ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS 
ON 
HYBRIDITY IN ANIMALS, 
AND ON SOME 
COLLATERAL SUBJECTS; 
BEING 
A REPLY7 
TO THE OBJECTIONS OF THE REV. JOHN BACHMAN, D.D. 
[FROM THE CHARLESTON MEDICAL JOURNAL AND REVIEW.] 
BY SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON, M.D, 
Penn, and Edinb., President of the Academy of NaTuraT'Sciences of Philadelphia. 
“ All that I wish is, that we should not pretend to conceal our ignorance, nor to retard the 
progress of knowledge by conjectural and erroneous ideas respecting the influence of climate; 
for, so long as they exist, no progress can be hoped for in Natural History.”—Azara. 
CHARLESTON : 
STEAM-POWER PRESS OF WALKER <fc JAMES. 
1850. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS 
ON 
HYBRIDITY IN ANIMALS. 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
My ethnological studies long since led me to investigate the subject 
of Hybridity in Animals ; but I was greatly surprised to find that no 
collective account of this class of facts had ever been published—at 
least, I could discover none, and was, therefore, placed somewhat in the 
position of a pioneer in a new field of inquiry. I made diligent search 
for materials, and, at the same time, interested some of my friends in 
the pursuit of them, and was thus enabled to read before the Academy 
of Natural Sciences, in 1846, my “Essay on Hybridity,” which was 
published, in two parts, in the American Journal of Science for the fol- 
lowing year. From that date to the present, my attention has been 
given to this subject, as time and health would permit, with a view to 
careful revision and republication. Since the appearance, however, of 
Dr. Bachman’s second criticism, in this Journal, I feel called upon to 
continue my observations, through the same medium, and now proceed 
to my task. 
It is with extreme regret that I must, in the first place, defend my- 
self from some remarks, which neither truth nor justice nor the interests 
of Science will permit me to pass unnoticed. Dr. Bachman speaks of 
“ the crudities of M. Chevreul, contained in a work which is locked up in 
your library, and which I have no means of obtaining.” I never owned 
the book here alluded to, nor do I know of a copy in this city. It was lent 
me by a gentleman from a distance, who marked the passage on hybrids, 4 
for my use. The paragraph was copied and the book returned. Strange 
to say, Dr. Bachman never asked me to loan it to him. In a letter, 
now before me, dated October 15, 1849, he names two books, and two 
only, which he is desirous of seeing. A postscript informs me that he 
had been so. fortunate as to obtain one of them in Charleston ; the 
other—Rudolplii’s “ Anthropologic”—I would cheerfully have sent 
him, had he designated the means by which it was to be conveyed a 
distance of five hundred miles. 
I pass over, at least for the present, various instances of assertion, 
denial and invective, to notice one in particular. When I admit my 
mistake in not recognizing the Capra JEgagrus* as the source of the 
common goat, Dr. Bachman remarks: “I am glad to see this admission, 
more especially as it is the only error which you have acknowledged as 
existing in your two papers; although I have clearly shown—and you 
have not ventured to deny the fact—that it abounds with errors in 
every paragraph.” 
I am here censured for not denying an allegation that I was not con- 
scious had ever been made. I have re-perused Dr. Bachman’s first cri- 
ticism, (to which the above paragraph alludes,) and certainly nothing 
of the kind is contained in it. On the contrary, he therein speaks of 
my Essay as composed uof two ingenious and elaborate articles, pre- 
senting all the facts which were then available on Hybridity in Ani- 
mals.” Now, this highly commendatory opinion was not hastily ex- 
pressed ; for, at the time it was published, my Essay had already been 
in Dr. Bachman’s hands between two and three years. But, to the 
point: I now emphatically deny Dr. Bachman’s allegation, and will, 
moreover, prove it to be incorrect. 
Dr. Bachman asserts that he has shown my Essay to “ abound in 
errors in every paragraph.” I count ninety-seven paragraphs, and of 
about thirty of these I do not perceive that any notice has been taken ; 
others have been commented on-, without other objection than mere dif- 
ference of opinion ; and some, again, embrace but a single proposition, 
which, even if it were erroneous, would not prove the paragraph to 
“ abound in errors.” 
I must again enter my protest against Dr. Bachman’s disparagement 
of various authors whom I have quoted, simply because their facts are 
at variance with his theory. Some of them are too “ old,” as if age, or 
antiquity itself, could invalidate truth; while others, having erred in 
* Yet, even this opinion, though generally, is by no means unanimously received 
by zoologists, as I will hereafter show. 5 
some matters of observation or opinion, are held up to absolute derision. 
Among these are Aristotle,* Azara and Hamilton Smith. 
Dr. Bachman, in view of a proposed excursion into the fields, has the 
following remarkable sentence: 
“We will carry with us some of those old authors—Chevreul and 
Rudolphi, Bewick, Beckstein, and the works of the author on the new 
race of martin cats—and thus be enabled to compare old, musty books 
with fresh, truth-telling nature.” 
Would the reader believe that all these ancient authors either are, or 
have been, contemporaneous with Dr. Bachman ? That every one of 
them has lived within the present century, and that Chevreul—venera> 
bile nomen!—published his memoir in 1846 ? 
Dr. Bachman’s letter contains the following paragraph : 
“ You inform me that, in your publication in Silliman’s Journal, three 
years ago, you announced your conviction of your faith in the plurality 
of origin. I connot even find it announced there ; for your articles on 
Hybridity are only intended to prove that the fertility of the races of 
men is no proof of the unity.” 
I thought, and yet think that the following note, printed on the se- 
cond page of my Essay,f was all-sufficient to convey my meaning : Fur- 
ther researches into ethnogrophic affinities may render it probable that 
what are now termed the Jive races of men would be more appropriately 
called groups ; that each of these groups is again divisible into a greater 
or smaller number of primary races, each of which has expanded from 
an aboriginal nucleus or centre. Thus, I conceive that there were seve- 
ral centres for the American group of races, of which the highest in the 
scale are the Toltecan nations—the lowest the Fuegians. Nor does this 
view conflict with the general principle that all these nations and tribes 
have had—as I have elsewhere expressed it—a common origin; inas- 
much as by this term is only meant an indigenous relation to the coun- 
try they inhabit, and that collective identity of physical traits, mental 
and moral endowments, language, &c., which characterize all the Ame- 
rican races. The same remarks are applicable to all the other human 
* It is as unreasonable to reject the evidence of Aristotle on account of a few 
errors of judgment, as it would be to discard the testimony of the Book of Joshua, 
because its author alludes to the sun, and not the earth, as the revolving body. 
Mr. T. Bell calls Hamilton Smith a “high authority” in matters of science. 
f See American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. III., new series, 1841, and 
my Essay as published in a separate form. 6 
races ; but, in the present infant state of ethnographic science, the de- 
signation of these primitive centres is a task of equal delicacy and 
difficulty. 
I can see no ambiguity in this proposition, nor do I know that, by 
altering the phraseology, I could make it plainer ; but, I will cheerfully, 
with this view, furnish an extract from a letter addressed by me to J. 
R. Bartlett, Esq., dated, December 1, 1846, and published in the Trans- 
actions of the Ethnological Society of New-York.* 
“I do not use it [the word race\ to imply that all its divisions are 
derived from a single pair. On the contrary, I believe that they have 
originated from several, perhaps even from many pairs, which were 
adapted, from the beginning, to the varied localities they were designed 
to occupy. In other words, I regard the American nations as the true 
autocthones—the primeval inhabitants of this vast continent.” 
I trust that the preceding extracts, collectively considered, will suffi- 
ciently explain my meaning. 
Again : I am severely censured for having quoted Azara for a matter 
of fact in respect to certain hybrid cats; whereas, it appears, on a re- 
perusal of the text, that the circumstances had only reached him by- 
report from others. Persons who know me will take my word for it 
that this error arose from mere inadvertence. Such mistakes will occa- 
sionally and unavoidably occur in quoting a multitude of authorities. 
Let us see if Dr. Bachman is himself infallible. 
In his letter to me, (Journal, p. 507,) I find the following paragraph : 
“You scarcely commence your career, as an expounder of Scripture, 
before you evidence a disposition to become a perverter of its simple 
and expressive language. The Bible tells us that the whole human 
race descended from a single pair—Adam and Eve—and you signifi- 
cantly ask, ‘ Did it never occur to you that the text might be safely in- 
terpreted, at least two?’” 
Strange to say, I have never written, spoken, or dreamed of the 
opinion here attributed to me. I made no allusion to Adam or Eve, or 
to any human being, but only to the inferior animals, in connexion with 
the Deluge. The reader may judge for himself; for the following para- 
graph embraces all that I did there say on the subject: 
“ 2d. Some animals are said to have been received into the Ark by 
pairs, others by sevens, and among the latter were all birds and all clean 
beasts. Did it never occur to you that, with this range between two 
and seven, the text might be safely interpreted at least two ?” 
* Yol. 2, p. 218. 1 
This is a pervertion, indeed, and comes oddly enough from a person 
who follows up my error with nearly three pages of useless comment- 
ary, mingled with invective. I quoted Azara in haste, from a borrowed 
hook ; but Dr. Bachman sits down to answer a letter addressed to him, 
with that letter before his eyes, and then does me this signal and deli- 
berate injustice. 
I should be an unworthy member of the most benevolent and self- 
denying profession known among men if I were to allow to pass unno- 
ticed the gratuitous imputation of Dr. Bachman, that the science of 
medicine “ has slaughtered more of the human race, and shed more in- 
nocent blood, by its numerous theories and rash practice, than was in- 
flicted by all the armies of Caesar and Napoleon.” 
That my profession has had its full share of visionaries and empirics, 
I am free to acknowledge; nor am I blind to the evil consequences 
that have often resulted from the crude theories of these misguided per- 
sons. But, let me ask the Rev. Dr. Bachman if his own profession 
is free from them ? AVhence have arisen three hundred Christian 
sects, to perplex the thoughts and confound the judgment of the in- 
quirer after truth ? Physicians differ about the blood, the nervous 
fluid, and the modus operandi of medicines; but, are the clergy any 
more unite on the Trinity, Baptism and Regeneration? Religion is 
an emanation from the Supreme Being. It is a holy thing; and I ve- 
nerate its consistent teachers. But, what is mis-called Theology is a 
Protean compound, that has probably made as little progress, in ten 
centuries, as any branch of human knowledge, and, in my belief, much 
less than Medicine itself; and, if motives and results, as revealed by 
authentic history, were fairly analyzed in both, I have no fear that my 
profession would suffer by the comparison. The most beneficent gifts 
of Providence have been the most abused by man; and we may ex- 
claim of Religion as Madame Roland did of Liberty— 
“ How many crimes have been committed in thy name !” 
What constitutes a Species ? 
On this point, there is great diversity of opinion among naturalists. 
Some deny the law of specific distinctions—at least, their arguments 
lead to this inference. Thus, Lamarck and GeofFroy St. Hilaire insist 
upon the uninterrupted succession of the animal kingdom—the gradual 8 
mergence of one species into another, from the earliest ages of time ; 
and they suppose that the fossil animals whose remains are preserved 
in the various geological strata, however different from those of our own 
time, may, nevertheless, have been the ancestors of those now in being. 
Sir Charles Lyell has opposed this theory, with great ingenuity and ge- 
neral success ; yet, whoever will examine the facts and arguments em- 
ployed by its authors, may be disposed to admit that it is not altogether 
devoid of foundation in some exceptions to the general law of Nature. 
Somewhat allied to this is the opinion of Swainson and others, that 
permanent varieties constitute species; or, in other words, that varia- 
tions of climate, food and treatment produce specific distinctions. 
Species is defined by Buffon, “a succession of similar individuals 
which re-produce each other.” Cuvier’s definition is nearly the same; 
but he adds that “ the apparent differences of the races of our domestic 
species are stronger than those of any species of the same genus. The 
fact of the succession, therefore, and of the constant succession, consti- 
tutes alone the unity of the species.” 
An objection to these definitions arises from the fact that they apply 
as readily to mere varieties as to acknowledged species. Certain albino 
animals re-produce, inter se, to an indefinite extent; such also is the 
case with some fanciful varieties of the dog, pigeon, &c., which are ca- 
pable of multiplying by the law of succession, and yet have no claim to 
specific distinction, in the restricted acceptation of that term. 
I have brought together these definitions, in the first place, to show 
that naturalists are by no means agreed upon what constitutes a species, 
and, secondly, to offer some views of my own. 
As the result of much observation and reflection, I now submit a de- 
finition, which I hope will obviate at least some of the objections to 
which I have alluded : Species—a primordial organic form. It will 
be justly remarked that a difficulty presents itself, at the outset, in de- 
termining what forms are primordial; but, independently of various 
other sources of evidence, we may be greatly assisted in the inquiry by 
those monumental records, both of Egypt and Assyria, of which we are 
now happily possessed, of the proximate dates. My view may be briefly 
explained by saying, that, if certain existing organic types can be traced 
back into “ the night of time,” as dissimilar as we see them now, is it 
not more reasonable to regard them as aboriginal than to suppose them 
the mere accidental derivations of an isolated patriarchal stem of which 
we know nothing ? Hence, for example, I believe the dog family not to 
have originated from one primitive form, but in many forms. Again, 
what I call a species may be regarded by some naturalists as a primi- 9 
tive variety; but, as the difference is only in name, and in no way in- 
fluences the zoological question, it is unnecessary to notice it further. 
These views appear to correspond with those of Mr. Linnaeus Mar- 
tin, who expresses himself in the following terms : 
“ We are among those who believe that, as there are degrees in the 
relationship of species to species, some may, although distinct, approx- 
imate so nearly as not only to produce, inter se, mules incapable of in- 
terbreeding, but a progeny of fertile hybrids, capable of admixture, per- 
haps even to the most unlimited extent * 
Species may, therefore, be classed, according to their disparity or af- 
finity, in the following provisional manner : 
Remote species, of the same genus, are those among which hybrids 
are never produced. 
Allied species produce, inter se, an infertile offspring. 
Proximate species produce, with each other, a fertile oflspring.f 
Hybridity. 
Hybridity, whether in plants or animals, has been singularly ne- 
glected by naturalists. It has generally been regarded as a unit: 
whereas, its facts are as susceptible of classification as any other series 
of physiological phenomena. Hence, I have, on a former occasion, pro- 
posed four degrees of hybridity, which I will briefly recapitulate in this 
place. 
The ls£ degree is that in which the hybrids never reproduce; in 
other words, where the mixed progeny begins and ends with the first 
cross. 
The 2d degree is that in which the hybrids are incapable of re-pro- 
ducing, inter se, but multiply by union with the parent stock. 
The 3d degree is that in which animals of unquestionably distinct 
species produce a progeny which is prolific, inter se. 
The 4Ih degree is that which takes place between closely proximate 
species—among mankind, for example, and among those domestic ani- 
mals most essential to their wants and happiness. 
There is, moreover, what may be called a mixed form of hybridity, 
which certainly has had a very great influence in modifying some do- 
* W. C. L. Martin, History of the Dog, p. 1; London, 1845. 
f See Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 
September and October, 1850. 10 
mestic animals, and which I cannot so well express as in the language 
of Hamilton Smith : 
“ The advances towards hybrid races are always made by the domes- 
tic species to the wild ; and, when thus obtained, if kept by itself, and 
the cross-breed gradually becomes sterile, it does not prevent repeated 
intermixture of one or the other ; and therefore the admission of a 
great proportion of alien blood, which may again be crossed upon by 
hybrids of another source, whether it be a wolf, pariah, jackal, or 
dingo.” * 
Dr. Harlan, at a much earlier period, had taken a similar view of this 
question; for, after admitting our domestic dogs to be derived, in part, 
from the wolf, fox and jackal, he adds: 
“ A prolific hybrid, of this kind, once produced, the progeny would 
more readily unite with the congeners of either parent and with each 
other, and, in this manner, give rise to the innumerable varieties which, 
at the present day, are found scattered over the face of the earth.”| 
I regard these propositions as explanatory of a large class of the phe- 
nomena of hybridity. 
But, it wras thought by Ray, Buffon, John Hunter, and other natu- 
ralists of the past century, and is yet maintained by some learned men 
of the present day, that the hybrid offspring of two distinct species of 
animals are incapable of reproducing their kind; thus making hybridity 
the test of specific character. It follows, according to this supposed 
law of Nature, that, if mankind embraced several species, the intermix- 
ture of these could go no further than to produce a sterile hybrid vari- 
ety ; but, since all the races are capable of producing, with each other, 
a progeny more or less fertile, it is inferred that they all belong to one 
and the same species. This is the question at issue. J 
Doctrine of Specific Centres. 
“ The actual zoology and botany of the earth’s surface exhibit several 
distinct regions, in each of which the indigenous animals and plants are, 
at least as to species, and, to a considerable amount, as to genera, dif- 
ferent from those of other zoological and botanical regions. They are 
respectively adapted to certain conditions of existence, such as climate, 
temperature, mutual relations, and, no doubt, other circumstances of 
favourable influence which men have not yet discovered, and which 
* Canid®, I. p. 104. f Fauna Americana, p. 17. \ Essay on Hybridity, p.3- 11 
never may be discovered in the present state. These conditions cannot 
be transferred to other situations. The habitation proper to one de- 
scription of vegetable or animal families would be intolerable and 
speedily fatal to others. Even when, as in many parts of the two 
hemispheres, and on the contrary side of the equator, there is appa- 
rently a similarity of climate, we find not an identity, but only an 
analogy of animal and vegetable species.” * 
The opinions expressed in these remarks of a learned and most ex- 
emplary divine have met with violent opposition from some prejudiced 
minds; but, the more these views are examined, the more self-evident 
they become; whence Sir Charles Lyell’s observation, that naturalists 
have been led “to adopt, very generally, the doctrine of specific cen- 
tres ; or, in other words, to believe that each species, whether of plant 
or animal, originated in a single birth-place.”f 
De Candolle has suggested twenty-seven of these independent re- 
gions for plants, and the Rev. J. S. Henslow forty-five. 
For the inferior animals, Dr. Prichard, “ a distinguished Christian 
physiologist and philosopher,” proposes seven regions. Mr. Swainson 
five; Prof. Hitchcock eleven; Mr. Waterhouse also eleven, but with 
some geographical differences ; and Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Agassiz, and 
many, if not nearly all of the continental zoologists of the present day, 
are united in sentiment on this principle. How gratuitous—how un- 
just, therefore—it is to attempt to brand as infidels those who adopt an 
opinion irresistibly derived from an examination of the truths of Na- 
ture, and which has the sanction and support of such names as those 
we have enumera ed ! 
It is necessary, however, to add that most of these authorities make 
the human species an exception, and the sole exception, to this doctrine 
of independent creations ; but, it appears to me that, if it can be de- 
monstrated with respect to the inferior animals, reason and analogy 
will lead us to apply it also to man. \ 
It is evident that some naturalists more and more lean to the opin- 
ion that even our domestic animals have been created, not in one cen- 
tre only, but in several centres; and, perhaps further investigation may 
here also establish certain types as the indigenous productions of par- 
ticular regions; and hence, as before remarked, what we have been ac- 
* Rev. J. Pye Smith. The Relation of the Holy Scriptures and Geological Sci- 
ence, p. 48. 
f Principles of Geology, p. 608. 
\ See Prof. Agassiz’s admirable exposition of this subject in the Christian Ex- 
aminer for July, 1850. 12 
customed to regard as mere derivatives of a single pair may prove to 
be primeval forms, no matter what position we may assign them in our 
zoological nomenclature. 
Origin of the Races of Domestic Dogs. 
In order to show that my views respecting these animals are neither 
peculiar in themselves nor heterodox in science, I propose briefly to 
notice the opinions of some of the best and latest zoologists who have 
written on this question ; shewing that, so far from being settled, it yet 
demands elaborate investigation. 
“Whether the numberless breeds of dogs were originally descended 
from one common stock, and owe their infinite varieties solely to their 
complete domestication; whether, on the contrary, they are derived 
from the intermixture of different species, now so completely blended 
together as to render it impossible to trace out the line of their descent; 
and whether, on either supposition, the primeval race or races still ex- 
ist in a state of nature, are questions which have baffled the ingenuity 
of the most celebrated naturalists.”* 
In the Faune Francaise, now just completed, and written by Derma- 
rest, Blainville, and other eminent zoologists, the section on the Domes- 
tic Dogs commences as follows : 
“Their origin is wholly unknown ; but there is reason to believe that 
these animals have descended from many wild species, reduced to sub- 
jection by man, and which, by their mixture, have produced the multi- 
tude of existing races.” f 
So, also, Fischer, in his Synopsis Mammaliumremarks— 
11 Cams familiaris — animal notissimum, procxd dubio originis 
mixtceC 
And Schinz, in his list of primeval dogs, (Canes primcevi) gives five 
species, viz.: C. dingo, C. novae HiberniaC. primcevus, C. sinensis, 
and C. rutilans ; § every one of which has equal claims to the paternity 
of the whole race. 
So, also, Azara, Pallas, Tchudi, Ehrenberg, Harlan and Blytk, adopt 
the doctrine of a plurality of specific origins. 
Desmoulins supposes “ the dog, the wolf, the jackal and the corsac to 
* Bennett, Menagerie, I, p. 51. j- Tome I, p. 65. 
\ P. 173, 1829. § Synop. Mammalium, I. p- 394. 13 
be, in fact, but modifications of the same species ; or, that the races of 
the domestic dog ought to be referred, each in its proper country, to a 
corresponding indigenous wild species; and that the species thus do- 
mesticated have, in the course of their migrations in the train of man, 
produced various crosses with each other, with their offspring, and with 
their prototypes, causing a still further increase of distinct races.” * 
On the other hand, those naturalists who have contended for a com- 
mon ancestry for the dog family are by no means united on the ques- 
tion of the primitive type. Mr. Hodgson, a gentleman remarkable for 
the extent and accuracy of his zoological researches, seems to regard his 
Ganis primcevus as the origin of the whole race. Prof. Kretehmar, of 
Frankfort, endeavours to trace the ancient Egyptian dogs to the Nilotic 
jackal, the Canis anthus of the systems. Buffon, at one time, supposed 
the shepherd’s dog to have been this “ grand progenitorwhile Mr. 
T. Bell sees this important type in the European wolf—(C. lupus) 
After Buffon had referred them all to the shepherd’s dog, and after de- 
nying that the wolf and dog would breed together, he lived to prove 
the contrary by his own for he found “ the offspring to 
be prolific, indeed; but that, in four generations, the hybrid type, 
though not obliterated, had not passed into a domesticated race.” 
Tilesius refers all the European dogs to the jackal of the Caucsasus; 
and others have considered the C. cancrivrus, of Dermarest, as the 
source of the charib race. 
These advocates for canine unity, however, appear not to have stu- 
died the aboriginal dogs of America, nor to have made themselves ac- 
quainted with the evidences to be derived from the monuments and 
other remains of antiquity. Dr. Hodgkin, of London, however, in di- 
viding the dog family into three groups, expressly omits the Australian 
dingo and all the wild dogs of America. 
In view of these very diverse opinions, and others which might be 
added, I presume every one will concede this to be a perfectly open ques- 
tion. My own convictions are, that the origin of the domesticated races 
of dogs are at least three-fold : 
1. From several species of lupine and vulpine animals. 
2. From various species of wild dogs. 
3. From the blending of these together, with, perhaps, occasional 
admixture of the jackal, under the influence of domestication. 
* Richardson, in Parry’s second Voyage, p. 296. 14 
Some Dogs partly of Wolf Origin. 
The name “"Wolf” is a vague one, “ because there are various spe- 
cies of wolves in Europe, Asia and America; and, further, if each of 
these species has given rise to a breed of dogs in the different countries 
where they are found, then, as all domestic dogs promiscuously breed 
together, the advocate of the non-admixture of species is plunged into 
a dilemma.” * 
The celebrated Blainville has written yet more recently upon this sub- 
ject, and in a most learned and elaborate manner; and the result of 
his investigations may be summed up as follows : He admits that the ex- 
periments of Buffon prove the fertility of the cross between the wolf and 
dog; that the domestic dogs constitute one species, in the restricted, or 
Linnean sense of the term, but that they are distinct from certain wild spe- 
cies and fiom wolves; and he gives, as a principal reason for the latter 
conclusion, that the European “ dog, which has been wild in America for 
two hundred years, always remains a dog and never returns to a wolf.”f 
In all these particulars, I might agree with M. Blainville, even to unity 
of species, in the strict Linnean sense, for the common dogs of Europe. 
But I do not find that this great naturalist indicates any one form for the 
original stock ; and we may therefore presume that he regards them as 
deived from various primeval varieties ; in which case the difference 
between us would only be in names. 
For the present, let us confine ourselves to the cross between the dog 
and wolf in Europe; and in the first place, I find that Buffon sent two 
of his hybrids (of which I have, on a former occasion, given the history) 
to M. Le Roi, Inspector of the Park at Versailles. Here they bred to- 
gether, producing three pups. Two were given to the Prince de Condo, 
and I can find no account of them; the third, which was retained by 
M. Le Roi, was killed at a boar hunt. The father of these pups was 
then mated with a she wolf, and bore three pups ; and here the report 
closes, although the cross had not given out.J 
“ I have seen at Moscow,” says Pallas, “ about twenty spurious ani- 
mals from dogs and black wolves, (C. lycaon.) They are, for the most 
part, like wolves, except that they cany their tails higher and have a 
kind of hoarse barking. They multiply among themselves; and some 
* Martin, History of the Dog, p. 19. 
j- Osteograpliie, p, 16, 142. 
f Sonnini’s Buffon Quad., xxxiii., p. 321, Supp. 15 
of the whelps are grayish, rusty, or even of the whitish hue of the Artie 
wolves.”* 
Crosses of this kind have been known from a remote antiquity, and 
are called wolf-dogs, ((7, porneranus.) One of them is figured on an 
Etruscan medal, of the second or third century before Christ. Ovid, in 
describing the pack of Acteon, enumerates some thirty dogs, which 
appear to represent many different breeds : and he is careful to observe 
that one of them, Nape, was sprung from a wolf; while another, Lycis- 
ca, is evidently the dog which Pliny refers to the same mixed origin. 
My friend, M. Koeppen, who has resided many years in Greece, in- 
forms me that the mountainous districts of that country are infested by 
dogs, which are supposed, both from their form and instincts, to be of 
this race. 
Such, also, are the feral dogs of Natolia, in Asia Minor, which are 
more fierce than the wolves of the same districts, yet distinguished from 
them without difficulty. With respect to the Iceland, Norwegian, Rus- 
sian, Siberian, and other dogs of the present class, I must refer for satis- 
factory details of habits and origin, to the admirable work of Mr. Mar- 
tin, who remarks that some of these may yet be classed with “ real 
wild dogs ;”f that is to say, with dogs which have never been domes- 
ticated ; or, having been domesticated, have resumed the feral state. 
What is the dingo of New Holland, but a reclaimed lupine dog? 
The same animal is yet wild in that country. Some naturalists consider 
him a distinct species, or an aboriginal dog ; others, a variety of the com- 
mon dog, with which last he is capable of inter-breeding. In this re- 
markable country, the fauna is unlike tiiat of any other, and constitutes 
in itself one of those primal zoological centres, of which we have spoken, 
and of which, the Canis dingo, or Australian dog, is obviously the 
peculiar and aboriginal canine element. So long as the dingo was iso- 
lated from other species of the genus, so long he continued to possess 
the same exterior characters, both in his wild and tame state, over the 
vast continent of New Holland ; but he has slowly, but certainly, begun 
to mingle with the European species, and will, no doubt, soon establish 
some modification of form, perhaps also of instinct, in the mixed race.J 
While the dogs of North America appear to be derived from at least 
two species of wolves,§ both of which I regard, with Gray, Agassiz, 
* Pennant’s Artie Zool., i., p. 42. \ Page, 108, &c. 
\ The Canis rutilans, the 'wild dog of Timor, appears to have been recently in- 
trodneed into the northern part of New Holland. 
§The systems of zoology mostly limit the North American wolves, exclusive of 
those of Mexico and California, to two species—Canis lupus and C. latrans. But 16 
Richardson and other zoologists, as peculiar to our own continent, the 
European race, though, in some instances, largely crossed by another 
wolf, is, for the most part, devoid of any such mixture. In proof of this 
position, I again appeal to the recent elaborate investigations of Blainville, 
and to the many other authorities already quoted in this memoir. I also 
appeal to the fact that the domestic dogs of Europe, even when they 
resume the feral state, do not become true wolves, as wre will see more 
particularly hereafter; and finally, I appeal to the oldest monuments of 
the human race, the sepulchres of Gizeh, wherein the wolf, the dog and 
the jackal are figured, side by side, on tablets that date 3,500 years 
before Christ; and they can be traced yet further back into the primi- 
tive dawn of civilization, for they constitute component parts of the hie- 
roglyphic alphabet itself. 
Cuvier expresses no decided opinion on this question. “ Some natu- 
ralists,” says he, “ think the dog is a wolf, and others that he is a domes- 
ticated jackal; and yet those dogs, which have become wild again in 
desert islands, resemble neither the one nor the other.” And Sir 
Charles Lyell adds, “ that when any of their whelps are caught and 
brought from the woods to the towns, they grew up in the most perfect 
submission to man.” 
When Mr. Bell asserts that “ there is not a single character which 
belongs to all the varieties [of the dog,] which is not applicable to the 
wolf”—he might have added—to all the wolves. Hence, his observa- 
tion only tends to complicate the question ; for if it proves all the dogs 
to be of one type with the wolf, it would equally prove all the wolves 
to be of one species ; a proposition which, perhaps, neither Mr. Bell nor 
any other zoologist would contend for. It must be conceded, however, 
that in the greater part of the old world, the species and races of dogs 
have been so long and so intimately blended, that it is very difficult to 
distinguish the extent of the lupine element among them. Thousands 
and tens of thousands of years (for even Blainville admits that Schmer- 
ling has found the domestic dog in the fossil state) have contributed to 
this admixture; and it is chiefly in America, where also the same 
I have no question that the grey wolf of Canada and other northern countries, is a 
different species from any of the old world, and I adopt for it the name of C 
occidentalis, (Rich.) Dr. Richardson long ago expressed his doubts about its 
relation to the C. lupus, for they differ both in conformation and character. Dr. 
Townsend, who, as is well known, has crossed the continent of America to Oregon, 
has described the giant wolf as a distinct species, by the name of C■ gigas; a 3' 
tinction which had been already noticed by Mr. Peale, who, however, gave it the 
pre-occupied name of C. occidentalis.—See Jour. Acad. Nat. Sciences, vol. ii, 1850. 17 
changes are taking place, that this question ean be examined with a 
greater degree of precision. 
My object will be to show that the Indian dogs of North America 
are derived from at least two distinct species of wolves; that these two 
species have combined to form a third or hybrid race; and that this 
last unites again with the European dog. 
For the following facts, I am largely indebted to Dr. (now Sir John) 
Richardson, the distinguished author of the Fauna Boreali-Americana. 
This gentleman informs us, that in the course of his travels in the 
northern regions of America, he traversed 30° of latitude and more 
than 50° of longitude ; and that during the seven years in which he 
w7as thus occupied, the aggregate of his various expeditions was equal 
to a distance of twenty thousand miles.* No individual, before or 
since, has devoted to this subject the same amount of talent and prac- 
tical observation. Let him speak : 
The Esquimaux Dog—(Cams familiaris borealis, Desm.)—“The 
great resemblance which the domesticated dogs of the aboriginal Ame- 
ricans bear to the wolves of the same country, was remarked by the 
earliest settlers from Europe, and has induced some naturalists of much 
observation to consider them to be merely half-tamed wolves. Without 
entering at all into the question of the origin of the domestic dog, I may 
state that the resemblance between the wolves and the dogs of those 
Indian nations who still preserve their ancient mode of life, continues to 
be very remarkable ; and it is nowhere more so than at the very north- 
ern extremity of the continent, the Esquimaux dogs being not only ex- 
tremely like the grey wolf of the Artie circle, in form and colour, but also 
nearly equalling them in size.” 
And he adds, that he has seen a family of these wolves, when play- 
ing together, occasionally carry their tails curved upwards ;f which 
character, if I remember rightly, is the principal one which Linnaeus 
supposed to distinguish the dog from the wolf. 
Captain Parry informs us that his officers saw thirteen wolves in a 
single pack, and mistook them for Esquimaux dogs, so complete was 
the resemblance between them. He adds, that when the wolf is tamed 
the two animals will breed readily together.^ 
This intelligent navigator further observes, “ that some of his female 
Esquimaux dogs, during his first voyage, strayed from his ships, and re- 
turned after a few days pregnant by wolves. Sir J. Franklin states, that 
the Indians attached to one of his expeditions, upon destroying-a female 
* Fauna Boreali-Americana, Mamm. p. 61. f Idem, p. 75. 
\ First Voy., Supp. p. 186. 18 
wolf, carried away three of lier whelps to improve the breed; and that 
in the month of March, the female grey wolves frequently entice the 
domestic dogs from the forts, though, at other seasons, a strong anti- 
pathy seemed to subsist between them. In the Museum of the Zoolo- 
gical Society of London is a fine specimen of the Esquimaux dog, in 
contact with a gray wolf from the northern wilds of America; and any 
one would suppose, unless informed to the contrary, that the two ani- 
mals were of the same species.”* 
Without introducing any additional facts, I think we are justified in 
regarding the Esquimaux dog as a reclaimed northern wolf, (Canis occi- 
dentalis.) So variable are the external characters of the latter animal,f 
both as to size and colour, that naturalists have, at different times, en- 
deavoured to establish, as we have seen, no less than five species in the 
northern part of America alone. Two of these, however, (C. ater and 
C. nubilus) are more generally regarded as mere varieties of the com- 
mon grey wolf; but it would naturally follow that the domestication of 
these several varieties would lead to a corresponding difference between 
the northern Indian dogs and those of the Esquimaux, although both 
may claim, in part at least, the same specific origin. When speaking 
of the wolves of the Saskatchewan and Copper-mine rivers, Dr. Rich- 
ardson makes the following remark : 
“ The resemblance between the northern wolves and the domestic 
dog of the Indians is so great, that the size and strength of the wolf 
seems to be the only difference. I have more than once mistaken a 
band of wolves for the dogs of a party of Indians ; and the howl of the 
animals of both species is prolonged so exactly in the same key, that 
even the practised ear of an Indian fails at times to discriminate them.”! 
“ At certain seasons,” he adds, “ they breed freely with the she wolf,” 
while on other occasions, “ both male and female wolves devour the 
dogs as they would any other prey.” 
The Hare-Indian Dog—(Canis familiaris lagopus.)—The author 
just quoted, observes, that the resemblance between this animal and the 
prairie wolf, (C. latrans) “ is so great, that on comparing live specimens, I 
could detect no difference in form, (except the smallness of its cranium) 
* Martin, on the Dog, p. 115, 116. 
\ The common American wolf sometimes shows a remarkable diversity of color. 
“On the banks of the Mackenzie, I saw five young wolves leaping and tumbling 
over each other with all the playfulness of the puppies of the domestic dog, and 
it is not improbable that they were all of one litter. One of them was pied, 
another entirely black, and the rest showed the colors of the common grey 
wolves.”—Richardson. 
\ Fauna, p. 65. 19 
nor in the fineness of its fur, and the arrangement of its spots and colour. 
It, in fact, bears the same relation to the prairie wolf, (C. latrans) that 
the Esquimaux dog does to the great grey wolf,”* (C. occidentalis.) 
These dogs, like the cognate wolf, vary considerably in colour, size 
and form.f Those on the Mackenzie River are remarkably small, and 
have sometimes been compared to the Artie fox. Those in the Man- 
dan country are larger, and are also compared by Say, the Prince de 
Wied, and other travellers, to the prairie wolf. In other localities, also, 
this breed appears to be preserved unmixed. 
“ During my residence in the Michigan Territory, in the years 1831- 
32,” says my friend, I)r. J. C. Fisher, in a note addressed to me, “ I on 
several different occasions, shot the Ojibeway, or Indian dogs, by mis- 
take, for the prairie wolf, and supposed that I knew it well; but, after 
the frequent mistakes I made, I became very cautious about shooting 
them, lest I should kill more dogs. They were the common dogs of the 
Ojibeway, Pottowatomie and Ottawa tribes.” 
The North American, or common Indian Dog—(Canis familiaris 
canadensis.)—“ By the above title,” says Dr. Richardson, “ I wish to 
designate the kind of dog which is most generally cultivated by the 
native tribes of Canada and the Hudson’s Bay countries. It is inter- 
mediate, in size and form, between the two preceding varieties ; and by 
those who consider the domestic races of dogs to be derived from wild 
animals, this might be termed a cross between the prairie and grey 
wolves.” 
Subsequently, in the Appendix to Capt. Back’s Narrative, Dr. Richard- 
son further observes, that “ the offspring of the wolf and Indian dog 
are prolific, and are prized by the voyagers as beasts of draught, being 
much stronger than the ordinary dog.”J 
This fact is corroborated by my friend, Dr. John Evans, who has 
recently passed some time in the Mandan country, where the dogs, 
however, appear to be derived from the prairie wolf; and he assures 
me that the frequent and spontaneous intercourse brtween these 
dogs and the wolf of that country, (which is now almost exclusively 
the Cams occidentalis, or common grey wolf) is a fact known to 
every one. 
Again, the Canis Mexicanus, or Tichichi of the Mexicans, is said by 
Humboldt to be very much like this dog of the northern Indians, and 
is also supposed to derive its parentage from a wolf. 
The intermixture of these two species was indeed so manifest to Dr. 
Richardson himself, that he remarks, that it “ seems to support the opi- 
* Fauna, p. >79. f Idem, p. '74. % Amer. Edition, p. 365. 20 
nion of Buffon,* lately advocated by Desmoulins, that the dog, the 
wolf, the jackal and corsac, are, in fact, but modifications of the same 
species; or, that the races of domestic dogs ought to be referred, each 
in its proper country, to a corresponding indigenous wild species ; and 
that the species thus domesticated have, in the course of their migra- 
tions in the train of man, produced by their various crosses with each 
other, with their offspring, and with their prototypes, a still farther in- 
crease of different races, of which about fifty or sixty are at present 
cultivated.” 
This doctrine, it will be seen, accords with that I have adopted; and 
I repeat it here, in order to take exception to the mode in which the 
word species is first used ; a vagueness which is corrected, however, in 
its second application, and which I have marked with italics. 
The collective evidence derived from the preceding facts, is summed 
up by Dr. Richardson in a single paragraph, wherein, after describing 
the Mackenzie River dog, he goes on to say that “ it was, perhaps, for- 
merly spread over the northern parts of America, but being fitted only 
for the chase, it has, since the introduction of guns, given way to the 
mongrel race sprung from the Esquimaux, Newfoundland and this very 
breed, with occasional intermixture of European kinds.”f 
The natural, and, to me, unavoidable conclusion, is simply this : that 
two species of wolves, (acknowledged to be distinct from each other, by 
all the zoologists, not excepting Dr. BachmanJ himself,) has each been 
trained into a domestic dog; that these dogs have re-produced, not only 
with each other, but with the parent stocks, and even with the European 
dog, until a widely extended hybrid race has arisen, in which it is often 
impossible to tell a wolf from a dog, or the dogs from each other. 
Aboriginal American dogs from Vulpine and other sources. 
Besides the two indigenous wolf-dogs of the North, of which we 
have spoken, (the Hare-Indian and Esquimaux races,) and the third or 
mixed species, (the common Indian dog,) the continent of America 
* Yol. xiv., p. 350. It would, therefore, appear that Buffon held, at different 
times, three different opinions on this subject; for he also referred all the domestic 
dogs to the shepherd’s dog, and gives us a genealogical table to illustrate this 
idea; and still later, he gave the wolf the place he had before assigned to the 
shepherd’s dog. 
f Quoted by Martin, loco citat., p. 14. 
\ Dr. Bachman, however, in common with many other zoologists, regards the 
American grey wolf as of the same species as the C. lupus of the old world. 21 
possesses a number of other aboriginal forms, which terminate only in 
the inter-tropical regions of South-America. One of these was observed 
by Columbus, on landing in the Antilles, A. D. 1492. “These,” 
says Buffon, “had the head and ears very long, and resembled a fox in 
appearance.” They are called Aguara dogs in Mexico, and Alcos in 
Peru. 
“ There are many species,” adds Buffon, “ which the natives of Guiana 
have called dogs of the woods, (chiees des bois) because they are not yet 
reduced, like our dogs, to a state of domestication ; and they are thus 
rightly named, because they breed together with domestic races.” 
The wild Aguaras, I believe, are classed by most naturalists with the 
fox-tribe ; but Hamilton Smith has embraced them in a generic group, 
called Dasicyon, to which he and Mr. Martin refer four species. The 
latter zoologist sums up a series of critical inquiries wit/i the following 
remarks : 
“It is almost incontestibly proved, that the aboriginal Aguara tame 
dogs, and others of the American continent, which, on the discovery of 
its different regions, were in subjugation to the savage or semi-civilized 
nations, were not only indigenous, but are the descendants of several 
wild Aguara dogs, existing contemporary with themselves, in the woods 
or plains ; and granting that a European race (as is the case since) had, 
by some chance, contributed to their production, the case is not altered, 
but the theory of the blending of species confirmed 
Dr. Tchudi, one of the most distinguished zoologists of the present 
day, has paid especial attention to the character and history of two do- 
mesticated dogs of South America, which he regards as distinct species. 
1. Canis Ingce. Perro-dog, or Alco.—The dog to which Tchudi 
gives this name, is the same which the Peruvians possessed and wor- 
shipped before the arrival of the Spaniards, and is found in the tumuli 
of those people of the oldest epoch. It is so inferior, however, to the 
exotic breeds, that it is rapidly giving way to them, and an unmixed 
individual is now seldom seen; and they present “the undetermined 
form of the mixture of all the breeds that have been imported from 
Europe, and thus assume the shape of cur-dogs, or of a primitive spe- 
cies.”f Is this dog, (Canis ingce) the type of the Aguara race ? 
2. Canis caribceus.—Desmarest has given this name to the hairless 
dog, which, as Humboldt remarks, was found by Columbus, in the An- 
tilles, by Cortez, in Mexico, and by Pizarro, in Peru. Desmarest, if I 
* Martin, Nat. Hist, of the Dog, p. 30. 
f Hamilton Smith, Canidce, ii., p. 123. Tchudi, in his Fauna Peruana, attributes 
the great variety of colours now remarkable in these dogs, to their cross with 
European breeds. 22 
mistake not, supposes this dog to be descended from the C. cancrivorus, 
a native species, which, according to Blainville, belongs to the section of 
true wolves. But Rengger, who had ample opportunities of deciding 
this question, regards it as an aboriginal wild dog, which the Indians 
have reduced to domestication; and he adds, in explanation, that it 
does not readily mix with the European species, and that the Indian 
tribes have, in their respective languages, a particular name for it, but 
none for any domestic animal of exotic derivation.* 
I need not be told that this animal so resembles the Barbary dog, 
(Canis cegypticeus) that some suppose it to have been brought from the 
old world. In the absence of all proof, however, it is more reasonable, 
with Tchudi and Desmarest, to regard it as an indigenous animal. 
Here then, again, we have two aboriginal dogs, one seemingly derived 
from the fox-tribe, or at least from fox-like wild dogs ; the other from 
an unknown source; yet both unite more or less readily with the exotic 
stocks, producing a hybrid race, partly peculiar in appearance, and part- 
ly resembling the mongrel races of Europe. 
With respect to the jackal, as an element of the European dogs, I 
may merely remark, that Professor Cretschmar, who appears to regard 
them as the mixture of various species, supposes the jackal of Nubia to 
be one of these original sources. Other naturalists look on the jackal 
as one of those merely casual admixtures which has left its impress on 
some varieties of the dog; for the female jackal has repeatedly paired 
with it, and, in an instance recorded by Hunter, produced six pups ; and 
one of these again brought forth five others from a terrier dog. No 
difficulty occurred, excepting the proverbial one of keeping these hybrid 
animals from associating with the common dog; and the experiment 
was consequently restricted to two hybrid generations.f 
Antiquity of some Races of Dogs. \ 
In tracing back the age of certain canine breeds and species, I avail 
myself of the chronology of Prof. Lepsius, which has happily revealed 
the proximate dates of the Egyptian monuments, and thus enabled us 
to refer both man and animals to their respective epochs of time. Of 
this chronology, I may speak in another part of this memoir, and, for 
* Nat. Hist, of Paraguay, p. 151. f Trans, of the Roy. Soc. 1787, p. 263. 
f From the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 
September and October, 1850. 23 
the present, I shall briefly offer some new and remarkable facts on the 
subject before us. 
1. The Fox-Dog—(C. lupaster ?)—This animal is of the middle 
size, with erect ears and somewhat bushy tail. It appears to be the 
oldest dog of which the Egyptians have left an effigy; for it represents 
a symbol in their alphabet,* with which it must be coeval, and there- 
fore demonstrably not lest than six thousand years old. This same dog 
is again represented on the paintings in the tomb of Roti, at Beni Has- 
san, which date with the Xllth dynasty, or the 23rd century B. C.; 
and he can thence be traced downwards, through the successive monu- 
mental periods, until these cease to record the affairs of Egypt. It is 
found, embalmed, in great numbers, in various parts of that country; 
and, lastly, it appears to have been “ the parent stock of the modern 
red wild dog so common at Cairo and the other towns of the lower 
country.” f Clot-Bey observes that it now leads a nomadic life, and 
generally without a master, and, like the jackal and the fox, frequents 
the confines of the desert. It does not usually associate with other 
dogs, but is capable of re-producing with them ; but this cross-breed is 
of no use or value. Ehrenberg, who calls this animal Canis lupaster, 
supposes it to have been primitively a wolf; but as, in its present wild 
state, it nowhere becomes a true wolf, we may more safely refer its ori- 
gin to some feral stock, once, and perhaps yet, indigenous to the region 
of the Nile. 
2. The Greyhound—((7.J grains.)—There are three varieties of this 
animal represented on the monuments of Egypt; but the oldest has 
long, erect ears, with a smooth, short (and probably cropped) tail. I 
first detect it in the paintings in a tomb of the Illrd dynasty, (where 
it occurs in several different places,) and is, consequently, upwards of five 
thousand years old; thence, I have traced it down the Vlth and Xllth 
dynasties, where my researches stop for the present, for want of the re- 
quisite leisure. But this same dog appears to be represented by the 
Roumelian greyhound of the present day, which, however, I know only 
from description. 
3. Another greyhound first appears in the tomb of Roti, at Beni 
Hassan, in the 23rd century before Christ. § It has all the characters 
of the pendant-eared greyhound of the present day, as figured by Buf- 
fon, but is represented with cropped ears. Now, the present Nubian 
* Bunsen, Egypt’s place in the History of the World, p. 4:1*1. 
f Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, III, p. 38. 
f I have used the generic term, Canis, both for dogs and wolves ; the latter are 
now often comprised in a separate genus, called Lupus. 
§ Rossillini, Mon. Tav. XVII, fig. 3. 24 
greyhound, as seen in the beautiful plates of M. Prisse’s Oriental Al- 
bum, appears to be the very same animal; and it is a curious fact, men- 
tioned to me by Mr. Gliddon, that the modern Nubians habitually crop 
the ears of this dog. 
4. The third form of antique greyhound has a bushy tail. It is fig- 
ured by Hamilton Smith from the monuments ; but I have not yet met 
with it, and consequently cannot at present determine its age. A similar 
form, called the Akaba greyhound, is yet common in Syria and Arabia* 
But, what is not less remarkable than the permanence and vast anti- 
quity of some of the preceding forms, is the fact that what we call the Eng- 
lish greyhound is figured, with every distinctive characteristic, even to the 
semi-pendant ears, on a supposed antique statue now preserved in the 
Vatican at Rome.f 
The first three of this series are, probably, primordial forms; but the 
English greyhound may be a derivative from some partial intermixture, 
in the same manner that the Irish greyhound is said to be derived from 
an infusion of the great Danish dog with the common breed.J 
5. The Bloodhound—( C. sagax.)—Several varieties of the stag and 
bloodhound are very closely allied. In the tomb of Roti, at Beni Has- 
san, is a painting representing a spirited deer-hunt, and the dogs two 
of which are represented, are admirable illustrations of this variety. 
They are common on the later monuments ; for example, in the Grand 
Procession of Thotmes III, (B. C. 1700,) where several of them are as- 
sociated with people and productions of the interior of Africa. § Again, 
yet later, in a tomb at Gourneh, near Thebes; and, if I mistake not, 
through various later epochs. Now, if we compare the oldest of these 
delineations—viz.: those of Beni Hassan, with the blood-hounds of 
Africa lately (and, perhaps, yet) living in the Tower Menagerie in Lon- 
don, we cannot deny their identity, so complete is the resemblance of 
form and instinct. || 
6. The Turnspit—(C. vertagtis.)—Wilkinson and Blainvilie have 
both acknowledged that a variety of this dog is figured in the tomb of 
Roti, at Beni It is yet common both in Europe and Asia. 
7. The Watch Dog—(C. .)—Several of these animals, or, 
at least, their analogies, are figured in the tomb, just mentioned.** They 
* LaBorde, Trav. through Arabia Petrsea, p. 118. Russell’s Alleppo, II, p. 179. 
| Blainville, Osteography, Canis, pi. XIY. 
Bell, British Quadrupeds, p. 241. 
§ Hoskins’s Ethiopia, Grand Procession, Part I. 
| Bennett. Tower Menagerie, p. 83. 
Rosellini, Tab. XVII, fiig. 4. 
** Idem. Tab. XVII, fig. 2,4, 9. See also Martin, p. 49. 25 
bear a striking resemblance to one figured on a Roman mosaic pave- 
ment at Pompeii, and are frequently met with in the East. It is, pos- 
sibly, this dog which represents a second canine symbol in the hiero- 
glyphic alphabet; but the figure is too small to enable me to speak 
with confidence.* 
8. House Dog.—[C. hybridus.)—I take this identification and pro- 
visional specific name, as I have also most of the others of this series, 
from Blainville.f We find this animal also on the monuments of the 
Xllth dynasty, where it presents some modifications, much as we see 
them in the present day.J 
9. The Wolf-Dog—(C. rpo?7ieranus.)—This animal is also well repre- 
sented at Beni Hassan, with all the characteristics that can be embraced 
in a drawing that is little more than an outline.§ It is also figured on 
an ancient Etruscan ? medal of the second or third century B. C. || 
It will be observed that two of the preceding varieties of dog are co- 
eval with the earliest hieroglyphic symbols; and, as these last cannot 
be later than the age of Menes, the first king of Egypt, we may safely 
date them, on the chronology of Lepsius, as far back as that epoch, viz. 
3893 B. C., or 5743 years from our own time—how much further, we 
have not, at present, even the means of forming a reasonable conjecture. 
One other form—the long-eared greyhound—dates, as we have seen, 
with the 3rd dynasty—about 3500 years B. C. Six additional forms 
date with the 12th dynasty, which ended B. C. 2124; and, as the 
tombs of Roti and Nevopth belong to the reign of Osortasen Ilnd, they 
are placed by Lepsius in the twenty-third century before Christ. 
I give these pictorial data as a part only of the series; for, of the 
eight hundred plates announced by Dr. Lepsius as in progress of publi- 
cation, but thirty-five have yet reached this country; and, for these, I 
am indebted to the kindness of that distinguished scholar who has at 
length raised the “ veil of Isis,” and given dates to the hitherto chaotic 
monuments of the Nile. 
Dr. Bachman quotes Hamilton Smith, with some degree of triumph, 
to show that, three thousand years ago, two varieties only of the dog 
were known. This was excusable in a naturalist who, at the time of 
* Bunsen, ut supra, p. 417. 
f Osteographie, Canis, pi. X1Y. Blainville calls it chien domestique. It is also 
the Roguet of the French. 
\ Rosellini, Mon. Tav. XYI, fig. 5. 
§ Rosellini, Mon. Tav. XVII, fig. 5. 
|| Blainville, Osteographie, Canis, pi. XIY. 26 
publishing his Canidce, (1839,) could not have seen the complete icon- 
ography of either Champollion or Rosellini; and, again, at that pe- 
riod, the earliest sculptures and paintings were unknown, nor had the 
whole series been chronologically arranged—a consummation that gives 
them nearly their whole value, in a zoological sense. The Hebrew 
chronology ascribes the Deluge to the year 2340 B. C. Now, three of 
these dogs date nearly a thousand years earlier in time, and all the rest 
belong to the twenty-third century before our era. Col. Smith’s view 
were in accordance with the knowledge of the coexistent time ; but, any 
one who had taken the pains even to look over Rosellini’s plates, might 
have obtained additional information on this question. 
10. The Bull-Dog—(C. molossus.)—This animal is admirably fig- 
ured on a piece of antique Greek sculpture in the Vatican. The torm 
and expression of the head are perfectly characteristic, even to the pe- 
culiar arrangement of the teeth.'51' 
11. Mastiff—((7. laniurius.)—I have not yet detected this dog on 
the Nilotic monuments ; but, it is mentioned by Aristotle and seen on 
two ancient Greek medals, one of which, that of Segestus of Sicily, 
dates with the 4th or 5tli century B.C.—the other, which is of Aquileia 
Severa, Dictator of Crete, is about two centuries later.f 
12. Shepherd’s Dog—(C. domesticus.)—The earliest effigy of this 
animal, which is also mentioned by Aristotle, is preserved on an ancient 
Etruscan medal of unknown date. The probability is that it was fami- 
liar toman in the earliest ages, and may yet be found on the Egyptian 
monuments. 
In allusion to the illustrations derived from the latter source, Blain- 
ville truly remarks that “ we here see a large number of our existing 
breeds of dogs and, inasmuch as they have preserved their identity 
through such vast periods of time, not only in the most diversified cli- 
mates, but also under the influence of the greatest variety of circum- 
stances, is it not reasonable to believe that a part, at least, of these 
forms constitute essentially primeval types ? We trace them back into 
the “ night of time,” and find them as distinct as they yet are in the 
living fauna ; and it remains for those persons who insist that they have 
all been derived from an aboriginal pair, to give us something more 
than analogical reasoning, or inferences drawn from arbitrary views 
of the laws of Nature. 
But, an evidence of the great antiquity of the animal we call the do- 
* Blainville, Ostcographie, Canis, p. I74. This is yet the common dog of Albania 
| Idem. 27 
mestic dog, and to which I have already alluded, is the fact that it has 
been recently found, in a fossil state, in two localities very remote from 
each other. First, in Germany, by Schmerling, and, secondly, in New- 
Zealand, by Mr. W. Mantell, (son of the celebrated geologist), who there 
observed it associated with the bones of the gigantic Dinornis. Now, 
from these facts, I conceive we must conclude, either that certain forms 
of this animal are primordial and independent of human domestication, 
or, that man himself, having existed contemporaneously with these now 
fossilized animals, claims a vast antiquity as a denizen of the earth. 
It is shrewdly observed by Azara that, if the differences among dogs 
were the result of climate, all the dogs of each separate country should 
be alike. To this I may add, that, if they are all descended from a pri- 
mal type, they ought, on resuming the wild state, to return to that type. 
Yet, in America, where the experiment has been observed, on the 
largest and most unequivocal scale, we see no such result. In Jamaica, 
they have, in some instances, reverted to the shepherd’s dog—in others, 
to the great Danish dog; and this last variety is the dominant one in 
the wild packs of Paraguay. In Cuba, they have sometimes resem- 
bled greyhounds; and, in the pampas of Brazil, they are more like ter- 
riers. In other tvords, they constantly tend to recur to that primitive 
element which is most dominant in their 'physical constitution ; and it 
is remarkable that, in the old world, this restored type is never the wolf, 
although it is sometimes, as we have seen, a lupine dog, owing to the 
cause just mentioned. 
The blending of the opposite extremes of these types, and these hy- 
brids again with each other, gives rise, as every one knows, to those 
degenerate animals known as pugs, shocks, spaniels, &c., which Cuvier 
justly calls “the most degenerete productions,” and which are found 
“ to possess a short and fleeting existence—the common lot of all types 
of modern origin.” 
Among the North American Indians, the original forms are very few 
and closely allied; whence it happens that these grotesque varieties 
never appear. Neither have they any approximation to that marked 
family we call hounds ; and this fact is the more remarkable since the 
Indian dogs are employed in the same manner of hunting as the hounds 
of Europe, Asia and Africa. Yet, this similarity of employment has 
caused no analogy of exterior form. No varieties, like those so familiar in 
Europe, spring up, inter se, among them. They are as homogeneous as 
wolf races from whom they have descended ; and Dr. Richarkson quotes 
Theodat to show that the common Indian dog has not materially 
changed during two hundred and twenty years. Again, the same re- 28 
mark applies to the indigenous aguara, alco and techichi dogs of Mex- 
co and South America, which, before their admixture with European 
breeds, conformed to the types or species from whence they sprung, 
without branching into the thirty varieties of Buffon, or the sixty of 
Brown. The dog of New-Caledonia, in the western regions of Arctic 
America, cannot be regarded as an exception, for he is a strictly lupine 
animal, although too little is known of him to enable us to suggest his 
relative position to the other American races. The Indian dog of Flo- 
rida partakes, largely, also of the wolf, and is supposed by Hamilton 
Smith to be intermediate between the wolf (C. occidentalism and the 
Newfoundland dog. And, finally, the latter animal, which appears to 
belong to the same great dog family, is, by some naturalists, re- 
garded as a cross between the Esquimaux dog and some exotic breed. 
To this latter question, I have not yet given attention. 
What is true of forms, is equally true of instincts. 
“Itis undoubtedly true (observes Sir C. Lyell) that many new habits 
and qualities have not only been acquired, in recent times, by certain 
races of dogs, but have been transmitted to their offspring. But, in 
these cases, it will be observed that the new peculiarities have an inti- 
mate relation to the habits of the animal in a wild state, and therefore 
do not attest any tendency to departure, to an indefinite extent, from 
the original type of the species.” 
The author then instances a peculiar mode in which a certain breed 
of dogs attack the deer on the platform of Santa Fe, in Mexico, and 
adds, that other European hunting dogs, though of superior strength 
and general sagacity, are destitute of this instinct, and often, in conse- 
quence, are killed by the deer. 
I explain this phenomenon, not on the supposition of a new, hut of a 
latent instinct, which circumstances have merely developed; and as, by 
crossing dissimilar species or varieties of dogs, we obtain the blended 
and opposite liniaments of both, so, by the same process, we may com- 
bine a double or modified instinct.* 
I may add, that, when speaking of Buffon’s thirty varieties of dogs 
as embracing a large proportion of true species, I supposed, and still 
suppose, that those which he attributes to the sole influence of climate, 
(about two-thirds of the whole number,) might be regarded as proto- 
* Dr. Bachman alludes to the Pointer, as if I considered it a primitive species. 
Both sportsmen and naturalists know it to be “ of mixed blood, and no doubt 
largely indebted to both hound and spaniel for his distinct existence.”—Dr. Lewis, 
in Youatt on the Dog, p. 140. 29 
types of primordial forms, although even these are more or less modi- 
fied by the many influences of domestication. 
In view of the preceding facts, I continue to regard the great canine 
race of the old and new world as constituted of many species of primor- 
dial dogs; of three, at least, (and perhaps more) species of wolves; of 
some accessions from the fox tribe, and a less certain infusion of the 
jackal. 
It will now be seen that my object in the preceding observations has 
not been to devise new views in zoology, but to sustain old ones by some 
new facts, derived both from Nature and from the monuments of anti- 
quity. 
Feline Hybrids. 
Dr. Ruppell “ decided that all our varieties of the domestic cat were 
derived from one species, (Felis maniculata,) and this is the decision of 
all our naturalists.'1'1 Who 11 all our naturalists’’ are is a large ques- 
tion ; but I can mention some who do not agree with Dr. Bachman in 
this matter. 
Fischer and Schinz, who are among the latest authors on synoptical 
mammalogy, refer the above species, (which is yet wild in Nubia, and 
appears to have been the parent of the common Egyptian house cat) 
and the domestic cat of Europe, to different species; and Fischer fur- 
ther calls the F. maniculata “ the parent of some varieties of the do- 
mestic cat.”'* 
Temminck, after admitting the Egyptian species as the common an- 
cestor of our house cats, adds that “ it is altogether probable that the 
crossing of the Egyptian race with the wild one of our forests may have 
given rise to an intermediate breed,” but which, he adds, it would be 
impossible to prove by demonstrable evidence. Again : “ It appears to 
me probable that our house cats are derived from Egypt; but that the 
original race of Russia, known by the name of the Angora cat, (F. an- 
gorensis,) has been produced from another wild type, yet unknown and 
inhabiting the Northern regions of Asia.” f 
Now, it is this Angora cat which resembles so closely the Persian and 
Chartreuse cats that there is little or no difference between them, except 
* Synop. Mamm. p. 207.—“ Non dubium hanc speciem esse matrem varitatum 
quarundam Felis domesticae.” 
f Mammalogie, I, p. 7 8. 30 
that of colour ; and, since they interbreed with the common cat, we are 
able to explain much of the variety observable in the cats of Europe and 
Asia. 
Milne Edwards and the learned editors of the new Faune Francaise 
still insist on the identity of the wild cat of Europe and the domestic 
animal; and, should this view of the case ever be substantiated, we 
shall have to admit at least three wild species for the source of our fa- 
miliar variety—Felis angorensis, F. catus, and F. maniculata. But, 
the difficulty does not end here ; for Blainville states that, among a nu- 
merous series of cat mummies brought from Egypt by the French com- 
mission, he has identified, not only the F. maniculata, but also the F. 
chaus and F. bubastis—all indigenous African species, and all reduced, 
in ancient times, to the domesticated state. And, I was the more gra- 
tified at this discovery because I had already observed, in the Cheva- 
lier Bunsen’s Hieroglyphic Alphabet, three different cats, each possess- 
ing a different symbolic value. I do not pretend to have any evidence 
of hybrid crosses between these animals; but these and other facts 
show us that we may yet have to modify some of our zoological impres- 
sions from a study of the catacombs and monuments of Egypt.* 
Since Dr. Bachman is not satisfied with the proofs I gave with re- 
spect to the intermixture of the wild cat of Europe and the domestic 
variety, I may insert the following confirmation from Buffon; “ The 
wild cat couples with the domestic kind, and, consequently, they belong 
to the same species. It is not uncommon to see both males and fe- 
males quit their houses, in the season of love, go to the woods in quest 
of wild cats, and afterwards return to their former habitations. It is 
for this saonthat some domestic cats so perfectly resemble the wild 
cat. The latter, however, is larger and stronger, his lips are always 
black, his ears are stiffer, his tail larger, and his colours more constant.” f 
And these facts are all corroborated by the learned editors of the new 
Faune Francaise. 
Musteline Hybrids. 
“ The Mustela furo,” says Dr. Bachman, “ is the albino ferret of the 
* The Felis chaus is now spread from Nubia and Egypt to India, thus ex- 
tending itself into Asia as the F. maniculata has in Europe. “ It is possible,” 
observes Schinz, “ that the domestic cat has had several origins, because it 
gives rise to several constant varieties.”—Synopsis Mammalium, I, p. 453. 
Nor have I a doubt that this will be the established result of further inves- 
tigation. 
f Quadrupeds, English edition, vol. 10, p. 408. 31 
M. putorius. This is admitted by all recent naturalists, and is, there- 
fore, no more of a different species than Voltaire’s albino man.” * 
Let us see how far this statement is correct. Mr. Bell, who is al- 
ways and justly quoted with great confidence by Dr. Bachman, exj)resses 
himself in the following manner. After mentioning several instances 
in which the two species of Mustela have produced together, Mr. Bell 
adds that Buffon’s figure “ is probably an animal of this mixed breed. 
Allowing, as there appears to be no reason to doubt, that the Ferret 
[M.furo) bred with the Fitchet, (AT. putorius.') it proves nothing fur- 
ther than the mere fact, and is no more a proof that they are varieties 
of the same species than in the case of the lion and the tiger, or of the 
wolf or the dog, which are well known frequently to interbreed. Of the 
assertion that breeders of ferrets have recourse to the polecat to im- 
prove the breed, I can obtain no authentic information ; and there are 
sufficient distinctive characters and circumstances appertaining to them 
to warrant us in considering them as differing specifically.” f 
Pennant, who fifty years ago, expresses similar views, states that the 
albino animal (which is brought from Africa) depreciates in Europe and 
requires a cross with the allied species. J 
Schinz, Milne Edwards, Jenyns and Brown all agree with Mr. Bell 
in regarding them as two species. Fleming, however, in his British 
Animals, considers them one, and adds that the ferrets “ breed freely 
with the dark individuals ;” and I presume that Brown alludes to these 
hybrids when he describes some varieties as of a “ black, white and 
fawn colour.Ӥ 
So much for “ all recent naturalists.” With respect to the feline 
and musteline hybrids of my Essay, I am content to let them remain 
where they are until their authenticity is fairly disproved. 
Camelline Hybrids. 
“ Some of the naturalists,” says Dr. Bachman, “ consider them [the 
* This learned divine has twice quoted Yoltaire in connection with my name 
not to say invidiously. My answer is this: that Dr. Bachman has taught 
me all I know of the French philosopher’s opinions respecting the origin of 
the human race; for I have no recollection of having ever read a line of his 
on the subject. If Yoltaire happens to be on my side of the question, Yolney 
is on Dr. Bachman’s; so that, in this respect, at least, we are equal, 
j- British Quadrupeds, d. 162. 
\ Synopsis of Quadrupeds, p. 215. 
§ Zoologists’ Text Book, p. *71. 32 
camels] two species, and Hamilton Smith is doubtful whether they 
breed together. Button considered them as only one species, and 
prolific.” 
Who the naturalists are who regard them as one species, (excepting 
Button,) I cannot discover. The latter supposed them to be a single 
species, because of this very fertility, which he admits without reserva- 
tion and explains in detail. But Linnaeus, Cuvier, Fischer, Ranzani, 
H. Smith, Lesson, Dumeril, Desmarest, Quatrefages, Bory, Fleming, and 
every naturalist whom I have been able to consult, except Buffon alone, 
describes them as of twTo distinct species ; and with respect to their 
fertility, Buffon gives what I consider unquestionable testimony. 
Here, again, the monuments come to our aid. If any one will look 
over the splendid plates of Bayard's Nineveh, he will there find the 
camel and the dromedary as admirably figured as if done by Land- 
seer but yesterday ;* and these remains of ancient art date, in the opin- 
ion of Mr. Layard, 2,GOO years before our era. But since Dr. Bachman 
calls upon us to wait “ five years” longer, to see them “ decided as con- 
stituting only one species,” let us have patience, and see whether these 
five years will overturn the experience of perhaps forty centuries. 
Meanwhile, I shall regard the camels as two species, fertile inter se, and 
this mixed progeny as constituting a great intermediate race. 
Bovine Hybrids. 
Dr. Bachman, on this head, has the following paragraph : 
“ Cuvier, and all our naturalists of authority, refer all the domesti- 
cated cattle of Europe and America to be one species, Bos taurus. 
The ancient B. urus is a fossil species.” 
On the other hand, let us hear what Prof. Owen says: 
“My esteemed friend, Prof. Bell, who has written the History of 
existing British Quadrupeds, is disposed to believe, with Cuvier, and 
most other naturalists, that our domestic cattle are the degenerate de- 
scendants of the great Urus. Bui, it seems to me more probable that 
the herds of the newly conquered regions would be derived from the 
already domesticated cattle of the Roman colonists, of those Boves nos- 
tri, for example, by comparison with which, Csesar endeavoured to con- 
vey to his countrymen* an idea of the stupendous and formidable Uri of 
the Hyrcinian forests.’ f 
* The G■ bactrianus on the Ninevitc obelisk, plate 63 anil 65, and the C. drome- 
darius on plate 61. 
| British Fossil Mammalia, p. 500. 33 
Let us concede the patriarchal palm to the Bos taurus ; but what 
and where is this venerable type ? Milne Edwards supposes him to be 
an ancient wild species, (not the auroch) which has not been seen in its 
native state since the 16 th century. 
With respect to the Bos frontalis of Lambert, or gayal,* Dr. Bach- 
man remarks : 
“ I have possessed very favourable opportunities of comparing it in 
a living state. I have concluded that it is no other than one of the nu- 
merous varieties of our common species ; and you will perceive that 
Cuvier’s views scarcely differed from mine.” 
They differed in this, that Cuvier suspected the gayal for a hybrid 
between the Indian buffalo (Bos bubalus) and the common herd of 
cattle. 
Roulin, in his monograph of the genus Bos, in D’Orbigny’s new 
Dictionary of Natural History, enumerates twelve species ; and among 
others, regards the Bos gaums, B. bantang and B. gayal, as distinct 
species ; “ and from the marks which he gives of their skulls, this 
seems to be indeed the case.”! 
With respect to the degree of productiveness between this animal 
and the ordinary breed, I can obtain no positive information. I quoted 
Cuvier’s suspicion that it is a mixture of that race with the Indian buf- 
falo. Now, I concede that the gayal is a distinct species, and not'a 
cross; but that a cross does yet exist in upper India, is by no means 
improbable. From the Bos gavoeus, (or gayal) says M. Roulin, the 
Hindoos have a domesticated race, they call Gobah-gayal. Some of 
these animals have again become wild, and with them in the same 
forests is seen “ the Jungly-gau of F. Cuvier, which, as Hardwicke had 
remarked, is very distinct from the Gobah-gayal, and may be the result 
of a cross with the common cattle.”! Here I will let this mooted ques- 
tion rest, in the hope of obtaining further light from Mr. Blyth, who, if 
I mistake not, is now pursuing his scientific researches in India.§ 
My friend, Dr. Huftnagel, also, now in India, has obtained the first 
cross between the buffalo of that region and the common breed of cat- 
tle, and has promised to make full inquiries on my behalf. Meanwhile, 
Buffon quotes M. de la Nux for the fact, that these two animals breed 
* Bos gavceus of most systematic writers 
\ Report of the Progress of Zoology and Botany, p. 66, London, 1844. 
\ D’Orbigny’s Diet., loco citat. 
§ Hodgson has made anew genus, Bibos, of the Bos frontalis, which he decides 
to be intermediate between the Bos and the Bison.—Journ. Asiatic Soc. of Ben- 
gal, vi., p. *745. 34 
freely in the Isle of Bourbon, where they have produced an interminably 
mixed race.* 
Caprine Hybrids. 
Mr. Hodgson remarks of his new species of goat, Capra jharal, of 
Nepaul, that it breeds with the domestic goat; and adds, that it more 
closely resembles the ordinary model of the tame race, than any wild 
species yet discovered.f Dr. Bachman may be disposed to insist, for 
the latter reason, that the C. jharal is not a distinct species ; but he 
will find it “ endorsed” as such in all the late systems of mammalogy, 
(at least, I find no exception) and by the Proceedings of the Zoological 
Society of London,J and the Annales des Sciences Naturelles,§ (Paris.) 
Mr. Bell observes, that “ the large goats which are reported to have 
been brought from the Alps and Pyrenees to the Garden of Plants, in 
Paris, were probably the progeny of the ibex (Capra ibex) with the 
common goat, (C. cegagrus) as there is no proof of the existence of the 
true cegagrus in Europe.”! And this corresponds with the brief obser- 
vation of Fischer—Capra ibex miscetur capris 
Caprine and Ovine Hybrids. 
Dr. Bachman, after stating that he has “ no access to Chevreul,” (the 
much-abused authority for my facts in this grade of hybridity) goes on 
to assert that “ we have not one authenticated case of a fertile hybrid 
produced by the sheep and goat.” 
It occurred to me to look into Molina, the celebrated author of the 
Natural History of Chili, in order to ascertain whether any reference 
* Buffon, Quad., xxv., p. 14. 
f Journ. of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, 1835, p. 492. 
\ Part 2, for 1834, p. lOL § 2d Series, 1836. 
|| British Quadrupeds, p. 433. I have admitted the probability of the Capra 
cegagrus being the source of our domestic goat; but I may here again remind Dr. 
Bachman, that “ all the authors” which he has consulted, give only his side of the 
question. “ The opinions of naturalists,” says Mr. Bell, “ have been much divided 
respecting the original stock of the domestic goat; some referring it to the ibex, 
others to cegagrus; but most modern zoologists have leaned to the belief, that the 
wild goat of Caucasus and Persia is the true original stock.”—British Quad., p. 
433. 
Synop. Mammalium. 35 
was there made to the facts of Chevreul; and it was with great plea- 
sure that I found the following passage : 
“ The Pehuenches, a nation inhabiting these mountains, [the Chilian 
Andes] have crossed the sheep with goats ; and this intermediate race 
is much larger than the other sheep. Their wool is less curled, is soft 
and fine, and often two feet in length, resembling the fleece of the An- 
gora goat.”* 
After the lapse of about eighty years, during all which time this 
mixed race has probably flourished in Chili, Chevreul publishes the 
detailed method by which these hybrids are yet obtained and propa- 
gated. Persons who entertain any further’doubts on this subject are wel- 
come to them. I have none. 
Ovine Hybrids. 
Dr. Bachman asserts that “ the Ovis musmon is the only species that 
has ever submitted to domestication, and no fertile progeny has been 
produced with the argali, or any other.” 
Inasmuch as Mr. Blyth appears to have paid more attention to the 
Ovidce, than any other living naturalist, and moreover, as he is quoted 
with respect by Dr. Bachman, I cheerfully submit the present question 
to his decision. 
Among fifteen species of sheep, he makes the following remarks in 
reference to the Ovis aries, a collective, specific name for the common 
breeds : 
“ Assuming that different species have commingled to produce this 
animal, as appears to be very evident in the instance of the dog, it is still 
remarkable that we have certainly not yet discovered the principal wild 
type. Some experience in the deduction of the specified characters of 
sheep horns, enables me to state with confidence that the normal char- 
acter of the long-tailed domestic breeds is intermediate to that of the 
Hass, (0. Polii) and that of the moufflon (0. musmon) ; combining 
the flexure and the prolongation of the former, with the section of the 
latter, but becoming proportionately broader at the base than in either ; 
more as in the argalis of Siberia, Kamstchatka and North America. 
That 0. aries, (the domestic sheep) is totally distinct from all, I have 
been long perfectly satisfied ”\ 
Thus, Mr. Blyth regards the 0. musmon"of Linnaeus, the moufflon 
* French edition, p. 312. 
| Proceedings of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, 1846, p. 74, 76. Jenyns derives 
all the domestic sheep from the Siberian argali, (Ovis argali) 36 
of Corsica and Sardinia, as a separate species, and adds the following 
remarks : 
“ It inter-breeds freely with any tame race, under circumstances of re- 
straint, as is well known ; but we have no information of hybrids, or 
umbri, as they are called, being ever raised from wild moufflons, though 
the flocks of the latter sometimes graze in the same pasture with domes- 
tic sheep.” 
Now, here the hybrid mixture is unreservedly admitted by Mr. 
Blyth ; the only condition appears to be that the animals must be 
“under circumstances of restraint.” Here, then, is an illustration of 
one of my conclusions, against which, Dr. Bachman has wasted a series 
of physiological comments :—Domestication does not cause hybridity, 
but merely evolves it. The idea that I designed to convey by this pro- 
position is obviously this : that power of hybrid re-production may 
remain latent, until domestication, or if I may so express it, the re- 
straints of domestication, bring it into action. Whence, also, another of 
my conclusions,—that the capacity for fertile hybridity, coeteris paribus, 
exists in animals in proportion to their aptitude for domesticity and cul- 
tivation.* 
Do not the Cyprian moufflon (0. ophion) and the 0. viynii, which 
is closely allied to the Corsican species, breed also with the domestic 
animal ? It may be said that all these species designated by Mr. 
Blyth, are not generally admitted by naturalists. If so, I am not 
aware of the fact. They are published and “ endorsed” by the Zoolo- 
gical Society of London, and are admitted into the Synopsis Mamma- 
Hum of Schinz, one of the latest and most accurate works of its class. 
If I am not mistaken in his use of terms, Button regarded the large- 
tailed sheep, called the Barbary breed, as a different species from the 
European ;f and it really appears to be distinct from the fat-rumped 
sheep. The rudiments of their peculiar organization are increased or 
diminished by climate and pasture; for Pallas states, that while the uropy- 
gium, or fatty cushion of the Tartar breed, will weigh from 20 to 40 
pounds, it shrinks to a diminutive size in certain parts of Siberia. We 
may reasonably suppose that an organization which was obscure and 
rudimentary in some primitive races, becomes developed by the various 
processes of domestication and the attendant influences of climate ; and 
such appears to be the case with the sheep of Africa and those of Asia. 
* Essay on Hybridity, p. 23. 
I Edition Sonnini. Quad., xxiii., p. 85. 37 
Surine hybrids. 
I quoted Hamilton Smith as favourable to the idea that our domes- 
tic swine are derived from a plurality of species ; whereupon Dr. Bach- 
man, with his accustomed dogmatism, makes the following assertion: 
“All naturalists, including Hamilton Smith, have regarded all our 
species as derived from the wild hog.” 
Whatever Hamilton Smith may have once thought or said on this 
question, I will now quote in full his last impressions, (at least I know of 
none later,) published in 1839 : 
“ It is admitted that in the forests, they (the domestic hogs,) occa- 
sionally breed with the wild boar, and that their offspring is as prolific 
as if it were the result of breeding from the same race. This is also 
known to be the fact in the mixed produce of the Chinese and European 
hog. We have had opportunities of seeing the Spanish and domestic 
breed become wild in South America and Jamaica, resuming the cha- 
racters of the wild boar of Europe ; even the young becoming striped, 
like the marcassins of France. Yet if the observations of T. C. Eyton, 
Esq., reported in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, for Feb., 
1837, are correct, the vertebrae of the back, loins and sacrum differ, 
between the wild boar, the English and Chinese pigs, from 15 to 14, 
from 6 to 4, and from 5 to 4; so that taking the totals of vertebrae, 
they run 50, 55, 49, and the .French 53. Surely it is allowing too 
much to the semi-domestication of such animals, and denying the same 
to the plastic powers of creation, to prop up our artificial maxims in 
Zoology. On the contrary, we may justly suspect this to be a case of 
providential arrangement for a given purpose ; and that there are three, 
if not four, original species, including the African, with powers to com- 
mix.”* 
Independently of the preceding replies to Dr. Bachman’s criticisms, 
I may repeat, once for all, that in my essay on hybridity, I introduced 
a number of oxamples of casual cross-breeds, merely as such, and not 
to sustain my “ theory of fertile hybrids.” Hence, the following ap- 
pears among the initiatory paragraphs of my essay : 
“ It may, at first view, appear superfluous to go over the whole 
ground of inquiry; but apart from its ethnographic relations, it is my 
wish to call attention to a branch of science that has hitherto been sin- 
gularly neglected, and perhaps more so than any other.”f 
Among these collateral examples, were the equine, the cervine and 
ovine, bovine and cervine, and bovine and ovine hybrids among quad- 
rupeds, and several among birds. For all these I have given my autho- 
rities. If my republication of these supposed facts should tend to prove 
* Canidce, i, p. 93, 94. f Essay on Hybridity, p. 3. 38 
them erroneous, I conceive I shall thereby render a service to science. 
This, however, is a point for further investigation. 
Miscellaneous Remarks. 
I must here notice an interesting fact, mentioned by Dr. Bachman, 
viz: the change of the black rat, Mus rattus, in the Southern States, 
from its natural, characteristic colour to a yellow hue. Here is a change 
of colour, but none of form ; and I cannot, therefore, see how it has 
any bearing upon the varieties of the dog, any one of which may be of a 
single, or of many colours, without altering its typical character. A 
greyhound may be black, white or pied, and yet it is not the less a 
greyhound. 
But I have an objection to another part of Dr. Bachman's inferences; 
for in this account of the rat, he appears to suppose that the fact of there 
being no intermediate varieties of colour in the same nest, all being 
either white or yellow, was an evidence of their being all of one spe- 
cies. This is readily admissible, as a simple fact, in this case ; but when 
it is subsequently applied, somewhat in the way of a general principle, 
to prove that some birds, (the Curassows for example,) are of one spe- 
cies, because their offspring present a similar phenomenon of unmixed 
colours, it becomes a mere analogical dogma of no possible value. I pro- 
pose to recur to tliis question in another place ; and for the present will 
merely observe, that if such a rule obtained in nature, we ought to see 
the offspring of a white father and a black mother, or the reverse, always 
black, or always white, without that almost invariable blending of co- 
lours, which is familiar to every one. 
Apropos to this subject, I find that the Norway rat has been seen in 
changed colours in England, not of one colour, but mottled or pied. 
Donovan has figured one of them.* Dr. Bachman's rule, therefore, 
does not hold good even with the rats. 
Dr. Bachman takes exception to my remark, that the Hyena venati- 
ca connects the dog with the hyena almost without an interval. I de- 
rived my first impression from Cuvier, who describes this animal as 
having the dental system of the dog, and not of the hyena. Cuvier has, 
morever, called it Chien hyenoide, and it is now placed, by general con- 
sent, in the genus Canis; and Blainville calls it the great wild dog of 
Africa.f Is not this animal figured among the dogs on the monuments 
of Beni Hassan 
* British Quadrupeds, page 45. f Ostrographie, page 73. 
\ See Rosellini, Monumenti Civili, PI. xvii, fig. fJ. 39 
Birds. 
Hybrid of the Wood-Grouse (T'. urogallus?) and the Black- 
Grouse (T. tetrix,) etc.—Of this bird called Tetrao medius by some 
authors, Dr. Bachman remarks as follows: 
“ It so happens that every writer of authority, who published since 
the days of Temminck, that I have consulted, has set it down as an 
undoubtedly true species, and not as a hybrid. These naturalists had 
opportunities of examining these birds in their native haunts, and pos- 
sessed specimens in the flesh. They were, therefore, infinitely better 
prepared to pronounce a decision than either of us would venture to do. 
Temminck pronounced it a true species.'” 
Dr. Bachman’s authorities (whom he gives in detail, and they cer- 
tainly are eminent ornithologists,) were very fortunately grouped in 
order to give a unanimous assent to his own opinions. Let us look a 
little further, and see how this matter stands. 
Now it happens that Temminck, yes, Prof. Temminck himself, after 
holding out for twenty-seven years* that this hybrid was a true spe- 
cies, has at last admitted his error, and with the magnanimity of a great 
mind, published it to the world. He shall speak for himself: 
, “The testimony of all the naturalists of the North is remarkably 
unanimous in considering this bird (Tetrao medius,) a hybrid product 
of two different species, the female of the urogallus with the male of 
the tetrix ; and we concede to their opinion respecting this mule bird 
with the greater confidence, because Prof. Nilsson has applied himself 
especially to this inquiry in the northern countries, wherein the two 
parent species inhabit in great number. The observations made by 
this learned naturalist, prove in the most satisfactory manner that the 
JRakelhan (T. medius,) is a hybrid of the two species above cited. The 
opinion of M. Naumann, who has examined many examples (deponil- 
les) of this hybrid, no longer leaves a doubt.”f 
This evidence calls for no comment; yet it is curious to compare it 
with Dr. Bachman’s concluding dictum, as expressed in the following 
oracular manner: 
“ All our recent authors have described this supposed hybrid as a 
true species, and not as a hybrid !” 
For my own part, I am content to adopt the opinion of those orni- 
thologists “ who have examined these birds in their native haunts, and 
possessed specimens in the flesh.” They are certainly better judges 
than either Dr. Bachman or myself. Meanwhile, I shall regard this as 
an example of a cross between two proximate species in the wild state, 
* Pigeons et Gallinaces, 1813, and Manuel d’ Ornithologie, 1820. 
j-Temminck’s Manuel d'Ornithologie, 2me edit, Tome iv, page 318. 1840. 40 
producing a great hybrid race, now widely and spontaneously extend- 
ed over the region of Northern Europe. Schlegel, who is justly 
considered one of the most able ornithologists of the age, in his 
R6vue critique des oiseaux d'Europef takes the same view with 
Temminck; and Degland, in his excellent Ornithologie Europ6enne,\ 
published during the past year, confirms this opinion, and adds that 
the Tetrao tetrix also crosses with the common (Phasianus 
colchinus,) and with the T. subalpina ; and, moreover, that the Tetrao 
nanus of Gmelin, figured by Sparmann, is nothing more than one 
of these latter hybrids. 
Hybrids among domestic fowls. 
In consequence of iny defective knowledge of Ornithology, and a dif- 
ficulty of obtaining the requisite books of reference when my Essay was 
written, I was misled in stating that our domestic fowls had been traced 
to ten different species. I should have said that this genus of birds 
(Gallus,) embraces ten species, five of which, according to Temminck, 
are capable of breeding inter se. 
Sir William Jardine, when describing them, makes the following ob- 
servations : 
“ It is from these birds that we are indebted for the domestic poul- 
try of our farm yards. Many native species are at the present time 
known, and we consider it very difficult to determine which is the ori- 
gin of our reclaimed fowls. They may have reached their present state 
from a mixture of many ; but with Temminck we are inclined to give 
the preference to two species, the G. gigantosus and G. bankiva, (both 
natives of Java,) on account of the domestic females bearing the great- 
est resemblance to those in a wild state, by the similarity of the form 
and structure of the feathers, and by the males of those possessing the 
greatest development of comb and wattles.Ӥ 
The same eminent naturalist quotes Temminck for the fact, that the 
Gailus furcatus, or fork-tailed cock, although not strictly domesticated, 
occasionally breeds with the tame hens ; a curious fact, and showing 
the uncertainty with which the true origin is clouded.”| As to the 
* Leyden, 1844. 
•j- Tome ii, page 28. See also Nilsson’s Ornithologia Suecica, page 303. 
And tills, too, adds Temminck,“ en pleine liberty et a l’etat sauvage.” Loco 
citat. 
§ Naturalist’s Lib. Ornithology, iii, page 171. 
I Idem, page 185. 41 
appearance of the rumpless fowl originating among other varieties, I 
am disposed to regard this as the mere reproduction of a primitive 
type from former crosses between two different species of Gallus, viz: 
the G. ecaudatus of Temminck, and some other, probably the G. ban- 
kiva. 
Hybrids of the Curassows or Hoecos. 
I see no reason to relinquish any of the very striking facts mentioned 
in my Essay in reference to the hybrid offspring of the different species 
of Crax, or Hocco. Dr. Bachman, in two paragraphs, disposes of the 
evidence in his usual summary manner, thus : 
“ Whilst in Europe in 1838, I continued my inquiries, and ascertain- 
ed that the naturalists were as much perplexed as myself; they all agreed 
with me that four-fifths of the supposed species must at once be struck 
off from the roll of species.” 
Three, by a singular act of grace on the part of all these naturalists, 
were held over for sentence—“ that time and farther experiments might 
unravel the mystery.” 
Again : “ It is now nearly decided by recent experiments, that they 
are all varieties of one species.” 
After all this assertion, what is the fact ? Simply this—that I cannot 
find less than six species enumerated in any system of Ornithology; 
and what was my surprise on looking into Gray's Genera, of Birds, 
the latest and most elaborate work of the kind now extant, and pub- 
lished during the past year, to find that it embraces not only the three 
species which Dr. Bachman and all the other naturalists had suspended 
subjudice, but three others, making six in all !* 
It follows that the birds bred between the Crax alector and C. rubra, 
reported to the Zoological Society by Sir Robert Heron, and objected 
to by Dr. Bachman, are to be regarded as true hybrids. I had marked 
this very paragraph as corroborative of my own views, and shall continue 
so to regard it until it is finally decided that the Hoccos “ are all varie- 
ties of one species.” 
But inasmuch as twelve years have elapsed since it was resolved to 
cut the six species down to one, and no reduction of the number has yet 
been made, we need give ourselves no further anxiety about them; and 
* See also Bennett’s Menagerie, page 226. 1835. 
Upon looking over Spix, Avium species Novce, T. ii, page 48, 1825, I find he 
describes seven additional species. 42 
I shall rest content to regard this intermixture of species and conse- 
quent prolific reproduction, as an example of a new, varied, and very 
numerous hybrid race, derived from several distinct species. 
Pigeon hybrids ? 
I am made to say, by Dr. Bachman, that the tame pigeons have not 
been derived from the Columba livia alone, but from a union of some 
unknown bird of the same genus. I am not aware of ever having 
published such an opinion. I have looked through my Essay, and my 
letter to Dr. Bachman, but cannot find it. I only mentioned, without 
comment, the suspicion of Cuvier, that the numerous races of our com- 
mon pigeon, (of which he regards the C. livia as the parent,) may 
have been modified by mixture with some neighbouring species.'* 
So also Selby, when speaking of the C. livia, remarks, that it is from 
this species that most of our curious varieties of pigeon have arisen; 
for some later ones may have been derived from crosses with other 
species.”) 
Dr. Bachman, however, lays down the law in the following unquali- 
fied terms : 
“ The tame pigeons have sprung from the Columba livia, as now 
affirmed by every naturalist of authority. No other pigeon has ever 
produced a fertile hybrid with it.” 
Other hybrid birds. 
Inasmuch as Mr. Gould has proved the supposed hybrid between Mo- 
taeilla lugubris and M. alba to be a true species, and described as M. 
yarellii, I, of course, give it up; so also with the identification of the 
common and the ring-pheasants, there can be no hybrid offspring; and, 
again, on Mr. Selby’s anthority, that the progeny of the two doves (Co- 
lumba risoria and C. turtur,) never reproduce, I may relinquish the 
statement I had derived from Bechstein.J But with respect to the rest 
of the astonishing series of hybrid birds, some prolific in greater or less 
degree, and some sterile, hitherto published by me, I have no rea- 
son, except it may be in a very few additional instances, to modify 
my opinion; but it will be my pleasure to correct every error in the 
revised edition of my Essay on Hybridity, which I hope to republish 
* Regne Animal. Columba. f British Ornithology, i, page 412. 
\ This celebrated Saxon naturalist is pronounced by Swainson, “ one of the best 
authorities on the Birds of Europe.” 43 
in a greatly extended form. The breeders of birds are certainly the 
best observers and judges as to hybrids which occur in domesticity; 
and if Dr. Bachman has not been so fortunate in his experiments with 
the Fringillidce as Bechstein was, it is certainly no proof that the latter 
was mistaken. 
“In the autumn of 1838, says Mr. Cookson, a male bird, the produce 
of a goldfinch, F. carduelis, and a hen Canary bird, Fringilla carnaria, 
escaped from my aviary, and was not seen again until the following spring, 
when we were agreeably surprised by the reappearance of our lost favour- 
ite in company with a goldfinch. As the pair were inseparable we at once 
suspected that they had mated; and in a few days, our suspicions were 
confirmed by seeing them feed each other and collect materials for 
building. By watching their movements, we soon discovered their nest 
in a cedar tree, near the aviary. In due time four eggs were laid, which 
I carefully removed and placed under a Canary bird ; they, however, all 
proved abortive. In a few days after this disappointment, a second nest 
was built by them in the same tree, which we left undisturbed, and the 
result was favourable. Five birds were hatched, which I took from the 
nest when about ten days old, and brought up by hand. Of this num- 
ber, two cocks and two hens are still living. 
“ I am aware that hybrids in a state of captivity and restraint, have 
not unfrequently proved prolific, when brought to pair with a mate of 
either of their parent stocks; but I do not remember that I ever heard 
an instance of an animal of pure breed, in a wild and unrestrained 
condition, by choice selecting an hybrid mate.” 
Mr. Cookson then states that he mated one of these young hybrid 
cocks (which was three parts goldfinch to one part Canary,) with a hen 
Canary?; but the nest was twice destroyed byr the male bird, and only- 
one was reared from two sets of eggs. 
“I then removed the cock bird and turned him into the aviary, 
where he immediately selected another Canary bird as his mate. Upon 
my putting this pair into a breeding cage, a nest was formed in less 
than a week, and four eggs were laid. I had now taken the precaution 
to line the nest basket with flannel, so that although the nest was pulled 
to pieces as on former occasions, the eggs escaped destruction, and upon 
them the Canary bird is now sitting. I again removed the cock bird, 
and upon his return to the aviary, he at once made up again to his 
former mate, and she has this morning laid an egg. In truth, I never 
saw a bird more ardent for propagation than this hybrid. 
“My second experiment has been made by pairing my other hybrid 
cock bird with an hen of the same sort. The result has been three eggs, 
one of which wras hatched yesterday morning by a Canary bird. 
“Now as this second pair have proved prolific, (which are three parts 
goldfinch to one part Canary bird,) I do not see any reason why I may 
not obtain next year an equally successful result, by? putting together a 
pair of birds, (if I succeed in rearing a male and a female,) the produce 44 
of my first experiment; and if so, a cross might be perpetuated which 
would be five parts Canary birds to three parts goldfinches.”* 
Miscellaneous Observations. 
My letter to Dr. Bachman having been written under the pressure 
of exacting professional engagements and ill health, I take this occasion 
to explain, as briefly as possible, some remarks I then made. 
The Deluge not a universal cataclysm.—Geologists began their in- 
vestigations with the full belief in a universal deluge ; but the irresista- 
ble evidence of the facts of nature is wholly opposed to such a theory, 
and it is now by almost unanimous consent abandoned. Let the Geol- 
ogists speak for themselves. 
“ That a transient deluge,” says Professor Hitchcock, “ like that descri- 
bed in the Scriptures, could have produced and brought into its present 
situation, all the diluvium which is now spread over the surface of this 
continent, will not, it appears to me, be admitted for a moment by any 
impartial observers. Many distinguished biblical writers regard the 
description of the Noachian Deluge, as an example of the use of uni- 
versal terms with a limited meaning ; and hence regard the deluge as 
not universal over the globe, but only over the region inhabited by 
man.”f 
The Rev. Adam Sedgwick expresses himself to the same effect: 
“We have not yet found the certain evidences of any great diluvian 
catastrophe which we can affirm to be within the human period. We 
saw the clearest traces of diluvial action, and we had, in our Sacred 
histories, the record of a general deluge. On this double testimony it 
was, that we gave a unity to a vast succession of phenomena, not one 
of which we perfectly comprehended, and, under the name diluvium, 
classed them all together. Our errors, however, were natural, and of 
the same kind which led many excellent observers of a former century 
to refer all the secondary formations of Geology to the Noachian de- 
luge. Having been myself a believer, and, to the best of my power, 
a propagator of what I now regard as a philosophic heresy, and hav- 
ing been more than once quoted for opinions which I do not now main- 
tain, I think it right, as one of my last acts before I quit this chair, 
thus publicly to read my recantation.’’^ 
Some fourteen years ago, observes Mr. Greenhough, 
“ I advanced an opinion, founded altogether upon physical and geo- 
* Mr. Cookson, in Jardine and Selby, Annals of Natural History, vol. v, page 
24. 1840. 
\ Geology of Massachusetts, page 148; 
t Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, pages 312, 314. 1831. 45 
logical considerations, that the entire earth had, at an unknown period 
(as far as that word implies any determinate portion of time,) been co- 
vered by one general, but temporary deluge. The opinion was not 
hastily formed. My reasoning rested on the facts which had then come 
before me. My acquaintance with physical and geological nature is 
now extended; and that more extended acquaintance would be entirely 
wasted upon me, if the opinions which it will no longer allow me to re- 
tain, did not also induce me to rectify. New data have flowed in, and 
with the frankness of one of my predecessors, I also now read my re- 
cantation.”* 
Buckland, Lyell, Elie de Beaumont, Murchison, and so far as I 
am informed, every other distinguished geologist of the day, have 
arrived at the same conclusion ; and the Rev. J. Pye Smith has shown, 
with great probability, the proximate barriers by which the Hebrew 
Deluge was circumscribed in Western Asia. He further adds: 
“ If we suppose the mass of waters to have been such as would cover 
all the land of the globe, we present to ourselves an increase of the 
equatorial diameter, by some eleven or twelve miles. Two new ele- 
ments would hence accrue to the action of gravity upon our planet. 
The absolute weight would be greatly increased, and the causes of the 
nutation of the axis would be varied. To save the physical system from 
derangements, probably ruinous to the well-being of innumerable sen- 
tient natures, would require a series of stupendous and immensely mul- 
tiplied miracles.” “ We cannot represent to ourselves the idea of their 
[the animals] being brought into one small spot, from the polar regions, 
the torrid zone, and all the other climates of Asia, Africa, Europe, Ame- 
rica, Australia, and the thousands of islands ; their preservation and 
provision, and the final disposal of them,—without bringing up the 
idea of miracles more stupendous than any that are recorded in Scrip- 
ture, even what appear appalling in comparison. The great decisive 
miracle of Christianity, the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, sinks down 
before it.”f 
I)r. Smith quotes Swainson’s estimate of the existing Fauna of our 
globe, from which it appears that there are about 561,000 land and 
amphibious animals, including insects, and this eminent divine then pro- 
ceeds as follows : 
“ Many of the marine fishes and shell animals could not live in fresh 
water; and the fresh water ones would be destroyed by being kept over 
a short time in salt water. Thus, in a variety of ways, it is manifest 
that, upon the interpretation which I conceive to be erroneous, the pre- 
servation of animal life in the ark was immensely short of being ade- 
quate to what was necessary.” 
I can only further refer to this most learned and elaborate work for a 
* Address before the Geological Society of London. 1834. 
+ The Holy Scriptures and Geolog. Science, p. 108. 46 
vast mass of additional zoological and geological testimony in relation 
to this highly interesting question. But I may add, that the evidence 
is designed to prove, and it is convincing to my judgment, that the 
Creation, as described in Genesis, only relates to one of the various 
independent zoological centres ; while the Mosaic Deluge describes the 
submersion of that locality only, and the destruction of all its inhabi- 
tants, excepting those who were preserved in the Ark ; and such was 
also the opinion long ago expressed by Bishop Stillingfleet.* 
Age of the Earth. 
The Rev. Dr. Smith has also enlarged on this sublime question, and 
I quote from his work the following passages, which are sufficient for 
my present purpose: 
“ It is now admitted by all competent persons,” observes Mr. Bab- 
bage, “ that the formation, even of those strata which are nearest the 
surface, must have occupied vast periods, probably millions of years, in 
arriving at their present state.”f 
These formations nearest the surface are only the alluvial and drift 
(or diluvial) deposits. After these, follow in succession the three great 
divisions of the tertiary series : the cretaceous group, oolite, the carbo- 
niferous strata, the old red sandstone, and the upper and lower silurian. 
Now, since every one of these older formations has its peculiar organic 
remains piled on each other during a long lapse of ages, and since the 
Fauna of one is distinct from that of all the others, any attempt to 
estimate their collective antiquity, puts even the imagination itself at 
defiance. 
“ Mr. Charles Maclaren estimates a single period of volcanic quies- 
cence, during which strata of coal, shell-sandstone and limestone were 
deposited over the basaltic hill, called Arthur’s Seat at Edinburgh, at 
500,000 years. Let it be observed that these are not random guesses, 
but founded on knowledge and consideration. 
* Quoted by the Rev. J. Pye Smith, op. citat, p. 209. 
t Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, p. *78. 
t Rev. P. J. Smith, op. citat., p. 55. “ On the question,—whether these phenom- 
ena [of creation] can be comprised within the short period usually assigned to them, 
(6850 years) the Rev. Samuel Charles Wilks long ago observed: * Buckland, Sedg- 
wick, Faber, Chalmers, Conybeare, and many other Christian geologists, strove 
long with themselves to believe that they could; and they did not give up the hope, 
or seek for a new interpretation of the sacred text, till they considered themselves 
driven from their position by such facts as we have stated.’ ”—Christian Observ. 
Aug., 1834, p. 486. 47 
Chronoloyy. 
Having repeatedly alluded to the revised Chronology of Dr. Lepsius, 
I have much pleasure in inserting a brief abstract of it, as furnished by 
that distinguished scholar to Mr. Gliddon : 
Epoch of Menes—Commencement of historical period; thirty Dynasties: 
B. C. 
Old Empire: 
1st Dyn.—Accession of Menes, - - - - - 3893 
Commencement of Monumental period ; third Dynasty. 
4th Dyn.—Pyramids and Tombs extant—began— 3426 
12th Dyn., - ... encls— 2124 
Invasion of the Hyksos ; comprising the 
15th and 16th Dynasties—from B. C. 2101 to— 1590 
New Empire—Restoration. 
17th Dyn., - - - - began— 1671 
30th Dyn.—Ending on the second Persian Invasion— *340 
Inasmuch as the greatest philosopher of the age has given the sanc- 
tion of his name to these astonishing revelations, I may be permitted to 
insert in this place, a brief extract from Cosmos, to show that I have 
not adopted them, without a full conviction of their truth. Humboldt, 
after expressing his obligations to Prof. Lepsius, for making him ac- 
quainted with his latest discoveries, quotes the latter for the following- 
facts : 
“ The valley of the Nile, which has occupied so distinguished a place 
in the history of Man, yet preserves authentic portraits of kings as far 
back as the commencement of the fourth dynasty of Manetho. This 
dynasty, which embraces the constructors of the Great Pyramids of 
Gizeh,— Cephren or Schafra, Cheops- Choufou, and Menkara or Mene- 
kerts,—commences more than 3,400 years before the Christian era, and 
twenty-three centuries before the invasion of Peloponessus by the He- 
raclides.”f 
Yet more recently, Prof. Lepsius has been enabled to date the ascen- 
sion of Menes to the throne of Egypt, as given in the above memoran- 
dum from Mr. Gliddon, at 3,893 before Christ. 
The period of Man’s existence upon the earth. 
There is nothing in geology to disprove the existence of man upon 
the earth for a period vastly longer than has generally been supposed. 
* Hand-book to the Panorama of the Nile, 51. The Chevalier Bunsen (Egypt’s 
place in Univ. History,) ascribes the age of Menes to the year 3643 B. C. 
t Cosmos, ii., p. 147, French Edit. 48 
Dr. Prichard, who bestowed a part of his great learning and remarka- 
ble talents in the investigation of chronology, arrived at the conclusion 
that the Hebrew annals afford no data of this kind beyond the epoch of 
Abraham. Hence, according to this view, there can be no antagonism 
between the Sacred Records and the discoveries of Dr. Lepsius.* 
The facts of geology afford us nothing but negative evidence on this 
point. If the strata “ nearest the surface,” as heretofore stated, required 
“millions of years” for their accumulation, we may, at least, be permit- 
ted to inquire, how much of this vast period of time can be allotted to 
the human race ? The facts are yet few, but they are impressive, and 
should stimulate us to search for more. 
It will, in the first place, be objected, that no remains of man, in the 
fossil state, have yet been discovered. This point is not quite decided; 
for I am disposed to regard the human bones lately found by Dr. Lund, 
in certain caverns at Minas Geraes, in Brazil, as truly fossilized, and as 
old as the extinct species of animals that accompany them ; nor would 
there be any hesitation on this point, were it not for the prepossession 
so generally entertained with respect to the very recent creation of man. 
These deposits in Brazil, however, date as low down as the Eocene 
group; and it would be in the drift (hitherto called diluvium) and the 
alluvial beds that we may hereafter find the remains of man. Of the 
immense age of these comparatively recent deposits, some idea may be 
formed from the following statements of Sir Charles Lyell : 
“The whole period during which the Mississippi has transported its 
earthy burthen to the ocean, though perhaps far exceeding one hun- 
dred thousand years, must be insignificant, in a geological point of 
view, since the bluffs or cliffs bounding the great valley, (and, therefore, 
older in date,) and which are from fifty to two hundred and fifty feet in 
perpendicular height, consist, in great part, of loam, containing land, 
fluviatile and lacustrine shells of species still inhabiting the same coun- 
* “ When we consider how small the impression is, that has been made on the 
ethnology of the world, by the known changes in races and languages that have 
taken place since Egypt was populous aud civilized, we must conclude that the 
whole of this period belongs to the recent history of mankind ; and that the more 
ancient history, in which the numerous races and languages originally distinct, were 
developed and spread over the face of the eaith, occupied a far longer period. It i3 
at present impossible to say that 8,000 or 10,000 years, or even a less period, would 
not be sufficient; and it is equally impossible to say that even the greatest era that 
geology will allow for man’s residence upon the globe, is too much. The author of 
The Church of the Future, considers ancient Egyptian history as representing the 
Middle Ages of the ancient woild.”—J. R. Logan, Ethnology of the Indian Ar- 
chipelego, in Journal of the Indian Archipelago, 1853, p. 302. 49 
try. These fossil shells are associated with the bones of the mastodon, 
elephant, tapir, mylodon, and other megatheroid animals; also a spe- 
cies of horse, ox, and other mammaba, most of them of extinct spe- 
cies. * 
This last, or drift deposit, belongs to the series to which, according 
to the calculations of Prof. Babbage, has been millions of years in for- 
mation ; and, since it embraces two species of domesticative quadru- 
peds, it need be no marvel if what Blumenback calls “ the most domes- 
tic of animals” should hereafter be found among them. 
I have already remarked that Geology, as yet, affords only negative 
evidence with respect to man. The alluvial deposts are remarkably 
destitute of organic remains of any kind ; and, for aught we know, man 
may have lived through their entire epoch ; and, that evidences of this 
fact will yet arise, not only from the alluvium, but also from the vastly 
older drift or deluvial beds, I feel a reasonable confidence. 
It is not many years since it was an axiom in geology that no mam 
miferous animals coexisted with the secondary strata, commencing with 
the chalk deposits. Yet, this opinion has been overturned by the 
discovery of two marsupial quadrupeds as low down as the oolite. 
So, also, it was long supposed that no quadrumanous animals—the 
next in order to man—existed in the fossil state. But, within a few 
years, several species of monkeys have been found in India, England and 
Brazil, and, in every instance, if I mistake not, as low as the eocene 
strata. This discovery was con rary to our preconceived opinions, and 
may prove the harbinger of a fossil man. f 
I now leave the reader to judge for himself whether the facts adduced 
by me, in my Essay, and extended on this occasion, are “ misconcep- 
tions, or downright errors.” It was objected to me, that I “ seemed to 
have referred to scarcely any authorities that have been published since 
*Silliman’s American Journal of Science for 1847, p. 36. The horse and 
the ox have also been found fossil at Eschcholtz bay, on the northwest coast 
of America. 
•)• Some curious evidence has been submitted to the British Association, at 
the meeting of the present year, in Edinburgh, by Mr. Daniel Wilson. This 
gentleman, in a memoir on Pre-Celtic Races in Scotland, records the following 
curious facts: “ In the museum of the University of Edinburgh, there are pre- 
served the remains of a fossil whale, dug up in the Blair-Drummond moss, 
seven miles above Stirling bridge, and fully twenty miles from the nearest 
part of the river Forth, where, by any possibility, a whale could now be 
stranded. Yet, along with this was found the rude harpoon of deer’s horn, 
which proves that this fossil whale pertains to the historic era, and points to 
a period more recent than the first colonization of the British islev” 50 
the days of Buffon and Temminck.” If this was my error before, I 
trust I have corrected it now. It was also asserted that “ not a solitary 
new race has been produced by any commingling of species.” Here, 
again, I leave the issue to an unprejudiced examination of the many 
facts now brought together. 
As to the assertion of Dr. Bachman, “ that, if the Scriptures could, 
by any possibility, be tortured to prove the plurality of origin for the 
human species, philosophers and men of science would become infidels,” 
I deny such an inferential conclusion altogether. It is well known that 
this question has been, at various times, and for a series of years, 
brought before the Academy of Natural Sciences, in this city, and made 
the subject of repeated discussion, without, at least, to my knowledge, 
wounding the feelings or shaking the faith of my associates, among 
whom are many exemplary members of different religious denomina- 
tions. I may make the«same remark with respect to a number of the 
clergy with whom I have conversed freely on these questions, and who 
have appeared to desire information, without apprehending, or, at all 
events, without expressing, any spiritual apprehension of the result, be 
it what it may. 
I have never felt the slightest hesitation in investigating the facts of 
Nature—well knowing that “ truth will never conflict with itself,” no 
matter how diversified soever may be the points in which we view it. 
I am far, however, from desiring to make startling propositions to igno- 
rant minds; but, as I address myself, in this, as in former instances, to 
educated persons, I cannot conceive that evil consequences will any 
more result than would follow scientific investigations in astronomy, ge 
ology and chronology—each one of which has, in its turn, contended 
against the inveterate prcpossions, not only of the ignorant, but of 
many ot erwise learned and enlightened individuals. 
Finally—Dr. Bachman lays great stress on my having changed my 
sentiments with respect to the origin of the human race. From one 
position, however, I have never swerved, viz.: that the diversities ex- 
isting among the different human families have not been acquired; or, 
in other words, are not the result of climate, locality, food, and other 
physical agents, but have existed ab origine : and, in the early period 
of my investigation, I was content, as elsewhere expressed, to suppose 
that the distinctive characteristics of the several races might have been 
marked upon the immediate family of Adam. More light on this in- 
teresting question has compelled me to change my opinion. I was not 
awrare, however, that this was so great a direliction of propriety as Dr. 
Bachman considers it. It is always humiliating to our pride to ac- 51 
knowledge our errors; but, at the same time, it is, at least, commenda- 
ble to do so, and the act may even be regarded as a virtue. 
We have seen that a number of distinguished clergymen—Wilks 
Buckland, Sedgwick, Faber, Chalmers, Coneybeare, Pye Smith, Hitch 
cock, and others—“ strove long with themselves to believe” that the 
phenomena presented by geological investigations could be embraced 
within the limited period usually assigned to the Creation ; “ and they 
did not give up the hope, nor seek for a new interpretation of the Sa- 
cred Text, till they considered themselves driven from their position by 
such facts as we have stated.” I cannot see why the privilege of modi 
fying one’s opinions is not. equally allowable in Ethnology as in Geo 
ology; and, if I must be told that my views conflict with Genesis, I 
reply, in the words of one of the above-named divines : “ The apparent 
discrepancies between the facts of Science and the words of Scripture 
must be understood before we can make any attempt at their removal.” 
I regret the necessity I have been placed under of publishing this 
paper and my letter to Dr. Bachman, at the present time. Controversy 
seldom allows leisure for deliberate examination and induction ; and 
the restricted limits of a periodical journal must necessarily exclude, as 
in this instance, a mass of materials that are necessary to a proper un- 
derstanding the subject; and, much that I have further to say on the 
questions at issue must be reserved until such time as I may find 
health and leisure for the revision of my Essay, and for the production 
of a work I have long contemplated, with the title of Elements of 
Ethnology. 
P. S.—To show, in a single paragraph, what I have called the ten- 
dency of recent investigations in reference to hybridity, I cannot avoid 
quoting the following remarks from the work of a distinguished living- 
zoologist : 
“ With respect to the sheep and goat, they are so crossed ly differ- 
ent species, so altered by climate and the breeder’s art, that it is no 
easy matter to know what their original stock really may be. The 
sheep may be the descendant of several species of moufflon, interbreed- 
ing with each other; and many wild moufflons exist throughout the 
mountain chains of Asia and Eastern Europe. In like manner, we may 
regard the goat as of mixed parentage. The same observations apply 
to our domestic cattle.” * 
* W. C. Linnceus Martin. Natural History of the Horse, p. 14, 1845. 52 
My friend, Dr. Barnes, U. S. A., has been, for many years, stationed 
in the interior of Texas, where he has had abundant opportunities of 
obtaining information in relation to the wolves and dogs of that re- 
gion, and he has kindly given me the following facts, which came to 
hand too late to be incorporated with the preceding pages. 
The Chihuahua dog resembles, in size, form and shape of the head, 
the English spaniel, but has erect ears, like a wolf, and is an indi- 
genous animal. All the Southern Camanche Indians have a cross be- 
tween this dog and the dusky wolf, (Canis nubilus.)* These mongrel 
dogs breed again with the European dogs; and a female of the latter is 
so highly prized, for this purpose, that the Camanches will give a mule 
in exchange for one of them. Dr. Barnes further informs me that the 
hairless dog, another indigenous form, to which I have heretofore al- 
luded, is common in the mining districts, and is remarkable for always 
having a tuft of whitish hair on the top of the head. 
Having embarked in this inquiry, with the intention of pursuing it 
in all its ramifications, I will feel greatly obliged to any one who will 
forward me authenticated facts in relation to the wolf, the various In- 
dian dogs and their hybrid offspring, together with the skulls of any or 
all of them, for comparison. Such materials, it will-be observed, afford 
important collateral aids to Ethnology; and I may, perhaps, be excused 
for adding my wish to extend yet further my collection of Human Cra- 
nia. This series already embraces nearly nine hundred skulls of all 
the races of men; and it is on the measurement of six hundred and 
twenty-one of these that I have formed my Table, showing the com- 
parative size of the brain in these various races. Being now engaged 
in extending this Table, for re-publication, I will feel much indebted to 
those persons w'ho can aid my purpose with additional materials. 
Philadelphia, October 26, 1850. 
Additional Note.—The evidence in support of the views contained 
in this essay increases on every hand. I have just received, through 
the kindness of Prince Maximilian de Wied, a copy of the two volumes 
of the Astrolabe and ZcUe, which embrace the Anthropology of that 
celebrated voyage of discovery. The first of these volumes, from the 
pen of a distinguished zoologist of the Expedition, is entitled, “ De 
l’homme dans ses rapports avec la creation : Par M. Hombron.” 
* C. nubilus of Say; by some zoologists regarded as a distinct species; but by 
most supposed to be only a variety of the C. occidentalis.—Rich. 53 
I feel called upon to quote a few passages from this work, because 
the author’s opinions coincide so fully with my own, that it might be 
supposed I had derived them from him, without making the acknow- 
ledgements which truth and courtesy dictate on such occasions. Suf- 
fice it to say that I never saw M. Hornbron’s admirable work until to- 
day ; and I gladly avail myself of the following extracts from it: 
“ The dog, like other animals, has its special representatives in Ame- 
rica : thus, there is no reason why we should not consider [some of] 
the domestic dogs of those countries as the descendants of their indige- 
nous wild dogs. This supposition, moreover, proves to be the fact; for 
the crab-dog of Cayenne, (Canid ,) is a veritable dog. I say, 
a true dog, because it becomes necessary to make the wolf into a sepa- 
rate genus. His habits, when they come to be more closely studied, in 
the different parts of the old world, will seem to multiply the number 
of Asiatic and European species. 
“ Hybrids of the same family, pertaining to animals of different ge- 
nera, sub-genera or groups, are not endowed with the power of unli- 
mited reproduction; but it is different with species belonging to the 
same genera or sub-genera ; for their hybrids reproduce with each other. 
“The camel and the dromedary form a case in point; such is also 
the fact with respect to the vigogna, the lama, the alpaca, and the gua- 
naco. Among the solipedes, the sub-genus asinus probably furnishes 
an example of prolific hybridity without limit. Such, also, has been the 
origin of our cattle, our sheep, Ac., which constitute the races of domes- 
tic animals. Every thing goes to prove that the dog forms no excep- 
tion among the terrestrial animals, and that he, like the others, has had 
his special source ; and I will go further, and say that each one of his 
various species was separately created.”—pp. 85-86. 
I have no comment to offer on the preceding propositions. The hy- 
bridity of the several species of lama (Auchenia) had not before come 
under my notice; and whether these species be two, three, or four, 
(and naturalists are divided in opinion on this question,) the facts shall 
have my early attention.