MACHINES FOR MAKING ICE, 
USING 
SULPHUROUS ACID OR AMMONIA 
IN THE PROCESS. 
Note from the Establishment of RAOUL, PICTET & CO,, PARIS. 
Translated by ROBT. BRIGGS, C. E. 
REPRINTED FROM TIIE 
JOURNAL OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, 
For February, 1S7T). 
PHIDADELPHIA: ' 
Merrihew & Sox, Printers, 135 North Third Street. 
1879. [Reprinted from the Journal of thb Franklin Institute, February, 1879.] 
MACHINES FOR MAKING ICE, 
USING SULPHUROUS ACID OR AMMONIA IN THE PROCESS. 
NOTE FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RAOUL, PICTET & CO., PARIS. 
TRANSLATED* BY ROBT. BRIGGS, C. E. 
The result accomplished by a machine in making ice and its corres- 
ponding expenditure of force can be investigated as follows: 
In order to ascertain with exactness the useful efleet of a freezing 
machine it is needful first to establish the theoretic maximum effect 
which it can produce, and then make a comparison of ideal result with 
what may be derived in practice. 
[The difference between the theoretic and experimental results will 
represent the losses incident to the mechanisms employed and to the 
process followed; being in one case loss of power from friction of 
parts or of heat from radiation from the apparatus, and in the other 
the heat expended and transmitted over and above that absolutely 
demanded for mechanical effect or required to be removed for refrig- 
eration. These losses are grouped in the original under the appella- 
tion of “ passive efforts.”] 
* The paragraphs in [brackets] are amendments or additions to the original. 2 
1st. When making ice by any process whatever, it is indispensable 
to take up the quantity of heat which is set free by the congelation of 
water, and to carry that quantity of heat to water having the temper- 
ature of the surrounding air, which temperature is always above the 
point of freezing, and generally varies between -f- 10° and -j- 30° 
centigrade. 
[Throughout this translation metric values for temperatures and 
quantities of all kinds will be used.] 
2d. The mechanical theory of heat furnishes a general formula, 
which expresses the maximum of labor to be expended in obtaining 
this result. Calling q = a certain quantity of heat which is made to 
pass from the lower temperature = t to a higher one = t', and calling 
J = the mechanical equivalent of heat, equal to 431 kilogram-metres, 
we have : q ■ -- •/ = labor necessary. 
[This formula may be elucidated in the following way. The physical 
phenomenon on which all the machines for ice making is based is the 
relation of the sensible heat of gaseous Ixxlies to their densities. A 
gas, having a sensible temperature below the freezing point of water, 
is permitted to take up a certain quantity of heat of refrigeration of 
water. It is then compressed by mechanical force until it shall have 
attained some given temperature above that of a water supply at the 
disposal of the apparatus, the water from which shall now take up and 
carry off the quantity of heat originally imparted to the gas, when the 
gas being permitted to expand (and in a perfect apparatus to give out 
its force of expansion to the machine) to its original density, it will be 
prepared to receive another charge of heat, and the complete cycle of 
operation will have been established. 
Let Q be the quantity of heat present in a definite volume of the 
transfer medium—the gas—at the time when it is in condition to absorb 
the heat of congelation; let q be the quantity of heat imparted to the 
transfer medium by the congelation; then Q -f- q — quantity of heat 
in transfer medium at some definite condition of energy, and sensible 
temperature = t which is to be elevated by mechanical effort to t! for 
the purpose of allowing q to pass off. Let the weight of the medium 
employed — W; then 1V, multiplied by the absolute temperature of 
the medium, at any sensible temperature whatever, represents the quan- 
tity of heat present at that temperature. 
.*. Wx(274°-\-f)=Q-\-q at the temperature t. (1) 
TLX (274°+<')=£+?+# “ tf. (2) 
where H = the increment of heat in passing from t to t!. 
, .-. H= F[(274°-f t')—(274°+<)]= W{t'—t) 3 
and as from (1) + q 
Now, if the transferring medium parts with the quantity of heat q 
at the temperature = t', and then is permitted to expand to its primary 
condition, and is made to give back by its expansion, the force of 
expansion, which is applied to the retrograding piston of the air or 
vapor pump, it will, when it reaches the first temperture = t, have 
given out force represented in heat units by IF —Q — and the 
difference between the number of heat units expended in compression 
and those developed by expansion=H- -H'= —- 
1 J 1 274°-f-t 274 +1 
(t'—t) 
—q representing the units expended in the cycle of work. 
W hatever mechanical effort may have been expended in the act of 
transfer of heat from the water to the medium, during the congelation 
in its certain time, will be compensated for, in the transfer which occurs 
from the medium to the water for removal of heat, at the higher point 
of temperature. The same quantity of heat = q having to be taken 
up and given out in constantly recurring intervals of time—practically 
in the same times. 
Multiplying the heat units by the mechanical equivalent = J, we 
lr i 
have Pictet’s formula: q J = mechanical effort.] 
y274°+t J 
Suppose we would make 100 kilos, of ice per hour with water of 
20°. Each kilo, of ice in such case will represent 79+20=99 calories. 
In order to estimate the force in horse-power, replace the letters by the 
following figures: 
First, on the supposition of complete and instantaneous transfer of 
heat t = 0° temperature of congelation. 
t’ = 20° temperature of water of supply both for congelation, 
and for removal of surplus heat. 
J = 431 kilogram-metres = mechanical equivalent of heat. 
One horse-power = 270,000 kilogram-metres per hour. 
.•. 100X99X—'— — X431=270,000=1T54 horse-power. 
274°+0° 1 
Second, for the machine with sulphurous acid there must be 10° 
difference of temperature at both extremes of the process between the 
water used, for congelation on the one hand, or for removal of excess 
of heat on the other, when 4 
t = —10° temperature transferring medium when vaporizing. 
hl0°= t' = 30° “ “ “ to be condensed, 
other values being as before (when t° = temperature of water = 20°). 
.*. 100 X 99 X 30°—(~1Q_!) x horse-power. 
274°+(—10°) 1 
With the water at 10° .*. t = — 10°; t' = 20°, and each kilo, of ice 
representing 79 -f- 10 = 89 calories. 
90° Y_1 0°t 
100 X 89 X X 431-5-270,000=1*618 horse-power. 
274°+(—10°) 1 
[The following table gives several numerical values to be applied in 
the formation of a scale which will exhibit graphically all the results 
from the formula: 
Table of computation of theoretic force, in horse-power, 
demanded in making ice from water of various temperatures, on the 
h-* 
O CO 
00 
—J OS 
Ol 
c» 
4- 
CO 
to 
Degrees Fahr. 
4- Ci 
OS 
-4 X 
50 
H-* 
to 
CO 
4- 
to to 
r-± 
fc—l 
1 
i 
b-k 
w 
rD 
Temperature 
= t° 
o ci 
Ci o 
Cl 
0 
Oi 
0 
Cl 
0 
»-* 
ft 
ot the water. 
Latent & sen- 
h-1 h-* 
b-L 
H-1 
0 
« 
oq 
■1 
<t 
•t 
sible heat to 
■ = 70° f t° 
h-* h-i 
CO 4^ 
o 
so 
O SO 
4- SO 
SO 
4- 
X 
so 
X 
4* 
CO 
-1 
■4- 
CO 
be removed. 
Range of tern- 
OS Ol 
Cl 
CO 
IO 
to 
k—a 
ft 
GfQ 
*-t 
perature to 
. = <' + 10° 
o ci 
o 
Oi o 
Oi 
0 
Cl 
Ci 
0 
effect rento- 
= t° H- 20° 
ft 
ft 
x 
val. 
o o 
o 
o o 
<^j 
* 
0 
— 
to to 
to o 
h-i 
00 
«<T Cl 
h-* 
CO 
h-A 
so 
0 
Cl 
Q 
CO 
Absolute heat 
L f'+io0 
-I x 
so 
o 
to 
CO 
4- 
Oi 
cs 
—J 
removed. 
204° 
CO CO 
4- 
4- Oi 
Oi 
OS 
-1 
X 
X 
so 
Theor’c horse- 
4- CO 
Co 
to to 
1—* 
1—* 
C^S 
0 
]) 0 w e r de- 
Co x 
CO 
00 4- 
so 
di 
to 
so 
crs 
-U 
manded for 
— X 
tc o 
o 
CO o 
tO 
b-k 
-vl 
Ci 
-v| 
b-k 
100 kilos, per 
hour. 
00 © 
CO 
oi o 
CO 
X 
CO 
X 
to 
X 
Ol 
i-j ©i 
CO 
CO to 
41 00 
to 
H-* 
b-k 
Ci 
b-k 
0 
X 
Cl 
Computed 
= x + 20 
SO OS' 
cs 
O X 
4- 
to 
Cl 
horse-power. 
per ct. x. 
4- O 
to 0 
to 
to 
X 
0 
cs 
to 
supposition that the transfer medium be brought to 10° below the 
point of congelation for its lower temperature, and be carried to 10° 
above the water for removal of heat for its higher temperature, in order 
to effect the operation in a given time and against losses of heat. 5 
Formula: .t = (Z+«°) |^0 X J 
2707)00 
where L — latent heat of congelation = 79° ; q = quantity of ice per 
hour = 100 kilos; t° = temperature of water, variable; < = 10° 
below point of freezing = —10°; t' = t° -f- 10°, variable; J — 
equivalent of heat = 431 calories. 
, *(«=»)*(»§!) 
= <H6X(79+«')x(?!±i°) 
Referring to the plate accompanying this paper, the line A repre- 
sents the theoretic results of a machine using sulphurous acid. The 
absciss® are the temperatures and the ordinates the corresponding forces 
in horse-power.] 
3d. These results can be compared with the performance of the ice 
machine in the present Exhibition at Paris, the dimensions of which 
are as follows: 
Stroke of piston or steam cylinder = 1 metre. 
Diameter of “ “ = 50 centimetres. 
Pressure of steam = 5 kilos.* per sq. centimetre. 
Point of cut off of steam in cylinder = 10 centimetres. 
Back pressure in steam cylinder = 0.15 kilos, per sq. centi- 
metre. 
Stroke of piston in cylinder for compression of sulphurous 
acid = 1 metre. 
Diameter of cylinder for compression of sulphurous acid = 
42 centimetres. 
P = pressure at the time of expiration, 0’8 kilos, per sq. centimetre. 
P' = “ “ compression, 2*7 kilos. “ 
Velocity, 30 to 32 turns per minute. 
In “ Claudel’s formulas,” will be found 356—372, of Ed. 1857), 
for calculating the dimensions of condensing steam engines having 
a single cylinder with cut off, the formula for estimating the power 
given out is: 
*A kilogramme to the square centimetre = 14 22 lbs. to the square inch. An 
atmosphere = 147 lbs. per square inch, or T033 kilos per square centimetre. The 
horse-power, metrical value = 75 kilogram-metres per second = 270,000 kilogram- 
metres per hour = 1,052,971 lbs., in place of 1,980,000 lbs., the English value. 6 
r„, = VhHl -flog. (-1) X 2-3026-A'+ L) 
' z o' h ZQJ 
In this formula Tm = power given out in great dynamic unite — 
1,000 kilogram-metres—substituting for these their value in horse- 
power per second, we have 
0*075 a? = Vhk (1 -flog. x2-3026— 
which is the formula used in the original of this translation. 
Where x = power given out in horse-power, 
V — volume of steam per second of time, before cutting off, 
that is used under the full pressure h, 
h = pressure of steam in metres of height of water —- kilos. 
]x*r sq. centimetre, 
/«' = back pressure in cylinder, 
2 = whole length of stroke in metres, 
zq — length of stroke to point of cut off' in metres, 
Vh = labor done before cutting off, 
Vh logd— J X 2'3026=labor done after cutting off. 
* zo' v 
k — co-efficient dependent upon resistance of engine, taken 
by M. Pictet at 0-73.* 
substituting in the equations the values given, we have (taking the 
velocity at 30 turns per minute, or one stroke per second)— 
0-075 x— jjo-52) X X0-1X5X0-73 2-3026 — 
—x-Ul 
5 0-1/J 
0*075 ar—[0*196 X 5 X 0*7311 +1X 2-3026—0*03 X10)] 
0-075 x=0‘7154(3’3026—0*30)=2-14807 
a;=2"87 effective horse-power. 
* This value of 0*73 does not correspond to any value given by Claudel (edition 
1857), where k has given many Values, dependent on point of cut off, from 0'72 for |d 
to 0.84 for |tli; and also other values dependent on the size of engine, thus for several 
sizes ef engines, all of which are supposed to cut off at one-fourth the stroke, the val- 
ues given are from 0'44 for 4 to 6 horse-power to 0‘74 for 60 to 100 horse-power. The 
co-efficient is purely empirical, and the value of the result in useful effect, derived 
from the computation, is not very satisfactory when it is considered that indicator 
cards could have been taken from the engine at the Exposition at any time.  7 
[In tlu? original, at this place there follows a computation of the 
force of compressing the gas in the compressing cylinder from 0*8 kilos, 
to 2‘7 kilos pressure. It Is impossible to accept this computation as 
the tension of vapor of sulphurous acid corresponding to 30°, the sup- 
posed maximum reached, or rather point of removal of heat, is 4*50 
ntmos. (= kilos, nearly), and the tension corresponding to 20°, the 
accepted temperature of the water, is 3*24 atnios. Probably the pres- 
sure 1* was 3'7 kilos, but this value, used in the formula taken by M. 
Pictet & Co., gives a greater result in horse-power in the compression 
than was exerted in the steam cylinder. Indicator cards, with temper- 
atures by observation, alone are reliable as practical data, and these are 
wanting to the above statements.} 
The calculation of the weight of sulphurous acid evaporated at each 
stroke of the piston is as follows: 
Density of sulphurous acid = 2*21 
Weight per cubic litre, at 0°, = 2*88 grams. 
Weight— W=7t dx—* X2*88X1000X0‘8 ; taking t=0° 
6 274 -H 
TP=0T385X2-88 X 1000X0*8=319 grams. 
The useful effect of the compression being 90 per cent, between the 
limits of pressure named, this weight is reduced to 287 grams per 
stroke or half revolution of the engine. 
The latent heat of evaporation of sulphurous acid is 94*5 calories 
per kilogram vaporized. The weight of ice formed per hour, inde- 
pendent of external losses by radiation or conduction, is: 
=1,000 kdograms [97 ( exact result.] 
This machine makes 1,000 kilos of ice per hour, and employs 29 
horse-power, of which only 22 is utilized in the labor of compressing 
the vapor of the sulphurous acid. 
4th. In the plate, the curve C shows the maximum tension of the 
vapor of sulphurous acid at the temperature given bv the abcissa, as 
ascertained by M. Regnault. [In the original paper it reads, “ The 
temperature corresponding to 2*7 kilos ‘effective’ is 25°.” This allu- 
sion would confirm the view of the translator that the pressure obtained 
in the compressor cylinder is 3*7 kilos, at least, but this rendering is 
fatal to the computation of power in the compressor as it appears in 
the original. 
5th. If the value of power expended which has been computed from 
the formula of Claudel on the data given by M. Pictet & Co. be 
accepted as giving a correct result in the one particular instance to 8 
compare with that derived from the theory of heat, the simple addi- 
tion of 20 per cent, to any of the theoretic values will exhibit with 
much fairness the practical useful effect. Some economies may attach 
to the performance of the larger apparatus, but those may be held to 
belong to the sizes of apparatus rather than to the resistance to be over- 
come. The line B shows the horse-power deemed requisite by M. 
Pictet & Co. to make 100 kilos of ice per hour. But the translator is 
of opinion that these values are about 25 per cent, too small, or, in 
other words, that the best practical result will be about 50 per cent, 
above the theoretic one, as there is not only to l>e met “ the work 
expended in friction of connecting rods, cranks, pistons, screws, centri- 
fugal pumps, etc.”, but also many considerable and quite unavoidable 
losses of heat.] 
6th. It is obvious that the same methods of reasoning and the same 
calculations will apply to higher or intermediate temperatures. 
7th. [The final result from these considerations indicates a theoretic 
expenditure of force in making 100 kilos, of ice, per hour, bv means 
of ice machines using sulphurous acid, to be from 1 *27 to 4‘3 horse- 
power, in countries having the extremes of temperature of 5° to 40°, 
and, according to M. Pictet & Co., from 1*53 to 5*2 horse-power, or, 
yet again, for liberal allowance, from 1*9 to 6‘5 horse-power in coun- 
tries having the same relations in temperature. 
8th. Using a condensing engine, the consumption of coal per horse- 
power and per hour can easily be brought to P5 kilo. An engine cut- 
ting off its steam at l-10th the stroke, as assumed in this case, with 
boilers of average economy, say the burning of 9 kilos of coal to the 
kilo, of water evaporated, = to the production of 4,833 calorics, should 
develop a horse-power with under one kilo of coal per hour. This 
assumption of a large value for the coal per horse-power is confirma- 
tory to the expenditure of more power than was apparently given out 
by the computation. Taking the translator’s estimate for horse-power 
demanded, and the assumption of engines and boilers with one kilo, of 
coal per horse-power per hour, we have, in countries where or when 
water at 5° is attainable, about 50 kilos, of it* to 1 kilo, of coal, while 
in the hottest supposable locality, where the water reaches 40°, 16 kilos, 
of ice can lx* made with 1 kilo, of coal burned. Accepting 30° its the 
temperature of water in a hot country, 100 kilos, of it* ought to 
proceed from the expenditure of 5 horse-power, and 20 kilos, of ice 
from the combustion of 1 kilo, of coal. The assumption of engines to 
cut off at one-tenth the stroke is, however, not generally admissible 
for any but the largest engines, and the allowance of T5 kilo, of coal 
per horse-power gives 13*3 kilos, of ice to each kilo, of coal burned, as 
a high practical result.] 9 
9th. The use of water power will considerably reduce the cost of 
running an ice machine. 
[It may be remarked, as a final result of the foregoing, that the econ- 
omy of ice machines evidently depends, 1st, upon the small differences 
of temperature between the transfer medium above the cooling water, 
on the one hand, or below freezing point of water on the other. In 
the case where fluids are used which condense at temperatures and pres- 
sure within the range of the operation, it is possible that much heat 
may be given out to the cooling water above the point of condensation 
and a non-reversable cycle be set up; and the economy depends, 2d, 
on the economy of the source of motive power, that is, of the steam 
engine and boilers employed.] 
Ice Machines using Ammonia. 
10th. In considering this class of ice machines, it will be assumed 
that their construction and process in operation is known. The quan- 
tity of heat to be furnished to the boiler is composed of two entirely 
distinct parts, the first of which is that necessary to evaporate the 
ammonia iu the freezer, utilizing the latent heat, while the second is 
the heat lost by escape of temperature through the transmission of the 
total amount of heat which has to traverse five heavy iron apparatus 
successively. This loss will be estimated at its maximum theoretic 
value. 
11th. Taking for calculation the production of 100 kilos of ice 
between ordinary limits of temperature in warm countries, that is to 
say, condensation at -f 30° and freezing at —30°, we have for the first 
source of expenditure of heat the loss, between a temperature of +140° 
[corresponding to 16 atmospheres pressures] and —30°, which are the 
extremes of temperature between which the non-reversible cycle of 
operations is performed, = (taking the water at 20°) 
9,900X^— calories. 
274+(—30°) 
12th. And for second source of expenditure of heat—that of heat 
generated in the boiler, which is never returned, but is wasted in the 
process—we estimate the pressure in the boiler to be 16 atmospheres, 
which pressure shall be divided into: 
4 atmospheres for steam, 
12 “ for the ammonia. 
The distillations will occur proportionately to their ten- 
sions, and then to remove 10,000 calories per hour [9,900, if the water 10 
to be frozen is at 20°] there should be evaporated 10 kilos, of water 
and 31 kilos, of ammonia. 
We have then to adjust these two quantities of heat in order to find 
the minimum amount to be furnished by the boiler. [The total heat 
of water vaporized at -f-T40° = 656 calories.] 
The total heat of ammonia at + 140° is 465 calorics. 
But the temperature of ammoniacal liquor with which the boiler is 
fed is 90°, which will reduce these figures to 
566 calories for the water, 
and to 411 “ for the ammonia. 
10 kilos, of water, at 566° = 5,660 
31 “ of ammonia, at 411° = 12,740 to which is to be added the the- 
oretic loss as before computed = 6,900 
25,300 
There should be furnished 25,300 calories to the boiler as the least 
quantity to produce 100 kilos, of ice. 
14. * * * [Supposing the consumption of fuel undfcr the boiler 
is effected with average economy, as previously assumed, of = 9 kilos 
of water evaporated (4,833 calories) per kilo, of coal burned, we have : 
25,300 —5-235 kilos, of coal to the 100 lbs. of ice per 
4,833 
hour, as the theoretic result without loss of heat in any way during tin* 
process. This result does not fairly represent the argument of M. 
Pictet & Co. The heat should be divided into two parts, as in the 
estimate. Of which 5,660+12,740=18,400 calories will proceed 
from application of heat of fuel to the boiler, when kilos 
4,833 
of coal may be assumed to supply this heat. And the 6,900 calories which 
will have been expended in transferring 9,900 calories through a range 
of 170°, by exertion of mechanical force, may be taken (having been 
derived through the action of a steam engine and pump) to have been 
effected as economically as was assumed in the sulphurous acid process. 
In the sulphurous acid process, with water at 20°, we have the heat of 
20° ( 10°1 
transferring the heat of congelation=9,900 X — = 1,500 
. ’ 274°+(-10°) 
calories, and our previous estimate gives 2*4 horse-power as the theoretic 
force accompanying; the same. W hen 99.2*4=11 ‘04 horse-power, 
1 % B 1,500 
which may be taken at T5 kilo, of coal per horse-power, as before 
(1 8th). 11 
The theoretic quantity of coal consumed by the ammonia process 
then becomes 3’8-j-16’75=20*37 kilos, (against the 3*6 kilos, by the 
sulphurous acid process. 
14a. It is noted in the original that the above estimate does not 
include the power for driving the feed pump or for agitating the liquid, 
and there is estimated at least 1*5 kilos, for these purposes and for the 
force expended in the transmission, and reference is made to lines of the- 
oretic and practical effect of ammonia ice-making machines which do 
not seem founded on any reliable data or experimental basis. This 
portion of the paper would be more satisfactorily presented if it had 
the authorization of the maker of the Carre machine.] Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. CVII. 
CURVES OF USEFUL EFFECT, Etc. 
OF 
ICE MACHINES USING SULPHUROUS ACIDS. 
Raoul Pictet, Paris. 
Line A shows theoretic useful effect. 
Line B shows probable practical force demanded with Condensing Engine 
cutting-off at l-10th. 
Line C shows maximum tension of vapor of sulphurous acid, according to 
Regnault. 
Briggs. 
HORSE-POWERS OR KILOS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER. 
TEMPERATURES CENTIGRADE. THE JOURNAL ' 
OF THE 
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