A D D R E S S 
■ / 
ALBERT R, BAKER, M, D,, 
AT THE OPENING OF THE 
MEDICAL DEPARTMENT 
OF 
WOOSTER UNIVERSITY 
CLEVELAND, OHIO, 
Wednesday, Feb’Y 27, 1889, 
REPRINTED FROM THE 
CLEVELAND MEDICAL GAZETTE, 
March, 1889. OPENING ADDRESS MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OF 
‘THE UNIVERSITY OF WOOSTER, FEB- 
RUARY 27, 1889. 
BY'A. R. BAKER, M. D., CLEVELAND, OHIO. 
The present is a transitional period in the history of medi- 
cal education in America. Our system of medical instruc- 
tion has been of gradual growth and peculiar to this country. 
The first physicians who practiced scientific medicine in early 
colonial days were educated abroad. But the supply was 
not equal to the demand. “In 1776 it has been estimated 
that there were not two hundred graduates of medicine in 
the country; and not over three hundred and fifty practi- 
tioners of medicine who had received a liberal education.” 
Young men without previous medical education were taken 
into the office of practicing physicians, for whom they ren- 
dered such assistance as building fires, taking care of the 
horses, dispensing drugs; and, in the course of a few months 
or years, were permitted to see emergency cases and visit 
patients. Thus originated our peculiar institution of medi- 
cal preceptors. Many of the early practitioners of medicine 
never attended a medical college. There were no such 
schools in this country, and few could make the long voyage 
across the Atlantic to attend the European medical institu- 
tions. And we are told that even “during the early part of 
this century, almost the entire body of men who entered the 
profession, entered through examination of one of the 
‘Boards of Censors,’ as the examiners were called who 
were appointed by the state medical societies and their 
auxiliaries.” In this way, “these societies were the princi- 
pal agents in fixing the standard of medical education, and 
although after the establishment of medical schools, the 
diploma of one in good repute was accepted in lieu of an 
examination, this was by courtesy rather than by law.” 
The tendency of the present medical legislation in several 
states is to return to methods similar to those tried in the 4 
Baker: Opening Address Medical Department 
last century and found deficient. I hope it will prove more 
satisfactory in this. 
The medical colleges were the natural outgrowths of the 
system of medical education in the preceptor’s office, and, 
consequently, systematic'courses of medical instruction were 
not attempted at an early period. They were not endowed 
or supported by the state, but depended upon the fees of 
the students. They, “like many institutions peculiar to 
America, were called into existence by the necessities of the 
time.” Medical students would naturally seek those physi- 
cians of a wide reputation as preceptors, where they could 
have the advantages of a library, and possibly a few 
“ bones,” or even an entire skeleton. It was in the office of 
this practitioner that the student gained his first knowledge 
of medicine and surgery. “ Here he pulled his first tooth, 
opened his first abscess and performed his first venesection, 
applied his first blister, and administered his first emetic.” 
“ His clinical lectures were heard as he rode from one 
patient to another with his master.” 
Three years of such study were necessary before entering 
upon practice, the same length of time required now. As the 
reputation of a physician became more famous, students 
came to him in greater numbers. Gradually his lectures, 
given upon horseback as he rode through the country, took 
a more formal character and were delivered in his office, or 
possibly in some public hall. This formed the nucleus of 
a medical school. “ Several such teachers united their 
efforts and thus were organized the medical schools of Phil- 
adelphia and other cities.” The first authentic record we 
have of dissections having been made, for the purpose of 
imparting medical knowledge, was in the year 1750, at which 
date Drs. Bard and Middleton, in the city of New York, 
“injected the blood-vessels of a body which they dissected 
for the instruction of several young men engaged in the 
study of medicine.” It is quite probable that similar dis- 
sections were made prior to this date by other physicians, 
of which no record has been preserved. 
According to Dunglison, in 1754-56 a course of lectures of the University of Wooster. 
5 
on anatomy and surgery, accompanied by dissections, was 
delivered at Newport, Rhode Island, by Dr. William Hunter 
of Scotland; and in 1762 Dr. Shippen, in his anatomical 
lectures at Philadelphia, laid the foundation of a medical 
school, now the University of Pennsylvania. It was organ- 
ized upon the plan of the Edinburgh Medical School, and has 
been the pattern which all our colleges have imitated. In 
1767 steps were taken for the establishment of a medical 
school in New York, which is now known as the College of 
Physicians and Surgeons. In 1782 the Medical Department 
of Harvard University was organized by Dr. John Warren, 
and was located at Cambridge, Massachusetts. The fourth 
medical school instituted in this country was that of Dart- 
mouth, at Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1797. These were 
all the medical schools established in the United States 
before the beginning of this century. Thus it will be 
seen that the establishment of medical colleges is of 
comparatively recent date, and that the great mass 
of physicians, in the early history of the country, re- 
ceived their medical education in the office of the preceptor. 
This method of study has its advantages ; while it does not, 
as a rule, make scientific practitioners, the medical man 
educated in the physician’s office has many advantages over 
the one educated in the medical school. He has abundant 
opportunity for clinical observation ; he is trained daily in 
the art of prescribing and dispensing medicines; he learns 
many of the essentials of a successful practitioner which 
cannot be gained in the lecture room or even in hospital and 
dispensary practice. Our patients suffer from mental ills as 
well as physical ones, and the secret of retaining their con- 
fidence during serious illness, or during the meddlesome 
interference of some busybody, can only be learned by 
practical experience, and this experience can be gained no- 
where so advantageously as in the office of a successful 
practitioner. But, notwithstanding the many advantages 
of study in the preceptor’s office, this time-honored custom 
is fast becoming a tradition of the past. The average med- 
ical student of to-day is not willing to sweep office, build 6 
Baker : Opening Address Medical Department 
fires, groom horse, care for children and make himself gen- 
erally useful to the doctor’s family in order to pick up the 
few crumbs of medical knowledge which may be dispensed 
by the way. The increased time spent in attendance upon 
medical lectures leaves but little time for study in the pre- 
ceptor’s office. The writing of prescriptions has dispensed 
with much of the necessity for the student’s assistance in 
compounding medicines. Sharp professional competition 
makes it necessary for the physician to give his patients his 
personal supervision. He can not turn them over to the 
tender care of the medical student as formerly. These are 
but a few of the reasons why the position of medical precep- 
tor is becoming of less importance from year to year, as a 
factor in medical education. All endeavors to elevate the 
standard of medical education must take this fact into con- 
sideration, viz. : that the medical preceptor has served his day 
and age and must be numbered among the antiquated institutions 
of a pioneer civilization. 
The lengthening of the course of lectures in our medical 
colleges, the preliminary terms, the spring courses, the post- 
graduate schools, and the increased popularity of spring and 
summer schools, all attest to the need of some system of 
medical instruction to supplant the medical preceptor. But 
this increasing of the length of the college term and num- 
ber of courses required for graduation has only served to call 
attention to the defects of the didactic lecture system of 
medical instruction. The course of medical lectures has 
gradually been increased from three or four to five or six 
months. Most schools have made provision for a third or 
even a fourth course of lectures, and quite a large number 
of schools have made a third course a requisite for gradua- 
tion. It was an imposition upon the medical student to 
compel him to listen to the same course of lectures twice, 
but to compel him to take the same dose the third or fourth 
time, is more than even a medical student, who is expected 
to patiently bear all sorts of indignities, should be called 
upon to endure. The remedy for this anomalous position in 
which the medical colleges find themselves situated is easily of the University of Wooster. 
7 
found. It is the graded course. But the remedy is easier 
discovered than applied. In order to successfully conduct a 
three years’ graded course, the number of hours devoted to 
teaching must be trebled ; either every professor must 
devote three hours a day to teaching, whereas formerly he 
gave but one, or the number of teachers must be increased 
threefold. In the former case the college must be endowed, 
or the fees greatly increased, as but few teachers could give 
the amount of time requisite for the merely nominal com- 
pensation which the average medical college professor now 
receives. In the latter case, if a sufficient number of teachers 
are employed, the quality of the institution must suffer from 
putting inferior men in the responsible position of teacher. 
A few years since the announcement of the Medical De- 
partment of the University of Pennsylvania, a graded school, 
contained one hundred and thirty-one names of professors, 
lecturers and assistants. The same year the announcement 
of Jefferson Medical College, an ungraded school, contained 
less than twenty names of professors, clinical assistants and 
other instructors. These two announcements illustrate very 
graphically the requirements of the two systems of educa- 
tion as to the number of teachers employed. 
It is pleasing to note that those schools which have 
adopted the graded course of instruction “ have every 
reason to feel gratified at the results attained.” I* believe 
that it is only a question of a few years until every medical 
school will be obliged to adopt a graded course of some 
kind in deference to public opinion. 
The late Professor Gross, speaking of the class of 1877 in 
Jefferson Medical College, says: “ It is lamentable to think 
how imperfect the whole system of medical education is in 
this country. Our students are driven from one lecture to 
another, hour after hour, like so many cattle, and the wonder 
is that when they come up for their final examination at the 
close of the session, they have any knowledge at all of a 
fixed or definite character. The fact is, much of what the 
student is taught in the early part of the session is knocked 
out of him before the close. He gets a daily surfeit from the 8 
Baker : Opening Address Medical Department 
beginning to the end, and the consequence is that his knowl- 
edge is vague and imperfect in every branch of his studies.” 
“ Of the two hundred and three candidates for graduation, 
fourteen were suspended. They were re-examined and all 
passed but five ! ” 
In a recent address on surgery as a science and an art, 
Dr. Frothingham of Ann Arbor said : “ Didactic lectures, 
instituted in the days when books were few and cosily, by 
the power of conservatism, have already held their place of 
prominence longer than they should. They have outlived 
their period of usefulness, and seem to serve for the enter- 
tainment of indolent students more than they do the purpose 
of thorough education in such a branch as surgery.” 
Dr. Dutton, previous to this, asked, in The Cleveland 
Medical Gazette, “ whether the time has not fully come 
when the attention of the medical profession should be called 
to methods of medical teaching. In all our colleges didactic 
lectures occupy the time for the most part. Clinics and 
quizzes are sandwiched in, but the published time schedules, 
which fairly represent the plans pursued in all or nearly all 
the courses of study, show that lectures (so-called) are the 
sources from which the student is expected to acquire pro- 
fessional knowledge. On five and sometimes six days of the 
week he is required to listen to these from four to seven 
hours daily, with the exception of the few minutes allowed 
between lectures for change of teachers or lecture rooms. 
Why should medicine be taught in this miscellaneous way, 
while in all other departments of scientific instruction pri- 
mary importance is attached to classification ? May it not be 
proper also to enquire whether it is profitable for any student, 
of whatever mental capacity, to pursue so many branches of 
study at once? Those most familiar with teaching tell us 
that three solid studies are as many as can be pursued at 
once in other schools, and the courses of studies in our 
scientific and literary institutions everywhere are arranged 
on this plan. By what principle do we make medicine ex- 
ceptional in this respect ? Might not the professors in our 
medical colleges learn much to their profit by consulting of the University of Wooster. 
9 
more frequently those who have studied more specifically the 
principles and art of teaching? More lectures are given now 
than formerly, where fewer might be better. The stuffing 
processes are the same now as ever. The student is seldom 
expected to prepare a lesson. lie has no time. He often 
cannot know the topic even of the next hour. Nor has he 
time to review carefully a lecture after he has heard it. He 
frequently does no.t so much as own or have access to the 
books which treat of many subjects presented to him. His 
preparatory studies with his preceptor have, in most in- 
stances, been pursued also in a desultory way. Preceptors 
precept very little, and the facts are that medical students, as 
a rule, from the time they enter a preceptor’s office until they 
arc honored by their M. D. degree, have little opportunity to 
receive careful, methodical, scientific teaching.” 
If the time has come when the preceptor must go, when 
the didactic lecture must go, what system of medical educa- 
tion must be adopted ? I think that it is the belief of every- 
one who has given the subject much thought, that most 
subjects, such as chemistry, anatomy, physiology and ma- 
teria medica. should be taught by recitations, laboratory work 
and “quizzes,” the same methods that have proven most 
satisfactory in other educational institutions. The course of 
instruction must be increased from five or six to ten or 
twelve months, and not less than three years of such instruc- 
tion must be necessary for graduation. Clinical teaching 
must be made a more prominent feature in all our medical 
schools. 
Such a radical change as this contemplates cannot be 
made at once. It must be of gradual growth. It will 
require greater facilities for laboratory, microscopical and 
experimental research than medical colleges now possess. 
It will necessitate a large corps of teachers who devote their 
entire time to teaching. This will necessitate large endow- 
ments, such as none of our medical colleges now have. If 
this, then, be true, we cannot at once give up all that has 
proven of value in the past ; we must make the best of such 
material and advantages as we have at our command. 10 
Baker : Opening Address Medical Department 
Dr. Billings says that, in the discussion of medical educa- 
tion, “it seems to be often assumed that all physicians 
should have the same qualifications and be educated to the 
same standard, which, in one respect, is like saying they 
should all be six feet high, and, in another, is like the army 
regulations which prescribe the same rations and allowance 
of clothing for Maine and Florida, Alaska and Oregon. A 
young and energetic man, who has spent six years in obtain- 
ing a university education and'four more in the study of 
medicine as it ought to be studied, that is to say, in 
preparing himself to study and investigate the rest of his life, 
will not settle in certain districts. He has invested ten years’ 
labor and from five to ten thousand dollars, and a locality 
which will give him a maximum income of perhaps fifteen 
hundred dollars per annum will not be satisfactory ; in part, 
because the capital should bring a better interest, in part, 
because he will have acquired tastes which will make his life 
unpleasant in such places. Yet these places must have 
physicians of some sort, and it is not clear as to how 
they are to be supplied if some of the universal and extreme 
reforms in medical education which have been proposed are 
to be enforced.” 
The old system of medical preceptors and didactic 
lectures has not proven a complete failure, notwithstanding 
all that has been said against it by friends and enemies alike. 
The medical profession in the United States compares 
favorably with that of other countries, in which the period 
devoted to medical study is from four to twelve years. 
“We have reason neither to boast nor to be ashamed of 
what we have thus far accomplished, and we may begin this 
new era in the hope and belief that to us applies the bright 
side of the maxim of Cousin, ‘ It is better to have a future 
than a past.’ ” 
As long as it is possible to secure such enthusiastic, suc- 
cessful teachers as Gross, Flint and Delamater, the didactic 
lecture will occupy a place—probably a minor one—in the 
curriculum of medical study in our medical colleges. 
At this transitional period in the history of medical edu- of the University of Wooster. 
11 
cation, there is a place for the spring and summer medical 
school, such as only the Medical Department of Wooster 
University and one or two similar schools now fill. 
Many medical students have found their study in 
the preceptor’s office unsatisfactory. The usual medical 
course of five or six months has left him no means of pursu- 
ing his medical studies except in a sort of desultory reading, 
such as he may be able to do at home. Whether the spring 
and summer school has come to stay, and thus solve the 
problem of increased length of college year, or whether it 
is only a stepping-stone to a full year’s course of medical 
instruction, I can not say. 
Among the many changes wrought in the requirements of 
a medical education, is that of not making a written 
“ thesis ” a requisite of graduation. When the only method 
of instruction was the didactic lecture, and the only exam- 
ination an oral one, the faculty had no adequate means of 
estimating the fitness of a candidate to receive a medical 
degree. 
The “ thesis ” gave some clue as to the applicant’s knowl- 
edge of English grammar and orthography. It also, if 
honestly written, gave an opportunity to judge of many 
other qualifications of the student. But as the theses were 
written merely as a formality necessary to graduation, they 
deserved the just criticism of Dr. Gross, who said that “not 
one in fifty affords the slightest evidence of competency, 
proficiency or ability in the candidate for graduation.” 
This being true, and written examinations having been sub- 
stituted for oral ones, it is very easily understood how the 
“ thesis ” should fall into disrepute; yet 1 think the colleges 
are making a great mistake in giving up this important 
requisite of graduation. If the “theses” were printed, as 
in European schools, the strictures of Dr. Gross would not 
prove true. Then, there would be every inducement for the 
student to do his best. There would not be much danger 
of deliberate plagiarism when he knew that his friends, 
medical men, the public and the press would be his critics, 
instead of one professor, who, in all probability, would not 12 
Baker : Opening Address Medical Department 
read it. The publication of “ theses ” in this manner would 
have “a permanent historical value ; they would reflect the 
character of the teaching, and would serve to stimulate the 
student to make original research." 
Before medical journals were established, a number of 
valuable “theses" were published in this country. At that 
time, it was permissible for a professor to “ prefix a state- 
ment, not to exceed sixteen pages, as an introductory notice 
to a ‘thesis’ of a student." It was not necessary that the 
introduction should have any connection with the one dis- 
cussed in the student’s paper. Sometimes the professor 
would continue his subject through twenty or thirty disser- 
tations, so that many of them are not wholly preserved. 
This is one of the few ways in which a physician of that 
time could make a record of his observations. “ If a country 
doctor wished to make a communication to his professional 
brothers in those days, he was obliged to print it in a 
pamphlet form at his own expense, or else send it to some- 
one connected with either a medical school or with some 
scientific society, and trust to his making it known for him." 
This was the day of big books, and if a physician did not 
wish to write a volume, there was little inducement for him 
to attempt literary work. 
“ Boerhaave, one of the most remarkable physicians of 
the eighteenth century, and one of the most voluminous 
contributors to the medical literature of that period, left an 
elegantly bound volume at the time of his death, which 
stated on its title-page that it contained all the secrets of 
medicine which a physician need know. Upon opening the 
book it was found that all the pages were blank except one, 
which contained this sentence: ‘Keep the head cool, the 
feet warm and the bowels open.’ ’’ You will find before you 
complete your medical studies that there are more secrets for 
the physician of the nineteenth century to learn than were 
contained in this legacy of Boerhaave, if none better. 
Now, ladies and gentlemen, I presume, to be in fashion, I 
should put on a long face, and in a deep and sepulchral 
voice inform you that you have made a grave mistake in of the University of Wooster. 
13 
commencing the study of medicine; that the profession is 
overcrowded ; that actual starvation stares you in the face ; 
that it were better not to have been born. This is all non- 
sense. There are worse professions than the medical. It 
is true there are many unpleasant experiences in a doctor’s 
life, but the same is true of every occupation. It is also 
true, that barely half of you will follow the practice of 
medicine as a profession. Some of you will become 
lawyers, others preachers, others missionaries, others news- 
paper men and many of you will enter mercantile pursuits. 
But what if you do ? What have you lost ? The knowledge 
you gain in the medical school is the most valuable you can 
have. It was Dr. Dick who said, “ It is somewhat unac- 
countable and not a little inconsistent, that while we direct 
the student to look abroad over the surface of the earth, and 
survey its mountains, rivers, seas and continents, and 
guide their views to the region of the firmament, where 
they may contemplate the moons of Jupiter, the 
rings of Saturn, and thousands of luminaries placed 
at immeasurable distances, and yet we should never 
teach them to look into themselves, to consider their 
own corporeal structure, the numerous parts of which they 
are composed, the admirable functions they perform, the 
wisdom and goodness displayed in their mechanism and the 
lessons of practical instruction which may be derived from 
such contemplations.” 
Agesilaus, king of Sparta, when asked what things a boy 
should learn, replied, “ Those which they will practice when 
they become men.” If this was good advice given to the 
youth who dwelt upon the shores of the SEgean sea, two- 
thousand years ago, it is even more so, still, to the young 
men who dwell in this fairer land of ours. 
It is remarkable what a beneficial influence a medical 
education has in strengthening the physical, mental and 
moral stamina of a young man. I think the young men 
who commence the study of medicine are not above the 
average in these attributes. In fact, if we are to believe 
the recent statements which have been made as to the pre- 14 
Baker : Opening Address Medical Department 
liminary attainments of medical students, they are quite the 
opposite. Yet I think no one will question the statement 
that the members of the medical profession are the peers of 
those of any other. They have a keener perception of the 
fitness of things. They may not have a great veneration 
for religious dogmas, but they have an acute sense of right 
and wrong. There is a subtle something that lends dignity 
and strength to the character of those educated in medical 
colleges, not found elsewhere. In just what this consists, 
I am not able to say. Those of you who, after completing 
your medical education, enter upon other pursuits of 
life, will never have occasion to regret the time and money 
spent in the medical school. The knowledge gained about 
yourself will prove ample reward. There are in every com- 
munity a number of successful business men, who have 
been regularly educated in medical schools, I have never 
met one who regretted the time spent in medical study. I 
have met some who did the time spent in medical practice. 
Those of you who are destined to become the physicians 
and surgeons of the future, are on the dawn of one of the 
brightest periods in the history of medicine. You will have 
the pleasure of reading some of the most wonderful books 
ever written. None of them have been completed. One of 
the most interesting will be on the subject of bacteriology. 
Only the first few pages of the introductory chapters have 
been written. It remains for you to write the book itself 
and tell us what influence these germs have upon the 
economy. Are they the cause of disease or only the result? 
One of the works, even more important than that on 
bacteriology, is that on ptomaines. Of this great book 
even the introduction is not written—only a few detached 
lines here and there, and these in foreign tongues. 
There have been many additions to the ponderous volume 
on therapeutics. It is wonderful to think what has been 
done in the past five years, even since some of you com- 
menced the study of medicine. Cocaine has revolutionized 
the practice of eye surgery and diseases. New antipyretics 
have been introduced in such numbers that we are left all at of tJic University of Wooster. 
15 
sea as to which to use in the treatment of fevers. Acetani- 
lide and other similar preparations promise to supersede the 
use of opiates in the treatment of painful affections. Time 
forbids me to more than mention the advances of modern 
surgery. This book is much nearer completion than those 
in other departments of medical progress. The introduction 
to this work is complete and many chapters written, yet 
there is much for you to do. The greatest book of all 
is barely commenced, and that is the one on “Preventive 
Medicine.” It may be there are young men before me now, 
destined to make discoveries rivaling that of vaccination. 
Who among you will discover some certain means of 
preventing the ravages of consumption, diphtheria, scarla- 
tina, measles, typhoid or yellow fever? He who does will 
have his name placed alongside of that of the immortal 
Jenner, and will be remembered when that of Alexander the 
Great and Napoleon are forgotten. 
If, then, you are about to lay the foundation of a profes- 
sional life with such boundless possibilities, make them 
broad and deep, and it may be your good fortune to add a 
few pages to these wonderful volumes that will serve to add 
to the happiness of the race. 
Whatever niche you may occupy, always remember that 
yours is a good and noble profession, and never permit 
yourself to degrade it to a trade. 
The medical profession is the best profession, the worst 
trade. As a profession, the physician attends medical 
societies ; he establishes medical schools ; he publishes medi- 
cal journals and books. As a trade, he publishes quack 
advertisements in the religious newspapers; he compounds 
secret nostrums; he promises no pay, no cure. As a pro- 
fession, he attends sanitary conventions; he spends his best 
time and money in discovering the cause and the best means 
of preventing disease. As a trade, he magnifies small ail- 
ments ; he caters to the ignorance, prejudices and supersti- 
tions of the people, and charges big fees for curing diseases 
which have no existence except in his fertile imagination. 
As a profession, he educates the medical student; he com- 16 
Baker : Opening Address Mediceil Department 
municates to him all the knowledge which years of study, 
investigation and experience have taught him, so that the 
young man may practice intelligently and well ; he en- 
deavors by every legitimate means to elevate the standard 
of medical education. As a trade, he obstructs medical 
progress ; he retards beneficial medical legislation ; he cares 
not for the good of the people; no scheme so foul, no 
practice so low, but that he will undertake it to fill his pocket 
with money ; he will violate every sacred bond of humanity ; 
he will transgress every law of the land ; he will sin against 
himself, his patient and high heaven for a few paltry 
dollars. As a profession, when the physician makes a val- 
uable discovery, he hastens to publish it in the medical 
journals or announce it to the medical societies, where it will 
do the people the most good and himself the most harm 
financially. If he invents a new instrument, instead of 
patenting and making a fortune out Of it, he straightway 
puts it into the hands of the profession, without money and 
without price. He is animated by the same professional 
spirit when he meets a case of diphtheria, typhoid fever or 
other preventable disease ; he spares no time or labor or ex- 
pense to find the source of the disease and remove it, and 
thus lessens his already meagre income. Instead of one 
case of typhoid he might have had a dozen. 
It is ever thus the physician is constantly laboring to 
prevent those diseases he is paid to cure. He educates 
young men to enter the profession only to take the practice 
he has so laboriously established. Judged by any trade 
standard, the members of the medical profession are either 
fools or madmen! But let us thank God that the practice 
of medicine is not a trade, but a grand, good and noble pro- 
fession, of which it has been said, “it is the flower of our 
civilization, and when that stage of man is done with, and 
only wondered at in history, he will be thought to have 
shared as little as any in the defects of the period, and ex- 
hibited most notably the virtues of the race. Generosity he 
had such as is only possible to those who practice an art, 
never to those who drive a trade.”