the liquid contains 1/6 gr. in 2% fldrs., because 
the syringe with which this injection is given is not 
marked in fluidrachms but in Mils (Cc.). 
This practice will undoubtedly become more 
common because to some degree this mixing of 
terms makes it unnecessary to learn how to translate 
weights or measures in one system into weights or 
measures of another system, provided the value of 
the term used is understood in its own name. 
This practice will also bring into general use such 
names and units as are most suitable for drug work 
and eliminate those less serviceable. 
Balances and Scales.-Several designs and makes 
of scales and balances are in common use for weigh- 
ing drugs, and there is no difficulty in procuring 
suitable ones if the purpose and work which they 
are to perform is understood. For description see 
the catalogues and price lists of dealers in scientific 
apparatus. 
75 Any given scale or balance is best suited for 
weighing quantities falling within certain limits 
which in general are fixed by the way the balance 
is built, and the material of which it is constructed. 
The construction required to support five pounds 
must be much stronger and have heavier beams and 
bearings than that required for weights approxi- 
mating five grains. 
Balances having light weight but rigid beams and 
very sharp knife-edge bearings respond to or are 
sensitive to very small quantities, but this construc- 
tion makes it inadvisable to weigh large quantities 
on these balances if this sensitiveness is to be re- 
tained after much usage. 
The prescription counter should have a balance 
sensitive even after prolonged use, to 1/32 gr. or 
to 2 mgm.: quantities over 30 grains should not be 
weighed on this balance. 
Another balance so made as to respond to a 
weight of % grain (or to 10 mgm.) should be on 
the prescription counter for use in weighing quan- 
tities from 30 grains to 1 ounce. 
In addition to being more suitable for larger 
quantities, because of more rugged construction, 
this balance will come to rest more quickly and 
weighings be made more rapidly than on the 
former. 
A counter scale sensitive to 5 grs. (or to % Gm.) 
should be used for sales over the store counter and 
for quantities from one-half ounce to 5 lbs. 
Most of the balances in use in the drug stores in 
the United States are constructed of a lever or 
beam mounted at the center on a bearing or knife- 
edge and having at each end a pan or receptacle- 
one to be used for the article being weighed and 
the other for the known weight. 
76 Unequal arm balances, where the supporting 
knife-edge is placed close to one end of the beam 
dividing it into two unequal parts or arms, are 
commonly used for quantities larger than 5 lbs. 
For very large quantities, balances or scales with 
compound levers are used but prescription com- 
pounding or ordinary drug store sales at retail offer 
no field for such heavy apparatus. 
Quite a large number of "torsion" balances are 
in use, called torsion because-the lever or beam is 
securely fixed in a horizontal plane on a flat wire 
instead of resting loosely on a knife-edge, and this 
wire undergoes twisting or torsion when a weight 
deflects the beam. 
Weights are obtainable in sets of from % gr. to 
10 grs. or from % gr. to 2 drams (120 grs.) and 
two of these latter will supply sufficient weights 
for ordinary prescription compounding. Metric 
weights are available in sets ranging from 1 mgm. 
to 50 Gms. 
A set of avoirdupois weights usually includes 
weights ranging from % oz. to 2 lbs. 
Nothing is gained by having a set of apothecary 
weights for quantities larger than one ounce, since 
such quantities are very seldom called for, and the 
weights may easily be confused with the avoirdupois 
weights. 
Weights are in nearly all instances sold sep- 
arately from the balances or scales. 
Technique for Weighing.-A scale or balance 
should be placed on a flat, level counter, stand or 
shelf as free as possible from vibration and out of 
the range of drafts, air currents, etc.: weighing may 
be done more rapidly as well as more accurately 
when these precautions are observed. 
77 Before weighing, see that the beam swings freely 
when released from the locking or arresting 
mechanism, that the instrument is in balance, i.e. 
swings as much on one side as on the other, and 
that the pans are empty. Very slight changes in 
position may throw the instrument out of balance 
due to unevenness of the table surface, so that the 
leveling or adjusting screws in the base should be 
changed to bring it back to horizontal and to bring 
the pointer to zero when the beam comes to rest 
after oscillating. 
It is good technique before making a weighing, 
except of a liquid, to place a clean piece of paper 
(small powder paper) on each pan and then bring 
the instrument into balance by adding small pieces 
of paper to the lighter side. Since it is the excep- 
tion to find two pieces of paper even when the same 
size, exactly the same weight, this custom insures 
getting the instrument into balance each time be- 
fore weighing. Both pans should be cleared of the 
paper and the weights put in place, when the weigh- 
ing is completed. 
In prescription compounding, weighings of defi- 
nitely named quantities are wanted and the routine 
of this weighing differs somewhat from weighing 
in chemical analysis, where the weighing is done to 
learn the weight of certain selected portions or 
quantities. 
In compounding, after placing paper on the pan 
and getting the instrument in balance and again 
locked with the pan at rest, the weights wanted are 
selected and placed on one pan: read these weights 
and compare with the prescription, both before and 
after placing on the pan; the material wanted is 
taken from the bulk container with a spatula and 
placed on the other pan: when it is thought that 
78 the desired quantity is on the pan, release the beam 
and let it oscillate: add or remove material as 
needed to bring the instrument into balance. 
The pans and beam should be locked with the 
arresting mechanism each time before putting any 
weight or material on the pans; this protects the 
knife-edges from sudden jars and also makes it 
possible to weigh more rapidly. 
Remove the paper containing the material from 
the pan and then take the weights from the other 
pan, again reading them and comparing with the 
written prescription. 
The pans, beams, case and all parts of the bal- 
ance, together with the weights, should be kept 
very clean. Correct and exact weighing is impos- 
sible on a dirty balance or with dirty or corroded 
weights. Clean weights, exactly correct, may 
readily lose or gain 5% to 10% if allowed to be- 
come dirty and corroded. 
Weights should be cleaned with soap-suds and 
water and wiped dry immediately with soft towels. 
Exact weighing is one of the most important 
foundation stones for the accuracy of practically 
all prescription compounding: too many safeguards 
cannot be thrown around it nor too many precau- 
tions be observed in this important part of the work 
of the prescription counter. 
When not in use the beam and pans should be 
locked with the arresting mechanism, the pans be 
emptied of all weights or material, and the case or 
cover closed to protect the instrument from dust, 
moisture and corrosive fumes or gases. 
Specific Gravity.-Since every kind of matter has 
both weight and volume, it often becomes of in- 
terest to find the relation or ratio between the 
79 weight and the volume of a given sample, espe- 
cially in work intended to show the identification or 
the purity of the sample. 
The tabulated relationships between weight and 
volume units and standards are based on measure- 
ments of given quantities of pure water under 
known conditions of temperature and pressure, and 
hence it has become customary to determine the 
ratio between the weights of equal volumes of the 
sample and of water-calling this ratio specific 
gravity or specific weight-or to determine the 
ratio between the volumes of equal weights of the 
sample and of water-calling this ratio specific 
volume-rather than to make a direct comparison 
between the weight and the volume of the sample 
itself. 
Problems in specific gravity or specific volume 
seldom, if ever, arise in connection with prescrip- 
tion writing or compounding, at least not in the 
United States, where liquids are prescribed and dis- 
pensed by volume and solids by weight. 
Reference to the United States Pharmacopoeia 
IX is advised for directions for determining the 
specific gravity of drugs. The Pharmacopoeia also 
gives the specific gravity of many drugs as a mark 
of identification or of purity. 
80 Metric Measures of Volume. 
Abbrvtd. Written 
1 Milliliter 
= 1/1000 of 1 Liter 
Mil 
1. 
1 Cu. Cent. 
= vol. of 1 Gm. of water Cc. 
1. 
10 Mil 
= 1 centiliter 
cl. 
10. 
10 cl. 
= 1 deciliter 
dl. 
100. 
10 dl. 
= 1 Liter 
L. 
1000. 
1000 Mils (Cc.) 
= 1 Liter 
L. 
1000. 
10 L. 
= 1 Dekaliter 
Dl. 
10000. 
10 Dl. 
= 1 Hectoliter 
Hl. 
100000. 
As before noted, the unit Mil (Cc.) is the only 
one in this table commonly used in prescription 
compounding: the figures in the column headed 
"written" are read as Mils (Cc.), thus 10 Mils in- 
stead of 1 dh, or 1000 Mils instead of 1 L. In work 
where larger quantities are involved the unit Liter 
may be used, the decimal point moved three places 
to the left and the figures read as 10 L. instead of 
1 DI., etc. Equivalent English measures of volume 
are given on the following pages. 
81 Apothecaries' Fluid Measure. 
One minim of water is about equal to a drop a 
little less than 1/5 inch in diameter; weighs approxi- 
mately 95/100 grain; abbreviated min.; symbol M. 
Ab. 
Sym. 
Writ. 
Cu. in. 
fl dr. 
f3 
f5i 
.225 
floz. 
1.804 
pt. 
O 
Oi 
28.9 
qt. 
Oii 
57.8 
gal. 
c 
Ci 
231. 
60 mins. = 1 fluidrachm 
8 fldrs. = 1 fluidounce 
4 flozs. = 1 gill 
4 gills = 1 pint 
16 flozs. = 1 pint 
2 pts. = 1 quart 
4 qts. = 1 gallon 
8 pts. = 1 gallon 
Domestic 
Gal. Pt. Floz. Fldr. 
M. Equivalent 
1 = 8 - 128 = 1024 = 
61440 
1= 16= 128 = 
7680 = 2 tumblerfuls 
1 = 8 = 
480 = 2 tablespoonfuls 
1 = 
60 = 1 teaspoonful 
82 Metric Weight. 
Abbrvtd. 
Written 
1 
Milligram 
= .001 Gram : 
mgm. 
.001 
10 
mgm. 
= 1 Centigram 
cgm. 
.010 
10 
cgm. 
= 1 Decigram 
dgm. 
.100 
10 
dgm. 
= 1 Gram 
Gm. 
1. 
1000 
Mgm. 
= 1 Gm. 
Gm. 
1. 
10 
Gm. 
= 1 Dekagram 
Dgm. 
10. 
10 
Dgm. 
= 1 Hectogram 
Hgm. 
100. 
10 
Hgm. 
= 1 Kilogram 
K. 
1000 
Gm. 
= 1 Kilogram 
K. 
1000. 
10 
K. 
= 1 Myriagram 
100000. 
As before noted, the units milligram and Gram are the only ones in this table 
commonly used in prescription compounding: the figures in the column headed 
"written" are read as milligrams when on the right hand side and as Grams when 
on the left hand side of the decimal point In work where larger quantities are 
involved the unit Kilogram, or more commonly Kilo, may be used and the decimal 
point moved three places to the left and the figures read as 10 K. instead of 1 
Myriagram or 10000 Grams. Equivalent English weights are given on the following 
pages. 
1 grain is about equal to a drop of water a little 
less than 1/5 inch in diameter: equivalent to 64 8/10 
mgm.; abbreviated gr. 
20 grs. = 1 scruple sc. 9 
3 sc. = 1 dram dr. 3 
60 grs. = 1 dram dr. 3 
8 dr. =1 apoth. or troy ounce tr. oz. § 
12 tr. oz. = 1 apoth. or troy pound tr. lb. 
Apothecaries' Weight. 
lb. 
tr. oz. 
dr. 
sc. 
grs. 
1 
= 12 = 
96 = 
288 = 
5760 
1 = 
8 = 
24 = 
480 
1 = 
3 = 
60 
1 = 
20 
These units of weight are used in prescription compounding only and have no 
place in the ordinary trade transactions, buying and selling, in drugs. The unit 
scruple is obsolete in prescription writing and may well be allowed to be, since its 
symbol may easily be mistaken for that of dram: one scruple (20 grs.) and two 
scruples (40 grs.) weights are, however, included in-nearly all sets of apothecaries 
dram weights. Equivalent metric weights are given on the following pages. 
83 Avoirdupois Weight. 
The grain (gr.) in avoirdupois weight is the same 
as in apothecaries. 
437% grs. = 1 ounce-oz. 
16 ozs. = 1 pound-lb. 
2000 lbs. = 1 ton 
Avoirdupois weight is used in all the ordinary 
commercial transactions in drugs and, unless other- 
wise specified, these units and values are under- 
stood when ounces and pounds are referred to. 
Equivalent metric weights are given on the fol- 
lowing pages. 
Approximate Measures. 
1 drop = 1 minim = (1 grain distilled water 60°F.) 
60 drops = fl. 3 j 
1 teaspoonful = fl. 3 j 
2 teaspoonfuls = fl. 5 ji 
4 teaspoonfuls = tablespoonful = fl. 5 ss. 
1 wineglassful = fl. § ji 
1 teacupful = fl. § jv 
1 tumbler = fl. § vjii 
1 pint = 1 lb. av. 
2 pints = liter or Kilogram of water 
84 One Meter = 39.37 inches 
One Liter = 61.023177953 cubic inches 
One Gram = 15.43235639 grains 
One Cubic Centimeter = 16.23 minims 
One Milligram = 10/648 grain 
One Liter - 33.815 U. S. fl. ozs. 
One Liter = 35.235 av. oz., water 
62°F. 
One Kilogram = 35.23 avoirdupois 
ounces 
One Kilogram = 32.15 fl- troy ounces 
Meter = 39.37 inches, dm. = .1 meter. 
.-. dm. = 3.937 inches. 
Liter = 1 cubic dm., cubic dm. = 1 dm.3. 1 dm.3 
= 3.937 inches3=3.937x3.937x3.937=61.O23177953 
cubic inches. 
.-. I liter or cubic dm. = 61.023 + cubic inches. 
1 U. S. wine gallon = 231 cubic inches. 
1 liter (1000 Cc.) =61.023 + cubic inches. 
231 (the number cu. in. in 1 gallon) divided by 
61.023 fl- (the number cu. in. in 1 liter) = 3.785434. 
.-. U. S. wine gallon = 3.785434 liters; 1 L = 1000 
Cc., 3.785434 L = 3.785434X1000 Cc. = 3785.434 Cc. 
.-. 1 U. S. wine gallon = 3785.434 Cc. 
1 U. S. wine gallon=128 apothecaries' fluidounces 
.-. 128 fluidounces=3785.434 Cc., and if 128=3785.- 
434, one Ap. fluidounce = 1/128 of 3785.434 Cc. = 
29.573 + Cc. 
.-. 1 Apoth. fl. oz. = 29.57 + Cc. 
85 1 fl. ounce= 29.573 Cc. =480 minims. If 29.573 
Cc. = 480 minims, one Cc. = 1/29.573 of 480 m. = 
480/29.573 m. = 16.23 m. 
.-.1 Cc. = 16.23 minims. 
1 kilogram = 15432.35639 gr. 
1 Gram = 1/1000 of 1 Kgm. 
.-.1 Gm. = 15.432 + grains. 
1 apothecary ounce = 480 gr. 
1 Gm. = 15.432 gr. 
480^-15.432 = 31.10 + 
.-.31.10 Gm. = 1 Ap. oz., for 15.432 gr. = 1 Gm. 
1 grain = 1/15.432 Gm. 
480 gr. = 480 X 1/15.432 = 480/15.432 = 31.10 + 
Gm. 
1 Av. ounce = 437.5 grains. 
15.432 gr. = 1 Gm. 
1 gr. = 1/15.432 Gm. 
437.5 gr. = 437.5 X 1/15.432 Gm. = 437.5/15.432 
Gm. = 28.349 + Gm. 
.-.1 Av. oz. = 28.35 Gm. 
1 Kgm. = 15432.35639 gr. 
1 Av. pound = 7000 gr. 
15432.35639 7000 = 2.2 +. 
.-.1 Kgm. = 2.2 + Av. pounds. 
1 gallon = 8 pints = 3785.432 Cc. 
1 pint = % of 3785.434 Cc.=473.18 Cc. 
. •. 1 Ap. pint = 473.18 Cc. 
86 1 gallon = 8 pints = 3.785433 Liters. 
If 3.785434 L. = 8 pints 
1 L. = 1/3.785434 of 8 pints = 8/3.78543 = 2.11 
pints, 
. 1 L. = 2.11 wine or U. S. or Apoth. pints. 
To Convert Metric Weights or Measures Into 
Those in Ordinary Use. 
Rule.-Multiply the metric quantities by the cor- 
responding equivalents. Ex.-The equivalent of one 
meter is 39.37 4- inches, and five meters = 196.85 
inches: 39.37 X 5 = 196.85. 
To convert: 
Meters into inches multiply by 39.37 
Centimeters " " " " 0.3937 
Millimeters " " " " 0.03937 
As one liter, or 1000 Cc., is equal to 33.8149 -|- 
fluidounces, or 35.235 + imperial fluidounces, to 
convert: 
Liters into fluidounces multiply by 33.815 
Cubic centimeters into fluidounces multiply 
by 0.0338 
Liters into pints multiply by 2.11 
Liters into imperial pints multiply by 
1.7617 
Liters into imperial gallons multiply by 
0.2202. 
Cubic centimeters into imperial fluidounces 
multiply by 0.352 
As one gram is equal to 15.432 -j- grains, or 
.035235 avoirdupois ounce, or .03215 troy ounce, 
to convert: 
87 Grams into grains multiply by 15.432 
Centigrams " " " " 0.15432 
Milligrams " " " " 0.015432 
Kilograms " avoirdupois ounces " " 35.235 
Grams " avoirdupois ounces " " .035235 
Kilograms " avoirdupois pounds " " 2.2 
Kilograms " troy ounces " " 32.1507 
Grams ' ' troy ounces " " .03215 
To Convert the Weights and Measures in Ordi- 
nary Use into Metric Weights and Measures. 
Rule.-Multiply the quantity by the correspond- 
ing metric equivalent. 
As one inch is equal to 0.0254 meter, one fluid- 
ounce to 29.572 cubic centimeters, one imperial 
fluidounce to 28.3807 cubic centimeters, one grain 
to 0.0648 gram, one avoirdupois ounce to 28.3495 
grams and one troy ounce to 31.1035 grams. To 
convert: 
Inches into meters multiply by 0.0254 
Inches " centimeters " " 2.5399 
Inches " millimeters " " 25.3997 
Pints " liters " " 0.4731 
Fluidounces " cubic centimeters " " 29.572 
Imperial pints " liters " " 0.5776 
Imperial gallons "liters " " 4.5409 
Imperial fluidounces " cubic centimeters " " 28.3807 
Grains " grams . " " 0.0648 
Grains " centigrams " " 6.4799 
Grains " milligrams " " 64.799 
Avoirdupois ounces " kilograms " " 0.02835 
Avoirdupois ounces " grams " " 28.3495 
Avoirdupois pounds " kilograms " " 0.4536 
Troy ounces " kilograms " " 0.0311 
Troy ounces " grams " " 31.1035 
88 TABLE OF METRIC MEASURE WITH COR- 
RESPONDING EQUIVALENTS IN 
FLUID OUNCES AND 
FRACTIONS. 
Cc. 
Fluid ounces 
and fractions. 
Cc. 
Fluid ounces 
and fractions. 
2000 
67.628 
1035.080 
35. 
1900 
64.246 
1005.506... . 
34. 
1892.7 
64. 
1000 
33.814 
1800 
60.865 
975.932 
33. 
1774.4 
60. 
950 
32.123 
1700 
57.484 
946.358...... 
32. 
1600 
54.102 
916.875 
31. 
1500 
50.721 
900 
30.432 
1478.685 
50. 
887.211 
30. 
1449 111 
49. 
857.637 
29. 
1419.538 
48. 
850 
28.742 
1400 
47.339 
828.064 
.... 28 
1389.964 
47. 
800 
27.051 
1360.390 ... . 
46. 
798.490 
27. 
1330.817 ... . 
45. 
768.916 
26. 
1301.243 
44. 
750 
25.360 
1300 
43.958 
739.343 
25. 
1271.669 
43. 
709.769 
24. 
1242.095 
42. 
700 
23.670 
1212 522 
41. 
680.195 
23. 
1200 
40.577 
650.621 
22. 
1182.948 
40. 
621.048 ... 
21. 
1153.374 
39. 
600 
20.288 
1123.801 
38. 
591.427 
20. 
1100 
37.195 
561.900 
19. 
1094.227 
37. 
550 
18.598 
1064.653 
36. 
532.327 
18. 
89 TABLE OF METRIC WEIGHTS EQUIVA- 
LENT TO, FROM & GRAIN DOWN 
TO GRAIN. 
Gm. 
gr- 
Gm. 
gr- 
0.058 
A 
0.008 
* 
0.057 
1 
0.007 
i 
0.056 . .. 
0.0065 
0.055 
? 
0.0054 
tS 
0 054 
4 
0 0042 
0.052 
i 
0.0040 
0.049 
i 
0.0036 
0 045 
0.0032 
z'o 
0.043 
i 
0.0027 
0.040 
I 
0.0026 
zV 
0.039 
i 
0.0022 
3*0 
0.036 
0.0020 
fa 
0 032 
J 
0.0018 
1 
0.028 
0.0016 
0.026 
r 
0.00135 
A 
0.022 
i 
0.00129 
5*0 
0 020 
5 
0.00108 
0.016 
F 
0.00101 
0.013 
i 
0.00090 
• • • • TJ 
0.012 
0.00081 
A 
0.011 
i 
0.00065 
tJc 
0.009 
I 
90 TABLE OF METRIC MEASURE WITH 
EQUIVALENTS IN MINIMS. 
Cc. 
Minims. 
31 
503.1 
30 805 
500. 
30.190 
490. 
30 
486.9 
29.573 
480. 
29 
470.7 
28.958 
470. 
28.341 
.. 460. 
28 
454.5 
27.725 
450. 
27.119 
.440. 
27 
438.2 
26.493 
430. 
26 
422.0 
25.877 
420. 
25.261 
410. 
25 
405.8 
24.645 
400. 
24.029 
390. 
24 
389.5 
23413 
380. 
23 
373.3 
22.796 
370. 
22.180 
360. 
22 
357.1 
21.563 
350. 
21 
340.8 
20.948 
340. 
20.332 
330. 
20 
324.6 
19.716 
320. 
Cc. 
Minims. 
19.099 
310. 
19 
308.4 
18.483 
300. 
18 
292.2 
17.867 
290. 
17.251 
280. 
17 
275.9 
16.635 ... 
270. 
16.019 
260. 
16 
259.7 
15 403 
250. 
15 
243.4 
14.787 
240. 
14.171 
230. 
14 
227.2 
13.555 
220. 
13 
211.0 
12.938 
210. 
12.322 
200. 
12 
194.8 
11.706 
190. 
11.090 
180. 
11 
178.5 
10.474 
170. 
10 
162.3 
9.858 
160. 
9.242 
150. 
9 
146.1 
8.626 
140. 
8 
129.8 
7.393 
120. 
91 Cc. 
Minims. 
7 
113.6 
6.161 
ICO. 
5.545 
90. 
5 
81.2 
4.929 
80. 
4.313 
70. 
4 
64.9 
3.697 
60. 
3.081 
50. 
3.019 
49. 
3 
48.7 
2.957 
48. 
2.896 
47. 
2.834 
46. 
2.773 
45. 
2.711 
44. 
2.649 
43. 
2.588 
42. 
2.526 
41. 
2.403 
39. 
2.341 
3*. 
2.280 
37. 
2.218 
36. 
2.156 
35. 
2.095 
34. 
2.033 
33. 
2 
32.46 
1.972 
32. 
1.910 
31. 
1.848 
30. 
1.787 
29. 
1.725 
28. 
Cc. 
1.664 
Minims. 
27. 
1.602 
26. 
1.504 
25. 
15 
24.4 
1.479 
24. 
1.417 
23. 
1.355 
22. 
1.25 
. 20.3 
1.232 
20. 
1.171 
19. 
1.109 
18. 
1.047 
17. 
1 
16.23 
0.986 
16. 
0.924 .... 
15. 
0.863 
14. 
0.801. 
13. 
0.75 
12.2 
0.739 
12. 
0.678 
11. 
0.616 
10. 
0.555 
9. 
0 5 
8.1 
0.493 .. . 
8. 
0.431 .... 
7. 
0.370 
6. 
0.308 
5. 
0.246 
4. 
0.185 
3. 
0.123 
2. 
0.06161... 
1. 
92 PROBLEMS IN PRESCRIPTION WRITING 
What is the total quantity of each ingredient 
required for 32 doses, each one teaspoonful (4 Mils 
-Cc.-or 1 fldr.), of the following mixture: 
English 
Metric 
Fldext. Cascara Sagrada 
mins, x 
.75 
Tinct. Nux Vomica 
mins, ii 
.15 
Chloroform 
mims % 
.015 
Essence Pepsin, enough 
to make fldr. i 
4. 
Multiplying the quantities given above in the 
English system by 32, the total number of doses 
wanted, the following figures result: 
Fldext. Cascara Sagrada mins. 320 
Tinct. Nux Vomica mins. 64 
Chloroform mins. 8 
Essence Pepsin enough to make fldr. 32 
These results should be expressed in the largest 
units permissible and the figures changed accord- 
ingly : for the first three items, inspection shows 
that none equal 480 mins. (= 1 floz.), and hence 
these should not be changed to flozs.: the first two 
items exceed 60 mins. (1 fldr.), and hence may be 
changed to fldrs.: 320 mins, (quantity wanted) h- 
60 mins. (1 fldr.) =5 20/60 or 5 fldrs.-20 mins., 
93 and on prescriptions written as fov-mins, xx: 64 
mins, (quantity wanted)-4-60 mins. (1 fldr.) = l 4/60 
or 1 fldr.-4 mins., written as foi-mins, iv: inspec- 
tion shows that the third item is smaller than the 
next largest unit and hence should remain as it is, 
mins. 8 or m viii; the fourth quantity, 32 fldrs., is 
larger than one fluidounce (8 fldrs.) and hence 
should be changed to this larger denomination; 32 
fldrs. (quantity wanted)-?-8 fldrs. (1 floz.) = 4 
flozs., written on prescriptions as f$iv. 
The quantities given in the metric system when 
multiplied by 32 yield the following figures: 
Fldext Cascara Sagrada 24. 
Tinct. Nux Vomica 4.8 
Chloroform .480 
Essence Pepsin enough to make 128. 
:Both before multiplying by 32 and after, the 
quantities as written are read as Mils (Cc.) and it 
it not customary to change to units of a larger 
denomination. 
How much each of the first two ingredients is 
given in one dose of the following mixture if each 
dose is one teaspoonful (1 fldr.-4 Mils, Cc.) ? 
Potassium Bromide §i 30. 
Fldext. Lobelia 5i 4.5 
Peppermint Water enough to make §vi 180. 
If each dose be 1 fldr. (1 teaspoonful) and there 
are 8 fldrs. in 1 floz., in 6 flozs. there are 6 X 8 = 48 
fldrs., and hence the total quantity contains 48 doses. 
The total English quantities of each ingredient as 
given should therefore be divided by 48 to obtain 
the quantity in each dose or l/48th of the total: 
before doing this, the quantities as written should 
be reduced to their lowest denominations: reduced 
94 to grains and minims the first two ingredients are 
as follows: 
Potassium Bromide grs. 480 
Fldext. Lobelia mins. 60 
Dividing these figures by 48, give the following: 
Potassium Bromide grs. 10 
Fldext. Lobelia mins. 1% 
If one dose of the mixture as written in the metric 
system is 4 Mils (Cc.) (1 teaspoonful), then the 
total quantity, 180 Mils, contains as many doses as 
4 is contained in 180 or 45 doses of 4 Mils each. 
Dividing the metric quantities written after the 
first two ingredients by 45 the following figures 
result: 
Potassium Bromide .666 
Fldext. Lobelia .1 
and it is customary to read these as Potassium 
Bromide 666 mgm. (Potassium Bromide being a 
solid) and Fldext. Lobelia 1/10 Mil (Cc.) (this lat- 
ter being a liquid). 
How much of each ingredient is required for 24 
powders, each to contain: 
Metric 
English 
Bismuth Subnitrate 1. 
15 grs. 
Salol .5 
7% grs. 
Pancreatin .2 
3 grs. 
Multiplying each of the quantities given by 24, 
the following quantities result: 
Metric 
English 
Bismuth Subnitrate 
24. 
360 grs. 
Salol 
12. 
180 grs. 
Pancreatin 
4.800 
72 grs. 
The quantities stated in the metric system may 
stand as written above, but the quantities named in 
95 the English system are usually written in terms of 
the largest units permissible, and the above should 
be changed as follows: inspection shows that none 
of these quantities are as much as 480 grains or 1 
tr. oz., and hence they should not be reduced to 
tr. ozs., but since they are larger than 60 grs. (1 dr.), 
they should be changed to drams; 360 grs. (quan- 
tity wanted) -4-60 grs. (1 dr.) =6 drs.; instead of 
writing 360 grs. this should be written dr. 6 or, on 
prescriptions, 3vi: 180 grs. (quantity wanted) -4-60 
grs. (1 dr.) = 3 drs.; instead of writing 180 grs., 
this should be written drs. 3 or 5iii: 72 grs. 
(quantity wanted) -4-60 grs. (1 dr.) =1 dr., 12 grs., 
and on prescriptions would be written 5i-grs. xii. 
How much is given in each dose, if a mixture 
containing the following is given in 20 doses: 
Acetanilid 5. 5i-grs. xv 
Caffeine .3 grs. v 
Sodium Salicylate 10. Siiss 
Dividing each of the quantities in the metric sys- 
tem by 20, the following results are obtained : 
Acetanilid .250 
Caffeine .015 
Sod. Salicylate .500 
and these are most conveniently read as, 
acetaniled, 250 mgm.; caffeine, 15 mgm.; 
sodium salicylate, 500 mgm. or % Gm. 
The quantities in the English system should be 
reduced to grs. before dividing by 20: when re- 
duced the formula is, 
Acetanilid 75 grs. 
Caffeine 5 grs. 
Sod. Salicylate 150 grs. 
96 Dividing each of these quantities by 20, the fol- 
lowing results are obtained: 
Acetanilid 3^4 grs. 
Caffeine % gr. 
Sodium Salicylate 7% grs. 
How much of each ingredient is needed for 15 
capsules each to contain, 
Metric 
English 
Aloin 
.015 
gr. % 
Ext. Be'ladonna 
.005 
gr. 1/12 
Ext. Cascara Sagrada 
.030 
gr- % 
Strychnine Sulphate 
.0005 
gr. 1/120 
Multiplying each of the above by 15, the results 
are, 
Aloin 
Metric 
.225 
English 
grs. 3^ 
Ext. Belladonna 
.075 
grs. 1% 
Ext. Cascara Sagrada .450 
grs. 7^4 
Strychnine Sulphate 
.0075 
gr. 15/120 
The metric quantities in the problems above arc 
not exactly the equivalents of the English system 
quantities given. 
How much Silver Nitrate is required in making 
30 Mils (Cc.) of a 5% solution? 
In pharmaceutical compounding, a percentage 
solution such as the above is figured on a weight to 
volume basis and this volume-30 Mils-is con- 
sidered to have the same weight as the same volume 
of pure water, which is 30 Gms. 5% is another way 
of writing 5/100ths; 30 Gms. 100 = 30/100 Gm. 
(1/100 or 1%); 30/100 Gm. X 5 = 150/100 Gms. = 
1.50 Gms. Hence, 1.50 Gms. of Silver Nitrate are 
97 required in making 30 Mils of a 5% solution Silver 
Nitrate. 
How much Atropine Sulphate is contained in % 
floz. of a 1% solution? Considering this solution, 
weight for volume, as above, the weight of % floz. 
is first to be found; one floz. of pure water weighs 
456 grs.: 456 X % = 456/2 =228 grs., weight of % 
floz. of pure water. One per cent or 1% or l/100th 
of 228 grs. is 228 grs.-4-100=228/100 grs.=2 28/100 
grs. is required for % floz. of 1% solution of Atro- 
pine Sulphate. 
Please read again the paragraphs on Dosage Cal- 
culations in the preceeding chapter. 
98 No. 13 Is read: 
1$ Tinct. Nue. Vom 3i. 
Tinct. Rhei 3iit 
Tinct. Cinch. Co. ad ^i. 
M S. 3ss every four hours in water. 
99 Prescription No. 16 is easily read in spite of the 
poor writing, but the pharmacist will see at a glance 
that the prescription is incompatible. 
The sodium arseniate would be converted into 
potassium arsenate with the simultaneous formation 
of sodium carbonate. A second portion of the 
potassium carbonate abstracts from the strychnine 
salt its sulphuric acid, leaving the much less soluble 
strychnine alkp.loid. Finally the mercuric chloride 
is decomposed by the potassium carbonate to give 
rise to mercuric oxide. 
The medicine when prepared would be a six ounce 
mixture, containing potassium arsenate, pure strych- 
nine alkaloid, oxide of mercury, and a reduced 
amount of potassium carbonate. 
As this obviously is not the doctor's intention, 
he should be consulted and shown the incompati- 
bility of the prescription. 
100 Prescription No. 17 calls for half an ounce of 
rhubarb root, one ounce of senna leaves, with suffi- 
cient boiling water to make three ounces of infusion 
in which one ounce of rochelle salts and two drachms 
of extract of licorice are to be dissolved. The direc- 
tions are one teaspoonful every three hours. 
101 Prescription No. 18 should be prepared as follows: 
Place in a dry mortar six drachms of powdered 
gum arabic and as much of extract of licorice, thor- 
oughly dry, and pour on the balsam of copaiba. Mix 
well, and add at one time twelve drachms of cam- 
phor water. Continue the stirring with the pestle 
till the mixture is thoroughly homogeneous, scraping 
now and then the side of the mortar and the pestle, 
so that no balsam can escape emulsion. Now add 
more camphor water by small portions at a time, 
and finally complete the three fluid ounces as pre- 
scribed. 
102 Prescription No. 19 calls for thirty grains of per- 
manganate of potassium to be made into ten pills. 
The directions are one every four hours. For mak- 
ing these pills kaolin ointment is recommended. 
This is made from equal parts of petrolatum, paraffin 
and kaolin; the first two constituents being melted 
together, then kaolin added and stirred in until cool. 
It is said to be the only pill-mass which has been 
successfully used with potassium permanganate. 
103 Prescription No. 20 calls for eight grains of ergo- 
t;ne and a sufficient quantity of a cacao butter to 
make eight suppositories. 
104 Prescription No. 21 is very well written, and 
would give no trouble provided one is acquainted 
with the two Latin words, "tales doses," meaning of 
such doses. In this prescription the quantities of 
the ingredients for one dose are given and the phar- 
macist instructed to make thirty such doses and put 
them in capsules. 
105 No. 22 Is a combination of favorite eclectic 
remedies. It reads as follows: 
Euonymin gr. xxxv. 
Juglandin gr. xlv. 
Leptandrin gr. xl. 
Podophyllin gr. iij. 
Ol. menthae pip gtt. xx. 
Pulv. Anisi semen 
Pulv. Cardamomi semen.. 
aa gr. x. 
Ext. Hyoscyami q. s. 
(Misce) Ft. Capsul No. L. 
The fault with the above prescription is with 
the last item. Ext. Hyoscyamus is too potent a 
drug to prescribe or dispense so indiscriminately. 
106 No. io calls for powdered alum and cocaine, to 
be dissolved in a mixture of one-half ounce glycer- 
ine and 5% ounces of water. Cocaine (alkaloid) is 
soluble in 700 parts water; part here would remain 
undissolved. If attempt is made to dissolve by 
heat, double decomposition follows, complicated re- 
actions take place, white oily globules settle to the 
bottom, while a flocculent precipitate of aluminum- 
hydroxide remains suspended in or floats on the sur- 
face of the liquid. The solution should be filtered. 
"16 to 1" the prescriber meant to write for hydro- 
chloride of cocaine, but he did not, and a druggist 
should not take the liberty of changing a prescrip- 
tion unless permitted by the physician. 
107 Prescription No. 2 is an example of a correctly 
written prescription, by the metric system; it was 
written about 10 years ago by one of the most prom- 
inent physicians (now deceased) of Chicago, in his 
day; it was compounded by the writer for the doc- 
tor's own use. Comment is unnecessary; we might, 
however, say that if one of the busiest physicians can 
find time to write his orders clearly, and carefully, 
some who have time to spare, could employ it to 
good advantage in this direction, and at the same 
time assist the druggist, who often finds it very em- 
barrassing, as well as a great inconvenience, to spend 
ten or twenty minutes deciphering hieroglyphics. 
108 No. 3 also, shows care, neatness, and ability to 
write a prescription that is correct in every way, as 
easily as to be careless and slovenly; it is a fair 
sample of the great number written during many 
years of practice by this physician; he prefers to use 
the metric system. 
109 No. 7 written hastily, but the experienced drug- 
gist has no difficulty in reading it. 
Grams. 
3. Kalium Jodatum 30.00 
Aqua fontis 100.00 
Syrup Sarsaparillae 70.00 
D. S. Teaspoonful twice daily. 
110 No. 6 is written negligently, the prescriber's 
time being limited: there is also a slight incompati- 
bility, viz.: Tr. Ferri Chloridi, with Syr. Glycyrrh. 
In full the prescription reads: 
Tint. Ferri Chloridi 3 v. 
Potassii Chloratis S j 
Tint. Belladonae gtt. v. 
Glycerinum ss. 
> Syr. Glycyrrhizm I jss. 
Aqua Cinnamomi ad q. s f iv. 
M. et Sig. Give a teaspoonful in water every 
four hours. 
111 No. 5 calls for: 
Potassii Sesqui-carbonatis 3 ss. 
Hydrastia Muriate gr. xv. 
Tannic Acid gr. v. 
Morph. Sulph gr. j. 
Aqua rosae t iv. 
M. et Sig. External use as directed. 
The second article mentioned was intended for 
Berberine Hydrochlorate, but as this article was in 
trade under the wrong name when the above pre- 
scription was written, the prescription was correct. 
112 Prescription No. 14 is one that requires particular 
manipulation in compounding, in order to secure a 
thorough admixture of the ingredients. The tinc- 
ture of guaiac should be placed in a dry mortar and 
by adding the water, a few drops at a time, with con- 
stant trituration, a perfect solution is retained. 
113 Prescription No. 15 shows very poor writing and 
abbreviating; it is generally read as follows: 
Infusi (foliorum?) digitalis |v. 
Ammonii chloridi (depuratum) .. 
Spiritus aetheris nitrosi aa3ij. 
Antimonii tartratis gr. j. 
Syr. Scillae 
Syrupi morphinae aa^ss. 
Misce 
Sig. One teaspoonful every three hours. 
However, many pharmacists contend that the fifth 
ingredient is syrup of senna, instead of syrup of 
squills. Unfortunately, we were unable to consult 
the writer. 
114 COMPOUNDING IN GENERAL OF 
Physicians' Prescriptions, 
Recipes, Galenical and 
Extemporaneous Preparations. 
A prescription is the physician's order or requisi- 
tion upon the pharmacist to dispense, in a certain 
manner, some drug, preparation or extempore 
formula with directions to the patient for use or 
administration. If the prescription be for one 
single drug or preparation it is necessary only to 
weigh or measure that drug or preparation, enclose 
in the proper container, attach the proper directions 
and deliver it, observing necessary precautions as 
to dose, etc., etc. 
If, however, it be a formula, then it becomes 
necessary at once to prepare or compound the pre- 
scription first, and to be able to do so ahvays 
properly and expeditiously is the goal of every good 
pharmacist's ambition. Ability to accomplish that 
requires a patient study in detail of all the dif- 
ferent classes of pharmacopoeial preparations, sup- 
plemented with a considerable knowledge of the 
chemical and physical properties of drugs. 
Just as with the study of any other subject, good 
results can be had more quickly and easily accord- 
ingly as we analyze and classify each separate part 
composing the whole subject. 
A definite and perfect classification of extempora- 
neous pharmaceutical preparations would be very 
difficult indeed. To begin, we may say that a 
115 medicine is a material substance administered 
internally or applied to the surface of the body to 
relieve pain, prevent disease or restore health 
impaired. We, then, would have medicines of two 
classes as to mode of administration: 
1. Systemic-internal 
2. Topical-external, 
but some medicines topically applied are neverthe- 
less absorbed into the blood and become ipso facto 
systemic medicines. 
As to origin or chemical nature we have: 
1. Organic J animal 
( vegetable 
2. Inorganic-mineral. 
Organic preparations are sometimes called galeni- 
cal preparations when no chemical process is 
required in preparing them. Many such prepara- 
tions are official, that is, formulas and directions for 
their preparation, preservation and doses are given 
in the Pharmacopoeia. Many others are given in 
pharmacopoeias of other countries, while many more 
are not given in any pharmacopoeia, yet neverthe- 
less are officinal; that means that they are so gen- 
erally used in certain parts of the country as to 
warrant druggists keeping them in stock already 
made up; but by far the greater number of pre- 
scriptions call for extempore preparations or mixtures of 
differentdrugsor preparations in proportions deemed 
most suitable for the special occasion for which the 
prescription was written, and in small amounts. 
Many times, small amounts are prescribed with 
the intention of varying the prescription from time 
to time as the patient's condition varies. 
It is evident, therefore, that another basis of 
classification must be chosen and as to form or 
consistence we have 
116 Solids for internal use. 
Powders: Simple-Compound. 
Bulk. 
Species. 
Dusting. 
Triturations. 
Divided doses: 
Powders, Papers, Charts 
Cachets, Konseals, Wafers 
Capsules. 
Effervescent powders, granules, tablets. 
Tablets-compressed, coated. 
Lozenges, Troches, Pastilles. 
Masses. 
Confections, Conserves, Electuaries. 
Jellies. 
Pills, Granules, Parvules, Boluses, Coated. 
Solids for external use. 
Ointments, Cerates, Inunctions, Mulls, Petroxo- 
lines, Pastes, Salves. 
Oleates. 
Pencils. 
Glycogelatines. 
Suppositories-Rectal, Vaginal, Nasal. 
Plasters. 
Poultices. 
Poison tablets. 
Gauzes, etc. 
For classification of Liquids, see page 163. 
117 The practice of interpreting quantities written 
after the names of solids in units of weight and if 
written after liquids, in units of volume or capacity, 
makes it important for physicians to know whether 
an article ordered is a solid or a liquid-especially 
if the prescription is not written in the metric 
system. 
Solids not readily soluble in the ordinary solvents 
or vehicles are usually prescribed in the divided- 
dosage forms, tablets, pills, capsules, etc. The selec- 
tion of diluents is largely controlled by the condition 
of the medicaments-solids being mixed with solids 
such as milk sugar and liquids with liquids such as 
simple elixir. 
The names for many classes of preparations are 
almost self-explanatory in this respect; syrups, 
fluidextracts, waters, lotions, glyceroles, solutions 
are at once recognized as liquids, and pills, tablets, 
solid extracts, powdered extracts, powders, as solids. 
Alkaloidal salts, salts of the metals, iron, bis- 
muth, etc., and of the alkalies and alkaline and rare 
earths used in medicines are solids. 
Practically all of the crude drugs derived from 
plants, except fatty and volatile oils, are solids. 
It is desirable to observe each substance used as 
a medicinal agent and note whether it is ordinarily 
solid or liquid. 
118 1. SOLID PREPARATIONS FOR INTERNAL USE: 
a. Powders are: (1) Simple, if consisting of a sin- 
gle medicinal substance. (2) Compound, if consisting 
of more than one substance, and may be finely 
powdered or very coarse according to the manner 
in which they are to be used. 
Insoluble substances and powders for external 
use (dusting powders) should be as finely powdered 
as possible always, since their effect is due partly 
to mechanical action depending upon a contact of 
the largest possible amount of surface of the parti- 
cles with the tissues. 
Dusting powders are usually intended to absorb, 
and dry the surfaces to which they are applied and 
it is well known that the finer the particles of 
powder the greater will be their absorbent powers. 
Powders to be dissolved before being administered 
are best dispensed in a somewhat coarse condition, 
since granular (e. i. No. 10 po.) substances dissolve 
more easily than fine powders. 
In whatever size the particles of powder be, uni- 
formity of size is a consideratum. 
Compound powders should, of course, consist of 
drugs having as nearly as possible the same degree 
of fineness and, like simple powders, should be from 
very fine, if insoluble, to coarse or granular if to be 
dissolved before being administered. 
Drugs and chemicals can be had in the market of 
any degree of fineness desired and if used in con- 
siderable quantity should be purchased of the 
desired fineness. Smaller amounts, however, may 
be prepared as desired by trituration in mortar and 
passing through a sieve of proper size mesh. Every 
prescription department should have a set of sieves 
of sizes prescribed by the Pharmacopoeia and for 
some purposes even one or two of larger mesh. 
119 Very seldom will the pharmacist find all the 
ingredients of a prescription of the same fineness; 
the coarser substances should be first reduced to 
powder of proper degree of fineness before mixing 
with remaining finely powdered substance, except 
when unnecessary. 
Certain drugs, very potent in action, when pre- 
scribed in powder form are best dispensed with an 
inert diluent or "filler" to allow of very fine divi- 
sion of particles and principally to increase the bulk 
of powder to such extent as will enable a convenient 
and accurate division into more nearly definite 
doses (see triturations). 
If all ingredients entering into the composition of 
a compound powder are of the same degree of fine- 
ness, or if two or more fine light powders are to be 
mixed, or if a fine light and fine heavy powder are to 
be mixed, then do not triturate in a mortar, but 
mix thoroughly by shaking in a capacious bottle or 
box or pass through a sieve, after stirring together 
with a spatula. 
In using the mortar and pestle for mixing powders 
be careful to avoid triturating oxidizing agents with 
oxidizable substances or reducing agents (see 
pagel09). 
Also remember that certain crystalline substances 
containing a large amount of water of crystallization 
will not bear too much pressure-, and that if triturated 
with other crystalline drugs the two may liquefy in 
that water of crystallization. 
B. Camphorae 1 gm. 
Zincroxidi 10 " 
Amyli 20 " 
M. ft. pulv. scat, exhib. 
Powder the camphor very finely by means of a 
few drops of volatile liquid (alcohol, ether, chloro- 
120 form, etc.), add the starch in small portions, mixing 
each well, then add the zinc oxide, stir well and pass 
through a fine sieve. Zinc oxide, camphor, resins, 
alkaloids, bismuth salts, ammoniated mercury and 
many other substances when triturated in a mortar 
tend to cake and adhere either to the pestle or mor- 
tar, hence in mixing powders containing them, 
pressure should not be used, but they should be 
passed through a sieve. 
R. Plumbi Acetatis 
Zinci Sulph. 
Alumen aa 25 gm. 
M. S. Poison. 
The granulated or powdered salts may be taken, 
or if in crystalline condition, they should each be 
separately reduced to powder and mixed by stirring, 
but must not be triturated together because some 
of the water of crystallization will be set free and a 
double decomposition ensue, resulting in a wet, 
pasty mass. 
R. Rhei Pulvis. 
Magnesii Carbonas aa fi 
M. S. 3i cum aqua. p. r. n. 
The magnesium carbonate, which usually occurs 
in cubes, may easily be reduced to fine powder by 
being rubbed through a sieve, when it should be 
mixed with the rhubarb and again passed through 
the sieve. 
R. Potassii Chloras. 
Sacchari Albi. 
Acidi Tannici aa 10 gm. 
M. S. 3i sol. c. aqua pro. garg. 
Here is a strong oxidizing agent, chlorate of pot- 
ash containing oxygen easily liberated and vege- 
table substances rich in carbon prone to combine 
121 with it: if triturated with force or if struck between 
mortar and pestle the mixture might explode - 
hence it is very dangerous to mix by mortar and 
pestle method but should be mixed by stirring the 
ingredients separately pulverized, by means of a 
spatula. 
(3) Powders are dispensed in bulk, if to be taken 
in large doses, either in a box or bottle. 
(4) In papers, capsules, wafers, cachets or konseals 
if to be taken in small or divided doses. "Papers" 
{chartulce-little papers) are prescribed when the 
physician wishes the doses to be divided; if the 
powder be not volatile, not deliquescent nor subject 
to ready deterioration, plain glazed white paper is 
used. On the other hand, a powder which would 
be affected by air in any manner deleterious to its 
medicinal effect or easy administration, then 
paraffined or waxed papers should be used. When 
an acid and an alkali carbonate or bicarbonate are 
to be mixed in water and given while effervescence 
is ensuing the alkaline powder is usually wrapped 
in blue paper and the acid in white and directions 
attached for their mixing. 
Hard capsules are rod-like shells of gelatine of 
two parts fitted together, used to administer bitter, 
nauseous or otherwise objectionable medicines. 
Soft capsules are ovoid or egg-shaped shells of soft 
gelatine, i. e., gelatine with a small proportion of 
glycerine to render it pliable and more soluble. 
They are not practical for enclosing powders, but 
are a very useful contrivance for oils and certain 
fluids which will not dissolve them. 
Capsules are of modern origin, prepared by 
machinery on an immense scale, but can not be 
filled satisfactorily by any machine or device yet 
invented. The filling of a hard gelatine capsule 
122 with a dry powder is so simple that nowadays it 
the first thing learned by the drug-store boy, but 
the hand of man is the only satisfactory "machine" 
complex enough to accomplish this simple feat 
properly. 
Soft capsules have one end drawn out and termi- 
nating in a little teat which, just before the capsule 
is to be filled, is carefully cut off and melted in a 
water bath-the medicine is to be dropped into 
the soft capsule, care being taken that none gets 
upon the freshly cut surface of the capsule else it 
can not be sealed. A glass rod is dipped into the 
melted soft gelatine and dexterously drawn over 
the open mouth of the soft capsule, in such a man- 
ner that a film of gelatine will cover the opening 
which will be closed when the gelatine cools. 
Wafers are small, thin sheets of unleavened rice- 
flour and gum-arabic bread cooked quickly upon 
polished plates. Rice-flour is largely starch; the 
starch, when heated, is altered, rendered partly sol- 
uble, and the water is dried out during the cooking. 
The sheets are then cut into pieces large enough to 
wrap and enclose a small dose of powder. A plate 
is wetted, the wafer placed upon it and the powder 
placed upon the center of the sheet and the edges 
folded upward over the powder; the whole is then 
swallowed with a drought of water. 
Cachets or konseals are merely capsules of wafer 
material cooked in two concavo-convex sheets 
between which is placed the powder, after which 
the sheets are sealed together. To prepare them a 
device is required made specially for the purpose 
and consisting of a concave hopper, in which one 
sheet is placed, and in this half of the cachet the 
powder is placed, either with a spatula or a funnel. 
The other sheet is fitted into a concave hopper 
123 attached to a handle, then passed over a moistened 
cloth to dampen the edges of the wafer sheet and 
then pressed upon the other sheet, thereby enclosing 
the powder. This form of administering powders 
is very neat and dainty, if the cachet has been 
properly prepared. 
In dividing powders to be prepared as above care 
should be used that the doses be of proper and even 
amount-many pharmacists weigh each and every 
dose separately. Some weigh a sample or two and 
pattern others after them, while the great majority 
take the total mass and divide into total number of 
doses by aid of eyesight, an experienced hand and a 
good "balance-handled spatula.'' There seems to 
be no good reason why an experienced pharmacist 
with a carefully trained hand can not nearly approach 
accuracy that way; but beginners should first learn 
to weigh accurately before they try to guess 
accurately. 
While the quantity that, is considered a dose of a 
drug may vary from time to time and in different 
individuals, this indefiniteness of dosage does not 
authorize either physician or pharmacist to add 
more uncertainty by being careless in naming the 
quantity to be taken, or slovenly in compounding 
and dispensing this quantity. 
Observant customers may easily note the varia- 
tion in carelessly divided powders and then base 
their opinion of the skill of the pharmacist on this 
one observation. 
In general, when a vitreous, crystalline or a 
potent drug is to be mixed with other drugs or a 
diluent powder or filler, the potent, crystalline or 
vitreous drug should be first placed in a suitable 
mortar (roughened wedgwood), reduced to fine 
powder, an equal amount of diluent, filler or less 
124 active drug added, trituration repeated, the whole 
loosened from sides of mortar by use of spatula and 
again an amount of drug or diluent equal to the 
co^mbined powder already in the mortar, again 
triturating and repeating in that manner, thereby 
attaining the principal objects of uniformity of size 
and equal distribution of all the particles of the 
several constituents of the powder. 
If a liquid is to be mixed with an insoluble 
powder, then the liquid is treated just as would be 
a potent drug. In some pharmacopoeias are to be 
found a class of powders called "oil-sugars, " con- 
sisting of a volatile oil and sugar. While not of 
very much importance as medicines they have some 
place, being carminative, slightly stimulant and 
pleasant flavors and are usually used as "fillers" 
with other powders. 
(5) Triturations are powders consisting of one part 
potent drug and nine parts milk sugar, in which the 
drug is finely powdered and thoroughly triturated 
until uniformly distributed throughout the whole 
mass of milk sugar: above is the strength official 
in IX Dec. Rev. U. S. P., but many pharmacists 
keep in their prescription cases triturations of other 
proportions of potent drugs for convenience and 
accuracy in weighing, it being much less difficult 
to accurately weigh a moderately large amount 
than a very small amount. It will be found good 
practice to keep such drugs as strychnine, arsenic, 
calomel, atropine, morphine, etc., in form of tritura- 
tion in definite strength and to weigh, say two grains 
of trituration instead of one-fifth grain of drug, etc. 
Other drugs, such as aconitine, colchicine, adrenalin, 
etc., one to ninety-nine, or whatever proportion is 
most convenient, yet which will not likely result 
in confusion. See Dosage Calculations. 
125 1$. Elaterinum 1 gm. 
Sacch. Lactis 9 " 
M. S. Trituratio Elaterini. 
The elaterin is mixed with 1 dgm. milk sugar 
reduced to powder and thoroughly triturated; 2 dgm. 
milk sugar is next added and again triturated; the 
remaining milk sugar may now be added and tritu- 
ration continued until the elaterin is equally dif- 
fused throughout the whole mass of powder. 
Tablet Triturate Mould. 
From triturations of varied strengths are prepared 
tablet triturates, by varying the proportion so as to 
give the required amount of potent drug to each 
tablet and using sugar or sugar of milk, or a mix- 
ture of both (with possibly some other inert pow- 
der) enough to fill the mould. 
Tablet triturates are prepared, then, by moulding 
a triturated powder into a flat, round disc or tablet, 
126 the powder first having been moistened with a suit- 
able inert volatile, non-solvent liquid. 
The mould consists of two parts or plates, 
through one of which are a number of perforations, 
and into the other are fastened an equal number of 
punches so arranged that each punch fits a corre- 
sponding perforation; the perforated plate is of the 
desired thickness of the tablets. The powder is 
moistened just enough to cause the particles to be 
slightly coherent and with a spatula is pressed into 
the perforations in the plate, which has been put 
on a pill tile or smooth surface; then both sides are 
cleaned off smooth by the use of a spatula and this 
plate fitted over the plate with punches and pressed 
down until the tablets are removed. They may be 
allowed to remain on the pegs until dry, which will 
not be long, or may be carefully removed and dried 
otherwise; if too moist the tablets stick, if too dry 
they crumble. This is a very useful method of 
exhibiting divided doses of some substances, but is 
not suitable for any but potent drugs, not suitable 
for volatile drugs nor those with any tendency to 
change readily from effect of air or light. 
Similar in form to the tablet triturate, but other- 
wise different, is a class of preparations of greater 
range of application and therefore of greater impor- 
tance to the pharmacist of to-day, viz.: Compressed 
tablets. 
IJ. Arsenii trioxidi, grana unam. 
Ft. t.t. No. L. 
S. One p. p. 
Weigh one grain of arsenic trioxide, reduce to 
powder, mix with one grain milk sugar and tritur- 
ate until well mixed; add about two grains more of 
milk sugar and again triturate; continue the addition 
of increasing amounts of milk sugar until forty-nine 
127 grains have been added alternately with thorough 
trituration; by that means each grain of powder will 
contain grain of arsenic. Next moisten with a 
few drops of water and rub until a slightly damp ad- 
herent powder results; now, by means of a smooth 
spatula, rub this moist powder into the perforated 
plate of the tablet triturate mould previously placed 
on a pill tile or smooth surface; if all perforations 
are not filled calculate by proportion the amount of 
milk sugar required to fill the mould and after re- 
moving the powder from the mould mix with the 
milk sugar and again rub into the perforations of 
the mould and by means of the punches on the 
other plate remove the tablets and allow to dry. 
If too much water was used to moisten, the tablets 
will be too hard and if too little they will crumble- 
they should be just hard enough to fall upon the 
floor without breaking, but quickly go to pieces when 
dropped in water. 
(6) Species, are a class of powder preparations 
consisting of coarsely ground, cut or bruised vege- 
table drug or drugs, or one or more such drugs 
and a soluble powder, and are intended to be used to 
prepare a tea, an infusion or a decoction; therefore 
care should be used to sift out or otherwise separate 
the fine powder and reject it, since a clear infusion 
can not result from the use of a fine vegetable 
powder. 
If a soluble powder is to be mixed with the vege- 
table drug or drugs, then such drug or drugs should 
be dampened and the fine, soluble powder sifted on, 
when upon drying it will adhere; otherwise a uniform 
mixture could not result. Teas or species are still 
much used in some places, but none are official in 
the United States at present. 
128 b. Compressed tablets. These are, as the name 
signifies, tablets made by compression with machines 
varying from the simplest hand machine, which 
will turn out a few tablets per hour, to the latest 
improved rotary machine which will compress as 
many as 120,000 tablets per hour. 
Tablets are compressed from powders either 
simple or compound and either fine or coarse. For 
rapid work the powder must be prepared first; for 
slow work on a hand machine not so much care in 
preparing the powder need be taken. 
The machines are quite varied in style of 
mechanism, but the principle is the same in all, 
namely, the subjection of a definite amount of dry 
powder to the effect of a definite pressure, this 
pressure being applied in a- die between two 
punches so regulated that they approach each other 
to within a certain distance, thereby compressing 
each powder to a uniform size, and as the powder is 
fed into the die and leveled off one can readily see 
that if the powder be not uniform as to size of par- 
ticles, then there would be more powder in the die 
one time than another and hence make tablets of 
unequal weight; therefore the necessity of having 
all the powder first reduced to "granules" of even 
size and dried. 
If the substance be a crystalline chemical con- 
taining little water of crystallization all that is 
necessary is to pass it through a sieve just large 
enough in mesh to pass the particles; then a smaller 
sieve, through which the fine powder is passed and 
rejected, is used. A powder which will pass entirely 
through a No. 8 sieve, but not through a No. 12 is 
quite suitable, although very much finer, also much 
coarser may be used, depending upon size of tablet 
desired and nature of drug. If a fine powder or a 
129 number of substances are to be compressed, then all 
should be rendered uniform or as nearly so as prac- 
ticable and "granulated." 
"Granulation" is the really important part of 
tablet making and success depends upon correlating 
several important considerations, such as size of 
tablet to be made, nature of the drug or mixture, 
as to solubility, adhesiveness, chemical properties 
and the effect of heat upon it while being dried. 
No man can tell just how to make a proper granu- 
lation, describing in detail so that an inexperienced 
person might be sure of success by following direc- 
tions, but yet there are very important directions 
which are easily described and should be remem- 
bered and applied without difficulty. To begin, a 
non-adhesive substance must be rendered adhesive 
to a certain degree, and yet not too much so; for 
this purpose gums will be found available but objec- 
tionable. 
A very soluble yet non-hygroscopic substance, 
which is adhesive, but yet which will permit quick 
disintegration, is the most suitable-a mixture of 
starch paste and cane sugar used in solution to 
moisten the dry powder will answer in many cases. 
A tablet triturate is made by slightly moistening 
a fine powder with a non-solvent liquid and should 
be non-cohesive, but a granulation for a compressed 
tablet must be cohesive and moistened until a stiff 
paste results; then this paste is passed through a 
coarse sieve (Nos. 8, 10 or 12) by rubbing with 
spatula, paddle, the hand or suitable machinery. 
This paste should be stiff enough so that the parti- 
cles will "stand up" and not run together again 
when it is spread upon paper, cloth or a suitable 
place to be quickly dried. 
130 In drying, the smallest amount of heat sufficient 
to accomplish results should be the rule-some sub- 
stances like salol will stand only a slight heat. All 
granulations should be dried away from contaminat- 
ing influences of dust, dirt, noxious gases, etc. The 
moist granulate should not touch metal unless it be 
of such a nature as not to permit chemical reaction. 
If time be not too great an object the atmosphere 
will be sufficient to dry the powder without use of 
heat. 
After this granulation is made and dried, then it 
must be passed through a sieve, slightly coarser, 
and the fine powder afterward separated by a finer 
sieve, as above described. 
Some substances which require the addition of an 
adhesive agent to effect granulation, and the adhe- 
sive agent is used sparingly, and even some to 
which no adhesive agent was added before granula- 
tion are afterward found to be too adhesive to 
compress well, sticking to the machine and making 
it necessary to use a "lubricant" or dusting powder 
before feeding into the machine for compression; 
for this purpose a variety of agents are used- 
depending upon the nature of the drug. Ordinarily 
powdered starch added to the granular powder and 
properly distributed before feeding will be found 
sufficient-sometimes powdered talcum, sometimes 
boric acid is used. Even fats are used to prevent 
adhesion to dies and punches. This is either 
sprayed on the granular powder by means of a weak 
solution in ether or made into an emulsion and the 
emulsion used to moisten preparatory to granulation. 
Substances which are apt to react chemically 
should not be combined in tablet form, unless the 
product of the reaction be desired. Both tablet 
triturates and compressed tablets may be coated 
131 with sugar variously colored, but this is a more 
complicated process and is done by machinery only. 
Other coatings may be used the same as for pills, 
but are not common (see pill coating, page 132). 
c. Granular effervescing powders, salts and 
tablets consist of a drug mixed with a dry, fruit acid, 
citric or tartaric or both combined, and a bicarbonate 
(usually soda) in molecular proportion or nearly so. 
They may be prepared by either of three methods: 
(1.) Proper molecular proportions of the dry tar- 
taric acid and sodium bicarbonate are moistened 
with absolute alcohol and granulated, as in granu- 
lating for compressed tablets. 
(2.) The acid and bicarbonate separately moist- 
ened, granulated, dried and mixed, or 
(3.) Better, on a small scale, by taking 208.5 gr. 
of crystallized citric acid, 150 gr. of tartaric acid 
and 425 gr. sodium bicarbonate, intimately mixing 
the three after reducing to uniform powder, then 
transferring the whole to an oven and heating suf- 
ficient to start reaction, which results in a stiff, 
pasty mass which may then be quickly passed through 
a No. y or 6 sieve and will be dried by the time it 
cools. 
These powders may be dispensed as effervescent 
powders, without granulating; they may be also 
compressed into effervescent tablets. Since they 
are prepared with the object of effervescing and 
furnishing a solution of the resulting salt in carbonic 
acid water, which is to be taken fresh, they should 
always be dispensed in perfectly closed containers, 
air and moisture excluded, and stored in cool places. 
When dispensed, directions to use water not too cold 
for dissolving will often save future explanations, 
and doubt of person using them. 
132 G. E. Citrate of Lithium, 200 gm. 
(5 gr. to teaspoonful.) 
S. Teaspoonful in water 3 times a day. 
200 gm. = 200X15.432 = 3086.4 gr. 
Teaspoonful = about 90 grains G. E. salts. 
. *. 200 gm. = about 34 doses. 
34x5 gr. Lith. Cit. = 170 gr. 
Tartaric Acid H2C4H4O6x2 = 300 gr. 
Citric " H3C6H6O,H2Ox3 = 630 gr. 
Sod. Bicarb. NaHCO3x5 - 840 gr. 
Finely powdered sugar, qs. - 1146.4 gr. 
To make 34 doses @ 5 gr. each, 3086.4 gr. 
Reduce each to fine powder, mix thoroughly, put 
into dish or stone jar previously warmed and put 
into an oven with heat about 100° to 120° C or 212° 
to 250° F. After a short time part of the water of 
crystallization of the citric acid will be liberated and 
a reaction will ensue resulting in a moist paste 
which should be removed from the oven, quickly 
stirred to coarse granules or passed through a sieve 
of five to eight meshes to the inch and allowed to 
cool in dry air; the powder is then ready to bottle 
and dispense. 
d. Masses are soft solid or semi-solid preparations 
consisting of a medicinal substance and an excipient 
and are prepared or kept by the pharmacist to be 
used from which to prepare pills or lozenges, or 
they may be dispensed in bulk to be made into pills 
by the patient. 
The nature of a mass varies according to its 
intended use: for preparing lozenges they consist 
largely of sugar and gum. A pill mass, however, 
should contain no more gum than is necessary, 
since a lozenge is desired to dissolve slowly in the 
mouth while a pill is to be swallowed, and should 
133 rapidly disintegrate. Gum, particularly acacia, first 
forms around it a covering of dense mucilage and 
this protects the remainder from quick disintegra- 
tion. Two masses are now official in the United 
States, namely, mass of mercury and mass of iron 
carbonate. 
Other masses are to be prepared extemporane- 
ously. The subject will be considered more thor- 
oughly under the heading of pills (see page 126). 
e. Lozenges are distinguished by shape and com- 
position as: 
1. Troches. 
2. Pastilles. 
3. Bacils. 
4. Globules. 
5. Discs or Lamels. 
(1.) Troches are flat tablets of various shapes con- 
sisting of flavored and medicated sugar and gum cut 
from a sheet of dough previously rolled to proper 
thickness. They are intended to be dissolved 
slowly upon the tongue, thereby producing a slow 
and continued medication; hence they usually con- 
tain medicines of a mildly active nature either 
demulcent or expectorant. Sugar and gum, there- 
fore, are excipients and aid in furnishing demulcent 
properties. A lozenge mass should be softer than 
a pill mass and yet not soft enough to warp in 
drying. The mass is rolled into a sheet upon a 
board or pill tile and cut into lozenges with a punch. 
The punch differs from a biscuit cutter only in 
being smaller and more elaborate. The lozenge 
sheet is rolled on a dough board, floured and cut in 
just the same manner as a biscuit dough. 
(2.) Pastilles or drops are a kind of lozenge, usually 
shaped like a loaf and consisting largely of chocolate 
or glycerinated gelatine. They are usually prepared 
on a large scale by the manufacturing confectioner, 
134 and are of little importance in practical pharmacy. 
A chocolate cream is a type. 
(3.) Barils are rod-like sticks prepared by roll- 
ing a mass into cylindrical strips and cutting; for 
instance, a pill pipe is placed upon the machine 
and, instead of being cut and rounded, the mass is 
pressed until it lengthens in the grove sufficient to 
fill a capsule; this, then, is a bacil: licorice bacils 
or pastilles are a common illustration. They, too, 
are a class of preparation of little importance to the 
pharmacist. 
(4.) Globules of sugar, either spheres or hemi- 
spheres of cane sugar, are prescribed by homeo- 
pathic and other physicians to be saturated with 
liquid remedies and so dispensed. The globules, 
however, are made by confectioners and not by the 
pharmacist-of course, when charging them with 
medicinal substances, water must be avoided lest 
the globule be dissolved to syrup. They should 
always be dispensed in bottles. 
(5.) Discs of glycerinated gelatine, containing 
mydriatic or myotic alkaloids, are prepared by dis- 
solving the proper proportion in water, incorporating 
with gelatine solution and then dropping one or 
more drops of the gelatine solution upon a properly 
prepared surface, when, on cooling a minute, solid 
but thin discs remain. 
These are used in ophthalmic practice, but are 
prepared by manufacturing pharmacists. Great care 
must be used in their preparation, to exclude dust, 
etc. They are sometimes called lamella and are 
administered under the eyelids. 
1J. Trochisci PotassiiChloratis gr. v ana. 
No. L. 
S. Dissolve one upon the tongue as required. 
Take of powdered chlorate of potash 250 gr., add 
135 four times its weight of sugar, one-fifth its weight 
of gum tragacanth in fine powder and carefully stir 
together, then add water sufficient to form a plastic 
mass which is to be rolled into a thin sheet and cut 
into fifty lozenges by means of a die or lozenge 
punch. 
The mass is treated like dough for biscuits and 
cut with a die similar only smaller. 
1. Conserves. 
2. Electuaries. 
/ Confections 
(1) Conserves (or preserves) if composed of a fresh 
drug made into a paste pulp or mass with sugar 
sufficient to preserve (66% or less) and adhesive 
matter, if required, or 
(2) Electuaries, if composed of dried drug made 
into mass with fruit pulp, sugar, honey, glycerine, 
etc. 
At one time this class was considered very impor 
tant, but now is not. Two confections are given in 
the National Formulary, but both are really 
electuaries and of the two confection of rose is 
worthless either as a remedy or an excipient, and 
is probably retained from custom. Confection of 
senna is a mild laxative. It may be stated that all 
confections consist of drugs, mild in action, made 
palatable by the use of sugar, flavor, etc. The 
French and Spanish Pharmacopoeias still recognize 
a great many. One given in the French Codex has 
fifty-seven ingredients (apologies to Heinz). 
Conserves are prepared by beating the fresh drug 
with sugar, adding sufficient gum, glycerine and 
flavor, if required, rubbing the mass through a sieve 
to remove solid particles. The mass is preserved 
and dispensed in glass pots or jars and is eaten 
Confections maybe: 
136 either as a candy or swallowed as a bolus, formed 
as desired by the patient. 
Electuaries are prepared by taking the desired 
fruit (dried), steaming orboiling until soft, rubbing 
through a sieve and to this adding the dried drug, 
sugar, etc., and forming a mass which is preserved 
and dispensed in the same manner as a conserve. 
A linctus is a similar preparation consisting of 
inorganic drugs mixed into a thick, pasty syrup, too 
thick to flow, and requiring the patient to lick it 
from a spoon. Such a preparation is made often from 
syrup, sulphur and cream of tartar. 
with which medicine 
is combined and dis- 
pensed in bulklikean 
ordinary confection, 
or the jelly is made sufficiently strong to set or 
harden when cooled. 
Gelatine Jellies 
Pectinous " 
Gum " 
Starch " 
„ or Combinations 
Jellies 
Jellies are used mainly to administer disagree- 
able fixed oils. Soft jellies are made into lozenges 
with which is incorporated a remedy desired to 
exert a prolonged and continuous local action on 
the mouth, tonsils, etc., hence are made to dissolve 
very slowly. 
Oil jellies may be best prepared by using isinglass 
dissolved by heat in a flavored water to which sugar 
is added. The oil is made into an emulsion and the 
two combined thoroughly and allowed to gelatinize. 
This is a very satisfactory way to administer fixed 
oils, the jelly aiding in masking the taste; it should 
be dispensed in glass jar. 
For preparing the jelly lozenges, a true gum or 
fruit pectin or other concentrated gum solution is 
mixed with syrup, flavor and medicine, evaporated 
to proper state, then poured into moulds to set, or 
137 poured upon a pan or plate where it cools and sets 
in form of a sheet, which is then cut into desired 
size. These are really lozenge confections and are 
little used and seldom prepared by the pharmacist, 
although not difficult. None are official in the 
United States, but several formulas are given in the 
French and Spanish Pharmacopoeias. The common 
old-style gum-drop is an example of the class so far 
as body is concerned. These jujubes, paste or jelly- 
gum lozenges may be dispensed in wax-paper- 
lined boxes or sprinkled with powdered sugar and 
dispensed in the ordinary glazed-paper-lined boxes. 
h. Pills may be classified as: 
1. Pills proper, when made to weigh from one to 
five grains. 
2. Boli (singular bolus), made to weigh more 
than five grains. 
3. Parvules, less than one grain, sugar coated, 
with coating colored pink or red. 
4. Granules, sugar globules impregnated with a 
liquid medicine by absorption. 
Concentric pills are made of successive layers of 
different medicines, each layer having a separate 
coating and composed of medicine of different 
therapeutic action, part to dissolve and be absorbed 
in the stomach, part in the intestines. 
A pill is a small body of medicine of such size and 
shape that it may easily be swallowed and of such 
composition that it will rapidly disintegrate in the 
presence of the fluids of the stomach or intestines, 
that its effect may be promptly produced. 
Pills are usually round or ovoid in shape and are 
usually of one to five grains' weight, but are some- 
times smaller and quite frequently larger. If 
smaller than one grain and round a pill often is 
138 called a granule, and if much larger is called a 
bolus. 
A pill is made from a mass by rolling and dividing 
it and giving each pill the proper weight and shape, 
a simple and not difficult art, but success depends 
upon the mass, and the great variety of medicines 
given in pill form and their more varied physical 
and chemical properties render the making of per- 
fect pill masses and pills the most difficult part of 
the pharmacist's practice. And, therefore, a good 
pill-maker may be considered a competent phar- 
macist. 
Any medicine not volatile, sufficiently active that 
the dose be not too bulky, and not corrosive, may 
be given in pill form. Usually this form of dosage 
is selected with the object partly of avoiding the 
disagreeable taste of the medicine and. also that the 
doses be definitely divided by the pharmacist. 
Since pills should largely overcome the bad taste 
of the medicine, it follows that they are often coated 
for the same purpose, and also to perserve them 
from deterioration and to enhance their appearance, 
and occasionally to prevent their disintegration until 
they reach a particular part of the alimentary canal 
(enteric pills). 
A pill, then, is formed from a mass and a mass 
is a stiff paste of medicine and an excipient or mass- 
ing agent, which should always be inert medicinally. 
A mass must be soft enough to permit of being 
formed, cohesive enough to not crumble and firm 
enough to hold its shape when formed, and of such 
nature that when placed in water it will quickly 
disintegrate. 
Since medicines given in pill form differ widely 
in their properties, so, also, must the properties of 
the excipient differ; the excipient, of course, must 
139 furnish whatever properties the medicine lacks 
toward making a suitable mass. If the medicine 
be wet, then an absorbent excipient is used; if the 
medicine be dry, non-adhesive, then an adhesive 
excipient; if the medicine be dry and adhesive, then 
a solvent for the adhesive, etc., etc. Excipients, 
then, may be divided into two general classes: Dry 
and Liquid. 
Dry excipients may be either Fibrous, Absorbent, 
Adhesive, or Absorbent and Adhesive. 
If the medicine be quite wet and sticky, then a 
dry absorbent powder will, if carefully worked in, 
equalize the adhesiveness and form amass; such 
substances often require a fibrous excipient to 
furnish framework to prevent flattening of the pill, 
especially if it gets too warm. 
Fibrous excipients are absorbent-examples, elm 
bark, licorice, marshmallow root, etc.-but not all 
absorbent excipients are fibrous-examples, starch, 
flour, tragacanth, chalk, etc. 
If the mass be quite moist but not sufficiently 
cohesive to hold without crumbling, then a dry 
absorbent adhesive powder is used. Tragacanth is par 
excellence for this purpose. Acacia or flour, etc., 
are used, but acacia is to be avoided because of its 
property of drying so hard and resisting solution so 
long. Russian licorice root powder and powdered 
slippery elm bark are very excellent fibrous absorbent 
powders and they also have some adhesive property; 
therefore, they have a wider range of usefulness 
than any other dry excipients. 
If the medicine be dry and adhesive in nature a 
liquid suitable for developing that adhesiveness 
present is the best excipient-examples, water, 
alcohol, glycerine, glycerine and water -but if 
simply a dry powder with no adhesive property, 
140 then a moist adhesive excipient is indicated. Many 
are used, each having its peculiar property and 
should be used where that property is most suitable. 
Mucilage and syrup of acacia, syrup, honey, glucose, 
glycerite of starch, glycerite of tragacanth or glyc- 
erine may be used as indicated. As a rule, glycerine 
in small amount is always permissible in a pill mass 
because of the fact that it will not permit the pill to 
dry too hard and will, therefore, ensure disintegra- 
tion when taken. Of course these different classes 
may be combined as required. A liquid excipient 
should always be used sparingly since it must always 
be absorbed and the absorbent will increase the size 
of the pill. 
The pill-maker should remember that the most 
important requirements of a finished pill are that it 
have the proper medicinal effect and, second, be as 
nice in appearance as possible so as to not make a 
disagreeable impression upon the mind of the 
patient. A large, ill-shapen pill may possess all 
the required medicinal properties, but often is 
revolting to the patient's tastes. 
Drugs containing some resinous substances may 
be massed with soap and water or alcohol, the 
alkaline soap aiding in therapeutic action. Some 
substances which are administered with a purpose 
of acting on the lower bowel are combined with a 
hard resin so that solution will be slow and the pill 
reach the lower bowel before it disintegrates; such 
pills should be made with water or watery excip- 
ients-example, pill aloe and mastich. Volatile oils, 
creosote, phenols, etc., may be made into mass 
with wax, soap or, better with pure powdered 
extract of licorice and water; when wax is used 
ft should be used as sparingly as possible and in 
Quid condition, adding sufficient fibrous excipient 
141 to make a firm pill; too much wax would prevent 
disintegration of pill. 
When substances with marked chemical activity 
are to be massed, then an excipient of a negative 
nature should be used. Pills of substances easily 
affected by the air should be coated immediately. 
Oxidizing agents should not be associated with 
vegetable substances. For such articles as perman- 
ganate of potassium, silver nitrate, etc., an oint- 
ment made from equal parts kaolin, paraffin and 
petrolatum is an excellent excipient; other fatty 
excipients are cacao-butter, resin Cerate, simple 
cerate, etc. 
But the most difficult part of pill making is the 
actual manipulating-a student may learn how it 
should be done but only a pharmacist becomes pro- 
ficient, because practice is necessary. A shallow, 
round-bottomed wedgwood mortar, with an extra 
long-handled pestle with a large crown that will 
fit the palm of the hand is best. Having mixed 
the ingredients properly the excipient is added 
with this purpose always in view, viz., to get a pill 
not too large, that will have a proper appearance 
and will not fail to produce proper results from 
any act or omission of the pharmacist. Small, 
firm pills require a considerable kneading of the 
mass with the pestle rather than trituration. A 
good mass should cohere sufficiently so that it will 
be detached from both mortar and pestle by the 
act of kneading upon being completed, although 
some masses can not be made to do so. A short, 
stiff-bladed spatula is best for removing the mass 
from sides of the mortar. If a mass is properly 
made a dusting powder will be scarcely necessary, 
but when necessary should be used sparingly- 
white powder for white pills, etc. Starch is a good 
142 white dusting powder: Lycopodium, licorice powder, 
althea, etc., etc., are used. Pills are usually dis- 
pensed in pasteboard boxes, but may be enclosed 
in bottles; if so, powder should be added to absorb 
any moisture from the pills to prevent moulding. 
When the mass is made it is rolled into a cylinder 
or long "pipe" and cut on a graduated tile by means 
of a spatula, being careful that pills are uniform in 
size; or they are cut on a machine or pill cutter. 
They may be formed with the fingers and rounded 
with a finisher, or cut, formed, rounded and polished 
all by a few ingenious motions with the aid of the 
pill cutter. 
To mask the taste of pills they are sometimes 
rolled into cylinders after being divided, and 
enclosed in gelatine capsules-the capsule also 
preserves the pill from the oxidizing effect of the 
air, etc. Be careful not to get any of the medicine 
on the outside of the capsule; always wash the 
hands after making the pills and before enclosing 
in capsules. 
Pills are coated for the purposes of improving 
their appearance, preserving them, masking their 
taste and retarding solution so that the pill may 
pass the stomach and be dissolved in the intestines. 
Pill coating is an art which can be practiced to very 
little advantage by the pharmacist, as, coated, ready 
made pills can be had of nicer appearance and also 
at less cost than the pharmacist can produce them, 
unless a great number are made at one time. 
According to general requirements and exigency 
the following several kinds of coatings are applied 
to pills, viz. • 
143 Pill Coatings. 
1. Foil. 
2. Pearl. 
3. Varnish. 
4. Sugar. 
5. Gelatine. 
6. Collodion. 
7. Salol. 
8. Keratin. 
(1.) Foil coating is the oldest and simplest method 
and least used. Formerly it was common, but now 
is rare. The pills should be made slightly softer 
than usual and a conspergative not used, so that 
finished pill may be slightly adhesive when placed 
in a coater or round box with "leaf" of silver, gold 
or aluminum and shaken until coated, then rolled 
smooth with a pill rounder until polished and free 
from adhering loose particles. 
(2.) Pearl coating is so named because of the 
slight pearly appearance, but consists of an insoluble 
powder coating made to adhere by use of syrup or 
mucilage or both. The pills are dropped into a 
mortar containing syrup of acacia or other suitable 
adhesive, rotated until completely covered with the 
adhesive liquid, then rolled into a mixture of talc, 
starch, sugar of milk, chalk or some such combina- 
tion and allowed to dry, when the surplus powder is 
removed by rounding as with.foil coating. 
A good pearl coating powder 
consists of " 
Acacia 1. 
Sacch. Lact.,,5. 
Amyli 1. 
Talci 1. 
(3.) Varnish coating consists of a resin applied in 
solution in a volatile liquid, by spraying the solution 
onto the pills from an atomizer or, better, by roll- 
ing the pills in a mortar containing the resin solu- 
tion or varnish, then placing on wax paper until 
the volatile solvent has evaporated. Ether solution 
of tolu, mastic, sandaric or mixtures of these, is 
used for this purpose. 
144 (4.) Sugar coating is done by machinery on a 
large scale and is entirely impractical for the 
retail pharmacist. So is gelatine coating, nowadays, 
because pills coated by machinery can be had better 
and cheaper than the pharmacist can possibly coat 
them on a small scale, yet neither process is impos- 
sible. In sugar coating the pills are put into a 
globular drum revolving upon an axis in an oblique 
position, thick syrup is poured upon the pills and as 
the drum revolves, becomes distributed to all parts 
of the surface of every pill. Warm, dry air evapo- 
rates the water and the constant rolling of the pills 
over each other wears the surfaces smooth by 
attrition. 
(5.) Gelatine coating is applied by dipping the pills 
into a solution of gelatine gum and glycerine or 
gelatine albumen and glycerine, or a similar com- 
bination, often containing sugar, allowing the 
adherent gelatine to dry during a rotary moving of 
the pill to prevent the solution running off or run- 
ning too much to one side of the pill. 
(6.) Collodion coating is applied like varnish 
coating to a pill which must be perfectly dry on the 
outside, otherwise the moisture precipitates the 
collodion. 
(7.) Salol coating'll also applied in the same man- 
ner after being previously fused at the lowest 
possible temperature, preferably with a little resin, 
or else it may be dissolved twenty per cent, in 
ether. Salol coating may not be used upon a pill the 
excipient of which was glycerine. Salol and collo- 
dion are seldom used but are very valuable as 
extemporaneous enteric coatings. 
(8.) Keratin coating is used for enteric pills- 
pills that will pass the stomach undissolved, but 
will disintegrate in the intestines (plus bile and 
145 pancreatin, etc.). Keratin is a complex gelati- 
noid substance found in horns, hoofs, feathers, 
hair, etc., and is very difficultly soluble, being 
insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, dilute acids, 
dilute alkalies, and digestive ferments of the 
stomach. To prepare it, horn substance, in shav- 
ings, is first deprived of fats by digestion with ether; 
albuminoids are then removed by digestion in dilute 
hydrochloric acid and pepsin; wash and dissolve the 
residue in five per cent, ammonia, filter and evap- 
orate to dryness; this is then dissolved in either 
alcoholic ammonia or glacial acetic acid, accordingly 
as the substance be used with acid or alkali. The 
solution is applied to pills made with a fatty base 
and no water, by the same process, as for varnish 
coating. 
2. SOLID PREPARATIONS FOR EXTERNAL APPLI- 
CATION : 
Ointments are solids or semi-solids, usually 
of a fatty nature, soft enough so that they may be 
spread upon the surface of the body and melted 
with body heat. Ointments are always applied 
externally, but are often used by the physician as a 
means of systemic medication since, by osmosis 
some medicines combined with a favorable base 
will pass through body tissues into the circulation 
and affect the system. Certain parts of the body 
will more readily permit of this mode of medica- 
tion, namely, the armpits and groins. Also certain 
fatty substances favor the absorption of the medi- 
cine; other fatty substances permit this to a less 
degree, while still others are non-absorb able. 
Ointments may be prepared by: 
(1.) Simple mixture of base and agent. 
(2.) Fusion of base and mixing with agent. 
146 (3.) Chemical reaction. 
and are used for: 
(1.) Protection of wounds and raw surfaces, and 
softening the skin and tissues. 
(2.) Producing a mildly irritant or stimulating 
effect upon the skin, or as an antiseptic or 
disinfectant of ulcers. 
(3.) To carry anodyne or other systemic drugs and 
aid in their absorption into the circulation. 
They, therefore, vary in composition of base as 
well as active medicine; bland protective or emollient 
ointments, not to have marked physiological effect, 
are prepared with petrolatum or a similar fatty 
hydrocarbon. 
Stimulating, irritating or rubefacient ointments 
which carry a remedy to act upon the skin should 
be prepared with a vegetable oil or mixture of vege- 
table oils, and wax or animal fat, or wax and lard; 
while ointments which are intended to affect the 
system, i. e., absorbed into the circulation, are pre- 
pared from wool-fat or lard. 
Wool-fat is a very valuable ointment base since 
it will be absorbed more readily than any other fat 
and also because it will hold in permanent admix- 
ture a very large amount of liquid, of either water, 
glycerine, alcohol or fatty nature. 
The common form in which wool-fat is used, 
' lanolin," is a preparation containing about sixty- 
five parts anhydrous wool-fat to thirty-five parts of 
water. 
All animal and vegetable oils, fats and waxes 
tend to oxidize or rancidify, especially under the 
influence of air, water and heat. A fat kept free 
from water and air will keep indefinitely, but if air 
be allowed free access decomposition will soon 
begin ; oxy-oleic acid usually forms, which is of a dis- 
147 agreeable odor and is irritating to a delicate surface 
or tissue, therefore ointments should always be 
fresh. Various substances are used to prevent this 
deterioration, such as solution of resins, etc., in the 
fats, but they avail very little as compared with the 
exclusion of water and air and protection from too 
much heat. 
The only benzoinated lard which will keep is the 
dehydrated, and it will keep as long as it remains 
free from water, but not very much longer. But 
ointments are often used to apply medicines which 
must be dissolved in water, also ointments are 
sometimes prepared with water which, evaporating, 
cools and soothes feverish surfaces. 
Wool-fat will hold a very large amount of water; 
lard, also, will take up about fifteen percent, water, 
and other fats less; petrolatum very little. Wax, 
however, fused with the fat, will greatly increase 
the power of fat to hold water and at the same time 
tend to act as a preservative agent. 
When water is to be added to an ointment base 
of fat and wax the mixture should be fused but not 
heated too highly, the water should be at the same 
temperature, and all added at once and rapidly 
stirred until completely mixed, and no longer. 
Petrolatum, vaseline, etc., do not become rancid. 
A medicinal substance should be either dissolved 
in the base, reduced to finest powder or dissolved in 
water before being incorporated into an ointment. 
No gritty particles or lumps should ever be present 
in an ointment. 
Vegetable extracts should be made into a thin 
paste with water or water and alcohol or glycerine. 
Very often substances are prescribed together in 
an ointment which are incompatible and tend to 
form granular or gritty particles; this may some- 
148 times be prevented by making an ointment with 
each separate refractory substance and part of the 
base and afterward combining the whole into a 
smooth ointment. 
Care should always be taken that every portion 
of the ointment contains the same proportion of 
medicine: this can be insured by following the same 
method used with triturations, viz., take the medic- 
inal substance and with it mix an equal amount of 
the base, thoroughly incorporate, then add more of 
base, etc., until all is mixed. Some pharmacists 
when preparing ointments of such active agents as 
salts of mercury, etc., mix the finely powdered 
substance with some bland oil first; then, after 
thorough mixture, add the ointment base in por- 
tions. This process is excellent, but a small por- 
tion of the base, instead of the bland oil first taken, 
answers just as well and does not tend to lower the 
melting point of the ointment. Ointments should 
be firm enough to "stand up'' or remain solid at 
any temperature below 90° F., otherwise they melt 
and when melted the solids would separate. 
Fats consist principally of two portions at normal 
temperature-a solid portion (stearin) and a liquid 
portion (olein) in varied proportions; if the olein 
predominates, they melt too readily and wax is usu- 
ally added to raise the melting point. 
When wax or resin is added or when a liquid and 
solid fat are to be mixed, the substance having the 
highest melting point should be fused first and at no 
higher temperature thannecessary and the others mixed 
in order of their melting point, the fused mass stirred 
sufficiently to prevent separation of the different 
portions while the mixture be cooled as rapidly as 
practicable. If violent agitation be used and con- 
tinued until the ointment becomes solid, consider- 
149 able air is incorporated-this tends to render the 
ointment lighter in color but more prone to become 
rancid. 
Ointments should be kept in a cool, clean, dry 
place remote from odors, and dispensed in glass. 
In preparing ointments, utensils should be used 
which will not react with the medicinal portions. 
Most ointments can be mixed on a tile with a steel 
spatula-especially if no water be present to enable 
reaction, but salts of mercury or silver, tannin, etc., 
should be stirred with glass, or a horn or rubber 
spatula used if there be water present. Phenols and 
some phenol derivatives, chloral and stearoptenes 
tend to liquefy fats. In such ointments sufficient 
wax may be used to raise the fusing point, or pow- 
dered starch may be used to stiffen the ointment 
without raising the melting point. 
Ointments of solid fats and powders are best 
mixed on a tile of glass, glazed porcelain or marble, 
while thin ointments and those made by incorpora- 
tion of a liquid may be made in a warm mortar. 
In addition to fatty substances other substances are 
sometimes used as ointment bases. 
Glycerite of starch, or a mixture of tragacanth, 
mucilage and glycerine, or glycerine solution of 
gelatine and oils, or soft soap, or super-fatted soaps, 
or mixtures of casein, soap and fats, each has its 
respective domain as a vehicle for ointments. 
Mulls-Mullae N. F.-May be called soft plasters, 
being ointments having a rather high melting point, 
and are ised after being spread on cloth. 
Benzoinated Suet.-Sevum Benzoinatum-or a 
150 mixture of lard and wax having approximately the 
same melting point (45-50° C) is the usual vehicle. 
After being spread on cloth and cooled, the mull 
should be covered with oiled paper, rolled loosely 
and dispensed in a pasteboard cylinder or box. 
About 30 Gm. (1 ounce) of mull is sufficient to 
cover five square inches when spread. 
Inunction-Inunctum N. F.-This is a soft oint- 
ment intended to influence the deeper tissues and 
usually contains hydrous wool fat as the vehicle. 
Petroxolin-Petroxolinum.-A useful vehicle for 
external applications is the mixture of oleic acid, 
ammonia, alcohol, petrolatum, etc., listed in the 
National Formulary under the title Petroxolinum 
Spissum. 
If a liquid application is wanted Petroxolinum 
Liquidum may be used. Any medicament suitable 
for external application and not incompatible with 
ammonium oleate or oleic acid may be added to this 
vehicle, but it is generally used to carry drugs such 
as iodine, creosote, guaiacol, methyl salicylate, etc., 
into the deeper tissues or to secure systematic 
effects from the local application of these drugs. 
Pastes-Pastae N. F.-Are similar to ointments, 
but as a rule contain a smaller proportion of fatty 
vehicle. Thorough trituration is required to make 
a smooth mixture of most of the official pastes and, 
since the solid medicaments and inert powders to- 
gether usually are from one-third to one-half of the 
total, the paste is stiffer and gives a denser covering 
when applied than the ordinary ointment does. 
151 Zinc oxide, resorcinol, sulphur, salicylic acid, cal- 
cium carbonate, balsam peru, bismuth subnitrate, 
etc., may with advantage be prescribed as pastes 
and talc or starch may be added to make the mix- 
ture dense if the proportion of active ingredient is 
not over one-third. Petrolatum is the usual fatty 
vehicle since a local action only is wanted. 
Glycero-gelatins.-In some conditions where a 
firm, almost rigid, medicated dressing is to be ap- 
plied externally and not disturbed except at rather 
long intervals, as for example, in varicosis of the 
veins of the leg, mixtures of medicaments with the 
glycerinated gelatin of the pharmacopoeia are very 
serviceable. 
The medicament, usually zinc oxide, salicylic 
acid, idoform or similar drug, should be thoroughly 
mixed with the melted glycerinated gelatin and the 
mixture poured into a shallow pan; when cold the 
mass should be cut into small pieces, each of suf- 
ficient size for one application and each piece 
wrapped in oiled paper. 
Ordinarily, a piece % x % x 1% inches will cover 
an area of about six or eight square inches. 
The patient should be instructed to melt the 
piece and apply it with a brush. 
Cerates are really ointments, only they contain 
sufficient wax not to melt at body heat, therefore 
are used as protective dressings more than to 
exhibit medicines to be absorbed. Wax tends to 
prevent absorption. Medicinal substances should 
never be heated with unmelted fats, particularly 
vegetable substances: too high heat is apt to cause 
152 decomposition, lumping, etc., and at a high heat 
the water usually present in the medicinal vege- 
table substances may decompose some of the fat 
forming irritating compounds and causing the oint- 
ment, further, to rapidly become rancid. 
Suppositories are solid bodies of ointment 
material made of such shape as will favor their 
being introduced into the body cavities or openings, 
and of such consistence that they will always melt 
at the body temperature. Their effect, when applied, 
is like any other ointment and their preparation is 
like that of other ointments plus the precaution that 
they must .be solid at ordinary temperature but 
always melt at $8.6° F.; therefore, the choice of 
base material must be limited to such as have these 
requirements, either natural product or a mixture. 
Suppositories are made of different sizes and 
shapes according to intended use. 
Rectal, cone shaped 30 grains 
Vaginal, " " 60 " 
Urethral, pencil " 15 " 
Aural, round " 5 " 
Nasal, wedge " 10 " 
The first three are the most common. 
Cacao-butter is the best suppository base; mix- 
tures of oil and wax or lanolin and wax or oleic 
and stearic acid may be used in proper proportions. 
When chloral or other article that softens the 
vehicle is ordered, spermaceti in proportions up to 
15% of the total may be added. Gelatine and glyc- 
erine, sodium stearate (stearin soap) or sodium 
stearate and glycerite of starch may also be used. 
All may be made by casting in chilled moulds from 
a fused mass, or if sufficiently firm they may be 
formed by hand or compressed in dies by machine. 
153 If a liquid like glycerine is to be made into sup- 
positories a solution of sodium stearate in the liquid, 
effected by aid of heat, will, upon cooling, hold the 
liquid and yet be solid enough to introduce, or 
molecular proportions of sodium carbonate and 
stearic acid united will give the same result or 
better. But soap is not to be used with salts of the 
metals, tannin, etc., nor should gelatine be so used. 
Most suppositories are made from cacao-butter, 
and when no excipient is specified it should be used. 
As with an ointment, the medicinal substance 
should be in finest powder, contain no grit or 
lumps, the cacao-butter grated and the medicinal 
agent and part of the cacao-butter mixed perfectly, 
the remainder of the cacao-butter incorporated, the 
whole worked into a. plastic mass, rolled into a cylin- 
drical shape, cut into the desired number of parts and 
formed by hand, or the plastic mass put into a 
suitable machine and compressed in required man- 
ner, or the medicinal agent is mixed properly with 
a suitable first portion of cacao-butter and the 
remainder of the cacao-butter fused by means of a 
water bath and added, the whole stirred until inti- 
mately mixed and poured into moulds previously 
chilled. If the suppository should stick in the mould, 
lubricate mould with tincture green soap. Under 
no circumstances should the medicinal matter be 
heated with the base. Care must be exercised that 
the melted mass be almost ready to congeal before 
being poured into the moulds, which must be cold 
so that the mass will solidify before the medicinal 
portion can settle to the point of the suppository. 
When forming suppositories by hand the fingers 
should be kept well powdered with powdered starch 
to prevent the heat from them softening the sup- 
pository, and when formed the suppository may 
154 best be sprinkled with powdered starch. Lycopo- 
dium is slightly irritating to mucous membranes and 
should not be used; starch is cleaner and better. 
Suppositories should be dispensed in boxes lined 
with paraffined paper and bearing a label to "keep 
in a cool place. '' 
Glycerinated gelatineused as an excipient or base 
for preparing many suppositories. It can be used, 
however, only by using the moulding process. 
One part by weight of gelatine is first covered 
with cold water and upon standing twenty to thirty 
minutes the gelatine is softened and absorbs con- 
siderable water. It will now dissolve if heated 
with one part glycerine, but the water must be 
carefully evaporated, when the solution is poured 
into a lubricated mould and allowed to cool and 
should be allowed to stand some time in a cool place 
until sufficiently firm. 
Plasters are solid masses similar to oint- 
ments, but are spread upon paper, skin or textiles 
to be applied to the skin and are of such consistency 
that they must be heated to be spread and usually 
require heat to make them adhere to the skin. 
They are composed of metallic oleates or the 
same mixed with resins, waxes, soap, etc., or rub- 
ber and the medicinal substance; or, like court- 
plaster, they consist of a textile upon the face of 
which is spread a solution of gelatine and the back 
sized with tincture of benzoin. The gelatine 
solution is sometimes medicated with a mild 
remedial agent, antiseptic or such. So-called mull 
plasters consist of an inert base spread upon mull 
cloth and this used as a body or base upon which 
medicinal matter or another plaster mass is spread. 
Ordinary plaster base or "adhesive plaster" is 
155 lead oleate made more adhesive with rubber, two 
percent., and two percent, petrolatum added to favor 
handling. 
Common lead plaster or lead oleate is prepared 
by precipitation from solutions of lead acetate and 
sodium oleate or Castile soap. If from soap then 
there is some lead stearate present, but may be 
overlooked. The lead oleate is rolled until water is 
worked out and then wrapped in wax paper to 
exclude air; even then it spoils on the outside, 
getting brown and brittle-that portion should be 
removed. Lead plaster, when spread, rapidly 
becomes non-adhesive, hard and worthless. 
With very few exceptions plasters fail to exert 
any medicinal activity, but afford support and pro- 
tection and continue in use from former customs. 
While made now almost entirely by machinery, in 
large numbers, their preparation by the pharmacist 
at the prescription counter offers no diffiulty. 
Three utensils are necessary-first, a good, stiff, 
smooth spatula; then a water bath and a block or 
board of soft pine upon which to pin the paper, 
skin or cloth used to spread the plaster on; the 
plaster mass is just melted, the polished spatula 
dipped in hot water and used to spread the fused 
mass into a form cut from metal or cardboard and 
laid upon the cloth. The plaster, when cool, should 
be covered with paraffined paper and dispensed in a 
box or rolled loosely. 
Oleates are definite chemical salts of oleic 
acid and an alkaloid, or an alkaline hydroxide or a 
metallic oxide, usually with oleic acid in slight 
excess. They may be prepared by direct union of 
the two substances chosen, the reaction being 
favored by moderate heat and a little alcohol or 
156 water to start it. Or soluble oleates may be mixed 
in solution with the solution of a salt of the metal, 
using molecular proportions. The soluble oleates 
are those of the alkalies. The metallic oleates are 
the true plasters. The alkaloid oleates are sol- 
uble in excess of oleic acid and in oils, and most 
oleates are applied in the form of an ointment, being 
miscible with the various fatty substances. The 
preparation or compounding and the preserving and 
dispensing of oleates and ointments of the oleates 
are, of course, subject to the same considerations 
as are ointments. 
Poultices are solid or semi-solid mushes, or 
moist bundles of fabrics, hot or cold, plain or med- 
icated, used to produce anodyne, stimulant or 
vesicant effects by applying to the surface of the 
body. 
A poultice may be either a 
Cataplasm, 
Fomentation, or 
Compress. 
1. A cataplasm is a mushy, plastic, wet mass of 
farinaceous matter with or without medication, 
but hot as can be borne by the surface, and made of 
material to retain heat as long as possible and to 
be reheated when beginning to cool-examples, 
flax, bread, bran and clay cataplasms. 
An exception to the above is the cataplasm or 
poultice of mustard, which should never be pre- 
pared with hot water, but with only tepid water, 
since the water combining with a ferment in the 
mustard generates the volatile oil to which the 
action of the mustard is due, and would, if hot, 
volatilize the oil and otherwise heat would spoil the 
preparation. 
157 2. A fomentation is a woolen or other cloth which 
does not readily cool, saturated with a hot infusion 
of herbs and applied hot as can be borne. 
3. A compress is a dry, hot, or ice-cold body to 
carry heat or cold to the part to which applied, or 
it may be a wet, fibrous substance charged with 
hot or cold water or medicated solution. 
Medicated gauzes and cottons are prepared 
mostly by specialty manufacturers, but are some- 
times wanted of composition not obtainable ready 
made; they consist usually of sterilized cotton or 
gauze containing a certain percent, of an antiseptic 
or disinfectant agent and are used for keeping 
fresh wounds, etc., aseptic, and also to disinfect old 
sores, ulcers, etc., they may also contain glycerine 
or oil and resin to keep them soft. To prepare 
them the medicine is dissolved in ether or a suit- 
able volatile solvent; to this solution is added 
glycerine or oil and resin; the solution is then 
absorbed by the cotton or gauze and thoroughly 
diffused through it, wrung out and the preparation 
quickly dried without heat, in the dry air. They 
should be prepared with the utmost cleanliness and 
kept in tight containers. 
The proportion or percentage of medicinal matter 
must be related to the finished product, not to the 
first weight of the gauze or cotton. 
158 Vehicles and Diluents.-Each physician going 
into practice soon selects a few vehicles, diluents 
or solvents, learns the scope of their usefulness and 
then orders them mixed with the active medicament 
in prescriptions to make sufficient volume or bulk 
so that the dosage may be conveniently dispensed, 
measured and administered. One of the important 
opportunities open to a pharmacist for service to 
physicians whose prescriptions come frequently to 
his store is in connection with the selection of these 
diluents and solvents. 
If the active drug is to be dispensed as a solid- 
that is, as a powder or in capsules, pills, charts, 
cachets, etc.-milk sugar is probably the most gen- 
erally useful diluent, especially for powders or 
charts, capsules and cachets. 
If the dose of the drug ordered is less than one 
grain (.06 Gm.) it is good practice to add to each 
dose about 3 grs. (.2 Gm.) of milk sugar, thereby 
increasing the bulk of the powder so that it is easily 
divided into portions and easily manipulated by the 
dispenser and also so that the patient can easily 
handle a single dose. 
Aromatic Powder (Pulvis Aromaticus) and Pow- 
dered Sugar (Sacchari Pulvis) are also generally 
useful as diluents for dry medicaments given in- 
ternally. 
Starch (Amylum) or Talc (Talcum Purificatum) 
are used as diluents for dry powders used exter- 
nally. 
If the prescription be made into pills, Solid Ex- 
tract of Gentian (Extractum Genitanae) is very 
serviceable as a diluent and adhesive and should 
be added in sufficient quantity to bring the total 
weight of each pill to about 3 grs. (.2 Gm.). 
159 When it becomes necessary to add a diluent or 
solvent to a liquid preparation it is desirable to 
know whether the drugs ordered contain much or 
little alcohol, or none at all, whether solids are to be 
dissolved, whether, in addition to adding a diluent 
to increase the bulk or volume of the liquid, it is 
also desirable to add color and flavor. 
Probably the most generally useful diluent for 
liquids is Red Aromatic Elixir (Elixir Aromaticum 
Rubrum) (see Elixirs), which is miscible not only 
with very many aqueous liquids, but also with many 
liquids of low alcoholic strength and, moreover, is 
both flavored and colored. 
When this elixir is mixed with liquids containing 
a high percentage of alcohol, precipitation, if any 
occurs, is usually of such a nature that the mixture 
when shaken becomes uniform throughout its bulk 
and while "shake mixtures" are undesirable they 
may be used at times, if the separated solids mix 
easily with the remainder when shaken. 
Most of the salts or solids which can be dis- 
solved in water will also dissolve in Simple Elixir 
in sufficient proportion for medical use. 
If the alcohol contained in Simple Elixir is ob- 
jectionable and water alone is suitable, it is good 
practice to order one of the aromatic waters-pep- 
permint water and chloroform water being two 
popular ones. 
Simple Syrup (Syrupus), Syrup Tolu (Syrupus 
Tolutanus), Syrup Yerba Santa Aromatic (Syrupus 
Eriodictyi Aromaticus), Syrup Orange Flower 
(Syrupus Aurantii Florum) are also of use when a 
sweet diluent is desired. 
Concentrated solutions of such salts as Potassium 
Iodide, Ammonium Chloride, Sodium Bromide are 
160 usually more acceptable if free from aromatics or 
added flavors. The dose, when taken, should be 
diluted considerably with water, and then followed 
with a drink of water, milk, tea, coffee, etc. 
If a high percentage of alcohol is desirable, and 
the exact percentage wanted is known, that percent- 
age should be ordered, or at all events should be 
approximated. 
Formerly Whiskey (Spiritus Frumenti) or 
Brandy (Spiritus Vini Gallici) were occasionally 
used as diluents in such cases. 
In addition to the foregoing the following elixirs 
are of service as diluents, solvents or vehicles in 
liquids for internal use: 
Aromatic Elixir (Elixir Aromaticum). 
Elixir Bitter Orange (Elixir Aurantii Amari). 
Elixir Anise (Elixir Anisi). 
Elixir Almond Compound (Elixir Amygdalae 
Compositum). 
Elixir Cardamon Compound (Elixir Cardamoni 
Compositum). 
Elixir Eriodicyton Aromatic (Elixir Eriodictyi 
Aromaticum). 
Elixir Glycyrrhiza Aromatic (Elixir Glycyrrhizae 
Aromaticum). 
Elixir Taraxacum Compound (Elixir Taraxaci 
Compositum). 
Elixir Vanillin Compound (Elixir Vanillini Com- 
positum). 
Elixir Pepsin (Elixir Pepsini). 
Elixir Pepsin Lactated and Elixir Pepsin Com- 
pound (Elixir Pepsini Compositum) are largely 
used since they serve as diluents and also in some 
circumstances as correctives. 
As usually prepared, the last two elixirs are a 
161 (lark red color. The first five elixirs in the above 
list are nearly or quite colorless; the next five much 
darker amber or red. 
For ointments, Petrolatum (Petrolatum) is the 
most generally used diluent; if a more absorbable 
diluent is wanted, Lard Benzoinated (Adeps Ben- 
zoinatus( may be used or a part of the diluent may 
be Hydrous Wool Fat (Adeps Lanae Hydrosus). 
Solid Petroxolin (Petroxolinum Spissum) is also 
very useful as a vehicle for external applications. 
For oily liquids used externally or as nasal 
sprays, Liquid Petrolatum (Petrolatum Liquidum) 
is generally ordered as the diluent. 
Soap Liniment (Linimentum Saponis) is a use- 
ful diluent in alcoholic liniments. 
Very few official elixirs, syrups, ointments, etc., 
require the addition of diluents if administered to 
adults: for children, the bulk of the dose may be 
reduced or if, as many prefer to do, the dose of 
liquid mixtures be made one teaspoonful, then a dil- 
uent is required. 
Generally speaking, the physician who makes his 
prescription fit the case, has frequent need to order 
diluents, vehicles or solvents and should have some 
acquaintance with an extensive list of such prepara- 
tions. 
Any of the diluents named in the foregoing may 
be prescribed at times in some cases as a placebo- 
an article given to please the patient rather than for 
therapeutic effects. 
162 Liquids for internal use: 
Solutions, Liquors, Succus, Juice. 
Waters. 
Infusions, Infused Oils. 
Decoctions. 
Syrups. 
Honeys. 
Elixirs. 
Spirits. 
Vehicles, Diluents. 
Mucilages. 
Emulsions, Milks, Magma. 
Mixtures. 
Liquids for external use: 
Collodions. 
Liniments. 
Petroxolins, Liquid. 
Enemas. 
Gargles. • 
Baths. 
Lotions. 
Sprays, Nebula. 
Inhalations. 
From the above classification there have been 
omitted a few classes-fluidextracts, fluidglycerates, 
tinctures, wines, oleoresins, etc.-that cannot be 
well made extemporaneously. 
163 LIQUIDS FOR INTERNAL USE. 
a. Solutions 
1 Simple. 
2. Compound solutions. 
A simple or physical solution is a transparent 
liquid resulting from the homogeneous blending of 
the molecules of two substances in such a manner 
that neither alters its chemical identity. 
The substance dissolved may be either solid, 
liquid or gaseous:' the dissolving substance is 
usually a liquid and called the solvent; however, 
solids may liquefy or pass into solution when 
brought together and one liquid may be dissolved 
in another. Heat, as a rule, favors solution of 
solids and liquids, but of course retards solution 
of gaseous substances. Nor is it always true of 
solids, some solids being less soluble in warm than 
in cold liquids. When the solvent is not specified 
water is always to be used. 
Solids and liquids are more easily dissolved if in 
a fine state of division and solution is aided by 
agitation, stirring, etc., since it brings fresh por- 
tions of the solvent in contact with the substance 
successively. 
Some solids dropped into a solvent will begin to 
dissolve and form a dense solution around the par- 
ticles, which protect the remaining undissolved 
portion from the remaining liquid, hence the 
necessity of agitation; particularly is this true of 
gums and most colloidal bodies, which are best 
dissolved by stirring coarse pieces with water. 
164 Scale salts of iron, scale pepsin, gums, etc., may 
be dissolved more readily if added to the solvent 
and stirred than if placed in the vessel and the 
liquid poured upon them. 
Drugs containing saponin, soap, extract licorice 
or other substances which froth should not be 
shaken with a liquid in a partly filled bottle if that 
bottle is to be filled subsequently; when such a 
condition results the froth will sometimes break if 
treated with a few drops of alcohol or potassium 
hydroxide solution. Such mixtures would better be 
made in a mortar. As a rule solids should not be 
placed in the prescription bottle and the bottle filled 
with solvent. If practicable, solution prescriptions 
should be filtered. 
Solutions should be prepared with the solvent at 
normal temperature without the use of heat, if 
practicable. Many substances are injured by heat- 
ing and this should be carefully considered, espe- 
cially with reference to organic substances. 
Solutions are saturated when no more of the sub- 
stance will be dissolved by the solvent, and a satu- 
rated solution, therefore, is of definite strength, only 
when prepared at a definite temperature, now pre- 
scribed at 25° C. by the Pharmacopoeia. 
A supersaturated solution is one containing in 
solution more substance than the solvent would 
dissolve at that temperature. Many salts will dis- 
solve to a far greater extent in warm water than in 
cool; if water is saturated at a high temperature 
with a salt, the resultant solution in some cases may 
be cooled to a lower temperature without the sepa- 
ration of the solid: usually in such a solution 
crystals will form rapidly upon slight disturbance, 
especially if a crystal of the dissolved substance 
165 be suspended or dropped in that solution. A 
mixture of solution and an excess of the substance 
which is in solution with it, does not constitute a 
supersaturated solution. 
Phenol crystals, heated, will liquefy with ten or 
five percent, of water added-this is a solution of 
water in phenol: if it be at perfect rest and allowed 
to cool slowly, it sometimes happens that upon the 
slightest touch the solution immediately solidifies 
to a mass of needle-shaped crystals. 
A percentage solution contains a certain number 
of parts by weight of the substance in solvent enough 
to make 100 parts by weight of solution. So-called 
percentage solutions are sometimes prepared by 
taking weight parts of solid and volume parts of 
liquid; such solutions, while not percentage solu- 
tions, are of value in pharmacy since liquid med- 
icines are administered by volume measures, but 
true percentage solutions cannot be made that way. 
A number of solutions are official in the U. S. P. 
under the title liquores. In dispensing prescriptions 
for solids and liquids together, if possible the solid 
should be dissolved. A solution is always improved 
in appearance, transparency, etc., by being filtered; 
often, too, filtration will aid in preserving a liquid. 
To prepare a solution of a solid the solid should be 
placed in a deep mortar, pulverized if necessary, a 
portion of the liquid poured on and stirred or tritu- 
rated until no more solid will dissolve, the solution 
poured off and the operation repeated with fresh 
portions of solvent until complete solution is 
effected. 
For the purpose here deemed most practical we 
will consider a compound solution as a solution of a 
substance in a liquid solvent prepared by means of 
a third substance as a necessary auxiliary. 
166 Some substances are soluble in water or ordinary 
solvents to a limited extent, or they may be almost 
insoluble therein and yet are perfectly soluble in 
a solution of another substance, without the inter- 
change of molecules, or without chemical reaction. 
These substances when used as solvents may be 
called auxiliary solvents or compound solvents. 
Below we give a list of substances which are soluble 
to only a limited extent in water, with correspond- 
ing auxiliary solvents, by the use of which a more 
or less concentrated solution may be easily effected. 
167 Compound Solvents; 
SUBSTANCE. 
AUXILIARY SOLVENT. 
Acid Benzoic 
Sodium Benzoate, Phosphate, Sul- 
phate. 
Acid Boric 
Sodium Borate, Glycerine, Sugar. 
Acid Gallic 
Potassium Citrate. 
Acid Salicylic 
Borax. 
Bismuth Citrate 
Ammonia water. 
Bismuth Subcarbonate.. 
Ammonium Carbonate. 
Borates 
Boric Acid. Bitartrates. 
Borax 
Sugar. 
Bromine 
Potassium Bromide, Sod. Bromide, 
Am. Brom. 
Calcium Hydroxide 
Sugar. 
Calcium Phosphate .... 
Ammonium Chloride. 
Chrysarobin 
Alkalies. 
Citrates 
Sodium, Potassium, or Ammonium 
Citrate. 
Cotton 
Ammonio-Sulphate of Copper. 
Iodine 
Potassium Iodide. 
Iron Carbonate 
Sugar. 
Iron Oxalate 
Iron Oxide and Hydrox- 
Oxalic Acid 
ide 
Iron Phosphate, Pyro- 
phosphate and Tar- 
Sugar. 
trate 
Alkali Citrates and Tartrates. 
Mercury Bichloride.... 
Ammonium Chloride, Sodium Chlo- 
ride, Hydrochloric Acid. 
Mercury Biniodide 
Potassium Iodide, Sodium Thiosul- 
phate. 
Mercury Sulphate 
Met cur Ammonium 
Potassium Sulphate. 
Chloride 
Ammonium Acetate, Carbonate, or 
Nitrate. 
Pepsin 
Hydrochloric Acid. 
Phosphates 
Alkali Phosphates, Am. Acetate. 
Potassium Bitartrate... 
Borax and Alkalies. 
Pyrophosphates 
Alkali Pyrophosphates, Citrates. 
Silver Cyanide 
Potassium Cyanide, Sodium Thio- 
sulphate, Ammonia. 
Silver Iodide 
Potassium Cyanide, Alkali Iodides. 
Tartrates 
Tartaric Acid, Caustic Alkalies. 
Zinc Carbonate 
Ammonia water. 
Zinc Oxide 
Ammonium Carbonate. 
168 We should carefully consider the difference 
between the meaning of the term solution, a phar- 
macopoeial preparation, and solution as used to define 
a state of aggregation of matter. As to the correct 
definition of the latter term there is much difference 
of opinion and therefore it is undefined. 
In the case of bases, acids and salts which may be 
decomposed by the electric current by passing it 
through their solutions, the positive radicle gathers 
at the negative electrode while the negative radicle 
gathers at the positive electrode, and it is further 
claimed that electrolytes (bodies capable of decom- 
position by electrolysis) when in solution are in a 
state of dissociation into their respective radicles or 
elemental particles; these particles being called ions 
and that when any salt, acid or base is dissolved in 
water it is dissociated into its respective ions, more 
or less, according to the state of dilution of the so- 
lution; complete dissociation being possible only in 
an infinitely dilute solution. And also that the color 
of a solution is the color of the ions in that solution 
and that the chemical properties are the properties 
of the ions-example, water solution of copper 
sulphate contains Cu ions and also SO^ ions sepa- 
rated. Upon passing the electric current through 
the solution the copper ions are deposited in a 
dissociated pure metallic state upon the negative 
electrode while the acid remains in the solution in 
contact with the positive electrode. 
A chemical solution is usually considered as a 
solution of a body in a liquid whereby a chemical 
change takes place producing a new compound 
distinct and different from the original-example, 
chalk dissolved in dilute acetic acid. But the above 
definition and example do not clearly and accurately 
define the term chemical solution. First there was 
169 a chemical reaction and immediately afterward the 
new compound formed by that reaction was 
dissolved by simple solution. If, however, carbon 
dioxide be dissolved in water carbonic acid is 
formed. When any anhydride dissolves in water 
the corresponding acid is formed. 
Crystalline solids, with water of crystallization, 
and some others when dissolved in water rapidly, 
lower the temperature by using the heat to effect 
solution. On the other hand, anhydrous salts 
capable of crystallizing with crystal water dis- 
solve with evolution of heat and a considerable 
reduction of volume. Some liquids produce the 
same phenomenon-the greater the amount of heat 
evolved the greater the reduction in volume. It 
is undoubtedly because of a physical union of the 
molecules of the substance with the water, while 
in the case of crystals containing water or those 
which will not unite chemically with it, the heat is 
nearly used up to effect solution. On the other 
hand, the formation of crystals gives off heat 
which usually is not manifested because evapora- 
tion of some liquid again utilizes it. Chloride of 
ammonium and nitrate of potassium dissolved in 
water lower temperature greatly. Ten parts of 
potassium iodide with six parts of water, by weight, 
dissolved rapidly, under certain conditions may 
cause a deposit of water on the outside of the flask 
which, upon further shaking of flask, freezes to 
ice, while beside it at same time ten parts sodium 
hydroxide plus six parts water under certain condi- 
tions may evolve so much heat as to render handling 
of flask impossible. 
Some deliquescent salts when moist will absorb 
heat while being dissolved, but if they be rendered 
anhydrous will dissolve with evolution of heat; so 
170 also will some salts which are capable of crystalliz- 
ing with water of crystallization, but which have 
been rendered anhydrous, first evolve heat while 
they combine chemically with water of crystalliza- 
tion, after which the newly formed substance 
dissolves with absorption of heat, first raising then 
lowering the temperature-example, fused calcium 
chloride. 
Solutions of some substances will, when that 
substance begins to crystallize, evolve heat. The 
thermolite bag furnishes an exaggerated but very 
useful example of the evolution of heat from the 
formation of crystals. 
There are no solvents capable of dissolving all 
substances. There are no solid substances soluble in 
all liquids. There are no substances absolutely in- 
soluble in cold solvents and yet soluble in the same 
solvents when heated. Solubility of substances 
varies very greatly: 1 part water dissolves 3 parts 
zinc chloride or tannin, but 800,000 parts are nec- 
essary to dissolve 1 part barium sulphate, and 
2,000,000 parts water for 1 part silver bromide. 
"Solubility" of substances, usually, is considered 
at 25° C. in water, and the knowledge of the relative 
solubility of many substances is a great aid to the 
pharmacist (see table following.) 
171 Compounds. 
Those Soluble. 
Those relatively not 
Soluble. 
Special Remarks. 
Acetates 
Arsenites 1 
Arsenates ) 
Benzoates 
Borates 
Bromides 
Bromates 
Carbonates 
Chlorides 
Chlorates 
Citrates 
Cyanides 
Ferricyanides 1 
Ferrocyanides f 
Gallates 
Hydroxides 
All, except 
Those of alkalies 
Nearly all 
Of alkali-metals 
All. except 
Of alkali-metals 
All, except 
All 
Of alkalies 
Of alkalies. mercury.... 
Of alkali-metals and 
alkaline earths 
Of alkalies 
Of alkalies, alkaline 
earths 
Quinine acetate.. 
All others 
Benzoic acid 
Metallic 
Pb., Hg„ Ag„ Bi. 
and Sb 
All others 
j Ag.. Pb., BiOCl 
1 Hg 
Others 
Others 
Others 
Others 
Others 
All are soluble in HC1 and NH*C1. 
( Benzoic acid soluble in alcohol. 
\ Aq. sol. sod. benzoate, phosphate, sul- 
( phate. 
Sol. in dilute inorganic acids. 
Solutions of bromides dissolve bromine. 
Decomposed by acids. 
All decomposed by all acids, save HCN. 
1 AgCl sol. in sal. ammonia. 
1 PbCl sol. in hot water. 
Solutions of alkali-citrates dissolve salts 
of iron, bismuth, etc. 
All are soluble in water with excess of 
Pot. Cyanide and HCN. 
Decomposed by acids liberating HCN. 
J Soluble in excess of acid. 
( Gallic acid sol. in alkali citrates. 
('Aluminum hydroxide soluble in excess 
KOH or NaOH. 
Salts of organic acids, sugar, glycerine 
and gum retard precipitation of metal- 
l lie hydroxides. 
Relative Solubility of Substances in Water. 
172 Compounds. 
Those Soluble. 
Those relatively not 
Soluble. 
Special Remarks. 
Hypochlorites.... 
Hypophosphites. 
Iodides 
Iodates 
All 
Of alkali 
All, except 
Others 
Ag., Pb., Hg. and 
basic iodides 
Bi. and Cu. 
Decompose unless preserved in excess of 
alkali. 
Prone to decompose - act as reducing 
agents. 
Decomposed by acids liberating Iodine. 
Nitrates 
Nitrites 
All, except 
All, except 
Bismuthyl nitrate 
Those of Ag., Pb. 
Decomposed by acids liberating nitrous 
acid. 
Oxalates 
Oxides 
Permanganates .. 
Of alkalies 
Alkaline earths 
All 
Others 
All others 
Soluble in dilute inorganic acids. 
Strong oxidizing agents: decomposed by 
Phosphates 
Salicylates 
Sulphates 
Sulphides 
Sulphites 
Tannates 
Tartrates 
Valerianates 
Of alkalies 
Of alkalies 
All, except 
Alkali-metals 
Alkali-metals 
Alkali 
Most all 
Of other metals.. 
All others 
Ba., Sr., Ca., Ag., 
Pb., Hg 
Others 
Others 
Basic tannate of 
heavy metals... 
Others 
Iron, Zinc 
organic matter and reducing agents. 
Soluble in dilute acids. 
Easily decomposed by acids evolving H,S. 
Soluble in acetic acid, bleach vegetable 
colors, by giving off SO2. 
All are very unstable. 
Relative Solubility of Substances in Water. 
173 Ampoules.-In the last few years a great many 
solutions of medicinal agents such as iron, mercury, 
arsenic compounds, alkaloidal salts, etc., have been 
prepared for injection hypodermically, intramuscu- 
larly, or intravenously and packaged by manufac- 
turing pharmacists in sealed glass ampoules, each 
containing one dose. 
When wanted for administration the ampoule is 
held by the smaller, drawn-out, fused end or stem 
and shaken so that all the solution is thrown into 
the oblong bulbar part; the stem, if not previously 
scratched, is marked with a sharp file; part of the 
stem is snapped off: the hypodermic needle attached 
to the syringe is passed into the solution in the 
ampoule, the ampoule is held upside down above 
the syringe and by withdrawing the plunger all of 
the solution is drawn into the syringe. It is im- 
portant that the syringe, needle and solution all 
be sterile. 
Some articles, such as camphor, may be dissolved 
in a fatty oil-olive, cottonseed, almond, etc.-and 
others, such as some of the mercury compounds, 
may be suspended in a fatty oil for administration 
hypodermically, etc., but in general water is the 
solvent for these preparations. 
Serums, Vaccines, Bacterins.-Biological prepara- 
tions do not necessarily fall within the groups of 
medicines that pass across the prescription counter 
in a drug store, but as a matter of convenience are 
usually associated with prescription work. 
Since these articles are administered hypodermi- 
cally or in some few instances, intradermally 
(smallpox virus) intramuscularly or intravenously, 
174 it is exceedingly important that they be free from 
contamination and pass the required sterility test. 
As a matter of potency, it is important that they be 
administered before the "expiration date" named 
on the package. 
The original package, if containing but one dose, 
should not be broken or opened until the moment 
of administration to the patient, and the contents 
may be withdrawn from the container in the manner 
described under "ampoules." 
Packages containing more than one dose are 
usually closed with a soft rubber stopper, which 
can be punctured with a hollow hypodermic needle, 
through which a single dose can be drawn into the 
syringe. 
It is not lawful to sell in interstate commerce a 
biological preparation unless it has been prepared 
and propagated in a laboratory licensed by the Sec- 
retary of the Treasury, acting through the Public 
Health Service and Hygienic Laboratory or, if in- 
tended for use in veterinary practice, licensed by 
the Department of Agriculture, acting through the 
Bureau of Animal Industry. 
Various state laws and regulations have been 
made also, and in some instances these may supple- 
ment the Federal laws and regulations, but in all 
cases of apparent conflict, the Federal statutes pre- 
vail and govern. 
It is the usual practice to keep biological prepara- 
tions in a dark place where the temperature can be 
kept between 4.5° and 15° C. (40°-59° F.). Short 
exposure to somewhat higher temperatures is not 
injurious, especially in the case of bacterins. 
175 b. Emulsions. 
An emulsion is a liquid preparation containing 
a finely powdered insoluble solid or an immiscible 
fluid (usually oily) in a fine state of division, inti- 
mately mixed with and suspended more or less 
permanently in water, by the aid of an emulsifying 
agent, usually gum. 
There are three principal classes of emulsifying 
agents, namely: 
1. Gums. 
2. Albuminoids. 
3. Soapy substances. 
Of the gums, acacia and tragacanth are most 
common, but chondrus, cetraria, quince mucilage, 
etc., are occasionally used. Of the albuminous 
substances egg and milk are good examples, 
although various vegetable ferments and other pro- 
teolytic bodies of animal origin could be used- 
emulsin, diastase, pancreatin, ptyalin, etc., may be 
used. Egg is very efficacious as an emulsifier, 
having great power and capable of use with a 
variety of substances; also milk if greatly con- 
densed without use of heat, but both spoil rapidly 
and must be preserved with an antiseptic, or the 
emulsion consumed within a short time. 
Soaps and saponins may be used to good advan- 
tage for emulsions to be used externally, but are 
not suitable for employment with internal remedies 
except in few cases. Alkalies act by first combin- 
ing with fat or resin acids to form soap and the 
soap, in turn, acting as the agent for emulsification; 
hence they can not be used except with true fats, 
resins or oleoresins. Copaiba may be emulsified 
by using liquor potassa-but volatile oils can not. 
Egg yolk and milk are natural emulsions of oils 
by aid of albuminoid agents; in the egg, -vileUin; 
176 in milk, the cream is held in suspension by casein. 
When casein is coagulated the cream separates as 
butter. In seed emulsions, oil is held in natural 
emulsion by the vegetable albuminoid ferment 
present. Gum resins have their resin emulsified by 
the gum present. 
To prepare a seed emulsion, therefore, it is nec- 
essary only to take the seed freed from the pericarp 
and triturate with small portions of water, added 
at intervals, and when finished strain out all coarse 
particles. 
A gum-resin emulsion is made from fresh, 
selected pieces of gum-resin by rubbing in a 
(warm) mortar with small portions of water grad- 
ually added, and when finished straining out the 
solid particles remaining. The principal gum- 
resin emulsions are those of ammoniac, asafoetida 
and myrrh, respectively, and since gum-resins are 
not capable of being powdered without drying 
them, whereby the volatile oil is driven off along 
with the water and usually the gum spoiled at the 
same time, it follows that powdered gum-resins are 
nearly worthless and should never be used for 
emulsions. But the great majority of emulsions 
to be prepared by the pharmacist are those of 
1. Fixed oils. 
2. Volatile oils. 
3. Resins and oleoresins. 
While emulsions may be made by aid of various 
agents, those most generally used and available 
under a greater variety of conditions are the gums. 
Gums may be used dry or in solution, as mucilage. 
There are many gums, but acacia is best and trag- 
acanth follows in value. 
Different processes are in use and while one 
person gets better results with a certain method of 
177 procedure another succeeds better with a different 
method. "Men's opinions, like their watches, vary; 
no two are just alike, yet each believes his own." 
As with method of procedure so with proportions 
of gum oil and water. 
Success in emulsion making depends principally 
upon a correlation of a reasonable method with a 
reasonable proportion, etc. 
We give a process which will always ensure suc- 
cess if followed carefully, and reasonable propor- 
tions of gum oil and water used. Also a proportion 
which will always ensure success with a reasonable 
method. 
Take 
No. 1. 
No. 2. 
Fixed oil. .. 
, .4 ) i 
( Volatile oil.. . 
..2 
Acacia... .. 
.. 2 >• or - 
Acacia 
...2 
Water .. . . , 
..3 । 
[ Water 
..3 
Place finely powdered acacia in a dry mortar (any 
ordinary wedgwood mortar will answer), upon it 
pour the oil and stir until evenly mixed to a uni- 
form, pasty mass and all at once add the water and 
immediately stir rapidly with the pestle (pressure 
not necessary), until a light colored, uniform paste 
results and a crackling sound is produced and no 
oil globules can be seen. This is the emulsion-, it 
then may be diluted with water and other fluids 
added, but the first water is called water of emulsi- 
fication and must always be added all at once and 
in not too great a quantity, but must be sufficient 
to dissolve the gum, and the mucilage so formed by 
the solution of the gum in water should be dense 
or thick. 
One and a half times as much water as gum is a 
proper proportion-the proportion of water to gum 
is of more account than that of oil and water or oil 
178 and gum. Since oils vary in properties it follows 
that some are more difficult to emulsify, requiring 
more gum than others less difficult. 
The above proportion No. 1 will answer for any 
fixed oil-volatile oils are relatively more difficult 
to emulsify than fixed oils, hence see formula No. 2 
has an amount of gum equal to the volatile oil, yet 
the proportion of water to gum is the same and 
should be in all cases. Many volatile oils are capable 
of being emulsified with far less gum, but the above 
proportion will suffice for any volatile oil. 
Resins maybe dissolved in volatile oils and emul- 
sified, as are oleoresins, by using the same propor- 
tions as for volatile oils. 
Tragacanth is very much stronger than acacia, 
making a translucent, viscid mucilage with thirty 
times its weight of water. This mucilage is not 
a solution, however, for tragacanth does not dis- 
solve but absorbs a large amount of water; it fol- 
lows that for substances very prone to separate or 
difficult to emulsify, such as heavy, solid powders, 
some fluids like chloroform, etc., tragacanth is used 
with advantage; also in oil emulsions that are to 
be dispensed concentrated or kept for some time. 
The process is the same, but proportions vary, 
being: 
Tragacanth .. 1 
Fixed oil 16 
Water 20 
• or • 
Tragacanth.. 1 
Volatile oil.. 8 
Water 20 
Again, as before, water is proportioned to gum 
and should always be about twenty times as much 
and a tragacanth emulsion should be stirred longer 
than one made with acacia in order to give the 
tragacanth time to absorb the water, which it does 
somewhat slowly. 
179 Some favor this process-. 
Place dry gum in dry mortar. 
' " oil over gum. 
" water over oil so that it does not touch 
the gum below, then rapidly triturate until 
emulsion is formed. 
Others favor this process: 
Take gum and add water to form a thick 
mucilage; then gradually, in portions, add 
the oil, thoroughly emulsifying each portion 
before adding more. 
Both will give success if manipulation be perfect, 
but a novice is apt to fail with the first, and with 
the last it takes a very much longer time if the last 
oil be entirely extinguished. 
The water of emulsification first added must be 
water, not syrup, not glycerine, not a solution of 
acid, alkali nor salt: these substances, alcoholic 
liquids, etc., should be added after the emulsion 
has been made and first diluted as far as possible 
with plain water. 
Some profess to prefer making an emulsion in a 
bottle-we consider it a slovenly process, but it will 
answer with volatile liquids nicely. When an 
emulsion is to be so made, from dry gum, the oil 
should be placed in the bottle first and flowed over 
all parts of the surface; then the gum added and 
shaken until uniformly mixed, after which the 
water of emulsification is added and the whole 
again violently shaken until a nucleus or primary 
emulsion results, when it is gradually diluted. 
Some substances, like phenols, etc., may first be 
mixed with a bland, fixed oil, like olive or almond 
oil, and afterward emulsified. Solid fats, waxes, 
etc., to be emulsified must be meflted first, but, in 
general, heat hinders emulsification. With egg 
180 yolk about two parts of fixed oil or one part of vola- 
tile oil may be emulsified. With condensed milk 
about ten times its weight of fixed oil. 
Chondrus and cetraria jellies may be used to 
emulsify in the proportions of about one part muci- 
lage to two of fixed oil or equal parts volatile 
oil. Chondrus "jelly" may be made by boiling 
a half drachm of the mass to an ounce of water, 
straining and adding one-fourth ounce glycerine or 
alcohol. First wash moss with cold water to remove 
salts, etc. 
Saponin is used in the form of tincture of quillaya 
and while having emulsifying power sufficient to 
recommend it, its acrid toxic properties condemn it 
in medicines for internal use. The object of prepar- 
ing emulsions is to overcome the disagreeable taste 
and get the substance in such form that it may 
easily be assimilated. 
Emulsions should be dispensed in wide-mouthed 
bottles when thick and always should bear a 
"shake" label, and those prepared from milk or 
egg should further be directed to be kept in a cool 
place. 
01. Ricini f^i. 
Syrup f^ii. 
Acacia. 
Olei Gaultheria. 
Aquae aa qs f^viii. 
M. Ft. Emulsio. S. §iii h. s. 
Place the acacia (| = 4), 4 drachms, in a dry mor- 
tar, add the oil and thoroughly mix: (8 + 4 = 12: 
ig2 = 6), so take six fluidrachms water and add all at 
once to the mixture, stir briskly until the oil disap- 
pears, a creamy liquid results and a crackling sound 
is produced; then add sufficient oil of gaultheria to 
181 flavor and gradually add the remainder of the water, 
stirring after each addition, and lastly the syrup, and 
dispense with a "shake the bottle'' label. 
$. 01. Terebinthina Canadensis f|i. 
Creosoti. 
01. Cinnamomi aa f3i. 
Sacchari Albi |ii. 
Ft. Emulsio ad f^xii. 
S. 4 cc. t.i. d. for cough. 
Place the balsam of fir in a warm, dry mortar, to 
render it more fluid; add to it the oil of cinnamon 
and creosote, add ten drachms of acacia and again 
mix, then add an amount of water equal to one and 
one-half times the acacia or two fluid ounces. Stir 
rapidly until primary emulsion is formed, then dilute 
gradually with water and lastly add the sugar 
and dispense with shake label. 
5. 01. Morrhuae f^iv. 
Spt. Vini Gallici fji. 
Tinct. Vanillae f3i. 
Ft. Emulsio Cum ovi ad f^xii. 
S. as directed. 
Into a mortar put the yolks of two eggs, or the 
whole eggs may be used, reduce to a uniform liquid 
by beating or stirring, next add the oil in one por- 
tion and triturate until an emulsion results; trans- 
fer to a bottle; to the spirit and tincture add water 
enough so that the three will increase the volume of 
the emulsion to twelve fluid ounces. This should be 
labeled "Keep in a cool place'' and will be apt to 
spoil, hence antiseptics are sometimes added to pre- 
serve the egg. 
1$. Bitter Almonds 60 grams. 
Water to make ...1000 Cc. 
Boric Acid 20 grams. 
182 Mix. Label "Almond milk for softening and 
whitening the skin.'' 
Soak the almonds in tepid water until the skins 
come loose. Remove the skins and to the blanched 
almonds add a small amount of water and beat to a 
smooth pulp, then add the water in portions, tritur- 
ating well after each portion is added, lastly strain 
out the almond pulp and add the boric acid. 
Patent emulsionizing agents are to be avoided, 
being either worthless or harmful medicinally. 
No competent pharmacist need use them. 
No conscientious pharmacist will use them. 
c. Mixtures. The term mixture formerly em- 
braced seed and gum-resin emulsions, but now 
the Pharmacopoeia uses the title for a class of 
preparations containing insoluble matter in a fine 
state of division suspended in a watery fluid. 
Twenty-two are listed in the U. S. P. and N. F.- 
all best when prepared extemporaneously. But the 
pharmacist understands the term to have a much 
more liberal meaning, and therefore he usually 
designates all liquids not transparent solutions nor 
emulsions as mixtures. The prime object is to get a 
uniform liquid preparation containing the insoluble 
substance in a fine state of division and to accom- 
plish this and secure a mixture which, when shaken, 
will be uniform^ often requires the best skill and 
ability possessed. Some solids mixed in a certain 
manner form gritty lumps or glutinous masses with 
water or other fluids, yet mixed in different order, 
will give no trouble. Again, two substances are 
to be combined which will give a precipitate, but if 
brought together properly will give a fine, bulky 
precipitate which can be, by shaking, uniformly 
distributed, while another method would give a 
183 precipitate, dense, heavy and uneven. Again, two 
liquids to be mixed, which are incompatible and 
would result in anything but the object desired, 
may however, by use of a neutral protective agent 
or diluent, be combined without trouble. Alcoholic 
tinctures of resinous substances prescribed with 
water or watery solutions of saline salts or acids 
will make very unsightly mixtures, with lumps of 
precipitated resin if improperly mixed, but often 
can be mixed in proper manner, giving a uniform 
emulsion-like liquid. Solids entering into a mix- 
ture should be in fine powder and the mixture 
so prepared that uniform dosage may be had and 
they always should bear a "shake" label when 
dispensed. 
d. Waters are water solutions of volatile sub- 
stances, usually gases or volatile oils. 
Gases are soluble in water in varying proportions' 
depending partly upon the water being kept cold 
and the gas forced into it under pressure during 
agitation. Volatile oils and other aromatic sub- 
stances are soluble to a slight degree. Usually 
volatile oils are soluble in about the proportion of 
of one percent, and this solution can be effected 
in various ways. All depends upon bringing the 
oil particles, in a fine state of division, in contact 
with the water, and this division is effected by dis- 
tributing the oil on cotton or triturating with an 
insoluble dry powder and then mixing with water, 
or the water may be made by distillation. Distilla- 
tion is not practical for the dispensing pharmacist, 
so the distilled waters, plain as well as the aromatic, 
are usually purchased from the distiller, who 
usually obtains it as a by-product from distilling 
volatile oils. 
184 By percolating water through cotton charged with 
oil a good water can be obtained, if the oil be well 
distributed over a relatively large bulk of cotton. 
When an insoluble powder is used upon which to 
distribute the oil it should be dry and insoluble in 
water and neutral in action toward water or volatile 
oils. Magnesium carbonate should not be used 
because it is not neutral, nor is it insoluble, it usually 
contains magnesium oxide and many oils are colored 
by its reaction. Calcium phosphate, precipitated, is 
good. Barium sulphate is more nearly insoluble, 
but care must be taken that none passes through 
the filter paper. Another good method is to take 
filter paper pulp dried, and drop the oil upon it 
and place in a strong bottle and pour on boiling 
water. All waters should be kept filtered, clear 
from deposit and no oil globules should be allowed 
to pass through the filter; this may be avoided by 
wetting the paper before beginning to filter the 
aromatic water. Aromatic waters often spoil and 
hence should be watched that they be in good 
condition. 
e. Mucilages are concentrated solutions of gums 
in water. There are two principal kinds of gums, 
arabin gums (example, acacia) and bassorin gums 
(example, tragacanth). Arabin gums are soluble, 
forming a clear, dense, viscid mucilage with water 
in the proportion of one part gum to one and a half 
water, or less water. 
Bassorin gums absorb large amounts of water, 
swell and form a sticky, pasty mass which is opaque, 
or, if very dilute, translucent. Under the influence 
of moderate heat for some time the gum is altered 
and partly dissolves. 
185 Other gums are very little used. The general 
impression is that mucilages all spoil very rapidly 
and various means are adopted to prevent them 
from souring. They do spoil readily, particularly 
when dilute, but if select gum arabic be dissolved 
in equal parts of distilled water, or not more than 
one and a half times as much water, and the bottle 
covered with a cloth of coarse mesh, or absorbent 
cotton, it may be kept fairly well. We have kept 
it six months during summer weather with no 
trouble, and never using anything to preserve but 
the density of the solution. Of course dirty muci- 
lage would be apt to develop vegetable growths 
from spores present in the foreign matter. Muci- 
lages are not used for any medicinal effect since 
they are neutral and inert, but they are used to 
emulsify oils and prevent precipitation in some 
cases and to suspend insoluble powders, etc., in 
watery liquids, and as demulcent vehicles. 
f. Infusions are dilute, watery extracts of vege- 
table drugs prepared by infusion, maceration or 
percolation. They are very indefinite preparations 
because the process of extraction is not such that 
all the strength of the drug is obtained in the 
finished preparation. They are supposed to repre- 
sent five percent, of drug unless the strength is 
otherwise specified. 
Except with drugs containing a principle soluble 
in hot water, which principle is not desired 
(cinchona), or a substance is desired which would 
be volatilized or lost by using hot water (wild 
cherry) infusions are made by pouring boiling 
water upon the plant drug not in fine powder, and 
allowing it to infuse until cold, or a stated length 
of time, when the liquid is strained and water 
186 poured through to make up the required volume. 
Infusions should be prepared from coarsely ground, 
cut or bruised drug but not from finely powdered 
drug. 
g. Decoctions are weak, watery extracts of 
vegetable drugs similar to infusions in strength and 
mode of preparation, but are prepared by pouring 
cold water upon the drug, then boiling for fifteen 
minutes, or a stated time. Unless otherwise speci- 
fied decoctions are made of five parts drug to one 
hundred parts of finished preparation, but the proc- 
ess differing in that the decoction is boiled, ensures 
different results and therefore they are different in 
properties and made from drugs of different nature. 
The prolonged contact at an elevated temperature 
alters some of the plant starches and renders them 
soluble, hence decoctions are thick, mucilaginous 
liquids usually having demulcent properties. 
Neither infusions nor decoctions are permanent 
preparations, both having a tendency to spoil 
rapidly. This tendency can be overcome by adding 
alcohol, fifteen percent.; but, being preparations 
weak in medicinal properties, this addition is not 
advisable as alcohol would probably be the more 
energetic in most preparations. 
h. Syrups are concentrated solutions of sucrose 
sugar in water or liquids containing water and may 
or may not contain medicinal matter or flavoring 
agents. 
Syrups are very important pharmaceutical prep- 
arations and are important because of their prop- 
erty of aiding to overcome the disagreeable taste 
of many medicines by virtue of the sweet taste of 
sugar and also the ability of sugar and sugar 
187 solutions, when sufficiently dense, to prevent fermen- 
tation and other chemical reactions, thereby acting as 
valuable preservatives without being objectionable 
medicinally. 
Sugar is practically inert medicinally, is used by 
the system as food and when taken in great excess 
is promptly eliminated without bad effects. Sugar 
is not antiseptic, but in dilute solution very prone 
to "sour;" however, when the solution is quite 
dense it acts as a negative antiseptic by excluding 
all the air from the liquid and protecting the mole- 
cules of the matter from contact with oxygen of the 
air, which is always necessary for any spontaneous 
oxidation. The amount of sugar necessary to act 
as an effectual preservative, of course, varies with 
the nature of the substance, but is never greater 
than the amount necessary to form a saturated solution 
with all the water present, with organic substance 
about sixty-five percent., but if volatile oils be pres- 
ent in quantity the amount may be less because 
volatile oils are antiseptic. Other antiseptic agents 
present will often permit of considerable reduction 
of the amount. 
When syrups begin to ferment they are worthless 
and even harmful as medicinal agents or vehicles. 
Syrup or simple syrup is therefore an important 
preparation and often gives the pharmacist trouble, 
but should not and will never if only clean utensils 
be used and the syrup be made sufficiently strong 
in sugar. There are many ways of preparing sim- 
ple syrup but only one best way and that consists of 
percolating cold water (which has previously been 
boiled or distilled) through clean sugar so that the 
percolate be a saturated solution of sugar in water. 
Loaf sugar is the best, but clean, granulated sugar 
will answer and syrup made this way will be free 
188 from dust, bluing, etc., and will keep forever at 
any natural temperature; will stand a very low 
temperature without crystallizing and may be kept 
in a warm or cool place. The percolator should 
have a large apex and the apex filled with a clean, 
coarse sponge upon which should be a thick layer 
of absorbent cotton. The sponge and cotton should 
fill the apex and occupy a space equal to about one- 
twentieth of the height of the percolator in order 
that percolation may be rapid. Neglect of this 
detail has driven many a short-sighted pharmacist 
to make syrup by boiling, which always is liable to 
invert some sugar, increasing the liability to fer- 
mentation. 
Making syrup by cold agitation is the next best 
way, but the syrup then must be filtered to remove 
paper, dust, bluing, etc., always present in sugar to 
a small extent. The percolation filters the syrup 
while it is proceeding. 
Flavoring syrups are made either by dissolving 
the flavor in syrup or in the water used to make 
the syrup or by mixing fruit juices, etc., with syrup. 
Medicated syrups are usually made by mixing 
the medicinal agent in concentrated solution with 
simple syrup or dissolving sugar in a solution of 
the medicinal substance. 
Physicians often prescribe small quantities of 
syrup with large quantities of watery liquids and in 
summer weather it is quite possible for such a pre- 
scription to be partly used, then to ferment and 
become very deleterious. Syrup and watery solu- 
tions, containing insufficient sugar should be kept 
from heat and air. Sugar aids water as a solvent 
for some substances, lime, magnesia, borax, etc., 
and prevents many precipitations if judiciously 
189 used, but it can not be used indiscriminately as an 
excipient. 
i. Honeys are really syrups made from medicinal 
agents and honey by solution or mixing. 
Honey acts like syrup but is not so sweet, the 
peculiar flavor, though due to foreign matter, is 
often in itself a desirable flavoring agent. 
j. Elixirs are aromatic spirits, sweetened with 
sugar and diluted with water and are used as 
vehicles for masking the bad taste of medicines and 
presenting them in a form agreeable to sight as 
well. Elixirs consist of sugar, alcohol and water 
in various proportions, and small amounts of flavor- 
ing agents and medicinal matter. In addition, 
some are colored, but all should be perfectly clear, 
bright and transparent. These conditions may be 
easily imparted by proper manipulations in combin- 
ing the different materials. 
Elixirs should contain about twenty-five percent 
alcohol and twenty-five percent, sugar and flavor to 
suit. Sweet wines are often used as a component of 
elixirs; when so used their alcoholic strength should 
be fortified or increased to twenty-five percent, also 
the amount of sugar increased. The basis of all 
elixirs should be the aromatic elixir of the U. S. P. 
Since elixir is used as a vehicle diluent or filler and 
mixed with all kinds of substances, watery, acid, 
saline, etc., the volatile oils sometimes separate: 
especially are they liable to do so if the proportion of 
alcohol is lessened or that of volatile oils increased. 
The best way to make a nice, clear elixir which 
will not separate the volatile oil is this: Instead of 
dissolving the oils in alcohol, mixing the syrup and 
lastly the water, take the oils, distribute upon 
finely powdered barium sulphate or talc, make an 
190 aromatic water with it and all of the water: in this 
water dissolve the sugar by percolation and lastly 
mix the alcohol. This will remain clear and trans- 
parent, very seldom separate oil and can be made 
more readily as the water will filter much more 
rapidly. 
Elixirs may be colored red with cudbear or bright 
red with cochineal; yellow with turmeric, green with 
chlorophyl solution; olive green with chlorophyl 
and turmeric. See also paragraphs on Vehicles and 
Diluents. 
k. Spirits are solutions of volatile substances in 
alcohol or alcoholic liquids. Most spirits are solu- 
tions of volatile oils in alcohol and when mixed with 
watery liquids are liable to separate the oil. Some- 
times this separation may be avoided by slowly 
adding the watery liquid to the spirit instead of vice 
versa. Spirits should be kept in tightly stoppered 
containers and should be clear and transparent and 
protected from strong sunlight. 
LIQUIDS. For external use. 
a. Collodions are solutions of gun cotton in a 
mixture of ether and alcohol, or the same in which 
medicinal agents are dissolved. 
Gun cotton is not soluble in alcohol nor in ether; 
but in a mixture of the two in the proportion of 
three of ether to one of alcohol it is very soluble. 
Collodions are to be applied to the surface, where 
the fluid portion rapidly evaporates leaving a serous 
and impervious film which excludes foreign con- 
taminating matter, and because of the contractile 
power exerted during evaporation collodion is used 
to draw and hold the lips of fresh cuts in place 
191 as well as to hold antiseptic dressings in place 
effectively. 
Collodion is incompatible with watery fluids, pre- 
cipitating the cotton. They are also inflammable 
and caution is necessary in handling. In medicat- 
ing collodions the medicament should be dissolved 
in the smallest possible amount of alcohol, ether or 
a mixture of them, and then added to the collodion, 
unless the substance be very soluble in the collodion. 
Collodion should not be measured in the ordinary 
graduate, but in the bottle and dispensed in cork- 
stoppered vials. It dissolves rubber stoppers and 
glass-stoppered bottles are not secure against 
evaporation. 
b. Liniments are liquid preparations of an 
alcoholic, oily or soapy nature to be applied exter- 
nally and intended to produce anodyne, stimulant 
or vesicant effects-a very popular method of medi- 
cation but very uncertain and ineffective. From a 
pharmaceutical standpoint they are also very indefi- 
nite beyond the liniments of soap, chloroform, soft 
soap, camphor and ammonia. Prescriptions for 
liniments may contain most any medicinal sub- 
stance. Therefore in their preparation we can only 
use our best judgment, treating them as solutions, 
spirits or mixtures. Liniments should always bear 
the "'external use only" label. 
c. Glycerites are solutions of medicinal agents 
in glycerine or mixtures of them with glycerine. 
Glycerite of starch is used as an ointment base and 
excipient. It is made by heating eight parts glycer- 
ine to 140° C. and pouring into this a mixture of ten 
parts each of starch and water, continuing digestion 
at this temperature until the starch grains in the 
192 presence of water swell to bursting, become altered 
and, entering into partial solution, form a thick, 
mucilaginous paste with the glycerine. This 
transformation must be complete throughout and 
care must be used that the temperature be not 
above 144° C. else the glycerine may decompose; 
particularly is this decomposition liable to occur if 
a naked flame be used, and also the starch will be 
liable to char and blacken. 
Glycerine is largely used as a vehicle both in 
internal as well as external medication. It has a 
strong affinity for water, and when applied absorbs 
water through the body membranes causing deple- 
tion of adjacent tissues; it has antiseptic properties 
and is, therefore, valuable in preventing fermenta- 
tion and often will prevent chemical action between 
different substances associated in a liquid; it is a 
valuable solvent for certain substances, and being 
a dense liquid like syrup it excludes air, preventing 
oxidation of some chemical substances. 
d. Enemas are liquid preparations for injection 
into the bowels either to cause evacuation or to 
introduce nourishing or medicinal matter; they 
should always be prepared with distilled water and 
for introducing nourishment should be mucilaginous 
in consistence. 
For alvine evacuation enemas may be made 
alkaline in reaction by a small amount of soap, but 
should be filtered in all cases and are to be 
warmed to body heat before being administered. 
e. Gargles are liquid preparations to be applied 
to the mouth and tonsils by being gargled. Gargles 
are prescribed, prepared of proper strength for gar- 
gling and also to be largely diluted before being 
193 used. Care should always be used to distinguish 
this to the patient; the finished or diluted may 
bear a label ''gargle, " but the other should not, 
but instead, "caution: external use only" preceding 
the physician's directions. 
f. Sprays are solutions of medicinal agents in a 
bland liquid, water, glycerine and water or oil, and 
intended to be sprayed with an atomizer or nebu- 
lizer into the nostrils or mouth to protect or act 
through the mucous membrane. Fine oil sprays or 
nebular vapors are sometimes to be drawn by 
inhalation into the bronchii and lung cavities. Oil 
sprays should be absolutely free from water, the 
medicament in perfect solution and the oil base 
bland and neutral. Light hydrocarbon oils have 
come into extensive use for this purpose under vari- 
ous names, but have very slight solvent properties. 
Many substances which are soluble with difficulty 
in petrolatum oils may be brought into solution in 
almond oil, olive oil or pure oleic acid and mixed 
with the mineral oil afterward. Care should be 
used against rancid oil or oleic acid. Alkaloids 
form oleates with oleic acid which are soluble in 
oil. When alkaloidal salts are prescribed in oil 
sprays the corresponding amount of alkaloid usu- 
ally may be taken unless the physician objects. 
Watery sprays should be filtered so that no undis- 
solved matter be present to clog the tubes of the 
atomizer. The National Formulary gives the name 
"Nebula" to this class of preparations. 
g. Inhalations are fluid medicines containing 
medicament to be volatilized by heating or putting 
on hot water and inhaling the vapor; or the medi- 
cine is put into an inhaler and air is inhaled through 
the liquid, becoming charged as it goes through 
194 and carries the medicinal vapor to the bronchii 
and lungs. They are prepared in water solutions 
usually, but sometimes are very complex mix- 
tures containing resins, oils, iodine, phenols, etc. 
Alcohol should never be used in an inhalation un- 
less prescribed. 
h. Baths are liquid preparations containing 
medicinal matter to be applied to the skin of the 
whole body by being added to water with which the 
body is laved. Since they usually contain medicine, 
which is alkaline, acid or strongly disinfectant they 
all are apt to be irritant or corrosive in an undiluted 
condition. Care should be used to always affix a 
"caution" label. 
3. Tinctures, wines, vinegars, fluid extracts 
and oleoresins are not, strictly speaking, ever pre- 
pared extemporaneously, but require very careful 
consideration of plant physiology and pathology, 
plant products, solubility and manipulative details 
different from those employed at the prescription 
counter. Anything like a careful consideration of 
these preparations would require much more space 
than at our disposal here. 
195 INCOMPATIBILITIES. 
A pharmacist understands incompatibility to mean 
an unfitness of drugs for association in a medicine. 
This unfitness may be because of some inherent 
tendency of the substances to remain "unmixed" 
or rather to separate after having been combined, 
or to combine chemically, changing their properties 
and giving a new substance having objectionable 
or negative properties, or may be due to the fact 
that the medicinal effect would be entirely different 
from that desired. Therefore we may, for the pur- 
pose of studying in detail, divide incompatibility 
into three cases, viz.; 
a. Therapeutical. 
b. Pharmaceutical. 
c. Chemical. 
a. Substances are incompatible when unfitted for 
association, in a medicine; that is to say, that many 
substances which, when associated, give a result 
not ideal, are, nevertheless, not unfitted for associa- 
tion in a medicine, so long as good results are 
obtained from their administration. Two remedial 
agents having directly opposite therapeutic proper- 
ties and in sufficient proportion would, of course, 
tend to neutralize each other and give a negative 
result; such would, of course, be an exaggerated 
example of therapeutic incompatibility; but some- 
times antagonistic remedies are prescribed together, 
one subordinated to the other and intended as a 
corrective to modify the action of the other As a 
rule, the question of therapeutics is one which prop- 
196 erly concerns the physician instead of the pharma- 
cist and while the druggist should always be careful 
that no dangerous dose or combination should 
escape attention, all he can do is to call the phy 
sician's attention to the fact, and do so with discre- 
tion lest in zeal he may commit himself to error. 
Overdoses and poisons are not a part of the 
subject of incompatibility, but are treated in the 
chapter devoted to Toxicology and Posology (page 
192). Many theoretical so-called incompatibilities 
given in text-books are nevertheless disregarded 
by the average practitioner, who will prefer his 
results to another's theory. Substances which unite 
to form new and objectionable compounds having 
different medicinal effects are incompatible chem- 
ically, since not the original, but the new substance 
is the one producing the effect. 
b. Pharmaceutical or physical incompatibility is 
manifestly a case of immiscibility, insolubility or 
tendency to separate when mixed, but yet without 
chemical reaction, and this property of separating 
or that of not dissolving is not considered sufficient 
to unfit, the substances for association unless after 
using skill and dexterity the substances still can not 
be combined so that even dosage be made feasible. 
A clear solution should be made where possible, 
but if a clear solution can not be obtained an "even 
suspension'' will answer in many cases. 
The mere fact of one substance being insoluble 
in another is not always evidence of incompatibility, 
provided that with reasonable care the different 
ingredients can be diffused so that the doses will 
be of the same amount. 
If, however, the tendency of liquids, or a solid and 
a liquid, to separate is so marked as to prevent the 
measuring of a dose before separation interferes, 
197 these substances may be considered incompatible 
and a remedy applied, or if no remedy will suffice 
they should not be mixed. 
There are four kinds of physical incompatibility 
illustrated, by 
(a) Alcoholic solutions, fluidextracts, tinc- 
tures, etc., etc., with aqueous liquids, the 
dissolved matter being precipitated by the 
change in the solvent or menstruum. Such 
precipitate will be inert or active. If inert, 
such as gum, starch or inert extractive mat- 
ter, filter out the inert matter and dispense 
the filtrate, which will contain the medicinal 
matter. 
[b) Mucilaginous and albuminous substances 
with strong alcohol, which precipitates gum 
and albumen. 
{c} Salt solutions in watery fluids, with 
strongly alcoholic liquids, the salt being 
precipitated, or when salt solutions are con- 
centrated the alcohol being precipitated, 
forming a floating layer. 
(a?) Alcoholic solutions of oils with watery 
fluids, the oil being precipitated. 
Remedies.-Incompatibilities of this kind may be 
remedied in some cases or possibly avoided by 
1. Order of mixing the ingredients. 
2. Addition of protective solvents. 
3. Emulsification or suspension by means of gums 
or other viscid substances-honey, glycerine, 
sugar, etc. 
The order of mixing the ingredients is sometimes 
the most difficult problem in compounding a pre- 
scription; three general rules will apply: 
1. When strongly alcoholic liquids are to be 
mixed with watery solutions or those weaker 
198 in alcohol, dilute the stronger with the 
weaker alcoholic preparation and add the 
watery solution last; by this means a precipi- 
tate may either be avoided entirely or if it is 
formed it will be in a more finely divided 
condition so that it may be more readily 
diffused. 
2. In cases of resinous tinctures and camphor- 
aceous solutions when no protective is admis- 
sible, this order should be reversed and the 
solution poured slowly, or drop by drop added 
to the watery liquid, which must be stirred 
continually. 
3. When oils or heavy insoluble powders are to 
be dispensed in a large portion of fluid it is 
desirable to emulsify them or incorporate 
with gum or some suitable agent so as to 
avoid separation. 
Examples: 
Take Mucilage of Acacia. .. .1 part. 
Alcohol 2 parts. Mix. 
Note that gum is separated from its solution by 
alcohol. No chemical action takes place, but the 
alcohol appropriates the water; however, dilute the 
mucilage with water two parts and a considerable 
amount of alcohol may be added without precipita- 
tion of the gum, if the alcohol be added slowly and 
the mixture agitated the while. 
Take Oil of Almonds 1 part. 
Dilute Alcohol 1 " Mix. 
When fixed oils (except castor oil and alcohol) are 
shaken with water, alcohol, glycerine or mixtures 
of them, the oil breaks into fine globules and a 
seemingly uniform mixture results, but on standing 
the oil always separates. 
199 Take Tincture of Benzoin. .1 part. 
Rosewater 5 parts. Mix. 
Resin is precipitated from the alcoholic solution 
by reason of alcohol being taken up by the water 
which rejects the resin. If the water be added to 
resinous tinctures in excess the resin separates in 
masses which gather and adhere to the sides of 
container; same result if all the resinous tincture 
be added at once to the water; but if the tincture be 
added drop by drop and the mixture constantly 
stirred a milk-like emulsion may be had which 
holds most of the resin. 
Take Phenol 1 part. 
Water 8 parts. 
Glycerine 1 part. Mix. 
Carbolic acid added to water sinks to the bottom 
undissolved; glycerine added will not dissolve it; 
water added to carbolic acid (in excess) and lastly 
glycerine added give same result, but carbolic acid 
mixed with equal parts of glycerine forms a solu- 
tion which, in turn, is soluble in water in any pro- 
portion. 
Take Tincture of Benzoin ... 3 parts. 
Mucilage of Acacia .... 5 " 
Water 10 " Mix. 
If resinous tinctures be first mixed with muci- 
lage or finely powdered dry gum and water then 
added, the resin is precipitated in a finer state of 
division and the viscid mucilage tends to prevent 
or retard separation. Glycerine or syrup often 
gives similar results. 
Take Soluble Pyrophosphate of Iron.. 1 part. 
Any Alcoholic Tincture 10 parts. 
Mix. No solution results, but by taking sufficient 
water to dissolve the salt and dilute the alcoholic 
tincture, a clear solution will result. General 
200 practice of this procedure should be with physi- 
cian's permission unless therapeutic effect will 
surely be that indicated; that is, the druggist 
should be careful, ordinarily, not to alter a pre- 
scription from the way it was written unless with 
permission of physician or unless a better result be 
surely attained by the change. 
Adding inert solvent to such mixtures, if strengths 
be not changed and a beneficial result obtained, is per- 
missible even without consulting the physician. 
It is usually advisable to inform the prescriber of 
the change at the earliest opportunity if he was not 
consulted before the prescription was dispensed. 
Another illustration: 
Take Red Mercuric Iodide. . 1 part. 
Water 49 parts. Mix. 
No solution, but potassium iodide mixed in pro- 
portion equal to that of mercuric iodide acts as a 
solvent, and should be used. 
Take Bismuth Subnitrate. .. .12 parts. 
Water 23 " Mix. 
Bismuth subnitrate is not soluble in water, is a 
rather heavy powder and liable to settle to the 
bottom. A little powdered tragacanth, five grains 
to fluid ounce, would enable a uniform mixture to 
be made which would not separate. By careful 
observation while dispensing prescriptions of this 
nature, experience can be gained which will be of 
more value to the dispenser than anything that can 
be learned from a book. 
Take Fluidextract Hydrastis. 
Citrate of Potassium, of each.-^ss. 
Spirit of Nitrous Ether oiii. Mix. 
201 If salts like citrate of potash and others very solu- 
ble in water but not soluble in strong alcohol be 
mixed with liquids containing both alcohol and 
water the salt abstracts the water and forming a 
dense solution sinks to the bottom, while the alco- 
holic layer floats. They will not mix. In such 
cases the physician will usually give permission to 
add water to make perhaps a double volume, clear 
solution, which may be directed in twice the sized 
dose. 
Take Fluidextract of Pichi §ss. 
Water oiiss. Mix. 
The resinous fluid extract would precipitate so 
that a very unsightly and uneven mixture would 
result, but if five grains of powdered tragacanth be 
first shaken in a bottle with the fluid extract, the 
water will form with it a mucilage which emulsifies 
and retains the resinous principles in suspension. 
<• Chemical Incompatibilities are those mani- 
fested by chemical reaction resulting in de- 
composition of one or more agent with forma- 
tion of different compounds. 
This class is the most important and the phar- 
macist is morally and legally accountable for their 
neglect. They are very persistent and almost if not 
quite impossible to overcome and avoid. The 
knowledge of chemistry is quite essential to the 
study of chemical incompatibilities. 
The rules to be observed in case of physical in- 
compatibilities apply here also. 
Recognition of chemical reaction can be effected by 
evolution of gases, change of color or appearance of 
a precipitate. Chemical reaction occurs in dry pow- 
ders as well as in the presence of liquids, though it 
progresses more slowly in the dry. 
202 Incompatibilities cannot always be foretold, but 
certain rules or laws of chemistry govern them, and 
the result is always the same under like conditions. 
In chemical reactions the strongest positive radi- 
cal tends to unite with the strongest negative 
radical present. 
Double decomposition will not occur between so- 
lutions of two salts, unless, by the interchange of 
the two baselous radicals a substance will be pro- 
duced which is either insoluble or volatile. 
When a solution of a compound is brought in con- 
tact with a solution of another compound, and, by an 
interchange of radicals, an insoluble compound will 
be rendered possible, that compound will be precip- 
itated. 
When dry heat is applied to a mixture of com- 
pounds, if any volatile product can be formed by 
double decomposition, that volatile compound will 
be formed. 
Most cases of chemical incompatibility arise from 
the formation of insoluble compounds, hence the 
importance of the subject of " solubilities." 
Yet many prescriptions call for drugs which, when 
mixed, react, producing a substance insoluble, 
when the insoluble substance is the object of the 
combination, or a reaction may produce a soluble 
salt whose effect is desired and the insoluble sub- 
stance be not wanted. Again, a combination may 
produce a gas, and the gas may be desired in the 
mixture; or the gas may be not wanted. Many 
substances insoluble, and made by precipitation, 
diffuse much more readily when freshly made; and 
seem to have better effects when given in the fresh 
condition; hence prescriptions for substances which 
react to produce insoluble, new compounds should 
be so mixed in compounding that a fine precipitate 
203 will result and the mixture dispensed with a "shake 
the bottle" label. Again when, through oversight 
or other cause, the physician orders a combination 
which produces or may produce an insoluble com- 
pound and the formation of the compound be not 
the object of the physician, but a valuable part of 
the medicine, it becomes all the more necessary 
to so prepare the mixture that the precipitate may be 
evenly diffused, and to dispense with a"shake"label. 
However, it frequently happens that medicines 
are prescribed together which separately, produce 
effects desired simultaneously, but when combined 
chemically their product has an entirely different 
effect. Prescriptions which produce dangerous or 
undesirable products by all means should not be 
dispensed, and if the druggist be in doubt common 
sense will dictate that he "parry for time" and 
dispel the doubt by consulting the physician. 
The subject of chemical incompatibilities is as 
limitless as chemistry itself almost, but between 
the extremes of theory and speculation on one hand 
and indifference and ignorance on the other a phar- 
macist should ever seek the happy medium course 
and try to distinguish between the "incompatible" 
combinations which are permissible and those 
which are not permissible, the guiding principle 
being his duty that no prescription be compounded 
when harm or dangerous risk would follow, but 
under all circumstances to protect the patient, the 
physician and himself by discretion and an honest 
and honorable course in case of error or oversight. 
Nothing could do a druggist more harm in pro- 
portion to its magnitude than an indiscreet reminder 
to the physician under such circumstances. How 
embarrassing, should the physician have occasion 
afterward to correct the druggist! All mortals err! 
Following is a list of the more common substances 
considered incompatible under ordinary conditions: 
204 Substances. 
Incompatible with 
Remarks. 
Acacia in solution 
Alcohol, borax, lead salts, ferric salts, etc 
Citrates of alkalies tend to 
Acetanilid 
Nitrites in presence of acids, alkaline hydrox- 
ides 
prevent gelatinization by 
ferric salts. 
Tends to liquefy with chlor- 
al hydrate, resorcin, thym- 
ol, phenol, antipyrin. 
Salts formed may be desir- 
Acids 
Alkalies, alkaloids, carbonates, hydroxides and 
oxides of metals, salts of weaker acids, pan- 
creatin, casein, albumen, diastase 
Alcohol 
Active oxidizing agents as a rule. Albumen; 
acacia if strong alcohol. Metallic salts pre- 
cipitate from solution 
able in some cases. 
Forms iodoform with iodine 
Alkaloids 
Alkalies, iodine, iodides, bromine, bromides, tan- 
nin, mercuric chloride, potassium perman- 
ganate and oxidizing agents 
and alkali hydroxide. 
Ppt. soluble in alcohol usu- 
Amyl-nitrite 
Alcohol, oxidizing agents, light, alkalies 
ally, form water-soluble 
salts with mineral acids, 
also acetic, citric-other 
organic acids give salts 
not soluble in water but 
soluble in alcohol. 
Strychnine, digitalis, mor- 
phine, chloroform, bella- 
donna, physiological anti- 
dotes. 
Oxysulphide explodes with 
reducing agents; opium, 
alcohol, ether, physiologi- 
cal antidotes. 
Gives off CO2 from soda bi- 
Antipyrin 
Acids, alkalies, nitrites if free acid present, 
haloid salts, tannin, and in general behaves 
like alkaloids 
Albumen, mucilage, tannin 
Antimony salts 
B ism u thy 1-nitrate 
Sodium bicarbonate, tannin, sulphur 
Bismuth subgallate 
Barium salts 
Strong acids. 
Salts of sulphuric, phosphoric, tartaric, tannic, 
carbonic acids 
carb. 
All barium salts poisonous. 
Incompatibles. 
205 Substances. 
Incompatible with 
Remarks. 
Butyl-chloral hydrate... 
Calomel 
Alkalies, antipyrin, camphor, thymol, menthol, 
phenol, decomposed by light in aqueous solu- 
tion 
Acids, alkalies, oxidizing agents in general, anti- 
pyrin, iodine, iodides, sulphides, chloral 
Strychnine, caffeine, atro- 
pine, antidote. 
In practice calomel often 
given with acids, chlorate 
of potash, etc.; if allowed 
to stand with these in 
presence of moisture.how- 
Carbolic acid 
Chloral hydrate 
Collodion, acetanilid, albumen, aqueous solu 
tions of gelatine, oxidizing agents. 
Calomel, hot water, alkalies, organic salts of 
alkalies, permanganate of potash, alcoholic 
liquids if concentrated 
ever, becomes oxidized. 
4 
Hydrate chloral keeps for 
years in weak alcoholic 
Chloralamid 
Alkalies. 
solutions without loss of 
Creasote 
Diuretin 
Europhen 
Essential oils 
Fixed oils 
Ichthyol 
Iodine 
Nitric acid, oxidizing agents. 
Strong acids. 
Oxides of metals, starches and fats, salts of mer- 
cury. 
HNO3 and oxidizing agents, iodine. 
Strong alkalies, iodine. 
Acids, alcohol, alkalies, except ammonia, alka- 
loids, metallic salts. 
Fats, volatile oils, carbolic acid, sulphurous acid 
and its salts, metallic salts, tannins, starch, 
ammonia, alkalies 
medicinal virtues. 
With alcohol and alkali- 
hydroxides forms iodo- 
Iodoform 
Strong alkalies, mineral acids, nitrates, nitrites, 
tannin, oxidizing agents 
form. 
Odor overcome by balsam 
of Peru, oil turpentine, 
anise, eucalyptus, berga- 
mot, roasted coffee. 
Incompatibles. 
206 Substances. 
Incompatible with 
Remarks. 
Iron 
Iron salts 
Soluble lead salts 
Opium and preparations 
Alkaloids, oxidizing agents, tannins, metallic 
salts, acids. 
Alkali-carbonates, hydroxides, tannins, muci- 
lages. 
Opium, lime water and hydroxides, chlorides, 
iodides, bromides, sulphates, gums 
Tannins, metallic salts, iodine, chlorine water, 
etc 
Normal lead acetate misci- 
ble with acacia, basic al- 
ways precipitates. 
Strychnine, caffeine and 
atropine, physiological an- 
tidote. 
Not active at above 160° F. 
Pepsin 
Pancreatin 
Alkalies, alcohol, tannin, phenol, mercuric 
chloride. 
Acids, alcohol 
Phenacetine 
Permanganates 
Strong acids, strong alkalies, oxidizing agents, 
carbolic acid, chloral hydrate, butyl chloral 
Fats and volatile oils, alcohol, glycerine, alka- 
loids, sulphur, sugar, charcoal, tannin, and all 
organic bodies in presence of heat or moisture, 
H2O2... 
Detonates violently if tritu- 
Peru balsam 
Sulphur, iodoform 
rated with force withsome 
of these in dry. 
Solidifies. 
Salicylic acid 1 
Salicylic acid, acetyl.. I 
Salol 
Strontium salts 
Tannin 
Thymol 
Iron compounds, oxidizing agents, alkalies 
Strong alkalies. camphor, phenol, thymol, resor- 
cin, monobromated camphor. 
Carbonates, phosphates, oxalates, sulphates and 
hydroxides. 
Alkalies, iron compounds, lead salts, alkaloids, 
salts of mercury, bismuth salts, oxidizing 
agents in genera). 
Camphor, salol, chloral, menthol, resorcin, ace 
tanilid, phenols, resins, oxidizing agents, ni- 
trites, iodine. 
Alkali citrates, phosphates, 
and acetates increase sol- 
ubility in water. 
Incompatibles. 
207 Antipyrini gr. xxx. 
Liqu. Am. Acetatis 
Spir. ^Ether Nitrosi aaf^i. M. 
In the above prescription antipyrin will be 
decomposed by the ethyl nitrite in presence of the 
free acid in the spirit of mindereris-a characteristic 
green color is produced. This color is quite dis- 
tinctly green and will occur with antipyrin and 
spirit nitre alone, only when the nitre is old or 
spoiling; fresh neutral spirit of nitre does not pro- 
duce this color, hence the above reaction is a good 
test for both spirit nitre and antipyrin. 
Take Salicylate of Sodium 3ii. 
Water fjviiss. 
Tinct. Iron Chloride f3i. Mix. 
A deep, reddish violet color, due to the formation 
of ferric salicylate, is produced. A test for iron, 
also salicylic acid. 
Take Infusion Cinchona f|vi. 
Mercury Bichloride gr. vi. 
Potassium Iodide 3vi. Mix. 
Mercury bichloride with potassium iodide form 
mercuric iodide; with excess potash iodide a double 
salt is formed which precipitates all alkaloids; 
Alcohol in tinctures, e(tc., will redissolve the pre- 
cipitate. If the diluent be all of watery nature, 
alcohol up to twenty-five percent, should be added 
to dissolve the precipitate. 
Take Chloral Hydrate ^ss. 
Potassium Bromide jss. 
Water ffiii. 
Alcohol, qs f|vi. 
M. In concentrated alcoholic liquids chloral is 
decomposed, forming an oily, pungent, poisonous 
liquid called chloral alcoholate. This, however, 
does not form if the chloral is first dissolved in 
208 water and alcohol is not present in too great a 
proportion. 
Take Strontium Bromide ^ss. 
Mixture of Rhubarb and Soda ... f|iv. 
Mix. 
Bicarbonate of soda decomposes the bromide of 
strontium forming sodium bromide and precipitates 
insoluble strontium carbonate and carbon dioxide 
is given off. 
Take Ichthyol f^ss. 
Water f|ss. 
Alcohol qs |viii. M. 
Alcohol precipitates ichthyol. 
Take Balsam Peru 10 gm. 
Sulphur 10 " 
Lard : 40 " M. 
If balsam peru and sulphur be triturated or 
rubbed together, gritty granular lumps, very hard 
and objectionable, form. If part of lard is used to 
make an ointment with balsam and the remainder 
with the sulphur a smooth ointment can be made. 
Explosive or detonating mixtures are some- 
times inadvertently prescribed. The following, 
taken from actual prescriptions, are dangerous and 
some have caused serious accidents: Potassium 
chlorate and other chlorates with organic matter 
are, under certain conditions, capable of igniting 
the matter. If water be absent and the substance 
be of a combustible nature an explosion is very apt 
to result. 
A mixture of hypophosphite of lime, chlorate of 
potassium, and lactate of iron exploded and nearly 
killed the prescription clerk who was compound- 
ing it. 
Even the simple trituration of calcium hypo- 
209 phosphite is dangerous. A young pharmacist was 
killed by an explosion which was caused by the 
shaking of a solution of this substance. Physicians 
not infrequently order a solution of chromic acid in 
glycerine. But when the acid is added quickly and 
all at once to the glycerine, a readily explosive sub- 
stance may be formed. 
The combination of iodine and preparations of 
ammonia must be made cautiously, as iodide of 
nitrogen may be formed, which explodes on the 
slightest touch. Indeed, one ought to be very 
careful in ordering and compounding mixtures in 
which easily reducible substances enter, such as 
the chlorates, the hypophosphites, the nitrates, 
preparations of iodine or ammonia, chromic acid, 
glycerine, permanganate of potash, etc. 
Ex.: 
1. Potassii Chloratis. 
Sodii (Vel Calcii) Hypophosphitis. 
Aqua. 
M. Dangerous. 
2. B. Potassii Chloratis. 
Tr. Ferri Chloridi. 
Glycerini. 
M. If diluted with water no trouble will occur, 
but if not it may explode upon being warmed. 
3. B. Potassii Chloratis. 
Pulvis Catechu. M. 
M. Dangerous. 
4 B. Chromii Trioxidi. 
Glycerini. 
Diluted with water it is safe; not diluted it is 
dangerous, and if alcohol be brought in contact, 
flame usually results from the oxygen given off by 
the oxide, or "chromic acid.'' 
210 5. 1^. Lactis Sulphuris. 
Antimonii Sulphidi Auratum. .aa gr. iii. 
Zinci Valerias gr. i. 
Potassii Chloratis " ii. 
M. Triturate and it is sure to explode. 
6. Antim. Sulphidi Aurat. 
Sodii Chloratis. 
M. Ignites upon slight trituration. 
7. $. Potassii Chloratis. 
Acidi Tann. 
Glycerini. 
Aqua. 
M. Dissolve tannin in glycerine, the chlorate 
in the water and mix solutions. 
8. B. Acidi Nitrici* 
" Hydrochlorici. 
Tinct. Nucis Vomicae. 
Will explode after a while unless left unstoppered 
9. IC Argenti Oxidi. 
Morphina Hydrochloridi. 
Ext. Gentianae. 
M. Will likely take fire after standing or while 
L sing mixed. 
10. Argenti Nitratis. 
Acidi Nitrici. 
Alcohol. 
yEther. 
Will ignite if open; if confined will explode. 
211 TOXICOLOGY. 
General Remarks.-The responsibilities which 
are attached to the profession are manifested in the 
reading and dispensing of difficult and doubtful pre- 
scriptions, plainly and sometimes severely. 
The competent pharmacist must be not only a man 
of mature judgment, capable of quickly deciding 
the best thing to be done under more or less obscure 
circumstances, but be able to inspire confidence on 
the part of a patron in what he says; he must, to be 
able to guard against over-doses, be thoroughly 
posted on Posology or the principles and rules of 
dosage. He must also have considerable knowledge 
of Toxicology or the subject of poisons, and their 
antidotes and also be able to tell in some cases the 
symptoms manifested by particular poisons so that he 
may be able to decide what to do and what antidote 
to give. This is one of the main subjects orbranches 
of the Medical Science to be sure, but is quite im- 
portant to the pharmacist also, because he is often 
called upon when a physician cannot be had for 
hours. 
After a fatal dose of poison has been taken there 
is no time to be lost; the druggist is often called 
upon, being quickly and easily reached. 
212 If he is not able to do something to save or re 
Heve the sufferer, he is always blamed, usually in 
a severe measure. 
The following treatise on the subject of dosage 
and Toxicology, while condensed, will be found 
quite thorough enough for the practical pharmacist; 
the more thoroughly it is mastered, the better will 
be the chances of the one who learns it to dis- 
charge the very responsible duties devolving on him, 
when brought in contact with emergency cases of 
poisoning by whatever agent or cause. 
213 DEFINITIONS. 
Toxicology is derived from two Greek words 
meaning " a treatise on poisons." It is the science 
which treats of the nature, symptoms, effects, 
doses and modes of detection of poisons. 
A poison is a substance capable of destroying 
life when taken in a small quantity; but a sub- 
stance which destroys life by mechanical means, 
e. g., powdered glass, is not, strictly speaking, a 
poison. 
Poisoning is probably the most frequent of all 
the causes of violent death at the present day. 
The effects of poisons are local and indirect. 
(a) The local action of a poison is usually one of 
corrosion, inflammation, or a direct effect on the 
sensory or motor nerves, e. g., the corrosion of 
the stomach and bowels by direct contact of 
the mineral acids and alkalies. A poison may 
act both locally, by causing inflammation of the 
stomach, and remotely, on the brain and nervous 
system. Arsenic acts in this manner. 
(£) The indirect actions of poisons are those 
which are produced on parts of the system 
remote from the part to which it was first ap- 
f)lied, e. g., opium taken into the stomach, fol- 
owed by narcosis. 
214 POISONS IN GENERAL. 
I. Symptoms in General.-There rarely tail to be 
shown signs of the poison taken. Poisoning may 
be acute or chronic; we will here only consider 
the former, as this only will interest the pharma- 
cist at the time being. The symptoms which 
should lead to suspect acute poisoning are: 
(#) Sudden occurrence of severe and alarming 
symptoms in a person previously in good 
health. 
(£) Several members of a family suddenly taken 
ill simultaneously, after partaking of the same 
food. 
(c) Rapid course toward a fatal issue. 
II. Treatment in General.-If taken into the 
stomach, 
(a) Empty the stomach by means of stomach 
pump if not a corrosive poison; stomach tube 
or emetics. 
(£) Antidotes. 
I. Chalk to neutralize mineral acids and 
oxalic acid. 
2. Alkaloids are rendered less soluble if 
astringents containing tannin are given. 
(^) Counter poisons: 
i. As atropine, which acts in opposition 
to morphine. 
2. All these are best administered hypoder- 
mically, as they are absorbed in a pure 
state and more rapidly. 
215 (d) Protect the stomach, if irritants were taken, 
by administering mucilaginous drinks, or 
some bland fixed oil. 
(e) Relieve pain with morphine, if not contra-in- 
dicated. 
(/) Relieve convulsions, if poisoned by strych- 
nine, with: 
I. Chloroform. 
2. Chloral hydrate. 
216 I. Corrosive. 
II* Irritant. 
m Neurotic or 
IV. Gaseous. 
u ns a 
Fnclude: 
Corrosive sublimate. 
Concentrated mineral acids. 
Oxalic acid. 
Alkalies, viz., hydroxides of potassium, sodium, 
■ ammonium, as well as their carbonates. 
Acid, alkaline and corrosive salts of metals. 
Phenol or carbolic acid. 
Symptoms.- 
Metallic, acid or caustic burning sensations 
which extend from mouth to the stomach; 
this is rapidly followed by vomiting. 
The vomit contains blood and tissue frag- 
ments. 
Abdomen tender and extended by gas. 
High fever. 
Tissues of mouth more or less destroyed. 
Death may take place in a few hours or in a 
few months from starvation brought about 
from stricture of the oesophagus. 
Treatment.- 
Gently wash out stomach with stomach tube. 
Demulcents to protect the stomach, such as 
mucilages, oils, eggs and milk. 
Opiates for pain. 
I. CORROSIVE POISONS 
217 CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. 
Symptoms.- 
Metallic, coppery taste, 
Deglutition retarded or swallowing prevented. 
Burning pain of oesophagus and stomach. 
Violent vomiting, first mucous, then bilious, 
then bloody. 
Severe abdominal pain and tenderness. 
Profuse diarrhoea, later small mucous bloody 
stools. 
Breath fetid and offensive. 
The urine is diminished or it may be sup- 
pressed; it may contain albumen or even be 
bloody. 
Symptoms of collapse in two or three hours. 
{a} Small, frequent, irregular pulse. 
(b) Pinched, anxious face. 
(r) Cold extremities. 
(d) Fainting. 
(^) Convulsions. 
(/) Coma. 
(r) Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
The minimum fatal dose (for an adult) can be 
taken at three grains, although much larger 
quantities have been taken and vomited or 
neutralized. 
218 Life is usually prolonged, from one to five days, 
although death has occurred in one half hour. 
Treatment.- 
Promote vomiting by warm diluent drinks. 
Albumen or white of an egg beat up with water 
given freely. The white of an egg will neu- 
tralize 4 grains of corrosive sublimate if 
taken at once. Do not use too much egg 
albumen as an excess will re-dissolve the 
compound formed. 
In the absence of egg, gluten or wheat flour in 
the form of paste should be freely given. 
Give milk freely. 
Sweet oil. 
Morphine hypodermically. 
Symptoms.- 
Same as corrosive sublimate except: 
(a) Accompanied by more intense thirst. 
(^) Constipation, sometimes. 
(c) Coughing and difficult respiration. 
Sulphuric acid stains the tissues black. 
Nitric acid stains the tissues yellow. 
Hydrochloric acid stains the tissues gray or 
white, with the formation of a false mem- 
brane. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
The fatal dose of sulphuric acid for an adult 
is a fluid drachm. Death usually occurs 
within 24 hqurs. 
The fatal dose of nitric acid for an adult is 2 
fluid drachms, although larger doses have 
been taken. Death usually occurs within 24 
hours. 
MINERAL ACIDS. 
219 The fatal dose of hydrochloric acid for an 
adult is half an ounce. Death varies from a 
few hours to many weeks. 
Treatment.- 
Administer alkalies or their carbonates in solu- 
tion in water or milk, such as the bicarbonate of 
potassium or sodium, chalk, whiting or soap. 
Give diluent demulcents copiously, such as 
barley water, oil, flaxseed tea, etc. 
Do not use stomach pump, as you may perfo- 
rate the oesophagus or stomach. 
OXALIC ACID. 
Symptoms.- 
Same as corrosive sublimate, plus:- 
Acute pain in the back of the head. 
Intense thirst. 
Distressing cough. 
Accelerated respiration. 
Swelling of the tongue. 
Depressed heart action. 
Patient may suddenly fall unconscious 
immediately after taking the poison, 
with almost complete paralysis and 
numbness. 
Collapse early and marked. 
The urine contains crystals of oxalate of 
lime, albumen and tube casts. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Three drachms usually prove fatal, although a 
drachm is known to have caused death. 
It usually proves fatal within an hour. 
Treatment.- 
Chalk and magnesia mixed with milk. 
Lime water and oil. 
220 Opium, to relieve pain. 
Alkalies and their carbonates should not be 
used because they form soluble poisonous com- 
pounds with the acid. 
AMMONIA. 
Symptoms.- 
Abdominal pains. 
Vomiting. 
Bloody purging. 
Suffocation may cause death. 
Convulsions. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Intellect may be clear to the last, or stupor 
and finally coma may develop. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Death may occur in five minutes due to oedema 
of the larynx. If the patient survives sev- 
eral hours, recovery may occur, but death at 
times occurs from the organic lesions which 
have been produced. 
Treatment.- 
Weak solution of vinegar. 
Lemon juice. 
Citric or tartaric acid administered cautiously. 
Demulcent drinks. 
ALKAL1ES-OTHER THAN AMMONIA. 
Under this heading come potassium and sodium 
hydroxides, their carbonates, lime, etc. 
Symptoms.- 
Like those of ammonia poisoning. 
Fatal dose.- 
Indefinite. 
221 Treatment.- 
Dilute vinegar or lemon juice should be used 
freely. 
Give oil and demulcents freely. 
Give opium to relieve pain. 
Stimulants to overcome depression. 
CARBOLIC ACID. 
Symptoms.- 
Same as the mineral acids, plus:- 
Pupils are contracted. 
Breath smells like carbolic acid. 
Temperature falls rapidly. 
Mouth white and hardened. 
Labored respiration. 
Coma and death. 
The urine is of an olive green color. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
One-half ounce has several times caused death; 
a little over a drachm has caused death in 
one case. 
Patients usually live from one to ten hours, 
but death may occur in ten minutes. 
Treatment.- 
Immediately give large doses undiluted whisky 
or other liquor, or dilute alcohol. 
Stomach pump must be employed; emetics 
are useless because of paralysis of stomach. 
Give sulphate sodium or magnesium freely. 
Albumen and demulcents. 
Syrup of lime. 
Solutions of soap. 
Oil useful for external applications. 
Stimulate to overcome depression: - 
Inhalations of oxygen. 
Hypodermic injections of ether, etc. 
222 II. IRRITANT POISONS. 
Include: - - 
Metallic irritants and their compounds.- 
Arsenic. 
Lead. 
Copper. 
Zinc. 
Nitrate of silver. 
Phosphorus. 
Iodine. 
Vegetable Irritants.- 
Elaterium. 
Gamboge. 
Aloes. 
Colocynth. 
Croton oil. 
Animal irritants.- 
Cantharides. 
Symptoms in General.- 
Slower in their action than the corrosives. 
Burning pain in the mouth, throat, and oesoph- 
agus, with a feeling of pressure, then a burn- 
ing pain in the region of the stomach, which 
is increased by pressure. 
Thirst, nausea and vomiting. 
Distention and tenderness of abdomen. 
Profuse diarrhoea. 
Collapse. 
Death. 
223 ARSENIC and COMPOUNDS. 
Symptoms.- 
In about half an hour the patient feels de 
pressed. 
Burning pain and tenderness on pressure in the 
region of the stomach. 
Nausea and vomiting. 
Purging, bloody and offensive. 
Thirst. 
Feeble, rapid or irregular pulse. 
Cold clammy skin. 
Bloody urine. 
Convulsions. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Two grains is probably the minimum fatal dcse. 
Death usually takes place in from 12 to 72 
hours. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics-sulphate of zinc, ipecac or mustard 
in water. Stomach pump if at hand. 
Warm diluent drinks. 
Hydrated sesquioxide of iron with magnesia 
given in large doses and frequently repeated. 
Castor oil. 
LEAD COMPOUNDS. 
Symptoms.- 
Like arsenic, plus:- 
Blue line on gums where they join the teeth. 
Lead in the urine. 
Usually constipation instead of diarrhoea. 
May have severe pain in the joints and limbs 
and cramps. 
224 Lead colic pains in the region of the umbili 
cus, nausea, vomiting, etc. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
All the salts of lead are poisonous except the 
sulphate, which is insoluble. 
Acute lead poisoning is rare, except by acci- 
dent, but chronic lead poisoning occurs quite 
frequently. 
The minimum fatal dose of all the salts of lead 
is very uncertain. 
The fatal period is also very uncertain, varying 
from a few hours to a few days. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics, as sulphate of zinc. 
Milk and white of eggs. 
Sulphate of magnesia. 
Castor oil. 
COPPER COMPOUNDS. 
Symptoms.- 
Like arsenic, plus:- 
Usually begin about fifteen minutes after 
taking the poison, but they may not 
appear for two hours. 
The vomit is greenish or bluish. 
Strong copper taste in the mouth. 
Excessive salivation and bronchial secre- 
tions are characteristic. 
Death may occur in a few hours preceded 
by syncope, paralysis, delirium and anaes- 
thesia. 
Jaundice is always present if the patient 
lives twenty-four hours. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
The fatal dose is uncertain, an ounce of the sul- 
225 phate has proved fatal and half an ounce of 
the subacetate. 
Death usually takes place in from four to twelve 
hours. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics or stomach pump. 
Whites of eggs stirred up with a little water, 
given repeatedly. 
Milk. 
Yellow prussiate of potash. 
Soap or a fixed alkali. 
Opium to relieve pain. 
ZINC COMPOUNDS. 
Symptoms.- 
Like copper, plus. 
Dilated pupils. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Sulphate of zinc in a dose of from % to I ounce 
will cause death. Death usually takes place 
within fifteen hours. 
The fatal dose of chloride of zinc is not known. 
Death may take place within four hours, but 
it may take months. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics or stomach pump. 
White of egg. 
Milk. 
Diluent drinks. 
Opium for pain. 
226 NITRATE OF SILVER. 
Symptoms.- 
Like arsenic, plus:- 
Insensibility. 
Violent convulsions. 
Dilated pupils. 
Great muscular weakness. 
Paralysis. 
Disturbed respiration. 
Discoloration of lips and skin, first white, 
then black. 
Vertigo. 
Brownish or blackish vomit. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
The fatal dose varies; death has been caused 
by 30 grains. Recovery has taken place 
after an ounce had been taken. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics. 
Common salt in large quantities. 
Milk in large quantities. 
PHOSPHORUS. 
Symptoms.- 
Like arsenic, but it takes from three to twelve 
hours for first symptoms to appear. In addi- 
tion to these symptoms we have:- 
Vomit at times smells of phosphorus. In 
early part is luminous in the dark. 
Vomiting stops on second or third day, 
and begins again with the jaundice, when 
it becomes of a dark color, due to the 
mixture with the blood. 
227 Tongue is white or very red. 
Loss of appetite. 
Thirst. 
There is usually fever followed by subnor- 
mal temperature. Urine scanty, albumi- 
nous, and may contain sugar. 
Nervous symptoms develop after jaundice 
is present. 
Delirium. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Less than a grain has proved fatal. 
Death usually takes place in from one to five 
days. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics, albuminous and demulcent drinks 
with hydrate of magnesia. 
Copper sulphate. 
"French" oil of turpentine. 
Animal charcoal. 
Nitrate of silver. 
Stimulants. 
IODINE. 
Symptoms.- 
Very few deaths are recorded as caused by it. 
Burning heat in the throat, oesophagus and 
stomach. 
Severe pain in the abdomen. 
Vomit smells of iodine; is of a yellowish color, 
except when it consists of starchy substance, 
in which case it is blue; sometimes it is 
mixed with blood. 
228 Purging, which may show the presence of 
iodine. 
Pulse small and frequent. 
Pallor. 
Lessening or suspension of urine, dark brown 
and rich in iodine. 
Eruptions on the skin about the fourth day. 
Headache and giddiness. 
Thirst and anxiety. 
Convulsions 
Collapse. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Twenty grains has caused death. 
Death usually takes place within ten days. 
Treatment.- 
Starch in water. 
CROTON OIL. 
Symptoms.- 
Violent vomiting. 
Purging. 
Symptoms of collapse. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Thirty minims have caused death. 
Two and one-half drachms have caused death 
in four hours. 
Recovery took place, after taking two and one- 
half drachms, in fourteen days, after severe 
vomiting, purging and collapse. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics. 
Demulcent drinks. 
Morphine hypodermically. 
Symptomatic. 
229 CANTHAR1DES. 
Symptoms.- 
Like arsenic, plus: 
Great thirst. 
Dry throat. 
Dull heavy pains in the loins. 
Constant desire to urinate, with great pain, 
passing only a few drops of bloody urine. 
Priapism in men and swelling and heat of 
the labia in women. 
Bloody diarrhoea. 
May be salivation 
Syncope. 
Convulsions. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Twenty five grains of the powder and an 
ounce of the tincture, each have caused 
death within two weeks. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics or stomach pump. 
Demulcent drinks. 
Opium per rectum. 
Stimulants. 
III. NEUROTIC POISONS. 
Include.- 
Aconite. 
Alcohol. 
Belladonna. 
Chloral hydrate. 
Chloroform. 
Cocaine. 
Cocculus, 
230 Colchicum. 
Conium. 
Hydrocyanic acid. 
Mushroom. 
Opium. 
Physostigma. 
Ptomaines. 
Strychnine. 
ACONITE. 
Symptoms.- 
Come on in a few minutes. 
Throat dry. 
Tingling and numbness of lips, throat and 
tongue. 
Nausea and vomiting. 
Pain and tenderness of abdomen. 
Numbness and anaesthesia become general. 
Vertigo. 
Dimness of vision. 
Tinuitus aurium-may be deaf. 
Frothing of mouth. 
Weakness-unable to walk. 
Slow, feeble pulse. 
Labored breathing. 
Cold clammy skin. 
Dilated pupils. 
Pale features. 
Mind is usually clear. 
Death may be sudden. 
Slight convulsions. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Five grains of the extract and eighty minims of 
the tincture have each caused death. 
Death occurs within five hours. 
231 Treatment.- 
Empty the stomach-emetics or stomach 
pump. 
Dorsal decubitus, elevate feet. 
Stimulate, alcohol, ether, digitalis hypoderm- 
ically and inject ammonia into the veins. 
Artificial respiration. 
Nitrite of amyl inhaled. 
ALCOHOL. 
Symptoms.- 
Usually come on in a few minutes. 
Giddiness. 
Confusion of mind. 
Staggering. 
Incoherent talking. 
Stupor. 
Coma. 
Face pale or red. 
Pupils are usually dilated. 
Breath smells of alcohol or aldehyde. 
Jerky movement of limbs. 
Labored breathing. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Fatal dose indefinite 
Death may occur in one half hour, or the 
patient may appear well, and later die in 
convulsions. 
Treatment.- 
Empty stomach-emetic or stomach pump. 
Dash cold water over head. 
Fresh air. 
Electricity. 
Atnmonia. 
Coffee. 
232 BELLADONNA. 
Symptoms.- 
Usually come on in from one-half to two hours. 
Heat and dryness of mouth and throat. 
Difficult swallowing. 
Respiration accelerated. 
Pupils dilated. 
Face flushed. 
Nausea and vomiting, 
Rapid pulse. 
Talkative delirium. 
Convulsions. 
Stupor. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
One-half to three quarters of a grain of atro- 
pine is the minimurrt adult lethal dose. 
Death usually takes place within twenty-four 
hours. 
Treatment.- 
Empty stomach-emetics or stomach pump. 
Tannic acid given freely. 
Pilocarpine hypodermically. 
Draw urine. 
Stimulate the circulation and respiration, by. 
Heat and mustard externally. 
Alternate hot and cold douches. 
Artificial respiration. 
Whisky and ammonia hypodermically. 
CHLORAL HYDRATE. 
Symptoms.- 
Deep sleep. 
233 Pulse slow and feeble. 
Respiration slow. 
Face pale. 
Coma. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Thirty grains has caused death. 
Recovery has taken place after the ingestion 
of over an ounce. 
Treatment.- 
Similar to that of opium poisoning. 
Alcoholic and external stimulants used freely. 
Artificial respiration. 
Inhalation of oxygen. 
Strychnine hypodermically. 
Atropine. 
Coffee. 
Ammonia. 
CHLOROFORM. 
Symptoms.- 
By the mouth- 
Nausea and vomiting. 
Colicky pains in abdomen. 
Insensibility. 
Convulsions. 
Dilated pupils. 
Flushed face. 
Full and oppressed pulse. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
By the mouth- 
One half ounce has often caused death. 
By inhalation- 
Thirty drops has caused death in one 
minute. 
234 Fifteen drops has caused death in a short 
time. 
Treatment.- 
By the mouth- 
Empty the stomach-emetic or stomach 
pump. 
Stimulate, digitalis, strychnine, etc. 
By inhalation- 
Withdraw the chloroform. 
Fresh air. 
Cold affusions to face and chest. 
Elevate feet. 
• Draw tongue out of mouth to facilitate 
respiration. 
Strychnine and digitalis hypodermically. 
Artificial respiration. 
COCAINE. 
Symptoms.- 
Great restlessness and nervous excitement. 
Accelerated pulse, but it may be slow and 
feeble. 
Respiration increased in frequency. 
Muscular twitchings or mild convulsions. 
May be nausea and vomiting. 
Pupils are dilated. 
May have violent epileptiform convulsions. 
Consciousness is usually lost. 
May have mania with hallucinations and 
delusions. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Twenty-four grains per rectum proved fatal. 
Twenty drops of a 4 per cent solution, given 
235 hypodermically to a girl of twelve years, 
caused death in forty seconds. 
One drachm of a 20 per cent solution, in- 
jected into the urethra, caused death in 
fifteen minutes. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics. 
Digitalis, strychninae and morphine, hypoder- 
mically. 
FISH BERRIES. 
Symptoms.- 
Usually occur within half an hour. 
Loss of voluntary power. 
Nausea and vomiting 
Severe abdominal pain. 
Faintness and confusion of mind. 
Dimness of vision. 
Excessive thirst. 
Pulse weak. 
Respiration slow and labored. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Fatal dose indefinite. 
Death may occur within half an hour. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics. 
Demulcent drinks. 
COLCHICUM. 
Symptoms.- 
Nausea, retching, and uncontrollable vomiting. 
Violent purging. 
Griping abdominal pain. 
Burning pain in the throat and stomach. 
236 Pulse first frequent and feeble, later rapid and 
thready. 
Cold, clammy, pale or livid skin. 
Consciousness is preserved until the last. 
Collapse. 
Delirium and convulsions may be present. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Half an ounce of the wine of the root, forty-five 
grains of the dried bulb, and a tablespoonful 
of the seeds have each proved fatal. 
Death usually occurs within 24 hours. 
Treatment.- 
There is no known antidote. 
Emetics or stomach pump. 
Strychnine. 
Digitalis hypodermically. 
Caffeine. 
Demulcent drinks. 
Castor oil. 
Symptoms.- 
Headache. 
Disturbed vision. 
Dil ated pupils. 
Gradual paralysis of the extremities. 
Eyes are kept shut. 
Pulse at first diminished, later increased. 
Death from paralysis of respiration. 
Should death be delayed there may be con- 
vulsions, coma, delirium, and paralysis of the 
sphincters. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
One drachm of conium is usually a fatal dose. 
Death usually takes place within three hours. 
CONIUM. 
237 Treatment.- 
' Emetics. 
Castor oil. 
Strychnine hypodermically. 
Digitalis. 
Whiskey. 
HYDROCYANIC ACID and COMPOUNDS. 
Symptoms.- 
Come on almost immediately. 
General paralysis. 
Respiration is prolonged and forced. 
Pulse is imperceptible. 
Eyes glassy and prominent. 
Pupils dilated. 
Odor of prussic acid upon the breath. 
Unconsciousness. 
Violent convulsions. 
Death. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Fifty minims of the official acid may be consid- 
ered the adult lethal dose. 
Death usually occurs within ten to fifteen min- 
utes. 
Treatment.- 
Empty stomach. 
Atropine hypodermically. 
Alternate hot and cold douches. 
Ammonia by mouth, inhalation and injection 
into the veins. 
Chlorine by mouth, inhalation and external ap- 
plication. 
Artificial respiration. 
A mixture of ferrous and ferric sulphate pre- 
ceded by a cream of carbonate of magnesium 
and water. 
238 AGARIC-POISONOUS MUSH- 
ROOM. 
Symptoms.- 
Usually appear within half an hour. 
Violent vomiting and purging. 
Abdominal pains. 
Dimness of vision. 
Dilated pupils. 
Delirium. 
Stupor. 
Coma. 
Trembling. 
Convulsions. 
Death. 
Treatment.- 
Emetics. 
Daturine hypodermically. 
Chloroform in 30 drop doses. 
Morphine. 
Strychnine. 
Digitalis. 
Symptoms.- 
Giddiness. 
Stupor. 
Clammy skin. 
Slow full pulse. 
Itching of nose. 
Drowsiness. 
Coma. 
Slow stertorous breathing. 
Contracted pupils (pin point.) 
Reflexes abolished. 
Death from respiratory failure. 
OPIUM AND MORPHINE. 
239 Fatal dose and period.- 
Four grains may be considered the minimum 
adult lethal dose. 
Death usually takes place in from seven u. 
twelve hours.- 
Treatment.- 
Empty stomach-emetics or stomach pump. 
Draw urine. 
Atropine hypodermically. 
Permanganate of potassium hypodermically. 
Strychnine. 
Caffeine. 
Cocaine. 
Electricity. 
Cold affusions. 
Artificial respiration. 
Keep in motion. 
PHYSOSTIGMA. 
Symptoms.- 
Giddiness. 
Lessened heart action. 
Muscular tremor. 
Muscular flaccidity-falls to the ground. 
Pupils contract. 
Respiration slow, irregular and stertorous. 
Reflexes abolished. 
Voice is completely lost. 
Body temperature is slightly elevated. 
Vomiting and purging may be present. 
Convulsions may be present. 
Consciousness is retained. 
Death from paralysis of respiration. 
Treatment.-- 
Empty the stomach-emetics or stomach pump. 
240 Dry heat externally. 
Atropine hypodermically, gr., 1/60 every two 
hours until three doses have been given 
STRYCHNINE and NUX VOMICA. 
Symptoms.- 
Usually appear within one half hour. 
Restlessness and general uneasiness. 
Twitching of the muscles and jerking of the 
limbs and head. 
Violent tetanic convulsions of the whole body 
During contraction of the muscles of the chest 
and abdomen, respiration is arrested. 
Face is livid and congested. 
Eyes prominent and staring. 
Pupils dilated. 
Pulse rapid and feeble. 
Consciousness is retained. 
Great thirst. 
Death from paralysis of respiration. 
Fatal dose and period.- 
Half a grain is the smallest fatal adult dose. 
Recovery has taken place after taking fort) 
grains. 
Death usually takes place within an hour. 
Treatment.- 
Empty the stomach-emetic or stomach pump. 
Chloroform by inhalation for convulsions. 
Potassium bromide with chloral hydrate in 
large doses every half hour. 
Atropine, when chloroform fails. 
Nitrite of amyl by inhalation. 
Artificial respiration. 
Paraldehyde. 
241 IV. GASEOUS POISONS. 
Include: 
Carbonic acid gas. 
Carbon monoxide or illuminating gas. 
Chlorine and bromine gases. 
Coal-illuminating gas. 
Sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 
CARBONIC ACID GAS. 
Symptoms.- 
Stertorous breathing. 
Oppression. 
Flushed face. 
Eyes protrude. 
Swollen tongue. 
Feeble pulse. 
Treatment.- 
Fresh air. 
Alternate hot and cold douches to chest. 
Friction of limbs and trunk. 
Artificial respiration. 
Stimulate-strychninae, digitalis, etc. 
CARBON MONOXIDE OR ILLUMIN- 
ATING GAS. 
Symptoms.- 
Headache. 
Pressure in region of temples. 
Vertigo. 
Ringing in the ears. 
'Tendency to sleep. 
Loss of muscular power. 
Impaired vision. 
Labored breathing. 
242 Rapid feeble pulse. 
Vomiting. 
Coma. 
Convulsions. 
Death from asphyxia; this usually occurs 
within two hours. 
Treatment.- 
Fresh aii. 
Artificial respiration. 
Alternate hot and cold douches. 
Stimulate. 
Electricity. 
CHLORINE AND BROMINE GASES. 
Symptoms.- 
Violent convulsive cough. 
Bloody expectoration. 
Spasm of the glottis. 
Darting pains through the chest. 
Sneezing. 
Profuse flow of tears. 
Pneumonia in severe cases. 
Dyspnoea. 
Death from asphyxia. 
Treatment.- 
Fresh air. 
Inhalation of warm aqueous vapor of ammo- 
nia to form ammonium chloride. 
Chloroform. 
Narcotics. 
COAL GAS-ILLUMINATING GAS. 
Symptoms.- 
Headache. 
243 Confusion of intellect. 
Vertigo. 
Nausea and vomiting. 
Loss of consciousness and insensibility. 
Complete prostration. 
Convulsions. 
Death from asphyxia. 
Treatment.- 
Fresh air. 
Artificial respiration. 
Alternate hot and cold douches. 
Stimulate. 
Electricity. 
SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS. 
Symptoms.- 
Sense of fullness and pain in the stomach. 
Vertigo. 
Nausea. 
Loss of muscular power and consciousness. 
Escape of blood from the mouth. 
Body cold. 
Face livid. 
Pupils dilated and fixed. 
Convulsions. 
Coma. 
Death from asphyxia. 
Treatment.- 
Fresh air. 
Friction. 
Warmth. 
Stimulate-strychnine, digitalis, etc. 
244 PTOMAINES. 
Symptoms.- 
These usually come on within thirty-six hours 
of partaking of the poisonous meat, sausage, 
milk, shell fish or fish. 
Languor and ill health. 
Loss of appetite. 
Nausea. 
Gripping pains in abdomen; diarrhoea and 
vomiting. 
May be chilliness or rigor. 
Headache, giddiness or faintness. 
Cold sweats. 
Stools offensive and of a dark color. 
Muscular weakness pronounced. 
Intense thirst. 
Tongue coated. 
Temperature ioi to 104. 
Pulse 100 to 125. 
Collapse. 
Death. 
Treatment.- 
Symptomatic. 
Calomel. 
Stimulants. 
Demulcents, 
Baths. 
Food to be given cautiously. 
245 DOSAGE IN GENERAL. 
There are numerous conditions which modify the 
action of drugs, which must be taken into consid- 
eration. 
Disease often fortifies the system against the action 
of drugs. In peritonitis and cerebro-spinal fever 
very large doses of opium are taken with benefit, 
then again severe pain or delirium tremens greatly 
retards the production of sleep by opium; spinal 
disease interferes greatly with purgation; in 
typhoid fever there is a wonderful tolerance to 
alcohol. Nevertheless, while the body may toler- 
ate, when diseased, large doses of some drugs, 
these drugs should never be prescribed in doses 
that given to healthy persons would cause death. 
Habit and Mode of Life have a marked influence on 
the blood, either causing plethora or anaemia, 
and they also ward off the action cf certain drugs. 
If a man becomes accustomed to certain nar- 
cotics, such as opium or alcohol, he will fail to 
some degree to show an effect from their action 
in medicinal doses. 
Thus the opium eater only obtains quietude 
and ease by taking a dose sufficiently large to 
kill an ordinary person. 
Again, a person who is hardened to exposure 
and work in the open air requires a much larger 
dose to affect the system than those who lead a 
sedentary life. 
246 Interval Between Doses.-A question often 
puzzling when writing a prescription may arise in 
regard to the interval between doses: this is deter- 
mined by the physiological action of the drug and 
its absorption and elimination, and for some drugs 
by the condition of the patient or of the organs to 
which the action of the drug is largely directed. 
In general when the intention is to assist the 
performance of a natural function that occurs at 
longer intervals, such as sleep, a single dose large 
enough to decidedly influence the patient should be 
ordered shortly before the time when under normal 
circumstances the patient would sleep. 
Laxatives usually act more satisfactorily if given 
at night and allowed to slowly dissolve or spread 
through the intestines: quickly acting salines are 
more effective if taken before breakfast. 
Drugs such as iodides, bromides, salicylates, 
arsenic, etc., which are irritating to the gastro-in- 
testinal membranes may be given with better re- 
sults when these membranes are somewhat pro- 
tected by food, as just after eating, than at any 
other time. 
Expectorants, which in addition to a systemic 
action, may be in such form as to have some local 
action on the throat membranes, are best taken at 
short intervals, every two or three hours. 
The interval between doses should in general cor- 
respond with the duration of the effect-thus if the 
administration of a drug be followed by an effect 
evident in one hour and persisting for three hours, 
it is desirable to give the drug at three-hour in- 
tervals. 
It is good practice to give a safe dose-small 
as effective-and repeat it at minimum intervals- 
rather than a large dose at maximum intervals. 
247 Correctives and Synergistics.-When closely 
analyzed the effects of one drug are never directly 
opposite to those of another in all respects, and 
neither do any two exactly parallel each other 
Drugs that are antagonistic in some spheres of 
action are synergistic in others. Hence it is pos- 
sible to add to a basic medicament another drug 
which may overcome some undesirable part of the 
effect of the first, and at the same time intensify or, 
at least, not seriously interfere with, the action in 
other respects. 
While not entirely a matter of dosage, this bal- 
ancing or readjustment of action is largely in- 
fluenced by the proportions in which the drugs are 
associated together. 
When a synergist or a corrective is added, the 
dosage of this added drug should be small enough 
so that its effect will not predominate but only 
modify the effect of the chosen medicament. 
A word of caution should be given regarding the 
dosage of two mixtures, in each of which the same 
corrective or synergist may appear. Thus a mixture 
of diuretics, together with a small dose of atropine, 
may be ordered to allay irritability of the bladder 
in cystitis and, while this medicament is being used, 
if there be given a mixture of laxatives together 
with a small dose of extract of belladonna included 
as a corrective for its action on the inhibitory nerves 
it is evident that the sum total of the belladonna 
extract and the atropine may be equal to a rather 
large, or in some cases, even a dangerous dose. 
Avoid prescribing mixtures unless each ingredient 
is carefully selected and the conditions surrounding 
its administration are well known. 
248 Idiosyncrasy.-This is important, but cannot 
be foreseen. A patient should always be asked 
about his peculiarities in regard to taking drugs. 
Some are affected by the tonic influences of even 
minute doses of arsenic, some are salivated by a 
minute dose of a mercurial, some are poisoned by a 
very small amount of turpentine. Others cannot 
take quinine, opium, belladonna nor the iodides, 
and with still others dilute solutions of cocaine 
applied to the mucous membranes will cause 
severe toxic symptoms. These idiosyncrasies are 
innumerable and should always be kept in mind. 
Sex.-Men as a rule bear larger doses of medi- 
cines than women. Of course in women during 
pregnancy or at the menstrual period strong drugs 
should be avoided. 
Age.-Children and old people are more easily 
affected by most drugs, especially the narcotics, 
than adults in the prime of life, but they bear 
larger doses of purgatives in proportion. The 
following rules for dosage, with relation to age 
can be used: 
(a) Dr. Young's is probably the best and most 
generally useful; it is: add 12 to the age 
and divide the age by the result. Thus a child 
of three years £^=^=1- of that of the adult. 
At the age of twenty-one years the full dose is 
given. 
(b} Dr. Cowling's rule is : divide the patient's 
next birthday by 24; thus at three years the 
dose would be fa or | of that of the adult, five 
years, fa or 11 years, || or |, etc. 
(r) Prof. Clarke has proposed a rule that is 
based on relative weights. Taking the aver- 
age weight of an adult at one hundred and 
fifty pounds, for whom the appropriate dose 
249 is one or one drachm, the dose of the drug 
must be increased or diminished in proportion 
of the weight of the patient to that number of 
pounds. This proportion is represented by 
a fraction whose numerator is the patient's 
weight and whose denominator is 150. If a 
child at birth weighs ten pounds, the propor- 
tionate dose for it would be or A- A 
child at two years weighing twenty pounds, 
would require or about | of an adult dose. 
A person whose weight is two hundred pounds 
should have or of an average adult dose. 
(d) Dr. Lauder-Burton proposes the following 
rule for calculating the dose for a child, in the 
metric system. Multiply the next birthday 
by four and divide the result by one hundred; 
or what is the same thing, multiply the full 
dose by the child's next birthday, then by four 
and remove the decimal point two places to 
the left. Thus if the dose for an adult be one 
gramme, that for a child of three years will 
be .160 gm. 
Constitution.-As a rule, the larger and more robust 
the individual, the less easily he is influenced by 
drugs. 
250 A LIST OF DRUGS WITH DOSES. 
Both the United States Pharmacopoeia IX and 
National Formulary list an average adult dose for 
many official articles: these statements in no way 
limit the physician in the exercise of his judgment 
and may be either exceeded or reduced. 
In the following tables the dosage listed is for 
adults and covers the average range of the usual 
requirements of medical practice, but in exceptional 
cases may be exceeded safely and with benefit. 
When a dose larger than usual is prescribed the 
quantity written should be underlined to show that 
no error has been made and that the large dose as 
written is purposely ordered. 
Unless so underlined or otherwise marked or 
checked the pharmacist should make certain by per- 
sonal inquiry that no error has been made. 
In all cases where unusual quantities are ordered 
the patient should be kept under close observation. 
Various ways of administering a drug, whether 
by mouth, hypodermically, by inunction, by inhala- 
tion or intravenously, bring about effects of vary- 
ing intensity and this variation may be due to one 
or more of several factors in drug action. 
If a drug is so prepared or is so administered that 
its assimilation or absorption takes place more 
quickly or in greater quantity for the same period 
of time, the increased mass thus thrown within a 
shorter time against the tissue to be influenced, may 
bring about more intense reaction and more pro- 
nounced response by the patient. 
When given either hypodermically or intraven- 
ously, a drug does not come under the influence of 
251 the contents and secretions of the gastro-intestinal 
area, but in many cases reaches the field of its 
action without change. 
The condition of the patient himself, varying from 
time to time, may decidedly influence this ab- 
sorption or assimilation and the resulting effects. 
Elimination, if faulty, may bring about cumulative 
effects out of all proportion to a single dose. 
If other conditions are similar the dosage, when 
given hypodermically, should seldom exceed one- 
half of that given by the mouth, and when given 
intravenously should be somewhat less than one- 
half of the oral and be in a dilute solution: in rectal 
injections one and one-half times as much may be 
given; by inunction, twice as much may usually be 
applied as taken internally by mouth. 
These proportions are suggestive only and cir- 
cumstances in each case may modify them. 
Absinthe, 15-30 gr. 
Acetanilid, 3-20 gr. 
Acid, Acetic, 15-30 min. 
Arsenous, t^-io gr. 
Benzoic, 10-30 gr. 
Boric, 10-30 gr. 
Carbolic, 1-3 gr. 
Citric, 10-40 gr. 
Formic, 3-5 min. 
Gallic, 3-30 gr. 
Hydrobromic Dil, f 3 . 
Hydrochloric, 5-10 min. 
" dil. IQ-30 min. 
Hydrocyanic dil., 1-5 min. 
Lactic U. S. P., j£-2 f 3 • 
Nitric dil. 5-30 min. 
Nitro hydrochloric, 2-5 min. 
" " dil., 10- 
30 min. 
Oxalic, J^-l gr. 
Phosphoric, 3-7 min. 
" dil., 5-40 min. 
Salicylic, 5-20 gr. 
Sulphuric dil., 10-20 min. 
" arom., 5-20 min. 
Tannic, 3-10 gr. 
Tartaric, 5-25 gr. 
Valerianic, 2-5 min. 
Aconite, J^-2 gr. 
Aconite leaves, 1-2 gr. 
Aconitine, gr. 
Acetphenetidin, 3-15 gr. 
Agaricin, gr. 
Aletrin, J^-2gr. 
Allium (garlic), 15-60 gr. 
Aloes, Barbadoest ^-10 gr. 
Aloes, Socotrine, yi-lU gr. 
Aloin; %-2 gr. 
Alum, 10-60 gr. 
Aluminum hydrate, 1-10 gr. 
252 Ammoniac, 5-25 gr. 
Ammonium bromide, 5-60 gr. 
Ammonium carbonate, 5-15 
gr- 
Ammonium chloride, 5-30 gr. 
Ammonium iodide, 3-10 gr. 
Ammonia, water of, (10#), 10- 
30 min. 
Ammonium valerianate, 2-10 
gr- 
Amyl nitrite, 2-4 min. 
Aniline, 1-2 gr. 
Anise, 10-30 gr. 
Anthemis, 30-120 gr. 
Antifebrim, 3-20 gr. 
Antimony and potash tartrate, 
^-3 gr. 
Antimony oxysulphide, 1-3 gr. 
Antipyrine, 3-20 gr. 
Apiol, 2-5 min. 
Apomorphine, muriate, 2'o-% 
gr- . . 
Argentic nitrate, gr. 
Argentic oxide, ^-2 gr. 
Arnica flowers, 10-20 gr. 
Arnica root, 5-20 gr. 
Arsenic, bromide, gr. 
Arsenic, chloride, gr. 
Arsenic, iodide, 2^"% gr. 
Assafoetida, 5-60 gr. 
Atropine, j^-eS gr. 
" sulphate, t^-eS gr. 
Aurum, chloride, ^iV gr- 
Auriiet sodii chloridum, 
gr. 
Balsam Peru, 10-30 min. 
Balsam copaiba, 5-60 min. 
Berberine, gr. 
Berberine sulphate, 1-10 gr. 
Belladonna leaves, 1-3 
" root, 1-3 gr. 
Bismuth citrate, 1-5 gr. 
Bismuth salicylate, 5-10 gr. 
Subcarbonate, 10-60 gr. 
Subgallate, 5-30 gr. 
Subnitrate, 5-100 gr. 
Tannate, 5-30 gr. 
Bromoform, 1-5 min. 
Bryony, 10-60 gr. 
Buchu, 15-60 gr. 
Butyl-chloral, 5-10 gr. 
Caffeine, 1-3 gr. 
" citrate, 1-5 gr. 
Calcium, bromide, 5-60 gr. 
Carbonate, 5-40 gr. 
Chloride, 1-15 gr. 
Hypophosphite, 5-25 gr. 
Iodide, 5-20 gr. 
Phosphate, 10-40 gr. 
Sulphit., %-5 gr. 
Calumbo, 5-30 gr. 
Camphor, 1-10 gr. 
Camphormonobromate, 1-5 gr 
Cannabis indica, 2-5 gr. 
Cannabine tannate, 1-10 gr. 
Capsicum, 3-5 gr. 
Castanae, %-2 dr. 
Catechu, 10-30 gr. 
Caulophyllum, 5-25 gr. 
Caulophyllin, %-2 gr. 
Cerium oxalate, 1-5 gr. 
Chenopodium, 10-25 gr. 
Chloral, 5-25 gr. 
Chloroform, 2-8 min. 
Cimicifuga, 10-30 gr. 
Cinchona, 30-60 gr. 
Cinnamon, 10-30 gr. 
Coca, 15-60 gr. 
Cocaine, %-2 gr. 
Codeine, %-6 gr. 
Codeine sulphate, %-6 gr. 
Colchicine, tIo-jV 
Colocynth, 1-8 gr. 
Colocynthin, %-l gr. 
Conium, 2-5 gr. 
Convallaria, 5-30 gr. 
Creosote, 1-20 gtt. 
Crocus, 5-30 gr. 
Copper Arsenite, 1 gr. 
" Subacetate, gr 
253 Copper Sulphate (emetic), 
10 gr. 
Cubeb, %-3 dr. 
Cundurango, 20-40 gr. 
Diacetyl Morphine 1/40- 
1/12 gr. 
Decoctions, base dose on per- 
centage of drug. 
Digitalis, >£-3 gr. 
Digitalin, gr. 
Duboisine, 
Elaterium, gr. 
Elaterine, sVi's grain. 
Elixirs, dose based on drug 
Emetine, l/lZU-J/g gr. 
Ergot, 15-60 gr. 
Ergotine, 2-5 gr. 
Eucalyptol, 5-30 min. 
Eucalyptus, )^-l dr. 
Euonymin, 2-5 gr. 
Euonymus, 5-30 gr. 
Europhen, 1-5 gr. 
Exalgine, 1-5 gr. 
Extracts and Fluidextracts, 
dose based on drug strength 
Fei Bovis, 3-10 gr. 
Frangula, ^-2 dr. 
Galls, J^-l dr. 
Gelsemium, )4-5 gr. 
Gelsemine, gr. 
Gelsemine, hydrochlorate, 
Sulphate, 
Tartrate, aa rJ0 gr. 
Gentian, 5-30 gr. 
Ginger, 10-30 gr. 
Glycerine, 10 min.,-2 dr. 
Glycyrrhizin Ammon., 1-5 
gr. 
Gossypium, barkof root, 15-60 
gr. 
Grindelia, 15-60 gr. 
Guaiac, resin, 5-30 gr. 
Guaiacol, 5^-10 gr. 
Guaiacol carbonate 5-60 gr. 
Guarana, %-l dr. 
Haemogallol, 2-6 gr 
Haemoglobin, 1-3 gr. 
Hellebore, 4-16 gr. 
Helonias, 5-15 gr. 
Homatropine hydrobramate 
.rlu-s1? gr* 
Hydrastis, 1-30 gr. 
Hydrochinon,5-10 gr. 
Hyoscine hydrobromate, s^- 
lio-gr. . 
Hyoscyamin, J^-l gr. 
Hyoscyamine, {Ho gr. 
Hyoscyamus, 5-15 gr. 
Ichthyol, 3-10 gr. 
Ignatia, 1-2 gr. 
Infusions-dose based on per 
centage of drug. 
Inula, 15-60 gr. 
Inulin, 1-3 gr. 
Iodoform, j^-5 gr. 
Iodine, %-l gr. 
Ipecac, 5^-30 gr. 
Iris, 10-30 gr. 
Iron reduced, 1-5 gr. 
Iron, Acetate, 3-10 gr. 
Bromide, }^-2 gr. 
Carbonate, 5-15 gr. 
Chloride, 1-3 gr. 
Citrate, 3-5 gr. 
and potash tartrate,10-30 gr., 
and quinine citrate, 3-10 gr., 
and strychnine citrat', 
1-3 gr. 
Ferrocyanide, 2-5 gr. 
Iodide, 1-5 gr. 
Phosphate, 5-10 gr. 
Pyrophosphate, 2-5 gr. 
Subcarbonate, 5-30 gr. 
Sulphate, 1-5 gr. 
Valerianate, %-2 gr. 
Jalap, 10-30 gr. 
Kamala, 1-2 dr. 
Kino, 5-30 gr. 
Kola, 5 gr.-2 dr. 
Koussoo, 2-3 dr. 
254 Krameria, 5-30 gr. 
Lactucarium, 5-60 gr. 
Lead acetate, 1-5 gr. 
Leptandra, 15-60 gr. 
Lithium benzoate, 10-30 gr. 
" bromide, 5-25 gr. 
" carbonate, 3-15 gr. 
" citrate, 3-15 gr. 
" iodide, 1-8 gr. 
" salicylate, 10-30 gr. 
Lobelia, 1-10 gr. 
Lupulin, 5-15 gr. 
Macrotin, j£-2 gr. 
Magnesia, light, 5-60 gr. 
heavy, 5-60 gr. 
Magnesia, carbon., 5-60 gr. 
" sulphate, 4-12 dr. 
Manganese, binoxide, 2-10 gr. 
" hypophosphite, 
10-30 gr. 
Mass of mercury, 3-10 gr. 
Matricaria, 15-60 gr. 
Menthol, 1-5 gr. 
Mercury, chloride, (ic) 
gr. 
Mercury, chloride (ous), 
BV-10 gr. 
Mercury, Iodide, (ic) gr. 
Iodide, (ous) 5^-2 gr. 
Tannate, gr. 
With chalk, 3-10 gr. 
Methyl, salicylate, 1-5 min. 
I lezereum. 5-15 gr. 
Morphine, 1/16-gr. 
Morphine acet., 1/16-/ gr. 
Other salts of morphine 
Y-Yz gr. 
Naphthaline, 2-10 gr. 
Naphtol, 2-15 gr. 
Naphtol, Alpha, %-5 gr. 
Narceine, gr. 
Narcotine, 2-10 gr. 
Nicotine, gr. 
Nitroglycerine, ^^0 gr. 
Nux vomica, gr. 
Oil, Almond, bitter, % min. 
Almond, sweet, oz. 
Cajeput, 1-5 min. 
Castor, 1 dr.-l oz. 
Cinnamon, 1-5 min 
Cloves, 1-5 min. 
Copaiba, 5-15 min. 
Croton, /-2 min. 
Cubebs, 5-15 min. 
Erigeron, 5-30 min. 
Eucalyptus, 5-15 min. 
Juniper, 5-15 min. 
Lavander, 1-5 min, 
Linseed, 30 min. 1 oz. 
Morrhuae, 2-8 dr. 
Olives, 1-16 dr. 
Peppermint, 1-5 min. 
Phosphorated, 1-5 min. 
Rue, 1-4 min. 
Savine, 1-5 min. 
Sandalwood, 5-30 min. 
Sassafras, 1-5 min. 
Turpentine, 5-30 min. 
rectified, 5-30 min. 
Thyme, 1-5 min. 
Oleoresin capsicum, %-l min. 
" cubeb,5-30 " 
" ginger, j£-2 " 
" lupulin, 3-5 " 
" malefern, 20-60" 
" pepper, " 
Opium, X_2 gr. 
Pancreatin, 5-15 gr. 
Papaverine, ?n-£gr. 
Paraldehyde, 1-30 min. 
Pariera brava, 30-60 gr. 
Pelletierine, 5-10 gr. 
" tannate, 5-10 gr. 
Pepsin, 1-20 gr. 
Phenacetine, 5-25 gr. 
Phosphorus, gr. 
Physostigma, J^-2 gr. 
Physostigmine and salts of 
rin-s'o gr. 
Phytolacca, 5-30 gr. 
255 Picrotoxin, 1/100-1/60 gr. 
Pilocarpine salts, jVi gr 
Pilocarpus, 5-60 gr. 
Piperazine, 5-8 gr. 
Piperine, 1-10 gr, 
Pix Liquida %-l dr. 
Podophyllin, gr. 
Podophyllum, 5-30 gr. 
Potash acetate, 5-60 gr. 
" bicarbonate, 10-60 gr. 
" bitartrate, 1-8 dr. 
" bromide, 10-60 gr. 
" carbonate, 10-30 gr. 
" chlorate, 5-15 gr. 
" citrate, 15-60 gr. 
" and soda tartrate, %- 
1 oz. 
" hypophosphite, 5-30 
gr. 
" iodide, 5-60 gr. 
" permanganate, % - 2 
gr,. 
Propylamine, 1-2 gr. 
Pulsatilla, 1-5 gr. 
Quassia, 10-30 gr. 
Quinine 1-30 gr. 
" acetate, 2-20 gr. 
" arsenate, T's-X gr. 
" bisulphate, 1-20 gr. 
" citrate, 1-20 gr. 
" hydrobromate, 1-20 
gr. 
" hydrochlorate, 1-20 
gr. 
" iodide, 1-5 gr. 
" phosphate, 1-20 gr. 
" salicylate, 2-30 gr. 
" sulphate, 2-30 gr. 
" tannate, 2-5 gr. 
" valerianate, 1-3 gr. 
Resorcin, 3-10 gr. 
Rhamnus, purshiana,15-60 gr. 
Rhubarb, 5-30 gr. 
Rhus toxicodendron, 1-5 gr. 
Rumex, ^-1 dr. 
Savine, 5-20 gr. 
Salicin, 5-30 gr. 
Salipyrin, 10-25 gr. 
Salol, 3-15 gr. 
Salophen, 5-15 gr. 
Sanguinaria, 2-30 gr. 
Sanguinarine, ^-2 gr. 
" nitrate, gr. 
Santonin, %-2 gr. 
Scoparius, 15-60 gr. 
Scilla, 1-3 gr. 
Scillitoxin, gr. 
Senega, 10-20 gr. 
Senna, 15-120 gr. 
Serpentaria, 10-30 gr. 
Soap (U. S. P.), 5-30. 
Sodium acetate, 10-40 gr. 
" arsenate, gr. 
" benzoate, 10-60 gr. 
bicarbonate, 10-60 gr. 
" bromide, 10-60 gr. 
carbonate, 5-15 gr. 
citrate, 5-15 gr. 
" hypophosphite, 5-20 
gr. 
" iodide, 5-60 gr. 
nitrate, 10-30 gr. 
phosphate, 15-240 gr. 
" salicylate, 5-60 gr. 
sulphate, 1-8 dr. 
sulphate dried,>^-4dr. 
" sulphite, 10-60 gr. 
Sparteine sulphate, gr. 
Spigelia, 15-120 gr. 
Stillingia, 15-60 gr. 
Stramonium leaves, 1-5 gr. 
" seed, 1-3 gr. 
Strontium bromide, 1 
" iodide >5-10 gr. 
lactate 
Strophanthin, l/400'-l/100gr. 
Strychnine and salts, to 
gr. 
Sulfonal, 5-30 gr. 
Sulphur, 15-90 gr. 
256 Sumbul, 30-60 gr. 
Syrups-base dose on drug 
strength. 
Tansy, 15-60 gr. 
Taraxacum, 15-240 gr. 
Terebene, 3-10 min. 
Terebinthina Canadensis, 5-30 
min. 
Terpin hydrate, 2-10 gr. 
Thein, 1-3 gr. 
Thiol, 2-10 gr. 
Thymol, J^-2 gr. 
Tinctures-base dose on per- 
centage. 
Trillin, 2-4 gr. 
Trional, 5-20 gr. 
Triticum, 1-8 dr. 
Urethane, 10-40 gr 
Uva Ursi, 15-60 gr. 
Valerian, 10-30 gr. 
Veratrin, gr. 
Veratrine, gr. 
Veratrum viride, 1-5 gr. 
Viburnum, 15-60 gr. 
Wines-base dose on strength, 
Xanthoxylin, 1-2 gr. 
Xanthoxylum, 5-30 gr. 
Xylol, 10-40 gr. 
Zinc, Acetate, %-2 gr. 
Bromide, 1-2 gr. 
Oxide, 1-5 gr. 
Phosphide, gr- 
Sulphate, i-3 gr. 
Sulpho Carbolate, 1-3 
Valerianate, J^-2 gr 
257 The following is, as far as it goes, a 
CORRECT LIST OF LATIN PHRASES 
AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN 
WRITING PRESCRIPTIONS. 
Phrase or Word. Abbreviation. 
A, aa 
Abdomen Abdom 
Absente febre Abs. febr 
Accurate 
Ad Ad 
Ad duas vices Ad 2 vic 
Ad secundum vicem 
Ad tertiam vicem 
Adde, or addantur, 
addendus.addendo.Ad. or add 
Meaning. 
.. .Of each. 
.. .The belly. 
...In the absence of 
fever. 
.. .Accurately. 
.. .To, up to. 
... At twice taking. 
.. .To the second time. 
... For three times. 
...Add, or let them be 
added, to be added 
by adding. 
Ad gratam acidita- 
tern Ad grat. acid.... 
...To an agreeable 
sourness. 
Adhibendus 
... To be administered. 
Adjacens Adjan 
Ad libitum Ad lib 
A d m o v e, admove- 
atur, admoveantur 
... Adjacent. 
.... At pleasure. 
.. .Apply, let it be ap- 
plied, let them be 
applied. 
Adstante febre Adst. febre 
... When the fever is on. 
Adversum Adv 
... Against. 
Aggrediente febre.. .Aggred. febre.... 
... While the fever is 
Agitato vase 
coming on. 
...The vial being 
shaken. 
258 Phrase or Word. 
Abbreviation. 
Meaning. 
Aliquot 
.. .Some. 
Alter 
... The other. 
Alternis horis 
... Every other hour. 
Amplus 
.. .Large. 
Ana 
.A., aa 
.. .Of each. 
Aqua 
■Aq 
... Water. 
Aqua astiicta 
.Aq. astr 
... Frozen water. 
Aqua bulliens 
.Aq. bull 
.. .Boiling water. 
Aqua communis ... 
Aq. comm 
.. .Common water. 
Aqua fervens 
Aq. ferv 
... Hot water. 
Aqua fontalis or fon 
- 
tis or fonta........ 
Aq. font 
... Spring water. 
Aqua marina 
.Aq. mar 
.. .Sea water. 
Aqua pluvialis or 
pluviatilis 
. Aq. pluv 
... Rain water. 
Aut 
.. .Or. 
Balneum arenae.... 
.B. A 
... Sand bath. 
Balneum mariae or 
maris 
B. M 
.. . A salt water bath. 
Balneum vaporosum 
or vaporis 
B. V 
... A vapor bath. 
Balsamum 
Bals 
... Balsam. 
Barbadensis 
B. B„ B. B. S 
... Barbadoes. 
Bene 
. . .Well 
Bibe 
Bib 
. . .Drink. 
Bis 
.. .Twice. 
Bis in die 
. Bis in d 
.. .Twice a day. 
Bis in dies 
Bis in d 
.. ..Twice a day. 
Bolus 
.Bol 
... A large pill. 
Bulliat, bulliant 
Bull 
... Let boil. 
Butyrum 
But 
.. .Butter. 
Caeruleus 
Caerul 
.. . Blue. 
Calefactus 
... Warmed. 
Calomel 
.Cal 
... Mild chloride of mer- 
cury. 
Calomelas 
...Calomel or mild 
chloride of mercury 
Capiat 
.Cap 
.. .Let him (or her) take. 
Caute. 
.. .Cautiously. 
Charta 
Chart 
... Paper. 
Chartula 
.. .Small paper. 
Cibus 
.. .Food. 
Cochlear, or coch 
leare cochleatim.. 
Coch, Cochleat... 
... A spoonful,by spoon- 
fuls. 
259 Phrase or Word. 
Abbreviation. 
Meaning. 
Cochlear amplum.. 
.Coch, amp 
.. .A tablespoonful. 
Cochlear magnum. ..Coch, mag 
Cochlear medium, or 
...A large spoonful 
(about y2 an ounce.) 
modicum........ 
.Coch. med....... 
.. .A dessert spoonful 
(about 2 flui- 
drachms.) 
Cochlear parvum... 
.Coch, parv 
...A teaspoonful(about 
1 fluidrachm.) 
Coctio 
. Coct 
.. .Boiling. 
Cola 
.Col 
.. .Strain. 
Colaturae 
.Colatur 
... To, or of, the strain- 
ed liquor. 
Colatus 
.Colat 
.. . Strained. 
Coletur 
.Colet 
... Let it be strained. 
Colentur 
Colent 
.. .Let them be strained. 
Collutorium 
.Collut 
... A mouth wash. 
Collyrium 
.Collyr., Coll 
... An eye wash. 
Coloretur 
.. .Let it be colored. 
Compositus 
.Comp 
... Compounded. 
Concisus 
.. .Cut. 
Confectio 
.Conf 
.. .Confection. 
Congius 
Cong 
. . A gallon. 
Conserva 
.Cons ,... 
.. .A conserve ; also 
keep (thou). 
Continuantur rem- 
edia. 
Cont. rem 
.. .Let the medicines be 
continued. 
Contusus 
... Bruised. 
Coque, coquantur.. 
Coque secundum 
. Coq 
...Boil, let them be 
boiled. 
artem 
.Coq. S. A 
... Boil according to art. 
Cor, cordis 
.. .The heart. 
Cortex 
.Cort 
. . . The bark. 
Coxa 
.. .The hip. 
Cras, crastinus 
.Crast 
... To-morrow. 
Cras mane sumendus 
... To be taken to-mor- 
row morning. 
Cras nocte 
. . .To-morrow night. 
Cras vespere 
...To-morrow evening. 
Crastinus 
... For to-morrow early. 
Cum 
c 
...With. 
Da, detur 
D., det 
.. .Give, let be given. 
De 
. .. Of or from. 
Debita spissitudo.. 
. Deb. spiss 
...A proper consis- 
tency. 
260 Phrase or Word. 
Debitus 
Decanta 
Decem, decimus..., 
Decoctum . 
Decubitus 
Abbreviation. 
. Dec 
, Decoct 
.Decub 
Meaning. 
. Due, proper. 
. Pour off. 
.Ten, the tenth. 
. A decoction. 
.Lying down. 
De die in diem 
.De d. in d 
From day to day. 
Dentur tales doses 
No. IV 
.D. t. d. No. IV 
. Let 4 such doses be 
Detur in duplo .... 
given. 
.Let twice as much 
Dexter, Dextra 
be given. 
.The right. 
Diebus alternis.... 
.Dieb. alt 
.Every other day. 
Diebus tertiis 
. Dieb. tert 
. Everv third day. 
Dilue, Dilutus 
.Dil 
.Dilute (thou), di- 
Dimidius 
.Dim 
luted. 
.One half. 
Directione propria. . 
. D. P. or direc. prop 
.With a proper direc- 
Divindatur in partes 
aequales D. in p. aeq 
tion. 
.Let it be divided 
Dividendus, -a, -um 
into equal parts. 
. To be divided. 
Dolor 
. Pain. 
Donee 
.Until. 
Dosis 
n 
.A dose. 
Durante dolore 
.While the pain lasts. 
Eadem (fem) 
.The same. 
Ejusdem 
.Ejusd 
. The same. 
Electuarium 
.Elect 
.An electuary. 
Emesis 
. Vomiting. 
Enema 
En 
An enema, a clyster. 
Enemata 
. Clyster. 
Et 
• 
.And. 
Extende 
Ext 
Spread. 
Extende super alu- 
tam mollem 
Ex. sup. alt. moll... 
, Spread thou upon 
Extractum 
Ext 
soft leather. 
. An extract. 
Fac, Fiat, Fiant 
F., Ft 
, Make, let it be made, 
Fac pilulas duode- 
cim 
F. pil Xlj 
let them be made. 
.Make 12 pills. 
Farina 
, Flour. 
261 Phrase or Word. 
Febre durante 
Abbreviation. 
, Feb. dur 
Meaning. 
.. During the fever. 
Febris 
. .Fever. 
Fervens 
, Ferv 
.. Boiling. 
Fiat cataplasma.... 
. Ft. cataplasa 
. .Make a poultice. 
Fiat ceratum 
.Ft. Cerat 
. Make a cerate. 
Filtra 
. .Filter (thou). 
Filtram, Filtrum... 
. .A filter. 
Fluidus 
.Fl 
.. Liquid. 
Formula 
.. A prescription. 
Frustillatim 
.Frust 
. .In little pieces. 
Fuerit 
.. Shall have been. 
Gargarisma 
.Garg...... 
. .A gargle. 
Gradatim 
. .By degr'es,gradually. 
Grana sex pondere. 
. .Six grains by weight. 
Granum 
. .Grain, grains. 
Gratus 
.. Pleasant. 
Gutta 
.Gtt 
. .A drop. 
Guttae 
.Gtt 
.. Drops. 
Guttatim 
. Guttat 
.. By drops. 
Guttis quibusdam.. 
.Gutt. quibusd 
.. With a few drops. 
Haustus 
. Haust 
. .A draught. 
Hebdomida 
. .A week. 
Herba 
.. An herb. 
Heri 
. .Yesterday. 
Hie, Hase, Hoc 
. .This. 
Hirudo 
. .A leech. 
Hora 
. H 
.. An hour. 
Horasomni 
. H. S. or Hor. som. 
. .Just before going to 
Hora undecima ma- 
tuna 
sleep. 
.. At the eleventh hour 
Hora decubitus.... 
.H. D 
of the morning. 
..At the hour of going 
Horis intermediis. . 
. Hor. interm 
to bed. 
..In the intermediate 
Idem 
hours. 
.. The same. 
Idoneus 
. .The proper. 
Imprimis 
.. First. 
Incide, Incisus.... 
. Inc 
. Cut (thou), being cut. 
Indies 
.Ind 
..From day to day, 
Infunde 
.Inf 
daily. 
. .Pour in. 
Infusum 
.Infus 
. .An infusion. 
262 Phrase or Word. Abbreviation, 
Injectio 
Injiciatur 
In plumento 
Meaning. 
An injection. 
Let a clyster be 
given. 
In gruel. 
As big as. 
Between. 
.... Inner. 
.... Now. 
Breakfast. 
A julep. 
A broth. 
Instar 
•Inter 
Internus 
Jam 
Jentaculum Jent 
Julepus, Julepum... Jul 
Jusculum 
Juxta 
.... Near to. 
Kali praeparatum, 
potassae carbonas. Kal. ppt 
Prepared kali, or 
carbonate o r bi- 
carbonate of pot- 
ash. 
Lac 
Milk. 
Lana 
... .Flannel. 
Linimentum Liniment 
.... A liniment. 
Linteum 
... .Lint. 
Liquor Liq 
.... A solution. 
Lotio 
A lotion. 
Macera Mac 
.... Macerate. 
Magnus Mag 
.... Large. 
Mane. Mane primo 
.... In the morning, very 
early in the morn- 
ing- 
Manus * 
Massa, massa pilul- 
.... The hand. 
aris 
....Amass, a pill mass. 
Medius 
Mensura 
Mica panis Mic. pan 
....Middle. 
.... By measure, 
... .Crumb of bread. 
Minimum M. or min 
.A minim. 
Minutum 
... .A minute. 
Misce M 
... .Mix. 
Mistura Mist 
Mitte, mittatur, mit- 
... .A mixture. 
tantur 
Modo praescripto.... Mod. Praesc.... 
....Send, let it be sent, 
let them be sent. 
....In the manner pre- 
scribed. 
Mora 
... .Delay. 
263 Phrase or Word. 
Abbreviation. 
Meaning. 
More dictu 
.More die 
.In the manner di- 
rected. 
More solito 
.More sol 
. In the usual manner. 
Mortarium 
Ne tradas sine 
.A mortar. 
nummo 
.Ne tr. s. num 
.Do not deliver it un- 
less paid. 
Nisi 
. Unless. 
Non 
.Not. 
Nox, noctis 
.Night. 
Nucha 
.The nape of the neck. 
Numerus 
.No 
.Number. 
Nux Moschata 
. A nutmeg. 
Octarius 
,O 
. A pint. 
Octavus 
.Eighth. 
Octo 
. Eight. 
Oleum lini sineigne 
Oleum olivae opti- 
, Cold-drawn linseed 
oil. 
mum . 
Omni hora, omni 
bihorio.omni quad- 
.0. 0. 0 
. Best olive oil. 
rante horae 
.Omn. hor., Omn. bih. 
Omn. quadr. hor... 
Every hour, every 
two hours, every 
quarter of an hour. 
Omni mane 
.Every morning. 
Omni nocte 
, Every night. 
Opus 
.'Need, occasion. 
Ovum 
An egg. 
Pannus 
.A rag. 
Pars, partis 
A part. 
Partes aequales 
. P. ae 
Equal parts. 
Partitis vicibus 
. Part, vic 
. In divided doses. 
Parvulus 
.An infant. 
Coch, parvulum 
Coch, parv 
.A teaspoonful. 
Parvus 
, Little. 
Pastillus, Pastilium.. 
.A little ball of paste, 
to take like a loz- 
enge, etc. 
.A foot bath. 
Pediluvium 
Per 
Through, by. 
264 Phrase or Word. Abbreviation. 
Peracta operatio em- 
Meaning. 
... .When the operation 
etici 
of the emitic is 
finished. 
Perdeliquium 
... By deliquescence. 
Pergo, pergere 
Phiala prius agitata.P. P. A 
... To go on with. 
...The bottle having 
been first shaken. 
Pilula 
Poculum pocillum.. .Pocul., pocill.... 
Pondere P 
...A Pill. 
.. .A cup, a little cup. 
... By weight. 
Ponduscivile 
...Civil weight (avoir- 
dupois weight.) 
Pondus medicinale 
... Medicinal (apothe- 
caries' weight.) 
Pone aurem 
Post singulus sedes, 
... Behind the ear. 
liquidas 
...After every loose 
stool. 
Potus 
. . .Drink. 
Przeparata 
.. .Prepared. 
Prandium Prand 
... Dinner. 
Primo mane 
.. .Very early in the 
morning. 
Primus 
.. .The first. 
Pro 
.. .For. 
Pro rationezetatis 
.. .According to the age 
of the patient. 
Pro re nata P. r. n 
Pugillus Pug 
...Occasionally. 
...A pinch, a grip be- 
tween the thumb 
and first two fin- 
Pulvis, pulverizatus.Pulv 
gers. 
... A powder, powdered. 
Pyxis 
Quantum libet, or 
Quantum placet. 
or Quantum vis, or 
Quantum volueris.Q. 1., Q. p. Q. v... 
.. .A pill box. 
... As much as you 
please. 
Quantum sufficiat, or 
Quantum satis... .Q. S 
.. .As much as is suffi- 
cient. 
Quaqua hora 
.., Each hour. 
265 Phrase or Word. Abbreviation. 
Quaque Q. Q 
Quartus 
Meaning. 
Each or every. 
Fourth. 
Quater 
Four times. 
Quatuor 
Four. 
Quibus 
From which. 
Quinque 
Five. 
Quintus 
The fifth. 
guoque Q. Q 
Also. 
Quorum Quor 
Of which. 
Quotidie 
Daily. 
Ratio 
Proportion. 
Recens Rec 
Fresh. 
Recipe 3 
Take. 
Redactus in pulver- 
em, redigatur in 
pulverem Red. in pulv., 
redig. 
in pulv 
Let it be reduced to 
Regio umbilici 
powder. 
The umbicilical re- 
gion. 
Remaining. 
Reliquus 
Repetatur, repetan- 
tur Rept 
Let it be repeated, let 
Respondere 
them be repeated. 
To answer. 
Retinere 
To keep. 
Saltern 
At least. 
Scatula Scat 
A box. 
Scilicet 
Namely. 
Secundum artem,se- 
cundum naturam..S. A., S. N 
According to art, ac- 
Secundus 
cording to nature. 
Second. 
Sedes 
The alvine evacua- 
Semel 
tion. 
Once. 
Semis Ss 
A half. 
Semidrachma Semidr 
Half a drachm. 
Semihora Semih 
Half an hour. 
Septem 
Seven. 
Septimana 
..... .A week. 
Sescuncia 
An ounce and a half. 
Sesquihora 
An hour and a half. 
Sex 
Six. 
266 Phrase or Word. Abbreviation. 
Sextus 
Si 
Meaning. 
Sixth. 
If. 
Sic, Sic? 
So, is it so? 
Signa Sig 
Signetur nomine 
Mark thou. 
Let it be written upon 
proprio 
with the proper name 
(not with the trade 
name). 
Simul 
.... .Together. 
Sine 
.... .Without. 
Singulorum Sing 
... .Of each. 
Si non valeat Si n. val 
... .If it does not answer. 
Si opus sit Si. op. sit 
.... If necessary. 
Si vires permittant.. Si ver. perm.... 
....If the stiength will 
bear it. 
Sit 
,... .Let it be. 
Solus 
.... Alone. 
Solve 
Solvo, solvere, solu- 
.... Dissolve. 
tus 
....To dissolve, dis- 
solved. 
Somnus 
Spiritus vini rectifi- 
... Sleep. 
catus 
....Rectified spirit of 
wine. 
Spiritus vini tenuis 
Spiritus vinosus 
.... Proof spirit. 
....Ardent spirit of any 
strength. 
Statim Stat 
Stet, Stent St 
... .Immediately. 
.... Let it stand, let them 
stand. 
Stratum super strat- 
um S. S. S 
... .Layer upon layer. 
Subactus 
Subdued. 
Sub finem coctionis 
....When the boiling is 
nearly finished. 
Subinde 
... .Frequently. 
Sumat talem 
.... Let the patient take 
Sume, sumat, suma- 
tur, sumantur, su- 
mendus Sum 
one like this. 
....Take (thou), let him 
9A7 
take,let it be taken, 
let them be taken, 
to be taken. 
267 Phrase or Word. Abbreviation. 
Summitates 
Meaning. 
.. .The summits or tops. 
Superbibendo haus- 
turn 
...Drinking afterwards 
this draught. 
Supra 
Tabella (dim. of tab- 
... .Above. 
ula, a table.) Tabei 
... A lozenge. 
Talis 
. .. Such, like this. 
Tempori dextro 
.. .To the right temple. 
Tempus temporis • • • • 
.. .Time or temple. 
Ter 
Ter in die, or ter die T. i. d., or T. d... 
Tere Tre 
Tero 
Tertius 
Tinctura Tinct 
Tres 
Triduum 
Tritura Trit 
Trochisci Troch 
Tussis 
Ultimo (or Ultima) 
.. ..Three times. 
.. .Three times a day. 
... Rub. 
....I rub. 
... Third. 
.. Tincture. 
.. . Three. 
... Three days. 
. .Triturate. 
.. . Lozenges. 
.. ..A cough. 
praescriptus Ult. praesc 
Una 
Uncia 
Ut dictum Ut die 
Utendum Utend 
Uto uti 
Vas vitreum 
Vehiculum 
Vel 
Venaesectio brachii 
Vesper, vesperis... .Vesp 
Vices 
Vires ; 
Vitellus 
Vitello ovi solutus 
Vitreum, vitrum 
Vomitione urgente.. Vom. urg 
.. .The last ordered. 
.. .Together. 
.. .An ounce. 
.. As directed. 
.. .To be used. 
.. .To make use of. 
... A glass vessel. 
... A vehicle. 
.. .Or. 
... Bleeding in the arm. 
.. .The evening. 
... Turns. 
.. .Strength. 
....Yolk. 
...Dissolved in the 
white of an egg. 
... Glass. 
...The vomiting being 
troublesome. 
268 NUMERALS. 
Unus One. 
Duo Two. 
Tres Three. 
Quatuor Four. 
Quinque Five. 
Sex Six. 
Septem... Seven. 
Octo Eight. 
Novem Nine. 
Decern Ten. 
Undecim Eleven. 
Duodecim Twelve. 
Tredecim Thirteen. 
Quatuordecim .Fourteen. 
Quindecim ... .Fifteen. 
Sexdecim Sixteen. 
Septemdecim . .Seventeen. 
Octodecim o r 
duo de vigintiEighteen. 
Novemdecim or 
un de viginti.Nineteen. 
Viginti Twenty. 
Viginti unus or 
unus et vigintiTwenty-one. 
Triginta Thirty. 
Quadraginta .. .Forty. 
Quinquaginta ..Fifty. 
Sexaginta Sixty. 
Septuaginta ...Seventy. 
Octoginta Eighty. 
Nonaginta Ninety. 
Centum One hundred. 
Ducenti Two hundred. 
Mille One Thousand. 
CARDINALS. 
Primus First. 
Secundus Second. 
Tertius Third. 
Quartus Fourth. 
Quintus Fifth. 
Sextus Sixth. 
Septimus Seventh. 
Octavus Eighth. 
Nonus Ninth. 
Decimus Tenth. 
Undecimus Eleventh. 
Duodecimus .. .Twelfth. 
Tertius decimusThirteenth. 
Quartus decim'sFourteenth. 
Quintus decim'sFifteenth. 
Sextus decimus.Sixteenth. 
Septimus deci- 
mus Seventeenth 
Octavus d e c i- 
mus Eighteenth. 
Nonus decimus.Nineteenth. 
Vicesimus Twentieth. 
Vicesimus pri- 
mus Twenty-first. 
Tricesimus Thirtieth. 
QuadragesimusFortieth. 
Quinquagesim'sFiftieth. 
Sexagesimus... Sixtieth. 
Septuagesimus. Seventieth. 
Octogesimus.. .Eightieth. 
Nonegesimus . .Ninetieth. 
Centesimus ... .Hundredth. 
Millesimus Thousandth 
ORDINALS. 
269 Abbreviations 8, 258 
Acids, toxicology of 219 
Aconite, toxicology of. . . 231 
Agaric, toxicology of.... 239 
Alcohol, prescriptions for 56 
toxicology of 232 
Alcoholic beverages 56 
Alkalies, toxicology of... 221 
Ammonia, toxicology of. 221 
Ampoules 174 
Apothecaries' fluid meas- 
ure 68, 82 
Apothecaries' weights.73, 83 
Approximate measures. . 84 
Arithmetic 93, 98 
Aromatic waters 194 
Arsenic, toxicology of. . . 224 
Avoirdupois weights..74, 84 
Bacils 135 
Bacterins 174 
Balances 75 
Baths 195 
Belladonna, toxicology of 233 
Beverages, alcoholic 56 
Bolus 138 
Bromine, toxicology of. . 243 
Cachets 123 
Calculations. .. 16, 33, 93, 98 
Cantharides, toxicology of 230 
Capsules, hard 122 
Capsules, soft 123 
Carbolic acid, toxicology 
of 222 
Carbon monoxide, toxicol- 
ogy of 242 
Carbonic acid gas, toxi- 
cology of 242 
Care of utensils 28 
Cataplasms 157 
Cerates 152 
Charts 122 
Checking compounding. . 34 
Checks for identification 32 
Chloral hydrate, toxicol- 
ogy of 233 
Chlorine, toxicology of. .. 243 
Chloroform, toxicology of 244 
INDEX 
Classification of prepara- 
tions 115 
Cleanliness. .26, 28, 35. 44, 79 
Coal gas, toxicology of.. 243 
Coating pills 144 
Cocaine, toxicology of. . . 235 
Cocculus, toxicology of. . 236 
Colchicum, toxicology of. 236 
Collodions 191 
Colors 161, 191 
Compounding 115 
Compresses 157 
Confections 136 
Conium, toxicology of. . . 237 
Conserves 136 
Containers 135 
Control of prescriptions. . 47 
Copper compounds, toxi- 
cology of 225 
Copying prescriptions... 
14, 47, 54, 55, 56 
Corks 40 
Correctives 248 
Corrosive poisons 217 
Corrosive sublimate, toxi- 
cology 218 
Cotton 158 
Courtesy 45 
Cubic centimeter 66 
Croton oil, toxicology of. 229 
Cyanides, toxicology of.. 238 
Decoctions 187 
Deterioration 38, 41, 43 
Diluents 159 
Dilutions, stock 20 
Discs 135 
Dispensing 25, 115 
Dosage 246, 252 
calculations.. 16, 33, 93, 98 
for children 249 
Electuaries 136 
Elixirs 190 
Emulsions 176 
Enemas 193 
Equipment 26 
Equivalents. . 85, 86, 88 to 91 
Excipients 139 
Explosive mixtures 205 Fats in ointments 146 
Fish-berries, toxicology 
of 236 
Flavors 160 
Fluid measure 65, 81, 82 
Fomentations 157 
Gargles 153 
Gauzes 158 
Gelatin-coating 145 
Globules 135, 138 
Glycerin 4 193 
Glycerites 192 
Glycero-gelatins 152, 155 
Graduates, glass 67, 69 
Gram 71 
Granular effervescent 
salts 132 
Granulations 130 
Granules 138 
Gun-cotton 191 
Homeopathic globules.. . 
135, 138 
Honeys 190 
Hydrocyanic acid, toxicol- 
ogy of 238 
Hydrogen sulphide, toxi- 
cology of 244 
Illuminating gas, toxicol- 
ogy of 242, 243 
Incompatibilities ....196, 205 
Infusions 186 
Inhalations 194 
Interval between doses.. 247 
Inunctions 151 
Iodine, toxicology of.. .. 228 
Irritant poisons 223 
Jellies 137 
Keratin 145 
Konseals 123 
Labels 37, 44 
Latin numerals 269 
Phrases .' 258 
Titles, why used 7 
Lead compounds, toxicol- 
ogy of 224 
Linctus 137 
Liniments 192 
Liquids measures.. 65, 81, 82 
Liquid preparations 163 
Lozenges 134 
Masses 133, 139, 142 
Measures 61, 81, 82 
Approximate 84 
Metric equivalents 
85, 86, 88 to 91 
Measures 66, 81 
quantities on prescrip- 
tions 67 
Weights 71, 83 
Mil 66 
Milligram 72 
Mixtures . 183 
Morphine, toxicology of. . 239 
Mucilages 185 
Mulls 150 
Mushrooms, toxicology of 239 
Narcotics 54 
Nebulas 194 
Nitrate of silver, toxicol- 
ogy of 227 
Numerals 269 
Nux vomica, toxicology of 241 
Oil jellies 137 
Oil sugars 125 
Ointments 146 
Ointment bases 147 
Oleates 156 
Omissions 134 
Opium, toxicology of.... 239 
Opthalmic discs 135 
Over-dose 33 
Ownership of prescription 3 7 
Oxalic acid, toxicology of 220 
Parvules 138 
Pastes 151 
Pastilles 134 
Petroxolins 151 
Phosphorus, toxicology of 222 
Physostigma, toxicology 
of 240 
Pills 138 
coating 144 
Pipes 143 
Plasters 155 
Poisons 214 
Posological table 252 
Poultices 157 
Powders 119, 122 
dividing 124 
Preparations, classifica- 
tion of 115 
liquids 163 
solids 117, 119 Prescriptions, alcohol. ... 56 
Alcoholic beverages... 56 
Analysis 23 
blanks ..14, 56 
control of 47 
copying 47, 55 
counter 25 
defined 5, 115 
differs from order 49 
directions 6 
dispensing 25 
facsimile 99 to 114 
grammatical construc- 
tion 9 
how formulated 5 
how signed 23 
inscription 23 
Latin titles 7, 9 
narcotics 54 
owner of 47 
problems......... 93 to 98 
purpose of 48 
reading 30 
receiving 32 
refilling 47, 55, 56 
signature 23 
subscription 23 
superscription 23 
Protection from light... 38 
Ptomaines, toxicology of 245 
Public interest in pre- 
scriptions 51 
Quantities to be pre- 
scribed 17 
Reading prescriptions... 30 
Refilling prescriptions. .. 
47, 55, 56 
Scales 75 
Serums 174 
Silver nitrate, toxicology 
of 227 
Solid preparations.... 117, 119 
Solubility 172 
Solution 169 
saturated 165 
Solutions 164 
percentage ,... 166 
Solvent 159, 165, 167, 166 
Species 128 
Spirits 191 
Sprays 194 
Standards 61, 63 
Sterilization of containers 29 
Strychnine, toxicology of 241 
Sugar coating 145 
Suppositories 153 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, 
toxicology of 244 
Synergists 243 
Syrups 187 
Tablets compressed 129 
Moulded 126 
Triturates 126 
Teas 128 
Technique 27, 70, 77 
Triturations, stock....20, 125 
Troches 135 
Toxicology 212 
Units of weights and 
measures 64 
Vaccines 174 
Vehicles 159 
Volume 61 
standards 61 
Wafers 123 
Waters 184 
Weight 61, 83 
Apothecaries 73 
Avoirdupois 74, 84 
Metric 71 
standards 61 
Weighing, technique of. . 77 
Weights 77 
Zinc compounds, toxicol- 
ogy of 227