1ITTHAUS LABORATORY GUIDE. COLOR S OF URINE. A / LABORATORY GUIDE IN IffiALY® AND TOXICOLOGY BY R. A. WITTHAUS, A.M., M.D. PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS IN THE MED. DEPT. UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK ; PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY IN THE MED. DEPT. UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT", MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, AND OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETIES OF PARIS AND BERLIN, ETC. SECOND EDITION. NEW YORK WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY 56 & 58 Lafayette Place 1889 Copyright, WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY 1889. PRESS OF •TETTINER, LAMBERT A C9. 22, 24 A 2* READE ST., NEW YORK. CONTENTS. PAGE General Rules 1 Qualitative Analysis of Urine 3 Physical Characters 3 Quantity 3 Color 3 Odor 3 Reaction 4 Specific gravity 4 Chemical Characters. Composition 6 Mineral and organic substances 6 Chlorides 7 Phosphates 7 Sulphates 8 Urea 8 Uric acid 8 Proteids 9 Filtration 9 Albumin . 11 Paraglobulin 14 Mucin 14 Peptone 14 Glucose 15 Blood 19 Bile 19 Quantitative Analysis of Urine 22 Reaction 22 Chlorides . 25 Phosphates 26 Sulphates 28 Urea 29 Uric acid 31 Albumin 32 Glucose 32 CONTENTS. IV PAQB Urinary Deposits. 34 Unorganized deposits 34 Organized deposits 37 Analysis of Calculi.. 41 Detection of Poisons 43 Volatile Poisons 43 Phosphorus ■. 44 Hydrocyanic acid 46 Alcohol .... 46 Chloroform 47 Chloral 48 Carbolic acid 48 Mineral Acids and Alkalies...... 49 Sulphuric acid 49 Hydrochloric acid 50 Nitric acid 50 Potash 51 Soda 51 Ammonia 52 Metallic Poisons 53 Arsenic 55 Antimony 60 Bismuth 61 Copper 62 Lead 63 Mercury 64 Barium. ,: 66 Zinc 66 Vegetable Poisons 67 General reactions 69 Morphine 70 Meconic acid 71 Strychnine 71 Atropine 72 Oxalic acid..., 73 URINALYSIS AND TOXICOLOGY. 1. There is a place for everything, into which it must be put immediately after use. 2. The reagent bottles must be kept upon the shelves in the order of their numbers, and with the labels outward. 3. In replenishing reagent bottles from stock, fill them only half full. 4. If the reagent in any bottle becomes cloudy, filter it. 5. Do not lay the stopper of the bottle upon the table. Remove it from the bottle by grasping it between the little and ring fingers of the left hand, and hold it there, pointing outward from the back of the hand, until re- placed in the bottle. 6. In liquid tests, use about two cent, of the liquid to be tested in a test-tube; not more unless so directed. 7. Add the reagent in small quantity at first, and stop when the desired end is attained. 8. Prevent the last drop adhering to the lip of the bottle from flowing down its side, by catching it upon the stopper or upon the clean lip of the test-tube. 9. A separate portion of the original substance or liquid is to be used for each test, except when otherwise directed. 10. Before trying a reaction, read the description through, and then follow the directions literally. Should the result not be that described, ask for an explanation. GENERAL RULES FOR WORKING. ABBREVIATIONS. 2 11. Let each piece of apparatus be clean before being put into its place, and let everything be in its place before you leave. ABBREVIATIONS. The following abbreviations are used in the text, and will be found convenient by the student in taking notes: ppt. = precipitate pptn. = precipitation sol. = soluble insol. = insoluble soln. = solution cc. = cubic centimetre L. = litre pt.-pts. = part-parts dil. = dilute cent. = centimetres gtt. = drops sp. gr. = specific gravity con. = concentrated gm. = gram. The formula of the reagent always applies to its solu- tion, except where otherwise specified. Metric weights and measures, and the centigrade ther- mometric scale, are used throughout. One decimetre. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF URINE. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. Quantity. 1. Collect all urine passed by the patient during twenty- four hours, and measure in a cylindrical graduate (Fig. 1) divided into cubic centi- metres. Normal = 1.000 to 1,500 cc. All examinations of urine should he made with samples of the mixed urine of twenty- four hours, unless otherwise directed. Color. 2. Put £100 cc. urine (filtered if cloudy)' into a beaker of 6 to 7 centimetres diameter; look through it at the light from a window, and compare the color observed with the color plate. (See plate.) Record this, by using the numbers of the colored squares, as free color. Add 5 cc. HC1 to the urine; stir, let stand four hours, compare color as before, and record as total color. Odor. 3. Note whether the odor is natural or "urinous," or " ammoniacal," "like vio- lets," or otherwise peculiar. Fig. 1. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF URINE 4 Reaction. 4. Put some of the urine into a porcelain capsule ; dip into it a piece of red and a piece of blue litmus paper. If the blue paper turn red, the reaction is acid. If the red paper turn blue, the reaction is alkaline. If the colors remain unchanged, the reaction is neutral. 5. If the reaction be found to be alkaline, it remains to determine whether the alkalinity is due to fixed or volatile alkali, to carbonates or phosphates. These determina- tions must be made with the urine so soon as possible after it has been voided, and, preferably, with the morning urine. 6. Moisten one-half of a piece of red litmus paper with the urine, and hang it up to dry. If, after drying, the paper retain its blue color, the alkalinity is due to fixed alkali ; but if the paper return to its original red, to vola- tile alkali (ammonia). To obtain reliable results, the paper must be dried in a position where it is not exposed to the fumes coming from bottles containing NH4HO, HC1, or HNO3, or to other acid or ammoniacal vapors. 7. To a portion of the urine in a test tube add a slight excess of HC1, and warm, if necessary ; if effervescence ensue, the alkalinity is due to carbonates ; if not, to phos- phates. If volatile alkali be found in 6, and carbonate in 7, the urine contains ammonium carbonate. Specific Gravity. 8. Test the urinometer (which should not be smaller than 12 centimetres in length, and divided into single degrees) with the solutions of known specific gravity fur- nished in the laboratory for that purpose, making the readings as directed in § 9, and note the error in different SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 5 parts of the scale. The differences from the true readings are to be noted on the box, and added or subtracted, as the error is minus or plus, in all subsequent readings. 9. To use the urinometer : The cylinder should be of the shape shown in Fig. 2, without pouring-lip, of such depth that the urinometer may be completely immersed, and of a diameter double that of the wide part of the urinometer. Hold the cylinder in an inclined position, and pour into it urine to within 2 centimetres of the top. Set it upright, float the urinometer in the urine, and add more urine until the level heaps " above the rim of the cylinder. Now bring the eye to about the level of the top of the cylinder, and, seeing that the urinometer does not touch the wall of the cylinder, read off the specific gravity at the highest point where the liquid, drawn up by capillary attraction, cuts the graduation of the urinometer (A, Fig. 2). If the urinometer be in contact with the cylinder, cause it to float freely by touching the projecting portion of the stem laterally. Do not push it down into the liquid. 10. The temperature at which the gravity should be determined is 60° F. ( = 15°.4 Cent.). If the urine be of a different temperature, cool it by immersing the vessel in cold water, or warm it until 60° is reached. Corrections for variations of temperature cannot be Fig. 2. MINERAL AND ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 6 accurately made in the case of a liquid of such complex and varying composition as the urine. CHEMICAL CHARACTERS-COMPOSITION. N. B.-Obviously a qualitative examination of the urine for its normal constituents is never practised by the phy- sician. The student is required to test for the more im- portant of these substances, partly that he may be able to recognize them elsewhere, but principally |o afford practice in the methods of manipulation and observation. Normal Constituents. Mineral and Organic Substances. 11. Heat a slip of clean platinum foil in the flame until it ceases to color the latter yellow. Place upon the foil a fragment of chalk, and heat in the flame. The chalk does not blacken or volatilize. Chalk is a fixed mineral sub- stance. 12. Place a fragment of NH4C1 in the bottom of a dry test-tube and heat it cautiously. It does not blacken, but volatilizes, and is deposited in its original form upon the cool part of the tube. Ammonium chloride is a volatile mineral substance. 13. Heat a fragment of starch upon a slip of clean plati- num foil; it blackens (after burning), and on continuing the heat the coal gradually disappears, and nothing is left. Starch is afixed organic substance. 14. Place a fragment of benzoic acid in the bottom of a dry test-tube and heat it cautiously. It does not blacken, but volatilizes, and is deposited in its original form upon the cool part of the tube. Benzoic acid is a volatile organic substance. 15. Heat a piece of dry albumin upon the slip of plati- 7 CHLORIDES-PHOSPHATES. num foil; it burns, blackens, and also gives off an odor of burnt horn. Albumin is a nitrogenized, colloid organic substance. 16. Heat a fragment of urea upon the clean platinum foil; it neither burns nor does it give an odor of burnt horn, but fuses, gives off an odor of ammonia, and finally disappears. Urea is a crystalloid, nitrogenized organic substance. N. B.-It will be seen from the above that organic and mineral substances which are not capable of volatilizing unchanged may be distinguished from each other by the blackening and burning of the former when heated. Vo- latile organic and mineral substances cannot, however, be distinguished in this way. The albuminoid substances may be further recognized by the odor which they emit on burning, while many other nitrogenized organic substances give off ammonia when heated, and behave precisely as do certain ammoniacal salts. 17. Put some of the liquid to be tested into two test- tubes,* add to each gtt. 5 AgNO3-a white ppt. J is pro- duced. To one of the test-tubes add NH4HO and agitate -the ppt. redissolves completely. To the other test-tube add HNO3 and agitate-the ppt. does not redissolve. Chlorides. Phosphates. 18. Add AgNO3 to the liquid in two test-tubes-a yellow ppt. is produced. Add NH4HO to the liquid in one test- tube and HNO3 to that in the other, and agitate-the ppt. in each redissolves. * The student is referred to the General Rules, p. 1, which he should hold in mind. f See abbreviations, p. 2. SULPHATES-URIC ACID. 8 19. Add magnesia mixture *-a white, crystalline ppt. is formed. Add HC1-the ppt. redissolves. See note at head of this section and also under Albumin, p. 13. 20. Add BaC'l2-a white ppt. is formed. Add HC1 to strongly acid reaction-the ppt. does not redissolve. 21. To a moderately concentrated cold soln, of urea in a watch glass add colorless HNOa in equal volume-imme- diately, or after a few moments, crystals of nitrate of urea (Fig. 3) separate. 22. To a few drops of soln, of urea upon a watch glass add a few gtt. of Millon's reagent, f and heat-a yellow color, chang- ing to red, is produced. A somewhat similar appearance is produced with albumins. 23. Heat a fragment of urea in a dry test-tube until, after having fused, it is converted into an opaque, white solid; let cool; add about 1 cent. KHO and gtt. 2 of a very dilute soln. CuSO4-a pale rose-red color. This test, known as the " biuret reaction," produces a similar ap- pearance with peptones. See § 41. Sulphates. Fig. 3. 24. Moisten the solid in a porcelain capsule with a few gtt. HN03; heat on the water-bath until dry; cool; add NH4H0-a brilliant red color appears, which fades after a few moments. This is known as the " murexid test." Uric Acid. * Made by dissolving 11 pts. MgCl2 and 28 pts. NH«C1 in 130 pts. H2O, adding 70 pts. dil. NH«HO and filtering after two days. f Made by dissolving 1 pt. Hg. in 2 pts. strong HNOS over the water-bath, diluting with 2 pts. H2O, and decanting after four hours. FILTRATION. 9 Abnormal Constituents. PROTEIDS-ALBUMINOIDS. Before testing for albuminoids, the urine must be sepa- rated from all solid particles, must be rendered perfectly clear and transparent; this is accomplished by the process of Filtration. The apparatus required for this purpose consists of a funnel and support for the same, a vessel to receive the filtrate (i. e., the liquid which passes through the filter), a wash bottle, stirring-rod, and filters. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. The funnel (Fig. 4) should be selected by testing with a piece of card-board cut with an angle of 60° (A, Fig. 4), which should exactly fit it, and should have the point of the stem ground off at an angle. The filters are discs of porous paper manufactured for the purpose (filter paper). The diameter of the disc se- lected should be somewhat less than twice the length of the sloping side of the funnel from rim to shoulder (B-C, Fig. 4). The filter must not project above the rim of the funnel. 25. Take a filter (a, Fig. 5) of suitable size and fold it FILTRATION. 10 across a diameter (b, Fig. 5), fold it again over a radius at right angles to the first diameter (c, Fig. 5), open the paper out into a conical bag by separating one thickness of the paper from the other three (d, Fig. 5). The filter is then adjusted in the funnel and pressed against its side with the dry finger until it fits closely. Now, holding the filter and funnel so that the nail of the fore-finger is pressed, against the upper end of one of the folds (Fig. 6), moisten the paper by directing upon it a jet of water from the orifice a of the wash-bottle (Fig. 7), produced by blow- ing gently into the tube b. 26. Support the funnel containing the wetted filter over the vessel destined to receive the filtrate (if a flask or test- Fig. 7. ALBUMIN. 11 tube be used for this purpose, no other support is needed), and pour the liquid to be filtered into the filter, allowing it to flow along the stirring-rod, held as shown in Fig. 8, in successive portions until it has passed through; never, however, adding liquid in greater quantity than to within two to three millimetres of the edge of the filter. 27. It frequently happens that urine does not yield a clear filtrate by simple filtration. When this is the case, add to the turbid filtrate enough KHO to communicate a distinctly alkaline reaction, and a few gtt. of magnesia Fig. 8. mixture, warm slightly, and filter again through a fresh filter. Or add to the urine some finely shredded asbestos sus- pended in water, agitate strongly, let stand, and decant off the clear liquid. Albumin. 28. Heller's test.-Put about 2 cent. HNOS into a test- tube. Fill a pipette with the filtered urine. Hold the test-tube at a small angle to the horizontal, and allow the urine to flow slowly from the pipette (whose upper end has been roughened by the file) upon the surface of the nitric acid (Fig. 9). Remove the pipette, turn the test- ALBUMIN. 12 tube cautiously into the vertical position, and examine the point of junction of the two liquids. In the presence of albumin a milky zone, whose upper and lower borders are both sharply defined, is seen at the point of junction of the acid and urine (Fig. 10 a). If no reaction be observed, set the tube aside and examine it again in half an hour. 29. Repeat the testing, as in § 28, with a non-albumin- nus urine. A band of deeper coloration is observed at the point of junction of the two liquids; this is not to be con- Fig. 9. Fig. 10. founded with the milky zone observed with albuminous urine. 30. Repeat the testing, as in § 28, using a urine con- taining an excess of urates, but no albumin. A white zone is observed above the point of junction of the liquids, whose lower border may be sharply defined, but whose upper border fades off gradually into the layer of urine, the whole of which may become turbid (Fig. 10 b). ALBUMIN. 13 31. Heat and Nitric Acid test.-Determine the reaction of the urine. If it be alkaline, add acetic acid cautiously un- til it shows a faintly acid reaction with blue litmus paper. Fill a test-tube to within 2-3 cent, of the top with the acidulated urine, and, holding the test-tube by the bottom, heat the upper portion of the liquid nearly to boiling. An opalescence, cloudiness, or coagulum is formed, according to the amount of albumin present. Now add slowly 5 to 10 gtt. of concentrated HN03; the ppt. does not diminish (it may increase) in amount. 32. Apply heat, as in § 31, to a sample of the alkaline albuminous urine, without acidulating. No reaction is observed. 33. Apply heat, as in § 31, to another sample of the urine, to which an excess of acetic acid has been added. No reaction is observed. 34. Apply the test, as directed in § 31, to a sample of urine containing no albumin, but containing an excess of earthy phosphates. An appearance similar to that ob- served in the case of the albuminous urine is obtained; but on addition of HN03, the ppt. redissolves and the liquid becomes transparent. 35. If the urine, when heated, becomes cloudy, and again clears on addition of HN03 in the amount mentioned in § 31, it contains an amount of earthy phosphates in ex- cess of the normal. 36. Picric Acid test.-Float some of the clear urine on acetic acid as in Heller's test. If any cloudiness be ob- served at the junction of the two liquids, treat a larger quantity of the urine with acetic acid to acid reaction, and filter. Pour about 7 cent, of the clear filtrate, or of the clear urine, which gives no cloudiness when floated on acetic acid, into a test-tube; float upon its surface about 2 cent, of a saturated solution of picric acid, and warm the PARAGLOBULIN MUCIN-PEPTONE. 14 point where the two liquids come together. A cloudiness at this point, which does not disappear when heat is ap- plied, is evidence of the presence of albumin. A cloudiness which does disappear on the application of heat may be produced by alkaloids, urates, etc. Paraglobulin. 37. Dilute the filtered urine with water to sp. gr. 1.002. Float on the surface dilute acetic acid (1 to 10); a cloudy zone is formed in the presence of paraglobulin in large amount. If no cloudiness be observed after half an hour, pass through the liquid a slow current of carbon dioxide. A cloudiness indicates the presence of paraglobulin. 38. Pour about 2 cent, of acetic acid into a test-tube, and float the clear urine upon its surface. A cloud, which usually appears only after standing a time, just above the line of contact of the liquids, shows the presence of mucin, provided it does not disappear on the application of heat. Mucin. 39. Add soln, of neutral lead acetate to 500 cc. urine, until the ppt. no longer increases; filter. To the filtrate add acetic acid and a few gtt. of ferrocyanide of potassium soln.; if any cloudiness be produced, continue the ad- dition of ferrocyanide soln, until the precipitate no longer increases, and filter. 40. To a portion of the last filtrate obtained, as in § 39, add one-fifth its bulk of acetic acid and then an acid soln, of sodium phosphotungstate.* A cloudiness immediately, or after a few moments, indicates the presence of peptone. Peptone. * The phosphotungstate soln, is made by adding phosphoric acid to a boiling soln, of sodium-tungstate to acid reaction, cooling, adding acetic acid to strongly acid reaction, and filtering after twenty-four hours. GLUCOSE. 15 41. To the remainder of the filtrate, § 39, add half its volume of strong HC1, and then phosphotungstate soln, to complete precipitation. Collect the ppt. on a filter as rapidly as possible, wash with 5$ H2SO4 until the filtrate is colorless. Transfer the ppt. to a capsule and mix it thor- oughly with powdered barium hydrate; add a little H2O; warm fifteen minutes on the water-bath, and filter. Add to a portion of the filtrate in a test-tube KHO soln, to strongly alkaline reaction, and then 1 gtt. of a dil. soln, of CuSO4. A reddish-violet color indicates the presence of peptone. See § 23. Glucose-Diabetic Sugar.* 42. If the urine contain albumin, this must be re- moved before testing for sugar. Heat the urine in a beaker, and when it begins to boil add 2 gtt. acetic acid and boil gently for half an hour, or until the albumin, which was at first disseminated throughout the liquid, has separated in flocks. Filter, and apply the following tests to the filtrate: 43. Urine containing sugar is usually of high sp. gr., pale in color, abundant in quantity, and sometimes has a sweetish odor. 44. Moore's test.-To the urine in two test-tubes add one-half bulk of KHO. Boil the contents of one tube for about a minute, and then compare its color with that of the other tube. A darkening of the boiled sample indi- cates the presence of sugar. N. B.-In boiling a liquid in a test-tube, hold the tube by its upper end, between the thumb and forefinger, the mouth pointing over the forefinger and away from the * Glucose is considered as an abnormal constituent of the urine for clinical convenience. Strictly speaking, it is a normal constituent. It is constantly present, but in such minute quantity that the tests, as usually applied, fail to reveal its presence so long as the quantity re- mains within the normal limits. GLUCOSE. 16 person. Hold the bottom of the tube in the flame until small bubbles begin to rise through the liquid; then, and so long as the heating continues, prevent " bumping" of the contents by an oscillation of the tube, produced by rapidly alternating slight motions of pronation and supi- nation of the hand. In cases where prolonged boiling is necessary, the tube may be held in a wooden clamp, or by passing around its upper part a folded strip of strong paper, whose ends are then grasped between the thumb and forefinger. 45. Trammer's test.-To the urine in a test-tube add 2 gtt. of a saturated soln, of CuSO4 and a volume of KHO soln, equal to half that of the urine. Observe that the liquid is blue and transparent. Heat until the liquid begins to boil. The formation of a yellow or red ppt. in- dicates the presence of glucose. 46. Apply the test as described in § 45, using a urine containing a large amount of sugar. The liquid changes in color from blue to yellow, but no ppt. is produced. 47. Repeat the testing of the highly saccharine urine, adding gtt. 6 in place of gtt. 2 CuSO4 soln., and allow the liquid to stand after boiling. The yellow or red ppt. is produced. 48. Repeat the test with the urine used in § 45, adding gtt. 6 CuSO4 soln., and boiling for a longer time. A black or dark colored ppt. is produced. N. B.-Trommer's test only shows that sugar is present when a distinct yellow or red ppt. is formed. A mere change of color, or the formation of a ppt. different from that described, is not sufficient evidence of the presence of sugar. Therefore, in applying this test in practice, use only a small quantity of CuSO4 soln, at first, and if in a first testing a change of color be observed, but no ppt., make a second testing, using an increased amount of CuSO4. GLUCOSE. 17 49. Boettger's test.-Render the urine strongly alka- line by dissolving in it powdered Na2CO3. Put into two test-tubes about 3 cent, of the alkaline urine. To one test-tube add a very minute quantity of powdered sub- nitrate of bismuth, to the other as much powdered litharge. Boil the contents of the two tubes. If sugar be present, the bismuth powder becomes first gray and then black. The litharge is not blackened. 50. Repeat the test as in § 49 with a urine containing a sulphide or an organic compound containing sulphur, but no sugar. Both subnitrate and litharge are blackened. 51. Mulder-Neubauer test.-Dissolve in 2 cent, of the saccharine urine in a test-tube enough powdered Na2CO3 to give it a strongly alkaline reaction, and then add enough solution of indigo-carmine to communicate a distinctly blue color, but no more. Heat the liquid nearly to boiling with as little agitation as possible. The color changes from blue to green, to wine-red, to yellow. Allow the contents of the tube to cool. Close the opening of the tube with the thumb, and agitate; the color changes back through wine-red and green to blue. 52. Fermentation test.-Take three beakers of about 70 cc. capacity, and label them A, B, and C. Fill A with the urine to be tested, B with a solution of glucose, and C with water. Put into each beaker some brewers' yeast, or some compressed yeast, and stir well. Fill a test-tube completely full from A. Close the opening of the tube with a cork of suitable size fastened on the short limb of a wire bent at right angles, in such a way that no air bub- bles are inclosed. Immerse the end of the tube with the cork into the liquid in A, and remove the cork by means of the wire, taking care that no air enters the tube. Re- verse test-tubes similarly filled from B and C in each of those beakers. Set the three beakers and tubes in a place GLUCOSE. 18 whose temperature is about 25° (77° Fahr.), and after six hours observe whether gas have collected in any of the tubes. If the test-tubes A and B contain gas above the liquid, and C do not, the urine contains sugar. If A and C do not contain gas, and B do, the urine does not contain sugar. Under any other circumstances the yeast is unfit for use. The purpose of A is to test the urine; that of B and C to guard against sources of error from the yeast itself. 53. Fehling's test.-Put about 2 cent, of Fehling's so- lution (see § 90) into a test-tube, and heat it to boiling. Examine the liquid carefully-standing with your back to the light, and, if possible, holding the tube in the direct rays of the sun-for any red specks or reddish reflections, which appear usually at the lower, curved part of the tube. If any red color be observed, the test solution has deterio- rated and must be replaced by some which has been freshly mixed. 54. If the test solution have been found to be in proper condition, add to it 2 to 3 gtt. of the urine to be tested, and boil again. If no red color be now observed, add a further quantity of urine, and boil again. Continue this alternate addition of urine and boiling until a red or yel- low ptt. is formed-in which case sugar is present-or un- til a bulk of urine equal to that of the test solution used has been added, without the appearance of a red ppt.-in which case sugar is absent. N. B.-Fehling's solution is recommended as affording the most manageable and reliable test for sugar, provided the precautions mentioned in §§ 53 and 42 are observed. When the amount of sugar present is very small, the liquid retains its blue color; but when it is poured out of the tube, a red film is seen attached to the glass. If the quantity of sugar be great, the copper is completely pre- cipitated, and the liquid decolorized. BLOOD BILK. 19 Test-tubes which have been used for Fehling's and Trommer's tests may be cleaned with a little HNO,. Blood. 55. If the urine be alkaline, render it faintly acid with acetic acid. Heat to near boiling. The urine becomes lighter in color, and a dark-colored coagulum is formed. 56. Add KHO to distinct alkaline reaction; heat nearly to boiling (do not boil). A red ppt. is produced. 57. To a few drops of the urine in a test-tube add a drop of freshly prepared tincture of guaiacum and a little ozonic other (ether to which oxygenated water has been added), and agitate. The ether, which rises to the sur- face, is blue. 58. Shako together oil of turpentine and freshly pre- pared tincture of guaiac, add the urine in volume equal to that of the resulting emulsion, shake gently, and allow to separate: a blue or greenish-blue color of the upper layer indicates the presence of blood. Bile. Biliary Salts. 59. Pettenkofer's Reaction.- This tost, although very useful with pure solutions of the biliary acids, cannot be applied to the urine directly ; a process of purification, is therefore necessary, and is performed as follows: About 50-100 cc. of the urine are evaporated to dryness over the water-bath. The residue is extracted with strong alcohol, 5 cc.; the alcoholic solution is filtered and mixed with 50 cc. anhydrous other. The ppt. formed is collected on a small filter, and, after having been washed with ether, is dissolved in 1 to 2 cc. H,O. To the aqueous solution so obtained Pettenkofer's test is applied as directed in § 60. BILE. 20 60. To the liquid obtained according to § 59 add 1 gtt. of a solution of cane-sugar (1 :3); hold the tube in an in- clined position, and add H2S04 in such a way that it forms a layer below the aqueous liquid. In the presence of bili- ary acids, the liquid becomes turbid, and immediately, or after a time, a purple-red band is formed at the junction of the two strata, which gradually diffuse into one another, forming, after four to five hours, a homogeneous, dark- purple liquid. The acid and liquid above must not be mixed. 61. Repeat the test, as in § 60, with a solution contain- ing albumin but no biliary salts. The same reaction is produced. 62. Repeat the test, as in § 60, with a solution contain- ing morphia but no biliary salts. The same reaction is produced. 63. Repeat the test, as in § 60, with normal urine. An appearance frequently results which cannot be distin- guished from that produced with urine containing biliary acids. 64. Oliver's Peptone test.-The reagent required is made by dissolving 2 gm. of pulverized peptone (Savory & Moore) and 0.25 gm. salicylic acid in 250 cc. of HaO, and adding 2 cc. acetic acid. Filter till perfectly clear. Dilute the urine to sp. gr. 1.008; pour some into a test- tube, and float upon its surface some of the reagent. An immediate cloudiness at the line of junction of the liquids indicates the presence of biliary salts. Biliary Pigments. 65. Urine containing biliary pigments is always dark in color. 66. Gmelin's test.-Pour 3 cent. HNO3 into a test-tube, add a piece of wood (1 cent, of the butt end of a match) BILE. 21 and heat until the acid assumes a yellow color. Pour off the acid into another test-tube, and cool it by immers- ing the tube in cold H2O. When the acid is cold, float about 3 cent, of the urine to be tested upon its surface from a pipette. If biliary pigments be present, a green band is formed at the junction of the two liquids, which gradually rises higher and higher, and is succeeded from below by blue, reddish-violet, and yellow. The green color is much more distinctly marked than the others. 67. Shake the urine with ether. On standing, the ether separates as a yellow layer over the urine. Pour off the ether and float it on the surface of dilute bromine water in another test-tube. The ether gradually changes in color from yellow to blue. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF URINE. Reaction. 68. To determine the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the urine, solutions containing known quantities of oxalic acid and of caustic soda are required. 69. Weigh out 6.3 gms. of pure, crystallized oxalic acid (O2O4H2 + 2Aq. = 126). Transfer it without loss to the measuring cylinder (Fig. 1, p. 3); add H2O to the 1,000 cc. mark, and agitate until solution is complete. The liquid so obtained is a "Decinormal solution of oxalic acid," Q&ch cc. of which contains 0.0063 gm. of oxalic acid, equivalent to 0.004 gm. NallO. 70. Weigh out 4.5 gm. of caustic soda. Dissolve in 60 cc. H2O; add a lump of quicklime; boil about fifteen minutes; filter into the measuring cylinder; dilute to 900 cc. with H2O, and mix. Measure off 10 cc. of the decinormal oxalic acid solution with a pipette (Fig. 11); transfer it to a small beaker, and add to it 2 gtt. of an alcoholic solution of phenolphtha- lein (1 gm. in 100 cc.). Fill a burette (Fig. 12) with the soda solution to the 0 mark. Add the alkaline solution to the liquid in the beaker until the latter remains faintly red after stirring. Read the number of cc. of alkaline so- lution used from the graduation of the burette. This, multiplied by 100, gives the number of cc. of the solution containing 4.0gms. of NaHO. Remove soda solution from the mixing cylinder until there remain exactly the num- Alkalimetry and Acidimetry. QUANTITATIVE RE ACTION. 23 her of cc. containing 4.0 gms. NaHO; add H20 to the 1,000 cc. mark, and mix. The solution so obtained is a " Decinormal solution of caustic soda each cc. of which contains 0.004 gm. NaHO, A.. Fig. 11. Fig. 12. equivalent to 0.0063 C2O4H, + 2Aq. The acid and alka- line solutions, therefore, neutralize each other, volume for volume. The alkaline solution must be kept in glass-stoppered QUANTITATIVE R E ACTION. 24 bottles, the stoppers and necks of which have been coated with a mixture of equal parts of vaseline and paraffin, and must be exposed to the air as little as possible. 71. To determine the degree of acidity in the urine, place two portions of 50 cc. each in two beakers, and add to each 4 gtt. phenolphthalein solution. Fill a burette to the 0 mark with the decinormal soda solution. Add por- tions of the alkaline solution to the contents of one of the beakers until a red color is produced, which persists on stirring. Fill the burette again to the 0 mark, and from it add 1 cc. less soda solution to the second beaker than was added to the first. The liquid in the second beaker should be yellow, without any tinge of red. Now continue the addition of soda solution to the second beaker, drop by drop, until a faint red tinge persists on stirring. The number of cc. of decinormal soda solution used (the last burette reading), multiplied by 0.0063, gives the acidity of 50 cc. in grams of oxalic acid ; from which the total acidity is determined by multiplying by the quantity of urine in twenty-four hours and dividing by 50. Example. Quantity of urine in 24 hours - 1,350 cc. Decinormal soda solution used = 14.6 cc. 14.6 x 0.0063 = 0.09198 = acidity of 50 cc. urine. - = 2.48 = acidity of 24 hours m grams of oxalic acid. 72. To determine the degree of alkalinity, proceed as in § 71, using the decinormal oxalic acid solution in place of the soda solution in the burette; and adding the acid solu- tion to the contents of the second beaker until the red color just disappears. The number of cc. of acid solu- tion used, multiplied by 0.004, gives the alkalinity of 50 cc.; from which the total alkalinity is calculated as in § 71. QUANTITATIVE CHLORIDES. 25 Example. Quantity of urine in 24 hours = 1,350 cc. Decinormal oxalic acid solution used = 7.4 cc. 7.4x0.004 = 0.0296 = alkalinity of 50 cc. urine. 0.0296x1,350 .. r K . - = 0.80 = alkalinity of 24 hours m grams of caustic soda. 73. The normal acidity of twenty-four hours of the urine is equal to two to four grams of oxalic acid. 74. The solutions required are: 1. A standard solution of silver nitrate, made by dissolving 29.075 gms. of pure, fused, and recrystallized AgN03 in 1,000 cc. H2O. This solution must be kept in bottles of amber glass. 2. A solu- tion of neutr al potassium chromate; 10 gms. to 100 cc. H2O. 75. To conduct the determination, 5 cc. of urine are placed in a platinum basin, 2 gms. of NaN03 (free from chloride) are added. The whole is evaporated to dryness over the water-bath, and the residue gradually heated un- til a colorless fused mass remains. This residue, after cool- ing, is dissolved in H2O, the soln, transferred to a small beaker, treated with pure dil. HNO, to faintly acid reac- tion, and neutralized with powdered CaCO3; 2 gtt. of the chromate soln, are now added, and finally the silver soln, from a burette (previously filled with AgN03 soln, to the 0 mark), during constant stirring of the contents of the beaker, until a Ifaint reddish tinge remains permanent. Each cc. of the AgNO3 soln, used represents 0.01 gm. NaCl (0.0607 gms. Cl) in 5 cc. urine; from which the NaCl in twenty-four hours is calculated. Example. Urine in 24 hours = 1,260 cc. Silver soln, used = 6.7 cc. 0.01x6.7x1,260 = 16.88 gms. NaCl in 24 hours. Chlorides. QUANTITATIVE PHOSPHATES. 26 N. B.-This process cannot be used during administra- tion of bromides or iodides. 76. The amount of Cl voided by a normal male adult, upon normal diet, is about 10 grams in twenty-four hours, equivalent to 16.5 gms. NaCl. 77. The solutions required are: 1. A standard solution of disodic phosphate, made by dissolving 10 085 gms. of crystallized, non-effloresced disodic phosphate (Na2HPO4 + 12Aq.) in H2O, and diluting the solution to 1 litre. Fifty cc. of this soln, contain 0.1 gm. phosphoric anhydride, P2O5. 2. An acid solution of sodium acetate, made by dis- solving 100 gms. NaC2HbO2 + 3Aq. in 100 cc. H2O, adding 100 cc. glacial HC2H302, and diluting with H2O to 1,000 cc. 3. A solution of potassium ferrocyanide, 10 gms. in 100 cc. II2O. 4. A standard solution of uranic acetate. To obtain this soln., a soln, of approximate strength is first made by dissolving 33 gms. of yellow uranic oxide in gla- cial acetic acid, and diluting with H2O to 900 cc. in the mixing cylinder. Solution No. 1 serves to determine the true strength of this soln., as follows: 50 cc. of soln. 1 are placed in a beaker, and 5 cc. of soln. 2 are added. The mixture is heated on the water-bath, and the uranium soln, gradually added from a burette until a drop of the liquid, taken from the beaker on a stirring-rod, produces a brown color when brought in contact with a drop of soln. 3. At this point, the reading of the burette, which indicates the number of cc. of the uranium soln, corresponding to 0.1 gm. P2O5, is taken. This reading, multiplied by 50, gives the number of cc. uranium soln, equivalent to 5 gms. P2O5. Remove uranium soln, from the mixing cylinder until there remain the number of cc. which have been found to be equivalent to 5 gm. P2O5; add H2O to the 1,000 cc. Phosphates. QU ANTITATI V E PHOSPH ATES. 27 mark, aud mix. The uranium solution so standardized is of such strength that each cc. is equivalent to 0.005 gm. PA- 78. To determine the total phosphoric anhydride in the urine, 50 cc. are placed in a beaker, 5 cc. sodium acetate soln, are added, and the mixture heated on the water-bath. When warm, the standard uranium soln, is added from a burette until a drop, removed from the beaker with a stir- ring-rod, produces a faint brown tinge when brought in contact with a drop of ferrocyanide soln. The burette reading taken at this point and multiplied by 0.005 gives the amount of P2O5 in 50 cc. urine; and this, multiplied by jV the amount of urine eliminated in twenty-four hours, gives the daily elimination in grams of P2O5. Example. Urine in 24 hours = 1,180 cc. Uranium solution used = 24.3 cc. 24.3 X .005 = 0.1215. 1.180x0.1215 . - = 2.87 = grams P2O6 in 24 hours. 79. To determine the phosphoric anhydride correspond- ing to earthy phosphates, 100 cc. of the urine are rendered alkaline with NH4H0, and set aside for twelve hours. Col- lect the ppt. on a filter, and wash it with dilute ammonium hydrate soln. (1 : 3). Perforate the point of the filter, wash the ppt. into a small beaker, dissolve it in as lit- tle acetic acid as possible, make up the solution to about 50 cc. with H„O, add 5 cc. sodium acetate soln., and titrate as in § 78. N. B.-In standardizing (§ 77) the uranium soln., and in using it (§ 78, § 79), time will be saved by taking two quantities of 50 cc. each of the phosphate soln, or urine. Make an approximate determination with one beaker, by adding to it 15 cc. of the uranium soln., and then further quantities of 2 cc. each until the red color is obtained QUANTITATIVE SULPHATES. 28 with ferrocyanide. Then add to the second beaker an amount of uranium soln, equal to that which last failed to respond to the ferrocyanide soln, in the first sample, and continue the addition of uranium soln., drop by drop, un- til the final reaction is obtained. 80. The normal amount of phosphoric anhydride in twenty-four hours is 2.5 to 3 5 grams, of which 0.8 to 1 2 grams are in combination as earthy phosphates, and 1.7 to 2.3 as alkaline phosphates. 81. To 100 cc. of the urine add 5 cc. HC1; heat to near boiling; add BaCl2 soln, in slight excess; let the beaker containing the mixture stand on the water-bath until the ppt. has subsided; decant the clear liquid through a small filter without disturbing the ppt.; add hot water to the beaker; let the ppt. settle again, decant as before, and continue this washing by decantation until a portion of the filtrate no longer becomes cloudy on addition of dil. H2SO4. Transfer the ppt. to the filter by the aid of the wash-bottle (Fig. 7, p. 10), and dry in the water oven. Burn the filter in a weighed platinum crucible until white. Weigh the crucible, ash, and BaSO4, and from this weight subtract that of the crucible and filter-ash. The difference, multi- plied by 0.421, is the weight of sulphuric acid, H2SO4, in 100 cc. urine; and this, multiplied by yjy of the quantity in twenty-four hours, is the amount of H2SO4 eliminated in twenty-four hours. Example. Quantity of urine in 24 hours = 1,320 cc. Weight of platinum crucible,filter-ash, and BaSO4 = 17.8932 " " " " and filter-ash =17.4863 Weight of BaSO4 = 0.4069 0.4069 x 0.421 = 0.1713 = grams H2SO4 in 100 cc. 0.1713 X 13.20=2.26 = grams H2SO4 in 24 hours. Sulphates. QUANTITATIVE UREA. 29 82. The normal daily elimination of H2SO4 is from 2 to 2.5 grams. Urea. 83. Urine containing an excess of urea has a high speci- fic gravity, while that which is deficient in urea is of lower specific gravity than normal. 84. Take two watch-glasses. Into one put 5 gtt. of the urine, into the other 10 gtt. Evaporate the latter over the water-bath until it has been reduced to the volume of the former. Cool the contents of both watch-glasses to about 15° (59° Fahr.) and add to each 3 gtt. of cold, colorless con- centrated HN03. If, after a few moments, crystals of urea nitrate (Fig. 13) appear in both watch-glasses, the urine contains an excess of urea; if crystals do not form in either watch-glass, the proportion of urea is deficient; while if crystals appear in one and not in the other, the amount of urea is about normal. This method is only capable of showing roughly an in- crease or a diminution in the proportion of urea. Two precautions are to be observed in its use: 1. The amor- phous deposit produced in albuminous urine is not to be mistaken for the crystalline urea nitrate. 2. The process can be applied as described above only when the quantity of urine in twenty-four hours is about normal. If it be greater or less than normal, a modification is necessary. If, for instance, the quantity of urine in twenty-four hours be half the normal, two samples of 5 gtt. each are to be taken, one of which is to be diluted with 5 gtt. HaO. If Fig. 13. QUANTITATIVE UR EA. 30 the quantity in twenty-four hours be double the normal, two samples are to be taken, one of 10 gtt., the other of 20 gtt., and both reduced to 5 gtt. by evaporation. 85. Fowler's method.-Determine the sp. gr. of the urine and the sp. gr. of some liq. sodae chlorinatae (Squibb) at the same temperature. Mix one volume of the urine with seven volumes of the liq. sod. chlor. After the vio- lence of the reaction has subsided, shake the mixture from time to time during an hour. Determine the sp. gr. of the mixture at the same temperature at which the former observations were made. Add once the sp. gr. of the urine to seven times the sp. gr. of the liq. sod. chlor., and divide the sum by eight. From the quotient so obtained subtract the sp. gr. of the mixture after decomposition, and multiply the difference by 0.7791. The product is the amount of the urea in grams in 100 cc.; from which the elimination in twenty-four hours is obtained by multiply- ing by of the quantity in twenty-four hours. Example. Quantity of urine in 24 hours = 1,240 cc. Specific gravity of liq. sod. chlor. = 1,042 " " " urine = 1,020 " " " mixture = 1,036.2 1,042 X 7 + 1,020 _lj039 35< 1>039.3 - 1,036.2 = 3.1. o 0.7791 X 3.1 X 12.40 = 29.95 = grams of urea in 24 hours. 86. For accurate determinations of the quantity of urea, one of the modifications of the Knop-Hiifner process is recommended (see " Manual/' 2d ed., p. 257, and Charles' " Physiological Chem.," pp. 350 et seq.). QUANTITATIVE URIC ACID. 31 87. Acidulate 200 cc. of the filtered urine with 10 cc. HC1. and set it aside in a cool place for forty-eight hours. Wash a small filter with dil. HC1, dry it, inclose it between two watch-glasses held together by a brass clamp, and de- termine the weight of the whole. Collect the crystals which have formed in the acidulated urine upon the weighed filter, detaching such crystals as adhere to the wall of the vessel by rubbing with a small section of rubber tubing, slipped over the end of a glass rod, and washing the deposit on to the filter with portions of the filtrate. When the ppt. is all on the filter, wash it by the successive addition of small portions of H2O until the filtrate is no longer acid. The filter and contents are now dried, inclosed between the watch-glasses, and weighed. This last weight, minus that first determined, is the weight of uric acid in 200 cc. urine; and this, multiplied by the amount of urine in twenty-four hours, is the amount in twenty-four hours. The amount of wash-water used should not exceed 35 cc. If more should be used, add 0.043 mgm. to the weight of uric acid in 200 cc. urine for every extra cc. of wash- water. Example. Urine in 24 hours = 1,230 cc. Weight of watch-glasses, clamp, filter, and uric acid 36.3275 Weight of watch-glasses, clamp, and filter 3G.1948 Uric acid in 200 cc. 0.1327 Correction for wash-water 0.0004 45 cc. wash-water used . • . .043x10 = 0.43 mgm. Uric acid in 200 cc. corrected 0.1331 = 0.8185 = grams uric acid in 24 hours. /4vU Uric Acid. 32 QUANTITATIVE ALBUMIN-GLUCOSE. 88. The normal elimination of uric acid in twenty-four hours is from 0.5 to 1.0 gram. Albumin. 89. Gravimetric method.-Place 100 cc. of the clear urine in a beaker of 200 cc. capacity; if alkaline, acidulate with acetic acid. Heat the beaker over the water-bath, add 1-2 gtt. acetic acid when nearly boiling; continue boil- ing gently until the diffuse ppt. has collected in lumps. Have ready a small filter whose weight, with that of watch- glasses and clamp (see § 87), has been determined. Collect the coagulated albumin upon the filter, wash with H2O containing a little NH4H0, then with boiling H2O until the filtrate no longer forms a ppt. with AgNO,, then with alco- hol, and finally with ether. Dry the filter and contents in the air oven, and weigh between the watch-glasses. The difference between this last weight and the one first deter- mined is the weight of dry albumin in 100 cc. urine, which, multiplied by t-J-q the quantity in twenty-four hours, gives the elimination of albumin in twenty-four hours. If the urine be highly albuminous, it is best to ope- rate upon 20 or 50 cc., diluted with 80 or 50 cc. H2O, and multiply, to obtain the final result, by or the amount of urine in twenty-four hours. Glucose. 90. Fehling's method.-The solution is made as follows: I. Dissolve cupric sulphate 51.98 grams, in water to 500.00 cc. II. Dissolve Rochelle salt 259.9 grams, in sodium hydrate soln. sp. gr. 1.12 to 1,000 cc. (Piffard). When required for use, one volume of I. is to be mixed with two volumes of II. The copper contained in 10 cc. QUANTITATIVE GLUCOSE. 33 of this mixture is precipitated completely, as cuprous oxide, by 0.05 gram of glucose. 91. To determine the quantity of sugar, place 10 cc. of the mixed soln, in a flask of about 250 cc. capacity; dilute with H2O to about 30 cc. and heat to boiling. On the other hand, the urine to be tested is diluted, and thor- oughly mixed with four volumes of H2O if it be poor in sugar, or with nine volumes of H„O if highly saccharine, and a burette filled with the mixture. When the Fehling soln, boils, add a few gtt. NH4H0 and then 5 cc. of the urine from the burette, boil again, and continue the alter- nate addition of diluted urine and boiling of the mixture until the blue color is quite faint. Now add the diluted urine in quantities of 1 cc. at a time, boiling after each addition until the blue color just disappears. Have ready a small filter, and, having filtered through it a few gtt. of the hot mixture, acidulate the filtrate with acetic acid, and add to it 1 gtt. soln, of potassium ferrocyanide. If a brownish tinge be produced, add another | cc. of dil. urine to the flask, boil, and test with ferrocyanide as before. Continue this proceeding until no brown tinge is produced. The burette reading, taken at this point, gives the number of cc. of dilute urine containing 0.05 gm. glucose, and this, divided by 5 or 10, according as the urine was diluted with 4 or 9 volumes of HaO, gives the number of cc. of urine containing 0.05 gm. sugar. The number of cc. urine passed in twenty-four hours, divided by 20 times the num- ber of cc. containing 0.05 gm. glucose, gives the elimina- tion of glucose in twenty-four hours in grams. Example. Urine in 24 hours = 2,436 cc. Fehling's soln, used = 10 cc. Urine diluted with 4 vols. II.O Burette reading = 18.5 cc. 34 UNORGANIZED DEPOSITS. = 3.7 = cc. urine containing 0.05 gm. glucose. o~iy = 32.92 = grams glucose eliminated in 24 hours. 0.4 X 20 92. Shake the urine to be examined, fill a conical glass (Fig. 14) with it, cover the glass with a watch-glass or glass plate, and set it aside until any solid particles have sub- sided to the bottom. Crystalline deposits settle in a few hours, but if the urine have been found to contain albumin, and casts are consequently to be looked for, twelve hours must be allowed to elapse to insure com- plete deposition. After the deposit has collected at the point of the glass, some of the sediment is removed with a pipette. Hold the pipette in such a manner that its upper opening is closed by the forefinger, and bring the point down into the layer of sediment, free the upper opening for an instant, close it again, and withdraw the pipette. Transfer a small quantity of urine and sediment from the pipette to a glass slide, upon which a ring of cement has been made and allowed to dry, put on a clean cover glass, remove the excess of liquid from the slide with bibulous paper and examine with the microscope. URINABY DEPOSITS. Fig. 14. Unorganized Deposits. 93. Uric Acid.-Deposits of uric acid occur in acid urines; are always crystalline, of the forms shown in Fig. 15, of which b are exceptional forms, and a of common occurrence; almost invariably of a color varying from light yellow to dark red or brown. Frequently they are of suf- ficient size to be visible to the unaided eye. Deposits of UNORGANIZED DEPOSITS. 35 uric acid respond to the murexid test, § 24, and dissolve when warmed with NaHO soln. 94. Amorphous, acid urates consist principally of acid sodium urate, accompanied sometimes with much smaller quantities of the potassium, calcium, and ammo- nium salts. The deposit is amorphous, composed of minute granular particles, sometimes colorless, but fre- quently yellow or red ("brick-dust" or "lateritious " sedi- ment), produced in acid urine. Urine cloudy from the presence of amorphous urates becomes clear when heated. Fig. 15. b Fig. 16. a 95. Crystalline urates.-Acid sodium urate some- times crystallizes from the urine undergoing acid or in- cipient alkaline fermentation, in the form of prisms ar- ranged in stellate bundles (Fig. 16, a). Later in the fermentative process, when ammonia is produced, the highly colored spherical crystals, with or without spines (Fig. 16, Z»), of acid ammonium urate are produced. 96. Calcium oxalate is observed sometimes in acid urine, accompanying crystals of uric acid, sometimes in alkaline or neutral urine, along with crystals of triple UNORGANIZED DEPOSITS. 36 phosphate. These crystals are usually very minute octa- hedra (Fig. 17, a), and occasionally in "dumb-bell" forms (Fig. 17, b). 97. Ammonio-magnesian phosphate-triple phos- phate-occurs in slightly acid or alkaline urine, particu- larly of the shapes shown in Fig. 18, sufficiently large to be visible as shining specks when the vessel containing the urine is rotated in sunlight. Occasionally it forms star- shaped groups of feathery crystals. 98. Calcium phosphate is deposited under the same conditions as ammonio-magnesian phosphate. The de- Fig. 17. Fig. 18. posit is usually amorphous, and increases on the applica- tion of heat, but disappears on the addition of a mineral acid. Occasionally calcium phosphate crystallizes from the urine, either in wedge-shaped crystals, arranged in rosettes, their points uniting (Fig. 19), or in spherical crystals, or, more rarely, in dumb-bells. 99. Leucin and tyrosin always occur together, and are found only in urines containing biliary pigments. The former substance forms yellow, highly refracting spheres of varying size, marked with radiating and concen- ORGANIZED DEPOSITS. 37 trie striations (Fig. 20, a). Tyrosin crystallizes in bundles of delicate hair-like crystals, arranged in brush-like groups (Fig. 20, Z>). 100. Cystin is of rare occurrence. It appears as a yel- lowish deposit in pale, acid, or alkaline urine ; which, when examined microscopically, is found to consist of hexagonal plates, either colorless or pigmented (Fig. 21). Fig. 19. Fig. 21. Fig. 20. It dissolves in NH4HO, and crystallizes out again an evapor- ation of the solution. Organized Deposits. 101. Mucus or pus corpuscles are rounded, granular cells, larger than blood-corpuscles, containing one or more nuclei (Fig. 22). Water causes them to swell up and lose their granular marking; the nuclei become more distinct, ORGANIZED DEPOSITS. 38 and the body of the cell gradually becomes invisible. Di- lute acetic acid (20$) produces the same changes more rapidly. 102. Epithelium.-The epithelial cells met with in urine are: 1. Round epithelial cells, from the convoluted tubes, the pelvis of the kidney, the bladder, and the male urethra, are rounded granular bodies, larger than pus- corpuscles, containing a single nucleus (Fig. 23, a'). 2. Columnar or conical epithelial cells, from the pelvis of the kidney, the ureters, and urethra, are elongated, conical Fig. 22. Fig. 24. Fig. 23. bodies, granular, and containing a single nucleus near the middle (Fig. 23, Z>). 3. Flat epithelial cells, from the bladder and vagina, are large, irregular, scale-like bodies, faintly granular, and containing a single nucleus (Fig. 23, c). 103. Blood-corpuscles appear in urine as rounded bodies, whose centresand peripheries alternate in light and shadow as the objective is moved toward or away from the slide (Fig. 24, a). If the urine be dilute, the blood-discs lose their concavity, swell up, and no longer show alterna- tions of light and shadow (Fig. 24, b); finally they become OKGAnIZED DEPOSITS. 39 invisible. If the urine be concentrated, their concavity becomes greater, they shrink, and finally assume a crenated form (Fig. 24, c). 104. Casts are moulds of the uriniferous tubules, of which the following varieties occur: 1. Epithelial casts are clear, cylindrical bodies, in whose surface epithelium from the tubules is imbedded (Fig. 25, a). 2. Blood casts are casts marked with granulesand having blood-corpuscles Fig. 25. imbedded in them (Fig. 25, b). 3. Hyaline casts are per- fectly clear, transparent cylinders, without any markings (Fig. 25, c), which, being of about the same index of refrac- tion as the urine, may be readily overlooked if the exam- ination be not very carefully made. Their detection is facilitated by adding a drop of a solution of fuchsin to the deposit before putting on the cover glass. 4. Granular casts are marked by granules resulting from the disinte- 40 ORGANIZED DEPOSITS. gration of epithelium and blood-corpuscles. They are either highly granular (Fig. 25, d), moderately granular, or faintly granular, as they contain more or less granular matter. 5. Fatty casts, or oil casts, contain oil globules (Fig. 25, g). 6. Waxy casts are somewhat similar to hyaline casts in appearance, but more dense and some- Fig. 26. what resembling wax (Fig. 25, e). 7. Mucous casts are very long, frequently branching, transparent bodies (Fig. 25,/). 105. Spermatozoa are minute, tadpole-like bodies (Fig. 26), which, when present in urine, do not exhibit the vibrating motion with which they are endowed during life. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF URI- NARY CALCULI. 106. If the calculus be large, and if it is to be preserved, saw it in two with a hack-saw and use the sawdust for analysis, keeping that portion of the dust which is pro- duced while sawing through the centre of the stone sep- arate from the other. If the calculus be small, break it; separate the nucleus, if there be one, powder the nucleus and a portion of the body of the stone separately, and make an independent analysis of each. 107. In using the following scheme, take a separate por- tion of the powder for each operation, unless otherwise di- rected. SCHEME OF ANALYSIS. 1. Heat on platinum foil until colorless: a. It is entirely volatile 2 b. A residue remains 5 2. Moisten with HNO3; evaporate to dryness over the water-bath; add NH4HO: a. A red color is produced 3 b. No red color is produced 4 3. Treat with KHO, without heating: a. An ammoniacal odor is produced, Ammonium urate. b. No ammoniacal odor is produced... Uric acid. 4. a. The HNOS soln, becomes yellow when evaporated; the yellow residue becomes reddish-yellow on addition of KHO, and on heating with KHO, violet red, Xanthin. UBINABY CALCULI. 42 b. The HNO3 soln, becomes dark brown on evapora- tion Cystin. 5. Moisten with HNO3. evaporate to dryness over the water-bath; add NH4HO : a. A red color is produced6 b. No red color is produced 9 6. Heat before the blow-pipe on platinum foil: a. Fuses 7 b. Does not fuse 8 7. Bring into blue flame on clean platinum wire: a. Flame colored yellowSodium urate. b. Flame violet when observed through blue glass, Potassium urate. 8. The residue from 6: a. Dissolves in dil. HC1 with effervescence; the soln, forms a white ppt. with ammonium oxalate, Calcium urate. b. Dissolves with slight effervescence in dil. H2SO4; the soln., neutralized with NH4HO, gives a white ppt. with Na2HPO4Magnesium urate. 9. Heat on platinum foil: a. It fusesAmmonio-magnesian 2)hosphate. b. It does not fuse10 10. The residue from 9, moistened with H2O, and tested with red litmus paper, is: a. Alkaline11 b. Not alkalineTricalcic phosphate. 11. The original substance dissolves in HC1: a. With effervescenceCalcium carbonate. b. Without effervescenceCalcium oxalate. DETECTION OF POISONS. 108. The identification of any of the accessible poisons when unmixed with other substances does not present any serious difficulty. When, however, the poison is mixed with a large proportion of foreign substances, as in an ar- ticle of food, in the contents of the stomach or in the vis- cera, the reactions upon which we depend are masked or modified to such a degree that no reliance is to be placed upon them. Consequently, in searching for a poison in organic mixtures the first step, preliminary to the actual testing, is the separation of the poison from other sub- stances in a condition as pure as possible, and with as little loss as may be. 109. Analytically, poisons are divided into three classes, according to the methods used in their separation from or- ganic mixtures: 1. Volatile Poisons. 2. Mineral Poisons. 3. Organic Poisons. VOLATILE POISONS. 110. Those poisons which may be separated from the materials under examination by the process of distillation are included in this class. The most important are: Phos- phorus, Hydrocyanic Acid, Alcohol, Ether, Chloroform, Chloral, Benzol and its derivatives, including Carbolic Acid. 111. To separate poisons of this class, the contents of the stomach (or other substance to be examined), diluted with H2O if necessary, are slightly acidulated with dilute H.2S0< and placed in a flask, which should be only half PHOSPHORUS. 44 filled; the flask is then connected with a Liebig's conden- ser and heated over a sand-bath. The distillation is con- tinued until two-thirds of the liquid have distilled over, and the distillate is collected in three separate portions. The distillates are then to be tested for individual poisons by suitable reagents. 112. The material gives off an odor of garlic, and (in absence of alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, and other sub- stances) is luminous when shaken in the dark. 113. It is advisable in cases of suspected phosphorus poisoning to spread the suspected material out on a clean plate, and examine it in a darlc room for any luminous points. It must not be forgotten, however, that muscular and other animal tis- sues may be phosphorescent in ab- sence of phosphorus. 114. If the presence of phos- phorus be suspected, the process, § 111, is to be somewhat modified. It is to be conducted in a dark room with a screen interposed between the condenser and the source of heat. If no luminous ring (§ 115) be ob- served when one-third of the liquid has distilled over, remove the condenser and substitute for it the apparatus shown in Fig. 27, charged with AgNO3 soln., and continue the distillation while a current of COa is passed through the entire apparatus. If phosphorus be present, the AgNOs soln, blackens. If this occur, collect the black deposit formed and introduce it through the fun- Phosphorus. P. Fia. 27. PHO6PHOKUS. 45 nel F into the apparatus, Fig. 28, in which hydrogen is generated, and ignite the escaping gas at the platinum jet, C. In the presence of phosphorus, a bright green core appears in the flame. 115. During the distillation, § 114, a luminous band is observed at the point of greatest condensation in the con- denser. If, however, the liquid in the flask contains al- Fig. 28. cohol or ether, this luminous band does not appear until after one-third of the liquid has been distilled. If oil of turpentine be present, the luminous band does not appear at all. 116. Examine the distillate for globules of P, which are recognized by their yellow, waxy appearance, their odor, their luminosity in the dark, and the bluing of paper moistened with iodide of potassium and starch, when exposed to the vapors which they give off. 117. Antidotes.-No chemical antidote known. Be- HYDROCYANIC ACID-ALCOHOL. 46 move unabsorbed poison with stomach-pump, ZnSO4, or apomorphia. Old French oil of turpentine. Prohibit fats and oils, which favor absorption. Hydrocyanic Acid-Prussic Acid (HON). 118. Note the odor of bitter almonds, or peach blossoms. 119. Add AgNO3 to the soln.: a dense white ppt. Col- lect the ppt. on a filter, and warm a part with HNO3; the ppt. dissolves. Treat remainder of ppt. with KCN soln.: it dissolves. 120. Add NH4HS to soln, and evaporate to dryness on water-bath; add Fe2Cl6 to residue: a deep red color. 121. Add KHO, and then an old soln, of FeSO4: a greenish ppt. Add HC1: the ppt. dissolves partly, form- ing a deep blue soln. 122. Add dil. soln, of picric acid, heat, and allow to cool: a deep red color. 123. Moisten a piece of filter paper with a freshly pre- pared alcoholic soln, of guaiacum; dip the paper into a very dilute soln. CuSO4, and hold it over a vessel from which vapor of HCN is given off: the paper turns bright blue. 124. Antidotes.-A mixture of ferrous and ferric sul- phates dissolved in H20 and alkalinized with KUO is a chemical antidote. The action of the poison is usually so rapid, however, that it is of little service. Stomach-pump, cold affusion, artificial respiration, galvanism, inhalation of ammonia, of chlorine (?). Atropine hypodermically (?). Alcohol. C2HsHO. 125. Heat with a small quantity of a cooled mixture of H2SO4 and aqueous soln, of potassium dichromate: the liquid turns green, and the peculiar odor of aldehyde is given off. 126. Dissolve in the liquid a small quantity of iodine, CHLOROFORM. 47 add KHO soln, guttatim until the liquid is just decolorized, and warm: a yellowish crystalline ppt. immediately or after a time, and the odor of iodoform. 127. Add HN03 and warm: odor of nitrous ether. Add soln, mercurous nitrate with excess HN03 and heat: a yel- low-gray ppt. Collect ppt., wash, and dry: explodes when struck with hammer. 128. Mix slowly with an equal volume II2SO4; add some powdered sodium acetate, and heat: odor of acetic ether. 129. A.dd a few gtt. aniline to 3 cc. alcoholic soln, of KHO, and then 2 cc. of the liquid to be tested, and heat. In the presence of chloroform, an intense, disagreeable, and characteristic odor, due to the formation of isobenzonitril, is produced. 130. Dissolve about 0.01 gm. of /3-naphthol in a small quantity of KHO soln., warm, and add the suspected liquid: a blue color is produced. 131. Dissolve in 1 cc. of the liquid under examination 0.05 gm. resorcin, add 5 gtt. liq. sodae, and heat to boiling: a red color. The same effect is produced with chloral. 132. Place the liquid to be examined, which should be faintly acidulated with H2SO4 if not already acid, in a flask. Fit the flask with a cork, through which pass two right- angled tubes, one of which dips to near the bottom of the flask. Connect this longer tube with a bellows or gasome- ter, from which a slow current of air is made to pass through the apparatus during the process. The shorter' tube is connected with about a foot of Bohemian tubing, whose other end communicates with a right-angled tube dipping into a solution of AgN03, or with a bulb apparatus filled with AgNO3 soln. Heat the flask over a water-bath, and heat about six inches of the Bohemian tube to bright Chloroform. CHCL. CHLORAL PHENOL. 48 redness. In the presence of CHC13 a white ppt. of AgCl, soluble in NH4H0, insoluble in IIN03, is formed in the AgNO3 soln. 133. Antidotes.-No chemical antidote is known. Cold douche, galvanism, fresh air, artificial respiration, inhalation of ammonia. Chloral-Trichloraldehyde. CaHClsO. 134. The substance to be examined is first treated as in § 132. If no ppt. be produced in the AgNO3 soln., the liquid in the flask is rendered alkaline with KHO soln., and the process continued. If now a ppt. be formed in the AgNO3 soln., the flask is connected with a condenser and more strongly heated. Portions of the distillate are then tested according to §§ 129, 130, 131 for chloroform, resulting from the decomposition of the chloral by the alkali. 135. Antidotes.-No chemical antidote. Stomach- pump, tea, coffee, galvanism, artificial respiration, cold douche, ammonia by inhalation. Phenol-Carbolic Acid. C6H5HO. 136. Odor of carbolic acid. 137. Mix with one-quarter volume NH4H0; add 1-2 gtt. sodium hypochlorite soln, and warm: a blue or green color. Add HC1 to acid reaction: turns red. 138. Add 1-2 gtt. of the liquid to a little HC1. mix; add 1 gtt. HN03: a purple-red color. 139. Boil with HNO3as long as red fumes are given off. Neutralize with KHO: a yellow, crystalline ppt. 140. Add a few gtt. FeSO4 soln.: a lilac color. 141. Float liquid to be tested on H„SO4; add powdered KN03: violet color. 142. Add excess of bromine water: a yellowish-white ppt. 143. Antidotes.-Emetics, white of egg, stimulants. MINERAL POISONS. 144. These substances are corrosives rather than true poisons, as their deleterious effects are produced by de- struction of or injury to important viscera with which they come into immediate contact, while the true poisons act only after absorption into the circulation. 145. The presence of strong acids or alkalies in the stomach is indicated by corrosion or even perforation of the viscus, and by strongly acid or alkaline reaction of the contents. It must not be forgotten that the contents of the stomach may have been rendered alkaline after the ingestion of acids, or acid after alkalies have been taken, by the administration of antidotes. 146. In all cases of corrosion by mineral acids or alka- lies (except nitric acid) a quantitative analysis should be made, and the amount found compared with that normally present, as sulphates, chlorides, and salts of sodium and potassium are normal constituents of the body. N. B.-The color tests for free mineral acids (methyl- violet, Congo red, phloroglucin-vanillin, etc.) fail in the presence of peptones and other organic substances, and are therefore useless as applied to contents of the stomach. MINERAL ACIDS AND ALKALIES. 147. With BaCl3 a copious, white ppt., insoluble in HC1. This reaction does not prove the presence of free sulphuric acid, as it is also observed with soluble sul- phates. Sulphuric Acid. H2SO4. MINERAL ACIDS. 50 148. Add powdered lead chromate, boil, filter; add KI and carbon bisulphide, and agitate. The CSa is colored violet. Agitate another portion of the liquid with CS2 after addition of KI: no violet color should be produced. 149. Dissolve 3 per cent of cane-sugar in the liquid, moisten a piece of filter paper with it, and dry: the paper turns brown or black. 150. Moisten a little veratria with the liquid, and evap- orate over the water-bath to dryness: a crimson color. Hydrochloric Acid. HCL 151. Add AgNOs: a white ppt. soluble in NH4HO, insoluble in HNO„. Observed also with chlorides. 152. Add mercurous nitrate: a white ppt., which turns black on addition of NH4HO. Observed also with chlo- rides. 153. Heat the liquid with powdered black oxide of manganese (MnO2): chlorine is given off; recognizable by its odor, its yellow color, and by its power of turning paper containing starch and potassium iodide blue. Nitric Acid. HNOa. 154. Float upon the liquid a soln, of ferrous sulphate: a brown band appears at the junction of the liquids. A nitrate only responds to this test after addition of H2SO4. 155. Moisten a crystal of brucine with the liquid: a bright carmine-red color. Nitrates respond to this test after addition of H2SO4. 156. Dissolve 252 pts. of cyanide of mercury and 266 pts. KI in II20, evaporate to crystallization; separate and dry the crystals. A crystal introduced into nitric acid turns black. 157. Acidulate the (colorless) liquid with HC1, and MINERAL ALKALIES. 51 add 1-2 gtt. indigo-carmine soln.: the blue color is dis- charged. 158. Antidotes for Mineral Acids.-Magnesia usta, suspended in water, or, failing this, soap. Neither the carbonates of the alkalies, chalk, or carbonate of magnesia should be used, as the gas liberated from them may cause serious distention of the weakened walls of the stomach. The stomach-pump should never be used. It will fre- quently be necessary to sustain life by nutritive enemata. Opium to allay pain. Caustic Potassa-Potassium Hydrate. KHO. 159. Add HC1 and then PtCl4 soln.: a yellow, crystal- line ppt. A similar ppt. is obtained with ammonium chloride. 160. Concentrate the soln., render it neutral with Na2CO3 if acid, and add concentrated soln, of tartaric acid: a white ppt. A similar ppt. with ammonium salts. 161. Add soln, of hydrofluosilicic acid: a white, gelati- nous ppt., insoluble in HC1. A similar ppt. with sodium salts. 162. Add perchloric acid: a white, crystalline ppt. 163. Introduce a platinum wire, to which a portion of the substance adheres, into the colorless flame of a Bunsen burner, and observe the flame through a bit of blue glass: the flame is colored violet. N. B.-The above reactions show the presence of potas- sium. which may be present as the hydrate, or as one of the salts of the metal. In cases of fatal corrosion byKHO, or of poisoning by the K salts, a quantitative determina- tion is necessary. Caustic Soda-Sodium Hydrate. NaHO. In testing for the sodium compounds, the solutions must be concentrated. MINERAL ALKALIE8. 52 164. Add hydrofluosilicic acid: a white, gelatinous ppt. 165. Dissolve some potassium pyroantiinoniate in boil- ing water, and filter. Add a portion of the filtrate to the liquid under examination (which must not contain metals other than K and Li): a white ppt., which becomes crys- talline. 166. Colors the Bunsen flame yellow. Owing to its great delicacy, this test is of little value in ordinary work, as all substances examined contain sufficient Na to color the flame. N. B.-The above reactions merely indicate the presence of Na without determining the form of combination. In cases of fatal corrosion by NallO, a quantitative analysis is called for. Aqua Ammoniae-Ammonium Hydrate. NH4HO. 167. The characteristic odor of ammonia is given off by the hydrate and carbonate, but not by other ammonia- cal salts. 168. Heat the liquid. Hold over it a strip of moistened red litmus paper: it turns blue. Now hold over the heated liquid a glass rod moistened with HC1: white fumes are given off. These appearances are produced with ammonia- cal salts other than the carbonate only if the liquids have been previously rendered alkaline with KHO. 169. With HC1 and PtCl4: a yellow, crystalline ppt. A similar ppt. with K salts. 170. Dissolve chloride of lime and carbolic acid in water, filter; add the liquid to be tested to the filtrate: a green color. 171. Antidotes to the Alkalies.-Dilute vinegar or lemon juice, milk. Under no circumstances should the stomach-pump be used. Opium to allay pain. Nutritive enemata if necessarv. METALLIC POISONS. 53 METALLIC POISONS. 172. Preliminary to the separation of mineral poisons from the tissues or contents of the stomach, the organic matter must be destroyed by oxidation, as completely as is possible, without risk of loss of the substances sought for. This is best effected by the method of Fresenius and Von Babo. The substances under examination, hashed if solid, are diluted with water. About 50 cc. HCl* and a small quantity of powdered potassium chlorate are added, and the whole heated over the water-bath. Small portions of KC103,and more HCl if necessary, are added from time to time, until the mass is reduced to a yellow liquid on whose surface floats a layer of oil. The decomposition is accelerated by stirring, and crushing any solid particles with the flattened end of a glass rod. When decomposi- tion is complete, the liquid is allowed to cool, and filtered. If the filtrate smell of Cl, it is heated over the water-bath and treated with CO2 until free of Cl. The liquid is now treated with II2S for periods of an hour at a time, at inter- vals of twelve hours, during two or three days; the flask containing it being kept corked during the intervals. A ppt. is always formed if a portion of the body has been operated on. This ppt. is collected on a filter and the filtrate (C) preserved. The ppt. is slightly washed and treated on the filter with yellow NH4HS, concentrated at first, afterward dilute, so long as anything is dissolved. Any solid matter remaining undissolved on the filter is subsequently exam- ined (B). The filtrate is evaporated to dryness in a porce- lain capsule. To the residue 25 cc. II2O, 2 cc. HCl, and a little KC103 are added, and the whole heated over the * Hydrochloric acid cannot be bought sufficiently pure for this purpose. It must be made in the laboratory from pure NaCl and arsenic-free H2SO4. METALLIC POISONS. 54 water-bath. The liquid is stirred until hot, small quanti- ties of KC103 are added from time to time, and the mix- ture stirred until all is dissolved, except a little sulphur. The liquid is then treated with CO2 over the water-bath till free of Cl, filtered, cooled, and treated with II2S as be- fore. The ppt. is collected on a filter and washed with H,0 containing a little H2S, until the washings, after boiling with HNO3, fail to give any cloudiness with AgNO3. The ppt. is now dissolved off the filter with NH41IS, the solution evaporated in a porcelain capsule, the residue moistened with fuming HNO3, dried over the water-bath, moistened with H2O and dried two or three times, and finally fused with a mixture of NaNOs and Na2CO3 until it is colorless, or only contains a black powder. After cooling, the fused mass is dissolved in II2O, treated with CO2, and the solution filtered; the ppt., if any, on the filter (A) is examined as below. The filtrate is treated with excess of H2SO4 and heated, first over the water-bath, and afterwards at a higher temperature, until copious white fumes are given off; after cooling, the residue is examined for ARSENIC. The ppt. A contains any Sb, Sn. or Cu (part) that may have been present. It is first, if black, treated with hot dil. HNO3. The soln, so obtained is examined for copper. If the soln, from which it was filtered was turbid from the presence of a white material, the filter with adherent mat- ter, insoluble in dil. HNOS, after having been washed, is dried and burnt in a porcelain crucible, a small quantity of KCN is added to the ash, and the mixture fused for about ten minutes. After cooling, the contents of the crucible are treated with H2O, and washed with H2O by decanta- tion, so long as anything is dissolved. The remaining me- tallic particles are treated with dil. HCI, the liquid sep- arated, after warming on the water-bath, and tested for ARSENIC. 55 tin. If any undissolved metallic particles remain, they are dissolved in hot concentrated HCI, and the soln, is tested for antimony. If the portion B, insoluble in NH4HS, be white, it contains no poisonous metal. If it be colored, it is heated with HN03 so long as red fumes are given off, more HN03 being added if necessary, evaporated nearly to dryness, a little dil. H„SO4 added, allowed to stand for a time, and fil- tered. The filtrate is tested for bismuth and copper. The residue, if any, is treated with tartaric acid, and then with excess of NH4H0, boiled, and filtered. The filtrate is tested for lead. The residue, if any, is dissolved in aqua regia, the soln, evaporated, the residue dissolved in H2O, acidulated with HCI, and tested for mercury. The liquid C contains any barium, chromium, or zinc that may have been present in the substances examined. Arsenic. As. 173. Heat a small quantity As2O3 in a reduction tube.* Minute octahedral crystals of As2O3, which present bril- liant reflections when the tube is rotated in sunlight, are deposited above the heated portion of the tube (Fig. 30, p. 58). 174. Heat a small quantity of Paris green in a reduc- tion tube: crystals of As2O3 are formed, as in § 173. 175. Heat a small portion of elementary As in a long reduction tube: a brilliant steel-gray, brown, or black metallic-looking band is formed. 176. Cut off the bottom of the tube used in § 175; heat the band, holding the tube in an inclined position: the metallic band disappears, and above the point which it occupied a crystalline sublimate of As2O3 is deposited. *A glass tube, 3-4 mm. in internal diameter and 8 cent, long, closed at one end. AKSENIC. 56 177. Put a small quantity of As2O3 into a long reduction tube, and above it a splinter of charcoal. Heat the char- coal first, then the As2O3: a metallic band as in § 175 is formed. Cut off the bottom of the tube, and heat as in § 176: crystals of As2O, are formed. 178. Acidulate soln. H3AsO3 with 2 gtt. HC1 and pass II2S through the soln.: a yellow ppt. of As„S3 is formed. Warm the contents of the tube, agitate, collect the ppt. on a filter, and wash. Divide the ppt. into four parts on four watch-glasses. 179. Add NH4HS to one watch-glass: the ppt. dis- solves. 180. Another portion of ppt. § 179 is treated with NHJIO: it dissolves. 181. Another portion of ppt. § 179 is treated with HC1: it does not dissolve. 182. Mix the remaining portion, after drying, with po- tassium ferrocyanide, and heat a portion in a long reduc- tion tube : a metallic band is formed. Cut off end of tube; heat as in § 176: crystals of As2O3. 183. To soln. Hs AsOs in a test-tube add KHO to alkaline reaction, and treat with H2S: no ppt. is formed. Add HC1: a yellow ppt. is formed as in § 179. 184. Acidulate soln. HsAsO4 w'ith HC1, and treat with H2S: the liquid first turns yellow and cloudy, but the yel- low ppt. of As2Sa only begins to form after a time. 185. Put 5 cc. II2O into a porcelain capsule, add 1 gtt. NH4H0, and then CuSO4 until the ppt. formed no longer redissolves. To the liquid so obtained add about 1 cc. of the liquid under examination: a green ppt. Stir the mix- ture and transfer it in about equal portions to two test- tubes. To one tube add HN03: the ppt. dissolves, and the liquid becomes colorless. To the other test-tube add NH4H0: the ppt. dissolves, forming a blue soln. ARSENIC. 57 186. Put 5 cc. H20 into a porcelain capsule; add 1 gtt. NH4HO, and then AgNOs soln, until a permanent ppt. re- mains. Add 1 cc. HjAsOa soln.: a canary-yellow ppt. If the ppt. do not appear, test the reaction of the contents of the capsule, and render neutral by the cautious addition of very dil. HNO3 or NH4HO. Transfer to two test-tubes, and add HNOS to one, NH4HO to the other: both dear to colorless solutions. 187. Repeat the test as in § 186, using a soln, of H3AsO< in place of fLAsO3: a brick-red ppt., which also dissolves in HNOs and in NH4IIO. 188. Reinsch's test.-To 5 cc. in a test-tube add 0.5 cc. HC1 and a slip of sheet Cu 2 mm. wide and 2 cent, long; boil about five minutes, adding H3O to supply loss by evapora- tion. If the Cu remain perfectly bright, the materials are pure; if the Cu become even faintly dimmed, the ma- terials (Cuor HC1) are impure, and others must be substi- tuted. Having proven the purity of the reagents, put about 5 cc. of the liquid under examination into a test-tube, add 0.5 cc. HC1 and a slip of Cu, and boil. The Cu becomes gray, then black. Remove the Cu, wash it in HaO, dry between filter paper, taking care not to detach the black deposit. Place the Cu strip in, and about 3 cent, from one end of, a glass tube about 3 mm. in internal dia- meter and 15 cent. long. Warm, the tube cautiously, holding it at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, until all moisture is driven off, then hold the tube at the same an- gle in the flame, so that the Cu is heated to bright redness. A white band is formed above the point at which the Cu was heated. Rotate the tube in the sunlight: brilliant, diamond-like reflections are seen. Examine the white band with a magnifier; it is found to consist of octahedral crystals of As2O3 (Fig. 29) (see §§ 196, 211, 241). ARSENIC. 58 189. Marsh's test.-Place some granulated zinc in a flask of 100 cc. capacity; fit the cork carrying a funnel tube and right-angled tube (a, Fig. 30). Connect the right- angled tube with the drying tube b, filled with fragments of CaCl2 or CaO between loose plugs of cotton, and connect this in turn with the Bohemian tube c. Pour dil. H2SO4 through the fun- nel tube in small quantities at a time, so that a moderate evolution of H2 results. After twenty min- utes, light the burner d, and the gas escaping at e, and, after an- other half-hour, examine the tube at c. If the tube be perfectly clean, the Zn and HiiSO4 Fig. 29. are free from arsenic; but if any deposit have formed at c, the reagents contain As and must be discarded. Having thus proved the purity of the chemicals, intro- Fig. 30. ARSENIC. 59 duce the liquid to be tested, strongly acidulated with H2SO4, through the funnel tube in small portions at a time, and at such a rate that two hours would be consumed in adding 25 ce. If As be present, a black or brown, single or double, metallic "mirror" is produced at c. After the mirror has become quite distinct, the tube c may be dis- connected from 1), another tube fitted, and a second mirror collected. Now extinguish the burner, and hold a short section (about two cent.), cut from the bottom of a test- tube, over the flame at e, and, after a few moments, re- move and examine it. If As be present in sufficient quan- tity, the brilliant octahedral crystals of As2O8 will be found deposited on the glass. Next hold the cover of a porcelain crucible in the flame at e for a short time: a brown stain is formed on the porcelain. Collect several similar stains on porcelain, and examine them as follows: 1. Moisten one with sodium hypochlorite soln.: it dissolves instantly. 2. Moisten with NH4HS soln, and warm: it dissolves slowly. 3. Evaporate the soln. 2 to dryness: a yellow residue remains. 4. Obtain three residues as in 3. Moisten one with NH4HO, the other with HC1: the former dissolves, the latter does not. 5. Moisten the third resi- due 4 with IINOa: it dissolves. Evaporate to dryness: a white residue remains. Moisten with AgNOs soln.: it turns brick-red. Lastly, take one of the tubes c in which a mirror has been formed, cut off the bent portion, and, holding the tube at an angle of 45° to the horizontal, cautiously heat the mirror: it disappears, and above it a white ring is deposited, consisting of the brilliant octahedral crystals of AssOs. Marsh's test is the most delicate and reliable of the tests for arsenic. Great caution is, however, required that the chemicals used do not themselves contain arsenic. ANTIMONY. 60 190. Antidotes.-Emetics, stomach-pump, dialyzed iron, ferric hydrate. The last named is made by adding excess of aqua ammonias to liq. ferri tersulphatis. collecting the ppt. in a piece of muslin, and washing at the tap until the washings do not smell of ammonia. It is to be given moist, and in quantities at least twenty times as great as the amount of As2O3 to be neutralized. Antimony. Sb. 191. To 5 co. of the soln, to be tested add 2 gtt. HC1: a, white ppt. of Sb2O3, if the soln, be not too dilute. Con- tinue the addition of HC1: the ppt. redissolves. 192. Treat the soln, from § 191 with HaS: an orange- red ppt. Collect the ppt. on a filter; wash with H2O and place portions in three test-tubes. 193. Add NHJIS to a portion of the ppt from § 192: it dissolves. 191. Add NH4HO to a portion of the ppt. from § 192: it does not dissolve. 195. Add HC1 to a portion of the ppt. from § 192, and warm: it dissolves. 196. Apply Reinsch's test as directed in § 188: a stain, like that produced by arsenic, is formed upon the Cu. Upon heating the Cu in the glass tube, a white band is produced as in the case of As, but this band consists of amorphous material (Sb2O3), not of crystals. 197. Apply Marsh's test as directed in § 189. A metal- lic mirror, closely resembling that consisting of As, is formed in the tube c, Fig. 31; it differs, however, from the arsenical mirror in being situated nearer to the heated por- tion of the tube, in disappearing less rapidly when heated in the tube through which a current of air is passing, and in yielding an amorphous in place of a crystalline subli- BISMUTH. 61 mate when so heated. The stains produced on porcelain differ from those consisting of As, in that: 1. They are insoluble in sodium hypochlorite soln. 2. They dissolve quickly in NH4HS. 3. The residue of evaporation of the soln, from 2 is orange-red in color, is soluble in warm IIC1, and insoluble in NH4H0. 4. The residue of evaporation of the soln, from 2, when dissolved in warm HNOS and evaporated, leaves a white residue which does not become colored on addition of AgNOs. N. B.-If the method described in § 172 have been fol- lowed, As and Sb will have been separated, the latter hav- ing been precipitated from the soln, before the liquid is introduced into the Marsh apparatus, and, consequently, the two elements cannot be mistaken for one another. 198. Antidotes.-Warm water to produce emesis if it have not occurred, stomach-pump, tannin (decoction of oak bark, cinchona, nutgalls, tea). Bismuth. Bi. 199. Dissolve Bi in HNO3, and dissolve the white, crys- talline residue in dil. HC1. Divide the soln, into two parts. 200. Treat half the soln, obtained in § 199 with H2S: a brownish-black ppt. is formed. Divide the liquid and sus- pended ppt. into three portions in three test-tubes. 201. To one test-tube, § 200, add NH4HS: the ppt. does not dissolve. 202. To another test tube, § 200, add KHO; the ppt. does not dissolve. 203. To another test-tube, § 200, add, after decanting as much as possible, HN03: the ppt. dissolves. 204. Add NH4HS to a portion of the second half of the soln., § 199: a brownish-black ppt., having the same prop- erties as that formed in § 2(>0, is formed. COPPER. 62 205. Add a small portion of the soln., § 199, to a large quantity of H2O; a milkiness is produced (if the amount of HC1 in the soln, be not too great), which clears on ad- dition of HC1 and application of heat. 206. Add KHO, NaHO, or NH4H0 to a portion of soln., § 199: a white ppt. 207. Add strong sodium acetate soln, to part of soln., § 199, and then potassium chromate soln.: a yellow, floc- culent ppt. Divide the ppt. into two parts in two test- tubes. 208. To one test-tube, § 297, add KHO: the ppt. does not dissolve. 209. To the other test-tube, §207, add HNOs in excess: the ppt. dissolves. 210. Add potassium ferrocyanide soln, to part of soln., § 199: a yellowish ppt., insoluble in HC1. 211. When Reinsch's test is applied to a soln, contain- ing Bi, the Cu becomes stained as with As and Sb, but no sublimate is formed when it is heated in the glass tube. Copper. Cu. 212. Treat with H2S: brownish-black ppt. Collect the ppt. on a filter, and wash with H2O containing H2S, keep- ing the funnel covered with a glass plate. Place some of the ppt. in four test-tubes. Add KHO to a portion of ppt.: it does not dissolve. Add NH4HS to a part of ppt.: it does not dissolve. Boil part of ppt. with dil. H2SO4: it does not dissolve. Boil part of ppt. with dil. HNCh: it dissolves. 213. Add KHO: a pale blue ppt. Boil the liquid: the ppt. contracts and turns black. 214. Add 2 gtt. dil. NH4HO: a greenish-blue ppt. Add a further quantity of NH4HO: the ppt. dissolves, forming a dark-blue soln. LEAD. 63 215. Add potassium ferrocyanide soln.: a brown ppt. Add acetic acid: the ppt. does not dissolve. 216. Add a few gtt. H2SO4, and immerse in the soln, a piece of bright Fe wire: the wire is coated after a time with a non-adherent film of Cu. 217. Moisten a loop of Pt wire with the soln., and hold it in the lower portion of the Bunsen flame, which is then colored green. 218. Antidotes.-Stomach-pump, albumen. Lead. Pb. 219. Treat with ELS: a black ppt. Wash the ppt. with H20 containing H2S, and place portions of it in four test- tubes. Add KHO to one test-tube: the ppt. does not dissolve. Add NH4HS to another test-tube: the ppt. does not dis- solve. Add dil. HNOs to another test-tube, and boil: the ppt. dissolves. Add strong HNO3 to another test-tube, and boil: the black color of the ppt. is discharged, and a white, insoluble materia] remains. The PbS has been oxidized to PbSO4. 220. Add HC1: a white ppt., if the soln, be not too di- lute. Heat the liquid: the ppt. dissolves. Allow the liquid to cool: the PbCl2 separates in crystals. 221. Add NH4H0: a white ppt., insoluble in excess. 222. Add KHO: a white ppt. Add excess KHO and heat: the ppt. dissolves. 223. Add dil. H2S04: a white ppt. 224. Add KI: a yellow ppt. Wash the ppt., suspend portion in H20; boil, and filter hot: on cooling, the soln, deposits brilliant yellow crystals. 225. Add potassium chromate: a yellow ppt. Collect the ppt., wash, and place portions in two test-tubes. 64 MERCURY. To one test-tube add KHO: the ppt. dissolves. To the other test-tube add acetic acid: the ppt. doesnot dissolve. 226. Suspend a piece of Zn in the soln.: crystals of metallic lead separate afterta time. 227. Antidotes.-Magnesium or sodium sulphate; stomach-pump; emetics. Mercury. Hg. MERCUROUS (Hg2). 228. Heat a small quantity of calomel in a reduction tube: it does not fuse, but turns yellow and sublimes. 229. Add HC1 to soln. Hg2(NO3)2: a white ppt. Add NH4HO: the ppt. does not dissolve, but turns black. 230. Add NHJIO to soln. Hg2(N03)2: a black ppt., insol. in excess. 231. Add KHO to soln. Hg2(NO3)2: a black ppt., insol. in excess. 232. Add KI to soln. Hg2(N03)2, without excess of HNOS: a greenish ppt. mercuric. Hg. 233. Heat a small portion of corrosive sublimate in a reduction tube: it turns yellowish, fuses, and sublimes. 234. Add HC1 to soln. HgCl2: no ppt. is formed. 235. Add NH4H0: a white ppt., sol. in solns, of NH4 salts. 236. Add KHO: a yellow ppt., insol. in excess. 237. Add 2 gtt. KI to soln. HgCl2: a salmon-colored ppt., which turns red rapidly. Add excess KI: the ppt. dissolves, forming a colorless soln. MERCURY. 65 MERCUROUS AND MERCURIC. 238. Treat with H2S: appt., which is first white, then orange, then brown, and finally black. Collect the ppt. on a filter, wash until the washings are free from Cl, and place portions of the ppt. in three test-tubes. Add strong HC1 to one test-tube, and boil: the ppt. does not dissolve. Add strong HNO3 to another test-tube, and boil: the ppt. does not dissolve. Mix the contents of the two tubes, and heat: the ppt. dissolves. Add NH4HS to the remaining tube, and warm: the ppt. does not dissolve. 239. Dissolve a fragment of Sn in HC1 with the aid of heat. Add a few gtt. of this soln, to 1 cc. soln. HgCl2: a white ppt. Add more SnCl2 soln.: the ppt. turns gray. Boil the liquid, decant as much of the liquid from the ppt. as possible, add HC1 to the ppt., and boil: the ppt. unites into globules of metallic Hg. 240. Pour dil. HN03 on a copper cent. When the Cu has become bright, pour off the acid, wash the coin with water, and immerse it in soln. HgCJ2, acidulated with IT Cl: after a time the Cu is covered with a gray film. Rub the surface of the coin with the finger: it assumes a silvery lustre. 241. Apply Reinscli's test to a soln, of Hg01a: the Cu is stained as with As. Sb, and Bi, but when heated in the glass tube it yields a sublimate consisting of minute globules of Hg. 242. Immerse a bar of Zn, around which a strip of den- tist's gold foil has been wound, so as to leave exposed alter- nate surfaces of Zn and Au, in dil. soln. HgCl2, acidulated with HC1. The Au is covered with a silvery film, and, BARIUM ZINC. 66 when heated in a glass tube, yields a sublimate consisting of globules of Hg. 243. Antidotes.-White of egg, followed in a few mo- ments by an emetic, or stomach-pump. Barium. Ba. 244. With (NH4)2COs, a white ppt., sol. in acids. 245. With dil. HaS04, or CaSO4 soln., a white ppt., in- sol. in acids. 246. With HC3H302 and K2CrO4, a yellow ppt., sol. in warm HC2H302. 247. On Pt wire, colors Bunsen flame yellowish-green. 248. Antidotes.-Magnesium or sodium sulphate. Zinc. Zn. 249. Add NH4C1 and NH4HO to alkaline reaction, and treat with H2S: a white ppt. Transfer the liquid and sus- pended ppt. to three test-tubes. To one tube add NH4HS: the ppt. does not dissolve. To another tube add HC3H3O3: the ppt. does not dis- solve. To the third add HOI: the ppt. dissolves. 250. Add KHO in small quantity: a white ppt. Add excess of KHO: the ppt. dissolves. Add H3O and boil: a white ppt. again separates. 251. Add potassium ferrocyanide: a white ppt., insol. in HC1. 252. Antidotes.-Milk, white of egg, tea, tannin. VEGETABLE POISONS. 253. In this class are included the alkaloids, glucosides, and vegetable acids. Their separation from organic mix- tures, contents of stomach, organs, etc., is best effected by a combination of the Stas-Otto and Dragendorff methods. The substances to be examined, hashed if solid, are placed in a flask and covered with twice their weight of alcohol;* alcoholic solution of tartaric acid is then added, during agitation, until the contents of the flask are dis- tinctly acid. The mouth of the flask is closed with a cork, through which passes a glass tube of 8 mm. internal diameter and about a metre long, open at both ends, and the flask warmed over the water-bath about two hours. The contents of the flask are allowed to cool, filtered through a filter moistened with alcohol, and the insol. por- tion washed with alcohol. The alcoholic filtrate and washings are evaporated in a porcelain capsule at a tem- perature of 35° C. (95° Fahr.) until the alcohol is removed. The aqueous liquid remaining is cooled, filtered, and the filtrate evaporated to the consistence of syrup. To the syrupy residue a few gtt. absolute alcohol are added and the mixture thoroughly stirred. The addition of absolute alcohol in small portions, during constant stirring, is con- tinued so long as any precipitate is formed. The alco- holic liquid is filtered off and the residue washed with alcohol. The filtrate and washings are evaporated to the * Alcohol for this purpose must be purified by dissolving in it tar- taric acid to strongly acid reaction, and distilling over the water- bath VEGETABLE POISONS. 68 consistence of syrup, and the residue dissolved in H2O. The distinctly acid aqueous soln, is transferred to a bulb funnel (Fig. 31), in which it is agitated with different solvents as follows: The acid, aqueous liquid is agitated with petroleum ■ether, the ethereal layer separated and evaporated. This treatment, like all of the subsequent agitations, is repeated so long as the solvent dissolves anything. The petroleum ether leaves a residue, Residue I., which contains principally fatty, resinous, and pigmentary sub- stances. The acid, aqueous liquid is next agitated with benzol, which is evaporated in several watch- glasses. This, Residue II., may contain colchicin, digitalin, and small quantities of veratrine and physostigmine. The acid, aqueous liquid is then agitated with chloroform, which is evaporated on watch-glasses, yielding Residue III., which may contain picro- toxin and digitalein, and traces of brucine, nar- cotine, physostigmine, and veratrine. The acid, aqueous liquid is again agitated with petroleum ether to remove CIIC13. the ether sepa- rated, and the aqueous liquid rendered alkaline with NH4HO. The alkaline, aqueous liquid is agitated with petroleum ether, which, on separation and eva- poration in watch-glasses, leaves Residue IV., which may contain coniine and nicotine, and traces of brucine, strychnine, and veratrine. The alkaline, aqueous liquid is next agitated with ben- zol, which is evaporated, yielding Residue V., in which atropine, hyoscyamine, narcotine, strychnine, aconitine, brucine, phy sostigmine, and veratrine may be found. Fig. 31. GENERAL REACTIONS OF ALKALOIDS. 69 The alkaline, aqueous liquid is then agitated with chlo- roform, which, on evaporation, leaves Residue VI., which may contain the opium alkaloids in small quantity. The alkaline, aqueous liquid is lastly agitated with amylic alcohol, from which Residue VII , in which mor- phine will be found if present in the substances examined, is obtained by evaporation. Finally, curarine, if present, will remain in the aqueous liquid, which may also contain oxalic acid. General Reactions of Alkaloids. 254. Add to an acidulated soln, of an alkaloid a soln, of potassium iodhydrargyrate (made by dissolving 13.546 gms. HgCl2 and 49.8 gms. KI in 1 L. H20): a white or yellow ppt. N. B -This reaction, like the subsequent ones, is best performed by placing a drop of the liquid under examina- tion and one of the reagent near each other on a slip of black glass, and bringing the two together with a pointed glass rod. 255. Add to an acidulated soln, of an alkaloid a soln, of phosphomolybdic acid:* a white or yellow ppt. 256. Add to an acidulated soln, of an alkaloid a soln, of phosphotungstic acid:f a white, flocculent ppt. 257. The following reagents also produce ppts. in faintly acidulated solns, of alkaloids: Iodine in potassium iodide, brown; tannin, white or yellow; platinic chloride, yellow- ish, usually becoming crystalline; auric chloride, yellowish; phosphoantimonic acid, white; iodide of potassium and iodide of cadmium, white or yellow; picric acid, yellow. *For preparation of reagent see " Manual," 2d ed., p. 331, note, f See p. 14, note. MORPHINE. 70 Morphine. 258. Moisten a crystal with HNO3: a red color, chang- ing to yellow. 259. Moisten with H2SO4: the alkaloid dissolves, form- ing a colorless soln. Let stand twenty-four hours, and add a trace of HNOS: the liquid turns pink. Warm, cool, dilute with HaO, and add a small crystal of potassium dichromate: a mahogany color. 260. Dissolve a few crystals of iodic acid in H2O, and shake a part of the soln, with CHC13: the latter should not be colored. Add to a soln, of a morphine salt a few gtt. of the iodic acid soln, and agitate: the liquid assumes a yellow color. Add a few gtt. CHC13, and agitate: the CHC13 which sep- arates at the bottom is colored violet. Float some dil. NH4H0 on the surface of the liquid: the test-tube will contain different colored layers; violet below, then yellow, dark yellow or brown, and faintly yellowish. 261. Moisten a crystal of morphine with, or add to a neutral soln, of one of its salts, a neutral soln, of Fe2ClB: a blue color. 262. To a crystal of morphine add a soln, of molybdic acid in H2SO4 (Frbhde's reagent): a violet color, changing to blue, dirty green, and faint pink. Water discharges the color. 263. Add NH4H0 to AgN03 soln, until the ppt. begins to remain undissolved, filter, add soln, of a morphine salt, and warm: a gray ppt. Filter off the liquid and add to it HN03: a red or pink color. 264. Heat morphine with cone. H2S04 to 200° C. (392° F.) until green black; add a drop of the liquid cautiously to H2O: the solution turns blue. Shake a portion with ether: the ether turns purple. Shake a portion with chloroform: the chloroform turns blue. MECONIC ACID-STRYCHNINE. 71 265. Warm the solid alkaloid with cone. HaS04; add cautiously a few gtt. of a 30$ alcoholic soln, of KHO: a yellow color is produced, changing to dirty red, then steel blue and sky blue, and, with a further quantity of KHO soln., cherry red. 266. Add soln. FeaCle (2-16) to soln, potassium ferri- cyanide (1-50): the mixture remains yellow (a blue color is due to impurity of reagents). Add morphine soln.: a deep blue color. 267. Antidotes.-Stomach-pump; wash out stomach with H2O holding powdered charcoal in suspension, or with infusion of tea. ZnSO4. Keep patient awake. Atro- pine? Meconic Acid. 268. To portions of the acid in three watch-glasses add FeaCl6 soln.: a red color is produced. To one watch-glass add dil. HC1: the color is not discharged. To the second watch-glass add HgCla soln.: the color is not discharged. To the third watch-glass add sodium hypochlorite soln.: the color is discharged. 269. Add Fe2Cl6 soln, to a sulphocyanate in a watch- glass: a red color, similar to that with meconic acid, is produced. Add HgCl2 soln.: the color is discharged. Strychnine. 270. Place a minute drop of a soln, of a strychnine salt on the tongue: a persistent, intensely bitter taste. 271. Add HaS04: the alkaloid (or its salts) dissolves, forming a colorless soln. Draw through the soln, a frag- ment of a crystal of potassium dichromate: it is followed by a streak of color, at first blue (very transitory and fre- quently not observed), then a brilliant violet which slowly changes to rose pink and finally to yellow. ATROPINE. 72 272. Evaporate a drop of soln, of a strychnine salt on a slip of Pt foil, moisten the residue with concentrated H2SO4, connect the foil with the + pole of a Grove cell, and bring a Pt wire, connected with the - pole, in contact with the surface of the acid: a violet color on the surface of the foil. 273. Moisten a fragment of strychnine with a soln, of iodic acid in HaSO4: a yellow color, changing to brick-red and then to violet-red. 274. Let an assistant hold a small frog by the hind legs. Raise the skin of the back at the root of the legs with a forceps, make a small incision with a scissors, and allow a few gtt. of a very dilute soln, of a salt of strychnine to flow into the lymph pouch. Place the frog under a glass shade: wTithin ten minutes the animal has violent tetanic spasms, with opisthotonos or emprosthotonos, increasing in frequency, and provoked by the slightest touch, or by blowing upon the surface. 275. Add a few gtt. of a dil. soln, of potassium dichro- mate to a soln, of a strychnine salt: a yellow, crystalline ppt. Collect the ppt. and moisten it with cone. H,SO4: a play of colors as in § 271. 276. Antidotes.-Stomach-pump; wash out stomach with infusion of tea. Chloroform, chloral. Atropine. 277. Dissolve a fragment of potassium dichromate in a few gtt. H2SO4, warm, add a fragment of atropine and two gtt. HaO, and stir: an odor resembling that of orange blossoms. 278. Drop a few gtt. of a dil. soln, of a salt of atropine into the inner canthus of the eye of a cat; after a few mo- ments hold the animal so that the light falls equally upon OXALIC ACID. 73 both eyes: the pupil of the eye operated upon is widely dilated. 279. Add a five-per-cent solution of HgCl2 in fifty per cent C2H6O, and warm gently; a brick-red ppt. 280. Dissolve the substance to be tested in alcohol. Heat some mercuric cyanide in a short test-tube fitted with a cork and bent glass tube. Pass the gas evolved from the Hg(CN)a into the alcoholic soln.: it assumes a blood- red color. 281. Moisten the solid alkaloid with cone. HNOS, dry on the water-bath, cool, add a drop of an alcoholic soln, of KHO: a violet color passing to a brilliant red. 282. Antidotes.-Emetics, stomach-pump; wash out stomach with infusion of tea. Morphine? 283. Add NH4HO to neutral or faintly alkaline reac- tion, then a soln, of CaCl2: a white ppt. Add HC1: the ppt. dissolves. 284. Add AgNO3: a white ppt. Boil the liquid: the ppt. does not darken. Divide the ppt. and liquid into two portions; to one add HNO3, to the other NH4HO: the ppt. in each dissolves. 285. Add Pb(C2H3O2)2: a white ppt. if the soln, be not too dilute. Divide the liquid and ppt. into two parts; to one add HNO3: the ppt. dissolves; to the other add HC2H3O2: the ppt. does not dissolve. 286. Antidotes.-Slaked lime, magnesia usta, sus- pended in a small quantity of water. Give as little liquid as possible, and do not use stomach-pump if symptoms of corrosion are observed. Oxalic Acid. INDEX. Abbreviations, 2 Acid, carbolic, 48 hydrochloric, 50 hydrocyanic, 46 meconic, 71 muriatic, 50 nitric, 50 oxalic, 73 prussic, 46 sulphuric, 49 uric, 8, 31, 34, 41 Acidimetry, 22 Acids, biliary, 19 mineral, 49, 51 Albumin, 11, 32 Alcohol, 46 Alkalies, 49, 52 Alkalimetry, 22 Alkaloids, 69 Ammonium hydrate, 52 urate, 41 Antimony, 55, 60 Arsenic, 54, 55 Atropine, 72 Barium, 55, 66 Bile, 19 Biliary salts, 19 pigments, 20 Bismuth, 55, 61 Blood, 19, 38 Burette, 22 Calcium carbonate, 42 oxalate, 35, 42 phosphate, 36, 42 urate, 42 Calculi, 41 Casts, 39 Chloral, 47 Chlorides, 7, 25 Chloroform, 47 Color, 3 Copper, 55, 62 Cystin, 36, 42 Deposits, organized, 37 unorganized, 34 urinary, 34 Epithelium, 38 Filters, 9 Filtration, 9 Glucose, 15 Lead, 55, 63 Leucin, 36 Magnesium urate, 42 Mercury, 55, 64 Morphine, 70 Mucin, 14 Mucus, 37 INDEX. 75 Odor, of urine, 3 Paraglobulin, 14, 32 Peptone, 14 Phenol, 48 Phosphates, 7, 26, 36 earthy, 13, 27 Phosphorus, 44 Poisons, 43 metallic, 53 vegetable, 67 volatile, 43 Potash, 51 Potassium hydrate, 51 urate, 42 Pus, 37 Quantitative methods, 22 Quantity, of urine, 3 Reagent, Frohde's, 70 Millon's, 8 Rules, 1 Soda, 51 Sodium hydrate, 51 urate, 42 Specific gravity, of urine, 4 Spermatozoa, 40 Strychnine, 71 Sugar, 15 Sulphates, 8, 28 Test, biuret, 8, 15 Boettger's, 17 Test, Fehling's, 18, 32 Fermentation, 17 Gmelin's, 20 Heller's, 10 Marsh's, 58, 60 Moore's, 15 murexid, 8 Mulder-Neubauer, 17 Oliver's, 20 Pettenkofer's, 19 Reinsch's, 57, 60, 62, 65 Trommer's, 16 Trichloraldehyde, 48 Triple phosphate, 36, 42 Tyrosin, 36 Urea, 8, 29 Uric acid, 8, 31, 34, 41 Urine, color, 3 constituents, 6 odor, 3 physical properties, 3 quantity, 3 reaction, 4 specific gravity, 4 Urinary deposits, 34 Urinometer, 4 Wash bottle, 10 Xanthin, 41 Zinc, 55, 66