THE 
CHICAGO MEDICAL EXAMINER. 
N? B.'dDAVPSr Editor. 
VOL. IX. 
SEPTEMBER, 1868. 
NO. 9. 
(Original $otHbutio$. 
ARTICLE XXX. 
ON THE CONVEYANCE OF CHOLERA FROM INDIA 
THROUGH PERSIA, ARMENIA, AND GEORGIA, 
TO RUSSIA AND THE REST OF EUROPE. 
By JOHN C. PETERS, M.D., of New York. 
There is a great nursery of cholera in the northern part of 
Hindostan, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains, viz., at 
Hukdwar, where the thrice sacred Ganges emerges from the 
mountains, and from being a tiny stream becomes a river, and 
descends upon the land which it is to fertilize and bless. The 
largest of all the Hindoo festivals and fairs is held at Hurdwar 
every year, at the time of the vernal equinox, viz., in April, 
■when at least 200,000 or 300,000 pilgrims and merchants al- 
ways assemble there. But every twelfth year, which is partic- 
ularly holy, as many as 1,500,000 to 3,000,000 of devotees and 
traders are often crowded together. This festival is not only 
the focus for the produce of all Hindostan, from Calcutta in 
the south-east, and Bombay in the south-west, and all the in- 
termediate cities and provinces; but merchants and pilgrims 
also hasten there from Arabia, Persia, Beloochistan, Afghanis- 
tan, Cabul, Independent Tartary, Central Asia, and Russia. 
As a matter of course, cholera is often brought to Hurdwar; 
often originates there; and is frequently carried away from it, 514 
The Chicago Medical Examiner. 
[Sept. 
not only down the Ganges, Jumna, and Indus rivers, but also 
up to the north and west, viz., to Afghanistan and Cabul, and 
from thence to Persia and Independent Tartary and Russia. 
It leaves India in three directions. The principal line of 
travel is from Hurdwar to Lahore, from there to Attock and 
Peshawur, through the great Kyber Pass to the city of Cabul. 
The second is from Hurdwar to the city of Moultan, through 
the Bolan Pass to Kelat in Belochistan, and to Candahar in 
Afghanistan. A third stream of the disease is carried down 
the river Indus to Kurrachee and Bombay, and from there for- 
warded over to Arabia, and up the Persian Gulf and Red Sea. 
In 1783, over 1,500,000 devotees assembled at Hurdwar, and 
in eight days over 20,000 of them died of cholera. Twelve 
years after, viz., in 1795, the same thing occurred in a lesser 
degree; also in 1807. In 1867, viz., 5 times 12, or 60 years 
afterwards, the London Lancet tells us 3,000,000 of Hindoos 
assembled at Hurdwar, and, in consequence, a very disastrous 
outbreak of cholera took place. 
The cholera of 1827 destroyed 30,000 persons in Lahore, 
then passed north through Attock and Peshawur and reached 
Cabul, from whence it was distributed due west to Herat, Mes- 
chid, and Teheran, and reached Russia, at Astrakhan, in 1829 
and 1830. From Cabul it also passed north, to Balk, Bokhara, 
and Khiva, and reached Orenburg, in Russia, in 1829. 
The epidemic of 1841 began its second great -emigration, 
after prevailing in a frightful manner along the rivers Ganges 
and Indus, reached Lahore, was carried to Cabul, and con- 
veyed, by pilgrims, from Herat, in November, 1845, to the 
holy city of Meschid; from there it went to Teheran, in June, 
1846, and prevailed so frightfully as to kill 9000 persons in 
four months. From Teheran it was again carried to Russia, in 
1846 and 1847. From Cabul it was also carried to Balk, Bok- 
hara, and Samarcand in 1845; and to Khiva and Orenburg in 
1846.—Drasche. 
The great pandemic of 1849 passed along the same routes, 
killing 15,000 persons in Teheran in 1851, and 11,000 more in 
1852 and 1853. We have given these dates and figures solely 1868.] 
Peters—On Cholera in India. 
515 
to prove the importance of attention to these great routes of 
cholera towards Europe from the north-west provinces of Hin- 
dostan. 
Cabul is the first great town to the north-west over the bor- 
ders of the British possessions in India. It is the grand centre 
of the trade of India with Persia, Central Asia, and Russia. 
It is the southern terminus of the Russian commerce with Hin- 
dostan, and has long been the theatre of the commercial and 
political rivalry of Russia and England, in their attempts to 
control Persia and Central Asia. Cholera is regularly brought 
up to Cabul from Hurdwar, through Lahore, Attock, and Pesh- 
awur, and, although it is called “the city of 100,000 gardens,” 
parts of it are well adapted to multiply the infection of cholera. 
Many of its small streets are built over, forming low, dark tun- 
nels, containing every offensive thing. Water collects and 
stagnates in ponds all over the city; the inhabitants cast out 
the refuse of their houses into the streets; and dead dogs and 
cats are frequently seen lying on heaps of the vilest filth, while 
dead horses occasionally pollute the air for many days together. 
—Sir Arthur Connolly. 
The traffic between Russia, Persia, Central Asia, and India, 
by way of Cabul, is made under curious conditions, which have 
descended from high antiquity; for it belongs to four tribes of 
Lohanee Afghans, called Provindahs, who are both pastoral 
and mercantile in their pursuits, and number 8000 families, 
with over 30,000 camels and 10,000 oxen of transport. They 
organize themselves into three immense caravans, which resem- 
ble veritable corps d’armee, and descend into India, not only in 
time to attend the great fair at Hurdwar, but also to penetrate 
down the Ganges to Benares, and along the Indus to Kurra- 
chee, and thence by sea to Bombay. They bring down Russian, 
Persian, and Afghanistan articles of trade, and return with 
cotton goods, muslins, shawls, silks, brocades, and innumerable 
other articles. The first great division has 20,000 to 30,000 
camels, numerous oxen, and 50,000 to 60,000 head of sheep; 
the second division, 10,000 to 17,000 camels and a proportion- 
ate number of oxen and sheep; and the third division, 3000 to 516 
The Chicago Medical Examiner. 
[Sept. 
5000 camels. These all return to Cabul and Candahar by the 
middle of June, in time to dispatch their investments on to 
Herat and Meschid in the west, and to Balk and Bokhara in the 
north-west. They also always descend again into India by the 
end of October, with 36 different Russian articles, and return 
with 64 kinds of English and India goods. From 1500 to 2000 
camels are alone employed in conveying pomegranate rinds, 
which dress leather in a superior manner; 3000 camels carry 
coarse cotton cloths from India to Cabul; five, caravans with 
shawls, from the 16,000 looms in Cashmere, have arrived in Ca- 
bul in one year; much salt is carried up from the inexhaustible 
mines at Lahore; many thousand camel-loads of fresh and dried 
fruits are brought down to India; and Russian goods are 
so cheap and common in Cabul, at times, that looking-glasses, 
large enough to serve as window-panes, are sold for half a 
dollar. In addition, there is a great Hindoo festival on the 
banks of the Indus, near Attock, every April, to which great 
crowds congregate. Pilgrims also come down from Cabul to the 
river Indus, which they descend to the sea and then pass on 
to Mecca; and a great Mohammedan festival takes place on 
the 28th of March. Such are the causes which propel cholera 
up from India to Candahar and Cabul.—Sir Alex. Burnes. 
From Cabul, the disease is always carried due west to Herat. 
Occasionally, it has happened that a single traveller or pilgrim 
could proceed, unarmed, from Cabul to Herat. But, generally, 
the merchants and devotees travel in great caravans, with long 
strings of camels. They are armed to the teeth, and often 
bear the marks of many a conflict. Now and then some prince, 
like the son of the King of Lucknow, comes up with a large 
suite of Indo-Mohammedans; and it is thought that over 60,000 
pilgrims pass through Herat every year, on their way west to 
the holy city of Meschid. 
Herat has at least 50,000 inhabitants, and is a well-known 
town; but in 1857, the London Times asked, “Where is Herat?” 
It is in the extreme north-western corner of Afghanistan, and 
stands in the same relation to this province that Peshawur does 
to India; for it is the only gate by which it can be approached 1868.] 
Peters—On Cholera in India. 
517 
from the west. All the practicable roads from Persia and Cen- 
tral Asia converge and unite as they approach Herat. It is 
the door and citadel which must be opened before caravans and 
armies from Persia and the west can reach Afghanistan and 
Hindostan. Its situation is- one of the greatest military and 
commercial importance; for the peaceful files of the caravan 
and the dread battalions of war must alike pass through it on 
their way from India to Persia, and from Persia to India. 
Long camel trains, coming up from Delhi, Moultan, Hurdwar, 
and Lahore, traverse it, bearing the products of India and the 
manufactures of England to the distant towns and oases of 
Persia and Turkistan. So completely is Herat a gateway of 
commerce, that it is called a “ bunder,” or port, although the 
only seas upon which it borders are seas of sand. The march 
of conquest has led through it from time immemorial, especially 
after the time of Mohammed. Since A.D. 710, host after host 
of fierce warriors, led by the Kaliphs of Damascus and Bagdad, 
of Syria and Western Persia, coming almost from the borders 
of the Caspian, Black, and Mediterranean Seas, have carried 
the tassels of the Mohammedan flag victoriously down into 
India. The vast and fertile plain about Herat has often been 
a huge place d'armes, where all the assembled columns from 
the west have united and recruited before making their final 
descent upon Hindostan, and it has often been predicted that 
the Cossack and the Sepoy must, sooner or later, meet there in 
deadly strife. No better camping-ground and quarters have 
ever been found for caravans and armies. Abundant crops of 
wheat and barley, and every kind of fruit known to Persia, 
grow there in profusion. Cattle and sheep abound. The 
brio-ht waters of the river are as “clear as tears,” and numer- 
ous running streams and artificial canals light up the pleasant 
landscape and fertilize the soil. Such is the profusion of roses, 
that it is called the “Cz'ty of Roses f and a very large propor- 
tion of the whole world’s supply of the celebrated “Attar” 
comes from it. But there are other smells than those from roses 
about Herat. At night, on the road, one is apt to be wakened 
by the shouts of drivers and the tinkling of bells, announcing a 518 
The Chicago Medical Examiner. 
[Sept. 
passing caravan, and by the faint light of the moon perceives a 
sea of long, black boxes surging by on scores of mules and 
camels. Each animal is laden with two of these horrible ob- 
jects, one on each side, and many of them are so loosely nailed 
together that another sense than that of smell soon convinces 
one that they are used as coffins. In fact, they contain the 
bodies of the devout, who, having died in the true faith, are 
now being taken to be buried in holy ground at Kerbela or 
Meschid. They are often carried hundreds of miles, and a 
sickening stench always comes up from their gaping fissures, 
causing nausea and faintness in the drowsy, unsuspecting trav- 
eler, who finds it impossible to extricate himself promptly from 
their neighborhood; for they come crowding on in the dark as if 
there were no limit to their numbers. 
The cholera of 1828 swept away many thousands in Herat, 
although water, that prime necessity of Oriental life, is so 
abundant that almost every house has its fountain, besides the 
large public ones in the streets and bazaars. Each successive 
epidemic of the disease in Hindustan has reached Herat, and 
been carried on through Persia to Turkey and Russia. That 
of 1841, reached Cabul in June; Herat in August; Meschid in 
September; and Teheran in October. 
The next important town due west of Herat is Meschid. 
This is so holy that no person of any sect called Mohammedan 
has ever dared to commit the impiety of firing a hostile shot at 
its walls. For eight months in the year all the roads to and 
from Meschid are thronged with pilgrims. Nearly 60,000 come 
up from India, Cabul, and Afghanistan; and as many more 
from the south of Persia. Over 100,000 crowd on fanatically 
from Turkey in Asia and the Caucasus in the west; and per- 
haps an equal number from the north. 
Connolly says, the distant cities in which the pilgrims assem- 
ble and make themselves up into caravans, to go to Meschid, are 
so thronged with men and animals, that there is scarcely pas- 
sage through the crowd. Horses, mules, camels, and cattle are 
picketed the entire length of the outer walls, where they neigh, 
bray, and fight, -while their masters are busy currying or shoeing 1868.“| 
Peters—On Cholera in India. 
519 
them; mending pack-saddles; higgling for supplies of straw or 
corn; or sleeping, praying, or reading the Koran. 
The pilgrims generally travel at night; some of them carry 
torches, and at the head of the line a pot of live charcoal swings 
under the belly of a horse, to light their pipes and mark the 
line of march. In cool and pleasant weather they move by 
day. Gay pennons are then unfurled; and all go on with light 
hearts. From time to time, their leaders raise a shout for the 
blessed Mohammed, and if their followers do not join in loudly 
and unanimously, they are urged to do ‘'better than that,’ 
“sweeter than that,” angels are called upon to aid them, till, 
finally, the air is rent with fervent and inspiring cries, which 
makes one’s very heart’s blood boil. Going and returning pil- 
grims greet each other on the road. Many others are seen 
encamped at the road-side; the poorer pilgrims in miserable 
tents and shelters, but the richer Turks and Persians in green, 
sky-blue, or white tents, surmounted by gilt balls and crescents, 
and lined with costly carpets. Well-clad male and female ser- 
vants, in numberless groups, walk, recline, sit, smoke, or chat 
in and about the camps. Hundreds of horses, richly capari- 
soned, graze around. Huge piles of baggage and provisions 
are guarded by trusty soldiers, bristling to their chins with sil- 
ver-hilted daggers and inlaid pistols. The whole bearing an 
air of wealth, pomp, and security. 
The scene is more wild and strange when the pilgrims halt 
at caravansaries. The noise and quarreling, at first, can only 
be imagined by those who have seen Persians on the march. 
But the leader of the caravan soon takes his place in the mid- 
dle of the square, and commences reciting prayers and verses in 
honor of the Prophet, to which the pilgrims shout short sen- 
tences from the Koran in reply. Connolly says, the effect of 
their voices coming from the cells on all sides is very wild and 
pleasing, especially at night, when the sounds gradually rise, 
chiming in with each other till they are perfectly blended in 
one full chorus. But soon all fall asleep and silence reigns, in 
cells which are so filthy that few Europeans can remain in them. 
Finally, the holy city is reached, and several times in the 520 
The Chicago Medical Examiner. 
[Sept. 
course of every day dense troops of soiled and jaded pilgrims 
and travelers pass through the city gates of Meschid, into the 
great square, which is usually crowded with people from all 
parts of the East: with Afghans, Arabs, Koords, Turks, Os- 
begs; with pilgrims from all the provinces of Persia; with 
priests, merchants, peasants, and dervishes, without number, 
fromt he borders of the Caspian and Black Seas, and from the 
Persian Gulf. The great and magnificent square is approached 
from two sides by very high arched gates, of exquisite archi- 
tecture, faced with brilliant blue-enameled tiles. On the other 
two sides are deep arched porches, of the same height and pro- 
portions as the gates, but covered with copper tiles, heavily 
gilt. One porch leads into a fine mosque; the other faces a 
high, gilded minaret, and the golden dome under which rest 
the sacred remains of the Iman. The space between the gates 
and porches is enclosed on all sides by a double story of arched 
cloisters, fronted with mosaic work and paved with the gor- 
geous gravestones of rich and holy men. A stone canal con- 
ducts water through the centre of the square, for the ablutions 
of the faithful, and beautiful shade trees abound. The midday 
sunbeams are reflected gorgeously from the many-colored and 
golden tiles; and the light of the declining luminary falls glow- 
ing upon the resplendent dome. But the most glorious effect 
is produced when rain falls while the sun is breaking through 
light clouds, causing the large drops which are shed from the 
golden tiles to glitter like enormous diamonds. This sparkling 
shower on the gilt dome is often worshipped as a down-pour of 
heavenly light, and excites the pilgrims to a perfect frenzy of 
enthusiasm. 
But Meschid presents other sights and sounds than those of 
religion and pleasantness. Hundreds and thousands of beg- 
gars, of the most miserably squalid appearance, beset every 
approach to the shrine, waylaying the pilgrims in every direc- 
tion. Old men and women, in the most abject states of want 
and misery, throng the streets, which are also strewn with chil- 
dren, not more than two or three years old, grovelling in the 
dirt, mere living skeletons, more like starved young animals 1868.] 
Peters—On Cholera in India. 
521 
than human creatures. Some are crying and sending forth 
piteous petitions with their little half-quenched voices; others, 
silent, lying like dead things; others, listless and motionless, 
but with a wolf-like glare of hunger in their sunken eyes, giv- 
ing terrible evidence of the fierce pangs which gnaw within 
them. Blear-eyed girls and filthy boys carried things like 
starved cats in their arms, all squalling for bread. Fraser ran 
the gauntlet of a crowd of spectres of this kind, nearly half a 
mile long. Most of them were the wives and children of Tur- 
comans from the eastern borders of the Caspian Sea, whose 
towns had been sacked by the Meschidees. The able-bodied 
men and women had been sold as slaves, and the old people and 
children thus left to beg or starve. As many as 3000 to 4000 
persons have been brought into Meschid at one time, and the 
feeble left to the tender mercies of pilgrims and strangers. 
Cholera is always carried from Meschid to Astrabad, on the 
east coast of the Caspian Sea, by merchants and pilgrims, and 
then forwarded up to Astrakan. It is also conveyed from Mes- 
chid to Teheran, the capital of Persia, situated only 70 miles 
south of the lower border of the Caspian Sea. 
Teheran is one of the most important centres for the recep- 
tion and distribution of cholera. The disease not only reaches 
it from Meschid and the east, but also comes up from the Per- 
sian Gulf, by way of Bushire, Shiraz, and Ispahan. Although 
Teheran has 80,000 inhabitants, no city in Persia makes so 
poor an appearance on first approach. There is not a dome or 
minaret of any size to decorate it; nor is it surrounded by 
woods and gardens, like Damascus. All that meets the eye is 
a line of mud walls and bastions, surrounded by many ruins, in 
the midst of a gravelly plain bounded by rugged mountains. 
The streets are narrow, unpaved, and exceedingly filthy. The 
bazaars are extensive, but wretchedly kept and very dirty; 
and the climate is so unhealthy in the summer, that the greater 
part of the inhabitants are obliged to leave the city. 
From Teheran, cholera is always carried due north to 
Reshdt, at the foot of the Caspian Sea, whence it is distributed 
to every port on the west coast of the Caspian, viz., Lencoran, 522 
The Chicago Medical Examiner. 
[Sept. 
Saljan, Baku, Derbent, Kisliar, and Astrakan. It also passes 
up all the rivers which empty into the Caspian, and thus invades 
the whole country between the Caspian and Black Seas. 
From Teheran, the disease is always carried north-west, to 
Kasbin and the great city of Tabriz. 
Tabriz has 80,000 inhabitants, and is the most important 
city, in a commercial point of view, in all Persia, for it is the 
great mart of European merchandise. The transit trade to 
and from Persia is immense, almost beyond calculation; and it 
is the grand depot into which Russia, Germany, Turkey, and 
England pour the fruits of their industry and enterprise, to be 
distributed to the vast regions beyond. Its bazaars and cara- 
vansaries are numerous and extensive, built of brick and lime, 
finely arched, and among the most durable structures in the 
world. But its streets are narrow, crooked, irregular, only 
partially paved, and very sombre, for no windows open from 
the houses towards the streets, which present nothing to the 
eye but a dull line of mud walls, eight to fifteen feet high, 
pierced by gates and doors so low that one must stoop to enter 
them. But the houses of the rich are beautifully finished in- 
side, and have fountains in their beautiful court-yards sur- 
rounded by trees and shrubs and filled with singing birds. 
Even the poorer houses have open rills and running streams in 
their yards, conducted there from the larger canals. The cli- 
mate is delightfully healthy; warm by day, but deliciously cool at 
night, when a strong breeze blows diurnally from the Caspian. 
It is elevated 4000 feet above the level of the sea, and looks 
down from the head of a vast amphitheatre upon a fertile plain, 
30 miles wide. Scarcely a cloud appears in the clear atmos- 
phere from early spring till late i«n the autumn, and the whole 
neighborhood is so healthy that the name of Tabriz is derived 
from Tab (fever) and reektan (dispersing); yet, cholera is always 
conveyed to it from Teheran. It appeared there in 1823; again, 
in 1828 and 1829, and killed 5000 persons; in August and 
September, 1845, it is said to have killed 400 in one day; and 
every successive pandemic has reached it, by means of mer- 
chants, travelers, and pilgrims, going to and from Meschid and 
Mecca. 1868.] 
Peters—On Cholera in India. 
523 
From Tabriz, cholera is always carried due north, through 
Erivan to Tiflis, and thence up to Astrakan, on the Caspian; 
and also north-west, to Erzeroum, and from thence to Trebi- 
zond, on the Black Sea. 
Erzeroum, to the north-west of Tabriz, is one of the oldest 
cities in the world. It is situated at the base of the Ararat 
range of mountains, at the head-waters of the Euphrates, and 
claims to have been founded by a grandson of Noah. Its 
trade is immense, as it is situated felicitously for the transit of 
goods from Europe, Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Turkey, and 
Russia. Almost weekly, a commercial caravan starts for Ta- 
briz, consisting of from 300 to 900 horses, laden with English, 
German, and Russian goods, along a road laid out by the an- 
cient Genoese, and still marked by the ruins of their forts. 
A caravan of horses generally starts at 2 A.M. The guide, 
or Karavan Baschi, gives the signal by a peculiar cry, and the 
horses respond by a general snorting, neighing, and tinkling of 
the bells on their necks. Notwithstanding the thick darkness 
of the night, such is their intelligence that each horse soon 
finds his owner or driver, and stands motionless until the pack- 
saddles and bales of goods are duly balanced and fastened on 
its back; then starts off on his own accord, finds his proper 
place in the train, in files two abreast. The oldest and most 
experienced horse takes the lead, proud of the distinction, toss- 
ing his largei’ string of bells, of which every fifth or sixth horse 
has a smaller one, the tones of which are cheerful, if somewhat 
monotonous. Thus they wend their patient way, under their 
huge burdens, stretching in files of miles in length, over hills 
and through valleys, never straying or shying, and displaying 
an instinct, almost amounting to reason, in overcoming obsta- 
cles, and never attempting to cross a stream until the proper 
ford has been indicated to them. In winter they are obliged 
to push on from 20 to 25 miles a day, to reach shelter; but in 
summer, they find abundance of forage, and travel more leis- 
urely. This may not be the sublimity of commerce, but it forms 
a pleasant scene. The muleteers are good Mohammedans, wTho 
never seek retirement for their prayers, but commence at 524 
The Chicago Medical Examiner. 
[Sept. 
the moment prescribed. Wherever they may be on the road, 
they tumble off their horses, face towards Mecca, commence 
their prayers, then rise and ride on quickly to overtake the 
train, give a few directions, mingled with more curses, to their 
underlings; dismount again to resume their devotions, repeating 
this process, interlarded with many blows upon their horses, 
until the customary prayer is all completed. Quip, crank, 
laugh, and roundelay pass along the line all the march, and at 
night, in summer, the merry muleteer sleeps upon the bare 
earth. In the winter, they crowd into huge sheds, the front 
part of which is used as a stable, the rear as a hotel. These 
dirty holes have platforms raised 2| feet above the mud floor, 
to enable the guests to keep out of the litter and dung which 
carpet the floors of these elegant refectories. All the platforms 
are covered with mats, decayed through age and filth, and 
equally old and dirty mattresses and pillows. Upon these, 
the travelers sleep in their wet cloaks and dirty boots, forming 
a loathsome combination. 
From Erzeroum, cholera is always carried to Trebizond by 
caravans, in which 26,000 horses were employed in 1834, some 
merchants using from 500 to 1000, each carrying 300 pounds. 
Several times a week one of these cavalcades arrives, pouring 
itself into some of the huge caravansaries, and depositing its 
heavy loads of Persian and other goods in huge piles, almost 
like small mountains. And quite as often, equally large trains 
set out for Erzeroum. The scenic effects of the town are very 
great in every direction, whether we look up at it from the sea, 
or down upon it from the lofty hills behind and observe the 
Black Sea, the city and surrounding country spread out in a 
picture of almost unequalled beauty and grandeur. The view 
extends along a broken line of coast, from whence rise lofty 
mountains, piled one upon another, until they reach the snow. 
Although the streets are exceedingly narrow, crooked, and 
filthy, like those of all Eastern towns, yet they have charms 
peculiar to Trebizond; for, in riding along, one often suddenly 
emerges upon one of many romantic bridges which span deep 
ravines, at the bottom of which tiny rivulets run down to 1868.] 
Peters—On Cholera in India. 
525 
the sea, and the precipitous sides of which are covered with 
dense foliage and vines which cling to lofty trees and clamber up 
to overrun the walls of castles perched upon their dizzy brinks. 
From Trebizond, which is almost the only port at the south- 
east end of the Black Sea, cholera is regularly carried by sail- 
ing and steam vessels to Constantinople, Sebastopol, and Odessa, 
and also up the Sea of Azof to the mouth of the River Bon. 
To return to Tabriz: we have already seen that cholera is 
always carried up between the Black and Caspian Seas to Eri- 
van and Tiflis; and from Tiflis to Astrakan on the Caspian, 
and the towns of Azof, Tagonrog, and Tcherhask on the Sea of 
Azof, and thence distributed up into Russia. This is now so 
well known that it requires no proof. But we must give a 
description of the houses in Persia, Armenia, Georgia, and Cir- 
cassia, which will account for much of the terrible ravages 
which cholera always commits when it reaches these countries. 
The structures are still made and the people live exactly in the 
manner described by Xenophon, who traversed this country and 
embarked at Trebizond with the immortal 10,000. In the sum- 
mer-time, in riding along, one often finds one’s self on the top 
of hillocks covered with grass, upon which cattle are grazing; 
but smoke, issuing from piles of stones a few feet high, makes 
one suspect that he is riding on the tops of houses and over a 
village; and soon, from holes in the ground, like rabbits from 
their burrows, men, women, children, and dogs rush up in abun- 
dance. Then one descends into a yawning cavern and dark 
gulf, filled with smoke, dust, glare of torches, uproar of lowing 
and bleating beasts, crying children, crowing cocks, and gab- 
bling women, until one believes that he has got into a modern 
Noah’s ark anchored in the ground. The place is dark as 
pitch, even at noonday, and the bewildered stranger is led 
along, continually slipping in fresh cow-dung. These vaults 
sometimes cover an acre of ground, and are divided into an 
interminable number of rooms and cellars. A multitude of 
cows and calves often stream out unexpectedly from some side 
room, and nearly upset and suffocate one in the ocean of their 
filth. Sheep are herded in other nooks, and lambs trot all 526 
The Chicago Medical Examiner. 
[Sept 
about and into the women’s apartments. The horses are sta- 
bled more carefully, and a collection of unlovely women and 
children occupy separate apartments, into which only dirty 
men, a few lambs and calves, various chickens, or a favorite 
filly, occasionally intrude. Old men are found sitting about, 
with long white beards like those of the shepherds of Lot and 
Abraham. Fraser and Fisher, who often lodged in these places, 
were generally obliged to turn out some favorite horse or pet 
cow, in order to obtain sleeping room; the ground was then 
swept over, and dirty rugs were placed for them to sleep upon. 
Occasionally, a big he-goat would bound into their sanctum, 
with a loud ba-a; and above their heads were generally perched 
a whole brood of roosters, of all ages and all voices; some with 
colds and sore throats, but all eager to display their vocal ac- 
complishments, in one unremitting crow. From midnight to 
daybreak, the challenge often flew from roost to roost, and every 
few minutes a full chorus was struck up. The smell, heat, and 
noises of the animals were intolerable, and the vermin active; 
yet, from three to five generations of human beings always live, 
cook, eat, and sleep in these foul holes. They are made by 
digging a tank in the ground, lined with rough stones for walls, 
covered overhead wTith huge timbers, and these again with 
sticks, bushes, and dry grass; then terraced over with a thick 
bed of earth, upon which sods and grass are planted. 
Medical College of Alabama.—The friends of this col- 
lege will be glad to learn that it has been reopened. We quote 
from the circular received: “The Faculty has been reorganized 
and a full corps of professors are ready to devote their time and 
energies to the cause of medical education in the South.” “The 
professors are all Southern men, born and nurtured on the soil 
of the South, and now, in the hour of her adversity, they are 
willing and anxious to do all in their power to raise her to that 
high destiny which no reverse of fortune or of war can snatch 
from her sorely tried and faithful sons.” Terms: $140 for the 
session; demonstrator’s ticket, $10; matriculation, $5; gradua- 
tion, $30. Handsome premiums are offered for excellence in 
various branches. The circular is closed with an appeal to all, 
for encouragement and support.