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. ’ .A . \ il „ .. .A 
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XV . ,.\ Si.. ■ 
J ~ " 
.!. ‘ ...... \ 1 s WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR: 
Published by D. Appleton & Company. 
The Physiology of Man ; designed to represent the Existing State 
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A Text-Book of Human Physiology; designed for the use of 
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ographic Plates, and three hundred and thirteen Woodcuts. 1 vol., 
imperial Svo. Cloth, $6.00; sheep, $7.00. 
Kecherches experimentales sur une nouvelle fonction du 
foie, consistant dans la separation de la cholesteiine du sang et son 
elimination sous forme de stercorine (seroline de Boudet), Paris, 
Germer Bailiere ; and New York, D. Appleton & Company, 1868. 
1 vol., 8vo." pp. 122. Price $0.75. 
This work received an “Honorable Mention” with a “Recom- 
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Sciences), in 1869, Concours Montyon (Medecine et Chirurgie). 
On the Physiological Effects of Severe and Protracted Mus- 
cular Exercise ; with special reference to its Influence upon the 
Excretion of Nitrogen. 1871. 1 vol., 8vo, cloth, pp. 91. Price $1.00. 
Manual of Chemical Examination of the Urine in Disease ; 
with brief Directions for the Examination of the most common Va- 
rieties of Urinary Calculi. Fifth edition, 1877. 1 vol., 16mo, cloth, 
pp. 76. Price $1.00. M AN UAL 
OF 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 
OF THE 
URINE IN DISEASE; 
WITH 
BRIEF DIRECTIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF THE MOST 
COMMON VARIETIES OF URINARY CALCULI. 
BY 
AUSTIN FLINT, Jr., M.D., 
Ui' 
PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY IN THE BELLEVUE 
HOSPITAL MEDICAL COLLEGE, NEW YORK; CONSULTING PHYSICIAN FOR THE 
CLASS OF NERVOUS DISEASES TO THE BUREAU OF MEDICAL AND SURGI- 
CAL RELIEF FOR OUT-DOOR POOR BELLEVUE HOSPITAL; FELLOW OF 
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF MEDICINE; MEMBER OF THE MED- 
ICAL SOCIETY OF THE COUNTY OF NEW YORK ; CORRESPOND- 
ENT OF ME ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF 
PHILADELPHIA, ETC., ETC. 
FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED. 
NEW YORK : 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
549 & 551 BROADWAY. 
1879. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 
D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
Southern District of New York. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. 
It is now more than seven years since this little 
work was published, the first edition having been 
issued in 1870. During these seven years, not only 
has there been a constant and steady demand, suffi- 
cient to exhaust four large editions, but several 
other little works of the same scope and on the 
same subject have appeared. These facts have led 
me to adhere to the original plan in revising the 
matter for a fifth edition. It has seemed to me that 
the book would be less useful if it were more com- 
prehensive. What I first supposed was required by 
the busy practitioner was a book giving clear and 
readily comprehensible directions for ordinary ex- 
aminations of urine, such as a physician must often 
have occasion to make, and which it is desirable 
that he should be able to make rapidly. I am now 4 
PEEFACE. 
more than ever convinced of the correctness of this 
view; and my effort has been, in revising the text, 
to make my descriptions of analytical processes as 
simple as possible. The process for analysis for 
phosphoric acid by uranic oxide is perhaps more 
accurate than the one I have given; but this re- 
quires the use of heat, and the test-liquid is rather 
difficult to prepare. For these reasons I still rec- 
ommend the solution of iron. In conclusion, I vent- 
ure to hope that my modest little book may con- 
tinue to be kindly and favorably received by the 
profession. 
New Yoke, 14 West Thirty-third Street, 
October 1, 1877. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
Several months ago, I suggested to Messrs. 
Tiemann & Co., of this city, the desirability of ar- 
ranging a set of tests, etc., for such urinary exam- 
inations as are now constantly required by the 
medical practitioner; and I proposed to supervise 
the work and write a few simple directions for use* 
to accompany the apparatus ; but as I progressed, it 
became evident that the directions, to be complete 
and satisfactory, should be much more extended 
than I at first supposed, and they finally assumed 
the dimensions of this little volume. 
Microscopical examinations of the urinary de- 
posits form, often, an indispensable element in di- 
agnosis and prognosis; but, much more frequently, 
a very simple chemical examination of the urine, 
such as can and should be made by the physician, 6 
PREFACE. 
will answer all practical purposes. I concluded, for 
tlie present at least, not to touch upon urinary de- 
posits, a subject which can only he adequately con- 
sidered in extended treatises, but to confine myself 
to the chemical study of the urine in disease, with 
very brief directions for the examination of the 
most common forms of urinary calculi; and I have 
prefaced these practical points with a few introduc- 
tory remarks concerning the variations in the prop- 
erties and composition of the urine under normal 
conditions. 
My chief aim, in the preparation of this little 
work, has been to enable the busy practitioner to 
make for himself, rapidly and easily, all ordinary 
examinations of urine, and to give him the benefit 
of my own experience in eliminating little difficul- 
ties in the manipulations and in reducing processes 
of analysis to the utmost simplicity that is consist- 
ent with accuracy. Having for many years been 
daily in the habit of making chemical and micro- 
scopical examinations of the urine for physicians, I 
felt that I was able to appreciate pretty thoroughly 
what is required in ordinary practice. PREFACE. 
7 
My first object was to arrange a standard set of 
apparatus, simple, yet sufficient for all practical 
purposes. I have spared no time or pains in my 
endeavors to accomplish this end; and the makers 
have pledged themselves not to dispose of the set or 
any part of the set, which I have thoroughly tested, 
and which is to remain in their possession as a 
standard of accuracy. 
My next object was to remove as far as possible 
all of the difficulties which I had myself experienced 
in urinary examinations. I am fully aware of the 
fact that the processes suggested for the quantita- 
tive determination of the urea, chlorine, and sul- 
phuric acid in the urine, are not absolutely accurate; 
but I have no hesitation in recommending them as 
sufficiently exact to meet all the requirements of 
the practical physician, while their simplicity and 
the facility of their application put them within 
the reach of every one. 
I had hoped to be able to apply the volumetric 
method, which has proved so convenient in such 
analyses, to all of the examinations of the urine that 
are now recognized as important to the physician; 8 
PREFACE. 
but after a patient trial of the volumetric analysis 
for uric acid by a graduated solution of the per- 
manganate of potassa, I have become convinced 
that this process is so wanting in accuracy as to be 
unavailable, even for rough estimates. I am in- 
debted to my assistant, Mr. J. W. S. Arnold, for a 
simplification of the process for quantitative anal- 
ysis for this principle, which is sufficiently easy, 
though it occupies some time and requires the use 
of a tolerably delicate balance. There is at present 
no volumetric process for estimating uric acid, that 
is at all reliable. 
I have taken great care in the preparation of 
some new tables, by which the necessary calcula- 
tions are so simplified that the quantities of most 
of the important normal and abnormal ingredients 
of the urine may be ascertained almost instantly. 
I have also given a full table of the normal va- 
riations in the properties and composition of 
the urine. These tables are all printed upon a 
single sheet at the end of the volume; and, if 
this be cut out and posted in a conspicuous place 
for reference, after a little practice it will be seldom PREFACE. 
9 
necessary to consult the hook itself in the progress 
of an examination. 
If these objects be but in part accomplished, 
and if the attention of physicians can be directed 
more frequently to the condition of the urine in dis- 
ease, this little book, with its modest pretensions 
and imperfect execution, will not be without value 
to the profession. 
New Yoke, January 1, 1870. CONTENTS. 
INTRODUCTION. 
Recognition of abnormal matters in the urine—Mode of production 
of excrementitious principles in the system—Mode of elimina- 
tion of excrementitious principles by the kidneys—Variations in 
the general and physical properties of the normal urine—Normal 
variations in the elimination of urea and uric acid—Normal 
variations in the proportions of the inorganic constituents of 
the urine, Page 13 
CHAPTER I. 
QUALITATIVE EXAMINATIONS OF THE UEINE. 
Apparatus for urinary examinations—Method of obtaining a spe- 
cimen for examination—General appearance, color, and odor of 
the urine—Reaction—Specific gravity—Presence or absence of 
albumen—Presence or absence of sugar—Presence or absence 
of bile, . Page 24 
CHAPTER II. 
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE URINE. 
Analysis for albumen—Analysis for sugar—Differential-density 
method of analysis for sugar—Volumetric method for esti- 
mating sugar—Quantitative analysis for urea—Quantitative 
analysis for chlorine, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and 
uric acid, Page 41 APPENDIX 
URINARY CALCULI AND GRAVEL—CARE OF APPARATUS. 
PAGE 
A. Properties and composition of the normal urine 68 
B. Table for reducing the indications of a glass urinome- 
TER TO THE STANDARD TEMPERATURE (60° Fahr.) WHEN THE 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY HAS BEEN TAKEN AT A HIGHER TEMPER- 
ATURE 69 
C. Table showing the number of grains of solids in, and 
THE WEIGHT OF A FLUIDOUNCE OF URINE, OF EVERY DEN- 
SITY FROM 1001 TO 1042 70 
D Table showing the percentage of sugar in undiluted 
DIABETIC URINE, REPRESENTED BY THE DEGREES OF THE 
SCALE ON THE BURETTE GRADUATED IN GRAINS 7l 
E Table showing the quantity of urea per fluidounce of 
URINE, IN GRAINS, REPRESENTED BY THE DIVISIONS OF THE 
SCALE UPON THE TUBE GRADUATED IN CUBIC INCHES 72 
F Table showing the quantity, either of chlorine, sul- 
phuric ACID, OR PHOSPHORIC ACID, PER FLUIDOUNCE OF 
URINE, IN GRAINS, REPRESENTED BY THE DEGREES OF THE 
SCALE ON THE BURETTE GRADUATED IN GRAINS 73 
Form for recording urinary examinations 74 
TABLES. 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
PAGE 
Fig. 1. Conical vessel for collecting urinary deposits 30 
Fig. 2. Apparatus for taking the specific gravity of the urine 33 
Fig. 3. Apparatus for determining the proportion of urea 
IN THE URINE 49 
Fig. 4. Sink for cleansing apparatus. . 65 CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 
OF THE 
UEIME IN DISEASE. 
INTRODUCTION. 
Recognition of abnormal matters in the urine—Mode of production 
of excrementitious principles in the system—Mode of elimina- 
tion of excrementitious principles by the kidneys—Variations in 
the general and physical properties of the normal urine—Normal 
variations in the elimination of urea and uric acid—Normal 
variations in the proportions of the inorganic constituents of 
the urine. 
The importance of urinary examinations, in 
tlieir bearing upon diagnosis, treatment, and prog- 
nosis in disease, is now admitted by all wlio bave 
kept pace witb tbe progress of medical science dur- 
ing tbe last twenty-five or thirty years. Even if 
we except tbe examinations for sugar and for albu- 
men, there are many conditions of the urine, involv- 
ing either a modification in the proportion of its 
normal constituents or the presence of abnormal 
principles, which it is very important to recognize. 14 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
With regard to certain abnormal principles that 
may exist in the urine, it is essential to the prac- 
tical physician, not only to be able to recognize 
their presence by simple and reliable tests, but, in 
many instances, to estimate their quantity. In dia- 
betes mellitus, a knowledge of the fact that sugar 
exists in the urine is a necessary element in the 
diagnosis; and the influence of dietetic and other 
measures of treatment, in most cases, is speedily and 
certainly indicated by the modifications in the pro- 
portion of sugar in the urine. Indeed, it is impossible 
to treat this affection intelligently without estimat- 
ing from time to time the quantity of sugar dis- 
charged by the kidneys. Albuminuria, which is so 
prominent a symptom in certain diseases of the kid- 
neys that it is often spoken of as if it were in itself a 
disease, is a condition which must be recognized in 
the diagnosis of these disorders. It frequently hap- 
pens that the presence of albumen in the urine is the 
first positive indication of a pathological condition 
of the kidneys, and this single fact directs the atten- 
tion of the physician to an entire class of impor- 
tant diseased. 
Physiologists are constantly progressing in the 
knowledge of the phenomena that attend the gen- 
eral process of nutrition of the organism, and, with 
every development in this direction, additional im- PRODUCTION OP EXCREMENTITIOUS PRINCIPLES. 
15 
portance is attached to the examination of the urine 
in disease. The relations of physiology and pa- 
thology, as regards excretion, are to a considerable 
extent reciprocal. Pathologists cannot comprehend 
morbid changes in the process of disassimilation 
without a knowledge of the physiological conditions; 
and, on the other hand, modifications of the func- 
tion of excretion in disease frequently aid the phys- 
iologist in determining the relations of certain ex- 
crementitious principles to the healthy organism. 
There are few facts in physiology better estab- 
lished than that certain principles discharged from 
the body, called excrementitious, represent the 
physiological wear of the organism; and there is 
no avenue of discharge by which these effete mat- 
ters are so uniformly excreted as by the urinary 
apparatus. The fseces contain the debris of food in 
addition to the certain peculiar excrementitious 
principles; the skin discharges its excretions in 
such a form that they are with difficulty collected 
and studied; but the urine is the type of the ex- 
cretions; its composition is constantly varying in 
health, and is almost of necessity modified in dis- 
ease ; and this fluid may be collected and analyzed 
so easily, that, certainly, the clinical student should 
only be restricted in the practical applications of 
the changes in this fluid in disease by the limits of 16 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
physiological knowledge of the relations of tlie 
different excrementitious principles to tlie or- 
ganism. 
It may be useful, as an introduction to the clini- 
cal study of the urine, to sketch briefly the mode of 
production of certain of its constituents and their 
elimination by the kidneys. There is every rea- 
son to believe that all excrementitious matters are 
produced in the general system, are taken up by 
the blood in circulating through the tissues, and are 
separated from the blood and thrown off by the 
proper organs. The kidneys have nothing to do 
with the formation of the urinary principles; they 
simply purify the blood by separating from it cer- 
tain effete matters. Supposing, then, that the kid- 
neys be perfectly healthy, serious modifications in 
the urinary excretion may occur, depending upon 
diseases in the general system. It is not disease 
of the kidneys that gives rise to the presence of su- 
gar in the urine, or to an excess of urea, urates, 
uric acid, phosphates, etc.; but these changes are 
due to disturbances in nutrition and disassimila- 
tion. An excessive production of uric acid in the 
system may give rise to calculus, to certain general 
symptoms, and yet the kidneys be perfectly nor- 
mal ; and such examples as this might be multiplied. 
On the other hand, the general nutritive processes PRODUCTION OF EXCREMENTITIOUS PRINCIPLES. 
17 
may be normal, except as they are secondarily influ- 
enced through the kidneys, and very grave disor- 
ders of the urinary excretion may be due exclu- 
sively to structural disease of the kidneys them- 
selves, by which they are rendered incapable of sep- 
arating the required quantity of excrementitious 
matter from the blood. 
The distinction between the two conditions just 
mentioned should be kept constantly in view in 
practice. In the great majority of instances, though 
not invariably, if there be serious structural disease 
of the kidneys, there will be albumen in the urine. 
The physician should fully appreciate the impor- 
tance of this symptom, albuminuria, as pointing to 
disease of the kidneys, it may be, of a transient char- 
acter, or it may be in the form of an irremediable 
structural lesion. Having the attention thus di- 
rected to the kidneys, it becomes an important ques- 
tion to decide how far these organs are capable 
of performing their function; and, in the great ma- 
jority of cases, the efficiency of their action may be 
measured by the daily discharge of urea, the most 
important of the solid constituents of the urine. 
I mention urea as the principle to be watched in 
these cases, because it is formed by the system in 
greater quantity, and accumulates in the blood, 
when its elimination by the kidneys is interrupted, 18 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
more rapidly than any other of the urinary con 
stituents. 
If it he impossible to determine the existence 
of structural disease of the kidneys by the presence 
of albumen in the urine or by microscopical exam- 
ination of the urinary sediment, it is generally, 
if not always, fair to assume that any changes in 
the composition in the urine, beyond its ordinary 
physiological variations, are due to conditions of 
nutrition involving the original production of the 
excrementitious principles in the general system. 
These conditions may affect the quantity of the 
urine, its color, odor, specific gravity, or reaction, 
and may modify the proportion of urea, of urates, 
chlorides, sulphates, phosphates, and perhaps other 
of its constituents, the physiological relations of 
which are as yet imperfectly understood. 
It is not contemplated, in this little work, to dis- 
cuss the significance of all the variations from the 
healthy standard, but, in the study of the urine in 
disease, it is absolutely necessary to keep in view 
the purely physiological conditions capable of mod- 
ifying this excretion. 
Physiologically, the variations in the quantity, 
color, and specific gravity of the urine bear a certain 
relation to each other. When the skin is acting very 
freely, and when the solid elements are increased by NORMAL VARIATIONS IN THE URINE. 
19 
exercise, tlie quantity of urine is apt to tend toward 
the minimum, the specific gravity being high and 
the color, though normal in character, of a deeper 
shade. This is most likely to occur when liquids are 
ingested in small quantity. On the other hand, 
when the skin is not active, as in very cold weather, 
the urine will probably approach the maximum in 
quantity, the specific gravity being low and. the 
color light. The ingestion of large quantities of 
liquid will often induce, as a temporary condition, 
an abundant secretion of fluid of low density. In 
these conditions the real amount of solid excretion 
is not much affected, the difference being simply in 
the dilution of the urine. When the density is 
very low and the secretion scanty, showing an evi- 
dent deficiency in the activity of the kidneys, one 
is led to look for evidences of disease of these or- 
gans, the most prominent indication of which is 
albuminuria. When the specific gravity is very 
high and the quantity normal or increased, there 
may be reason to suspect the presence of some ab- 
normal solid matter in solution in the urine, and 
the principle most likely to be present is sugar. 
The normal conditions above enumerated, are, how- 
ever, capable of temporarily affecting the specific 
gravity to such an extent, that a specimen may pre- 
sent as low a density as 1005 or higher than 1030, 20 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
without being, in itself, positive evidence of dis- 
ease. 
The odor of the urine varies, in the intensity 
of its “ urinous ” character, with the proportion of 
solid matter. Some albuminous urine of very low 
density is almost inodorous. Saccharine urine is 
apt to have a sweetish odor. Some phosphatic 
urine has an excessively fetid odor. It must be 
remembered, also, that peculiar odorous principles 
are sometimes developed in the urine after taking 
certain remedies, as turpentine, or particular ar- 
ticles of food, as asparagus. In clinical examina- 
tions it is frequently quite important to take ac- 
count of the odor of the urine in connection with 
the more elaborate processes of analysis. 
The reaction of the urine varies, in health, with 
digestion and other circumstances. Vegetable food 
diminishes the acidity and may render the urine 
alkaline, while animal food has the opposite effect. 
The rapid development of a free acid in the urine 
after it has been passed, may of itself decompose 
the urates, and be the sole cause of the deposition 
of uric acid; and a deposit of the triple phosphates 
may, on the other hand, be due entirely to an alka- 
line condition of the urine. It is sometimes an im- 
portant element in the treatment of disease to keep 
the urine alkaline, so that it is frequently very NORMAL VARIATIONS IN THE URINE. 
21 
desirable to take note of tlie reaction, as well as of 
the other general properties of the urine. 
In estimating the urea in the urine, which is 
so often required in practice, it is a point of the 
greatest importance to keep in view the physiologi- 
cal variations in the proportion of this principle. 
Before the age of fifteen or eighteen years, the 
amount of urea and other solid matters excreted by 
the kidneys, in proportion to the weight of the body, 
is much greater than in the adult. In women the 
normal excretion of urea is generally less than in 
men; and when the amount of food taken is habit- 
ually small and the muscular system is very in- 
active, the amount of urea may be very much di- 
minished from these causes alone. In persons con- 
fined to the bed with any disease and taking but 
little food, the urea may be small in quantity with- 
out indicating disease of the kidneys. Exercise 
increases the production of urea, and animal food 
has the same influence to a marked degree. It has 
been ascertained that a purely animal diet will in- 
crease the amount of urea fully two-fifths; a veg- 
etable diet will diminish it one-third; and a non- 
nitrogenized diet will reduce it more than one-half. 
It can be readily understood that these facts become 
exceedingly important in estimating the urea dis- 
charged in disease. In what is known as Bright’s 22 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
disease, it very often happens that the condition of 
the general nutrition of the body becomes such as 
to lead to a very great diminution in the actual 
production of urea, and the quantity in the urine 
may be small and yet the kidneys be separating 
from the blood all that is formed in the system. 
Inasmuch as the production of urea is pro- 
foundly affected by the quality of food, and as one 
of the great dangers to be feared in serious struc- 
tural disease of the kidneys is uraemia, it would 
seem as important to diminish the production of 
urea by a change in diet as to adopt measures to 
favor its elimination from the system. It is cer- 
tainly a reasonable supposition that the danger from 
uraemia would be diminished, if the production of 
urea be reduced by regulating the ingesta, particu- 
larly with reference to nitrogenized matters. 
Hearly the same remarks that have been made 
concerning the production of urea are applicable to 
uric acid. This principle always exists in health 
in the form of urates, the proportion of which is 
exceedingly variable under normal conditions. The 
pathological relations of uric acid, particularly in 
gout and in diseases accompanied with urinary 
concretions, cannot be adequately discussed within 
the limits of this work. 
In making quantitative examinations of the NORMAL VARIATIONS IN THE URINE. 
23 
urine for chlorides, sulphates, and phosphates, it 
must he remembered that the normal variations in 
these constituents are even greater than the fluc- 
tuations of urea and the urates, and that they are 
to a great extent dependent upon diet. It is not 
often, indeed, that much valuable information is to 
be derived from estimates of the proportions of the 
inorganic matters in the urine ; still, there are cer- 
tain pathological conditions in which the propor- 
tion of some of these principles is modified, par- 
ticularly the chlorides, for a consideration of which 
the reader is referred to elaborate works on the 
urine. In this brief introduction, I designed only 
to mention some of the most important of the physi- 
ological variations in the properties and composition 
of the urine, as a necessary preparation to the study 
of this excretion in disease. CHAPTER I. 
QUALITATIVE EXAMINATIONS OF TnE URINE. 
Apparatus for urinary examinations—Method of obtaining a spe. 
cimen for examination—General appearance, color, and odor of 
the urine—Reaction—Specific gravity—Presence or absence of 
albumen—Presence or absence of sugar—Presence or absence 
of bile. 
It is now so easy to make examinations of tlie 
urine extended and accurate enough for ordinary 
clinical purposes, that there is no good reason why 
physicians, especially recent graduates, should not 
be able to ascertain for themselves most of the im- 
portant facts to be learned from a urinary analysis, 
and this without an undue expenditure of time and 
pains. A very simple examination, indeed, will 
suffice to exclude diseases of the kidneys and dis- 
orders of the general system that are attended 
with serious modifications in the composition of 
the urine; but it must frequently happen that a 
more extended analysis is required and should be 
made at once, and this many practitioners are not 
prepared to undertake. QUALITATIVE EXAMINATIONS. 
25 
Although many attempts have been made to de- 
vise a cheap, convenient, and sufficiently complete 
set of apparatus for ordinary examinations of the 
urine, few if any of them have been extensively 
used. It has seemed to me that this can be readily 
explained. A practitioner wants, in the first place, 
a convenient place and a quick and easy method for 
making his examinations, and his-apparatus should 
be always ready for use; and none of the very cheap 
and compact sets of reagents will answer these 
requirements. An apparatus constructed on this 
principle is like a pocket microscope, convenient 
enough for transportation, but difficult and trying 
to the patience in actual use. A physician should 
be provided with a good, firm table, at least four 
feet by two, with drawers for stowing away odd 
articles, and a sufficiently complete chemical ap- 
paratus to enable him to do all his work conve- 
niently. He should see that his apparatus is al- 
ways clean and ready for use and that his solutions 
are kept in order. The table should be in a good 
light for microscopical as well as chemical work; 
and, in short, it should be so furnished that he 
is able to do his work with the least possible 
trouble. He should have, in conspicuous places, 
tables and formulae for facilitating his calculations, 
and should be provided, in some way, with means 26 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
of recording tlie most important of tlie results 
of his examinations. A compact and scanty set 
of apparatus is always inconvenient, is usually 
in disorder, and will not answer for constant 
use. 
Having for some years been in the habit of 
making frequent examinations of the urine for phy- 
sicians, I have been led to arrange a set of appa- 
ratus that I have found by experience to be the 
most convenient for daily use. I have not, how- 
ever, been accustomed to subject the sediment to 
chemical tests, but have always used the micro- 
scope, as the simplest and most rapid method of 
ascertaining the character of urinary deposits. The 
microscopical characters of the urine in disease I 
shall not describe; for, although the application of 
the microscope in this way is not difficult, the sub- 
ject of urinary deposits is too extended to be ade- 
quately considered within the limits of this work, 
and reliable treatises on the subject are sufficiently 
accessible. Among the best, is a recent work by 
Dr. Roberts, which has been republished in this 
country.1 
The following solutions are sufficient for ordi- 
nary clinical examinations of the urine : 
1 Roberts, A Practical Treatise on Urinary and Renal Diseases, 
including Urinary Deposits, Philadelphia, 1872. APPARATUS FOR URINARY EXAMINATIONS. 
27 
List of Apparatus. 
Case of Reagents, containing— 
1. Nitric acid. 
2. Hydrochloric acid. 
3. Acetic acid. 
4. Nitroso-nitric acid. 
5. Nitrate of silver in solution (9‘58 grains in an 
ounce). 
6. Sulphate of copper in solution (94-73 grains in 
an ounce). 
7. Neutral tartrate of potash in solution (378*91 
grains in an ounce). 
8. Solution of soda (specific gravity 1-12). 
9. Liquor potassse. 
10. Liquor ammonise. 
11. Ether. 
12. Mercury. 
13. Chloride of soda (concentrated). (Powers and 
"Weightman.) 
14. Solution of chloride of sodium (saturated). 
15. Test-paper. 
16. German yeast. 
A. Urinometer. 
B. Thermometer. 
C. Graduated glasses. 
(a.) Six ounce. 
(b.) One ounce graduated in drachms. 
(<?.) One drachm. 28 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
D. 4 conical glasses with porcelain covers. 
E. Porcelain evaporating-dishes, and watch- 
glasses. 
F. Test-tube stands with test-tubes. 
G. 3 funnels, and filtering-paper. 
II. Shallow porcelain dish with a handle. 
I. Bunsen’s burner, rubber tubing, etc., or alco- 
liol-lamp. 
K. Burette, graduated in grains. 
L. 200 grain measure. 
M. Tube graduated in cubic inches, with vessel 
in which it can be inverted. 
A. Bings, and clamp for graduated tube. 
O. Stirring-rods and drop-tubes. 
P. Swabs and brushes for cleaning. 
B. Platinum spoon for calculi. 
S. Blow-pipe. 
T. A convenient sink for cleansing apparatus. 
{See page 65.) 
Extra Apparatus. 
A. Hydrometer of Baume, for liquids heavier 
than water. 
B. 1000 gr., 500 gr., and 100 gr. specific-gravity 
bottles. 
C. Water-bath. 
D. Water-oven and Swedish filters. APPARATUS FOR URINARY EXAMINATIONS. 
29 
E. 2 wash-bottles and 3 precipitating glasses. 
F. A balance, at least delicate enough to turn 
with g of a grain. 
G. Graduated solution of chloride of barium, 
(36*6 grains in six fluidounces of water) for 
quantitative analysis for the sulphates. 
H. Three separate solutions for quantitative 
analysis for phosphoric acid. 1. Sesqui- 
chloride of iron; grains of iron by hydro- 
gen dissolved in hydochloric with a little ni- 
tric acid, evaporated to dryness, and dissolved 
in six fluidounces of water. 2. 400 grains of 
acetate of soda and 800 grains of acetic acid 
dissolved in six fluidounces of water. 3. 12 
grains of ferrocyanide of potassium dissolved 
in six fluidounces of water. 
In ordinary examinations of the urine, a speci- 
men taken in the morning immediately after rising 
from bed will be found to represent, more nearly 
than any other, the general process of disassimilation. 
There are occasions in which it is desirable and in- 
dispensable to examine a specimen of the mixed 
urine of the twenty-four hours; but, in the great 
majority of cases, the morning urine will be suf- 
ficient, and this may be obtained without alarming 
the patient or friends or leading them to suppose 
that extraordinary attention is being directed to the 30 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
kidneys. I shall therefore indicate, first, the process 
for an ordinary examination, by which it may be 
desired simply to exclude the question of urinary dis- 
turbance, and afterward describe more minutely the 
processes involved in more important investigations. 
Method of obtaining a Specimen for Exam- 
ination.—A specimen of the morning urine should 
be collected a short time after it has been passed, 
in a perfectly clean bottle, holding from four to 
eight fluidounces. This may be tested at once for 
reaction, specific gravity, the presence of albumen 
or sugar, and its color, general appearance, and odor 
may be noted. In most cases these points may be 
obtained with sufficient accuracy after twelve hours’ 
and, in the winter, even after twenty-four hours’ 
standing. The urine should then 
stand ten or twelve hours, to allow 
of the deposition of a sediment, 
the general appearance of which 
should also be noted. It may re- 
main in the original bottle, or the 
sediment may be allowed to de- 
posit in a conical vessel A, covered 
with a porcelain plate, on which 
the memoranda may be written in 
pencil. In specimens brought by patients, it is as 
well to have the urine stand in the original bottle, 
Fig. 1. 
G.VEMANN-CO. 
Vessel for collecting 
urinary deposits. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE URINE. 
31 
but tlie conical glasses are very convenient for spe- 
cimens freshly collected. In about twelve hours 
specimens of the sediment should he taken up 
with a pipette or drop-tube, to he examined micro- 
scopically. 
The points to be noted in ordinary chemical ex- 
aminations are the following: 
1. The general appearance and color; the time 
of the day when the specimen was taken; the gen- 
eral appearance of the deposit, if any exist; the 
total quantity in the twenty-four hours; and the 
odor. 
2. The reaction; whether acid, alkaline, or 
neutral. 
3. The specific gravity. 
4. The presence or absence of albumen. 
5. The presence or absence of sugar. 
6. The presence or absence of biliary matters, 
in case the color should lead to the suspicion of their 
existence. 
General Appearance, Color, and Odor.—A suf- 
ficiently definite record of the color and general 
appearance of the urine may be made by noting it 
as amber and normal, reddish, pale, tinged with 
bile, clear, turbid, etc., etc., as the case may be. 
The remarks under the head of color will readily 
suggest themselves in recording the appearances of 32 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
different specimens under examination. With re- 
gard to the odor, it may he noted as normal, strong- 
ly or feebly urinous, sweetish, ammoniacal, fetid, 
or by some term that will indicate any extraneous 
odorous principle. 
Reaction.—The most convenient method of de- 
termining the reaction of the urine, is by delicately- 
tinted blue litmus-paper for acid urine, and faintly- 
reddened litmus or turmeric paper for alkaline 
urine, formal urine is usually acid, and con- 
sequently turns blue litmus red. If it be alkaline, 
it restores the blue color to reddened litmus, and 
changes yellow turmeric paper brown. It is not 
usually important to determine the amount of acid- 
ity of the urine, but this may be done by neutral- 
izing with alkaline solutions that have been gradu- 
ated to represent a known quantity of crystallized 
oxalic acid. It is frequently useful to determine 
whether the alkalinity of a specimen of urine be 
due to a fixed alkali (potash or soda), or to a volatile 
alkali, the result of ammoniacal decomposition. If 
the urine contain a fixed alkali, the blue color of 
the litmus will remain after the paper has been 
thoroughly dried; and if the reaction be due to a 
volatile alkali, the blue color will disappear from 
the paper as the moisture evaporates. In the treat- 
ment of certain diseases, one of the objects is to SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
33 
keep the urine alkaline; and perhaps the most con- 
venient test to employ constantly, in these cases, is 
the turmeric paper. 
Specific Gravity.—The only absolutely accurate 
way of taking the specific gravity of any liquid is 
by actual weight of a definite volume; 
but this requires a delicate balance, 
carefully adjusted, and the process 
must occupy considerable time. The 
most convenient method in ordinary 
examinations is by floating in the 
liquid a glass urinometer, when the 
number of degrees above 1000 may 
be read off from the scale. (See Fig. 
2.) The urinometers in the set of ap- 
paratus I am describing may be com- 
pared with the standard in the posses- 
sion of Messrs. Tiemann & Co., which has been 
tested by actual weight throughout the entire scale. 
Of course, the specific gravity varies slightly with 
temperature. Corrections for temperature may be 
made from table B. The usual standard for the 
specific gravity of liquids is 60° Fahr. It may be 
useful sometimes to form an idea from the specific 
gravity, of the total amount of solids excreted; and 
it is a curious fact that between 1010 and 1030, 
the last two figures indicating the specific gravity 
Fig. 2. 
Apparatus for spe-, 
cific gravity. 34 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
indicate also, with a very slight error, the number of 
grains of solids in the urine per fluidounce. Table 
C gives the weight of a fluidounce of urine, and also 
the proportion of solids when the specific gravity is 
between 1001 and 1042, except for diabetic urine. 
When the urine is too small in quantity to float 
the urinometer, add to a measured quantity four vol- 
umes of water and take the specific gravity of the 
mixture. Then multiply the excess of the specific 
gravity over 1000 by five and add 1000. 
Presence or Absence of Albumen.—There are 
two tests which, if used together, will easily and 
certainly determine the presence or absence of albu- 
men in urine, and these are heat and nitric acid. 
If a specimen of albuminous urine of a decidedly 
acid reaction be boiled, it will become more or less 
turbid or opaque in proportion to the quantity of 
albumen that is present. A method very generally 
recommended is to fill a test-tube about half-full of 
urine and apply the heat to the upper layer, which, if 
it be rendered turbid, will present a marked contrast 
with the clear fluid below. If the urine be neutral or 
alkaline, a few drops of acetic acid should be added 
before the heat is applied. In urine that is very 
feebly acid, neutral, or alkaline, turbidity may fol- 
low the application of heat when no albumen is 
present. This is due to a deposition of the earthy TESTS FOR ALBUMEN. 
35 
phosphates; and the character of this precipitate may 
be recognized by adding a drop or two of nitric acid, 
which immediately clears np the specimen. In urine 
containing a large quantity of albumen, opacity is 
produced at a comparatively low temperature; but 
if the proportion of albumen, be small, cloudiness may 
not appear until the liquid has been brought to the 
boiling-point. In urine that is turbid from urates, 
heat will first dissolve the precipitate and render 
the liquid clear; and afterward, as the tempera- 
ture is raised, the albumen will be coagulated. 
In the test by nitric acid the reagent may be 
simply dropped in, or, as is recommended by some, 
it may be allowed to trickle along the side of the 
test-tube and fall to the bottom. In most speci- 
mens of albuminous urine, the nitric acid simply 
added to the urine will produce a well-marked 
coagulation. "When the acid is carefully passed to 
the bottom of the tube, there is a clear stratum be- 
low formed by the acid, a clear stratum of urine 
above, and an intermediate zone of coagulation, 
more or less opaque. When the urine contains a 
large excess of uric-acid compounds, the addition of 
nitric acid sometimes produces a precipitate of amor- 
phous urates; but this is dissipated by gentle heat. 
As a general proposition, it may be stated that 
urine in which there is an opacity produced by 36 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
heat that is not cleared up by nitric acid, or in which 
there is a precipitation by nitric acid that does 
not disappear with gentle heat, is sure to contain 
albumen. 
Presence or Absence of Sugar.—The ordinary 
methods for detecting sugar in clear solutions, par- 
ticularly the test with sulphate of copper and caustic 
potash, cannot be certainly and easily applied to the 
urine. If the test-liquids be added to the urine and 
the mixture be boiled, normal urine will decolorize 
the solution, and it is frequently difficult to form a 
negative opinion with regard to the presence of sugar. 
Almost all writers who have had practical experi- 
ence with these processes have recognized the diffi- 
culties in this mode of using the copper-tests; and 
the various other tests that have been proposed 
are neither very delicate nor convenient. 
In view of these facts, it has been suggested by 
Roberts and others, that the test-liquid be boiled 
and the urine added drop by drop ; and in this way 
the detection of sugar becomes as certain and easy 
as the test for albumen. Roberts uses the prepara- 
tion known as Feliling’s test-liquid, the formula 
for which, reduced to English grains, is as fol- 
lows : 
Sulphate of copper, 94-73 grains (40 grammes); 
neutral tartrate of potash, 378-91 grains (160 gram- TESTS FOR SUGAR. 
37 
mes); solution of caustic soda, specific gravity, 1*12 
(about of Baume’s hydrometer), 3|- fluidounces 
(750 grammes). Add water to make exactly 6 fluid- 
ounces (1154*5 cubic centimetres). 
If prepared by the English weights, exactly 200 
grains of the test-liquid will correspond to one grain 
of sugar. If prepared by the French weights, ten 
cubic centimetres correspond to 0*05 of a gramme 
of sugar.1 
For merely determining the presence or absence 
of sugar in any given specimen of urine, an ordi- 
nary test-tube is filled to the depth of about an 
inch with the test-liquid, which is boiled, when the 
urine is added drop by drop. In ordinary diabetic 
urine the first few drops will produce a brilliant 
reddish or yellowish opaque precipitate. If the 
urine be added to about the volume of the test- 
liquid and the mixture be again brought to the 
boiling-point, without any precipitate, it is certain 
that no sugar is present. 
The only practical inconvenience in the use of 
1 Roberts, Urinary and Renal Diseases, Philadelphia, 1872, p. 197. 
I have given the French weights in parenthesis, with the proportions 
the same, although the absolute quantities are different. Through the 
kindness of Dr. Thomas Ryerson, of Newton, N. J., who carefully re- 
vised all of the tables and formulae of the first edition, I was enabled 
to make important corrections, in the second edition, in the reduc- 
tion, by Roberts, of the French to the English weights and measures. 38 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
this test is in the fact that the liquid is liable to 
alteration by keeping, and when it is thus altered 
it will precipitate by simple boiling; but as boiling 
is a necessary preliminary to the test, there can be 
no error when the process is followed out with care. 
If the liquid be imperfect from keeping, all that is 
necessary, in ordinary examinations, is to add a 
little more soda and filter; but in all accurate anal- 
yses, a fresh preparation should be made. To ob- 
viate this inconvenience, however, I have been in 
the habit of keeping three distinct liquids, and 
mixing them for use, as follows : 
Solution of sulphate of copper 91*73 grains in a 
fluidounce of distilled water; solution of neutral 
tartrate of potash, 378*91 grains in an ounce; solu- 
tion of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1*12, or 16£° Baume. 
Measure half a fluidraclim of the solution of 
copper, add half a fluidrackm of the solution of 
tartrate of potash, and add the solution of soda to 
make three fluidrachms. In ordinary tests I mix 
in a test-tube about one part of the copper-solution, 
one part of the potash-solution, and four parts of 
the soda-solution, which answers perfectly well. In 
using this formula for the preparation of a liquid 
for quantitative analyses, it is particularly important 
to be accurate with regard to the quantity of the 
solution of copper and the entire quantity of the TESTS FOR BILE. 
39 
mixture, for it is the decomposition of the copper 
which indicates the amount of sugar. 
The only one of these three liquids that is liable 
to serious decomposition is the solution of neutral 
tartrate of potash, which may become in part 
changed into a carbonate and effervesce when 
mixed with the copper; but this does not affect the 
test in its ordinary applications. 
Presence or Absence of Bile.—The presence of 
the coloring matter of the bile is usually indicated 
by the characteristic tint, more or less strongly 
marked, in the urine. A simple and certain test is 
to spread a thin stratum of the urine upon a porce- 
lain surface, and add to it a drop of nitroso-nitric acid 
(a mixture of nitrous with nitric acid). If biliver- 
dine be present, the drop of acid will be fringed 
with a rapidly-varying play of colors, violet, green, 
and red, which speedily disappear. A drop of 
nitric acid will produce nearly the same appear- 
ance, though the colors are less strongly marked. 
It is stated that the biliary acids sometimes ap- 
pear in the urine, but it does not seem that their 
characteristic reaction is ever very distinct. The 
best mode of detecting these principles is by Petten- 
koffer’s test, which is applied in the following way: 
To the suspected fluid add a few drops of a 
strong solution of cane-sugar. Then add strong 40 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OP THE URINE. 
sulphuric acid, drop by drop, to about one-half or 
two-thirds the volume of the original liquid. If the 
biliary salts be present in large quantity, a red color 
shows itself almost immediately at the bottom of 
the test-tube, and soon extends through the entire 
liquid, rapidly deepening until it becomes of a dark 
lake or purple. These changes are very slow in 
the presence of a small quantity of the biliary salts, 
and may occupy from fifteen to twenty minutes. 
These are the phenomena observed in ordinary clear 
solutions of the biliary salts. In the urine the re- 
action is indefinite and unsatisfactory. CHAPTER II. 
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE UEINE. 
Analysis for albumen—Analysis for sugar—Differential-density 
method of analysis for sugar—Volumetric method for esti- 
mating sugar—Quantitative analysis for urea—Quantitative 
analysis for chlorine, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and 
uric acid. 
It is frequently very important, in the progress 
of a case, to be able to ascertain from time to time 
the amount of urea, urates, or sugar contained in 
the urine ; and these points may he determined 
very easily and rapidly by volumetric processes. 
It is also a very simple problem to determine the 
proportion of chlorine, sulphuric acid, and phos- 
phoric acid ; but, with regard to the last two, 
although a great many observations have been 
made on the urine in health and disease, it has 
not been ascertained that their variations are con- 
nected with any definite pathological conditions. 
I have omitted, in the list of reagents required in 
ordinary examinations, the liquids for quantitative 42 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
analysis for sulpliurie acid, pliosplioric acid, and 
uric acid. Of course, these acids actually exist 
in the urine only in combination with bases, but it 
is usually sufficient to ascertain their proportion, 
without calculating the amount of the salts. 
Quantitative Analysis for Albumen.—To ascer- 
tain the proportion of dry albumen, a small quan- 
tity of acetic acid is added to a weighed quantity 
of urine, and the specimen is boiled in a test-tube. 
The precipitate may then be collected on a filter, 
carefully dried and weighed, and its proportion cal- 
culated. This estimate, however, is seldom required. 
A rough but sufficiently accurate estimate may 
be made by adding acetic acid, boiling, and allow- 
ing the flaky precipitate to settle. Its proportion 
may then be expressed as one-eightli, one-fourtli, 
etc., as the case may be. 
Quantitative Analysis far Sugar.—Roberts 
recommends an exceedingly easy process for quan- 
titative examinations of sugar, so rapid that it may 
be employed from day to day in ordinary cases of 
diabetes. This he calls the “differential density 
method.” 1 Professor Doremus has made repeated 
experiments with this process, and agrees with Dr. 
Roberts with regard to its accuracy. The estimate 
is made as follows : 
1 Roberts, op. cit., Philadelphia, 1872, p. 198. ANALYSIS FOR SUGAR. 
43 
Two specimens of diabetic urine are taken, one 
for comparison and the other for analysis. To 
one is added a small lump of German yeast, in a 
bottle, with a nicked cork, to allow of the escape 
of gas; and tbe other specimen is placed in a sim- 
ilar bottle, tightly corked. The two bottles are then 
set aside in a warm place, as the mantel-piece in win- 
ter or in the sun in summer. In twenty-four hours 
the fermentation will have been completed in the 
specimen to which yeast has been added. If the spe- 
cific gravity of the two be now compared, the fer- 
mented specimen will be found much the lighter, 
from loss of sugar which has been decomposed into 
alcohol and carbonic acid. The difference in the den- 
sity of the two specimens, expressed in degrees of the 
urinometer, will represent the number of grains of 
sugar per fluidounce in the urine. For example, if 
the specific gravity of the fermented specimen be 
1010, and the specific gravity of the unfermented 
specimen, 1040, the urine contains 30 grains of sugar 
per fluidounce. In this process it is essential to 
compare the densities of the two specimens at the 
same temperature. 
The volumetric method is a little more trouble- 
some, though it is also very simple. Fehling’s test- 
liquid is made up by the formula already given (see p. 
37), and 200 grains are measured off in a tube gradu 44 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
ated for that purpose. The diabetic urine is then 
diluted with water, so that the proportion of urine 
shall he one in five or ten. The test-liquid is diluted 
with about twice its volume of water and placed in 
a shallow porcelain dish wTith a handle. A piece of 
caustic potash, about the size of a pea, added to the 
test-liquid, will facilitate the precipitation. A bu- 
rette graduated in grains is now filled with the 
diluted urine to 0. The test is then boiled, and the 
diluted urine is added from the burette in small 
quantities from time to time, producing each time 
a copious red precipitate and gradually discharging 
the blue color of the test-liquid. After each addi- 
tion of urine the mixture should be brought again to 
the boiling-point, and a few seconds allowed for the 
precipitate to fall. When the blue color of the test- 
liquid has entirely disappeared, as can be ascertained 
by tipping the vessel when the precipitate has sub-' 
sided so that the color of the liquid is not obscured, 
and when no farther precipitate is formed by adding 
the urine, the analysis is complete. As the two hun- 
dred grains of the test used exactly correspond to one 
grain of sugar, by reading off the number of grains 
added from the burette, the calculation may be easi- 
ly made. For example, if the urine be diluted so that 
ten parts of the mixture represent one of urine, and 
if one hundred grains of the mixture be used from ANALYSIS FOR UREA. 
45 
tlie burette, ten grains of urine contain one grain 
of sugar. Tliis gives tbe proportion of sugar per 
hundred or thousand. By reference to table C, 
which gives the weight of a fluidounce of urine of 
different specific gravities, the amount of sugar per 
fluidounce, and afterward the total quantity in the 
twenty-four hours, may be calculated, by multiplying 
the weight of a fluidounce by the percentage of sugar, 
and dividing by 100.1 To facilitate these estimates, 
I have calculated table D, which gives the propor- 
tion of sugar in the undiluted urine represented by 
the graduations on the scale, supposing one part of 
urine to be diluted with nine of water. In urine 
diluted with four parts of water, the indications are 
to be doubled. 
Quantitative Analysis for TJrea.—Several ac- 
curate, but at the same time complicated pro- 
cesses have been devised by chemists for determin- 
ing the proportion of urea in the urine ; but it 
becomes so often necessary for the physician to 
be able to measure the daily excretion of urea, 
particularly in organic diseases of the kidneys, 
that it is exceedingly desirable to fix upon some 
1 Inasmuch as the grains of the diluted urine are represented in 
the burette by volume, and not by actual weight, there is neces- 
sarily a slight error in the calculation, depending upon differences in 
the specific gravity of the specimens ; but, in urine so much diluted, 
this error is unimportant and may practically be disregarded. 46 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
method, sufficiently accurate for practical purposes, 
but so rapid and easy that it may be employed con- 
stantly by the busy practitioner. Liebig’s volu- 
metric method is the one most frequently employed 
by chemists, but this is somewhat complicated and 
is liable to some sources of error. Bunsen’s method 
is perhaps more generally applicable to all condi- 
tions of the urine, but it is difficult. By far the 
simplest process is known as Davy’s method, with 
the hypochlorite of soda, or Labarraque’s solution. 
The only question is with regard to its accuracy. 
In describing this process, Dr. Davy states that he 
has repeatedly compared it with Liebig’s method, 
and has found it to correspond so nearly that the 
slight difference could be disregarded. I have ar- 
rived at this conclusion in the same way, using 
the solution of chloride of soda, prepared by 
Messrs. Powers and Weightman, of Philadelphia, 
or the liquor sodce chlorinate, prepared by Dr. 
Squibb, of Brooklyn. I have no hesitation in say- 
ing that, with either of these solutions, the method 
is all that could be desired by the medical prac- 
titioner. In describing this process, I cannot do 
better than to quote the directions given by Thudi- 
chum: 1 
1 TiiuDicnuM, A Treatise on the Pathology of the Urine, London, 
1858, p. 69. ANALYSIS FOR UREA. 
47 
‘‘A strong glass tube, about twelve or fourteen 
inches long, closed at one end, and its open ex- 
tremity ground smooth, and having the bore not 
larger than the thumb conveniently can cover, 
holding from two to three cubic inches, each divided 
into tenths and hundredths by graduation on the 
glass, is filled more than a third full of mercury, to 
which afterward a measured quantity of urine to 
be examined is poured, which may be from a quar- 
ter of a drachm to a drachm or upward, according to 
the capacity of the tube ; then holding the tube in 
one hand near its open extremity, and having the 
thumb in readiness to cover the aperture, the 
operator fills it completely full with a solution of the 
hypochlorite of soda (taking care not to overflow 
the tube), and then instantly covers the opening 
tightly with the thumb, and having rapidly invert- 
ed the tube once or twice, to mix the urine with 
the hypochlorite, he finally opens the tube under a 
saturated solution of common salt in water, con- 
tained in a steady cup or small mortar. The 
mercury then flows out, and the solution of salt 
takes its place, and the mixture of urine and hy- 
pochlorite being lighter than the solution of salt, 
will remain in the upper part of the tube, and will 
therefore be prevented from descending and mixing 
with the fluid in the cup. A rapid disengagement 48 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE UKINE. 
of minute globules of gas soon takes place in the 
mixture in the upper part of the tube, and the gas 
is there retained and collected. The tube is then 
left in the upright position till there is no further 
appearance of minute globules of gas being formed, 
the time being dependent upon the strength of the 
hypochlorite and the quantity of urea present; but 
the decomposition is generally completed in from 
three to four hours ; it may, however, be left much 
longer, even for a day if convenient, and having set 
the experiment going, it requires no further atten- 
tion ; and when the decomposition is completed, it 
is only necessary to read the quantity of gas pro- 
duced off the scale on the tube. In cases where 
great accuracy is required, due attention must be 
paid to the temperature and atmospheric pressure, 
and certain corrections made if these deviate from 
the usual standards of comparison, at the time of 
reading off the volume of the gas; but in most 
cases sufficiently near approximations to accuracy 
may be obtained without reference to those par- 
ticulars.” 
I have lately been in the habit of modifying 
diis process by adding to the solution of the 
solution of soda, just before using it, a drop or two 
of bromine (Knop, Hiifner, and others), which 
makes the disengagement of gas more rapid 
and removes an element of inaccuracy dependent ANALYSIS FOR UREA. 
49 
upon tlie deterioration of tlie test-liquid by keep- 
ing. Using half a fluidrachm of urine, each cubic 
inch of gas represents 0-645 of a grain of urea. 
To obtain the proportion, multiply the fractions 
of a cubic inch graduated on the tube by 0-645, 
and the result will be the amount of urea in half 
a fluidrachm, in grains. Multiply by sixteen to 
obtain the proportion per fluidounce (table E), or 
the entire quantity in the twenty-four hours may 
be calculated, if a specimen of the mixed urine 
of the twenty-four hours have been used. By 
reference to table C, the weight of a fluidounce 
with the specific gravity may be taken, and from 
this may be calculated the 
proportion of urea per 1,000 
parts. 
To farther facilitate the 
estimate of the proportion of 
urea, I have calculated table 
E, which gives the number of 
grains of urea per fluidounce 
represented by the divisions 
of the scale on the tube grad- 
uated in cubic inches. This 
is calculated, supposing that 
half a fluidrachm of urine has 
been used. 
Fig. 3. 
Apparatus for determining 
the proportion of urea in the 
urine. 50 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
Quantitative Analysis for Chlorine, Sulphuric 
Acid, and Phosphoric Acid.—It is not so often im- 
portant to the physician to ascertain the propor- 
tions in the nrine of the principles above enumer- 
ated, as to estimate the amount of urea or sugar; 
but by the volumetric method there is little diffi- 
culty in making quantitative estimates of chlorine, 
sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid. Beyond this, 
however, in the present condition of medical sci- 
ence, there is little important information to be 
obtained from chemical examination of the urine, 
so imperfectly do we understand the physiological 
and pathological relations of the other normal and 
abnormal ingredients of this excretion. 
I am indebted to my colleague, Dr. R. O. Dore- 
mus, Professor of Chemistry in the Bellevue Hos- 
pital Medical College, and his assistant, Dr. A. W. 
Wilkinson, for valuable assistance in preparing the 
formulae of the following test-liquids, for chlorine, 
phosphoric and sulphuric acid, in solutions, gradu- 
ated so that each fluidounce will correspond to two 
grains of the principle to be estimated in the urine. 
Prof. Doremus appreciates fully the great impor- 
tance to the practical physician of simple and easy 
tests; and the want of absolute accuracy which 
some of these methods present is so slight that it may 
practically be disregarded, in view of the constant ANALYSIS FOR CHLORINE. 
51 
and unimportant variations in the urine in health and 
disease. Each one of these solutions represents in 
half a fluidounce one grain of the substance sought 
for, and half a fluidounce will fall a little short of 
filling the burette, graduated to two hundred and 
fifty grains. To make the tests still more delicate, 
without complicating the process, I propose to use 
the burette. Into this is poured a carefully-meas- 
ured half-ounce of the test-liquid, the burette be- 
ing then filled to 0 with distilled water. Every 
division of the burette into two grains will then repre- 
sent of a grain. Always using the same quantity 
of urine (two fluidrachms), I have calculated a table 
in which the proportion per fluidounce for either 
chlorine, sulphuric acid, or phosphoric acid, is 
given opposite the number of the divisions on the 
burette. 
Chlorine.—In a fluid so complex in its composi- 
tion as the urine, it is by no means a simple matter 
to estimate with absolute accuracy the proportion 
of chlorine; still, as far as any information valu- 
able to the practical physician is concerned, the pre- 
cipitation of chlorine from an acidulated solution 
by nitrate of silver is sufficiently exact. 
To prepare the test-liquid, make a solution of 
chemically pure fused nitrate of silver in distilled 
water, so that six fluidounces shall contain 57*47 52 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
grains of the salt. A fluidounce of this solution 
will correspond to two grains of chlorine. 
To estimate the amount of chlorine in a given 
specimen, measure out carefully two fluidrachms of 
urine, and add a few drops of nitric acid, to keep 
the phosphates in solution when the nitrate of silver 
is added. Measure out now half a fluidounce of 
the test-liquid, pour it into the burette, and careful- 
ly fill with distilled water to 0. The urine may 
now be diluted with water, if it be desired to make 
the estimate with great nicety, or the undiluted 
urine may be used. 
The solution is then gradually added to the urine 
from the burette, each addition being followed by a 
white precipitate. Each time, after adding the test- 
liquid, the mixture should be stirred with a glass 
rod, and the precipitate allowed to settle. At the 
moment when the addition of the test-liquid fails 
to produce a precipitate, the analysis is complete. 
This test will occupy from ten to fifteen minutes. 
Each division of the scale on the burette into two 
grains represents of a grain of chlorine. In 
table E, I have calculated the proportion per fluid- 
ounce of urine, supposing the quantity of urine used 
to have been two fluidrachms. 
If the urine be albuminous, two fluidrachms 
should be carefully measured, acidulated with a ANALYSIS FOR SULPHURIC ACID. 
53 
little acetic acid, and boiled. Tlie coagulated albu- 
men may now be separated by filtration, the clear 
filtrate acidulated with nitric acid and then treated 
with the graduated solution of nitrate of silver. 
Sulphuric Acid.—The same remark made con- 
cerning the accuracy of the preceding test for chlo- 
rine is applicable to the process for estimating the 
sulphuric acid of the urine by a graduated solution 
of chloride of barium. For all ordinary purposes, 
however, the test I am about to describe is suffi- 
ciently exact. 
The test-liquid is simply a solution of chemically 
pure chloride of barium, six fluidounces of which 
contain 36-6 grains of the salt. A fluidounce of 
this solution represents exactly two grains of sul- 
phuric acid. 
To apply the test, two fluidrachms of urine are 
measured, as for the other tests, and acidulated with 
a few drops of nitric acid. If the urine be albumi- 
nous, it may be acidulated with acetic acid, boiled, 
filtered, and the filtrate treated with nitric acid. 
Half a fluidounce of the test-liquid is now poured 
into the burette, which is filled with distilled water 
to 0. The solution is then added from the burette 
little by little, stirring the mixture with a glass rod, 
and waiting for the deposit to subside, which takes 
place more rapidly than in the test for chlorine. 54 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
When the addition of a fresh quantity of the solu- 
tion fails to produce a precipitate, the test is com- 
plete. The amount of the solution that has been 
added may then be read off from the burette, every 
division of which into two grains represents of 
a grain of sulphuric acid. 
Supposing the quantity of urine used to have 
been two fluidrachms, the proportion of sulphuric 
acid per fluidounce is given in table F. 
Phosphoric Acid.—The process for determining 
the proportion of phosphoric acid in the urine is not 
open to any serious objection on the score of want 
of accuracy, and, after the proper solutions have 
been prepared, the estimate may be made rapidly 
and presents no difficulty. I copy the following 
theory of this process from the excellent work of 
Neubauer and Yogel:1 
“ A solution of phosphate of soda, which con- 
tains also both acetate of soda and free acetic acid, 
when treated with a dilute solution of percliloride 
(sesquichloride) of iron, yields a voluminous whit- 
isli-yellow precipitate of phosphate of iron, contain- 
ing one equivalent of oxide of iron to one equivalent 
of phosphoric acid. So that, if we add acetate of 
1 Neubauer and Vogel, A Guide to the Qualitative and Quan- 
titative Analysis of the Urine, New Sydenham Society, London, 1863, 
p. 196. ANALYSIS FOR PHOSPHORIC ACID. 
55 
soda to a solution containing an unknown quantity 
of phosphoric acid, and then add a standard solution 
of perchloride of iron until the whole of the phos- 
phoric acid is thrown down, and a trace of the iron 
appears in the mixture, we can reckon the quantity 
of phosphoric acid, by taking the amount of iron- 
solution employed.” 
This process requires three solutions, viz.; a 
graduated solution of sesquichloride of iron, a solu- 
tion of acetate of soda containing free acetic acid, 
and a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, the last 
being used to detect the first trace of an excess of 
iron. These solutions are prepared as follows: 
For the solution of sesquichloride of iron, take 
grains of pure iron (piano-forte wire has been 
recommended, but iron by hydrogen is better) and 
dissolve in pure hydrochloric acid, adding a little 
nitric acid. Evaporate this carefully to dryness in 
a water-bath, in order to drive off the excess of hy- 
drochloric acid, and dissolve the residue in six fluid- 
ounces of distilled water. One fluidounce of this 
solution will correspond to two grains of phosphoric 
acid. 
For the second solution, dissolve 400 grains of 
acetate of soda in six fluidounces of water, and add 
800 grains of ordinary acetic acid. Half of a flub 
drachm of this solution is to be added to two flui- 56 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
drachms of urine, before adding the solution of per- 
chloride of iron. 
The third solution is simply ferrocyanide of 
potassium in water, and the strength is not im- 
portant. I have prepared it in the proportion of 
twelve grains to six fluidounces. 
To estimate the entire amount of phosphoric acid 
in a given specimen, measure off two fluidrachms 
of urine, and add half a fluidrachm of the solution of 
acetate of soda and acetic acid. Pour half a fluid- 
ounce of the solution of sesquichloride of iron into 
the burette, and dilute with distilled water to 0. The 
iron-solution is now to be gradually added to the mix- 
ture of urine, this producing a yellowish precipitate. 
During this process, the mixture is stirred with a 
glass rod, and a drop is taken from time to time, 
put upon a bit of filtering-paper, which is pressed 
with the fingers over a second piece of filtering- 
paper moistened with the solution of ferrocyanide 
of potassium. The faintest blue color appearing on 
the paper moistened with the solution of ferrocy- 
anide of potassium is an indication that an excess 
of iron is present in the mixture, and the analysis 
is then complete. The amount of iron-solution 
added may then be read off from the burette, and 
each division into two grains represents of a 
grain of phosphoric acid. The proportion of phos- ANALYSIS FOR URIC ACID. 
57 
plioric acid per fluidounce may then be taken from 
table F. 
To estimate the relative proportions of phos- 
phoric acid combined with alkalies and that com- 
bined with earths, the following simple method may 
be employed: 
Measure off two fluidrachms of urine, as before, 
and add a few drops of ammonia. This will pre- 
cipitate the earthy phosphates, which after a few 
hours will deposit and may be separated by filtra- 
tion. The filtrate is collected, and the residue on 
the filter is washed with water, containing a little 
ammonia, which is also collected. The liquid, con- 
taining in solution the phosphoric acid combined 
with alkalies, is now carefully neutralized with acetic 
acid and treated with the acetate-of-soda solution 
and the iron-solution in the manner just described. 
By this means the amount of phosphoric acid com- 
bined with alkalies is estimated, and this, subtracted 
from the entire amount of phosphoric acid in the 
urine, will give the proportion of phosphoric acid 
combined with earths. 
Quantitative Analysis for Tlrie Acid.—After 
a thorough trial of the only volumetric method for 
the determination of the uric acid in the urine that 
has been recommended as at all accurate, it became 
evident that its process was so uncertain as to be en- 58 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
tirely unavailable in clinical examinations. I was 
compelled, therefore, to have recourse to the more 
tedious process of estimating the acid by weight. 
The process which I finally adopted is easy enough, 
but requires care and the use of a balance. Its 
theory is briefly as follows : 
Absolute alcohol, added to urine evaporated to 
a syrup, will dissolve urea, creatine, creatinine, and 
coloring matter, leaving the urates and the inorganic 
salts. By washing the residue of an alcoholic ex- 
tract with dilute hydrochloric acid, the inorganic 
salts are removed, leaving the uric acid set free 
from its combinations, which may be collected and 
weighed. The following are the manipulations to 
be employed in this analysis : 
Take one fluidounce of urine, filtered, so as to 
remove any mucus that it may contain. The urine 
is then evaporated over a water-bath, to the con- 
sistence of a thick syrup, in a porcelain evaporat- 
ing-dish. To hasten the evaporation, the liquid is 
spread over the sides of the dish with a glass rod 
from time to time, as the evaporation is approach- 
ing completion. When it is so thick as to adhere 
to the vessel, add about half a fluidounce of ab- 
solute alcohol, mixing the urine with the alcohol 
thoroughly, and pouring it upon a filter which has 
been previously weighed dry, and then moistened ANALYSIS FOR URIC ACID. 
59 
with alcohol. Extract in this way with alcohol two 
or three times, or until the alcohol no longer takes 
up any coloring matter. 
After pouring off the alcohol upon the filter, 
the residue left in the evaporating-dish should he 
extracted in the same way with a mixture of one 
part of hydrochloric acid to six of water, and the 
whole poured on the filter used to separate the al- 
coholic extract. In this part of the process, about 
a fluidounce of the acid solution should he used. 
The residue on the filter should then be washed 
with a wash-bottle, two or three times with the 
acid, and afterward with distilled water. 
After the liquid has separated, the filter is dried 
in a water-oven and carefully weighed. The in- 
crease in weight (the filter having been previously 
weighed), represents the amount of uric acid per 
fluidounce of urine. 
The process of evaporating will be much hastened 
by stirring the urine. A glass rod with a small 
piece of rubber-tubing attached to the end is very 
convenient for cleaning the residue from the evapo- 
rating-dish, but the rubber should be carefully 
washed, so that no particles can be lost. The lip 
of the evaporating dish may be smeared at its 
lower edge with a little grease, to prevent any loss 
of fluid in pouring. 60 
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
If there be any crystals of uric acid in the spe- 
cimen, these may be collected on the filter before 
evaporating. 
For the minute details of this process, I am in- 
debted to my assistant, Mr. J. W. S. Arnold. Em- 
ployed in this way, it presents every element of 
accuracy that could be desired. Using an ounce 
of urine, the analysis will occupy little more than 
an hour. 
The only tedious detail in this manipulation is 
the weighing of the filters. The Swedish filtering 
paper is the best, and the filter should be moistened 
with alcohol, and carefully dried in the water-oven 
until it has ceased to lose weight, before it is used 
to separate the extracts. In drying the filter, both 
before and after collecting the uric acid, it should 
be weighed repeatedly, and the weighing continued 
until the weight becomes stationary, as this is the 
only way to determine that the moisture has been 
entirely removed. APPENDIX. 
URINARY CALCULI AND GRAVEL—CARE OF APPARATUS. 
The examination of urinary concretions is so 
very simple and requires so little apparatus, that I 
am led to describe briefly, in this connection, the 
methods that will answer all practical purposes in 
the great majority of instances. 
The varieties of calculi usually described are 
the following: uric acid, urates, oxalate of lime, 
secondary or fusible phosphates, cystine, xanthine, 
urostealith, basic phosphate of lime, and carbonate 
of lime. There are only three varieties, however, 
the uric acid, oxalate of lime, and phosphatic (fu- 
sible), that are at all common; and the others are 
so rare that they may almost be disregarded. The 
tests for the common varieties do not present the 
slightest difficulty. 
TJric-acid Calculi and Gravel.—This variety 
constitutes by far the largest proportion of the 
urinary concretions. The calculi are very variable 62 
URINARY CALCULI. 
in size. They usually have a tuberculated surface, 
and are of a yellowish or reddish color, presenting, 
in short, all the great variety of shades observed in 
deposits of the amorphous urates. Uric-acid gravel 
is also common. The character of these concre- 
tions may be readily recognized by the following 
test: 
A small portion of the calculus or gravel is 
placed upon a glass slide or a porcelain surface and 
is covered with a few drops of nitric acid. Under 
the gentle heat of a spirit-lamp or a gas-flame, it 
readily dissolves with effervescence and is reduced 
to a dry residue. After the residue has become 
cold, a drop of ammonia added will produce a 
bright-violet color. This is called the murexid test, 
and it is certain and unmistakable. By this test 
laminae of uric acid may often be detected in calculi 
composed of layers of different substances. 
Oxalate-of-lime Calculi and Gravel.—Calculi 
of oxalate of lime are quite common, but the grav- 
el is somewhat rare. This is sometimes called the 
mulberry calculus. The surface is usually tubercu- 
lated, though it may be smooth. The color is dark 
brown or grayish. The calculus is soluble in 
hydrochloric and in nitric acid. The following is 
the most convenient test for this variety of concre- 
tion : URINARY CALCULI. 
63 
A small portion is heated under a blow-pipe 
upon a bit of charcoal, or in a small platinum 
spoon, and it finally burns down to a white ash of 
caustic lime, the oxalic acid being destroyed. If a 
portion of this ash be placed upon moist, red- 
dened litmus-paper, it instantly strikes an intense 
blue. This behavior is entirely characteristic of 
oxalate of lime. 
Calculi of the Mixed Phosphates (fusible Cal- 
culi).—The mixed phosphates, composed of the 
phosphate of lime and the ammonio-magnesian 
phosphate, frequently encrust calculi formed either 
of uric acid or the oxalate of lime. They some- 
times form entire calculi of great size. They 
are friable, often present brilliant crystals of the 
triple phosphate on their surface, and are very 
soluble in acids, but insoluble in alkalies. When 
strongly heated under the blow-pipe, they fuse into 
a hard enamel. Small quantities of the mixed 
phosphates very often enter into the composition 
of calculi composed chiefly of other substances. 
With these few directions, the character of any 
of the ordinary calculi may be readily ascertained, 
as well as the nature of the nucleus or of the dif- 
ferent layers. 64 
CARE OF APPARATUS. 
Care of Apparatus. 
A physician in full practice has frequent occasion 
to use his apparatus for urinary examinations, and 
it is essential that it should be always clean and in 
order. ISTone of the bottles should be allowed to 
remain empty, for it is impossible to say when the 
reagents may be most urgently required. "When 
the test-tubes or other glass or porcelain ware have 
been used, they should be cleaned without delay. 
To facilitate this, I have provided in the set of 
apparatus, brushes, swabs, etc., by which these 
articles can be quickly and efficiently cleaned. 
Yery often the glass becomes stained and clouded 
by matters that are not readily removed by simple 
water, and this occurs particularly in the urea- 
tube. A few drops of sulphuric acid will usually 
remove any thing of this kind. After using the 
apparatus for estimating urea, it may be difficult 
to clean and separate the mercury, but this can be 
easily done in the following simple way: Pour off 
the fluid from the mercury, wash it a little with 
pure water, and then pour it, with the water which 
cannot easily be separated in the original vessel, 
into a small funnel closed at the bottom with the 
finger. The mercury, of course, will occupy the 
bottom of the funnel, and the water will float upon CARE OF APPARATUS. 
65 
the top. By partially removing the finger, the 
mercury may be allowed to escape into a clean 
vessel, and the funnel is closed again so as to 
separate the water. The clean mercury is then 
poured back into its bottle. 
Fig. 4. 
c. c C. 
Sink for cleansing apparatus, 
I have had constructed a very convenient little 
sink about 18 by 24 inches, for cleansing apparatus, 
of which I give a figure. One half of the top is a 
simple sink lined with lead, and the other is a 
grooved board for draining glasses, with a few 
wooden pins at the end for test-tubes, etc. 66 
TABLES. 
TABLES. 
Although the calculations required for deter- 
mining the proportions of the most important of 
the urinary constituents by the volumetric method 
are quite simple, they can be rendered so easy by 
proper tables, that quantitative analysis seems to be 
shorn of every difficulty. In preparing and select- 
ing the following tables I have taken those which I 
have had occasion to use in urinary examinations, 
and have calculated others, so as to reduce every 
estimate that is to be made to a tabular form. 
Table A gives the normal constitution and 
variations of the human urine. This is taken from 
my “ Text-Book of Human Physiology.” I have 
added to it an estimate of the normal propor- 
tions and variations of urea, chlorine, sulphuric 
acid, phosphoric acid, and uric acid, per fluidounce, 
for the reason that the processes recommended for 
the quantitative determination of these principles 
give the proportions per fluidounce of urine. 
Table B gives the corrections to be made for 
temperature in taking the specific gravity of the 
urine with a glass urinometer. This is taken from 
the excellent work on the urine by Golding Bird. 
Table C gives the number of grains of solids, and 
the weight of a fluidounce of urine of different TABLES. 
67 
densities, from 1001 to 1012. This table, taken in 
part from Golding Bird, and adapted to the wine- 
measure, is useful in reducing the proportions of 
principles per fluidounce to the percentage, and 
vice versa. 
Table D I have calculated to show the percent- 
age of sugar indicated by the degrees graduated 
upon the burette used in volumetric analysis. 
Table E I have calculated to show the number 
of grains of urea per iluidounce of urine indicated 
by the degrees on the tube used in the volumetric 
analysis for this principle. 
Table F is a general table which I have cal- 
culated to show the number of grains per fluid- 
ounce of urine, of chlorine, sulphuric acid, or phos- 
phoric acid, indicated by the degrees graduated 
on the burette used in volumetric analysis. Each 
one of the liquids used in estimating the principles 
above enumerated represents one grain of the sub- 
stance sought for, in half a fluidounce of the test. 
This uniformity in the graduation of the test-liquids 
allows the same table to be used for all the esti- 
mates. 68 
TABLES. 
A. 
Properties and Composition of the Normal Urine. 
Total quantity in 24 hours, 27 to 50 fluidounces. Or- 
dinary range of specific gravity, from 1015 to 1025. Extreme 
range of specific gravity, 1005 to 1030. Reaction acid. 
Water 
967-47 to 
940-36 
Urea (in 24 hours, 355 to 463 grains—Eobin) 
15 00 “ 
23-00 
Urate of soda, neutral and acid 
(In 24 hrs., 6 to 
Urate of ammonia, neutral and acid (in 
9 grs. of uric acid 
small quantity) 
Urate of potassa (traces) 
Urate of lime (traces) 
—Becquerel—or 9 
' to 14 grs.ofurates, 
estimated as neut. 
1-00 “ 
1-00 
Urate of magnesia (traces) j 
Hippurate of soda.... 1 (In 24 hrs., abo 
Hippurate of potassa. v puric acid—Thuc 
Hippurate of lime.... \ about 8-7 grs. of h 
Lactate of soda..... ) 
urate of soda.) 
ut 7'5 grs. of hip- 
ichum—equiv. to 
ppurate of soda.) 
1-00 “ 
1-40 
Lactate of potassa. v 
Lactate of lime j 
(Daily quantity not estimated) 
1-50 “ 
2-60 
Creatine 
Creatinine of both—Thudichum) 
Oxalate of lime (daily quantity not estimated! 
Xanthine 
1-60 “ 3-00 
traces “ 1-10 
Margarine, oleine, and other fatty matters 
0T0 to 
0-20 
Chloride of sodium (in 24 hours, about 154 grains—Eobin).... 
Chloride of potassium 
3-00 “ 8-00 
traces. 
1*50 to 
2-20 
Sulphate of soda 1 
Sulphate of potassa. 
Sulphate of lime 
(traces) 
(In 24 hrs., 23 to 88 grs. of sulphu- 
ric acid—Thudichum. About equal 
parts of sulphate of soda and sulphate 
of potassa—Eobin—equiy. to from 
22-5 to 37'5 grs. of each.) 
3-00 “ 
7-00 
Phosphate of soda, neutral.. 1 (Daily quantity not esti- 
Phosphate of soda, acid ( mated) 
2-50 “ 
4-30 
Phosphate of magnesia (in 24 hrs., 7'7 to 11 '8 grs.—Neubauer). 
Phosphate of lime, acid... 1 (In 24 hrs., 4'7 to 5-7 grs.— 
0-50 “ 
1-00 
Phosphate of lime, basic., f Neubauer)... 
0-20 « 
1-30 
Ammonio-magnesian phosphate (daily quantity not estim.).... 1-50 “ 
( Daily excretion of phosphoric acid, about 56 grs.—Thudichum.) 
Silicic acid 0 03 “ 
2-40 
0-04 
Urrosacine 
- l 
010 “ 
0-50 
Mucus from the bladder, 1 
1,00000 1,000 00 
Table of Composition. TABLES. 
69 
Proportion per Fluidounce of certain of the Urinary 
Constituents. 
The estimates given in this part of the table are roughly 
approximative, and represent the widest variations consistent 
with normal conditions. The variations, always considerable, 
are particularly marked as regards the uric acid, the extremes 
of which are greater in this than in the table of composition 
given above: 
Urea 6-50 to 10-50 grains. 
Chlorine (l-30 to 3-60 grs. of chloride of sodium.) 0-80 “ 2-15 “ 
Sulphuric acid (U30 to 3‘20 grains of sulphates).. CP66 “ 1‘62 “ 
Phosphoric acid (2-10 to 4'00 grs. of phosphates).. 1*17 “ 2’25 “ 
do. Combined with alkalies (phosphate 
of soda and phosphate of mag- 
nesia) 0'78 “ l-40 “ 
do. Combined with earths (phosphate 
of lime and ammonio-mag- 
nesian phosphate) 0-39 “ 0-85 “ 
Uric acid (0’40 to 0*70 grains of urates) 0-23 “ 0-40 “ 
B. 
Table foe seducing- the Indications of a Glass Ueinom- 
ETER TO THE STANDAED TeMPEEATUEE (60° Bahl'.), WHEN 
the Specific Gbavity has been taken at a Higher 
Temperature. (Bied, Urinary Deposits, etc., Philadel- 
phia, 1859, p. 70.) 
Temperature. 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
Temperature. 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
Temperature. 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
60° 
o-oo 
69° 
0-80 
78° 
1-70 
61° 
0-08 
70° 
0-90 
79° 
1-80 
62° 
0-16 
71° 
1-00 
80° 
1-90 
63° 
0-24 
72° 
1-10 
81° 
2-00 
64° 
0-32 
73° 
1-20 
82° 
2-10 
65° 
0-40 
74° 
1-30 
83° 
2-20 
66° 
0-50 
75° 
1-40 
84° 
2-30 
67° 
0-60 
76° 
1-50 
85° 
2-40 
68° 
0-70 
77° 
1-60 70 
TABLES. 
c. 
Table showing the Number of Grains of Solids in, and 
THE WEIGHT OF, A FLUIDOUNCE OF URINE, OF EVERY DEN- 
SITY, FROM 1001 TO 1042. 
This table is chiefly useful in reducing the quantities of 
various of the urinary constituents from the proportions per 
fluidounce to the proportions per hundred or thousand. For 
example, if calculations have been made from tables E or F, 
of the proportion per fluidounce, of urea, chlorine, sulphuric 
acid, or phosphoric acid, these may be reduced to the per- 
centage by multiplying the amount per fluidounce by 100 
and dividing by the weight of a fluidounce of the urine. To 
reduce the percentage of sugar calculated from table D to 
the proportion per fluidounce, multiply the percentage by 
the weight of a fluidounce of the urine and divide by 100. 
The column giving the amount of solids per fluidounce in 
proportion to the specific gravity is not very useful, as it gives 
no idea of the proportions of the different solid constituents. 
Specific 
Gravity. 
Weight of one 
Fluidounce. 
Solids in one 
Fluidounce. 
Specific 
Gravity. 
Weight of one 
Fluidounce. 
Solids in one 
Fluidounce. 
1001 
456-15 
1-063 
1022 
465-72 
23-873 
1002 
456-60 
2-128 
1023 
466-17 
24-982 
1003 
457-06 
3-195 
1024 
466-63 
26-094 
1004 
457-51 
4-264 
1025 
467-08 
27-207 
1005 
457-96 
5-335 
1026 
4C7-54 
28-324 
1006 
458-42 
6-409 
1027 
467-99 
29-441 
1007 
458-88 
7-484 
1028 
468-45 
30-562 
1008 
459-34 
8-562 
1029 
468-91 
31-684 
1009 
459-79 
9-642 
1030 
469-36 
32-808 
1010 
460-25 
10-724 
1031 
469-82 
33-935 
1011 
460-70 
11-808 
1032 
470-27 
35-063 
1012 
461-16 
12-894 
1033 
470-73 
36-194 
1013 
461-61 
13-982 
1034 
471-18 
37-327 
1014 
462-07 
15-073 
1035 
471-64 
38-462 
1015 
462-53 
16-165 
1036 
472-09 
39-599 
1016 
462-98 
17-260 
1037 
472-55 
40-739 
1017 
463-44 
18-357 
1038 
473-00 
41-879 
1018 
463-89 
19-456 
1039 
473-46 
43-023 
1019 
464-35 
20-557 
1040 
473-92 
44-169 
1020 
464-80 
21-660 
1041 
474-37 
45-317 
1021 
465-26 
22-765 
1042 
474-83 
46-467 TABLES. 
71 
D. 
Table showing the Percentage of Sugar in Undiluted 
Diabetic Urine, represented by the Degrees of the 
Scale on the Burette graduated in Grains. 
The urine is supposed to be diluted, so that ten parts of 
-the liquid used represent one of urine; and the quantity 
of Fehling’s test-liquid used is two hundred grains, which is 
decolorized by exactly one grain of sugar. To ascertain the 
proportion of sugar per fluidounce, multiply the weight of 
a fluidounce of urine (see Table C) by the percentage of 
sugar, and divide by 100. 
Degrees of 
the Burette. 
Percentage of 
Sugar. 
Decrees of 
the Burette. 
Percentage of 
Sugar. 
Decrees of 
the Burette. 
Percentage of 
Sugar. 
50 
20-00 
118 
8-47 
186 
5-37 
52 
19-23 
120 
8-33 
188 
5-32 
54 
18-52 
122 
8-19 
190 
5-26 
56 
17-85 
124 
8-06 
192 
5-21 
58 
17-24 
126 
7-93 
194 
5-15 
60 
16-66 
128 
7-81 
196 
5-10 
62 
16-13 
130 
7-69 
198 
5-05 
64 
15-62 
132 
7-57 
200 
5-00 
66 
15-15 
134 
7-46 
202 
4-95 
68 
14-70 
136 
7-35 
204 
4-90 
70 
14-28 
138 
7-24 
206 
4-85 
72 
13-80 
140 
7-14 
208 
4-80 
74 
13-51 
142 
7-04 
210 
4-76 
76 
13-15 
144 
6-94 
212 
4-72 
78 
12-82 
146 
6-85 
214 
4-67 
80 
12-50 
148 
6-76 
216 
4-63 
82 
12-19 
150 
6-67 
218 
4-59 
84 
11-90 
152 
6-58 
220 
4-55 
86 
11-62 
154 
6-49 
222 
4-50 
88 
11-36 
156 
6-41 
224 
4-46 
90 
11-11 
158 
6-33 
226 
4-42 
92 
10-87 
160 
6-25 
228 
4-39 
94 
10-63 
162 
6-17 
230 
4-35 
96 
10-41 
164 
6-10 
232 
4-31 
98 
10-20 
166 
6-03 
234 
4-27 
100 
10-00 
168 
5-95 
236 
4-23 
102 
9-80 
170 
5-88 
238 
4-20 
104 
9-69 
172 
5-81 
240 
4-17 
106 
9-43 
174 
5-75 
242 
4-13 
108 
9-26 
176 
5-68 
244 
4-10 
110 
9-09 
178 
5-62 
246 
4-06 
112 
8-93 
180 
5-55 
248 
4-03 
114 
8-77 
182 
5-49 
250 
4-00 
116 
8-62 
184 
5-43 72 
TABLES. 
E. 
Table showing the Quantity of Ueea pee Fluidounce of 
Heine, in Geains, eepeesented by the Divisions oe the 
Scale upon the Tube geaduated in Cubic Inches. 
The tube is filled a little more than one-third full of mercury, 
upon which is poured half a fluidrachm of urine, and the tube is 
then filled with solution of hypochlorite of soda, and inverted in a 
saturated solution of salt in water. To ascertain the percentage of 
urea, multiply the grains of urea in an ounce by 100, and divide by 
the weight of a fluidounce of the specimen, taken from Table C. 
The correction for temperature may be made by adding one per 
cent, of the volume of gas for every five degrees below 60°, and 
subtracting the same for every five degrees above 60°. 
Divisions of a 
Cubic Inch. 
Grains of Urea 
per Fluidounce. 
Divisions of a 
Cubic Inch. 
Grains of Urea 
per Fluidounce. 
Divisions of a 
Cubic Inch. 
Grains c/ Urea 
per Fluidounce. 
o-io 
1-032 
0-74 
7-637 
1-38 
14-241 
0-12 
1-238 
0-76 
7-843 
1-40 
14-448 
0-14 
1-444 
0-78 
8-049 
1-42 
14-654 
0-16 
1-651 
0-80 
8-256 
1-44 
14-860 
0-18 
1-857 
0-82 
8-462 
1-46 
15-067 
0-20 
2-064 
0-84 
8-669 
1-48 
15-273 
0-22 
2-270 
0-86 
8-875 
1-50 
15-480 
0-24 
2-476 
0-88 
9-081 
1-52 
15-686 
0-26 
2-683 
0-90 
9-288 
1-54 
15-893 
0-28 
2-889 
0-92 
9-494 
1-56 
16-099 
0-30 
3-096 
0-94 
9-701 
1-58 
16-305 
0-32 
3-302 
0-96 
9-907 
1-60 
16-512 
0-34 
3-508 
0-98 
10-113 
1-62 
16-718 
0-36 
3-715 
1-00 
10-320 
1-64 
16-925 
0-38 
3-921 
1-02 
10-526 
1-66 
17-131 
0-40 
4-128 
1-04 
10-733 
1-68 
17-337 
0-42 
4-334 
1-06 
10-939 
1-70 
17-544 
0-44 
4 "540 
1-08 
11-145 
1-72 
17-750 
0-46 
4-747 
1-10 
11-352 
1-74 
17-957 
0-48 
4-953 
1-12 
11-558 
1-76 
18-163 
0-50 
5-160 
1-14 
11-764 
1-78 
18-369 
0-52 
5-336 
1-16 
11-971 
1-80 
18-576 
0-54 
5-573 
1-18 
12-177 
1-82 
18-782 
0-56 
5-779 
1-20 
12-384 
1-84 
18-989 
0-58 
5-985 
1-22 
12-590 
1 86 
19-195 
0-60 
6-192 
1-24 
12-796 
1-88 
19-401 
0'62 
6-393 
1-26 
13-003 
1-90 
19-608 
0-64 
6-605 
1-28 
13-209 
1-92 
19-814 
0-66 
6-811 
1-30 
13-416 
1-94 
20-021 
0-68 
■ 7-017 
1-32 
13-622 
1-96 
20-227 
0-70 
7-224 
1-34 
13-828 
1-98 
20-433 
0-72 
7-430 
1*36 
14-035 
2.00 
20-640 TABLES. 
73 
F. 
Table showing the Quantity either of Chlorine, Sul- 
phuric Acid, or Phosphoric Acid, per Fluidounce 
of Urine, in Grains, represented by the Degrees 
of the Scale on the Burette graduated in Grains. 
This table will answer for any of the above-mentioned 
principles by using one or another of the test-liquids. It is 
calculated on the supposition that the quantity of urine used 
is two fluidrachms. To ascertain the percentage, multiply 
the number of grains per fluidounce by 100, and divide by the 
weight of a fluidounce of the specimen, taken from table C. 
Decrees of 
the Burette. 
Grains per 
Fluidounce. 
Degrees of 
the Burette. 
Grains per 
Fluidounce. 
Degrees of 
the Burette. 
Grains per 
Fluidounce. 
2 
0'032 
86 
1-376 
170 
2-720 
4 
0-064 
88 
1-408 
172 
2-752 
6 
0-006 
90 
1-440 
174 
2-784 
8 
0-128 
92 
1-472 
176 
2-816 
10 
0-160 
94 
1-504 
173 
2-848 
12 
0-192 
96 
1-536 
180 
2-880 
14 
0-224 
98 
1"568 
182 
2-912 
16 
0-266 
100 
1-600 
184 
2-944 
18 
0-288 
102 
1-632 
1S6 
2-976 
20 
0-320 
104 
1-664 
188 
3-008 
22 
0-352 
106 
1-696 
190 
3-040 
2-1 
0-384 
103 
1-728 
192 
3-072 
2G 
0-416 
110 
1-760 
194 
3-104 
28 
0-448 
112 
1-792 
196 
3-136 
30 
0-480 
114 
1-824 
198 
3-168 
32 
0-512 
116 
1-856 
200 
3-200 
31 
0-544 
118 
1-888 
202 
3-232 
36 
0-576 
120 
1-920 
204 
3-264 
38 
0-608 
122 
1-952 
206 
3"298 
40 
0-640 
124 
1-934 
203 
3-328 
42 
0-672 
126 
2-016 
210 
3-360 
44 
C 704 
123 
2043 
212 
3-392 
46 
0-738 
130 
2 030 
214 
3-424 
43 
0-763 
132 
2-112 
216 
3-456 
60 
0-800 
134 
2-144 
218 
3-488 
62 
0-832 
138 
2-176 
220 
3-520 
54 
0-864 
138 
2-203 
222 
3-552 
56 
0-898 
110 
2-240 
224 
3-584 
63 
0-928 
142 
2-272 
226 
3-616 
60 
0-980 
144 
2-304 
228 
3-643 
62 
0-992 
146 
2-336 
230 
3-680 
64 
1024 
143 
2-368 
232 
3712 
66 
1-036 
150 
2-400 
234 
3-744 
68 
1038 
152 
2-432 
236 
3-776 
70 
1-120 
154 
2-464 
233 
3-808 
72 
1-152 
156 
2-495 
240 
3-840 
74 
1-184 
153 
2-528 
242 
3-872 
76 
1-216 
160 
2-560 
244 
3-904 
78 
1-248 
162 
2-592 
246 
3-936 
80 
1-280 
164 
2 624 
218 
3963 
82 
1-312 
168 
2-656 
250 
4-000 
81 
1-344 
168 
2-638 74 
TABLES 
Form foe recording Urinary Examinations (to be printed 
ON A FULL LETTER-SHEET). 
EXAMINATION OF URINE. 
For at the request of 
Dr. 
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERS. 
Total quantity in twenty-four hours, 
Color, 
Odor, 
Reaction, 
Specific Gravity, 
Albumen, 
Sugar, 
Quantity and General Appearance of the Deposit, 
MICROSCOPICAL APPEARANCES. 
Crystals, 
Anatomical Elements, 
Casts, 
Other Morphological Elements, TABLES 
75 
QUANTITATIVE EXAMINATION. 
Urea, proportion of,J per fluidounce, 
do. percentage of 
do. total quantity of in twenty-four hours, 
Chlorine, proportion of per fluidounce, 
do. percentage of 
do. total quantity of in twenty four hours, 
Sulphuric Acid, proportion of, per fluidounce, 
do. percentage of 
do. total quantity of, in twenty-four hours, 
Phosphoric Acid, proportion of, per fluidounce, 
do. percentage of, 
do. total quantity of, in twenty-four 
hours, 
do. proportion of, combined with alkalies, 
do. proportion of combined with earths, 
Uric Acid, proportion of, per fluidounce, 
do. percentage of, 
do. total quantity of, in twenty-four hours, 76 
TABLES. 
REMARKF. TABLES FOR CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 
Compiled and calculated by AUSTIN FLINT, Jr., M. D. 
A. 
Properties and Composition of the Normal Urine. 
Total quantity in 24 hours, 27 to 50 fluidounces. Or- 
dinary range of specific gravity, from 1015 to 1025. Extreme 
range of specific gravity, 1005 to 1030. Reaction acid. 
Proportion per Fluidounce of certain of the Urinary 
Constituents. 
The estimates given in this part of the table are roughly 
approximative, and represent the widest variations consistent 
with normal conditions. The variations, always considerable, 
are particularly marked as regards the uric acid, the extremes 
of which are greater in this than in the table of composition 
given above: 
Urea 6‘50 to 10-50 grains. 
Chlorine (1*30 to 3-60 grs. of chloride of sodium.) 0’80 “ 2'15 •“ 
Sulphuric acid (1-30 to 3'20 grains of sulphates).. 0'66 “ 1-62 “ 
Phosphoric acid (2-10 to 4-00 grs. of phosphates).. 1-17 “ 2-25 “ 
do. Combined with alkalies (phosphate 
of soda and phosphate of mag- 
nesia) 0'78 “ 1-40 “ 
do. Combined with earths (phosphate 
of lime and ammonio-mag- 
nesian phosphate) 0-39 “ (P85 “ 
Oric acid (0’40 to 0'70 grains of urates) 0-23 “ 0'40 *' 
c. 
Table showing the Number of Grains of Solids in, and 
the weight of, a Fluidounce of Urine, of every Den- 
sity, from 1001 to 1042. 
Ihis table is chiefly useful in reducing the quantities of 
various of the urinary constituents from the proportions per 
fluidounce to the proportions per hundred or thousand. For 
example, if calculations have been made from tables E or F, 
of the oroportion per fluidounce, of urea, chlorine, sulphuric 
acid, or phosphoric acid, these may be reduced to the per- 
centage by multiplying the amount per fluidounce by 100 
and dividing by the weight of a fluidounce of the urine. To 
reduce the percentage of sugar calculated from table D to 
the proportion per fluidounce, multiply the percentage by 
the weight of a fluidounce of the urine and divide by 100. 
The column giving the amount of solids per fluidounce in 
proportion to the specific gravity is not very useful, as it gives 
no idea of the proportions of the different solid constituents. 
Table of Composition. » 
Water 
Urea (in 34 hours, 355 to 463 grains—Eobin) 
967-47 
15-00 
to 940-36 
“ 23-00 
Urate of soda, neutral and acid ' 
j (In 24 hrs., 6 to 
Urate of ammonia, neutral and acid (in 
9 grs. of uric acid 
small quantity) 
—Becquerel—or 9 
Urate of potassa (traces) 
' to 14 gvs.ofurates, 
POO 
“ 1-60 
Urate of lime (traces) 
estimated as neut. 
Urate of magnesia (traces) 1 
urate of soda.) 
Hippurato of soda j (In 24 hrs., about 75 grs. of hip- 
Hippurate of potassa. Lpuric acid—Tbudichum—equiv. to 
1-00 
“ 1-40 
Hippurate of lime \ about 8-7 grs. of hippurate of soda.) 
Lactate of soda.... ) 
Lactate of potassa. L (Daily quantity not estimated).. 
1-50 
“ 2-60 
Lactate of lime.... \ 
Creatine ) (In 24 hours, about 11*5 grains 
Creatinine [of both Thudichum) 
1-60 
“ 8-00 
Oxalate of lime (daily quantity not estimated) 
traces 
“ 1-10 
Xanthine ,.. 
Margarine, oleine, and other fatty matters 
0-10 to 0-20 
Chloride of sodium (in 24 hours, about 154 grains—Eobin)... 
8-00 
“ 8-00 
Chloride of potassium 
traces. 
Hydrochlorate of ammonia.. 
1-50 to 2-20 
Sulphate of soda 1 (In 24 hrs-’ 23 t0 38 "rs- of sulphu- 
Sulphate of potassa rio »«d-Thudichum. About equal 
Sulphate c,f lim« f parts of suiPhato of soda and sulphate 
3-00 
“ 7-00 
(traces). 1 of Potassa—Eobin- 
-equiv. to from 
J 22-5 to 37'5 grs. of each.) 
Phosphate of soda, neutral.. ) (Daily quantity not esti- 
Phosphate of soda, acid f mated) .. . 
2-50 
“ 4-30 
Phosphate of magnesia (in 24 hrs., 7-7 to 11-8 grs.—Neubauer). 
0-50 
“ 1-00 
Phosphate of lime, acid... ) (In 24 hrs., 
4'7 to 5-7 grs.— 
Phosphate of lime, basic., f Neubaner) 
0-20 
“ 1-30 
Amnionio-magnesian phosphate (daily quantity not estim.)... 
1-50 
“ 2-40 
(Daily excretion of phosphoric acid, about 56 grs.—Thudichum.) 
9ili<>icacid n.no 
Ufrosacine , ) 
•llueus from the bladder, f 
o-io 
“ o-So 
1,000-00 
1,000 00 
B. 
Table for reducing the Indications of a Glass Urinom- 
ETER TO THE STANDARD TEMPERATURE (60° Fahr.), WHEN 
the Specific Gravity has been taken at a Higher 
Temperature. (Bird, JJrinary Deposits, etc., Philadel- 
phia, 1859, p. 70.) 
I Specific 
f Grn»»fcv. 
Weight of one 
Fluidounce. 
Solids in one 
Fluidounce. 
Specific 
Gravity. 
Weight of one 
Fluidounce. 
Solids in one 
Fluidounce. 
1001 
1002 
1003 
1004 
1005 
1006 
1007 
1008 
1009 
1010 
! 1011 
1012 
1013 
1014 
1015 
1016 
1017 
1018 
1019 
1020 
1021 
456-15 
456- 
457- 
457-51 
457- 
458- 
458- 
459- 
459- 
460- 
460- 
461- 
461- 
462- 
462-53 
462- 
463- 
463- 
464- 
464- 
465- 
1- 
2- 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6- 
7- 
8- 
9- 
10- 
11- 
12- 
13- 
15- 
16- 
17- 
18- 
19- 
20- 
21- 
22-765 
1022 
1023 
1024 
1025 
1026 
1027 
1028 
1029 
1030 
1031 
1032 
1033 
1034 
1035 
1036 
1037 
1038 
1039 
1040 
1041 
1042 
465- 
466- 
466- 
467- 
467-54 
467- 
468- 
468- 
469- 
469- 
470- 
470- 
471- 
471- 
472- 
472- 
473- 
• 473-46 
473- 
474- 
474-83 
23- 
24- 
26- 
27- 
28- 
29- 
30- 
31- 
32- 
33- 
35- 
36- 
37- 
38- 
39- 
40- 
41- 
43- 
44- 
45- 
46- 
Temperature. 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
Temperature. 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
Temperature. 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
60° 
0-00 
69° 
0-80 
78° 
1-70 
61* 
0-08 
70° 
0-90 
79° 
1-80 
62° 
0-16 
71° 
1-00 
80° 
1-90 
63° 
0-24 
72° 
1-10 
8l° 
2-00 
64° 
0-32 
78° 
1-20 
82° 
2-10 
65° 
0-40 
74° 
1-30 
83° 
2-20 
66° 
0-50 
75° 
1-40 
84° 
2-30 
67° 
0-60 
76° 
1-50 
85° 
2-40 
68° 
0-70 
77° 
1-60 
D. 
Table showing the Percentage of Sugar in Undiluted 
Diabetic Urine, represented by the Degrees of the 
Scale on the Burette graduated in Grains. 
The urine is supposed to be diluted, so that ten parts of 
the liquid used represent one of urine; and the quantity 
of Fehling’s test-liquid used is two hundred grains, which is 
decolorized by exactly one grain of sugar. To ascertain the 
proportion of sugar per fluidounce, multiply the weight of 
a fluidounce of urine (see Table C) by the percentage of 
sugar, and divide by 100. 
E. 
Table showing the Quantity of Urea per Fluidounce or 
Urine, in Grains, represented by the Divisions of thp 
Scale upon the Tube graduated in Cubic Inches. 
The tube is filled a little more than one-third full of mercury, 
upon which is poured half a fluidrachm of urine, and the tube is 
then filled with solution of hypochlorite of soda, and inverted in a 
saturated solution of salt in water. To ascertain the percentage of 
urea, multiply the grains of urea in an ounce by 100, and divide by 
the weight of a fluidounce of the specimen, taken from Table C. 
The correction for temperature may be made by adding one per 
cent, of the volume of gas for every five degrees below 60°, and 
subtracting the same for every five degrees above 60°. 
F. 
TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY EITHER OF CHLORINE, SUL- 
PHURIC Acid, or Phosphoric Acid, per Fluidouncf 
of Urine, in Grains, represented by the Degrees 
of the Scale on the Burette graduated in Grains. 
This table will answer for any of the above-mentioned 
principles by using one or another of the test-liquids. It is 
calculated on the supposition that the quantity of urine used 
is two fluidrachms. To ascertain the percentage, multiply 
the number of grains per fluidounce by 100, and divide by the 
weight of a fluidounce of the specimen, taken from table C. 
Decrees of 
the Burette. 
* 
Percentage of 
Sugar. 
Degrees of 
the Burette. 
Percentage of 
Sugar. 
Degrees of 
the Burette. 
Percentage of 
Sugar. 
50 
20-00 
118 
8-47 
186 
5-37 
52 
19-23 
120 
8-33 
188 
5-32 
54 
18-52 
122 
8-19 
190 
5-26 
56 
17-85 
124 
8-06 
192 
5-21 
58 
17-24 
126 
7-93 
194 
5-15 
60 
16-66 
128 
7-81 
196 
5-10 
62 
16-13 
130 
7-69 
198 
5-05 
64 
15-62 
132 
7-57 
200 
5-00 
66 
15-15 
134 
7-46 
202 
4-95 
68 
14-70 
136 
7-35 
204 
4-90 
70 
14-28 
138 
7-24 
206 
4-85 
72 
13-80 
140 
7-14 
208 
4-80 
74 
13-51 
142 
7-04 
210 
4-76 
76 
13-15 
144 
6-94.' 
212 
4-72 
78 
12-82 
146 
6-85 
214 
4-67 
80 
12-50 
148 
6-76 
216 
4-63 
82 
12-19 
150 
6-67 
. 218 
4-59 
84 
11-90 
152 
6-58 
220 
4-55 
86 
11-62 
154 
6-49 
222 
4-50 
88 
11-36 
156 
6-41 
224 
4-46 
90 
11-11 
158 
6-33 
226 
4-42 
92 
10-87 
160 
6-25 
228 
4-39 
94 
10-63 
162 
6-17 
230 
4-35 
96 
10-41 
164 
6-10 
232 
4-31 
98 
10-20 
166 
6-03 
234 
4-27 
100 
10-00 
168 
5-95 
236 
4-23 
102 
9-80 
170 
5-88 
238 
4-20 
104 
9-69 
172 
5-81 
240 
4-17 
106 
9-43 
174 
5-75 
242 
4-13 
108 
9-26 
176 
5-68 
244 
4-10 
110 
9-09 
178 
5-62 
246 
4-06 
112 
8-93 
180 
5-55 
248 
4-03 
114 
8-77 
182 
5-49 
250 
4-00 
116 
8-62 
184 
5-43 
Decrees of 
the Burette. 
Grains per 
Fluidounce. 
Decrees of 
the Burette. 
Grains per 
Fluidounce. 
Degrees of 
the Burette. 
Grains per 
Fluidounce. 
2 
0-032 
86 
1-376 
170 
2-720 
4 
0-064 
88 
1-408 
172 
2-752 
6 
0-096 
90 
1-440 
174 
2-784 
8 
0-128 
92 
1-472 
176 
2-816 
10 
0-160 
94 
1-504 
178 
2-848 
12 
0-192 
96 
1-536 
180 
2-880 
14 
0-224 
98 
1-568 
182 
2912 
16 
0-256 
100 
1-600 
184 
2-944 
18 
0-288 
102 
1-632 
186 
2-976 
20 
0-320 
104 
1-664 
188 
3-008 
22 
0-352 
106 
1-696 
190 
3-040 
24 
0-384 
108 
1-728 
192 
3-072 
26 
0-416 
110 
1-760 
194 
3-104 
28 
0-448 
112 
1-792 
196 
8-136 
30 
0-480 
114 
1-824 
198 
3-168 
32 
0-512 
116 
1-856 
200 
3-200 
34 
0-544 
118 
1-888 
202 
3232 
36 
0-576 
120 
1-920 
204 
3-264 
38 
0-608 
122 
1-952 
206 
3-296 
40 
0-640 
124 
1-984 
208 
3-328 
42 
0-672 
126 
2016 
210 
3-360 
44 
0-704 
128 
2-048 
212 
3-392 
46 
0-736 
130 
2 080 
214 
3-424 
48 
0-768 
132 
2-112 
216 
3-456 
60 
0-800 
134 
2-144 
218 
3-488 
52 
0-832 
136 
2-176 
220 
3-520 
54 
0-864 
138 
2-208 
222 
3-552 
56 
0-896 
140 
2-240 
224 
3-584 
58 
0-928 
142. 
2-272 
226 
3-616 
60 
0-960 
144 
2-304 
228 
3-648 
62 
0-992 
146 
2-336 
230 
3-680 
64 
1 024 
148 
2-368 
232 
3-712 
66 
1-056 
150 
2-400 
234 
• 3-744 
68 
1-088 
152 
2-432 
236 
3-776 
70 
1-120 
154 
2-464 
238 
3-808 
72 
1-152 
156 
2-496 
240 
8-840 
74 
1-184 
158 
2-528 
242 
3-872 
76 
1-216 
160 
2-560 
244 
3-904 
78 
1-248 
162 
2-692 
246 
3-936 
80 
1-280 
164 
2-624 
248 
3963 
82 
1-312 
166 
2-656 
250 
4-000 
84 
1-344 
168 
2-688 
Divisions of a 
Cubic Inch. 
Grains of Urea 
per Fluidounce. 
Divisions of a 
Cubic Inch. 
Grains of Urea 
per Fluidounce. 
Divisions of a 
Cubic Inch. 
Grains of Urea 
per Fluidounce. 
o-io 
1-032 
0-74 
7-637 
1-38 
14-241 
0-12 
1-238 
0-76 
7-843 
1-40 
14-448 
0-14 
1-444 
0-78 
8-049 
1-42 
14-654 
0-16 
1-651 
0-80 
8-256 
1-44 
14-860 
0-18 
1-857 
0-82 
8-462 
1-46 
15-067 
0-20 
2-064 
0-84 
8-669 
1-48 
15-273 
0-22 
2-270 
0-86 
8-875 
1-50 
15-480 
0-24 
2-476 
0-88 
9-081 
1-52 
15-686 
0-26 
2-683 
0-90 
9-288 
1-54 
15-893 
0-28 
2-889 
0-92 
9-494 
1-56 
16-099 
0-30 
3-096 
0-94 
9-701 
1-58 
16-305 
0-32 
3-302 
0-96 
9-907 
1-60 
16-512 
0-34 
3-508 
0-98 
10-113 
1-62 
16-718 
0-36 
3-715 
1-00 
10-320 
1-64 
16-925 
0-38 
3-921 
1-02 
10-526 
1-66 
17-131 
0'40 
4-128 
1-04 
10-733 
1-68 
17-337 
0-42 
4-334 
1-06 
10-939 
1-70 
17-544 
0-44 
4-540 
1-08 
11-145 
1-72 
17-750 
0-46 
4-747 
1-10 
11-352 
1-74 
17-957 
0*48 
4-953 
1-12 
11-558 
1-76 
18-163 
0-50 
5-160 
1-14 
11-764 
1-78 
18-369 
0-52 
5-336 
1-16 
11-971 
1-80 
18-576 
0-54 
5-573 
1-18 
12-177 
1-82 
18-782 
0-56 
5-779 
1-20 
12-384 
1-84 
18-989 
0-58 
5-985 
1-22 
12-590 
1-86 
19-195 
0-60 
6-192 
1-24 
12-796 
1-88 
19-401 
0-62 
6-398 
1-26 
13-003 
1-90 
19-608 
0-64 
6-605 
1-28 
13-209 
1-92 
19-814 
0-66 
6-811 
1-30 
13-416 
1-94 
20-021 
0-68 
7-017 
1-32 
13-622 
1-96 
20-227 
0-70 
7-224 
1-34 
13-828 
1-98 
20-433 
0-72 
7-430 
1-36 
14-035 1 
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