The World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, 
NEW ORLEANS, LA., 1884-85. 
Medical Department United States Army 
KXHIBIT-CLASS 4. 
No. 7. 
DESCRIPTION 
OF THE % 
COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPHS OF CRANIA 
AND OF 
Crania from the Army Medical Museum, 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 
BY 
SURGEON JOHN S. BILLINGS, U. S. A., 
Curator of the Museum. 
HENRY McELDERRY, 
Assistant Surgeon, U. S. A. 
IN CHARGE OF THE REPRESENTATION OF THE MEDICAL DEDAR'MtKNT U. S. A. 
New Orleans, La., 1884-85. The World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, 
/ NEW ORLEANS, LA., 1884-85. 
Medical lepartnieni, United Hates Army 
EXHIBIT-CLASS 4. 
No. 7. 
DESCRIPTION 
OF THE 
COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPHS OF CRANIA 
AND OF # 
Crania from the Army Medical Museum, 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 
BY 
SURGEON JOHN S. BILLINGS, U. S. A., 
Curator of the Museum. 
HENRY McELDERRY, 
Assistant Surgton, U. S. A. 
IN CHARGE OF THE REPRESENTATION OF THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT U. S. A. 
New Orleans, La., 1884-85. THE WORLD’S 
Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, 
NEW ORLEANS, LA., 1884-’85. 
Description of the Composite Photographs of Crania, 
and of Crania from the Army Medical Museum, 
By Surgeon John S. Billings, U. S. A., 
Curator of the Museum. 
The composite photographs exhibited have been made at 
the Army Medical Museum, in Washington, to illustrate the 
application of this process to the study of craniology. The 
method of composite portraiture, as devised by Mr. Francis 
Galton, F. R. S., consisted in exposing each of a series of 
portraits, which had been reduced to the same size, succes- 
sively before the same sensitive plate for a portion of the 
time required to make a good picture. The composites 
here presented are, however, made directly from the crania 
themselves, and not by combination of separate photographs. 
The process may be briefly described as follows: Taking, 
for example, No. 1, it was found, with the light and exposure 
on that day, that it required about 490 seconds, with a wet 
plate, to obtain a good picture of a single skull. Seven 
adult male Esquimaux skulls were taken at random from 
the collection; that is, without any attempt to select skulls 
of same size or general appearance, the only points borne in 
mind in the selection being that they should be the skulls 
of adult males. These crania were exposed successivelv 
before the same plate for a period of 70 seconds each, that 
is, one-seventh of the time required for a perfect picture, 
and the result is a composite picture of the seven crania. 4 
A part of the composites, as indicated in the list, were 
made by the use of wet plates, the average exposure being 
about seventy seconds for each of seven crania, or a little 
over eight minutes in all for the group. The greater part 
were taken on dry plates, the time of exposure for each 
cranium being about three seconds. These composites, 
being only first attempts, are not very satisfactory as photo- 
graphs, the exposure in most of them having been too long; 
but they serve to indicate the amount of variation in shape 
and size which exists in adult crania of the same race and 
sex, and also to show that this method will afford a means 
of comparison of the crania of different groups with refer- 
ence to the question as to how far distinctions of race are 
indicated by cranial variations. 
How far this can be done may be seen, for example, by a 
comparison of the composites relating to the Sioux Indians 
and the Sandwich Islanders. 
It is proposed to perfect the process, and prepare composite 
photographs of the principal groups of crania in the Museum, 
and it is hoped that this method may be made use of in 
other collections, as affording a valuable means of compari- 
son between the crania possessed by them and those in the 
Army Medical Museum—a means of comparison which no 
system of measurements can take the place of. 
The crania exhibited are a few typical specimens selected 
from the collection of the Army Medical Museum. This 
collection is already a large one, containing over 2,100 
crania—the greater part of North American Indians—but 
it is very important that it should be made more complete, 
as regards many races or tribes, it being desirable to have 
at least twenty-five perfect crania in each group, while fifty 
would not be too many. 5 
The following table shows the number and character of 
the crania in the collection, and indicates those groups in 
which additions are especially desirable: 
Total. 
Imper- 
fect. 
Norixii Amekican Skulls. 
89 
« 
Mound Builders from Dakota . — _ 
24 
8 
“ “ Wisconsin. _ 
4 
3 
“ “ Iowa .. .. 
6 
5 
“ “ Illinois _ _ 
19 
15 
“ “ Indiana 
6 
1 
“ “ Ohio 
8 
0 
“ “ California - . . 
i<; 
8 
“ “ Utah . . 
a 
5 
“ “ Missouri . 
2 
2 
“ “ Kentucky . . 
30 
15 
‘ “ Virginia . .... 
1 
“ . “ Tennessee — 
42 
38 
“ “ Mississippi . - 
50 
32 
“ “ Louisiana - . 
8 
0 
“ “ Alabama 
1 
1 
“ ir Florida — 
70 
33 
“ “ Arkansas . . _ 
25 
23 
Indians from Alaska 
5o 
12 
. “ “ Peel’s Kiver ... 
2 
5 
i 
i 
27 
9 
2 
1 
2 
3 
Makah “ 
4 
7 
4 
1 
2 
23 
1 
14 
7 
7 
1 
2 
6 
1 
1 
Ukah “ 
4 
1 
2 
1 
23 
6 
3 
1 
459 
192 
7 
5 
Aztec “ — 
10 
5 North American Skulls—Continued. 
Wintoon Indians. _ . 
Total. 
Impel- 
feet. 
1 
Digger “ ... 
l 
Cow-cow l; ..... 
5 
Navajo “ .... _ 
22 
Apache “ 
38 
3 
Hare “ 
\ 
Blackfeet “ 
r 
Piegan “ 
14 
i 
Gros Ventre “ . 
4 
i 
Mandan “ 
3 
Arickaree “ 
0 
Assiniboine “ . .... 
5 
1 
0 
Sioux “ 
36 
Brule Sioux “ 
31 
15 
i 
Ogallala “ “ 
Yankton “ . ... 
14 
Sissiton “ 
10 
Santee “ 
1 
Teton “ 
1 
Wahpeton “ ... 
4 
Menominee “ 
1 
i 
Dakota “ 
15 
Ponka “ 
32 
i 
Crow “ 
2 
Caddo “ 
3 
Minnetaree “ 
25 
10 
Winnebago “ 
3 
Pawnee “ . 
ft 
Kickapoo “ . 
2 
Arapahoe “ 
12 
9 
Cheyenne “ ..... 
38 
9 
Kaw “ _ ... 
Shawnee “ .... 
1 
Pottawatomie11 . .... .... 
3 
Osage “ .. 
0 
Seneca “ _ .. 
1 
Wishita “ _. 
10 
Kiowa “ ... . 
5 
Choctaw “ 
1 
Chickasaw “ 
1 
Iowaulkeno 
• i 
Kechi “ 
3 
1 
New Mexican“ 
7 
Comanche “ 
9 
3 
Lipan “ _. . 
3 
Tonka wav “ 
0 
Texan “ 
4 
9 
Pueblo “ 
i 
Mexican “ 
9 
Cree “ 
1 7 
Total. 
Imper- 
fect. 
North American Skulls—Concluded. 
Chippewa Indians .. 
20 
4 
8 
5 
1 
3 
1 
1 
5 
1 
1 
Bannock “ 
1 
Coeur d’Alene “ 
1 
Unknown “ 4- 
67 
21 
Negroes _ 
47 
3 
Whites __ _ 
128 
29 
Central and South American, including 
Yucatan. 
Yucatan Indians _ .. 
8 
1 
fin at.em ala, “ ... 
2 
1 
1 
U. S. of Columbia Indians __ 
1 
Peruvian “ ... 
25 
8 
Matico 11 ...... _ . _ 
4 
Chilian “ 
3 
3 
1 
Patap-onian “ ...... . .. .. __ 
From Chatham Island _ 
3 
1 
European Skulls. 
Austrians 
15 
3 
Bavarians 
9 
Danes 
1 
English 
1 
French 
Germans 
2 
4 
2 
Hungarians j 
Romans—British __ 
2 
2 
Laplanders 
Russians 
Spaniards 
3 
11 
i 
Romans _.. 
1 
Asiatic Skulls. 
Esquimaux Asiatics _ 
10 
2 
4 
Chuckchees 
Japanese 
Coreans__ _ 
2 
Chinese 
ft 
Botan Tribe of Formosa.. __ 
3 
J ews 
1 
African Skulls. 
Egyptians 
1 
Hottentots 
1 8 
Total. 
Imper- 
fect. 
Crania from Oceanica. 
Sandwich Islanders . _ 
147 
36 
South Sea Islanders.. . 
8 
Philippine Islanders. . _ . _ 
5 
4 
New Zealanders __ . . ..... _ 
17 
1 
Fiji Islanders . 
5 
Mixed Races __ _ 
12 
3 
Unknown Crania. _ . 
52 
20 
John S. Billings, 
Surgeon U. S. Army, 
Curator Army Medical Museum. LIST OF COMPOSITE PHOTOGRAPHS OF CRANIA 
FROM ARMY MEDICAL MUSEUM. 
Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 were prepared by the ordinary wet 
process, with strong-working collodion, under an exposure 
of 70 seconds to each cranium. 
Nos. 6 to 18, inclusive, were taken on Beebe’s Gelatin Dry 
Plate. The exposure of each cranium in Nos. 6 to 13, and 
No. 16, was 3 seconds; in Nos. 14 and 15, only 1J seconds ; 
in Nos. 17 and 18, one second. 
No. 
Subject. 
1. 
Composite photograph’of seven adult male Esquimaux 
skulls, side view, Nos. 1189, 1190, 1187, 1206, 1182, 
1191, 1195, Section IV, A. M. M. Wet process, expo- 
sure 70 seconds. 
2. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Esquimaux 
skulls, front view, Nos. 1189, 1190, 1187, 1206, 1182, 
1191, 1195, Section IV, A. M. M. Wet process, ex- 
posure 70 seconds. 
3. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Sandwich 
Islanders’ skulls, side view, Nos. 425, 444, 442, 445, 446, 
438,286, Section IV, A. M. M. Wet process, exposure 
70 seconds. 
4. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Sandwich 
Islanders’ skulls, front view, Nos. 425, 444, 442, 445, 
446, 438, 286, Section IV, A. M. M. Wet process, 
exposure 70 seconds. 
5. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Sioux Indian 
skulls, front view, Nos. 483, 793, 792, 1119, 665, 330, 
816, Section IV, A. M. M. Wet process, exposure 70 
seconds. 10 
6. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Negro skulls, 
side view, Nos. 980, 411, 955, 949, 953, 979, 954, Sec- 
tion IV, A. M. M. Dry process, exposure 3 seconds. 
7. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Negro skulls, 
front view, Nos’. 980/411, 955, 949, 953, 979, 954, Sec- 
tion IV, A. M. M. Dry process, exposure 3 seconds. 
8. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Apache In- 
dian skulls, front view, Nos. 6578, Section I, 2108,1709, 
329, 209, 907,1168, Section IV, A. M. M. Dry process, 
exposure 3 seconds. 
9. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Apache In- 
dian skulls, side view, Nos. 6578, Section I, 2108,1709, 
329, 209, 907,1168, Section IV, A. M. M. Dry process, 
exposure 3 seconds. 
10. 
Composite photograph of eight adult male Ponca Indian 
skulls, side view, Nos. 836, 837, 835, 834, 831, 487, 486, 
877, Section IV, A. M. M. Dry process, exposure 3 
seconds. 
11. 
Composite photograph of eight male adult Ponca Indian 
skulls, front view, Nos. 836,837, 835, 834, 831,487, 486, 
877 Section IV, A. M. M. Dry process, exposure 3 
seconds. 
12. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male White skulls, 
Nos. 63063, 7023, 6305, Section I, 63, 2118, 2119, 38, 
Section IV, A. M. M. Front view. I)rv process, ex- 
posure 3 seconds. 
13. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male White skulls, 
Nos. 63063, 7023, 6305, Section I, 63, 2118, 2119, 38, 
Section IV, A. M. M. Side view. Dry process, expo- 
sure 3 seconds. 
14. 
Composite photograph of eighteen adult male Cheyenne 
Indian skulls, Nos. 5560, 6525, Section I, 526, 2091, 11 
528,8, 715,149, .146, 150,1702, 9, 913, 404, 2121, 2090, 
2035, 773, Section IV, A. M. M. Front view. Dry 
process, exposure 1J seconds. 
15. 
Composite photograph of eighteen adult male Cheyenne 
Indian skulls, Nos. 5500, 0525, Section I, 520, 2091, 
528, 8, 715,149,140, 150,1702, 9, 913, 404, 2121, 2090, 
2035, 773, Section IV, A. M. M. • Side view. Dry pro- 
cess, exposure 14 seconds. 
1G. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Sandwich 
Islanders’ skulls, base view, Nos. 425, 442,444, 445, 440, 
438, 280, Section IV, A. M. M. Dry process, exposure 
3 seconds. 
17. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Sioux Indian 
skulls, base view, Nos. 483, 793, 792,1119,005, 330, 810, 
Section IV, A. M. M. Dry process, exposure 1 second. 
18. 
Composite photograph of seven adult male Sioux Indian 
skulls, side view, Nos. 483, 793, 792,1119, 665, 330, 816, 
Section IV, A. M. M. Dry process, 1 second exposure., The World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, 
NEW ORLEANS, LA., 1884-’85. 
LIST OF THE CRANIA FROM THE ARMY MEDI- 
CAL MUSEUM. 
Spec. 937. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of an Aleutian (prehistoric). 
from Ulakla Harbor, Amaknak Island, 1872, 
Collected by W. H. Dali. Received from the 
Smithsonian Institution. 
Spec. 088. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Snake Indian, set. 
c. 50. From Fort Boise, Idaho, 1808. Donor: 
Surgeon C. Wagner, U. S. A. 
Spec. 091. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a Chehalis Indian. From 
Gray’s Harbor, Washington Territory, 1808. (?) 
Donor: Assistant Surgeon W. E. Whitehead, 
U. S. A. 
Spec. 240. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a Makah Indian. From 
near Old Spanish Fort, Washington Territory, 
1804. Collected by J. G. Swan. Received 
from the Smithsonian Institution. 
Spec. 810. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Ukie Indian. 
From Round Valley, California, 1870. Donor: 
Assistant Surgeon E. J. Marsh, U. S. A. 
Spec. 117. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a Flathead Indian. From 
Chinook Burial Place, at mouth of Columbia 
River, 1808. Collected by Mr. Lloyd Brooke. 
Received from the museum of the National 
Medical College. 
Spec. 1158. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a female Flathead Indian, 14 
set. c. 55. From Fort Cape Disappointment, 
Washington Territory, 1874. Donor: Assist- 
ant Surgeon John Brooke, U. S. A. 
Spec. 1117. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Chippewa Indian, 
set. c. 35. From St. Joseph, 30 miles west of 
Pembina, Dakota, 1874. Donor: Assistant 
Surgeon Ezra Woodruff, U. S. A. 
Spec. 881. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a female Ponca Indian, 
set. c. 30. From Old Ponca Agency, Niobrara 
River, Dakota, 1871. Donor: Acting Assistant 
Surgeon G. N. Hopkins, U. S. A. 
Spec. 683. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a Comanche Indian. 
From Fort Concho, Texas, 1869. Donor: 
Surgeon Wm. M. Notson, U. S. A. 
Spec. 523. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Keechie Indian, 
set. c. 40. From bank of Arkansas River, 
1869. Donors: Surgeon B. E. Fryer, U. S. A., 
and Acting Assistant Surgeon E.S. Umbstaetter, 
U. S. A. 
Spec. 2047. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a female Sioux, set. c. 55. 
From Fbrt Robinson,Nebraska, 1880. Donor: 
Assistant Surgeon W. B. Brewster, U. S. A. 
Spec. 2073. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of an adolescent male Sioux. 
From Fort Robinson,Nebraska, 1880. Donor: 
Assistant Surgeon W. B. Brewster, U. S. A. 
Spec. 176. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Navajo Indian, 
set. c. 50. From Fort Sumner, New Mexico, 
1868. Donor: Assistant Surgeon J. F. Weeds. 
U. S. A. 
Spec. 1560. (Sect. IV.) Calvarium of an unknown male In- 
dian, set. c. 60. From Winooski River, Ver- 
mont. Collected by Dr. E. M. Kent. Received 
from the Smithsonian Institution. Internal 
capacity, measured with No. 8 shot, 1920 c. c. 15 
Spec. 1236. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Esquimaux, set. c. 
55. Collected in 1860-61 by Dr. I. I. Hayes. 
Spec. 259. (Sect. IV.) Calvarium of a male Kaivuh Khotana, 
set. c. 35. From Nulato, Yukon River, Alaska, 
1867. Collector: W. H. Dali. Received from 
the Smithsonian Institution. 
Spec. 940. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Moundbuilder, 
set. c. 60. From near Fort Totten, Dakota, 
1871. Donor: Acting Assistant Surgeon J. B. 
Ferguson, U. S. A. 
Spec. 108. (Sect. IV.) Cranium of a male Moundbuilder, 
set. c. 50. From near Fort Wadsworth, Dakota, 
1868. Donor: Acting Assistant Surgeon A. 1. 
Comfort, U. S. A.