With the Author's Compliments, 
15 Chestnut Street, Boston, Mass., U.S.A. 
[From the Fourth Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy, 
and Charity.] 
OUR EYES 
AND 
OUR INDUSTRIES. 
B. JOY JEFFRIES? A.M., M.D. (Harvard), 
Fellow Massachusetts Medical Society; Ophthalmic Surgeon Massachusetts 
Charitable Eye and Ear Infirmary, Carney Hospital, and New-England 
Hospital for Women and Children; Member International 
Periodic Congress of Ophthalmology, American 
Ophthalmological Society, etc. 
BOSTON: 
RAND, AVERY, AND COMPANY. 
1884. OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
Massachusetts is largely engaged in the education and 
preparation of teachers, as also in the education of those who 
are to enter the so-called learned professions, where their 
daily bread is to be earned by the use of their eyes. If at 
any time during their career these organs fail either class, 
they are worse than beggars, since they have by educational 
refinement become habituated, and their families accus- 
tomed, to a certain amount of the amenities of life, the 
loss of which will be most keenly felt. Besides all these 
members of the educational and professional classes, are the 
great mass of those engaged in mercantile pursuits, whose 
very existence depends on their ability to use their eyes 
most continuously. All so far spoken of come from our 
universities, colleges, academies, or public schools. But from 
the latter come also the still more numerous class who must 
support themselves and their families by manual industries 
which tax the eyes fully as much as if not more than does 
the pursuit of the educated professions. 
While so much has been said, and so much written, in notes 
of warning, as to the dangers of overwork and strain of the 
eyes, in reference to those who are in or about to enter profes- 
sional life, but little has been presented to our communities 
as to the equally dangerous deterioration of the eyesight of 
those who are to engage in our industries. Publicly I raised 
this note of warning in "The Boston Medical Journal," and 
in "The Massachusetts Teacher" in 1869, pointing out some 
unnecessary causes of impaired vision dependent upon defects 
in schools, school-books, and school-teaching. My experience 
since then in private practice, and, of course, more especially 
in work at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, has 
shown me that it was quite time that the community should 
be equally well instructed as to the dangers of the future in 4 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
reference to the so-called mechanic class, on whose continued 
good vision depends the position of our State as a manufac- 
turing centre. Defective vision from unnecessary causes dur- 
ing school life becomes therefore a rather important subject, 
touching, as it does, not only the mechanic's daily wages, but 
the capitalist's returns and income. All the so-called learned 
professions, law, medicine, theology, and the others now 
equally recognized as professions, are, in fact, but so many 
agencies whose business it is to keep in working order the 
merchant's brain and the mechanic's hands. But while the 
former may scheme and think out methods of profitably em- 
ploying accumulated earnings, the latter can never support 
himself and surroundings, or be a producer, without the eyes 
to guide the hands. How restricted are the mechanical 
occupations of the blind, even when their sense of touch is 
best cultivated by patient teachingI 
It has seemed to me, therefore, quite time that the un- 
necessary causes of impaired vision, as well also as the natu- 
ral and unavoidable ones which specially affect the mechanic 
and working classes, should be equally explained and set 
before those who have it in their power to control them ; 
namely, our educational and school authorities, and those 
who engage any and all classes of employes in mill or work- 
shop. While the professional or educated man, as he grows 
up, can, and probably will, look after himself and perhaps 
also his children in this respect, it is very different with 
those upon whom our great industries are dependent for 
their success, and who are the muscle and sinew of our 
State. These require as good, or better, eyesight, by which 
I mean capacity for continuous labor for many years with 
the visual organ, as do the educated professional or mercan- 
tile class. A bookkeeper who has to write and compute in 
some large concern six or eight hours a day does not have to 
tax his eyes more than does the mechanic in certain depart- 
ments of shoe manufacturing. These are unrealized and 
unrecognized facts which it has long been my purpose to 
bring before the community, and which it is the object of 
this article to point out and draw attention to. 
Near-sightedness or myopia has been shown to be on the 
increase wherever civilization is calling for further education. 
The warning note of the steady increase of near-sightedness OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
5 
with school and college life, was first publicly given by Dr. 
Cohn of Breslau. In 1869 I urged that the same investiga- 
tions should be carried out here. Since Cohn's report, in 
various places in Europe and finally in several cities in this 
country, the same sort of investigations have been carried 
out, and always with similar results, viz., that many children 
become myopic, and go on becoming still more so with their 
progressive work in school, college, and university. These 
facts are now so well known from the many reports, etc., that 
even the daily press has taken up the subject in notes of 
warning. In 1869 my suggestions and proposals were not 
only refused but resisted. The contrast at present is quite 
striking, when the school committee of a neighboring town 
publish in the pamphlet report the names of all the children 
with myopic or otherwise defective eyes, as well as those 
color-blind. The medical and even educational journals are 
discussing and reporting on this deterioration of our eyes. 
The ophthalmic surgeon is no longer smiled at as a simple 
enthusiast or interested party. The statistics are already 
ample in this country; and while they seem to prove that 
we are not so badly off in this respect as parts of Europe, 
since our conditions are not so bad, they yet show what is 
the tendency, and the results of past years of neglect of the 
hygienic conditions necessary to prevent increasing near-sight- 
edness. It must be remembered that myopia and the tend- 
ency to it are transmitted. Now the bad conditions of the 
past generation are affecting the present in this respect. It 
seems impossible, as I look back upon it, that so little thought 
and attention should have been given to schools and scholars 
as was formerly the case. Is it any wonder that a former 
generation became myopic, and handed this condition to 
their children now growing up at school and college? This 
sort of thing has not all passed away, and I want to call 
parents' as well as educators' attention to the fact that as bad 
conditions are existing now. Educators, school-committees, 
or teachers, are not, however, responsible. 
Defective schoolhouses from any cause produce myopia, and 
help increase it when naturally present or when the tendency 
to it exists from birth. As I have said, these facts have 
been finally admitted by the community, and those in author- 
ity are more amenable to suggestions concerning feasible 6 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
means of controlling myopia. Parents, too, are beginning to 
realize that the absolutely necessary glasses for school-chil- 
dren cost money, even disregarding any question of loss of 
vision, etc. The resistance of those whose gains or pockets 
are touched by the adoption of better-planned schoolhouses 
and school furniture, as also of those who get the control of 
school-book printing, etc., is too great to be at present over- 
come. It will, however, come in time. The industrial 
classes have no way of being heard, and can only vote. 
When they finally learn that increasing near-sightedness, is as 
bad for their children as for those of the wealthy, and that 
there are some unnecessary causes of it they themselves can, 
even remotely, affect, then this vote will be directed with 
more thought than it now is. A mechanic who has children 
who are to follow his trade, or get into a higher one, begins 
to reflect and inquire when these children cannot study at 
school without glasses which must be purchased. And, when 
these parents are told of the risk of the increasing difficulty, 
they begin to take some interest in what is to affect the chil- 
dren's future means of support. Common-sense, having now 
finally listened to and learned from those who know what 
myopia leads to, will readily see how it must interfere with 
the increasing demands on the eyes in so many of our indus- 
tries, - apart, as I would repeat, from the professions so 
called. 
The investigations of schoolhouses everywhere have shown 
that want of light, or light not coming rightly, are potent 
causes of eye troubles. There is no excuse whatever here 
in Massachusetts, even in our cities, for not having prop- 
erly constructed schools, with all the necessary space around 
them. But notwithstanding all that has been shown and 
said, and the good models to copy from already built here 
and there, schoolhouses bad in every way are building and 
will be built. Educators who best know, and will give the 
time to learn, are not allowed to build schoolhouses. It is 
useless to try to hide this, or not acknowledge the present 
condition of affairs. Parents must learn why their children 
are hurt by school-life, and vote the remedy. 
It is very necessary that school-furniture should be adapted 
to the size, position, and condition of the children. This is 
a question which has been thoroughly discussed here, as well OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
7 
as abroad. In my notes of warning, in 1869, I reported that 
Dr. Cohn of Breslau, Germany, took the bodily measurement 
of the ipore than ten thousand children whose eyes he had 
tested ; and measured, in comparison, the school desks and 
seats, from which he found that all school-furniture was 
badly constructed, so as to readily induce or increase near- 
sightedness. We sent from America, with considerable pride, 
our school furniture and appurtenances to the Paris World's 
Fair. These were carefully examined and measured by Dr. 
Cohn, and, like all the others, found so arranged as to pro- 
duce the evils spoken of. But contractors will continue to 
manufacture the forms out of which they can make the 
most money. These facts are no less well known than hard 
to combat. From various causes the tongues of those who 
know, and should speak, are tied. It is in no spirit of pessi- 
mism that I write thus earnestly and frankly. I have been in 
all the schools of my native city above the primary, and have 
come face to face with some twenty-nine thousand scholars, 
while I tested them for color-blindness. Defective school- 
houses and appurtenances were pointed out to me ; but in 
many cases this was not necessary, as I had only to use the 
senses of sight and smell to be aware of defects of furnaces, 
drainage, and closets, etc. Time and again was I appealed 
to as a medical man to examine and give my opinion con- 
cerning such defects. I was, however, so to speak, the privi- 
leged guest of the school-committee, in my work among the 
scholars. Moreover I well knew that the school board had 
not the authority to correct mistakes of building or the 
errors of the past. Money has been, is, and will be, terribly 
wasted in the construction of schoolhouses. Persistent ef- 
forts, combined with moral courage and strict honesty, can 
alone, and will finally, correct these abuses. 
School-books, text and reference, are bitterly complained 
of by all the gentlemen who have been at work testing the 
children's eye-sight in different parts of the world. Of course 
poor paper, bad impressions, worn-out type, and crowding 
the pages by finer and finer type, mean more money for the 
contractors who over-persuade committees and school boards. 
As these latter, however, do have it largely in their power to 
correct abuses, I would point out here where improvements 
can be made which will be of great benefit, and not too 8 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTFI. 
greatly touch the pockets of school-book manufacturers. 
For this purpose I cannot do better than here give a slight 
resume of the extremely interesting and practical paper of 
Dr. Javal of Paris, on " The Physiology of Reading." It can- 
not fail to excite great interest, and may help to arouse the 
attention of those who can by persistent effort do away with 
some, at least, of the unnecessary causes of impaired vision. 
These causes are affecting the present industrial generation, 
and are to be handed down to the next with the increased 
power of heredity. 
Dr. Javal's article, " The Physiology of Reading," may be 
found in the "Annales d'Oculistique," published in Brux- 
elles, 1878-79-80, and in the " Revue Scientifique," June 25, 
1881. A similar article on " The Physiology of Writing," by 
him, nearly equally important, appeared in the " Revue Sci- 
entifique " for May 21, 1881. In these two papers he shows 
what can be readily done, as to writing and printing, to help 
relieve the strain on the eyes, which he and all others agree 
is one of the great causes of increasing and progressive near- 
sightedness in our schools and colleges. I can only here 
sketch the article on " The Physiology of Reading." It 
appeals to all readers and printers. 
" We must first consider the typical form letters are to have, by which 
is meant the characteristic elements of the letter. For instance, the typi- 
cal form of a V is produced by two straight lines; the terminations, 
the space between the two arms, etc., are not what goes to make up the 
typical form of a V, but two lines of equal length, meeting below at an 
acute angle. The accessory modifications are no necessary part, and 
need not exist. 
" In reading, the eye has no time to examine each letter, in all its 
parts. In reality, the point of fixation runs along a strictly horizontal 
line, cutting the letters just below their tops. The other parts of the let- 
ters are seen indirectly by those portions of the retina at greater or less 
distance from the centre. A knowledge of this fact must influence the 
form to be given the letters. This fact it is proper for us to prove, since 
it is quite a new idea. We discovered it thus: After gazing at the print 
steadily we got what is called the after image, which was that of a 
series of faint or grayish lines, with bright interspaces. The amount 
of black on the letters will give only a gray line. The explanation is 
that the eye runs horizontally to avoid unnecessary and tedious move- 
ments, and the line is determined by the forms of the printed letters. If 
we cover the upper half of a line it will require considerably more effort 
to decipher it than if the lower half is covered; in the latter case, one 
can read nearly as easily as if the whole line could be seen." OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
9 
4-Viici v»nn/1n-n virill ann 4-l-»rj4- 4-V»ia cm,n4-nnnn w;n 
TYinnVi vnnvin nnailrr -nnn zl o 1> r* 1-P knin/T vrrrjnfinn' 4-V» o t* 
VUAO nilUlV UA1U Cip/£7VA XXCVXX XXU.O MWax XUXX1UVCU. 11X0 OjJVVXCU 
VTVJXVXO UAU XXUU OXXU0OXX, XXV/X XO 0JJUU1W1 VJ lOdC7 Wtjll* 
" To return now to the cause of this, and count the letters or their 
parts which project above and below the body of the short letters, say in 
the sentence before the last, and there will be found that about five 
sixths project above, and only one sixth project below, the line. 
" Above the line of letters we find all the capitals (all the accents in 
French), the dots of i and j, and the letters b-d-f-h-k-l-t, whilst below 
we have the letters g-j-p-q-y. Taking into account the frequency of the 
capitals, the dots (accents in French), and long letters, we find, out of a 
hundred exceeding the line, eighty-five project above and fifteen below. 
This forces the reader to keep the eye fixed on a point above the middle 
of the short letters. 
" This being the fact, our effort should be to give the letters forms 
differing as much as possible from each other at the point of fixation. 
Now in the last of the periods of time we spoke of, viz., from 1700 to 
1840, the type-cutters seem to have striven to avoid this. Cover the 
bottom of a line of modern print so as to let only the tops of the short 
letters be seen, and you will find a-c-e-o-s looking nearly exactly alike, 
as also -n- and -r-, whilst the distinctions between -h- and -b- and -n- and 
p- are but slight." 
This defect is less with the modern Elzevirs, in which this is printed 
for the reader's benefit, and it is still less marked with the types of 
Garamond and those of Jenson 
" Before passing the alphabet in review, it is to be noticed that certain 
letters are naturally more readily seen than others, the long ones of course 
from their greater size; then the more simple ones, as -u-, are more legi- 
ble than the complicated ones like -a-. We must therefore do something 
to render these latter more distinct. 
" We would notice, also, that certain die-cutters, in order to increase 
the regularity of appearance, endeavor to flatten the round letters later- 
ally, and make the square ones more round. To this we object, and 
much prefer to introduce some marked differences towards the tops of the 
short letters; for instance, a difference readily noticeable between -b- and 
h-. So also we would not increase the size of the bodies of b-d-p and -q, 
to make them of the same size as -o-, for this attempt at regularity is 
quite useless. 
" The upper arms of d-k and -1- cause no confusion. To render -b- and 
h- more unlike, we should take care to make the body of -b- well rounded, 
and the angle which unites the horizontal and second stroke of -h- as little 
rounded as taste will permit: hence for uniformity's sake the body of -d 
must be as round as possible. It must be a little larger than -b- to appear 
of the same size. The letters -f- and -t- are confounded when the top of 
the -f- is broken, which often happens with much-used type. We should 
strive to prolong the bar of -f- towards the right and that of -t- towards 10 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
the left, to shorten these bars on the other side, and make them as wide 
as possible without being too unusual. Then -we should make the -t 
relatively short, and thicken the angle at the top and left of the letter, 
avoiding the hook at the bottom, which was gradually substituted for the 
horizontal stroke of old typography. This hook is only graceful when 
delicate; and, as will be seen, we are opposed to fine hair lines. The 
form which we propose for the hook being like the old one, is an 
additional reason for employing it, since, all our type having rather an 
ancient look, the study of good taste should be regarded. Among the 
long letters must be placed the -i-, the dot not being in contact with the 
body of the letter. We should make the dot thicker than the shaft of the 
letter. The expression dot your i's shows the value of the dots, and how 
they contribute to the visibility. It is not only important that the dot 
should be strong so as to avoid the confusion between -i- and -1- and -f- in 
small print, but also that it may not be broken off so easily. For this 
reason we would make the -i- a little stouter, to avoid the dot's looking 
disproportioned. The dot we should place as high as possible, to render 
it clear. 
" The letters projecting downwards, g-j-p-q-y, are excellent ones. We 
should avoid making the -g- like the Italic -g-, because then it resembles 
more the -q-. Like the old Venetian print we would make the upper part 
more of an ellipse with axis horizontal, to increase the size, which is 
necessarily reduced vertically, and again use the acute angle at the top 
and left of the end, which was abandoned after Garamond. To -j-, we 
would give the old hook, by dropping off the button at the lower end: -j 
instead of -j-. Finally, for -y-, the older form which is beginning to be 
seen, and is no less graceful than the newer one, where the lower part of 
the letter is vertical, as adopted by the French Imperial Press. The 
point of intersection of the two legs must be rather below the line, in 
order not to appear above it. For -p- and -q- we must make the body of 
q- rather larger than that of -p- to make them appear of the same size. 
Good cutters generally do this. 
"As to the short straight letters, m-n and -u-, -m- ought to have a 
little less space between the legs; and, if the usual terminal characteristics 
should be used, then -u- should be a little more compressed than -n, 
especially at the top, in order to make it appear equal. 
"We call round the a-c-e-o and -s-. We would conform to the custom 
of letting them slightly project above and below the line of the straight 
letters, to prevent them appearing smaller. As to -a-, we 'would return to 
the old Italian types, and of the manuscripts which served then as models, 
and would select an -a- whose head was very small, and did not project 
beyond the body. In fact, by looking at letters off at a distance, placed 
without order on a card, we can readily see that a-e and -s- are the worst 
in the alphabet. We must render -a- more simple, which may be done 
by reducing the size of the head, so that it will at a distance look like -r 
upside down (.1), and becomes then as legible as any other letter, if care 
is taken to make the body narrow and elongated. As to -c-, we would avoid 
the present form, which assists the confusion with -o- and -e-, and return to 
the older form more resembling a half-circle. For -e- we should not hesi- OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
11 
tate to go back to the old form -e-, which brings the horizontal bar nearer 
the line of vision in reading, and avoid having the bottom curve come up 
too high. Perhaps we might even make the cross-stroke inclined, as it 
is in some handwriting, thus increasing its length and importance. We 
should not fear to make the -o- quite round, though it might appear larger 
than -u- and -n-, and this notwithstanding the rules followed by cutters. 
There remains -s-, which, do what we may, is a bad letter. All we can 
attempt is to make it take up more room by making it more angular than 
usual It would then be as legible as -z-. 
" The letters having the oblique straight strokes, v-w-x and -z-, are not 
criticised, except that -w- and -v- must project a little below the line in 
order not to appear too short. 
" There remains finally only -r- to be spoken of. Here we would not 
carry down the bar or arm, as recently done, because then it makes the -r 
look like -n-. We prefer the older form -r-, more original and legible." 
Dr. Javal next discusses the thickness to be given the 
individual letters. I will not repeat it all here; but I agree 
with him that it is of great importance, especially with the 
school-books intended for children who are not myopic or 
presbyopic, and who are often forced to read in the class 
with very poor light. Dr. Javal shows what is meant by 
this; viz., - 
" This sentence is printed in the type used in the 4 Revue Scienti- 
fique ' in extremely delicate letters', and in that ofM. Motteroz2, who 
has employed the excellent idea of improving the modern type by 
reducing the length of the strokes." 
1 " This sentence is printed in the type used in the ' Revue Scientifique ' 
in extrerfiely delicate letters, and in that of M. Motteroz, who has 
employed the excellent idea of improving the modern type by reducing the 
length of the strokes. " 
2 "This sentence is printed in the type used in the ' Revue Scicn- 
lifique' in extremely delicate letters, and in that of M. Motteroz, 
who has employed the excellent idea of improving the modern 
type by reducing the length of the strokes. " 
Next, the terminations of the letters are criticised. He 
shows that the cutters have insensibly done what he would 
do, in part at least. He says, "The English use, as we 
French, too long terminals, but the angle between the ter- 
minal and the rest of the letter is always rounded. And to 
this must we not attribute the superiority of the English and 
American print? This is such a delicate difference that 
perhaps the reader has not noticed that this ' Revue ' is 
printed in English type. It may require a magnifying-glass 
to distinguish the difference, but it is nevertheless the fact." 12 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
To assist the comparison this sentence is printed in French type. 
" From all that has been said, it is seen that there is cause for the 
growing favor of English print; and this should be a reason for 
returning to the Elzevir type, as it is incontestably superior, as the 
present specimen of this sentence shows. 
"In conclusion we propose a rounded form, like that designed by 
Jangeon, shorter than any yet adopted. Its advantage is seen in the 
greater legibility, especially for the fine type. 
" Now as to the distances between the letters, which plays a part in 
the legibility. 
" To be assured of this, one need but hold this page 
off at a distance, to perceive that this sentence, where 
delicate spaces are left between all the letters, is more 
legible than the rest of the page. 
" Now, as to leading, this sentence will renew the hourly experience, 
and assure one that the entire suppression of leading does not diminish 
the legibility. The letters as they come from the fount have more space 
above and below than at the side. Hence it is quite clear that leading is a 
simple extravagance, but which need not be given up except on the ground 
of expense. Leading and wide margins should be kept for elaborate vol- 
umes. The library and the cheap journal will do better to use larger type 
than to waste the paper taken up by leading between too fine types. The 
editors of the French papers well understand this, and never lead their 
columns." 
In his discussion of the important point of the size of 
letters, Dr. Javal says, - 
" The question of the dimensions of letters has come up since the 
invention of printing. The written and the printed letter, at first exactly 
the same, have followed two quite different paths. The first books of 
Gutenberg were sold as manuscripts. Who would now mistake a printed 
for a written page? 
"The cheapness of paper and the necessity of rapidity have given 
our handwriting its peculiar open character. At the same time, this has 
forced the contraction of types, since the cost of the paper is increased 
by the press-work. Nowq how has this increase acted during the four 
centuries? Can the means used to economize space be bettered ? 
"For manuals and dictionaries which must be carried about, for 
the large papers and school-books, primary especially, it is useless to 
advise any plan which does not economize paper, for the public will not 
consent to any increased price, and publishers would not adopt it. We 
must therefore seek to increase the legibility without diminishing the number of 
letters contained on a page. 
" Now, there are five ways of increasing the quantity of material on a 
page of given size: 1. Leaving out the leading. 2. Lessening the dis- 
tances. 3. Flattening the letters so as to get more in a line. 4. Using 
a more delicate or thinner type. 5. Reducing the projections of the long 
letters. OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
13 
" The first has been employed since the earliest days of printing. In 
fact, as one may see by looking back to page 12, leaving out the leading 
does not interfere with the legibility; leading simply marks expensive 
copies. It is absurd to use delicate type and lead it. It is much better 
to use type of good size, and omit the leading, although the latter gives 
the page rather a sombre look. To establish a limit, we should say that 
with the type now in use, it was better to employ No. 8 heavy than No. 
7 leaded." 
" For instance, this left-hand column is 
printed in 5 leaded, whilst the right-hand 
column is printed in 6 heavy, and one sees 
that the latter can be read farther off than 
the former, whilst it contains the same amount 
of material in less space. 
" For instance, this left-hand column 
is printed in 5 leaded, whilst the right- 
hand column is printed in 6 heavy, 
and one sees that the latter can be 
read farther off than the former, whilst 
it contains the same amount of mate- 
rial in less space. 
" The second means of increasing the amount of material is to lessen 
the distance between the letters. Referring to page 12, it will be seen 
that it would be better to increase the space between the letters. In real- 
ity the printers seem to have reached the limits of crowding the type. 
"The third method is giving the type a narrower form, which has 
been employed from the commencement of printing. The popularity of 
the Elzevir type is due to the possibility of getting more letters in a line. 
" The fourth means the printers employ to get more material into a 
given space consists in making the letters smaller. It is to be noticed 
that types do not take up less space by being simply shorter, as will be 
seen from this series. 
14 abcdefghijklinnopqrstuvxyz 
13 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvxyz 
12 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvxyz 
11 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvxyz 
10 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvxyz 
9 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvxyz 
8 abcdi'fgbijklrnnopqrstiivxyz 
7 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvyz 
6 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvxyz 
5 abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvxyz 
4 ubcderghijklmnop'|rstii vxyz 
" We see that the length of the lines lessens also with the decrease in 
the height of the letters, but that the reduction in breadth is much more 
gradual than in height, for the cutters have found that the decrease of 
legibility is principally owing to the lessened breadth. This is a fact we long 
ago insisted on. 
" Printing on a piece of rubber which we can stretch in any direction, 
or looking at ordinary letters through cylindrical glasses by which we can 
make the type look taller or broader, will prove our assertion. Moreover, 
the value of broad type may be Seen by holding a small type as far off as 
we can read it, and then, turning the page at an angle of 45° on its verti- 
cal axis, we shall find that we cannot read it, whilst turning it at 45° 14 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
on the horizontal axis does not prevent our reading it easily. The 
value of the breadth of the letter is thus at once seen." 
Dr. Javal shows how the question of wages and the delicacy 
of the female hand in type-setting have really modified the 
characteristics of the types. He says, " As to the smallest 
size which we would admit, it would be 8, for children learn- 
ing to read." 
" Another means of reducing the space occupied by printed letters is 
shortening the long letters." " In the papers printed ■with modern type, 
the long letters are so reduced that the space between the lines is really 
less than the space a short letter occupies on the line. It would seem, 
therefore, that we have reached the limit of reduction of the long letters. 
This is, however, by no means the case, as we may entirely leave out the 
lower projections of the long letters without much affecting their legibility. 
In fact, two years ago the Paris Omnibus Company, in order to save 
spaces of value, put their signs on a narrow band at the feet of the pas- 
sengers riding on top. Necessity was the mother of invention, and the 
company devised the idea of substituting capitals for the letters projecting 
below, as has been done in this following sentence. 
" It will be seen that the leGibilitv suffers much less than one would 
suppose, since, as we have already shown, the letters with projections 
below occur seven times less frequently than those with projections 
above. 
" One idea of reducing the length of the lower member rather more 
than the upper one seems to us to have this advantage : that, the short 
letters not then being in the middle of the whole height, those turned 
wrong side up will produce such a strong effect as to catch the attention 
of the proof-reader. 
" We have thus proposed certain modifications of the letters, 
of value to increase the legibility; and we give here, in repeating 
the sentence, the types which come nearest to our ideas of those 
which are to be had in commerce. " 
Dr. Javal then explains the value of his proposed changes 
in reference to smaller and smaller letters, etc. As the type 
grows larger these are not so much called for, and we need 
not depart so widely from what is established and familiar, 
etc. 
" These and all compact types produce a disagreeable effect when they 
are leaded. In reality what use is there in reducing the projections when 
there is leading? The space can be more profitably used by giving the 
letters a reasonable length, particularly in books where we do not desire 
to save all possible room. But for school-books, primary especially, that 
must be cheap, and free of faults (thanks to which, generations are 
threatened with near-sightedness), for the daily papers so crowded and so 
badly printed, forming, as they do, almost the only reading of the majority OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES 
15 
of men, - for all these it seems to us that the type we have described 
is the most preferable. 
" To give a practical example, suppose the publisher of the ' Revue 
Scientifique ' desired to reduce the price of subscription by printing 
with types hardly legible. It would not do to offer the public the speci- 
men below, which is a reduction by photogravure, in such proportion 
that the printed part is just one-half the size of this, whilst the second 
specimen, which is by printing full in N°. 6 of better form, is not only 
more legible, but also more compact. 
" To give a practical example, suppose the publisher of the 'Revue 
Scientifique ' desired to reduce the price of subscription by printing 
with types hardly legible. It would not do to offer the public the speci- 
men below, which is a reduction by photogravure, in sucli proportion 
that the printed part is just one-half the size of this, whilst the second 
specimen, which is by printing full in N". 6 of better form, is not only 
more legible, but also more compact. 
" To give a practical example, suppose the publisher of the 'Revue 
Scientifique' desired to reduce the price of subscription by printing 
with types hardly legible. It would not do to offer the public the speci- 
men below, which is a reduction by photogravure, in such proportion 
that the printed part is just one-half the size of this, whilst the second 
specimen, which is by printing full in No 6 of better form, is not only 
more legible, but also more compact. 
"As a second example we here reproduce by photogravure a sign, a 
marvel of its kind, which attracts the attention of every one travelling in 
England. 
■■ A HMI ■■ Aovtg Con'»s°7RAIT.WAYS& 
qjU STREET STATIONS 
"We were quite surprised to find that the agents of Willing have dis- 
covered all the artifices which we have proposed. The utilization of 
space is most carefully studied in these seven letters. In the type we 
would propose, the letters would be thinner, the bases less heavy, the -g 
would go a little below the line, but on the whole our type would be 
more or less like the above." 
As to the length of the lines, Dr. Javal has shown in a very 
carefully prepared article in the "Annales d'Oculistique," 
and also in the number of the " Revue Scientifique," above 
given, that very extended lines on a wide page are the fruitful 
source of developing near-sightedness. There is a certain 
change of the focus of the eye necessary in following long 
lines, which is very annoying, and positively hurtful. Every 
adult will realize this in reading quartos. Let us recall how 
readily the children lose their place in trying to turn back 
from the end of the line to the commencement of the next. 
Perhaps our types may be set some day from right to left and 16 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
from left to right in alternate lines, which would help save 
our eyes. Such radical change I do not even dare propose 
now. I would recommend Dr. Javal's most interesting and 
practical essays on the physiology of writing and reading to 
all school boards, educators, and printers. I will but quote 
his final sentence. 
« This postscript is printed with N°. 8 of Olive Lazare 
of Marseilles. In this sentence Ihin paper is placed 
between the letters. I doubt if any thing was ever printed 
in 8 so legible. One would suppose it was in 9. » 
School Time and School Hours. 
School time and school hours have been much considered ; 
and, when so, always with the result of both being short- 
ened. Our climate here in Massachusetts has been too 
little regarded, in apportioning both school time and school 
hours. Harvard University was forced, from the sickness 
and not infrequent deaths in September, to give up this 
month, and found that attempts at work after the middle of 
June were time thrown away. Now, if this is true of young 
men from seventeen or eighteen to twenty-one or twenty-two, 
is it not equally true of school-children from five to seven- 
teen? As a professional man I have had to watch many 
children, and I have talked with many teachers who felt free 
to tell me the real truth ; and my firm belief is, that the 
whole work of exhibitions and the preparations for them, 
coming as they do at the end of the winter's labor and in the 
hottest weather, are nothing but a waste of time, brains, and 
money, and a very large factor in breaking down the physi- 
cal condition of the scholars, which prepares them for the 
evil effects of the causes influencing their eyesight. 
I am quite ready to meet the storm of indignation this will 
arouse, because I can speak from personal knowledge and 
experience, and because I well know who are my opponents. 
These latter are the teachers who are desirous of showing off 
their classes, which is practically throwing dust in the eyes 
of supervisors, school-committees, etc. Then there are the 
whole classes of parents who thirst for their children's noto- 
riety, and who besiege the schoolroom doors long before they 
are open on exhibition days. These are a nuisance and a 
curse to the sensible, honest teacher, so many of whom feel 
the absurdity of this whole exhibition business, and are thor- OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
17 
oughly ashamed of it, but who are powerless to stem the 
current, and yield from very fear of loss of place or employ- 
ment. Just before this exhibition wmrk is commenced in the 
hot weather, and after which no more is learned, let the chil- 
dren be sent home to go to the country or seashore, or even 
roam the streets and haunt the public baths, and they will 
come back in infinitely better condition to stand the next 
year's work. 
In our climate, children from five to seventeen can study, 
and study hard, under proper direction and restriction, for 
about nine months in the year. The other three in summer 
are waste of time and very great waste of physical condition, 
without which they cannot study at all. The extra strain 
and wear and tear from the preparation for examinations and 
exhibitions in the heat of June and July is also added to by 
the most absurd and hurtful custom of forcing the children to 
begin again the first Monday in September. No private school 
could exist where it was attempted, and private schools exist 
because this is required by the public ones. I am naturally 
referring to city schools and city life, and because in these all 
examiners have found the worst hygienic conditions affecting 
the eyesight. In Brussels the schools are dismissed when the 
glass stands at 83°. Now, the first fortnight in September is 
pretty sure to be the most unendurable of the summer, ex- 
hausted as we are by the previous heat. The whole of this 
last September (1881) was a fearful tax on scholars and teach- 
ers, but I am pleading only for the former. No schools should 
open before the middle of September here in Massachusetts. 
An earnest and faithful teacher told me that the month was 
thrown away even in the higher classes, and interest lost in 
the new studies just being entered on, which required extra 
exertion and more brain-work. I speak with all due consid- 
eration, and as a medical man, when I say that the first fort- 
night of September takes away from the children a large 
part of the benefit they have got from the summer vacation. 
This applies still more to the poorer classes, who cannot 
escape the heat, and from whom must be ever recruited our 
industrial material. 
Wearing Glasses. 
Now, as to the necessary correction of near-sightedness by 
properly adjusted glasses. The persistent efforts of ophthal- 18 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
mic surgeons are beginning to bear fruit.1 More parents of 
the middle and lower classes now bring their children to our 
special charities in our larger cities. Of the 13,200 eye pa- 
tients who applied at the Massachusetts Charitable Eye and 
Ear Infirmary in Boston during the past two years, 1,793 were 
those suffering from errors of the refraction and accommoda- 
tion of the eye, and who needed to be carefully examined 
and tested for the glasses they required. Among these are 
of course very many of the present or future workers in our 
industries. In the smaller cities, towns, and villages, where 
no specialists or special hospitals exist, adults for them- 
selves and also for their children purchase at high prices 
the wrong glasses of the jeweller, spectacle-dealer, or, still 
worse, of the peripatetic quack oculists or spectacle pedlers 
who overrun New England. These generally assume the 
name, or claim to be partners, of some of the well-known 
surgeons connected with special hospitals. Their cousins who 
do not dare try such games stand quietly at the city street- 
corners or railroad-stations, sure of enough fools in the 
course of the day to make it pay. These, like the peripatetic 
" professors," will soon, I think, assume the title, and be cer- 
tainly believed by their customers. 
Of as great if not greater importance in relation to the 
eyes of our industrial classes- is the congenital condition 
called hypermetropia, or over-sightedness. Myopia, or near- 
sightedness, is due to the globe being too long or egg-shaped; 
and the other condition is due to the globe being too short, 
or too flat. It is a very common natural defect, only 
understood the last five and twenty years in its very prac- 
tical bearings. When we look at a near object we recog- 
nize, by a sensation of effort, that the eye has to adapt itself 
or become focussed - accommodate, as it is technically called 
- for the distance of the near object. Now, this power 
of change in the eye's focus is greatest when we are some ten 
years old, and gradually decreases from then onward through 
life. The shorter the globe, the greater must be this accom- 
modation ; that is, the more hypermetropic, the greater the 
1 I take the liberty of referring here to iny little book on "The Eye in 
Health and Disease," A. Moore, Boston, 1871, where will be found a simple 
explanation of the errors of refraction and accommodation of the eye, written 
for the laity and fully illustrated on these points. OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
19 
strain. When this change becomes difficult, and. the strain 
causes pain, then the only relief is the use of carefully ad- 
justed glasses. The community have finally recognized the 
need of glasses with near-sightedness, and are beginning to 
heed the repeated declaration of the fact that increasing 
myopia is most dangerous, leading not infrequently to total 
blindness. The natural and congenital condition of the eye- 
ball being too short has not yet been appreciated or acknowl- 
edged by the laity, much less its ready relief by the use of 
properly adjusted convex glasses. A distinguished London 
ophthalmic surgeon long ago said, " Inability to use the eyes 
without pain and discomfort is, in the great majority of cases, 
due to over-sightedness ; and those patients who under any 
other course of treatment haunt our out-patients' rooms for 
months and years without relief, may be speedily and perma- 
nently cured by the proper treatment of their hypermetropia, 
by glasses." Let us but consider the crowd of seamstresses, 
watchmakers, engravers, etc., who are rendered incapable of 
following their employment, whose future is starvation if 
this fact is not attended to. This is no fancy or exaggerated 
statement, but the every-day experience of all ophthalmic 
surgeons. About one-third of the cases of trouble with the 
refraction or accommodation of the eye are dependent on this 
congenital condition of the eye being too short, an optical 
defect only to be remedied by the use of convex glasses. 
Hence, no matter how young the person, they may need 
strong glasses. "What! use grandfather's glasses ? " "Who 
ever heard of such a thing ? We won't listen to it; and then 
to wear glasses always ! " The specialist hears this till he 
is fairly sick of the sound, and replies, " Yes, use grand- 
father's glasses, or the child will break down, have to give 
up all study because it causes pain, and become only a hewer 
of wood or drawer of water, instead of a skilled artisan ; or, 
in the upper classes, able to earn a professional livelihood, 
instead of becoming a drone." 
As I said, there is danger of blindness from excessive or 
increasing near-sightedness; and this danger is becoming- 
understood and feared in the community. But there is also 
danger of blindness from hypermetropia. To Professor Bon- 
ders, of Utrecht, Holland, the world owes its present prac- 
tical knowledge of this congenital defect. He found also 20 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
that ninety per cent of crossed or squinting eyes were caused 
by o ver-sigh tedness. An eye which turns in, away from its 
fellow, and hence is not used in common with it, begins to 
lose its power of vision, forgets how to see, and this power is 
not regained unless the squint is early corrected by an opera- 
tion, and the proper glasses subsequently steadily used. 
Among the thirty thousand school-children I have tested for 
color-blindness, and hence come in close contact with, I saw 
hundreds of cases of squint due to over-sightedness not cor- 
rected by operation or glasses. These were naturally among 
the children of the poorer classes ; as among those of the mid- 
dle or upper, the opprobrium of " cock eye " leads to the 
parents' having the deformity remedied by operation, only 
too often without due recognition of the true cause of the 
trouble, and the necessary proper correction of the hyper- 
metropia by glasses. But these squinting children desire to 
become our artisans, in which they will fail, as they practi- 
cally have but one eye, and that a poor one. 
The powei' of accommodation, that is, the effort the muscle 
inside the eyeball must make to focus sharply, is much more 
called upon in over-sighted eyes, of course in proportion to 
the degree of the trouble. Now, this power being greatest in 
early youth, and decreasing from then onwards, there may at 
any time come, perhaps somewhat suddenly, especially after 
exhausting disease or overwork, pain and utter inability to 
use the eyes for near work. Again, the giving out of the 
eyes is very apt to come, say between twenty-five and thirty- 
five, when among the industrial classes occupations have 
been chosen, and another trade cannot be learned, hence loss 
of eyesight is a question of starvation for themselves and 
families. On the other hand, properly adjusted glasses, not 
picked out by a spectacle vender or pedler, will entirely 
relieve the whole trouble, and enable persons to go on with 
their work as well or better than before, and their skilled 
labor will be thus saved for their employers, to whom it is 
often of course a great loss of time and money to endeavor 
to replace a man or woman who has learned to do certain 
work. I do not touch on the effect of hypermetropia in the 
upper or professional classes, since it is the industrial side of 
the question I desire to bring forward, and prove the money 
value of helping the The physical need and com- OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
21 
mercial value of properly adapted glasses should be under- 
stood by all who are in charge of our great industries, in so 
many of which nowadays there is a constant call for the best 
eyesight. 
When the over-sighted among the industrial classes apply 
to the ophthalmic, surgeon, and are properly fitted with 
glasses, and the natural condition explained, etc., however 
well convinced of the relief afforded by glasses and the 
necessity of this relief, yet a constant answer is made in re- 
fusal to get them, "I can't wear glasses where I work: the 
'boss' wouldn't keep me if he saw I had to use spectacles." 
Now, whilst this may be doubted or denied by the heads, 
presidents, treasurers, or superintendents of many industrial 
establishments, yet a more careful inquiry on their part of the 
custom of the su6-superintendents, etc., would reveal the fact 
that it was more or less definitely understood that a man with 
glasses was of no further use or not to be hired. The oph- 
thalmic surgeons who work in our charitable special hospitals 
see this only too often, and have already in medical societies 
and elsewhere raised their voices in behalf of the 
and in explanation of the need of his using what renders his 
eyes like others, and able to bear the work imposed on them, 
and hence able to guide his educated fingers, of such value 
in our industries. The wearing of glasses when needed 
should be encouraged, and not looked at askance, or even 
forbidden. The artisan classes in the large cities have already 
learned much on this point, because so many have now been 
properly fitted, not by glass dealers or pedlers, but by the 
patient, plodding work of the surgeons who give their time 
without pay to the patients crowding the waiting-rooms of 
our special hospitals. When a man finds that glasses relieve 
pain in his eyes, and enable him to work as he did years 
before, he is not likely to throw them aside or try to do with- 
out them, but will, if not allowed to wear them, if his posi- 
tion be endangered, or his work doubted, or his wages reduced 
thereby, simply leave that factory, and seek employment 
where it is recognized that the work of his hands guided 
by eyes rendered perfect by glasses is of value, and that 
there is money in retaining just such employes. 
The human eye may be near-sighted or over-sighted in 
only one meridian, the horizontal or vertical, or any interme- 22 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
diate angle. This is not due to the globe being too long as 
in myopia, or too short as in hypermetropia, but to the faulty 
curve of the clear part of the eye in front, just as an irregular 
or faulty watch-glass would distort the figures and hands on 
the dial. This is a very frequent defect, which when not 
corrected by properly made and selected glasses deprives the 
person of the use of his eyes. The unsuccessful attempts 
of spectacle dealers and opticians to provide proper glasses, 
and test their customers' eyes, is only too well known by 
ophthalmic surgeons to whom the poor people finally come, 
mulcted in time and pocket and discouraged at all attempts 
at relief. I never saw a case of astigmatism perfectly cor- 
rected by an optician. I have seen many provided with glasses 
wholly unsuited, and of no sort of value as helps to work, 
etc. Some spectacle dealers have already found out that 
honesty is the best policy, and at once advise their astigmatic 
customers to apply to some surgeon, or, when they cannot do 
this, to our charitable special hospitals. Dr. Cohn found, out 
of twenty-three astigmatic school-children, only one wearing 
cylindrical correcting glasses, and he says, " The patient, who, 
after long searching at the optician's, does not find any glass 
to suit him, is rejoiced to suddenly see every thing clear and 
plainly through a cylindrical glass." Another distinguished 
physician, himself astigmatic, says, "Cylindrical glasses have 
completely changed my existence; before using them I was 
obliged to forego all work at night, but now I read, so to 
speak, indefinitely by the light of a single candle." 
The industrial classes are as much affected by the congeni- 
tal condition known as astigmatism as are the educational or 
professional. Hundreds of astigmatic artisans break down 
from inability to use their eyes in the calling they have 
chosen, on account of this peculiar defect, only thoroughly 
understood and properly corrected these last twenty-five 
years. To Professor Donders of Utrecht, Holland, is the 
world again indebted for the practical solution of the trouble 
and the relief obtainable. Those directing our great indus- 
tries where continued acute vision is necessary on the part of 
employes to make their industries pay, should give some heed 
to these arguments in behalf of their workmen, and urge 
rather than discountenance the testing the eyes, and wearing 
proper glasses. OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
23 
The power of changing the focus of the eye, which is 
greatest at about ten years of age, changes, as I have said, 
and gradually decreases till at about forty-five or forty-eight, 
the necessary accommodation cannot be continued, and must 
be assisted by a convex glass. Now it is just at this time of 
life that an artisan is in the best physical condition to con- 
tinue his skilled labor in which experience has perfected him. 
If the workman is near-sighted, then, although he will con- 
tinue to need the same glasses for distance, he will need 
weaker and weaker ones for near objects, and finally be able 
to lay aside spectacles, except out-doors. Recall our friends 
whose faces we always associate with gold spectacles, and as 
they get on in life notice how they first push these gold 
frames up on the forehead at dinner, and afterwards in read- 
ing, and finally take them off, always, however, replacing 
them on the street, or in church, concert, etc. Only so far as 
all this goes, can a person be congratulated on being near- 
sighted : the other side of the picture I have already given. 
Again, if the workman is over-sighted, with increasing 
years the glasses used for work must be stronger and 
stronger. The idea that this will go on till no glasses can be 
had strong enough, is simply ridiculous, as there is only a 
certain definite amount of change, beyond which the altera- 
tion does not go, and which is far within even moderately 
strong glasses. 
The perfectly normal eye needs glasses at forty-five to 
forty-eight years of age, just when the workman's experi- 
ence is of value, and just when he is likely to have a family 
growing up dependent on him for support, just when also he 
cannot turn to any other work. To deprive him of their use 
would be to force him out of the artisan into the lower labor- 
ing class, fairly a cruelty. 
In the female sex the refusal to wear glasses, and the vari- 
ous pretexts and concealments so well known and recognized 
by the ophthalmic surgeon, are perhaps pardonable, because 
the admitting that they are forty-five to forty-eight years of 
age is confessing that they are beyond the child-bearing age, 
- in other words, have " grown old." Curiously enough, one 
rarely, if ever, hears of a woman being threatened with loss 
of place or employment because she has come to need 
glasses. On the other hand, I cannot refrain from repeating 24 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
that men who require the help of spectacles and who could 
work as well as ever with them, are only too frequently 
afraid to wear them for fear of loss of employment. The 
superintendent or the " boss " ignorantly supposes that 
the man's eyesight has given out; while on the contrary, 
if he has properly chosen glasses, it will be better than the 
few years before, when he has been striving to use his eyes, 
which he could not focus accurately, and hence has pro- 
duced imperfect or bungling work, which work has finally 
drawn the attention of the boss, who threatens dismissal. 
The poor workman seeks aid and help at some special hos- 
pital, where he finds his sight is perfect with the right glasses 
there ordered for him after careful testing and examination. 
These he does not dare to wear in the shop, as the boss " don't 
want no man wearing spectacles." There is a most extraor- 
dinary ignorance and prejudice on this subject in the commu- 
nity, which it is the special purpose of this article to try and 
overcome. Now the workman has become skilled, steady 
with age and family ties, his vision will keep good till sixty- 
five or seventy, or beyond if he always has the proper helps 
to see. I ask, then, is there not money in retaining him, and 
should he not be kindly urged and advised to wear what his 
eyes require ? I am too familiar with all these facts not to 
know, and hence here insist that such foolish refusal to do 
what nature needs is one of the unnecessary causes of im- 
paired vision. 
Special Causes of Impaired Vision. 
I have thus far been speaking of the natural conditions of 
the eye. I would now call attention to some undoubted causes 
of impaired vision connected with certain industries ; in other 
words, the special diseases or injuries produced by them. 
There is as great a mistake in regarding as dangerous to the 
eyes occupations which are not so, as in considering as quite 
safe others which are hurtful. I would here point out some 
of the industries in which money can be made or saved by 
attention to points either not involving any expense, or but 
trifling in comparison with what is saved. 
A corporation treasurer told me that he once concluded to 
test at his mills whether all the doctors said about increased 
health and strength from perfect drainage had any truth in OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
25 
it. Accordingly, though all the drains and sanitary points 
connected with the mill-hands' houses would have passed 
muster from ordinary observers or masons, etc., he had the 
whole thoroughly overhauled, and each and every defect rec- 
tified. The cost was naturally considerable, some thousands 
of dollars, and the money seemingly thrown away, till the 
superintendent in charge found the absence of the skilled 
hands from sickness was greatly reduced ; and a careful esti- 
mate proved that the whole expense of repair of drainage, 
etc., was thus cleared in one year. How much greater was 
the gain in health, strength, and happiness for the employes, 
benefited, perhaps, against their wills, as is so often the case ' 
Now, dust and dirt and foul air are the most potent causes 
in producing granular lids, the curse of many of the indus- 
trial classes, depriving them of months of labor if not of 
eyesight itself. Whilst we cannot tell the directors of our 
industries just how much they can save by eliminating dust, 
dirt, and foul air in their factories or works, we could per- 
haps excite their pity by showing them the effects of the 
same on the employes as they apply for help in our ophthal- 
mic clinics and eye hospitals. In this article, however, no 
appeal is made to any feeling of humanity, but simply and 
directly to the pockets of stockholders, who may be induced 
to interest themselves, and direct superintendents and others 
to take cognizance of these things. 
Years ago, the needle-grinders in England refused to wear 
the magnetic protectors over the nose and mouth, which 
relieved their work of any special danger, because their 
wages were then reduced, and they preferred the money for 
a merry life and a short one, though they knew it would end 
in lingering pain. The time has, however, about passed for 
this sort of thing. Most artisans nowadays are alive to the 
value of their physical condition as affecting their power to 
labor, and hence their wages. 
The waste of eye-power, and positive injury to the organ, 
from lack of attention to light, position of work, and illumi- 
nating sources, are more difficult to here render comprehen- 
sible to those who have the means in their hands of correcting 
abuses. An expert will hardly go through any establish- 
ment without seeing the apparently total disregard of the 
very points which would save eyesight, and render labor so 26 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
much more comfortable, safer, and hence more profitable. 
How often do we see an artisan at work with an uncovered 
flickering gas-jet close to his eyes, when an almost costless 
piece of tin would protect them, and give him a better light! 
When, in another generation or two, we shall have become 
accustomed to a white, instead of a yellow, artificial light, 
there will be saved one great cause of impure air, inadequate 
light, and hurtful heat. This latter is often wholly over- 
looked in the too close proximity of all lights, student-lamps, 
and gas-jets, to the head as well as eyes. Let those who 
doubt it test, even with the hand, the temperature of the 
head and brow on the side towards the light and the other in 
comparison. The simplest additional shade stops this, by 
making a current of air between itself and the lamp. 
A little intelligent interest on the part of superintendents 
and bosses would often save the company the valuable ser- 
vices of those who give up their handiwork from defective 
vision just when their educated skill is of most value. 
Without any reason, work-benches, tables, etc., are often 
placed exactly as they should not be, simply from ignorance, 
carelessness, or prejudice. How often do we see artisans 
placed facing a window, the sun glaring in so as to cause 
most irritating reflection from their work before them ! The 
strain on the eyes from the constantly-repeated act of accom- 
modating or focalizing, as the man looks back from out the 
window to his work, is wholly unthought of till he breaks 
down under it, just at the age when he is of the most value to 
his employer, and his wages are most needed by his increasing 
family. A great many good men could be retained, and a 
good deal of money saved, by practical inspections and sug- 
gestions in our workshops and factories, provided, of course, 
that those in authority would heed the specialists' reports 
and act on them. At present the boss's reply to all this is, 
" It's the man's lookout, not ours, and we can easily supply 
his place." Setting aside all questions of humanity, this is 
not true. The loss of men with trained fingers, in a special 
work, is of great importance. No doubt the general deteri- 
oration of many kinds of fine work is due to the present 
lack of continued (for years) mechanical labor. Herein lies 
one of the elements of the success of foreign crafts. Of 
course this is by no means the whole cause of the " scamping " OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
27 
in our mechanical industries. It is, however, an unnecessary 
one, which can be avoided without expense, and with gain to 
employers, whose attention I would challenge by this paper. 
Special call for special work is sometimes a cause of posi- 
tive danger, as is shown by the case I will now describe. It 
will, of course, meet with indignant and interested denial, 
by those whose pockets are touched. I, therefore, have ex- 
amined the matter most carefully and most practically, taking 
no hearsay evidence, and convincing myself by personal 
examination. Those who will do as I have will, I believe, 
agree with me. 
I have, for some time, noticed certain of the wood-cuts in 
the journals and magazines becoming, as I thought, poorer, 
blurred, and slurred, and which I could only explain by an 
attempt at ai t too high for me. My diagnosis was, that such 
work must be cheaper, and hence some one was making 
money by it, as it was not equal to the wood-cuts of former 
days. Wood-engravers coming to me as patients induced 
me to investigate the subject; and I found what has since, 
and recently, caused a good deal of talk in artistic and 
artisan circles, namely, that these wood-cuts were made from 
photographs on the block, thereby saving the otherwise 
necessary drawing on the wood. I remembered once wanting 
a wood-engraver to give the idea from a drawing hung up 
before him, besides what was merely photographed on the 
block. He greatly objected to having to look away from 
his work and back again at it. He would rather try to do 
what I suggested as he worked on the block, and I stood at 
his side. From the many and various recent articles in 
the daily press, magazines, etc., it is very evident that 
such wood-cutting is cheaper, but, as I have ascertained, it is 
most destructive to the eyes. The reason for this is, that the 
eye must constantly change its focus from the middle dis- 
tance of accommodation when the picture is placed before 
the artist. The eye must let go or release this accommoda- 
tion if it uses none in looking through the engraver's magni- 
fying glass, or increase the accommodative effort if it employs 
the maximum of accommodation when using the glass. Now, 
young eyes, before twenty-five years, may stand this, but 
will be early used up by it. Many as young as thirty are 
affected by this cutting from photographs on wood. Of 28 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
course, with the photograph the lines are much more indefi- 
nite, and much more is left to the individual skill and. fancy 
of the artist. This sort of extra work his eyes can stand, 
though it calls for much greater mental labor. His eyes 
cannot stand, or hold out under the strain of accommoda- 
tion necessarily connected with the looking off to the picture 
in front of him, from which the photograph has been taken 
on to the block. I have personally tested this, and do not 
wonder at so many engravers refusing to cut from photo- 
graphs. It will not pay them in the long-run, and engraving- 
offices will soon find that the damage to the eyes is such 
that men will want as much pay as would cover the cost of 
drawing on the block. As an ophthalmic surgeon, I have 
heard the complaints of engravers as to photographs. Young 
men who can do this work now for a few years, and who get 
present work in consequence, are naturally loath to say much 
about it for fear of losing place or work. The facts are, that 
photographs on wood can be cut badly by green hands, who 
receive but little pay, and then be " fixed up " afterwards 
by more experienced men. The publishers are not saved 
money, but the proprietors of the engraving-offices are. The 
latter are all, of course, in favor of photographs on wood. 
With them the using-up the eyes of their young men is of 
no consequence, as plenty of others are ready to step into 
their places. I have seen an engraver completely broken 
down by this cutting photographs, which is particularly irri- 
tating. He now refuses all such work, and has no trouble in 
cutting from drawings. In reality the photograph gives too 
much. What to leave out is difficult to decide, and hence 
there is much more brain-work necessary. I am authorita- 
tively informed that the better class of engravers have raised 
their prices, in some cases nearly double. 
The wear and tear on the eyes from the constant change 
of focus and accommodation has been described to me by 
engravers, who, of course, did not know the cause of the 
trouble. They complained also of the loss of time before 
they could see distinctly as they turned from the picture to 
the block, and that the first few lines then made were apt not 
to be good. All wood-cuts from photographs have to be 
worked over with loss of time and at expense of exactness. 
I do not speak without knowledge, and have the evidence of 
at least ten first-class engravers in this country. OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
29 
I expect to excite the ire of those who are pecuniarily 
interested in photograph work. I have, however, no other 
interest than that of any physician in the patients who apply 
to him. Engravers are satisfied with my explanation of their 
not being able to endure this photograph work. I have con- 
fined myself to the strictly professional point of view, and 
not intruded any artistic ideas of others or of my own. On 
these points critics have recently expressed themselves 
strongly in the public prints. 
I have dwelt on this subject of engraving from photo- 
graphs, as well illustrating how certain forms of work are 
hurtful, and how the harm may be done from ignorance, and 
also not corrected or stopped from short-sighted mercenary 
motives, though it would pay better in the long-run to heed 
the warnings given. The artisan class have but little means 
of combining and resisting ; thus those who have learned to 
be of value are thrown aside, from the ruling desire to get 
the golden eggs by cutting open the goose. 
Note. - In the "Revue Scientifique " for June 25, 1881, in which 
Dr. Javal's article is published, at p. 817, is the following: - 
" Near-sightedness in the Schools. - On account of myopia becoming 
more and more frequent in the schools, from defective desks and seats, 
and bad lighting, etc., the minister of public instruction has appointed a 
commission on the hygiene of the sight in schools, with directions to 
examine the material conditions affecting the increase of myopia, and to 
endeavor to suggest means of avoiding them. This commission is com- 
posed of Drs. Gavaret, president, Panas, Gariel, Maurice Perrin, Javal; 
Mortmahon, inspector-general of primary instruction; Hachette and 
Masson, publishers; and Gauthier-Villars, printer." 
The Color-Sense and its Defects. 
The sense of color which the eye possesses, in addition to 
the sense of form, has almost been forgotten as a distinct 
sense, so intimately does it seem associated with an impres- 
sion of form. Upon it, however, depend many of our 
industries, as much as upon the sense of form. Its careful 
cultivation is very necessary for the future success of several 
of our Massachusetts industrial employments. At the pres- 
ent an educated sense of color is of great value to its pos- 
sessors, and to those who require their skilled labor. Whilst 
women can and do enter the industries formerly occupied 
solely by men, the latter, from a lack of an educated sense 30 
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 
of color, are prevented from entering the others now occu- 
pied by the female sex, simply because they lack this spe- 
cially cultivated color-sense derived from natural education. 
All this entirely aside from the fact, which I as well as others 
have so thoroughly shown by the testing of thousands of 
males, that the latter are so destitute of and unfamiliar with 
color-names. Color-names can and should be taught our 
boys in school, by which their color-sense would be educated 
to fit them for the positions and occupations they are to 
support themselves by; I mean the several handicrafts. 
The ridiculous and false teaching as to colors now so preva- 
lent in schools must be given up, and the color-sense be 
appealed to and gradually educated, as is the form-sense, by 
methods in conformity with the facts of science. On this I 
have dwelt, in my report to the Boston School Board on the 
examination of twenty-eight thousand school-children for 
color-blindness.1 There is no system in the primary schools, 
no methods of any value, notwithstanding the praiseworthy 
efforts of individual teachers which I have met with. But 
among these latter I have found the very best deceived. 
A color-blind boy wholly escaped the observation of an expe-> 
rienced teacher who had paid special attention to the educa- 
tion as to colors ; working, however, only with the worse 
than useless materials placed in her hands, or at her disposal. 
She was naturally indignant with me for my suggestion, and 
hardly credited the direct proof of the boy's color-blindness 
as I tested him before her, though this proof was perfectly 
convincing to all the other bystanders. This teacher failed 
simply because the means of instruction were so poor, and 
through no fault of her own. She followed the prescribed 
course. Such methods of teaching color-names and educating 
the color-sense as are now being largely employed in Europe, 
and which I am endeavoring to introduce into this country, 
would not only save the time of scholars and teachers, but the 
former could hardly escape detection if their color-sense was 
defective or they were color-blind.2 This would be of great 
1 I would also refer to an article of mine in "Education," March-April 
number, 1882, entitled " Color-names, Color-blindness, and the Education of 
the Color-sense in our Schools." 
2 Color-chart for the Primary Teaching of Colors and Education of the 
Color-sense. By Dr. Hugo Magnus and Dr. B. Joy Jeffries. L. Prang & Co., 
Boston, 1882. OUR EYES AND OUR INDUSTRIES. 
31 
value to them, as, since the color-sense cannot be altered by- 
education or familiarity with colors, or any known means, it 
is all-important that a boy should be warned, and his parents 
told, that he cannot enter the professions, trades, or pursuits 
where a normal color-sense is necessary, and where perhaps 
he may be excluded by law : for instance, as locomotive engi- 
neer, or pilot, etc. ; besides these, however, those many indus- 
tries where the color-sense is absolutely required, and many 
positions, as in the dry-goods business, where color-blindness 
will sooner or later lead to dismissal. It will not as hereto- 
fore be overlooked or concealed, since a knowledge of it is 
becoming so widely spread, and even the characteristic mis- 
takes somewhat understood. 
The community cannot be too often reminded not to con- 
found the lack of knowledge or use of color-names, as also 
the lack of proper appreciation of colors due to an unedu- 
cated color-sense, and the congenital or acquired less of the 
color-sense in whole or part. The latter has been hereto- 
fore, and will be frequently, concealed. It has often led to 
much mortification, disappointment, and loss of time and 
money, as well as to grave and fatal mistakes. These latter 
I have elsewhere insisted on.1 Here I would simply show to 
the owners and directors of our great industries the money 
value, first to them, then to their children, of systematic edu- 
cation of the color-sense by simple and thorough methods in 
our schools, especially the teaching the color-names and the 
educating the color-sense of those scholars who are likely to 
learn but little through home life and surroundings, because 
from this class particularly are to come the future artisans 
upon whom will depend many of our Massachusetts indus- 
tries. 
1 Color-blindness: its Dangers and Detection. Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., 
Boston : revised edition, 1882. This article was written at the re- 
quest of the State Board of Health 
of Massachusetts, and handed in in Novem- 
ber, 1881. It will be seen that on page 7 
I say, "School-books, text and reference, 
are bitterly complained of by all the gentle- 
men who have been at work testing the children's 
eyesight in different parts of the world. Of course 
poor paper, bad impressions, worn-out type, and crowd- 
ing the pages by finer and finer type, mean more 
money for the contractors who over-persuade commit- 
tees and school boards. As these latter, however, do 
have it largely in their power to correct abuses, I would 
point out here where improvements can be made which 
will be of great benefit, and not too greatly touch the 
pockets of school-book manufacturers." 
Supervision of the printing of my article at Messrs. 
Rand, Avery, & Co.'s brought me in contact with Mr. 
Henry H. Clark, formerly connected with the University Press. 
Wo were mutually surprised to find an agreement in our ideas and 
aims. Without knowledge of the work that had been done and 
the suggestions made by specialists, he had practically arrived at 
some of the same conclusions. That my criticisms above quoted 
were correct, is proved by the fact that the evil had gofie so far as 
to even begin to correct itself. I found that Messrs. Ivison, Blake- 
man, Taylor, & Co., of New York, had shrewdly given Mr. Clark 
carte blanche to produce the most perfect school-books as to their 
typography. For this purpose the latter has had special type manu- 
factured, and unconsciously followed very much the suggestions made 
by my friend Dr. Javal given in my text. 
In the Swinton Readers and Geographies that have been prepared, I 
think that any one who understands the subject will be most agreeably 
surprised to find what pains have been taken to save the children's 
eyesight by improved typography and paper. Educators and students have 
justly complained of the very trying and disagreeable reflection from the 
gloss of the paper used in text and reference books. It was claimed that in 
printing cuts a fine calendered surface was necessary, and there seemed to 
be no remedy where books were so profusely illustrated as these Readers. 
But it was one of the purposes of Mr. Clark to introduce not only a better type 
but a better paper; and he fortunately succeeded in obtaining from Messrs. 
Tileston & Hollingsworth of Boston, who entered heartily into his enthusiasm for good 
book-making, a paper without the objectionable gloss, and having all the qualities 
required for fine printing. 
I desire to here show that I am as ready to praise, where I can do so honestly, as to 
blame. This page is printed in the several sized types used in the books I speak of, 
as well as on the paper referred to. The idea was, to present to the child's eye suffi- 
ciently large and clearly distinctive letters; then, as he grows older, smaller and 
smaller letters, but of exactly the same shape. Thus his eye is not confused, and he 
has nothing new to learn. A progressive series of such type did not exist, and the 
matrices for the most important type were specially cut to meet the want. COLOR-BLINDNESS: 
ITS DANGERS AND ITS DETECTION (Revised and Enlarged Edition). 
By B. Joy Jeffries, A. M., M. D. (Harvard), Fellow of the Massa- 
chusetts Medical Society; Ophthalmic Surgeon Massachusetts Eye and Ear 
Infirmary, Carney Hospital, and N. E Hospital for Women and Children 
etc. 1 vol. 8vo. $2.00. Published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 
This important work has been heartily welcomed by medical and scientific 
journals in America and Europe. It has been adopted as a standard manual 
for medical officers of the United States Army, Navy, and Marine Hospital 
service. A careful perusal of the following notices will show in what esteem 
it is held by competent judges in both hemispheres: - 
"In this present treatise Dr. Jeffries gives us 'a good part of Prof. Holmgren's book,' 
and he contributes, on his own part, the result of over eighteen thousand testings for color- 
blindness, made by himself according to Prof. Holmgren's method, with colored worsteds, 
among New England teachers and scholars. Both works are, first and foremost, ' practical,' 
having in view the elimination of color-blind persons from the railway and marine services." 
- The Aation, New York. 
"We have to thank Dr. Joy Jeffries for his very intelligently written and useful little 
volume, which fills a hiatus that has been much felt. In this he has not only collected the 
principal facts that have been given by his predecessors, but he has added the results of his 
own observations and labors. We have great pleasure in recommending Dr. Jeffries's book 
to all who are engaged in the examination of the color-blind." - The Lancet, London. 
" To Dr. B. Joy Jeffries is due the credit of bringing this matter to the attention of 
the United States in a way which cannot fail to produce good results. In a busy profes- 
sional life he has still found time for a thorough study of all that has been printed on the 
subject, for correspondence with the scientific men abroad who have investigated it, for 
translations from many languages, and for making here thirty-four thousand examinations 
for color-blindness."- Boston l)aily Advertiser. 
"Dr. Joy Jeffries of Boston, who has himself contributed to the general stock of 
knowledge of this subject, has done English-speaking people everywhere a service in pre- 
senting the results of those labors, and especially of Prof. Holmgren of Upsala, in the 
present exhaustive manual."- The Scotsman, Edinburgh. 
" This book is written throughout from a practical point of view. The author is 
chiefly occupied with a consideration of the practical effects of color-blindness and the 
dangers caused by it." - Journal of the Society of Arts. 
" The author's aim is essentially practical. He seeks to point out the dangers to life 
and property which may arise from the employment on railways or on shipboard of men 
defective in the color-sense, and to explain in detail the best means for their detection. 
These dangers are undoubtedly real and serious. To the medical profession it will prove 
an indispensable guide in the examination of supposed cases of color-blindness." - Journal 
of Science. 
"There is no doubt of the existence ot this dangerous defect of vision amongst rail 
way employe's, and no time should be lost in taking steps to institute a thorough examina- 
tion of railway employes throughout the kingdom. The volume now under review deals 
very fully with the whole question, and very clearly explains the method to be adopted in 
examining for color-blindness."- The Railway News and Joint Stock Journal, London. 
" This is an interesting contribution to this important subject. The author has been 
successful by his unremitting zeal and perseverance in arousing public attention in America 
to the danger of employing color-blind railway officials."- The British Medical Journal. 
" It is opportune that we are able to announce the appearance of a work which, although 
not by an Englishman, is in our language, and will therefore make the English-reading 
public acquainted with what lias been done. The author is ophthalmic surgeon to several 
hospitals. He is otherwise much connected with ophthalmological matters, and has had 
large experience in regard to color-blindness."-Nature, London. 
"A volume has been published by B. Joy Jeffries, M. D., of Boston, entitled ' Color- 
Blindness : Its Dangers and Detection,' which is an exhaustive popular statement of all 
that is at present known on the subject, and is fully up to the standard we have indicated." 
- Harper's Magazine. 
"The author is himself an eminent ophthalmic surgeon, and has contributed important 
original investigations to the general stock of knowledge upon the subject, so that what he 
has now written may be said to possess the sanction of a double authority,-that of Prof. 
Holmgren in addition to his own." - London Times. 
"Any one who engages in the study will find himself anticipated in every direction by 
Dr. Jeffries, who has pursued it with unwearied industry, and to whom the community is 
deeply indebted for his labors." - Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners' Report, 1880. 
*** This work is sold by booksellers, or it will be sent, postpaid, on receipt of the price, 
by the Publishers. 
Or by L. PRANG & CO., BOSTON. THE THEORY OF COLOR 
IN ITS RELATION TO ART AND ART INDUSTRY, 
BY DR. WILHELM VOX BEZOLD, 
Professor of Physics at the Royal Polytechnic School of Munich, and Member of the 
Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. 
Translated from the German by S. R. KOEHLER. 
With an Introduction by 
Edward C. Pickering, Thayer Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
Authorized American Edition, Revised and Enlarged by the Author. Illustrated by Chromo-lithographic 
Plates and Woodcuts. One vol. Large 12mo. $5.00. 
PUBLISHERS' ROTE. 
Prof, von Bezold's " Theory of Color" commends itself to the public for the 
following reasons : Most of the numerous books on the subject, even some of those 
lately written, totally ignore the progress made in physiological objects within the 
last thirty years. In these works the untenable theories of Brewster and of Field 
are still accepted as a basis; but, the basis being faulty, it follows of necessity that 
the superstructure must likewise be faulty. On the other hand, the few works 
which have attempted to popularize the results of the researches of Maxwell and 
Helmholtz have either failed to carry out to their logical consequences the views at 
present held, or else have proved to be abortive on account of the abstruse manner 
in which their authors presented the difficult subject. The theories of Brewster 
and of Field above alluded to are more especially those relating to the so-called 
three primary colors, red, yellow, and blue. Modern science has shown that white 
light is not resolvable into these three primaries. The theory of the three primary 
colors, red, yellow, and blue, has therefore been abandoned, and with them the whole 
system of so-called secondary and tertiary colors has fallen to the ground. It 
might be feared that anarchy would take the place of order in the realm of color 
after the overthrow of the old system of classification. This is not the case, 
however, for the system of colors adopted by Prof, von Bezold not only affords a 
ready means of classifying every sensation of color which may possibly affect the 
eye, but even is exceedingly simple. 
The first three chapters of the book are devoted to the exposition of the phys- 
ical and physiological basis of the theory of color, according to the most recent 
scientific developments, to the manner in which colors are perceived, to the law of 
mixtures (one of the most curious and interesting divisions of the science), and to 
the system of colors. 
The numerous illustrations, colored as well as black (5 full-page chromo-lith- 
ographic plates, 6 full-page plates on colored paper, and 65 wood-cuts), are an 
exceedingly valuable feature of the book, while the unusually full index will make it 
a most convenient book of reference. Although the book is primarily intended for 
artists and art students, scientific men will nevertheless also find much valuable 
and interesting matter in it, as the manner of treatment chosen by the author neces- 
sitated a thorough and perfectly independent manipulation of all the scientific 
material bearing on the subject. Such a manipulation, even if it should not bring 
to light new facts, must very naturally present many an old fact from a novel point 
of view. 
Prof, von Bezold is sufficiently well known among the scientific men of Europe. 
The fact that he is introduced to the American public by Prof. Edward C. Picker- 
ing, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and by so good a translator as 
Mr. S. R. Koehler, will no doubt secure to him a favorable reception on this side 
of the water. 
Copies sent by mail on the receipt of the retail price. 
L. PRANG & CO., Publishers, Boston. COLOR CHART 
FOR THE 
PRIMARY EDUCATION of the COLOR-SENSE. 
By Dr. HUGO MAGNUS, 
Docent in Ophthalmology, in the University at Breslau, 
AND 
B. JOY JEFFRIES, A. M., M. D. (Harvard). 
ADOPTED BY THE BOSTON SCHOOL BOARD. 
The need of proper means for teaching the elements of color in public 
schools has long been felt, and various attempts have been made to supply 
apparatus suitable for the purpose. The Color Chart designed by Dr. Hugo 
Magnus of Breslau, and adapted for use in American schools by Dr. B. Joy 
Jeffries, is believed to meet all necessary requirements. 
The chart contains the following standard colors: Brown, Crimson, Red, 
Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Gray, with four shades to each color in 
addition. Two cards for each color are furnished for the use of pupils. 
The chart is accompanied by a manual for teachers, in which its practical 
use in the school-room is fully explained. 
COMMENDATIONS. 
This chart has received the highest commendation from distinguished scientists, 
educators, etc., from among which the following are taken : - 
From Dr. A. Von Reuss, in the Vienna Medical Press. 
In urging the introduction of color-teaching in the primary schools, I am but asking 
what has long ago been done for the ear. Music is taught in all the schools, and I will not 
ask whether this is not secondary to the education of the color-sense. Moreover, for this 
there is no call for a new subject and study among both teacher and scholar. Color-teach- 
ing must commence as early as possible in the kindergarten, but more definite teaching will 
begin in the primary school as a part of object-teaching, and afterward associated with 
natural-history studies. It must of course be continued in the grammar school, and only 
ended with professional studies. 
The suggestion of the whole subject comes from Dr. Hugo Magnus, docent of ophthal- 
mology at Breslau, who is unwearied in urging it. He here develops, as in his former writ- 
ings, a definite plan for teaching colors in the primary schools, and thus offers the necessary 
means of instruction. I think that this method of instruction can but commend itself to all. 
From Dr. S. Kalischer, in the Gegenwart, Berlin. 
Of the many methods which have lately been added to school appliances for educating 
the color-sense, it seems to us that of Dr. Magnus, the so well-known ophthalmic surgeon 
of Breslau, is by far the best. Not only has Magnus's method the advantage in the variety 
of the colors and their shades, but also, as it seems to us, in the fact that the children are 
less likely to become tired, because the activity of the hands is called into play and their 
attention and interest excited by the necessity of searching for two special ones among the 
cards. This methodical system of education cannot but help, more than anything else, the 
distinguishing of colors, and assist in remembering them. 
Dr. Jeffries says, in his Preface to the American edition: A thorough study and trial 
of it induced me to abandon all other ideas, and endeavor to introduce it into our schools. 
After I had made this decision, I was much gratified to find that the plan had met with the 
especial approval of the highest authority, Dr. Magnus having received the following 
diploma from the International Medical Congress at the Amsterdam meeting in 1879: - 
CONGRfcS INTERNATIONAL DES SCIENCES MflDICALES. 
6' Session. 
Amsterdam, 1879. 
Dipldme d'admission avec mention honorable (distinction unique decernee par le Comit6) d£livr6 
a M. le Docteur Hugo Magnus, a Breslau. 
Le President, DONDERS. 
Le Secretaire General, La Direction de V Exposition, 
Dr. GUYE; Dr. W. C. GORI. TILANUS, VAN LISSA. 
It is with Dr. Magnus's especial consent and approval that the chart is published here 
in America. 
T'riet; of Chart, Cards, and Manual $53.00. 
L. PRANG & COMPANY, Publishers.